Mlinga Forest Reserve: a biodiversity survey. - Coastal Forests of ...

TECHNICAL PAPER 56 

Mlinga Forest Reserve 

A biodiversity survey 

Frontier Tanzania 

2002

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme 

Technical Paper 56 


A biodiversity survey 

Hall, S.M., Fanning, E., Howell, K. M., and Pohjonen, V. 

(eds.) 

Ministry of Natural Resources and 

Tourism, Tanzania 

Forestry and Beekeeping Division 

Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Finland 

Indufor / Metsähallitus Group, Finland 

Frontier-Tanzania 

University of Dar es Salaam 

Society for Environmental Exploration 

Tanga 2002

Suggested Technical Paper citation: 

Frontier Tanzania (2002) Hall, S.M., Fanning, E., Howell, K.M., and Pohjonen, V. (eds.). Mlinga 

Forest Reserve: A biodiversity survey. East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme 

Technical Paper No. 56. Frontier Tanzania; Forestry and Beekeeping Division, Dar es Salaam, 

Tanzania and Indufor / Metsähallitus Group, Vantaa, Finland. 

Suggested Section citations: 

Hall, S.M., Ntemi, S.A., Oliver, S., Smith, J. and Murphy, A. (2002) Vegetation: In Mlinga Forest 

Reserve: A biodiversity survey. pp. 11-56. East Usambara Conservation Area Management 

Programme, Technical Paper 56. Frontier Tanzania; Forestry and Beekeeping Division, Dar es Salaam, 

Tanzania and Indufor / Metsähallitus Group, Vantaa, Finland. 

Oliver, S., Hall, S.M., Smith, J. and Murphy, A. (2002) Fauna: In Mlinga Forest Reserve: A 

biodiversity survey. pp. 57-82. East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme, Technical 

Paper 56. Frontier Tanzania; Forestry and Beekeeping Division, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Indufor / 

Metsähallitus Group, Vantaa, Finland. 

Hall, S. M. and Oliver, S. (2002) Conclusions: In Mlinga Forest Feserve: A biodiversity survey. pp. 83- 

84. East Usambara Conservation Area Managmenet Programme, Technical Paper 56. Frontier 

Tanzania; Forestry and Beekeeping Division, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Indufor / Metsähallitus 

Group, Vantaa, Finland. 

© Indufor - Metsähallitus Group 

Cover painting: Jaffary Aussi (1995) 

ISBN 9987-646-12-3 

ISSN 1236 620X

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme (EUCAMP) 

The East Usambara rain forests are one of the most valuable conservation areas in Africa. Several plant and 

animal species are found only in the East Usambara mountains. The rain forests secure the water supply of 

200,000 people and the local people in the mountains depend on these forests. The East Usambara 

Conservation Area Management Programme has established the Amani Nature Reserve and aims; at 

protecting water sources; establishing and protecting forest reserves while sustaining villager’s benefits 

from the forest. The programme is implemented by the Forestry and Beekeeping Division of the Ministry 

of Natural Resources and Tourism with financial support from the Government of Finland, and 

implementation support from Indufor / Metsähallitus Group. To monitor the impact of the project, both 

baseline biodiversity assessments and development of a monitoring system are needed. The present activity 

is aimed at establishing baseline information on biological diversity in selected East Usambara forests. 

The University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) 

The University of Dar es Salaam was established in July 1970 as a centre for learning and research in the 

arts and the physical, natural, earth, marine, medical and human sciences. The University is surveying and 

mapping the flora and fauna of Tanzania and is conducting research into the maintenance and improvement 

of the environment and the sustainable exploitation of Tanzania’s natural resources. 

The Society for Environmental Exploration (SEE) 

The Society is a non-profit making company limited by guarantee and was formed in 1989. The Society’s 

objectives are to advance field research into environmental issues and implement practical projects 

contributing to the conservation of natural resources. Projects organised by The Society are joint initiatives 

developed in collaboration with national research agencies in co-operating countries. 

Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme (FT FRP) 

The Society for Environmental Exploration and the University of Dar es Salaam have been conducting 

collaborative research into environmental issues since July 1989 under the title of Frontier Tanzania, of 

which one component is the Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme (FT FRP). Since July 1994, the 

FT FRP has been working in the forests of the East Usambara mountains in collaboration with the East 

Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme (EUCAMP). This survey of selected forests 

collects baseline biodiversity data and assists the EUCAMP in the management of the East Usambara 

forests. 

Forestry and Beekeeping Division 

P.O. Box 426, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 

Tel: 255-22-2111 062/3/4 

Fax: 255-22-2114 659 

E-mail: misitu@twiga.com 

FOR MORE INFORMATION: 

Department for Development Co-operation 

Ministry for Foreign Affairs 

Katajanokanlaituri 3 

FIN-00160 Helsinki, Finland 

Tel: 358-9-134 161 Fax: 358-9-1341 6293 

East Usambara Conservation Area Management 

Programme 

P.O. Box 5869, Tanga, Tanzania 

Tel: 255-27-2643453, 2646907, 2643820 

Fax: 255-27-2643820 

E-mail: usambara@twiga.com 

Internet: www.usambara.com 

Dept. of Zoology & Marine Biology 

University of Dar es Salaam 

P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 

Tel: 255-22-2410462 

E-mail: zoology@udsm.ac.tz 

Indufor / Metsähallitus Group 

Töölönkatu 15, FIN-00100 Helsinki, Finland 

Tel: 358-9-6840 1122 

Fax: 358-9-135 2552 

E-mail: indufor@indufor.fi 

Society for Environmental Exploration 

50-52 Rivington Street, London, U.K. 

Tel: +44 20 76 13 24 22 

Fax: +44 20 76 13 29 92 

E-mail: info@frontier.ac.uk 

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 56


i 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY............................................................................................. v 

FOREWORD ............................................................................................................... vii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................... viii 

1.0 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................. 1 

1.1 THE EAST USAMBARA MOUNTAINS AND FOREST DIVERSITY.......................................................... 1 

1.2 REPORT STRUCTURE ............................................................................................................................... 3 

1.2.1 Flora.....................................................................................................................................................3 

1.2.2 Fauna...................................................................................................................................................4 

1.3 MAPS......................................................................................................................................................... 4 

1.4 DATA AND MONITORING......................................................................................................................... 5 

1.5 SURVEY PERIOD AND PERSONNEL......................................................................................................... 5 

2.0 AIMS OF THE SURVEY....................................................................................... 6 

3.0 Description of the forest ......................................................................................... 7 

3.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION.......................................................................................................................... 7 

3.1.1 Description..........................................................................................................................................7 

3.1.2 Location ...............................................................................................................................................7 

3.1.3 Topography.........................................................................................................................................7 

3.1.4 Land use...............................................................................................................................................7 

3.1.5 History and Status..............................................................................................................................8 

4.0 Vegetation ............................................................................................................ 11 

4.1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................... 11 

4.2 METHODS................................................................................................................................................ 11 

4.2.1 Forest composition ..........................................................................................................................11 

4.3 RESULTS.................................................................................................................................................. 13 

4.3.1 Quantitative vegetation analysis ...................................................................................................13 

4.3.2 Disturbance transects......................................................................................................................45 

4.4 DISCUSSION............................................................................................................................................ 52 

4.4.1 Habitat...............................................................................................................................................52 

4.4.2 Species richness ...........................................................................................................................52 

4.4.3 Species Accumulation Rates...........................................................................................................52 

4.4.4 Endemic Status.................................................................................................................................52 

4.4.5 Ecological Type................................................................................................................................53 

4.4.6 Habitat...............................................................................................................................................53 

4.4.7 Range Extensions.............................................................................................................................53 

4.4.8 Regeneration.....................................................................................................................................54 

4.4.9 Opportunistic Collections – interesting records Mlinga Peak ................................................54 

4.4.10 Sampling Intensity.......................................................................................................................54 

4.4.11 Disturbance ..................................................................................................................................55 

5.0 Fauna................................................................................................................... 57 

5.1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................... 57 

5.2 METHODS................................................................................................................................................ 57 

5.2.1 Bucket pitfall traps...........................................................................................................................57 

5.2.2 Sherman traps...................................................................................................................................57 

5.2.3 Bat mist-netting................................................................................................................................58 

5.2.4 Butterfly sweep-netting ...................................................................................................................58 

5.2.5 Butterfly canopy traps.....................................................................................................................58 

5.2.6 Mollusc plots.....................................................................................................................................58 

5.2.7 Millipede plots..................................................................................................................................58 

5.2.8 Dung and sign surveys....................................................................................................................58 

5.2.9 Opportunistic collection and observations..................................................................................58 

5.3 TRAPPING SITES AND SAMPLING INTENSITY...................................................................................... 59 

5.4 RESULTS.................................................................................................................................................. 61 

5.4.1 Mammals............................................................................................................................................61 

5.4.2 Birds...................................................................................................................................................65 

5.4.3 Reptiles ..............................................................................................................................................68 

5.4.4 Amphibians.......................................................................................................................................71 



ii 

5.4.5 Invertebrates.....................................................................................................................................73 

5.4.6 Distribution of endemic and forest dependent species..............................................................76 

5.4 DISCUSSION............................................................................................................................................ 78 

5.5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................78 

5.5.2 Species Abundance and Importance.............................................................................................78 

5.5.3 Ecological Type................................................................................................................................81 

5.5.4 Endemic Status.................................................................................................................................81 

5.5.5 Threat Status.....................................................................................................................................81 

6.0 Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 83 

6.1 Disturbance.......................................................................................................................................83 

6.2 Species Richness...............................................................................................................................83 

6.3 Flora...................................................................................................................................................83 

6.4 Fauna.................................................................................................................................................84 

6.5 Conservation.....................................................................................................................................84 

7.0 REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 85 

8.0 APPENDICES...................................................................................................... 89 

APPENDIX 1: TAXONOMIC VERIFICATION ..................................................................................................... 89 

APPENDIX 2: GPS CO-ORDINATES OF VEGETATION PLOTS......................................................................... 90 

APPENDIX 3: GENERAL VEGETATION PLOT DESCRIPTIONS.......................................................................... 89 

APPENDIX 4: NEW FLORA FOR THE EAST USAMBARA PLANT BIODIVERSITY DATABASE ....................... 93 

APPENDIX 5: USEFUL PLANTS.......................................................................................................................... 94 

APPENDIX 6: MEDICINAL PLANTS................................................................................................................... 97 

APPENDIX 7: REGENERATION PLOT DESCRIPTIONS...................................................................................... 99 

APPENDIX 8: MAMMAL CAPTURE DATA......................................................................................................101 

APPENDIX 9: REPTILE CAPTURE DATA .........................................................................................................102 

APPENDIX 10 : AMPHIBIAN CAPTURE DATA................................................................................................103 

APPENDIX 11: BUTTERFLY CAPTURE DATA.................................................................................................104 

APPENDIX 12: PHOTOGRAPHS........................................................................................................................108 

APPENDIX 13: EAST USAMBARA CONSERVATION AREA MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME TECHNICAL 

PAPER SERIES...................................................................................................................................................109 



iii 

TABLE OF FIGURES 

Figure 1 The location of Mlinga FR in relation to other East Usambara forests.......................................... 9 

Figure 2 Topographical sketch map of Mlinga FR........................................................................................... 10 

Figure 3 Location of vegetation plots and disturbance transects in Mlinga FR........................................... 12 

Figure 4 Sketch map of vegetation types in Mlinga FR................................................................................... 20 

Figure 5 Species accumulation rates of trees and shrubs (10cm dbh and larger) by vegetation plot for 

0.5% sampling intensity............................................................................................................................. 23 

Figure 6 Distribution of endemic and near-endemic tree and shrub individuals in Mlinga FR................ 24 

Figure 7 Distribution of endemic and near-endemic tree and shrub species in Mlinga FR....................... 24 

Figure 8 Distribution of forest dependent tree and shrub individuals in Mlinga FR. ................................. 26 

Figure 9 Distribution of forest dependent tree and shrub species in Mlinga FR. ........................................ 26 

Figure 10 Distribution of non-forest tree and shrub individuals in Mlinga FR. .......................................... 27 

Figure 11 Distribution of non-forest tree and shrub species in Mlinga FR. ................................................. 27 

Figure 12 Distribution of submontane and montane tree and shrub individuals in Mlinga FR................ 29 

Figure 13 Distribution of submontane tree and shrub species in Mlinga FR............................................... 29 

Figure 14 Relative abundance of live, naturally dead and cut poles in Mlinga FR..................................... 46 

Figure 15 Pole extraction in Mlinga FR............................................................................................................. 47 

Figure 16 Timber extraction in Mlinga FR. ....................................................................................................... 47 

Figure 17 Relative abundance of live, naturally dead and cut timber in Mlinga FR. ................................ 48 

Figure 19 Incidence of past cultivation in Mlinga FR...................................................................................... 50 

Figure 20 Incidence of planks/poles (as defined in Table 19) in Mlinga FR. .............................................. 50 

Figure 21 Incidence of footpaths in Mlinga FR................................................................................................ 51 

Figure 22 Distribution of forest dependent, endemic and near-endemic plant species in relation to areas 

of highest disturbance in Mlinga FR......................................................................................................... 51 

Figure 23 Location of trapsites in Mlinga FR.................................................................................................... 59 

Figure 24 Distribution of endemic, near-endemic and forest dependent fauna in comparison with the 12 

most disturbed areas in Mlinga FR. .......................................................................................................... 76 

Figure 25 Distribution of endemic or near-endemic species found at trapsites 1-4.................................... 77 

Figure 26 Distribution of forest dependant species found at trapsites 1-4.................................................... 77 



iv 

TABLE OF TABLES 

Table 1 Summary of biodiversity of taxa surveyed..........................................................................................vii 

Table 2 Forest area in the East Usambara Mountains (based on Johansson and Sandy, 1996). ................. 2 

Table 3 Land use distribution (Johansson and Sandy, 1996)............................................................................ 8 

Table 4 Checklist of trees and shrubs recorded within the vegetation plots................................................ 13 

Table 5 Ranked abundance of tree and shrub individuals within vegetation plots..................................... 21 

Table 6 Ranked abundance of tree and shrub species occurrence within vegetation plots....................... 22 

Table 7 Summary of endemism for tree and shrub species recorded in the 50m x 20m vegetation plots. 

......................................................................................................................................................................... 23 

Table 8 Summary of ecological type of tree and shrub species recorded in the 50m x 20m vegetation 

plots................................................................................................................................................................ 25 

Table 9 Summary of habitat type for tree and shrub species recorded in the 50m x 20m vegetation 

plots................................................................................................................................................................ 28 

Table 10 Submontane and montane species sampled in lowland areas, and the altitudes at which they 

were recorded in Mlinga FR....................................................................................................................... 28 

Table 11 Tree and shrub species found outside their previously recorded range in the East Usambara 

Mountains, and those species not listed by the 1986/7 survey (Ruffo et al., 1989)......................... 30 

Table 12 The abundance of selected timber and plywood species................................................................ 34 

Table 13 Comparison of results obtained from vegetation sampling as a consequence of increase of 

sampling intensity........................................................................................................................................ 35 

Table 14 Species recorded exclusively in the regeneration layer................................................................... 36 

Table 15 Comparison of results obtained from regeneration sampling as a consequence of increasing 

the size of nested plots from 3m x 3m to 6m x 6m. ............................................................................... 37 

Table 16 Checklist of opportunistic plant collection and observation within Mlinga FR.......................... 38 

Table 17 Disturbance transect results showing total pole counts and average pole counts per hectare.. 45 

Table 18 Disturbance transect results showing total timber counts and average timber counts per 

hectare............................................................................................................................................................ 46 

Table 19 The incidence of various types of disturbance. ................................................................................ 49 

Table 20 Descriptions and locations of zoological trapsites in Mlinga FR.................................................. 59 

Table 21 Zoological sampling intensities in Mlinga FR.................................................................................. 60 

Table 22 Bat mist-netting sites and sampling intensities in Mlinga FR........................................................ 60 

Table 23 Summary of captured small mammals from Mlinga Forest Reserve............................................ 61 

Table 24 Summary of dung survey in Mlinga FR............................................................................................. 62 

Table 25 Summary of mammal observations in Mlinga FR. .......................................................................... 63 

Table 26 Summary of bat records in Mlinga FR............................................................................................... 64 

Table 27 Summary of birds observed opportunistically in Mlinga FR......................................................... 65 

Table 28 Summary of forest specialist birds with corresponding threat status categories........................ 67 

Table 29 Restricted ranges of endemic and near-endemic birds.................................................................... 67 

Table 30 Summary of reptile pitfall and opportunistic captures in Mlinga FR. .......................................... 68 

Table 31 Summary of reptile observations in Mlinga FR................................................................................ 69 

Table 32 Restricted ranges of endemic and near-endemic reptiles, UDSM (1997).................................... 70 

Table 33 Summary of pitfall and opportunistic amphibian captures in Mlinga FR.................................... 71 

Table 34 Amphibians observed casually in Mlinga FR................................................................................... 72 

Table 35 Restricted ranges for endemic and near-endemic amphibians (UDSM, 1997)........................... 72 

Table 36 Summary of butterflies captured in Mlinga FR................................................................................ 73 

Table 37 Summary of faunal families and species (identified to date) and inclusive of casual 

observations, dung surveys etc.................................................................................................................. 78 

Table 38 Summary of ecological type of mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian and butterfly species......... 81 

Table 39 Summary of endemic status of mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian and butterfly species......... 81 



v 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

Mlinga Forest Reserve, located to the east of the main East Usambara Mountain range of 

northeast Tanzania, covers an area of 8.9 km 2 (890ha), situated in Muheza District, Tanga 

Region. Its steep rocky slopes and peak area characterise the Reserve. Altitudes range from 

220m to 1069m above sea level (asl). The Forest Reserve contains submontane, lowland 

forest, open wooded grassland and montane peak. Mlinga Forest Reserve was gazetted as a 

Catchment Forest Reserve in 1996 primarily to protect the headwaters of Mruka (a tributary 

of the Sigi) and Mkulumzi Rivers and to conserve the interesting forest and rocky summit 

surrounding Mlinga peak (Hamilton, 1989). Mlinga is surrounded by Misozwe, Magula and 

Mwembeni villages. 

As part of the East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme, (EUCAMP), 

(formerly the East Usambara Catchment Forest Project), Frontier-Tanzania conducted a 

biological survey of Mlinga Forest Reserve between October and December 2001 for a total 

of 10 research weeks. The systematic vegetation survey covered all parts of the reserve with a 

sampling intensity of 0.5%, the zoological survey was focussed on 5 trapping sites. This 

report provides an inventory of the trees, shrubs, herbs, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, birds 

and butterflies recorded during the survey. The report also describes patterns of human 

disturbance within the reserve. The species richness, endemism and ecological affinities of the 

taxa recorded are summarised in Table 1. 

Table 1 Summary of biodiversity of taxa surveyed. 

Taxon 

Trees and 

shrubs 

Total no. of 

species 

135* 

11** 

123*** 

% forest 

dependent 

No. of 

non-forest 

species 

23% 10* 

23*** 


endemic 

species 

5* 

4*** 


nearendemic 

species 

12* 

14*** 

No. of forest 

dependent 

endemics and 

near-endemics 

13* 

8*** 

Mammals 32 29% 10 0 5 2 

Birds 47 17% 18 1 6 5 

Reptiles 25 36% 6 0 8 8 

Amphibians 21 49% 4 0 11 10 

Butterflies 103 34% 34 0 2 1 

Total 497 n/a 103 10 58 47 

* Species recorded in vegetation plots ** Species recorded in the regeneration plots only, 

*** Species recorded opportunistically 

Relative to other reserves surveyed by Frontier-Tanzania, Mlinga Forest Reserve has average 

floral and faunal diversity. Of most interest are the species that are restricted to the unique 

rocky ridge and peak habitats. 

In terms of flora, Mlinga FR is made up of a mosaic of different habitats. A large proportion 

of species recorded within Mlinga FR were categorised as non-forest dwelling (Table 1). 

Submontane and lowland riverine forests, unaffected by fire, were the most important habitats 

for endemic, near-endemic and forest dependent plant species. A total of 9 endemic plants 

were recorded within Mlinga Forest Reserve. Mlinga peak area supported the only population 

of the tree Podocarpus latifolius (Gymnospermae) occurring naturally in the East Usambara 

mountains. Also of interest, was the sighting of one Sanraffaelia ruffonammari tree specimen, 

a species only previously recorded in Kwamgumi Forest Reserve, and the tree Cola luckei 

previously only recorded in Bamba, Kwamgumi and Segoma forest reserves. Rocky areas 

within Submontane Forest are also important habitats for the following African violet species: 

Saintpaulia magungensis and S. diplotricha. These species are of utmost conservation 

concern. 



vi 

Despite its small size, Mlinga Forest Reserve supports a high diversity of mammal and 

butterfly species and a high number of near-endemic amphibian and reptile species. The 

reserve is home to 4 endangered and 23 vulnerable species according to the National 

Biodiversity Database (UDSM, 1997) and IUCN categories (Hamilton-Taylor, 2000). 

Mlinga Forest Reserve produced the first records of the toad Schismaderma carens in the East 

Usambara mountains. These records are believed to represent the most northerly record of this 

species to date. 

Mlinga Forest Reserve continues to be of spiritual value to local Washambaa communities. 

The forest serves as a source of medicinal plants and non-timber forest products. Ritual areas 

were witnessed to still be in use today. 

The greatest threat to Mlinga Forest Reserve, is fire disturbance that has threatened the forest 

annually and extensively in recent years. Pole cutting and animal hunting continue illegally on 

a small scale within the forest reserve. Local concern for the future of the forest reserve is 

apparent amongst elders in village communities. 

The information collected by this survey will be used for management planning by the 

EUCAMP. The survey results are also available as a baseline for monitoring. The data are 

stored on a Microsoft Access (version Windows 2000) database in the EUCAMP library in 

Tanga, and parts of it will be available on the Internet at the following address: 

www.usambara.com 

Animal specimens have been deposited at: the Department of Zoology and Marine Biology, 

University of Dar es Salaam; Natural History Museum, London; Zoological Museum of 

Copenhagen, Denmark; Frankfurt Zoological Museum, Germany and The Natural History 

Museum of Zimbabwe, Bulawayo. Contact names and addresses are listed in Appendix 2. 

Botanical specimens are held at the National Herbarium of Tanzania (NHT) in 

Arusha, Missouri Botanical Gardens, USA and Kew Royal Botanical Gardens, UK. 



vii 

FOREWORD 

The East Usambara forests in northeastern Tanzania are part of the Eastern Arc mountains. More 

than one hundred years of biological interest and research have shown that these forests have a 

unique diversity of flora and fauna, and an exceptionally high degree of endemism. They have 

gained global recognition as being part of a Biodiversity Hotspot (Conservation International), an 

Endemic Bird Area (BirdLife), a Centre of Plant Diversity (WWF and IUCN) and a Globally 

Important Ecoregion (WWF). Since 1990, the East Usambara Conservation Area Management 

Programme (EUCAMP) (formerly known as the East Usambara Catchment Forest Project 

(EUCFP)) has worked in the East Usambara Mountains with the mission to protect these 

natural forests. The project is implemented by the Forestry and Beekeeping Division (FBD) of 

the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT) with financial support from the 

Government of Finland, and technical support from Indufor / Metsähallitus Group. 

Although a considerable amount of biological information exists from the East Usambara 

Mountains much of this is restricted to the Amani area and systematic surveys elsewhere are few. 

In order to get more comprehensive information on the forests, biodiversity surveys were 

initiated and contracted in July 1995. The surveys are conducted by Frontier Tanzania, a joint 

venture between the University of Dar es Salaam and the Society for Environmental Exploration, 

together with EUCAMP. The aim of the surveys is to provide systematic baseline information on 

the biological values of different forests as a basis for management planning and long-term 

monitoring, as well as training forestry staff in the use of biological inventory techniques. They 

will also help setting priorities in the conservation of this valuable area. 

The programme involves locally employed field assistants, permanent EUCAMP, Frontier- 

Tanzania, University of Dar es Salaam, and Tanzania Forestry Research Institute staff, as well as 

an international network of taxonomists and other experts. The surveys have become 

progressively more systematic and quantitative, and have already resulted in the discovery of 

several previously unknown taxa. This will further raise awareness of the unique conservation 

values of the East Usambara Mountains. EUCAMP has also commissioned the development of a 

biodiversity database, a work which also contributed the maps to these reports. All data collected 

during the surveys is entered into this database, which is linked to the Tanzanian national 

biodiversity database held at the Department of Zoology and Marine Biology, University of Dar 

es Salaam. 

The reports are the result of the work of many people – too many to be listed here. We would like 

to thank all of them for their invaluable effort. We hope that the surveys will make yet another 

contribution to the long historic chain of efforts to study and understand these unique forests. 

Perhaps even more than that we hope that this information will contribute to better management 

and conservation of the East Usambara Mountains so that the beauty of the area will continue to 

amaze coming generations and that the light in the tunnel will become the bright future. 

Mathias Lema 

Project Manager 

Veli Pohjonen 

Chief Technical Adviser 



viii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

This report is the culmination of the advice, co-operation, hard work and expertise of many 

people. In particular acknowledgments are due to the following: 

EUCAMP 

Project Manager: 

Chief Technical Adviser: 

Monitoring and Planning Officer: 

Biodiversity Co-ordinator: 

Biodiversity Co-ordinator: 

Foresters: 

Mr. Mathias Lema 

Dr. Veli Pohjonen 

Ms. Luciana Mshana 

Mr. Raymond R. Killenga. 

Mr. Albert Ntemi Sallu 

Mr. Albert Ntemi Sallu, Mr. Selemani Hamadi, Mr. 

Johari Mr. Mtango, Mr. Juma Ndege, Mrs. Asia 

Ezekiel, Mr. Frank Mahenge and Mr. Raymond 

Killenga. 

SOCIETY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EXPLORATION 

Managing Director: Ms. Eibleis Fanning 

Development Programme Manager: Ms. Elizabeth Humphreys 

Research Programme Manager: Dr. Damon Stanwell-Smith 

Operations Manager: 

Mr. Matthew Willson 

UDSM 

FT Co-ordinators: 

Dr. M. Muruke & Prof. K. M. Howell. 

FRONTIER-TANZANIA 

Project Co-ordinator: Ms. Nicola Beharrell 

Research Co-ordinator: 

Ms. Susannah Hall 

Assistant Research Co-ordinators: Ms. Sophie Oliver, Ms. Jillian Smith, Mr. Adam 

Murphy 

Logistics Managers: 

Ms. Claire Latham 

Field Assistants: 

Mr. Hassani Abedi, Mr. Ramathan Rajabu, Ms. 

Zahara Rashidi, Mr. Ashraf Omari, Mr. Francis 

Kiondo, Mr. Godfrey Mathew, Mr. Iddi Selemani, 

Mr. Lawrence Balua, Mr. Amiri Saidi 

FT Driver: 

Mr. Betram Hyera 

Research Assistants: 

Ms. Sarah Bassett, Ms. Emma Hughes, Ms. Sarah 

Ms. Jane Lloyd, Ms. Martha Jolly, Ms. Jackie Norris, 

Mr. Richard Pearce, Ms. Jane Wheeler 

TECHNICAL SUPPORT 

We would also like to thank the following: 

UDSM: 

Dr. C. Msuya, Department of Zoology and Marine 

Biology. 

EUCAMP: 

Mr. Albert Ntemi Sallu, Botanist 

NHT: Dr. W. Mziray, Mr. E. Mboya and Mr. W. 

Kindekata. 

Kew Royal Botanical Gardens: Dr. Aaron Davis. 

We are also grateful to all of the taxonomists listed in Appendix II for providing us with the 

identifications of zoological specimens. 



1 

1.0 INTRODUCTION 

1.1 The East Usambara Mountains and forest diversity 

The East Usambara Mountains are situated in northeastern Tanzania within 40 km of the 

coastal town of Tanga between 4 O 48’-5 O 13’S and 38 O 32’-38 O 48’E. These mountains form part 

of a chain known as the Eastern Arc that stretches down the coast of East Africa from 

southern Kenya to southern Tanzania. This is a chain of isolated mountains composed of 

Precambrian rock exposed by block faulting and slow uprising (Griffiths, 1993). Being 

adjacent to the Indian Ocean, considerable orographic rainfall occurs in this area. The rainfall 

distribution is bi-modal, peaking between March and May and between September and 

December. The dry seasons are from June to August and January to March. However 

precipitation occurs in all months. Rainfall is greatest at higher altitudes and in the southeast 

of the mountains, increasing from 1,200 mm annually in the foothills to over 2,200 mm at 

higher altitudes. Due to topographic and climatic interactions, the west-facing slopes of the 

mountains are drier compared to the east-facing slopes. Due to their age, isolation and their 

role as condensers of the moisture from the Indian Ocean, the East Usambara Mountains 

support ancient and unique forests, rich in endemic species (Hamilton, 1989). 

Research in the East Usambara Mountains began in the late 1890s with substantial botanical 

collections being undertaken. Later, in 1928, surveys were undertaken on amphibians and by 

the 1930s detailed ornithological work had begun. Since these early studies biological 

research in the mountains has steadily increased. Recently, work in the area has also included 

an attempt to understand the drainage and catchment value of the mountain’s forests (Bruen, 

1989; Litterick, 1989). 

The East Usambara forests have been likened to the African equivalent of the Galapagos 

Islands in terms of their endemism and biodiversity (Rodgers and Homewood, 1982; Howell, 

1989). They are considered to be one of the most important forest blocks in Africa (Tye, 

1994). In 1991, Iversen documented at least 3450 species of vascular plants that had been 

recorded in the Usambara Mountains, of which it was suggested that over one quarter were 

endemic or near-endemic (Iversen, 1991a). Many of these species were recorded as threatened 

(Rodgers, 1996). Recent botanical research such as Beharrell et al. (2002) has shown that 

plant species are still being discovered, some of which are more threatened than ever before. 

The forests of the East Usambara Mountains are not only important for their biodiversity, they 

also play an important role in maintaining the hydrological cycle that feeds the Sigi River. 

This river is a vital water source for the local communities as well as supplying water for the 

large coastal town of Tanga. Deforestation in the area will lead to increased soil erosion, 

particularly from the steeper slopes. Soil erosion is liable to result in a more irregular run off 

and deterioration in water quality due to siltation. 

The latest survey of the East Usambara Mountains, conducted by Johansson and Sandy (1996) 

shows that approximately 45,137 ha of the East Usambara Mountains remain as natural forest. 

This can be divided into two types: submontane rain forest and lowland forest. Altitude is the 

factor differentiating these two forest types (Hamilton, 1989), with submontane forest 

generally occurring above 850m. The area recorded as forest in the East Usambara Mountains 

according to these categories is described in Table 2. 



2 

Table 2 Forest area in the East Usambara Mountains (based on Johansson and Sandy, 1996). 

Forest type Area % of area 

Lowland forest 29497.4 62.9 

Submontane forest 12916.6 30.6 

Forest plantation 2723.6 6.5 

TOTAL 45137.6 

The mammals of the East Usambara Mountains show limited endemism (Kingdon and 

Howell 1993). However, there are several species of special interest. These include: the 

restricted Zanj elephant shrew, Rhynchocyon petersi, which is common in the Usambara 

Mountains (Collar and Stuart, 1987) yet listed as globally ‘Endangered’ by IUCN due to a 

decline in habitat extent and quality; Eastern tree hyrax, Dendrohyrax validus, listed as 

‘Vulnerable’ by IUCN (Hilton-Taylor, 2000), and the Lesser pouched rat, Beamys hindei 

which is also considered ‘Vulnerable’ by IUCN (Hilton-Taylor, 2000). 

There are at least 11 species of reptiles and amphibians endemic to the East and West 

Usambara Mountains (Howell, 1993). The East Usambara Biodiversity Surveys provide 

further information on new species and species’ range extensions. A new species of snake, 

Prosymna semifasciata, was recently found in Kwamgumi and Segoma Forest Reserves 

(Broadley, 1995) and a recently described amphibian species; Stephopaedes usambarae 

(Poynton and Clarke, 1999) has been recorded by the surveys in Mtai and Kwamgumi Forest 

Reserves. 

The forest avifauna of the East Usambara Mountains has a high diversity with at least 110 

species (Stuart, 1989). The total number of observed bird species in the mountain range is 350 

(Pohjonen, V. pers.comm.). Six species occurring in lowland forests such as Mlinga, are 

considered ‘vulnerable’ to global extinction: Sokoke scops owl, Otus ireneae; the endemic 

Usambara eagle owl, Bubo vosseleri; Swynnerton’s robin, Swynnertonia swynnertoni; East 

coast akalat, Sheppardia gunningi; Amani sunbird, Anthreptes pallidigaster and the Banded 

green sunbird, Anthreptes rubritorques (IUCN, 1996). 

The East Usambara Mountains are essentially forest ‘islands’ (Lovett, 1989). There has been 

natural forest in the area for several million years. The Usambara Mountains harbour many 

species that have been geographically separated from their closest relatives for long periods. 

They also serve as a refuge for formerly widespread flora and fauna that have become extinct 

over much of their former area (Iversen, 1991a). 

These forests have been under continuous exploitative human pressure for at least 2,000 years 

(Schmidt, 1989). Until recently, especially before the past 50 years, (Kikula, 1989), this 

pressure was sustainable. However, the growing human population in the area is leading to 

increased pressure on the remaining natural forest, and represents the main threat to their 

survival. 



3 

1.2 Report structure 

This report provides a floral and faunal inventory of Mlinga Forest Reserve (Mlinga FR). 

Each species is described in terms of its ecological requirements and its endemic status. 

Ecological requirements are defined as: 

• Forest dependent species (F): Species dependent on primary forest only. This category 

does not include forest edge or secondary forest species; 

• Forest non-dependent species (f): Forest dwelling but not dependent on primary forest: 

species occurring in primary forest as defined above as well as other vegetation types. It 

should be emphasised that many of these species are still dependent on a forest habitat 

albeit forest edge or disturbed forest. Most species in this category will still be adversely 

affected by forest destruction. 

• Non-forest species (O): These are species that do not normally occur in primary or 

secondary forest or forest edge. 

Levels of endemism are defined as: 

• Usambara Endemic (E): Occurring only in the Usambara Mountains; 

• Near-endemic (N): Species with ranges restricted to the Eastern Arc Mountains and the 

adjacent coastal forests (occurring only in the East African biodiversity hotspot); 

• Widespread (W): Species with ranges extending beyond the Eastern Arc and adjacent 

coastal forests. 

The typical habitat association of plant species is categorised as either: 

• Lowland (L): Species occurring at altitudes of 850m but 1250m. 

This refers to the habitat(s) in which they are typically found in East Africa, rather than to 

where they have been recorded in the reserve. 

These three criteria are used to analyse the uniqueness of the biodiversity of the reserve and 

its vulnerability to disturbance. The categories are based on information from various sources. 

1.2.1 Flora 

Floral nomeclature generally follows the following databases located on the internet: 

www.mobot.org (TROPICOS database in University of Missouri, Botanical Garden) 

www.ipni.org (International Plant Names Index) 

Family organisation follows Iversen (1991b). 

For plants, the ecological type and endemic status are primarily based on Iversen (1991b). 

Forest dependent species refers to those species listed as being exclusively associated with 

Iversen’s categories 1a (wet evergreen forest), 1b (dry evergreen forest) and / or 1c (riverine 

forest). Species defined as forest dwelling also occur in other habitats. 

Definitions of habitat type are based on Hamilton (1989). For those species not listed by 

Iversen (1991b) or Hamilton (1989), the information is taken from the Flora of Tropical East 

Africa and from the List of East African Plants (LEAP), Knox (2000). 

Endemic and near-endemic status for plants was taken from Iversen (1991b) and FTEA 

categories Tanzania T3, T6, T8 and Kenya K7. 



4 

1.2.2 Fauna 

For fauna, the following references were used: 

Mammals: Kingdon (1997), Kingdon (1974), Walker (1998). 

Birds: 

Zimmerman et al. (1996), Stattersfield et al (1998), Mlingwa et al. 

(2000), Stuart (1989). 

Reptiles: Spawls et al. (2002). 

Amphibians: Passmore and Carruthers (1995). 

Butterflies: Kielland (1990) and Larsen (1996). 

For animals, the endemic and near-endemic status was gleaned from the Tanzanian National 

Biodiversity Database (NBD) (UDSM, 1997). 

1.2.2.1 Birds 

Ecological type of bird species recorded were based on, Mlingwa et al. (2000) which in turn 

is based on Bennum et al. (in press). Those species not included in the above were categorised 

by Zimmerman et al. (1996) and Stuart (1989). 

Forest dependence Mlingwa et al. (2000): 

• Forest specialist (FF): Species that are typical of forest interior and likely to disappear 

when the forest is modified to any extent. 

• Forest generalist (F): Species that can occur in undisturbed forest but which are able to 

exist (and may even be numerous) at the forest edge or in modified and fragmented 

forests. However, these generalists continue to depend upon forests for some of their 

resources, such as nesting sites. 

• Forest visitors (f): Species that occur outside forest areas but which might visit forest. 

Stuart (1989) categorises species by adaptability: 

1. those which live in forest but are not dependent upon it for their survival 

2. those which live in forest and ‘overspill’ into adjacent habitats, but are dependent 

upon forest for their continued survival 

3. those that can only survive in forest and hardly ‘overspill’ into adjacent habitats. 

The NBD (UDSM, 1997) and IUCN 2000 were used to categorise threat status of the animals 

listed. The NBD lists were compiled with regard to status and threat within Tanzania and East 

Africa. The status of most species are currently undergoing national and international 

evaluation. IUCN categorises species in terms of global threat and produces Red data books, 

available from 1996 and earlier. However, a new IUCN 2000 CD-Rom has been released. 

Many Tanzanian species are not included in the 2000 IUCN Red data CD-Rom. IUCN 2000 

status is given, where available, in addition to NBD for all taxa groups and is the main source 

of threat status for bird species. 

1.3 Maps 

The distribution of plant species within the reserve is presented as a series of maps. These are 

thematic maps where the size of each spot is directly proportional to the value that they 

represent. In the plots where no spot is shown, the relevant taxa were either not found or not 

surveyed. Only one map summarises animal data. Not enough capture data was available to 

produce useful thematic maps for each animal taxa. 



5 

1.4 Data and monitoring 

Data are stored in a Microsoft Access (version Windows 2000) database currently stored at 

the East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme and Frontier-Tanzania. Parts 

of it are now available on the Internet. Zoological data are also stored on the National 

Biodiversity Database at the Department of Zoology and Marine Biology, University of Dar 

es Salaam. This is also a Microsoft Access database. The data are geographically referenced 

and so can be used as a baseline for biodiversity monitoring. 

1.5 Survey period and personnel 

The survey of Mlinga Forest Reserve was conducted between 8 th October and 12 th December 

2001 for a total of 10 research weeks. Frontier-Tanzania staff, EUCAMP Forest Officers, and 

locally employed field assistants from Maramba, Tanga, Amani and Misozwe conducted the 

survey. 



6 

2.0 AIMS OF THE SURVEY 

The specific aims of the biodiversity survey as outlined in the Terms of Reference between 

the Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme and the East Usambara Conservation Area 

Management Programme (EUCAMP) are: 

• to conduct biological baseline surveys in selected forests as a baseline against which to 

monitor future changes in biodiversity status; 

• to provide information on the biological value and importance of these forests in order to 

assist in the development of management plans and practices for these forests; 

• to provide information on human disturbance and levels of resource use in different areas 

of the forest; 

• to develop specific, quantitative methods of monitoring key biodiveristy indicators, and 

assist in establishing long term monitoring procedures to address specific aspects of the 

forest ecology and management such as regeneration and hunting; 

• to train Tanzanian personnel from EUCAMP and the Forestry and Bee Keeping Division 

in forest survey work; 

• to contribute to global biodiversity assessment and conservation efforts through 

collaboration with specialists elsewhere, and the sharing of information, data and material 

collected during surveys. 

Furthermore, the aims of the survey methods applied are: 

• to sample the vegetation and tree species composition of selected forests of the East 

Usambara Mountains using systematic sampling techniques along systematically located 

vegetation transects, which sample 0.25% or 0.5% of the area of each forest reserve; 

• to assess levels of disturbance by systematically sampling the incidence of tree cutting, 

animal trapping and other illegal activities along the vegetation transects; 

• to use standardised and repeatable methods to record biodiversity values of the forest in 

terms of small mammal, reptile, amphibian, and invertebrate species; 

• to collect opportunistic data on all other groups of vertebrate and invertebrates. Species 

lists resulting from this will be compared against IUCN categories of threat and other 

conservation criteria in order to assess the overall biodiversity values of each forest. 

By using standardised and repeatable methods these surveys provide an assessment of the 

biodiversity value of the forests, enabling their importance to be determined and their 

biodiversity value to be monitored in future. 

An additional aim of the project that is covered in a separate report includes: 

• to provide small scale feedback with regard to the survey findings through environmental 

education activities within school and village committee networks, in co-operation with 

the EUCAMP Farm Forestry Activities. 



7 

3.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST 

3.1 General description 

3.1.1 Description 

Name: Mlinga Forest Reserve 

Muheza District, Tanga Region, Tanzania. 

Area: 890 ha 

Status: Catchment Forest Reserve 

Chain and Compass Survey 5 th December 1992 

Gazetted 5 th October, 1996 Gazettement notice GN 443. 

Central Authority Status 

Maps: Ordnance Survey topographic maps 1: 50 000 Series Y742 (DOS 422) 

Sheet 130/1 ‘Mnyuzi’ of 1989 and Sheet 130/2 ‘Muheza’ of 1989 

Forest and Bee Keeping Division maps: 

Jb 2213 1994 ‘Mlinga Forest Reserve’ 1:10,000 

3.1.2 Location 

Lat/Long: S 05°04’00’’ – S 5°05’00’’ E 38°44’30’’ - 38°46’00’’ E 

UTM/UPS: 

94 4200 - 94 3800 S 04 6900 - 47 4000 E 

Elevation: 220m – 1069 m above sea level 

Mlinga Forest Reserve (Mlinga FR) is located in the east of the main East Usambara 

mountain range (Figure 1), approximately 20 km directly west from Tanga. The forest reserve 

is one of the smallest and most isolated blocks of forest reserve in the East Usambara 

Mountains. Public forest and farms surround the reserve. Mlinga FR is surrounded by 

Misozwe, Magula and Mwembeni villages and associated sub-villages. 

3.1.3 Topography 

The reserve encompasses Mlinga peak at 1069m above sea level, and the surrounding rocky 

ridge and outcrops (Figure 2). Much of the reserve is inaccessible by foot. The forest reserve 

protects headwaters of Mruka (a tributary of the Sigi) and Mkulumzi Rivers. 

Flat lowland valleys surround Mlinga FR on all sides. Manga FR rises to the north, 

Kwamarimba to the north west, Magoroto FR to the south. 

3.1.4 Land use 

The latest survey of the area was carried out by Hyytiäinen (1995), and updated by Johansson 

and Sandy (1996). The most common habitat within Mlinga FR was recorded as dense 

Lowland forest (Table 3). 



8 

Table 3 Land use distribution (Johansson and Sandy, 1996). 


Area % of area 

(hectares) 

Dense Lowland forest 419.0 49.9 

Poorly Stocked Lowland forest 198.5 23.6 

Cultivation under Lowland forest 4.8 0.6 

Dense Submontane forest 47.4 5.6 

Barren land 77.0 9.2 

Peasant cultivation 92.7 11.0 

Total 839.4 100 

3.1.5 History and Status 

There has been human pressure in the East Usambara Mountains for at least 2000 years. In 

the 19 th Century it appears populations were markedly lower in the East Usambara Mountains 

relative to the West Usambara Mountains with much of the area remaining forested. 

Mlinga FR is one of the most recently gazetted forest reserves within the East Usambara 

mountains. Mlinga FR was gazetted in 1996 primarily to protect the headwaters of Mruka (a 

tributary of the Sigi) and Mkulumuzi Rivers and to conserve the interesting forest and rocky 

summit surrounding Mlinga peak (Hamilton, 1989). 

Before Tanzanian independence (1961), the forest surrounding Mlinga peak was successfully 

protected traditionally. Large animals such as lion, leopard, Colobus monkey, bush pig and 

duiker once roamed the hillsides of Mlinga. Primarily a famous mkilindi (special elder) 

looked after the forest, with the aim of worshipping, extracting medicine, water and for other 

cultural beliefs. Cutting trees, setting fires, hunting, cultivation and grazing were restricted 

within the forest. People believed that the forest would punish anyone harming it. People were 

scared to harvest trees and hunt animals for fear of their life. Myth said that they would lose 

their path out of the forest if they were to cut a tree or kill an animal (pers. comm. Mzee 

Semwaza, Mwembene village and Woodcock, 1995). 

Mlinga forest quality and expanse began to decline following independence, as a consequence 

of population growth and immigration. Cardamom (Illeteria cadamon) cultivation, extraction 

of valuable timber such as Milicia excelsa (Moraceae), Afzelia quanzensis (Caesalpinoideae) 

and Albizia species (Mimosoideae) and fire were the most serious threats. 

The inaccessible nature of Mlinga FR meant that mechanical logging was limited to lowland 

areas. No logging roads were visible within the forest reserve. Pitsawing, and the extraction of 

non-timber forest products such as poles, medicines, fibres and honey were commonplace, 

particularly before gazettment. 

Since gazettment, the forest has continued to be used for the collection of cultural resources 

and worshipping. Regular and extensive fires in recent years have occurred within the Forest 

Reserve and have significantly reduced the quality and expanse of closed forest habitat. 

In comparison with other Forest Reserves in the East Usambara mountains, little research has 

been conducted within Mlinga FR. This survey is the first comprehensive, systematic and 

comparable survey of all accessible parts of the forest reserve. 



9 

N 

Mpanga Village F.R. 

Mgambo F.R. 

Bombo East II F.R. 

Bombo East I F.R.* 

Mtai F.R. 

Nilo F.R. 

Semdoe F.R. 

Kwamgumi F.R. 

Segoma F.R. 

Mlungui P.F.R. 

Bamba Ridge F.R. 

Handei Village F.R 

Kambai F.R. 

Longuza (north) F.R. 

Kwamarimba F.R. 

Manga F.R. 

Mlinga F.R. 

Magaroto F.R. 

Amani Nature 

Reserve 

Figure 1 The location of Mlinga FR in relation to other East Usambara forests. 



10 

200 

400 

800 

600 

Scale: 

450m 

X 

1000 

X Mlinga Peak 1069 m 

Figure 2 Topographical sketch map of Mlinga FR. 



11 

4.0 VEGETATION 

Authors: Hall, S.M., Ntemi, A.S., Oliver, S., Smith, J. and Murphy, A. pp. 11-56 

4.1 Introduction 

A species inventory was compiled of the trees and shrubs found within the forest reserve. 

Simple, quantitative and repeatable methods were employed and the results are comparable 

with other forest surveys undertaken by FT FRP. Human disturbance within the forest was 

also documented. Botanical and disturbance data collected by this survey have been entered 

onto the EUCAMP database. 

4.2 Methods 

The forest reserve was divided into a grid of numbered squares marked in the field by tagged 

transect lines. All methods are based on this grid system and are detailed in the FT FRP 

methodologies report (SEE, 1998). A brief description is presented below. The location of 

vegetation plots and disturbance transects (Figure 3) were recorded using Global Positioning 

System (GPS). GPS co-ordinates are presented in Appendix 2. 

4.2.1 Forest composition 

Three methods were used to analyse forest composition: (1) quantitative vegetation analysis; 

(2) opportunistic observations and (3) disturbance transects. 

4.2.1.1 Quantitative vegetation analysis 

The vegetation survey was based on a 450m x 450m grid marked in the field using tagged 

transect lines. The small size of the forest reserve meant that intensification of the 450m x 

900m grid system used, most recently, to sample Mtai FR, Segoma FR, Semdoe FR, Amani 

Nature Reserve and Nilo FR was necessary to document all habitats adequately. One plot 50m 

x 20m was sampled in each grid square, giving an approximate sampling intensity of 0.5%. 

The 20m x 50m vegetation plots were located in the southeast corner of each of the 450m x 

450m grid rectangles. Within each sample (vegetation) plot, every tree with a diameter at 

breast height (dbh) of 10cm and over was recorded, marked with red paint and identified. A 

botanist from EUCAMP provided the field identification of plant species. Specimen 

collection was made of fertile individuals, and individuals that proved difficult to identify in 

the field. 

The regeneration layer was sampled within 3m x 3m (and 6m x 6m) nested subplots at the 

centre of each vegetation plot. All trees and shrubs with a dbh below 10cm were counted and 

identified within these plots. The ground cover (of herbaceous vegetation, bare soil, leaf litter 

and rocks), and the dominance of other vegetation (such as grasses, forbs, mosses, lichens and 

ferns) were documented as percentages. Systematically sampled vegetation data is presented 

in the form of checklists and analytical calculations summarised in tables, graphs and maps. 

4.2.1.2 Opportunistic collection and observation 

Opportunistic collections and observations of ground, shrub and tree species were made 

throughout the survey. Fertile individuals were collected as specimens and dried in the field 

using a kerosene stove. Detailed field notes were made of each specimen and are stored with 

the specimens. All botanical specimens are held at the National Herbarium, Arusha and 

Missouri Botanical Gardens, USA. Some specimens are also kept at Royal Botanical Gardens 

Kew, UK. Opportunistic data is presented as a checklist. 



12 

4.2.1.3 Disturbance transects 

Disturbance transects were used to record the intensity of pole and timber cutting and 

incidence of other disturbance types in the forest reserve. The disturbance transects were 

based on the 450m x 450m grid prepared for the vegetation plots (Figure 3). Each transect 

running east-west was sampled from border to border where accessible. Disturbance was 

recorded by 50m section along each transect. 

Every self-standing tree and sapling (not lianas or creepers) above 5cm dbh was measured 

within 5m either side of each transect line. Each plant was recorded under one of four 

categories: live, old cut, new cut or naturally dead. Within these categories a distinction was 

made between poles and timbers. Poles were classified as having a dbh (diameter at breast 

height) between 5 and 15cm and a minimum of 2m relatively straight trunk. Timber was 

classified as having a dbh > 15cm with a minimum 3m relatively straight trunk. These 

divisions were based on differences in use. New cut stems were determined by cream 

coloured slash and classified as freshly cut within recent months (approximately within the 

past 6 months). Old cut stems were determined by black coloured slash and classified as old 

cut (approximately more than 6 months old). Timber and pole cutting data are presented as an 

average per hectare and summarised in graphs and maps. 

The incidence of other signs of disturbance (such as fire, cultivation, animal trapping, 

pitsawing) were documented every 50m section and summarised in a table and maps. The 

most disturbed plots were calculated using pole and timber cutting counts and incidence 

figures for ‘other signs of disturbance’. Pole and timber cutting counts were combined, 

summed and then ranked, with the most disturbed plot ranked 1. All incidence records of 

‘other signs of disturbance’ were summed and ranked, with the most disturbed plot ranked 1. 

The top six plots in each data set were combined to give the top twelve disturbed plots. Three 

additional border plots were additionally considered to be worthy of consideration. 

) 

16 

`15 

14 

14A 

Transect 0 

1 2 

3 

4 4A 

Transect 1 

24 23 22 

21 

20 19 18 

17 

17A 

Transect 5 

7 6 5 

4 

10 

9 

9A 

Transect 2 

29 

28 27A 

27 26A 

26 

25 

Transect 6 

11 

12 13 

33 34 

34A 

Transect 3 

Key: 

30 

Transect 7 

13 

Vegetation Plot 

31 

32 

Transect 4 

34A 

Incomplete 450m sections 

Scale: 

Accessible transect lines 

450m 

450m 

Figure 3 Location of vegetation plots and disturbance transects in Mlinga FR. 

(GPS co-ordinates of vegetation plots are summarised in Appendix 2). 



13 

4.3 Results 

4.3.1 Quantitative vegetation analysis 

4.3.1.1 Vegetation Plots 

A total of 34 20x50m vegetation plots were established. The dominant vegetation types within 

vegetation plots were lowland forest (35% of plots) and open woodland (29% of plots). Only 

three vegetation plots were classified as undisturbed submontane forest. Almost half (48%) of 

all vegetation plots had an average canopy height of less than 10m. Only six vegetation plots 

were recorded with canopy heights greater than 20m. Approximately two-thirds of vegetation 

plots had been affected by fire and 59% contained rock outcrops. Only four vegetation plots 

were positioned at submontane altitudes, greater than 850m above sea level. The average 

slope for all accessible vegetation plots was moderately steep at 19.5 ( + 10.8) degrees. 

Vegetation plot descriptions are summarised in Appendix 3 and a vegetation map shown in 

Figure 4. 

A total of 780 individuals, representing 39 families and 135 species were recorded in thirty 

four 20m x 50m vegetation plots. Five individuals were unable to be identified. Data is 

presented for both 0.25% and 0.5% sampling intensities. Species are described, where 

adequate information exists, in terms of their ecological type, their habitat and their endemic 

status. Nomenclature follows Iversen (1991b), the Flora of Tropical East Africa (Polhill et al., 

1988) and the LEAP database (Knox, 2000). Table 4 presents a checklist of these tree and 

shrub species. 

Table 4 Checklist of trees and shrubs recorded within the vegetation plots. 

Ecol. 

Type 

Habitat 

End. 

Status 


individuals 

Present in 

n plots 

Angiospermae – Dicotyledonae 

ANACARDIACEAE 

Lannea schweinfurthii (Engl.) Engl. 1897 f L&S W 2 1 

Lannea schweinfurthii var. stuhlmannii (Engl.) 

Kokwaro 1980 

f L&S&M 1 W 5 3 

Rhus natalensis Bernh. 1844* f L&S&M 2 W 10 3 

Sorindeia madagascariensis Thouars ex DC. 

1825* 

ANNONACEAE 

f L&S W 8 4 

Annona senegalensis Pers. 1806* f L&S W 35 9 

Annickia kummeriae (Engl. & Diels) Setten & 

Maas 1990 (basionym Enantia kummeriae Engl. 

& Diels 1900) 

APOCYNACEAE 

F S N 2 1 

Funtumia africana (Benth.) Stapf 1899* F L&S&M W 20 5 

Hunteria zeylanica (Retz.) Gardner ex Thwaites 

1860 

F L 2 W 2 1 

Rauvolfia caffra Sonder 1850* F L&S&M W 2 2 

Sarcopharyngia stapfiana (Britten) P. Boiteau 

1981 (basionym Tabernaemontana stapfiana 

Britten 1894) 

Tabernamontana ventricosa Hochst. ex A. DC. 

1844 

f L&S&M W 6 3 

F L&S&M W 51 6 



14 

Table 4 continued. 

ARALIACEAE 

Ecol. 

Type 

Habitat 

End. 

Status 


individuals 

Present in 

n plots 

Cussonia arborea Hochst. ex A. Rich. 1847 f L&S&M W 12 7 

BIGNONIACEAE 

Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K. Schum. 1895* f L&S W 12 6 

Markhamia obtusifolia (Baker) Sprague 1919 f S W 1 1 

Stereospermum kunthianum Cham. 1832* f L&S W 83 5 

BOMBACEAE 

Rhodognaphalon schumannianum A. Robyns 

1963 (basionym Bombax rhodognaphalon K. 

Schum.ex Engl. 1895) 

BORAGINACEAE 

f L 2 W 2 5 1 

Cordia africana Lam. 1792 f L&S 2 W 2 1 1 

Fernandoa magnifica Seem. 1870 ? L 2 N 1 1 

Gerascanthus monoicus (Roxb.) A. Borhidi 1988 

(basionym Cordia monoica Roxb. 1796) 

CELASTRACEAE 

f 1 L&S&M 1 W 1 1 1 

Maytenus undata (Thunb.) Blakelock 1956 f L&S&M 2 W 4 2 

COMBRETACEAE 

Combretum molle R. Br. ex G. Don 1827 O L W 1 1 

Combretum schumannii Engl. 1895 f L&S 2 W 5 1 

Terminalia sambesiaca Engl. & Diels 1900 f L W 3 3 

COMPOSITAE 

Solanecio mannii (Hook.f.) C.Jeffrey 1986 O ? W 2 1 1 

EBENACEAE 

Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern) F. White 1956 f L&S&M 2 W 1 1 

Diospyros natalensis (Harv.) Brenan 1954* f L&S&M W 3 3 

EUPHORBIACEAE 

Antidesma membranaceum Müll. Arg. 1866 f L&S W 2 2 

Bridelia cathartica G. Bertol. 1854 f L&S&M 2 W 1 1 

Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill 1862* f L&S&M W 20 5 

Croton sylvaticus Hochst. 1845 f L&S&M 2 W 2 2 

Drypetes usambarica (Pax) Hutch 1912** f L&S&M N 3 1 

Macaranga capensis (Baill.) Benth. ex Sim 1907 F L&S&M W 14 4 

Mildbraedia sp.* ? ? ? 1 1 

Phyllanthus sp. ? ? ? 1 1 

Pycnocoma littoralis Pax 1894 f 1 L 1 W 1 1 1 

Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Pierre ex Pax 

1911 

f L&S W 6 4 



15 


EUPHORBIACEAE continued. 

Shirakia elliptica (Hochst.) Kruijt 1996 (basionym 

Sclerocroton ellipticus Hochst. 1845, syn. Sapium 

ellipticum (Hochst.) Pax 1912) 

FLACOURTIACEAE 

Caloncoba welwitschii (Oliv.) Gilg 1908 

(basionym Oncoba welwitschii Oliv. 1868) 

GUTTIFERAE 

Ecol. 

Type 

Habitat 

End. 

Status 


individuals 

Present in 

n plots 

f L&S&M W 11 4 

f 1 S&M 2 W 2 1 1 

Allanblackia stuhlmannii (Engl.) Engl. 1897** F L&S&M N 3 3 

Haronga madagascariensis (Lam. ex Poir.) 

Choisy 1821 (basionym Harungana 

madagascariensis Lam. ex Poir. 1804) 

LEGUMINOSAE subfamily: CAESALPINOIDEAE 

F S W 2 2 

Afzelia quanzensis Welw. 1858 f L&S&M 2 W 1 1 

Cassia sp.* ? ? ? 1 1 

Cynometra brachyrrhachis Harms 1915 F L&S E(EU) 4 1 

Cynometra longipedicelata Harms F L&S E(EU) 1 1 

Cynometra sp. A (of FTEA) F S E(EU) 1 1 

Dialium holtzii Harms 1913 F L 2 W 1 1 

Scorodophloeus fischeri (Taub.) J. Léonard 1951* F L&S&M 2 N 5 3 

LEGUMINOSAE subfamily: MIMOSOIDEAE 

Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach.) W.F. Wight 

1909* 

Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. 1917 (exotic, 

naturalized) 

f L&S W 1 1 

O L&S W 2 1 

Albizia gummifera (J.F. Gmel.) C.A. Sm. 1930* f L&S&M W 17 7 

Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. 1834 f L&S&M 2 W 1 1 

Feuilleea versicolor (Welw.ex Oliv.) Kuntze 1891 

Albizia versicolor (Welw.ex) Oliv. 1871 

O L&S&M W 1 1 

Inga glaberrima (Schumach. & Thonn.) Roberty 

1954 (basionym Albizia glaberrima (Schumach. & 

Thonn.) Benth. 1844)** 

f L&S W 2 1 

Newtonia buchananii (Baker) Gilb. & Bout. 

1952** 

F L&S&M W 1 1 

Newtonia paucijuga (Harms) Brenan 1955** F L 2 N 3 2 

Parkia filicoidea (Welw.ex) Oliv. 1871 F L&S&M W 1 1 

LEGUMINOSAE subfamily: PAPILIONOIDEAE 

Angylocalyx braunii Harms 1810* F L N 12 3 

Cordyla africana Lour. 1790 F L&S W 1 1 

Craibia brevicaudata (Vatke) Dunn 1911 F S 2 W 3 2 



16 


Ecol. 

Type 

LEGUMINOSAE subfamily: PAPILIONOIDEAE continued. 

Habitat 

End. 

Status 


individuals 

Present in 

n plots 

Craibia brownii Dunn 1911 F S&M W 4 2 

Diphaca kirkiii (S. Moore) Taub. 1894 (basionym 

Ormocarpum kirkii S. Moore 1877) 

O 1 L&S 1 W 1 2 1 

Lonchocarpus bussei Harms 1902 O L&S&M W 14 6 

Millettia oblata Gillet 1911 F S&M N 1 1 

Millettia usaramensis Taub. 1895* f L 2 W 4 3 

Pterocarpus angolensis DC. 1825 f L&S&M 2 W 2 1 

LOGANIACEAE 

Anthocleista grandiflora Gilg.1893 ** f S W 1 1 

Strychnos innocua Delile 1826 O 1 M 2 W 2 4 2 

Strychnos spinosa Lam 1794 f L 1 W 2 1 

Strychnos sp. ? ? ? 1 1 

MELASTOMATACEAE 

Memecylon amaniense (Gilg.) A.Fern. & R.Fern 

1960 

Warneckea schliebenii (Markgr.) Jacq.-Fél. 1978 

(basionym Memecylon schliebenii Markgr. 1932) 

MELIACEAE 

Entandrophragma excelsum (Dawe & Sprague) 

Sprague 1910 

F L 2 N 1 1 

F S 2 N 2 1 

F S&M W 13 4 

Trichilia dregeana Sond. 1860* F L&S&M W 1 1 

Turraea floribunda Hochst. 1844 f L&S&M 2 W 1 1 

MELIANTHACEAE 

Bersama abyssinica Fresen 1837* f S W 2 2 

MORACEAE 

Antiaris toxicaria Leschen. 1810* f L&S W 15 10 

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. 1789 (exotic) O ? W 1 1 

Ficus exasperata Vahl 1805** f L&S&M W 10 6 

Ficus holstii Warb. 1894 (basionym Ficus lutea 

Vahl 1805) 

f 1 L&S&M 1 W 1 1 2 

Ficus natalensis Hochst. 1845 f L&S&M W 3 3 

Ficus sur Forssk 1775 f L&S&M W 11 3 

Ficus vallis-choudae Delile 1843 f L&S W 1 1 

Mesogyne insignis Engl. 1894* F L&S W 16 3 

Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C. Berg 1982 f L&S W 10 6 

Trilepisium madagascariense Thouars ex DC. 

1825* 

F S&M W 10 5 



17 


MYRSINACEAE 

Baeobotrys lanceolata (Forssk.) Vahl 1790 

(basionym Maesa lanceolata Forssk 1775)* 

MYRTACEAE 

Eugenia guineensis (Willd.) Baill. ex Laness. 

1886 (basionym Calyptranthes guineense Willd. 

1800, syn. Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC. 

1828) 

OLACACEAE 

Ecol. 

Type 

Habitat 

End. 

Status 


individuals 

Present in 

n plots 

f L&S&M W 8 2 

f S&M 1 W 1 1 

Strombosia scheffleri Engl. 1909* F L&S&M W 15 2 

OLEACEAE 

Olea sp. ? ? ? 2 1 

RHAMNACEAE 

Maesopsis eminii Engl. 1895 (introduced, 

naturalized) 

F L&S W 1 1 

Ziziphus mucronata Willd. 1809 f L&S&M 2 W 1 1 

Ziziphus pubescens Oliv. 1887 f L&S 2 W 5 1 

RUBIACEAE 

Canthium sp. ? ? ? 2 2 

Oxyanthus speciosus DC. 1807 F S&M W 6 4 

Polysphaeria sp. ? ? ? 2 1 

Rothmannia manganjae (Hiern) Keay 1958* F L&S&M W 13 4 

Tarenna pavettoides (Harv.) Sim 1907 F L&S&M W 9 2 

Tricalysia sp.* ? ? ? 7 5 

Vangueria infausta Burchell 1824 f L&S&M W 3 2 

RUTACEAE 

Vepris amaniensis (Engl.) Mziray 1992** ? ? ? 4 1 

Vepris simplicifolia (Engl.) Mziray 1992 ? ? W 1 1 

Zanthoxylum holtzianum (Engl.) P.G. Waterman 

1975 

f 1 L 1 W 1 1 

SAPINDACEAE 

Allophylus melliodorus Gilg ex Radlk. 1909* f S&M N 2 2 

Lecaniodiscus fraxinifolius Baker* f L&S&M W 4 1 

Phialodiscus unijugatus (Baker) Radlk. 1879 

(basionym Blighia unijugata Baker 1868)* 

f L&S&M W 4 3 

Zanha golungensis Hiern 1896* O 1 L&S 2 W 2 1 1 

SAPOTACEAE 

Synsepalum cerasiferum (Welw.) T.D. Penn. 1991 

(basionym Sapota cerasifera Welw. 1858, syn. 

Afrosersalisia cerasifera (Welw.) Aubrév. 1957) 

f L&S&M 2 W 4 1 



18 


SAPOTACEAE continued. 

Englerophytum natalense (Sond.) T.D. Penn. 1991 

(basionym Chrysophyllum natalense Sond. 1850, 

syn. Bequaertiodendron natalense (Sond.) Heine 

& J.H. Hemsl. 1960)* 

Ecol. 

Type 

Habitat 

End. 

Status 


individuals 

Present in 

n plots 

f L&S&M W 10 4 

Manilkara sulcata (Engl.) Dubard 1915* f L 2 W 11 4 

Pouteria adolfi-friedericii (Engl.) A. Meeuse 1960 

(basionym Sideroxylon adolfi-friedericii Engl. 

1913, syn. Aningeria adolfi-friedericii (Engl.) 

Robyns & G.C.C. Gilbert 1947) 


(basionym Sapota cerasifera Welw. 1858, syn. 


Synsepalum msolo (Engl.) T.D. Penn. 1991 

(basionym Pachystela msolo (Engl.) Engl. 1904)* 

STERCULIACEAE 

f L W 2 2 

? ? ? 1 2 

F L&S&M W 9 3 

Cola clavata Mast. 1868 * F L 2 W 2 2 2 

Cola scheffleri K.Schum. 1903** F L&S E(EU) 3 2 

Dombeya shupangae K. Schum. 1900* O L 2 N 10 5 

Leptonychia usambarensis K. Schum F ? W 4 3 

Sterculia appendiculata K. Schum. 1895 F L 2 W 1 1 

Sterculia rogersii N.E.Br. 1921 ? ? W 2 2 2 

TILIACEAE 

Grewia goetzeana K. Schum f L&S 1 N 2 2 

Grewia holstii Burrett 1910 f L&S 1 W 2 2 

ULMACEAE 

Celtis africana Burm. F. 1768* F L&S&M W 15 7 

Celtis gomphophylla Baker 1886 F L&S&M W 11 2 

Celtis mildbraedii Engl. 1909 F L&S&M W 4 3 

Sponia orientalis (L.) Decne. 1934 (basionym 

Celtis orientalis L. 1753, syn. Trema orientalis 

(L.) Blume 1852)* 

UMBELLIFERAE 

Peucedanum araliaceum (Hochst.) Hiern 1877 

(basionym Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst. 1844) 

VERBENACEAE 

F L&S&M W 31 10 

f L&S&M W 4 3 

Premna chrysoclada (Bojer) Gürke 1903 f L 1 N 2 2 

Vitex ferruginea Schumach. & Thonn. 1827 F L&S 1 E(EU) 2 1 

VIOLACEAE 

Rinorea ferruginea Engl. 1902 F L&S&M W 1 2 



19 


Ecol. 

Type 

Habitat 

End. 

Status 


individuals 

Present in 

n plots 

Angiospermae – Monocotyledonae 

DRACAENACEAE 

Dracaena sp. ? ? ? 1 1 

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 4 (also refer to section 1.2.1) 

Ecological type: (based on Iversen, 1991b) 

• F - Forest dependent species: Species previously recorded as restricted to primary or closed canopy forest only, e.g. 

wet evergreen forest, dry evergreen forest and/or riverine forest; 

• f - Forest dwelling but not forest dependent: Species previously recorded in primary or closed canopy forest as 

defined above and/or in forest edge, clearings, secondary forest, deciduous forest and woodland, and 

• O - Non-forest species: These are species that do not occur in primary or secondary forest or forest edge (e.g. species 

that have been recorded in bushland, heathland, thicket, secondary scrub, grassland, rocky outcrops, swamps, 

wastelands and cultivation. 

Habitat: (based on Hamilton, 1989) 

• L - Lowland: Species occurring at altitudes less than 850m above sea level; 

• S - Submontane: Species occurring at altitudes greater than 850m above sea level (masl) and below 1,250 masl. 

• M – Montane Species occurring at altitudes greater than 1,250m above sea level. 

If species occur in more than one habitat range, this has been recorded (e.g. L&S – this species has been recorded at 

altitudes between 0m and 1,250m above sea level). 

Endemic status: (based on Iversen, 1991b) 

• E – Usambara endemic: Occurring only in the Usambara mountains, EU - Range limited to the East Usambara 

Mountains, WU - Range limited to the West Usambara Mountains; 

• N – Near-endemic: Species with limited ranges in the Eastern Arc mountains and the adjacent coastal forests 

(occurring only in the East African biodiversity hotpot); 

• W - Widespread distribution. 

Regeneration Layer: 

Celtis africana Burm. F. 1768*: species recorded in the regeneration sample plots 3m x 3m are marked with one asterisk. 

Cola scheffleri K.Schum. 1900**: additional species recorded in the regeneration sample plots 6m x 6m are marked with 

two asterisks. 

1 Information based on FTEA. 

2 Information based on LEAP (Knox, 2000) 

Bold type – Additional species found as a consequence of intensifying vegetation plot sampling from 450m x 900m to 

450m x 450m. 



20 

Figure 4 Sketch map of vegetation types in Mlinga FR. 



21 

4.3.1.2 Species Abundance 

The most abundant species within vegetation plots was Stereospermum kunthianum 

representing 10.6% of all individuals sampled. This species was only present within five 

vegetation plots where it dominated other species (Table 5). Stereospermum kunthianum was 

common at low altitudes in open woodland and lowland forest margins, usually associated 

with rocky outcrops. Tabernamontana ventricosa was ranked as the second most abundant 

species within vegetation plots (Table 5). This species was found in six vegetation plots, in 

lowland forest plots and one disturbed submontane forest plot. All of the most abundant 

species are widespread in their distribution and common in woodland and/or forest habitats. 

Table 5 Ranked abundance of tree and shrub individuals within vegetation plots. 

Rank 

Number of 

Individuals 

% of total no. 

individuals 

In x plots 

(n=34) 

% of total 

no. plots 

BIGNONIACEAE 

APOCYNACEAE 

Stereospermum 

kunthianum 

Tabernamontana 

ventricosa 

1 83 10.6 6 17.6 

2 51 6.5 6 17.6 

ANNONACEAE Annona senegalensis 3 35 4.5 9 26.5 

ULMACEAE Sponia orientalis 4 31 4.0 10 29.4 

APOCYNACEAE Funtumia africana 5 20 2.6 5 14.7 

EUPHORBIACEAE Bridelia micrantha 5 20 2.6 5 14.7 

LEGUMINOSAE 

subfamily 

MIMOSOIDEAE 

Albizia gummifera 7 17 2.2 7 20.6 

MORACEAE Mesogyne insignis 8 16 2.1 3 8.8 

MORACEAE Antiaris toxicaria 9 15 1.9 10 29.4 

ULMACEAE Celtis africana 9 15 1.9 7 20.6 

OLACACEAE Strombosia scheffleri 9 15 1.9 2 5.9 

LEGUMINOSAE 

subfamily 

PAPILIONIDEAE 

Lonchocarpus bussei 12 14 1.8 6 17.6 

EUPHORBIACEAE Macaranga capensis 12 14 1.8 4 11.8 

MELIACEAE 

Entandrophragma 

excelsum 

14 13 1.7 4 11.8 

RUBIACEAE Rothmannia manganjae 14 13 1.7 4 11.8 

Sponia orientalis and Antiaris toxicaria were present in the greatest number of plots (29.4%) 

(Table 6). Sponia orientalis was commonly found regenerating in areas that had been 

disturbed by fire. Antiaris toxicaria were mostly recorded in lowland and submontane forest 

plots that had not recently been affected disturbance. 

Annona senegalensis was commonly found in vegetation plots throughout the reserve and was 

ranked third in Table 6. This species was common in open woodland areas and often 

associated with fire damage. 

One Maesopsis eminii individual was recorded within Mlinga FR in vegetation plot 12. 



22 

Table 6 Ranked abundance of tree and shrub species occurrence within vegetation plots. 

Rank 

In x Plots 

( n=34) 


no. plots 


Individuals 

(n=780) 


no. 

individuals 

ULMACEAE Sponia orientalis 1 10 29.4 31 4.0 

MORACEAE Antiaris toxicaria 1 10 29.4 15 1.9 

ANNONACEAE Annona senegalensis 3 9 26.5 35 4.5 

LEGUMINOSAE 

subfamily: 

MIMOSOIDEAE 

Albizia gummifera 4 7 20.6 17 2.2 

ULMACEAE Celtis africana 4 7 20.6 15 1.9 

ARALIACEAE Cussonia arborea 4 7 20.6 12 1.5 

BIGNONIACEAE 

APOCYNACEAE 

LEGUMINOSAE 

subfamily: 

PAPILIONIDEAE 

Stereospermum 

kunthianum 

Tabernamontana 

ventricosa 

7 6 17.6 83 10.6 

7 6 17.6 51 6.5 

Lonchocarpus bussei 7 6 17.6 14 1.8 

MORACEAE Ficus exasperata 7 6 17.6 10 1.3 

MORACEAE Milicia excelsa 7 6 17.6 10 1.3 

APOCYNACEAE Funtumia africana 12 5 14.7 20 2.6 

EUPHORBIACEAE Bridelia micrantha 12 5 14.7 20 2.6 

STERCULIACEAE Dombeya shupangae 12 5 14.7 10 1.3 

RUBIACEAE Tricalysia sp. 12 5 14.7 7 0.9 



23 

4.3.1.3 Species Accumulation 

The accumulation of species records throughout the systematic vegetation survey showed that 

an additional 45 species were recorded as a consequence of increasing the sampling intensity 

from 450 x 900m (0.25%) to 450 x 450m (0.5%) (Figure 5). Although the curve seems to be 

reaching a plateau, there is not enough evidence to suggest that the accumulation of species 

would not increase with even greater sampling intensity (Figure 5). 

140 

120 

Sampling intensity 

0.25% end point 

135 

Number of species 

100 

80 

60 

90 

40 

20 

0 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 

Plot Number 

Figure 5 Species accumulation rates of trees and shrubs (10cm dbh and larger) by vegetation 

plot for 0.5% sampling intensity. 

4.3.1.4 Endemic Status 

A total of 5 species and 11 (1.4%) individuals recorded in vegetation plots were endemic to 

the East Usambara mountains, with 14 (10%) species and 49 individuals recorded as nearendemic. 

The majority of species recorded were therefore widespread in their distribution (W) 

(Table 4). Endemic and near-endemic species were relatively widely dispersed throughout the 

forest reserve (Figure 6 and 7). At both 0.5% and 0.25% sampling intensities, percentages of 

the total number of species and individuals were similar, although actual records were 

significantly lower at the lowest (0.25%) sampling intensity (Table 7). 

Table 7 Summary of endemism for tree and shrub species recorded in the 50m x 20m 

vegetation plots. 


species 

% of species Number of 

individuals 

% of individuals 

Endemic to the East Usambara 5 (4) 3.7 (4.4) 11 (10) 1.4 (3.0) 

Mountains (E(EU)) 

Near-endemic (N) 14 (10) 10.4 (11.1) 49 (24) 6.3 (7.1) 

Widespread (W) 99 (67) 73.3 (74.5) 680 (285) 87.2 (84.3) 

Unknown (?) 17 (9) 12.6 (10) 40 (19) 5.1 (5.6) 

Total 134 (90) 100 (100) 780 (338) 100 (100) 

Based on Table 4. Figures from 0.25% sampling intensity are shown in brackets. 



24 

) 

Scale: 

Key: 

450m 

450m 

Inaccessible 

Endemic and Near endemic Individuals 

50 

25 

5 

Figure 6 Distribution of endemic and near-endemic tree and shrub individuals in Mlinga FR. 

) 

Scale: 

Key: 

450m 

450m 

Inaccessible 

Endemic and Near endemic Species 

20 

10 

2 

Figure 7 Distribution of endemic and near-endemic tree and shrub species in Mlinga FR. 



25 

4.3.1.5 Ecological type 

A total of 41 (30%) species and 298 (38%) individuals recorded within vegetation plots were 

forest dependent (Table 8). The majority of species and individuals were forest dwelling 

(Table 8). Figures 8 and 9 show the distribution of forest dependent individuals and species, 

and give an indication of the distribution of tall closed canopy forest within Mlinga FR (refer 

to Figure 4). Forest dependent species show a similar distribution throughout Mlinga FR to 

the endemic and near-endemic species (Figures 6, 7, 8 and 9). 

Non-forest individuals and species are concentrated in the north and north west border areas 

of the forest reserve (Figures 10 and 11), and give an indication of the distribution of nonforest 

habitats (refer to Figure 4). 

At both 0.5% and 0.25% sampling intensities, percentages of the total number of tree and 

shrub species and individuals recorded in each ecological type were similar. Actual records 

were significantly lower at the lowest (0.25%) sampling intensity (Table 8). 

Table 8 Summary of ecological type of tree and shrub species recorded in the 50m x 20m 


Ecological Type Number of % of total Number of % of total 

species species individuals individuals 

Forest dependent (F) 41 (31) 30.4 (34.4) 298 (123) 38.2 (36.3) 

Forest dwelling (f) 64 (39) 47.4 (43.3) 401 (177) 51.5 (52.5) 

Other (O) 10 (6) 7.4 (6.7) 37 (14) 4.7 (4.1) 

Unknown (?) 20 (14) 14.8 (12.2) 44 (24) 5.6 (7.1) 

Total 135 (90) 100 (100) 780 (338) 100 (100) 


4.3.1.6 Habitat 

A total of 50 species (35%) and 385 individuals (50%) present within vegetation plots had 

previously been recorded in other areas at altitudes of between 0m and greater than 1250m 

above sea level and therefore were categorised as species of lowland, submontane and 

montane forest (L&S&M) habitats (Table 8). Plant records from Mlinga FR were most 

commonly categorised within this habitat type and hence showed limited elevational 

specialisation. A total of 22 (16%) species and 49 (6%) individuals were categorised as 

unknown. Only 8 (6%) species and 14 (2%) individuals were categorised soley as submontane 

forest species (S) and 1 species and 4 individuals as montane forest species. Figures 12 and 13 

present the distribution of submontane and montane forest species throughout the FR. 

Although submontane altitudes are restricted to the south of the forest reserve (refer to Figure 

2) submontane and montane individuals and species were present throughout Mlinga FR 

(Figures 12 and 13), particularly in areas of closed canopy within lowland and riverine forest 

(refer to Figure 4). 



26 

) 

Scale: 

Key: 

450m 

450m 

Inaccessible 

Forest Dependent Individuals 

50 

25 

5 

Figure 8 Distribution of forest dependent tree and shrub individuals in Mlinga FR. 

) 

Scale: 

Key: 

450m 

450m 

Inaccessible 

Forest Dependent Species 

20 

10 

2 

Figure 9 Distribution of forest dependent tree and shrub species in Mlinga FR. 



27 

) 

Scale: 

Key: 

450m 

450m 

Inaccessible 

Non-forest individuals 

10 

5 

1 

Figure 10 Distribution of non-forest tree and shrub individuals in Mlinga FR. 

) 

Scale: 

Key: 

450m 

450m 

Inaccessible 

Non-forest Species 

20 

10 

2 

Figure 11 Distribution of non-forest tree and shrub species in Mlinga FR. 



28 

Table 9 Summary of habitat type for tree and shrub species recorded in the 50m x 20m 


Habitat 


species 


species 


individuals 


individuals 

Montane (M) 1 (1) 0.7 (1.1) 4 (4) 0.5 (1.2) 

Submontane & montane (S&M) 8 (7) 5.9 (7.8) 38 (13) 4.9 (3.8) 

Submontane (S) 8 (5) 5.9 (5.6) 14 (7) 1.8 (2.1) 

Lowland, submontane & montane (L&S&M) 50 (35) 37.0 (38.9) 385 (172) 49.4 (50.9) 

Lowland & submontane (L&S) 27 (18) 20.0 (20.0) 225 (95) 28.8 (28.1) 

Lowland (L) 19 (10) 14.1 (11.1) 65 (23) 8.3 (6.8) 

Unknown (?) 22 (14) 16.4 (15.5) 49 (24) 6.3 (7.1) 

Total 135 (90) 100 (100) 780 (338) 100 (100) 


A total of 12 submontane forest species were found within lowland forest habitats in Mlinga 

FR. One species, Strychnos innocua was categorised as a montane forest species (M) by the 

literature, but was recorded in open woodland at 360m above sea level within Mlinga FR. 

Table 10 Submontane and montane species sampled in lowland areas, and the altitudes at 

which they were recorded in Mlinga FR. 

Family Species Altitude (masl) 

Bignoniaceae Markhamia obtusifolia 260 

Flacourtiaceae Caloncoba welwitschii 760 

Guttiferae Haronga madagascariensis 740, 610 

Leguminosae subfamily: Papilionideae Cynometra sp. A (of FTEA) 460 

Leguminosae subfamily: Papilionideae Craibia brevicaudata 340,460 

Leguminosae subfamily: Papilionideae Craibia brownii 340, 380 

Leguminosae subfamily: Papilionideae Millettia oblata 380 

Loganiaceae Strychnos innocua 380, 360 

Melastomataceae Warneckea schliebenii 330 

Meliaceae Entandrophragma excelsum 240, 610, 460, 440 

Moraceae Trilepisium madagascariense 440, 460, 440 

Rubiaceae Oxyanthus speciosus 460, 440, 380, 360 

Sapindaceae Allophylus melliodorus 460 

Bold Type: Montane Forest species Altitude (masl): metres above sea level 



29 

) 

Scale: 

Key: 

450m 

450m 

Inaccessible 

Submontane and Montane Individuals 

50 

25 

5 

Figure 12 Distribution of submontane and montane tree and shrub individuals in Mlinga FR. 

) 

Scale: 

Key: 

450m 

450m 

Inaccessible 

Submontane and Montane Species 

20 

10 

2 

Figure 13 Distribution of submontane tree and shrub species in Mlinga FR. 



30 

4.3.1.7 Range extensions 

In 1986 and 1987 a botanical survey was conducted in the East Usambara Mountains (Ruffo 

et al. 1989). 53 species recorded in vegetation plots in Mlinga FR were also recorded by 

Ruffo et al. (1989) to be present in Mlinga FR. A total of 82 additional species were recorded 

in Mlinga FR during the present survey, 49 of these were recorded by Ruffo et al. (1989) at 

other locations in the East Usambaras, whilst 38 species were not recorded at all by Ruffo et 

al. (1989). Table 11 lists these new records for Mlinga FR. 

Despite more than seven years systematic and opportunistic vegetation survey work by the 

EUBS team throughout the majority of the East Usambara Forest Reserves, 4 new species 

were found in the vegetation plots in Mlinga FR that were new to the East Usambara 

Biodiversity Database. These species are listed in Appendix 4. 

Table 11 Tree and shrub species found outside their previously recorded range in the East 

Usambara Mountains, and those species not listed by the 1986/7 survey (Ruffo et al., 1989). 

Species 

ANACARDIACEAE 

Lannea schweinfurthii (Engl.) Engl. 1897 

Range 

Not listed 

Lannea schweinfurthii var. stuhlmannii (Engl.) Kokwaro 1980 Not listed 

Rhus natalensis Bernh. 1844 

ANNONACEAE 

Annikia kummeriace (Engl. & Diels) Setten & Maas 1990 

(basionym Enantia kummeriae Engl. & Diels 1900) 

Annona senegalensis Pers. 1806 

APOCYNACEAE 

Hunteria zeylanica (Retz.) Gardn. Ex Thwaites 1860 

ARALIACEAE 

Cussonia arborea Hochst. Ex A. Rich. 1847 

BIGNONIACEAE 

Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K. Schum 1895 

Markhamia obtusifolia (Bak.) Spargue 1919 

Stereospermum kunthianum Cham. 1832 

BOMBACEAE 

Rhodognaphalon schumannianum A. Robyns 1963 (basionym 

Bombax rhodognaphalon K.Schum 1895) 

BORAGINACEAE 

Cordia africana Lam. 1792 

Gerascanthus mooicus (Roxb.) A. Borhidi 1988 (basionym 

Cordia monoica Roxb. 1796) 

CELASTRACEAE 

Maytenus undata (Thunb.) Blakelock 1956 

COMBRETACEAE 

Combretum molle R. Br. Ex G. Don 1827 

Combretum schumannii Engl. 1895 

COMPOSITAE 

Solanecio mannii (Hook.f.) C.Jeffrey 1986 

EBENACEAE 

Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern) F. White 1956 

Diospyros natalensis (Harv.) Brenan 1954 

Not listed 

Amani area, Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, Lutindi, 

Kwamgumi/Segoma, Mtai 

Not listed 

Not listed 

Not listed 

Not listed 

Not listed 

Not listed 

Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, Kilanga, Lutindi, 

Longuza, Kwamgumi/Segoma, Mtai 

Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, Lutindi 

Not listed 

Lutindi, Kilanga, Kizara/Kizerui 

Not listed 


Longuza, Marimba, Kwamgumi/Segoma 

Not listed 

Bulwa, Kwamkoro 




31 


Species 

EUPHORBIACEAE 

Antidesma membranaceum Müll. Arg. 1866 

Bridelia cathartica G. Bertol. 1854 

Croton sylvaticus Hochst. 1845 

Pycnocoma littoralis Pax 1894 

Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Pierre ex Pax 1911 

Shirakia elliptica (Hochst.) Kruijt 1996 (synonym Sapium 

ellipticum (Krauss) Pax 1912) 

FLACOURTIACEAE 

Caloncoba welwitschii (Oliv.) Gilg 1908 (basionym Oncoba 

welwitschii Oliv. 1868 


Afzelia quanzensis Welw. 1858 

Cynometra brachyrrhachis Harms 1915 

Cynometra longipedicelata Harms 

Cynometra sp. A (of FTEA) 

Dialium holtzii Harms 1913 

Scorodophloeus fischeri (Taub.) J. Léonard 1951 


Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach.) W.F. Wight 1909 

Feuilleea versicolor (Welw. Ex Oliv) Kuntze 1891 (basionym 

Albizia versicolor (Welw.ex) Oliv. 1871) 

Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. 1834 

Parkia filicoidea (Welw.ex) Oliv. 1871 

LEGUMINOSAE subfamily: PAPILIONOIDEAE 

Angylocalyx braunii Harms 1810 

Cordyla africana Lour. 1790 

Craibia brevicaudata (Vatke) Dunn 1911 

Craibia brownii Dunn 1911 

Lonchocarpus bussei Harms 1902 

Millettia oblata Gillet 1911 

Millettia usaramensis Taub. 1895 

Range 

Kwamkoro, Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, Lutindi, 


Not listed 

Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, Longuza, Kwamgumi, 

Mtai 

Not listed 


Longuza, Marimba, Kwamgumi/Segoma, Mtai 


Longuza, Marimba, Kwamgumi/Segoma, Mtai 

Bulwa, Kwamkoro, Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi 

Longuza 

Amani (FTEA) 

Amani (FTEA) 

Amani, Maramba 

Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, Longuza, 


Longuza, Marimba, Kwamgumi/Segoma, 

Mtai 

Amani (FTEA) 

Not listed 

Not listed 

Kwamkoro, Kwasambia/Kihuhwi, Lutindi, 

Longuza, Marimba, Mtai 

Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, 

Kwambgumi/Segoma, Mtai 

Not listed 

Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, Longuza 

Not listed 

Longuza 

Sangarawe, Monga (FTEA) 

Not listed 

Diphaca kirkii (S. Moore) Taub. 1894 (basionym Ormocarpum Not listed 

kirkii S. Moore 1877) 

Pterocarpus angolensis DC. 1825 

LOGANIACEAE 

Strychnos innocua Delile 1826 

Strychnos spinosa Lam 1794 

Not listed 

Not listed 

Not listed 



32 


Species 


Memecylon amaniense (Gilg.) A.Fern. & & R.Fern 1960 

Warneckea schliebenii (Markgr.) Jacq.-Fél. 1978 (basionym 

Memecylon schliebenii Markgr. 1932) 

MELIACEAE 

Entandrophragma excelsum (Dawe & Sprague) Sprauge 1910 

Trichilia dregeana Sond. 1860 

Turraea floribunda Hochst. 1844 

MELIANTHACEAE 

Bersama abyssinica Fresen 1837 

MORACEAE 

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. (exotic) 1789 

Ficus holstii Warb. 1894 (basionym Ficus lutea Vahl 1805) 

Mesogyne insignis Engl. 1894 

Trilepisium madagascariense Thouars ex DC. 1825 

MYRTACEAE 

Eugenia guineense (synonym Synzigium guineense (Willd.) 

DC. 1828 afromontanum F. White) 

RHAMNACEAE 

Maesopsis eminii Engl. 1895 (introduced) 

Ziziphus mucronata Willd. 1809 

Ziziphus pubescens Oliv. 1887 

RUBIACEAE 

Rothmannia manganjae (Hiern) Keay 1958 

Tarenna pavettoides (Harv.) Sim 1907 

Vangueria infausta Burchell 1824 

RUTACEAE 

Vepris amaniensis (Engl.) Mziray 1992 

Vepris simplicifolia (Engl.) Mziray 1992 

Zanthoxylum holtzianum (Engl.) P.G. Waterman 1975 

Range 

Kilanga, Lutindi 

Not listed 

Kwamkoro, Amani area, 

Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, Lutindi, Mtai 

Kwamkoro, Amani area, 

Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, Lutindi, Kwamgumi 

Not listed 


Marimba, Mtai 

Not listed 

Bulwa, Lutindi, Longuza 

Bulwa, Kwamkoro, Amani area, Kilanga, 

Lutindi, Longuza, Marimba, Kwamgumi, 

Mtai 

Kwamkoro, Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, Kilanga, 

Lutindi, Longuza, Kwamgumi/Segoma, Mtai 


Mtai 

Bulwa, Kwamkoro, Amani area, 

Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, Longuza, 

Kwamgumi/Segoma 

Mtai 

Mtai 

Bulwa, Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, Kilanga, 

Lutindi, Longuza, Mtai 

Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi,Lutindi, Longuza, 

Longuza 

Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi 

Not listed 

Not listed 

Not listed 

SAPINDACEAE 

Allophylus melliodorus Gilg ex Radlk. 1909 

Phialodiscus unijugatus Baker 1879 (basionym Blighia 

unijugata Baker 1868) 

Zanha golungensis Hiern 1896 

Lutindi, Mtai 

Kwamkoro, Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, Kilanga, 

Lutindi, Longuza, Kwamgumi/Segoma, Mtai 





33 


Species 

SAPOTACEAE 

Bequaertiodendron natalense (Sond.) Heine & J.H. Hemsl. 

1960 

Manilkara sulcata (Engl.) Dubard. 1915 

Pouteria adolfi-friedericii (Engl.) A. Meeuse 1960 (synonym 

Aningeria adolfi-friedericii (Engl.) Robyns & G.C.C. Gilbert 

1947) 


STERCULIACEAE 

Cola clavata Mast. 1868 

Cola scheffleri K.Schum 1903 

Dombeya shupangae K. Schum 1900 

Sterculia rogersii N.E.Br. 1921 

ULMACEAE 

Celtis africana Burm. f. 1768 

UMBELLIFERAE 

Peucedanum araliaceum (Hochst.) Hiern 1877 (basionym 

Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst. 1844) 

VERBENACEAE 

Premna chrysoclada (Bojer) Gürke 1903 

Vitex ferruginea Schumach. & Thonn. 1827 

Range 

Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, Lutindi, Longuza, 


Lutindi, Longuza 

Bulwa, Kwamkoro, Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, 

Kilanga, Lutindi, Longuza, Mtai 

Not listed 

Marimba, Kwamgumi/Segoma 

Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi, Lutindi, 


Lutindi 

Not listed 



Not listed 


Marimba, Kwamgumi/Segoma, Mtai 

Not listed 

4.3.1.8 Timber species 

The inaccessible nature of Mlinga FR suggests that this forest block was not subjected to such 

extensive commercial logging as were other more accessible and resource rich areas such as 

Amani and Nilo FRs. However, small scale extraction of timber for local and commercial use 

over the years is suspected to have been significant. The most commonly extracted trees 

within Tanzania (Ruffo et al., 1989) are listed in Table 12 to present an indication of the 

remaining populations of these species within Mlinga FR. 

A total of fifteen tree species recorded within the vegetation plots were listed by Ruffo et al. 

(1989) as useful for timber and/or plywood use. Ten species and 73 individuals were recorded 

as ‘Timber only’ (species that are regarded by the Forestry Division as timber trees, although 

may not necessarily have been used in the East Usambaras) (Table 12). Two species and 2 

individuals were listed as ‘Plywood only’ and 5 species and 31 individuals listed as ‘Plywood 

and Timber’ species (information based on Sikh Saw Mills (T) Ltd of Tanga) (Ruffo et al., 

1989) (Table 12). 



34 

Table 12 The abundance of selected timber and plywood species. 

Family Species Ruffo et al., 

1989 category 

Timber only 

No. Indivs 

(n=780) 

No. plots 

(n=34) 

Boraginaceae Cordia africana Timber only 1 1 

Combretaceae Combretum schumannii Timber only 5 1 

Combretaceae Terminalia sambesiaca Timber only 3 3 

Ebenaceae Diospyros abyssinica Timber only 1 1 

Euphorbiaceae Macaranga capensis Timber only 14 4 

Guttiferae Allanblackia stuhlmannii** Timber only 3 3 

Leguminosae subfamily: Albizia gummifera* Timber only 17 7 

Mimosoideae 

Melianthaceae Bersama abyssinica* Timber only 2 2 

Moraceae Milicia excelsa Timber only 10 6 

Olacaeae Strombosia scheffleri * Timber only 15 2 

Sapotaceae 

Pouteria adolfi-fredericii (syn. 

Aningeria aldofi-fredericii) 

Timber only 2 2 

Total 73 

Plywood only 

Loganiaceae Anthocleista grandiflora** Plywood only 1 1 

Sterculiaceae Sterculia appendiculata Plywood only 1 1 

Total 2 

Plywood & Timber 

Leguminosae subfamily: Newtonia buchananii** 

Plywood & 1 1 

Mimosoideae 

Timber 

Meliaceae Entandrophragma excelsum Plywood & 13 4 

Timber 

Moraceae Antiaris toxicaria* Plywood & 15 10 

Timber 

Myrtaceae 

Eugenia guineensis (syn. Synzigium Plywood & 1 1 

guineense afromontanum) 

Timber 

Rhamnaceae 

Maesopsis eminii (introduced, Plywood & 1 1 

naturalized) 

Timber 

Total 31 

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 12 

Bold Type – species that are listed by Ruffo et al. (1989) as one of four species preferred by pitsawers. 

Timber only: regarded as timber trees by the Forestry Division but have not necessarily been used in the East 

Usambaras. 

Plywood only and Plywood & Timber: lists of species provided by Sikh Saw Mills (T) Ltd of Tanga (Ruffo et al., 

1989). 

Regeneration Layer: 

Antiaris toxicaria* : species recorded in the regeneration sample plots 3m x 3m are marked with one asterisk 

Anthocleista gradiflora** : additional species recorded in the regeneration sample plots 6m x 6m are marked with 

two asterisks. 

Appendices 5 and 6 provide further lists of useful plant species found within Mlinga FR 

(including fuelwood, building poles and medicinal plants). 



35 

4.3.1.9 Sampling Intensity 

The species accumulation curve (Figure 5) and the vegetation plot species list (Table 4) show 

that a significant number of species and individuals were recorded as a consequence of 

increasing the intensity of sampling from 0.25% to 0.5%. Table 13 summarises the most 

important differences between the two sampling intensities. 

Table 13 Comparison of results obtained from vegetation sampling as a consequence of 

increase of sampling intensity. 

0.5% sampling intensity 

(450m x 450m grid system) 

0.25% sampling intensity 

(450m x 900m grid system) 

Number of vegetation plots sampled 34 17 

Total number of individuals sampled 780 338 

Total number of species sampled 135 90 

Mean no. of trees per plot (Stdev.) 22.92 (16.82) 19.88 (16.24) 

Mean no. of species per plot (Stdev.) 9.44 (7.13) 8.06 (6.07) 

No. of endemic species (E(EU)) 5 4 

No. of near-endemic species (N) 15 11 

No. of forest dependent species (F) 41 31 

Stdev.: Standard deviation – measure of variability about the mean (the higher the number the more variability around the 

main value). 

4.3.1.10 Regeneration 

Herbaceous vegetation dominated the ground layer in regeneration plots, with grasses 

predominant. Soils were a mixture of loamy clay, sandy clay, sandy loam and rock. 

Regeneration, in general was poor with an average of 3.18 and 2.41 species regenerating per 

plot within 6m x 6m and 3m x 3m plots respectively. A more detailed summary of 

regeneration plot information is shown in Appendix 7. 

An additional eleven species were recorded solely in the regeneration layer, ten within the 3m 

x 3m sample plots and eleven in the 6m x 6m sample plots (Table 14). Four of these species 

were classified as forest dependent, all with a widespread distribution. Identification of four 

of these species to species level was not possible (Table 14). 

At least three of the species present in the regeneration layer represent range extensions for 

the survey performed by Ruffo et al. (1989), these include: Garcinia volkensii (Guttiferae) 

previously recorded in Bulwa, Lutindi FR and Mtai FR; Khaya nyasica (Meliaceae) 

previously recorded in Kwamkoro FR, Kwamsambia/Kihuhwi FRs, Kilanga FR, Lutindi FR, 

Longuza FR, Kwamgumi/Segoma and Mtai FR; Rinorea ilicifolia (Violaceae) previously 

recorded in Monga/Ndora. 

At least two of the regenerating species are useful to humans, Khaya nyasica (Meliaceae) is 

recorded as useful for plywood or timber, whilst Millettia dura (Leguminosae: subfamily 

Papilionoideae) are used for building poles (Ruffo, 1989). 



36 

Table 14 Species recorded exclusively in the regeneration layer. 

Ecol. Type Habitat Endemic Status 

BURSEACEAE 

Commiphora sp. ? ? ? 

GUTTIFERAE 

Garcinia volkensii Engl. 1895 F L&S&M W 

HERNANDIACEAE 

Gynocarpus americanus 1 f L W 

LEGUMINOSAE: subfamily CAESALPINIOIDEAE 

Senna singueana (Delile) J.M. Lock 1988 (basionym Cassia 

singueana (Delile) Lock, 1988) 

O L&S&M W 

LEGUMINOSAE: subfamily MIMOSOIDEAE 

Albizia sp. ? ? ? 

LEGUMINOSAE: subfamily PAPILIONOIDEAE 

Millettia dura Dunn 1912 f S&M W 

MELIACEAE 

Khaya nyasica stapf ex Baker f. 1911 F ? W 

Trichilia emetica Vahl (basionym Elcaja roka Forssk, synonym 

Trichilia roka Forssk. Chiov. 1932) 

f L&S W 

RUBIACEAE 

Pavetta sp. ? ? ? 

SAPINDACEAE 

Lecaniodiscus fraxinifolia Baker 1849 F ? W 

SAPOTACEAE 

Manilkara sp. ? ? ? 

VIOLACEAE 

Rinorea ilicifolia (Wlw. ex Oliv) Kuntze 1891 (basionym Alsodeia 

ilicifolia Welw. ex Oliv. 1869) 


F L&S&M W 
















• E – Usambara endemic: Occurring only in the Usambara mountains, EU - Range limited to the East Usambara 

Mountains, WU - Range limited to the West Usambara Mountains; 

• N – Near-endemic: Species with limited ranges in the Eastern Arc mountains and the adjacent coastal forests 

(occurring only in the East African biodiversity hotpot); 

• W - Widespread distribution. 

1 Additional species recorded as a consequence of intensitying sampling effort by increasing plots to 6m x 6m in size. 



37 

4.3.1.11 Regeneration sampling intensity 

In Mlinga FR, the increase in the size of sample plot during regeneration sampling from 3m x 

3m to 6m x 6m produced an additional 11 species (Table 15), although only one of these was 

not recorded in the vegetation plots (Table 14). An additional 200 individuals were recorded, 

61 stems of dbh 1-9.5cm and 139 stems of dbh


38 

Table 16 Checklist of opportunistic plant collection and observation within Mlinga FR. 

Species Lifeform Ecol. Type Habitat Endemic 

Status 

Pteridophyta 

ASPLENOCEAE 

Asplenium sp. Fern ? ? ? 

Location of 

specimen 

collected 

Gymnospermae 

PODOCARPACEAE 

Podocarpus latifolius (Thunb.) R. Br. Ex Mirb. 

1825 

ZAMIACEAE 

Encephalartos hildebrandtii Braun & Bouché 

1874 

Tree F S&M W E 038 o 44’42.2” 

S 05 o 04’42.6” 

Palm F ? W 

Angiospermae – Dicotyledonae 

ACANTHACEAE 

Asystasia schimperi T. Anderson 1864 Herb ? ? W 2 

Justicia oblongifolia (Lindau) M.E. Steiner 

1989. 

Herb f ? E(EU) 

ANACARDIACEAE 

Mangifera indica L. 1753 (cultivated, exotic, 

naturalized) 

Tree O L&S&M W 

ANISOPHYLLEACEAE 

Anisophyllea stuhmanii Tree ? L&S ? 

ANNONACEAE 

Sanrafaelia ruffonammari Verdc. 1996 Tree F L E(EU) E 038 o 44’52.1” 

S 05 o 03’33.9” 

Uvaria acuminata Oliv. 1868 Shrub f L&S W 

APOCYNACEAE 

Cameraria obesa (Forssk.) Spreng. 1824 

(basionym Nerium obesum Forssk. 1775, syn. 

Adenium obesum (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. 

1819) 

Liana f L&S&M W 

Landolphia kirkii Dyer 1881 Liana f L&S W 

Rauwolfia rosea K & Schum. 1895 Shrub ? ? ? 

Saba comorensis (Bojer ex A. DC.) Pichon 1953 Liana f L&S&M W 

Treculia africana Decne. 1847 Tree ? ? ? 

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE 

Aristolochia densivenia Engl. ? ? ? ? 



39 



Status 

ASCLEPIADACEAE 

Cryptolepis newii (Benth.) P. Forster 1990 

(basionym Gymnolaema newii Benth. 1876, syn. 

Sacleuxia newii (Benth.) Bullock 1962) 

BASELLACEAE 

Shrub f L&S&M N 

Basella alba L. 1753 Climber f L&S&M W 

BIGNONIACEAE 

Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. 1849 Tree f S&M W 


specimen 

collected 

BURSERACEAE 

Commiphora zimmermannii Engl. 1910 Tree f 1 L&S 1 W 1 

CAPPARIDACEAE 

Capparis tomentosa Lam. 1785 Shrub f L&S&M W 

Ritchiea albersii Gilg 1903 Climber f S&M 1 W 

CARICACEAE 

Cylicomopha parviflora Urban 1901 Tree f S&M N 

CECROPIACEAE 

Myrianthus holstii Engl. 1898 Tree f S&M W 

COMMELINACEAE 

Commelia sp. Herb ? ? ? 

COMPOSITAE 

Aspilia abyssinica Vatke 1875 Herb ? ? ? 

Aspilia mossambicensis (Oliv.) Wild 1966 Shrub f ? W 2 

Baccharoides lasiopus (O. Hoffm.) H. Rob. 

1990 (basionym Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm. 

1895) 

Shrub f L&S&M N 

Bidens pilosa L. 1753 Herb O L&S&M W 2 

Crassocephalum bojeri (DC.) Robyns 1947 Herb ? ? W 

Melanthera scandens (Schumach. & Thonn.) 

Roberty 1954 

Climber f ? W 

Vernonia colorata (Willd.) Drake 1899 Shrub O ? W 

CONNARACEAE 

Rourea coccinea (Schumach. & Thonn.) Benth. 

(Basionym Byrsocarpus coccineus Schumach. & 

Thonn. 1827) 

CONVOLVULACEAE 

Shrub f 1 L&S&M 1 W 1 

Ipomoea obscura(L.) Ker-Gawl. 1817 Climber f L&S&M W 



40 



Status 

CRASSULACEAE 

Kalanchoe sp. Herb ? ? ? 


specimen 

collected 

CUCURBITACEAE 

Momordica anigosantha Hook.f. 1871 Climber f L&S W 

EUPHORBIACEAE 

Acalypha forbesii S. Moore 1914 Shrub O L&S W 

Acalypha racemosa Wall. ex Baill. 1858 Shrub f L&S&M W 

Acalypha volkensii Pax 1895 Shrub f L&S&M W 2 

Erythrococca fischeri Pax 1894 Shrub f 1 S&M W 

Phyllanthus ovalifolius Forssk. 1775 Shrub f L&S&M 1 W 

Pycnocoma littoralis Pax 1894 Shrub F 1 L N 

Tragia benthamii Baker 1901 Climber f 1 S W 2 

GESNERIACEAE 

Saintpaulia diplotricha B.L. Burtt 1947 Herb F ? N E 038 o 44’74.0” 

S 05 o 04’42.6” 

Saintpaulia magungensis E.P. Roberts 1950 Herb F ? E(EU) E 038 o 44’74.0” 

S 05 o 04’42.6” 

Streptocarpus sp. Herb ? ? ? E 038 o 44’74.0” 

S 05 o 04’42.6” 

HERNANDIACEAE 

Gyrocarpus americanus Jacq. 1763 Tree f L&S W 

ICACINACEAE 

Alsodeiopsis schumannii (Engl.) Engl. 1897 Tree F S&M N 

Pyrenacantha kaurabassana Baill. 1872 Climber f L&S&M W 

LABIATAE 

Coleus barbatus (Andrews) Benth. 1830 

(Basionym Plectranthus barbatus Andrews 

1810) 

Shrub O M W 

Hoslundia opposita Vahl 1805 Shrub f L&S&M W 

Plectranthus lactiflorus (Vatke) Agnew. 1974 Shrub f L W 

Plectranthus sp. Herb ? L ? 

Tinnea aethiopica subsp. litoralis Vollesen 1975 Shrub f L N 

LECYTHIDACEAE 

Barringtonia racemosa (DC.) Spreng. 1826 Tree f L W 



41 



Status 

LEGUMINOSAE: subfamily CAESALPINIOIDEAE 

Biancaea decapetela (Roth) O. Deg. 1936 

(Basionym Reichardia decapetala Roth 1821, 

syn. Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston 

1931) 

Climber f S&M W 

Tamarindus indica L. Tree O L&S&M W 


specimen 

collected 

LEGUMINOSAE: subfamily MIMOSACEAE 

Parkia filicoidea Welw. ex Oliv. 1871 Tree F L&S&M W 

LEGUMINOSAE: subfamily PAPILIONACEAE 

Crotolaria sp. Shrub ? ? ? 

Dalbergia lacteal Vatke 1879 Climber f L&S&M W E 038 o 44’36.6” 

S 05 o 04’42.9” 

Dolicos sp. Climber ? ? ? 

Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. 1825 Climber O L&S W 

Phaseolus unguiculatus (L.) Piper 1912 

(Basionym Dolichos unguiculatus L. 1753, syn. 

Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. 1843) 

Climber O S W 

Pterocarpus anglolensis DC. 1825 Tree f L&S&M W 

MALVACEAE 

Hibiscus micranthus L.f. 1781 Shrub O L W 


Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don 1823 Shrub f L&S W 

Lijndenia greenwayi (Brenan) Borhidi 1993 

(Basionym Memecylon greenwayi Brenan 1947) 

Shrub F S E 

(EU&WU) 

Memecylon deminutum Brenan 1947 Shrub F M W 

MENISPERMACEAE 

Cissampelos mucronata A. Rich. 1831 Climber f L&S&M W 

Stephania abyssinica (Quart.-Dill. & A. Rich.) 

Walp. 1842 

Climber f M W 

Triclisia sacleuxii (Pierre) Diels 1910 Climber F L&S&M W 

MORACEAE 

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. 1789 (cultivated, 

exotic, naturalized) 


Dorstenia holstii Engl. 1894 Herb F S&M N E 038 o 44’50.8” 

S 05 o 03’57.4” 

Ficus sur Forssk. 1775 Tree f L&S&M W 

Ficus sycomorus L. 1753 Tree ? L&S&M W 

Ficus vallis-choudae Del. 1843 Tree f L&S W 



42 



Status 

PASSIFLORACEAE 

Adenia rumicifolia Engl. 1921 Liana f L&S&M W 

Adenia sp. Climber ? ? ? 

PIPERACEAE 

Piper capense L. f. 1782 Herb f S&M W 

ROSACEAE 

Rubus alba Climber ? ? ? 


specimen 

collected 

RUBIACEAE 

Coffea pseudozanguebariae Bridson 1982 Tree f L W 

Coffea zanguebariae Lour. 1790 Tree O 1 L W 1 

Cremaspora sp. Tree ? ? N (if sp.A) 

Cremaspora triflora (Thonn.) K. Schum. 1891 Tree f S&M W 

Leptactina platyphylla (Hiern) Wernham 1913 Shrub f L&S&M W 

Pentas bussei K. Krause 1909 Shrub f L&S&M W E 038 o 44’52.2” 

S 05 o 04’42.6” 

Pentas sp. Shrub ? ? ? E 038 o 44’52.2” 

S 05 o 04’42.6” 

Polysphaeria lanceolata Hiern 1877 Tree f L&S&M W E 038 o 44’52.2” 

S 05 o 04’42.6” 

Psychotria peteri E.M.A. Petit 1964 Shrub F S N E 038 o 44’52.2” 

S 05 o 04’42.6” 

RUTACEAE 

Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle 1913 

(exotic, cultivated) 

Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook. f. ex Benth. 

1849 


Tree f L&S&M W 

Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. 1797 Shrub ? L&S&M W 

SAPINDACEAE 

Deinbollia borbonica Scheff. 1869 Shrub O L W 

Zanha golungensis Hiern 1896 Tree F L&S&M W 

SAPOTACEAE 

Synsepalum cerasiferum (Welw.) T.D. Penn. 

1991 (Basionym Sapota cerasifera Welw. 1858, 


SIMAROUBACEAE 

Tree F L&S&M W 

Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. 1868 Climber f ? W 



43 



Status 

SOLANACEAE 

Capsicum sp. Herb ? ? ? 

Solanum incanum Ruiz & Pav. 1799 Shrub O L&S&M W 

STERCULIACEAE 

Cola lukei Tree F L&S E(EU) 

Dombeya kirkii Mast. 1866 Shrub O M W 

VERBENACEAE 

Camara trifolia (L.) Kuntze 1891 (Basionym 

Lantana trifolia L. 1753) (exotic weed) 

Shrub O L&S&M W 

Clerodendrum sp. Shrub ? ? ? 

Lantana camara L. 1753 (exotic weed) Shrub O L&S&M W 

Valerianoides jamaicense (L.) Kuntze 1891 

(Basionym Verbena jamaicensis L. 1753, syn. 

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl 1804) 

VITACEAE 

Shrub f L W 

Ampelocissus africana (Lour.) Merr. 1935 Climber O L&S&M W 


specimen 

collected 

Cissus adenocaulis Steud. ex A. Rich. 1847 Climber O L&S W E 038 o 44’52.1” 

S 05 o 03’33.9” 

Cyphostemma adenocaule (Steud. ex A. Rich.) 

Desc. 1967 

Climber O L&S W 


ALOEACEAE 

Aloe sp. Herb ? ? ? 

ARACEAE 

Culcasia orientalis Mayo 1985 Climber f 1 L 1 W 1 

Zamioculcas zamiifolia Engl. Herb f L W 

COLCHICACEAE 

Gloriosa superba L. 1753 Herb f S&M W 

DRACAENACEAE 

Dracaena afromontana Mildbr. 1910 Shrub F M W 2 

Dracaena deremensis Engl. Shrub f ? W 2 

Dracaena laxissima Engl. 1893 Climber F ? W 

Dracaena steudneri Engl. 1895 Shrub f M W 2 



44 



Status 

GRAMINEAE 

Ophiurus exaltatus (L.) Kuntze 1891 (Basionym 

Aegilops exaltata L. 1771, syn. Rottboellia 

exaltata (L.) L. f. 1779) 

Stipa latifolia (L.) Raspail 1825 (Basionym 

Olyra latifolia L. 1759) 

Syntherisma abyssinica (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) 

Newbold 1924 (Basionym Panicum abyssinicum 

Hochst. ex A. Rich. 1851, syn. Digitaria 

abyssinica (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf 1907) 

Urochloa maxima (Jacq.) R.D. Webster 1987 

(Basionym Panicum maximum Jacq. 1781) 

Herb ? ? ? 

Herb f L&S W 

Herb O L&S&M W 

Herb O L&S&M W 


specimen 

collected 

PALMAE 

Cocos nucifera L. 1753 (cultivated) Tree O 1 L&S 1 W 1 

Pheonix reclinata Jacq. Palm f ? W 

PANDANACEAE 

Pandanus sp. Shrub ? ? ? 

SMILACACEAE 

Smilax anceps Willd. 1806 Climber f L&S&M 1 W 

ZINGIBERACEAE 

Aframomum angustifolium (Sonn.) K. Schum. 

1914 

Herb ? ? ? 

Costus sp. Herb ? ? ? 

















• E – Usambara endemic: Occurring only in the Usambara mountains, EU – Range limited to the East Usambara 

Mountains, WU – Range limited to the West Usambata Mountains; 

• N – Near-endemic: Species within limited ranges in the Eatern Arc mountains and the adjacent coastal forests 

(occurring only in the East African biodiversity hotspot); 

• W – Widespread distribution. 

1 Information based on FTEA. 

2 Information based on LEAP (Knox, 2000). 

Location: Recorded as longitude and latitude 



45 

4.3.2 Disturbance transects 

A total area of 13.65 ha were assessed for signs of disturbance. Due to varied vegetation, 

access and topography in the reserve, the extent and type of disturbance differed between 

areas. Access in the north of the reserve was greatest due to ease of access in low lying 

woodland habitat. A large footpath accessed the north, central and western parts of the forest 

reserve and ran between Antakae (subvillage of Misozwe) and Mwembene. 

A total of 9,490 stems were sampled throughout the reserve, giving a mean total of 453.8 

poles per hectare and 293.8 timber per hectare, 66% and 34% respectively. 

4.3.2.1 Pole and Timber extraction 

Pole and timber extraction was found along all seven transects, however very few were recent 

cuttings were noted. 

Rates of pole extraction are summarised in Table 17, Figures 13 and 15. A total of 3,522 poles 

per hectare were alive, 921 dead and 113 cut, representing 77%, 20% and 3% of all poles 

sampled respectively (Table 17). Transects 1 and 3 showed greatest evidence of pole cutting 

with 25 and 23 cut poles per hectare (6% and 7.3% of all poles sampled along each respective 

transect line) (Table 17 and Figure 18). A significant proportion of the poles sampled were 

dead, particularly along Transects 0 and 1 (Table 17 and Figure 14). Live poles were most 

abundant along Transects 6 and 0 with 506 and 429 poles per hectare. However, the greatest 

percentage of live individuals sampled was recorded along Transect 4 (Table 17 and Figure 

13). 

Pole cutting was most intensive along reserve border areas, particularly in the north (Figure 

16). Lowland northern and eastern areas of the forest reserve were most accessible to nearby 

Misozwe village and sub-villages. 

Table 17 Disturbance transect results showing total pole counts and average pole counts per 

hectare. 

Transect 

number 

Transect 

length 

(m) 

Total no. 

poles 

sampled 

Live 

Poles 

(LP) 

Average LP 

per hectare 

Dead 

Poles (DP) 

Average 

DP per 

hectare 

Cut 

Poles (CP) 

Average 

CP per 

hectare 

0 1,050 675 450 (67)* 429 209 (31) 199 16 (2.4) 15 

1 1,800 745 450 (60) 250 250 (34) 139 45 (6.0) 25 

5 3,450 1,499 1,236 (82) 358 243 (16) 70 20 (1.3) 6 

2 2,350 1,088 919 (84) 391 161 (15) 69 8 (0.7) 3 

6 1,900 1,168 961 (82) 506 193 (17) 102 14 (1.2) 8 

3 2,100 670 471 (70) 224 150 (22) 71 49 (7.3) 23 

7 200 88 70 (80) 350 18 (20) 90 0 (0) 0 

4 800 284 250 (88) 313 33 (12) 41 2 (0.7) 4 

Total 13,650 6,217 4,807 (77) 1,257 (20) 154 (3) 

*Mean percentages shown in brackets. Transect numbers positioned as they lie in Mlinga FR (Figure 3). 

Rates of timber extraction are summarised in Table 18 and Figures 15 and 17. A total of 1,840 

timbers per hectare were alive, 549 dead and 45 cut, representing 77%, 20% and 3% of all 

timbers sampled respectively (Table 18). Transect 3 showed greatest evidence of timber 

cutting with 18 cut timbers per hectare (5.1% of all timber sampled along the transect line) 

(Table 18 and Figure 14). A significant proportion of the timbers sampled were dead, 

particularly along Transects 6, 3, 1 and 0 (Table 18 and Figure 15). Live timbers were most 

abundant along Transects 6 and 2, with 254 and 243 timber per hectare alive respectively. 

However, the greatest percentage of live individuals sampled was recorded along Transect 4 

(Table 18 and Figure 13). 



46 

Timber cutting was most intensive along reserve border areas, particularly in the north (Figure 

15). The distribution of cutting follows the path that accesses more central western parts of 

the forest reserve. 

Table 18 Disturbance transect results showing total timber counts and average timber counts 

per hectare. 

Transect 

number 

Transect 

length 

(m) 

Total no. 

timber 

sampled 

Live 

Timber 

(LT) 

Average LT 

per hectare 

Dead 

Timber 

(DT) 

Average 

DT per 

hectare 

Cut 

Timber 

(CT) 

Average 

CT per 

hectare 

0 1050 115 80 (70) 76 34 (30) 32 1 (0.9) 1 

1 1800 348 233 (67) 129 106 (30) 59 9 (2.6) 5 

5 3450 902 708 (78) 205 173 (19) 50 21 (2.3) 6 

2 2350 686 571 (83) 243 107 (16) 46 8 (1.2) 3 

6 1900 670 482 (72) 254 184 (27) 97 4 (0.6) 2 

3 2100 353 218 (62) 104 117 (33) 56 18 (5.1) 9 

7 200 55 44 (80) 220 11 (20) 55 0 (0) 0 

4 800 144 127 (88) 159 17 (12) 21 0 (0) 0 

Total 13,650 3,273 2,463 (75) 749 (23) 61 (2) 

*Mean percentages shown in brackets. Transect numbers positioned as they lie in Mlinga FR (Figure 3). 

600 

500 

Number of poles per hectare 

400 

300 

200 

100 

Live poles/ha 

Dead poles/ha 

Cut poles/ha 

0 

0 1 5 2 6 3 7 4 

Transect number 

Figure 14 Relative abundance of live, naturally dead and cut poles in Mlinga FR. 



47 

) 

Scale: 

Key: 

450m 

450m 

Inaccessible 

Number of Cut poles 

40 

20 

4 

Figure 15 Pole extraction in Mlinga FR. 

) 

Scale: 

Key: 

450m 

450m 

Inaccessible 

Number of Cut timber 

20 

10 

2 

Figure 16 Timber extraction in Mlinga FR. 



48 

300 

Number of timbers per hectare 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

Live timbers/ha 

Dead timbers/ha 

Cut timbers/ha 

0 

0 1 5 2 6 3 7 4 

Transect number 

Figure 17 Relative abundance of live, naturally dead and cut timber in Mlinga FR. 

4.3.2.2 Other signs of disturbance 

Fire 

The most common form of disturbance was fire, present within 48% of all 50 metre sections 

sampled (Table 19). Fire represents the most significant threat to Mlinga Forest Reserve. 

During the survey, fires spread into the forest reserve on three occasions and destroyed 

vegetation plot 24. Of the 44 complete and incomplete plots surveyed, 77% had evidence of 

fire damage (recent or old). Fire incidence was most intense in northern and eastern parts of 

the reserve (Figure 18). 

Cultivation 

Evidence of past cultivation, particularly in northern and southern reserve border areas of the 

reserve (Figure 19) were common, present within 5.5% of all 50 meter sections and 15% of 

vegetation plots. According to local knowledge, clearance of the forest for cardamom 

(Illeteria cadamon) cultivation was once intense. 

All other signs of disturbance were uncommon (Table 19). 

Pitsawing 

There was no evidence of recent pitsawing activity, although 5.1% of all 50 meter sections 

(Table 19) and 14% of vegetation plots (Figure 20) contained planks or some other evidence 

of past timber extraction. Field evidence and local knowledge suggested that past extraction 

concentrated on Melicia excelsa, Afzelia quanzensis and Albizia species. 

Footpaths 

Footpaths were not particularly common as a result of extreme terrain, however some did 

allow access into the forest reserve in eastern and northern parts of the reserve, and centrally 

up the ridge path between Antakae and Mwembene (Figure 21). These footpaths influenced 

all forms of disturbance. 

Trapping and Grazing 

Only two animal traps were seen, a snare for hyrax and a bird trap. Grazing was only seen on 

two occasions in the south and north of the reserve (Table 19). 



49 

Table 19 The incidence of various types of disturbance. 

Fire Cultivation Planks/Poles Paths Pitsaw Trapping Grazing 

Incidence Tally 131 15 10 9 4 2 2 

Percentage (%) 48.0 5.5 3.6 3.2 1.5 0.7 0.7 

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 

Incidenced was calculated as presence (1) or absence (0) every 50m transect section. 

DEFINITIONS FOR TABLE 19 

• Fire refers to an area affected by fire, evidence including burnt trees and ground flora. 

• Cultivation refers to evidence of crop production, whether tree or ground crops, past or present. 

• Planks/Poles refers to cut timbers and poles laying on the ground ready for transportation. 

• Paths refer to all human used footpaths. 

• Pitsaw refers to any site with the remains of pitsaw activity past or present. 

• Trapping refers to any form of animal trapping. 

• Grazing refers to cattle grazing. 

450m 

X 

Scale: 

450m 

X 

X 

) 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Incidence of Fire 

X X 

X 

X 

X X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X X 

Key: 

Inaccessible 

X10 

X 5 

X 1 

Figure 18 Incidence of fire in Mlinga FR. 



50 

) 

A 

A 

A 

A 

450m 

Scale: 

450m 

A 

A 

A 

Key: 

Inaccessible 

Incidence of Cultivation 

A10 

A 5 

A 1 

Figure 19 Incidence of past cultivation in Mlinga FR. 

) 

` 

` 

` 

` 

` 

` 

Scale: 

Key: 

450m 

450m 

Inaccessible 

Incidence of Planks 

`10 

` 5 

` 1 

Figure 20 Incidence of planks/poles (as defined in Table 19) in Mlinga FR. 



51 

) 

; 

; 

; 

; 

; 

; 

; 

; 

; 

; 

; 

Scale: 

Key: 

450m 

450m 

Inaccessible 

Incidence of Paths 

;10 

; 5 

; 1 

Figure 21 Incidence of footpaths in Mlinga FR. 

4.3.2.3 Areas of greatest disturbance 

The most disturbed areas within Mlinga FR were located in the northeast, north western 

southern border areas of the reserve. All endemic, near-endemic and forest dependent plants 

were found outside the most disturbed areas (Figure 22). 

) 

Scale: 

Key: 

450m 

450m 

Inaccessible 

Most highly disturbed plots 

Endemic and Near endemic Forest Dependent Species 

10 

5 

1 

Figure 22 Distribution of forest dependent, endemic and near-endemic plant species in 

relation to areas of highest disturbance in Mlinga FR. 



52 

4.4 Discussion 

Mlinga Forest Reserve covers an area of 890 hectares with an altitude range of 220m to 

1069m above sea level. Topography is extreme and the landscape rocky. Mlinga FR supports 

a variety of interesting habitats. 

4.4.1 Habitat 

Of the 34 vegetation plots surveyed systematically, 11 (32.4%) were lowland forest, 9 

(26.5%) open woodland, 3 (8.8%) scrub/grassland/previously disturbed, 4 (11.8%) disturbed 

lowland forest, 1 (2.9%) disturbed submontane forest, 2 (5.9%) rock and 1 (2.9%) grassland. 

These figures differ significantly from those recorded by Johannson and Sandy (1996), and 

suggest a significant decline in forest area in recent years. Only six vegetation plots were 

recorded with canopy heights greater than 20m. Approximately two-thirds of vegetation plots 

had been affected by fire and 59% contained rock outcrops. 

4.4.2 Species richness 

In the systematic vegetation plots 780 trees and shrubs were surveyed, representing 135 

species from 39 families. An additional eleven species were recorded in the regeneration 

plots. Opportunistic observations and collections recorded an additional 123 plant species 

from 54 families. In total, 269 plant species from 77 families were recorded. 

The most abundant species in vegetation plots, representing 10.6% of individuals was the 

woodland species Stereospermum kunthianum (Bignoniaceae), which was dominant within 5 

plots. The most commonly encountered species throughout vegetation plots were Sponia 

orientalis (Ulmaceae), Antiaris toxicaria (Moraceae) and Annona senegalensis (Annonaceae). 

S. orientalis and A. senegalensis were seen to be resilient to disturbance and at competitive 

advantage particularly in fire disturbed areas. 

Relative to other forest reserves surveyed in the East Usambara mountains the botanical 

richness of Mlinga FR was generally low, partly due to the small size, inaccessibility and 

extensive nature of recent fire disturbance. The richness and diversity of plant species at 

Mlinga peak summit however added significantly to the biological value of the reserve. 

4.4.3 Species Accumulation Rates 

The accumulation of species records throughout the systematic vegetation survey showed a 

general increase with sampling intensity and, although the curve seemed to level off (Figure 

5), not enough evidence was available to suggest that the accumulation of species would not 

increase with greater sampling intensity. Opportunistic collection of flora supplemented the 

plant checklist significantly. 

4.4.4 Endemic Status 

The majority of species recorded in vegetation plots (85%) had widespread distributions. Six 

species were recorded as endemic to the East Usambara mountains and 14 species nearendemic. 

The most commonly recorded near-endemic tree and shrub species in the reserve were: 

Anglocalyx braunii (Leguminosae: subfamily Papilionaceae) (12 individuals) and Dombeya 

shupangae (Sterculiaceae) (10 individuals). All endemic and near-endemic species were 

restricted to only one or two plots each, and never abundant. 

All endemic species recorded in vegetation plots were forest dependent and of the 14 nearendemic 

species, 8 species were considered to be forest dependent. One near-endemic 

species, Dombeya shupangae, is a non-forest species. 



53 

The following endemic species were recorded within vegetation plots: Cynometra 

brachyrrhachis, Cynometra longipedicelata , Cynometra sp. A (Leguminosae: subfamily 

Caesalpinoideae), Cola scheffleri (Sterculiaceae) and Vitex ferruginea (Verbenaceae). All are 

endemic to the East Usambara mountains. All endemic species were found in lowland and 

submontane forest areas with low or no level of disturbance. Near-endemic species were 

located throughout the forest reserve, even in open woodland and disturbed habitats. All 

endemic and near-endemic species (except Anglocalyx braunii and Dombeya shupangae) 

were represented by less than 4 individuals. 

An additional 3 species endemic to the East Usambara mountains, 1 species endemic to the 

East and West Usambara mountains, and 9 near-endemic species were recorded 

opportunistically. The endemic species included: Justicia oblongifolia (Acanthaceae), 

Sanrafaelia ruffonammari (Annonaceae), Saintpaulia magungensis (Gesneriaceae) and 

Lijindenia greenwayi (Melastomataceae). Sanrafaelia ruffonammari is of particular interest 

because it has only previously been recorded from Kwamgumi Forest Reserve and has only 

recently been taxonomically described. This record within Mlinga FR represents a range 

extension for this species. 

4.4.5 Ecological Type 

Forty one species (30%) recorded in vegetation plots were classified as forest dependent, 

defined as ‘limited to primary or closed canopy forest only’. The most commonly recorded 

forest dependent tree species was Tabernamontana verticosa (Apocynaceae) represented by 

15 individuals in 6 lowland and submontane forest plots with limited or no disturbance. Five 

(4%) forest dependent species were endemic to the East Usambara Mountains; a further 7 

(5%) were near-endemic. 

Sixty four species (47%) were recorded in vegetation plots as forest dwelling and 10 species 

(6%) non-forest dwelling. Stereospermum kunthianum (Bignoniaceae) was the most abundant 

forest dwelling species represented by 83 individuals in 6 open woodland plots. Dombeya 

shupangae (Sterculiaceae), represented by 10 individuals in 5 plots was the most abundant 

non-forest species present in open woodland and disturbed lowland forest habitats. 

4.4.6 Habitat 

Of the tree species surveyed with known altitudinal preferences, 14.1% were considered to be 

solely typical of lowland forest, 5.9% of submontane forest and 1.1% of montane forest. The 

remainder were considered to be typical of a combination of habitats, the majority (37% of 

species) present with lowland, submontane and montane habitats. 

At least one submontane or montane species occurred in each of the 13 lowland plots 

surveyed. Only one lowland species Zanthoxylum holtizianum (Rutaceae) occurred in a 

submontane vegetation plot at 960masl. These data are indicative of the variability in the 

ecological requirements and niches of these species; however, transitional areas in Mlinga FR 

were not large. 

The most commonly recorded submontane species was Craiba brevicaudata (Leguminosae: 

subfamily Papilionoideae) represented by 3 individuals in only 2 vegetation plots. Species 

classified as confined to submontane forest were rare in Mlinga FR. 

4.4.7 Range Extensions 

The vegetation plot data generated a total of 87 new species range extensions for Mlinga FR, 

when compared to the study by Ruffo et al. (1989). Eight of these species were also new to 

the East Usambara Plant Biodiversity Database. 



54 

4.4.8 Regeneration 

Thirty two percent of the species found in the vegetation plots were also recorded within the 

regeneration subplots, these are indicated in Table 14 with an asterisk (* or **). An additional 

11 species were recorded in the regeneration layer alone. 

Only one endemic species was recorded in the regeneration layer, Cola scheffleri 

(Sterculiaceae), represented by one individual with a dbh less than 1cm. Six regenerating 

species were near-endemic and included: Drypetes usambarica (Euphorbiaceae), Allanblackia 

stuhlmannii (Guttiferae), Newtonia paucijuga (Leguminosae subfamily: Mimosoideae), 

Anglocalyx braunii (Leguminosae subfamily: Papilionoideae), Allophylus melliodorus 

(Sapindaceae), Dombeya shupangae (Sterculiaceae). 

Of the eighteen principle timber and/or plywood species found within the reserve, seven 

species Allanblackia stuhlmannii (Guttiferae), Albizia gummifera (Leguminosae subfamily: 

Mimosoideae), Bersama abyssinica (Melianthaceae), Strombosia scheffleri (Olacaceae), 

Anthocleista grandiflora (Loganiaceae), Newtonia buchananii (Leguminosae subfamily: 

Mimosoideae), Antiaris toxicaria (Moraceae) and Khaya nyasica (Meliaceae) were recorded 

regenerating. 

Of those species that were solely found in the regeneration layer, 3 species represented range 

extensions. Three were new to Ruffo et al. (1989) in Mlinga FR. 

4.4.9 Opportunistic Collections – interesting records Mlinga Peak 

Opportunistic collections added significantly to the floristic value of Mlinga FR. The 

biological value of the flora of Mlinga Peak and the surrounding submontane forest has in the 

past been well recognised (Hamilton, 1989; FINNIDA, 1988). Mlinga FR was established to 

protect this area (Hamilton, 1989). Of particular interest at this site was the opportunistic 

collection of Podocarpus latifolius (Podocarpaceae), one of two gymnosperms recorded 

during the biodiversity survey. Gymnosperms are the most ancient seed plants having 

originated during the Palaeozoic era (about 130 million years ago) (Kokworo, 1993). It is 

thought that this species has therefore been in Mlinga FR for a very long time and it is 

unknown why the species has not spread to other forest areas. P. latifolius was found growing 

with Lijndenia greenwayi (Melastomataceae) which has been recorded by Knox (2000) as 

‘endemic to Mount Mlinga’. Iversen (1991b) however classifies it as endemic to the East and 

West Usambara mountains. 

Mlinga peak area, as a consequence of its rocky nature, also supports many Streptocarpus and 

Saintpaulia species, most of which are endemic to the Usambara mountains. The distinctive 

rocky summit also supported populations of the gymnosperm Encephalartos hildebrandtii 

(Zamiaceae); Pandanus sp. (Pandanaceae) and Pheonix reclinata (Palmae), found nowhere 

else in the forest reserve. 

The submontane forest that surrounds the peak has been partly disturbed by fire, particularly 

on the eastern side. In undisturbed areas however, the forest was tall and supported a 

significant number of folicolous epiphytes of unknown species. 

Lowland riverine forest within Mlinga FR was home to the recently described Sanrafaelia 

ruffonammari, previously only recorded from Kwamgumi FR. 

4.4.10 Sampling Intensity 

An increase in sampling intensity from 0.25% to 0.5% increased the value of the vegetation 

survey significantly. An additional 17 vegetation plots were established, recording an 

additional 442 individuals representing 45 species. An additional 1 endemic, 3 near-endemic 

and 10 forest dependent species were recorded as a consequence of increasing sampling 



55 

intensity. In small reserves it is therefore recommended that a sampling intensity of 0.5% be 

used. 

An increase in the sampling intensity of regeneration plots from 3m x 3m to 6m x 6m 

significantly increased the number of individuals sampled in the regeneration layer, but did 

not increase species numbers significantly enough to be able to recommend its use in future. 

This however, may not be the case for large, more species diverse reserves such as Amani 

Nature Reserve or Nilo Forest Reserve. Further analysis is required to investigate this. 

4.4.11 Disturbance 

All disturbance within Mlinga FR was dependent on accessibility. Lowland forest reserve 

border areas and forest near to footpaths in more elevated areas were most under pressure. 

The most significant threat recorded in Mlinga FR was fire disturbance. Evidence of fire was 

noted in 77% of vegetation plots, distributed throughout the forest reserve. Fire disturbance 

was particularly intense in eastern areas and north western borders of the forest reserve, and 

likely explains the large numbers of dead poles and tiumbers sampled along transects 0 and 1. 

In these areas there was little forest canopy and open wooded grassland generally dominated. 

Sponia orientalis was particularly abundant in such habitats, particularly in the east. During 

the survey, fires spread into the forest reserve on three occasions along northwestern borders. 

Fires are a serious concern to the future of Mlinga FR, particularly the summit area. 

Due to the patchy, yet extensive nature of fire disturbance throughout Mlinga FR, it was 

difficult to draw conclusions as to the effect of fire on the distributions of endemic and forest 

dependent species. It was however evident in the field that there were fewer forest dependent 

and endemic/near-endemic species and individuals in the most severely fire affected areas. 

Fire has decreased forest area significantly in recent years and was limiting the regeneration 

of forest species thereby inhibiting forest growth within the forest reserve. 

Pole and timber cutting was not such a present concern with an average of 10.5 cut poles per 

hectare and 3.3 cut timber per hectare. Recent extraction was greatest along reserve border 

areas, particularly in the north. The intensity of pole and timber extraction was, along all 

transects, less than the number of dead poles and timber. 

The number of dead poles and timber were exceptionally high compared to other forest 

reserves previously studied by EUBS. Twenty percent of poles and 23% of all timber sampled 

were dead. The greatest abundance of dead poles and timber correlated with areas most 

disturbed by fire. Recent fire disturbance within the forest reserve has caused the large 

number of deaths and is likely to significantly affect future forest composition. 

All signs of cultivation were old, and mostly located in northern areas where settlement used 

to occur prior to gazettment of the forest reserve. Evidence of past cultivation also occurred 

near to villages in the south and west of the reserve. 

All signs of pitsawing were old, and located in eastern and northern areas of the reserve. Low 

densities of valuable timber species within the forest reserve suggest past unsustainable 

extraction. Pitsawing activities have however decreased substantially and are presently not of 

great concern within Mlinga FR. 

Since the introduction of Maesopsis eminii into the Amani area this species has spread rapidly 

throughout the Usambara mountains (Binggeli 1989). This invasive tree species was only 

recorded in 1 vegetation plot in Mlinga FR, and is therefore presently of little concern. 

Only two areas in Mlinga FR were seen to have animal traps. These traps were targeting 

hyrax and birds. Some evidence of hunting was seen casually throughout non-systematically 



56 

surveyed areas of the forest. There were a limited number of large mammal sightings and 

signs. This suggested that hunting activity was great in the recent past, and has been 

supported by local knowledge. 

Cattle grazing sites were observed on two occasions in the south and north of the reserve near 

to sub-villages of Misozwe. Grazing was not considered a significant threat at present. 



57 

5.0 FAUNA 

Authors: Oliver, S., Hall, S.M., Smith, J. and Murphy, A. pp. 57-82 

5.1 Introduction 

The fauna of Mlinga FR was studied to assess diversity within specific taxonomic groups. 

Inventories were compiled of mammal, reptile, amphibian, butterfly, mollusc and millipede 

species. Practicalities of capture methods, identification techniques and potential information 

that could be extracted from the data, influenced the taxonomic groups chosen for the study. 

The results of the inventories were used to assess the relative biodiversity value of the 

reserve’s fauna. 

5.2 Methods 

Within Mlinga FR, target groups of fauna were surveyed using a combination of standardised, 

repeatable methods at ‘zoological trapsites’. Transect surveys of dung and other animal signs, 

and the opportunistic collection and observation of all animals were also implemented. Brief 

descriptions of the methods employed and trapsite locations follow. A more detailed 

methodology of survey techniques can be found in the FT FRP Methodology Report (SEE, 

1998). 

5.2.1 Bucket pitfall traps 

Small mammals, amphibians and reptiles were sampled using bucket pitfall traps. Three 50m 

linear transects were created at zoological trapsite locations whereby eleven 10 litre plastic 

buckets were sunk into the ground with their rims flush to ground level. Buckets contained 

small holes to allow rainwater to drain from them and each bucket was positioned 5m apart. A 

sheet of vertical plastic (approximately 0.5m high, and no less than 0.2m) was run along the 

bucket line crossing the centre of each bucket to form a ‘drift fence’. A 10-15cm lip of plastic 

sheeting was left flat on the ground onto which soil and leaf litter was placed to prevent any 

gap in the drift fence at ground level. Animals moving into the area from either side would be 

channelled along the plastic towards the bucket traps. 

Each line was placed no more than 50m apart, but was located to encompass a range of microhabitats. 

Brief habitat notes were taken for each bucket position. Traps were checked early 

each morning for the duration of the trapsite period and data recorded on standardised data 

sheets regarding the identification of each animal captured. 

5.2.2 Sherman traps 

Small rodents and insectivores were sampled using 100 Sherman traps (standard size) baited 

with toasted coconut and peanut butter. Traps were placed at least 2m apart, forming a wide 

loop around the bucket pitfall trap lines; 33 around two of the lines and 34 around the third. 

Traps were baited each evening (16.00hr or later) for the duration of the trapsite and checked 

early the following morning (08.00hr or earlier). Traps were closed during each day of the 

trapsite. 

Data were recorded on standardised sheets regarding the identification, sex, breeding status 

and biometrics of each animal captured, as well as habitat notes. Specimens were retained 

when species level could not be ascertained and in cases where sexed specimens were 

required; these specimens were subsequently sent to international taxonomic experts (refer to 

Appendix 1). 

In the case of small rodents, individuals released were each given a distinct mark-code made 

by trimming small patches of fur in a given pattern. ‘Recaptured’ individuals were then able 

to be identified. 



58 

5.2.3 Bat mist-netting 

Bats were sampled using varying combinations and configurations of mist-nets within 5 

trapping sessions. Up to four mist-nets of varying sizes (3m x 3.5m, 6m x 3.5m, 9m x 3.5m) 

were utilised at any one time. Nets were placed across assumed ‘flight corridors’ such as 

rivers and paths. Nets were opened at dusk (approximately 18.30hr) and checked every 15 

minutes for the duration of the netting session. 

Data were recorded on standardised data sheets regarding the identification, sex, breeding 

status, weight and biometrics of each bat captured. Detailed habitat notes were taken for each 

mist-netting location and the number of net-metre hours calculated for each session. 

5.2.4 Butterfly sweep-netting 

Low-flying butterflies were sampled using hand-held sweep-nets. Two man-hours were spent 

netting along the bucket pitfall lines each day for the duration of the trapsite. 

5.2.5 Butterfly canopy traps 

Five Blendon-style canopy traps were set up at the trapsites, one trap close to one bucket 

pitfall line, and two traps on the remaining two lines. Traps were baited with fermented 

banana in the mornings (usually around 08.00hr). Traps were checked morning and late 

afternoon. One individual of each species captured was taken; any ‘repeat species’ butterflies 

were identified, recorded and released. 

5.2.6 Mollusc plots 

Molluscs were sampled in three 1m x 1m quadrats per trapsite; whereby quadrats were 

established close to each of the bucket pitfall trap lines and located in order to encompass a 

range of microhabitats. Two man-hours were spent searching the leaf litter, to a depth of 5cm 

within each quadrat. All molluscs encountered were collected and preserved. 

5.2.7 Millipede plots 

Millipedes were sampled in three 3m x 3m quadrats per trapsite; again, one established close 

to each of the bucket pitfall trap lines and located in order to encompass a range of 

microhabitats. Four man-hours were spent searching the leaf litter, to a depth of 5cm within 

each quadrat. All millipedes encountered were collected and preserved. 

5.2.8 Dung and sign surveys 

Spoor and other signs of animal presence were assessed along every established transect line 

through the forest reserve (Figure 3). A 2m strip either side of each transect line was assessed 

for animal dung, tracks and paths, as well as other signs such as burrows, diggings, feathers 

etc. All animal signs were recorded along with brief geographical and habitat details. To 

determine identification of indirect evidences, the knowledge of experienced field assistants 

was utilised, in conjunction with a Reference Dung Collection and Walker (1996). 

5.2.9 Opportunistic collection and observations 

All taxa were also collected and observed on a casual basis throughout the survey period. 

Opportunistic collections of amphibians, reptiles, molluscs and millipedes were taken and 

direct and indirect observations of birds and larger mammals were recorded to determine the 

presence of species otherwise omitted in the standardised techniques. 



59 

5.3 Trapping sites and sampling intensity 

Zoological trapsites were established at five different locations in Mlinga FR. Trapsites were 

strategically positioned to incorporate a range of habitats reflective of the reserve. The 

location of trapsites within Mlinga FR are shown in Figure 23. 

) 

16 

`15 

14 

14A 

Transect 0 

rTS3 

24 23 22 

21 

1 2 3 4 4A 

rTS1 

20 19 18 

rTS2 

17 

17A 

Transect 1 

Transect 5 

7 6 5 

4 

10 

9 

9A 

Transect 2 

29 28 27A 27 26A 

11 

Key: 

13 

Vegetation Plot 

34A Incomplete 450m sections 

Accessible transect lines 

r TS2 Trapsite 

TS4 

r 

12 13 

30 

31 32 

26 25 

33 34 34A 

Transect 7 

rTS5 

Transect 4 

Scale: 

450m 

450m 

Transect 6 

Transect 3 

Figure 23 Location of trapsites in Mlinga FR. 

Table 20 provides brief descriptions of the trapping sites. Table 21 summarises the sampling 

intensity for each site and each trapping method. Table 22 briefly describes bat mist-netting 

sites. 

Table 20 Descriptions and locations of zoological trapsites in Mlinga FR. 

Trapsite 

Number 

Duration 

(nights) 

Vegetation type 

1 10 Lowland Riverine Forest 

and Old Cultivation 

Altitude 

(masl) 

Topography Co-ordinates 

240 Gentle Lower Slope S 05° 03' 33.9" 

E 038° 44' 52.1" 

2 10 Lowland Forest 300 Gentle Lower Slope S 05° 03' 32.5" 

E 038° 45' 14.1" 

3 10 Lowland Forest 

with Fire Disturbance 

240-260 Gentle Lower Slope S 05° 03' 41.1" 

E 038° 43' 52.1" 

4 10 Sub-montane Forest 800 Steep Mid Slope S 05° 04' 28.6" 

E 038° 44' 32.8" 

5 2 Ridge top/Peak, 

Sub-montane Forest 

915 Steep Upper Slope S 05° 04' 58.6" 

E 038° 44' 41.0" 



60 

Table 21 Zoological sampling intensities in Mlinga FR. 

Trapsite 

Number 

Trapsite 

Duration 

(dates) 

Sherman 

traps x 

trap nights 

Bucket 

traps x 

trap nights 

Butterfly 

traps x 

trap days 

Butterfly 

sweepnetting 

hours 

Mollusc 

plots per 

trapsite 

Millipede 

plots per 

trapsite 

1 13/10/01- 1000 330 50 20 3 3 

23/10/01 

2 26/10/01- 1000 330 50 20 3 3 

05/11/01 

3 08/11/01- 1000 330 50 20 3 3 

18/11/01 

4 21/11/01- 1000 330 50 20 3 3 

01/12/01 

5 06/12/01- 98 0 0 0 0 0 

08/12/01 

TOTAL 4098 1320 200 80 12 12 

Table 22 Bat mist-netting sites and sampling intensities in Mlinga FR. 

Net site 

number 

Site location Site description Co-ordinates Altitude 

(m) 

1 Base camp, 

(near Vegetation 

Plot 2) 

2 Trapsite 1 (near 

Vegetation Plot 1) 

3 Trapsite 2 


Plot 3) 

4 Near Vegetation 

Plot 1 

5 Trapsite 4 


Plot 12) 

Along vehicle track, grassland 

and scrubby woodland area. 

Gentle lower slope. 

Dry stream bed within Lowland 

Riverine Forest and close to 

forest edge. Gentle lower slope. 

Dry stream valley in Lowland 

Forest. 20m canopy height, 

gentle lower slope. 

Stream in lowlying disturbed 

forest/cultivated land, just 

outside Reserve border. 

Stream in Sub-montane forest. 

Gentle mid slope. 

S 05° 03' 16.1" 

E 038° 45' 04.2" 

S 05° 03' 33.9" 

E 038° 44' 52.1" 

S 05° 03' 32.5" 

E 038° 45' 14.1" 

S 05° 03' 16.1" 

E 038° 45' 04.2" 

S 05° 04' 28.6" 

E 038° 44' 32.8" 

Sampling intensity 

(square metres of net 

x no. of hours) 

240 294 

240 735 

380 1087 

240 1015 

740 131 

TOTAL 3262 



61 

5.4 Results 

5.4.1 Mammals 

5.4.1.1 Small mammals (not including bats) 

A total of 101 small mammals were captured during 4098 Sherman trapping nights in Mlinga 

FR and, of these, 31 specimens were retained for taxonomic purposes (Table 23). 

Identifications remain tentative while awaiting taxonomic verifications from Frankfurt 

Zoological Museum (refer to Appendix 1). The specimens collected represent at least 10 

species from 4 families (Table 23). A summary of trapping data is shown in Appendix 8a and, 

species list of captured small mammals with their corresponding ecological, endemic and 

threat status presented in Table 23. 

Ecological type, endemic status and threat status for the mammal tables 23, 24, 25 and 26 

were compiled using the National Biodiversity Database (UDSM, 1997), IUCN (Hilton- 

Taylor, 2000), Kingdon (1974 and 1997) and CITES listings (2001). Nomenclature follows 

Kingdon (1997). 

Table 23 Summary of captured small mammals from Mlinga Forest Reserve. 

Species 

Ecol. 

type 

End. 

status 

IUCN 

2000 

UDSM 

1997 

CITES 

2001 

Total nos. 

captured 


specimens 

taken 

SORICIDAE 

Crocidura flavescens (White-toothed Shrew) f W - - 

Crocidura hildegardeae (White-toothed Shrew) f W - - 

Crocidura sp. ? ? 10 10 

CRICETOMYINAE 

Beamys hindei (Lesser Pouched Rat) F N VU DD 30 1 

MURIDAE 

Acomys spinosissimus (Spiny Mouse) f W 

Acomys sp. ? ? 7 4 

Lophuromys flavopunctatus (Brush Furred Rat) F W 17 2 

Praomys delectorum (Soft-Furred Rat) f W 26 5 

Praomys sp. ? ? 1 1 

Grammomys ibeanus 

O W 3 2 

(Narrow–footed Woodland Mouse) 

Grammomys macmillani 

O W 3 3 

(Narrow-footed Woodland Mouse) 

Rattus rattus (Common Rat) O W 1 1 

Unknown sp. 1 ? ? 1 1 

Unknown sp. 2 ? ? 1 1 

GALAGONIDAE 

Galagoides zanzibaricus (Zanzibar Galago) f N LR 

II 1 0 

/NT 

TOTAL 101 31 

Key to abbreviations on the next page. 



62 

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLES 23 and 24 

Ecological (Ecol.) type: 

F – Forest dependent species: Species confined to primary forest only; not including forest edge or secondary forest. 

f – Forest dwelling but not forest dependent species: Species occurring in primary forest, forest edge or secondary forest. 

O – Non-forest species: Species that do not occur in primary or secondary forest or forest edge. 

Endemic (End.) status: 

E – Endemic: Species only found in the Usambara mountains. 

N – Near-endemic: Species with limited ranges usually only including coastal forest and/or East African lowland forests. 

W – Widely distributed species. 

IUCN status: 

CITES listings: 

EN – Endangered I – Appendix One listed species 

VU – Vulnerable II – Appendix Two listed species 

LR/NT – Lower Risk/Near Threatened 

(Appendix Three species not included in Table) 

DD – Data Deficient 

Of particular interest was the trapping of Galago zanzibaricus (Zanzibar Galago), a nearendemic, 

lower risk/near threatened species (IUCN, 2000) (Table 23) that was surprisingly 

captured in a ground-level Sherman trap in lowland forest at trapsite 2 (Appendix 8a). 

Two species captured were classified as forest dependent, Lophuromys flavopunctatus (Brush 

furred Rat) and the near-endemic and vulnerable Beamys hindei (Lesser pouched Rat) (IUCN, 

2000) (Table 23). 

5.4.1.2 Dung survey 

Dung from 6 mammal species were recorded. The most interesting record was that of 

Dendrohyrax validus (Eastern Tree Hyrax), considered forest dependent, near-endemic, 

vulnerable (IUCN, 2000) and endangered (UDSM, 1997) (Table 24). 

Table 24 Summary of dung survey in Mlinga FR. 

Species Ecol. 

type 

End. 

status 

IUCN 

2000 

UDSM 

1997 

CITES 

2001 


occurrences 

Altitude 

of dung 

findings 

CERCOPITHECIDAE 

Papio cynocephalus 

F W II 6 270-420 

(Yellow Baboon) 

Cercopithecus (n.) mitis 

F W II 1 410 

(Gentle Monkey) 

THRYONOMYIDAE 

Thryonomys gregorianus 

O W 11 270-960 

(Marsh Cane-Rat) 

SUIDAE 

Potamochoerus larvatus 

f W 2 340-370 

(Bush Pig) 

PROCAVIDAE 

Dendrohyrax validus* 

F N VU EN 1 240 

(Eastern Tree Hyrax) 

ANTILOPINAE 

Cephalophus sp. 

f W 3 260-300 

(Duiker sp.) 

* A casual collection Key to abbreviations as Table 23. 



63 

5.4.1.3 Mammal observations 

A total of 11 species from 7 families were observed but not retained for taxonomic purposes 

(Table 25). Some of these species had previously been recorded in traps (Table 23) or as dung 

(Table 24). An ‘identification confidence’ column clarifies the reliability of each sighting 

(Table 25). Identification was ranked as follows: Certain, Near Certain, Probable or Possible. 

A significant number of mammal observations were classified as forest dependent species, the 

majority of these were primates (Colobidae, Cercopithecidae and Galagonidae) (Table 25). Of 

most interest were the observations of a group of Colobus angolensis palliatus in tall-canopy 

lowland forest at trapsite 2, and the squirrels, the near-endemic Paraxerus lucifer (UDSM, 

1997) and vulnerable Paraxerus palliatus (IUCN, 2000) (Table 25) seen at trapsite 3 and on 

the edge of the forest reserve respectively. 

Table 25 Summary of mammal observations in Mlinga FR. 

Species Common Name Ecol. 

type 

End. 

status 

IUCN 

2000 

UDSM 

1997 

CITES 

2001 

Identification 

confidence 

COLOBIDAE 

Colobus angolensis Angola Pied Colobus F W DD II Certain 

palliatus 

CERCOPITHECIDAE 

Papio cynocephalus Yellow Baboon F W II Certain 

Cercopithecus (n.) mitis Gentle Monkey F W II Certain 

GALAGONIDAE 

Otolemur crassicaudatus Greater Galago F W II Certain 

Galagoides zanzibaricus Zanzibar Galago F W LR/NT II Certain 

Otolemur garnettii Small-eared Galago f W II Certain 

MACROSCELIDINAE 

Petrodromus tetradactylus* Four-toed elephant shrew f W Probable 

ANTILOPINAE 

Cephalophus harveyi Harvey’s Duiker f W Probable 

SCIURIDAE 

Paraxerus lucifer Tanganyika mountain F N LR Possible 

squirrel 

Paraxerus palliatus Red-bellied coast Squirrel F W VU Possible 

PROCAVIDAE 

Dendrohyrax validus Eastern Tree Hyrax F N VU EN Certain 

* Aurally recorded 







E – Endemic: Species only found in the Usambara Mountains. 



IUCN status: 









64 

5.4.1.4 Bats 

A total of 29 individuals were caught during 3262 net-metre-hours of trapping in Mlinga FR. 

These individuals represented at least 9 species from 5 families. Eighteen individuals were 

retained for taxonomic purposes (Table 26). Trapping data is summarized in Appendix 8b, 

and a species list presented in Table 26. Identifications remain tentative while awaiting 

taxonomic verification from Frankfurt Zoological Museum (refer to Appendix 1). 

The majority of captures were insectivorous species (Nycteridae, Rhinolophidae and 

Vespertilionidae). Five fruit bats representing 2 species were captured, all within a single 

trapsite in submontane forest (Appendix 8). Of most interest was the single capture of nearendemic 

Myonycteris relicta at trapsite 4. This species is listed as vulnerable by UDSM 

(1997) (Table 26). 

Table 26 Summary of bat records in Mlinga FR. 

Species Common name Ecol. 

type 

End. 

status 

IUCN 

2000 

UDSM 

1997 

CITES 

2001 

Total nos. 

captured 


specimens 

taken 

NYCTERIDAE 

Nycteris grandis Large Slit-faced bat f W 1 1 

PTEROPODIDAE 

Lissonycteris angolensis Angola fruit bat f W 4 3 

Myonycteris relicta Collared fruit bat f N VU 1 1 

RHINOLOPHIDAE 

Hipposideros caffer Leaf-nosed bat O W 9 4 

Hipposideros ruber Leaf-nosed bat O W ? ? 

Hipposideros sp. Leaf-nosed bat ? ? 1 1 

Rhinolophus clivosus Horseshoe bat O W 5 3 

Rhinolophus fumigatus Horseshoe bat O W 3 3 

Rhinolophus sp. Horseshoe bat ? ? 1 ? 

VESPERTILIONIDAE 

Miniopterus schriebersi Long-fingered bat O W LR/NT 1 1 

Pipistrellus kuhli/rueppelli Pipistrelle O W 1 1 

TOTAL 29 18 










IUCN status: 









65 

5.4.2 Birds 

A total of 47 species from 25 families were recorded (Table 27). As no systematic survey of 

bird fauna was undertaken, the findings do not represent a complete inventory. An 

‘identification confidence’ column is presented in Table 27 to clarify the reliability of each 

sighting. Identification was ranked as follows: Certain, Near Certain, Probable or Possible. 

Where possible Mlingwa et al. (2000) and Stuart (1989) were used to determine ecological 

type and Stattersfield et al. (1998) used to define endemic status. When this was not possible, 

ecological type, endemic and threat status’ were compiled using the National Biodiversity 

Database (UDSM, 1997), IUCN (Hamilton, 2001), CITES (2001) and Zimmerman et al. 

(1996). 

Of most interest was the probable sighting of Emberiza cabanisi (Cabanis’s bunting), a forest 

dependent endemic to the Usambara mountains (Tables 27 and 29). 

Table 27 Summary of birds observed opportunistically in Mlinga FR. 


type 

End. 

status 

IUCN 

2000 

UDSM 

1997 

CITES 

2001 


confidence 

ACCIPITRIDAE 

Aquila rapax Tawny Eagle f W II Probable 

Gypohierax angolensis Palm-nut Vulture f W LR II Certain 

Lophaetus occipitalis Long-crested Eagle f W LR II Certain 

Terathopius ecaudatus Bateleur f W LR II Certain 

ALCEDINIDAE 

Halcyon albiventris Brown-hooded Kingfisher f W Certain 

Alcedo semitorquata Half-collared Kingfisher FF N Possible 

BUCEROTIDAE 

Bycanistes brevis Silvery Cheeked Hornbill F2 W Probable 

Bycanistes bucinator Trumpeter Hornbill F2 W Certain 

Tokus alboterminatus Crowned Hornbill F1 W Certain 

COLUMBIDAE 

Treron calva African Green Pigeon F W Probable 

Turtur tympanistria Tambourine Dove F W Certain 

CORACIIDAE 

Eurystomus glaucurus Broad-billed Roller f W Certain 

CORVIDAE 

Corvus albicollis White-naped Raven f W Near Certain 

CUCULIDAE 

Centropus superciliosus White-browed Coucal f W Certain 

Ceuthmochares aereus Yellowbill F2 W Certain 

CAPITONIDAE 

Stactolaema leucotis White-eared Barbet F1 W Certain 

DICRURIDAE 

Dicrurus adsimilis Common Drongo f W Certain 

Dicrurus ludwigii Square-tailed Drongo F3 W Certain 

EMBERIZIDAE 

Emberiza cabanisi Cabanis’s Bunting F E Probable 

ESTRILDIDAE 

*Cryptospiza reichenovii Red-faced Crimsonwing F2 W Certain 

*Estrilda astrild Common Waxbill f W Certain 

Hypargos niveoguttatus Peter’s Twinspot F1 W Possible 

Lonchura bicolor Black and White Mannikin f W Probable 

*Mandingoa nitidula Green-backed Twinspot FF2 W Certain 

Spermophaga ruficapilla Red-headed Bluebill F3 W Probable 



66 



type 

End. 

status 

IUCN 

2000 

UDSM 

1997 

CITES 

2001 


confidence 

HIRUNDINIDAE 

Psalidoprocne holomelas Rough-wing f W Certain 

MALACONOTIDAE 

Tchagra minuta Marsh Tchagra f W Possible 

MONARCHIDAE 

Erythrocercus 

holochlorus 

Terpsiphone viridis 

Little Yellow Flycatcher FF3 N Probable 

African Paradise 

Flycatcher 

f1 W Certain 

MUSOPHAGIDAE 

Tauraco fischeri Fischer’s Turaco F2 N* LR/NT NT II Certain 

Tauraco hartlaubi Hartlaub’s Turaco f W NT II Possible 

NUMIDIDAE 

Numida meleagris Helmeted Guineafowl f W Certain 

ORIOLIDAE 

Oriolus chlorocephalus Green-headed Oriole F2 N Probable 

Oriolus larvatus Black-headed Oriole f W 

PLATYSTEIRIDAE 

Batis mixta Forest Batis FF3 W NT Probable 

PLOCEIDAE 

Euplectes hordeaceus Black-winged Red Bishop f W Probable 

Ploceus bicolor Dark-backed Weaver F3 W Possible 

Ploceus subaureus African Golden Weaver f W Probable 

PYCNONOTIDAE 

Pycnonotus barbatus Common Bulbul f W Certain 

STRIGIDAE 

Bubo vosseleri Usambara Eagle Owl FF3 N* VU VU II Probable 

STURNIDAE 

Lamprotornis corruscus Black-bellied Starling F2 W Probable 

Cinnyricinclus Violet-backed Starling f W Certain? 

leucogaster 

TIMALIIDAE 

Turdoides jardineii Arrow-marked Babbler F W Possible 

TURDIDAE 

Cossypha natalensis Red-capped Robin-chat F1 W Certain 

Swynnertonia 

Swynnerton’s Robin FF N* VU VU Near Certain 

swynnertoni 

UPUPIDAE 

Phoeniculus purpureus Green Wood-hoopoe F W Certain 

Rhinopomastus Common Scimitarbill f W Certain 

cyanomelas 

*Endemic status determined using Stattersfield et al (1998) 

Bold text Ecological type determined using Mlingwa et al. (2000) 


Forest dependence Mlingwa et al. (2000): 

Forest specialist (FF): Species that are typical of forest interior and likely to disappear when the forest is modified to any extent. 

Forest generalist (F): Species that can occur in undisturbed forest but which are able to exist (and may even be numerous) at the 

forest edge or in modified/ fragmented forests. However, these generalists continue to depend upon forests for some of their 

resources, such as nesting sites. 

Non-forest birds (f): Forest visitors 

Key to abbreviations for Table 27 continues on the next page. 



67 

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 27 continued. 

Forest dependence Stuart (1989) categories: 

1. those which live in forest but are not dependent upon it for their survival 

2. those which live in forest and ‘overspill’ into adjacent habitats, but are dependent upon forest for their survival 

3. those that can only survive in forest and hardly ‘overspill’ into adjacent habitats. 



N – Near-endemic: Species with limited ranges usually only including coastal forest and/or E. African lowland forests. 

W - Widely distributed species 

IUCN status: 


EN - Endangered I – Appendix One listed species 

VU - Vulnerable II – Appendix Two listed species 

LR/NT - Low Risk/Near Threatened (Appendix Three not included in Table) 

DD - Data Deficient 

Twenty-two species of bird (46%) recorded in Mlinga FR were non-forest species (Mlingwa 

et al, 2000), with 20 species (42%) forest generalists, and 6 species (12%) forest specialists. 

Forest specialists are summarised in Table 28. 

Table 28 Summary of forest specialist birds with corresponding threat status categories. 

Species name Common name Ecol. 

type 

End. 

status 

IUCN 

2000 

UDSM 

1997 

CITES 

2001 

Alcedo semitorquata Half-collared Kingfisher FF N 

Batis mixta Forest Batis FF3 W NT 

Bubo vosseleri Usambara Eagle Owl FF3 N* VU VU II 

Erythrocercus holochlorus Little Yellow Flycatcher FF N 

Mandingoa nitidula Green-backed Twinspot FF W 

Swynnertonia swynnertoni Swynnerton’s Robin FF N* VU VU 

*Endemic status determined using Stattersfield et al. (1998) 

Seven bird species observed in Mlinga FR were of restricted range and are summarised in 

Table 29. 

Table 29 Restricted ranges of endemic and near-endemic birds. 

Species name Common name Range 

Bubo vosseleri Usambara Eagle Owl East and West Usambara Mountains and Uluguru 

Mountains 

Tauraco fischeri Fischer’s Turaco East and West Usambara Mountains and East African 

Coastal forests 

Swynnertonia 

swynnertoni 

Swynnerton’s Robin Usambara and Udzungwa Mountains, also Zimbabwe 

and Mozambique 

Oriolus chlorocephalus Green-headed Oriole Some coastal Kenyan forests and East and West 

Usambara Mountains 

Coastal lowland north to Boni Forest and East 

Usambara Mountains. 

Erythrocercus 

Little Yellow Flycatcher 

holochlorus 

Emberiza cabanisi Cabanis’s Bunting East and West Usambara Mountains, also found south 

of area. 

Alcedo semitorquata Half-collared Kingfisher Mt Kilimanjaro and East Usambaras. 

Primary source: Stattersfield et al. (1998), secondary source: UDSM (1997), tertiary source: Zimmerman et al. 

(1996). 



68 

5.4.3 Reptiles 

Twenty-five reptile species were recorded within Mlinga FR. Twenty-three individuals 

representing 18 species and 6 families were captured during 1320 pitfall trapping nights and 

opportunistic collection. These species are summarised in Table 30. All individuals were 

taken as specimens for taxonomic purposes. Identifications have been verified by D.G. 

Broadley (Appendix 1). 

Table 30 Summary of reptile pitfall and opportunistic captures in Mlinga FR. 

Family Common Name Ecol. 

type 

End. 

status 

IUCN 

2000 

UDSM 

1997 

CITES 

2001 

No.of 

individuals 

captured 

AGAMIDAE 

Agama montana Montane Rock Agama F N VU 1 

CHAMAELEONIDAE 

Chamaeleo* fischeri Eastern Usambara Twohorned 

F N VU II 1 

Chameleon 

Chamaeleo* tenue Usambara Soft-horned F N VU II 1 

Chameleon 

Chamaeleo dilepis Common Flap-necked f W II 1 

Chameleon 

COLUBRIDAE 

Dasypeltis medici East African Egg-eater f W 2 

Lamprophis capensis Common House Snake f W 2 

Lamprophis fuliginosus Brown House Snake O W 2 

Buhoma vauerocegae Usambara Forest Snake F N VU 1 

Aparallactus werneri Usambara Centipede Eater F N 1 

Philothamnus macrops Usambara Green Snake f W VU 1 

Crotaphopeltis hotambeia Herald Snake O W 2 

Crotaphopeltis tornieri Tornier’s Cat-Snake F W VU 1 

Thelotornis usambaricus Usambara Vine Snake ? ? 2 

CORDYLIDAE 

Cordylus tropidosternum 

E.African Spiny-tailed 

Lizard 

f W II 1 

GEKKONIDAE 

Hemidactylus mabouia Tropical House Gecko f W 1 

SCINCIDAE 

Mabuya maculilabris Speckle-lipped Skink f W 1 

Lygosoma afrum Peter’s Writhing Skink f W 1 

Leptosiaphos kilimensis Kilimanjaro Five-toed F N VU 1 

Skink 

TOTAL 23 

*Formally Bradypodium 





O – Non-forest species: Species that do not occur in prim ary or secondary forest or forest edge. 





IUCN status: 









69 

Ecological type, endemic status and threat status were compiled from the National 

Biodiversity Database (UDSM, 1997), IUCN (Hilton-Taylor, 2000) and Spawls et al. (2002). 

Fifty percent of all individuals were captured opportunistically (Appendix 9). Seven species 

captured were categorised as forest dependent, 6 near-endemic, 7 listed as vulnerable 

(UDSM, 1997) and 4 listed on Appendix II of CITES (CITES, 2001). 

Seven additional species were recorded in Mlinga FR as observations (Table 31). An 

‘identification confidence’ column has been presented in Table 31 to clarify the reliability of 

each sighting. Identification was ranked as follows: Certain, Near Certain, Probable or 

Possible. 

Table 31 Summary of reptile observations in Mlinga FR. 

Species Common Name Ecol. 

type 

End. 

status 

IUCN 

2000 

UDSM 

1997 

CITES 

2001 


confidence 


Chamaeleo deremensis Usambara 3-horned 

F N EN EN II Certain 

Chameleon 

Rhampholeon 

Bearded Pigmy 

F N VU LR Certain 

brevicaudatus 

Chameleon 

COLUBRIDAE 

Psammophis sudanensis Northern Stripe-bellied O W Probable 

Sand Snake 

ELAPSOIDEA 

Elapsoidea sp. Garter Snake O W Probable 

TESTUDINIDAE 

Kinixyz belliana Bell’s Hinged Tortoise O W Near Certain 

VIPERIDAE 

Bitis gabonica Gaboon Viper f W Certain 

ELAPIDAE 

Naja melanoleuca Forest Cobra O W Certain 










IUCN status: 







An additional 2 forest dependent and 2 near-endemic reptile species were recorded through 

observation. Two chameleon species, Chamaeleo deremensis and Rhampholeon 

brevicaudatus are listed as endangered and vulnerable respectively (IUCN, 2000). 

Of all captured and observed reptiles within Mlinga FR, a total of 9 have restricted ranges 

(Table 32). 



70 

Table 32 Restricted ranges of endemic and near-endemic reptiles, UDSM (1997). 

Species name Common name Range 

Chamaeleo deremensis Usambara 3-horned Usambara and Nguru Mountains. 

Chameleon 

Agama montana Montane Rock Agama Usambara, Uluguru and Nguru Mountains. 

Chamaeleo fischeri East Usambara 2-horned Usambara and Nguru Mountains. 

Chameleon 

Chamaeleo tenue Usambara Soft-horned Usambara Mountains and Shimba Hills (Kenya). 

Chameleon 

Rhampholeon brevicaudatus Bearded Pigmy 

Chameleon 

Forests of coastal Tanzania and Usambara 

Mountains. 

Leptosiaphos kilimensis Kilimanjaro 5-toed Skink Montane forests of Kenya and Northern 

Tanzania. 

Buhoma* vauerocegae Usambara Forest Snake (East) Usambara Mountains, Magrotto and Uluguru 

Mountains. 

Aparallactus werneri Usambara Centipede Usambara and Uluguru Mountains. 

Eater 

Philothamnus macrops Usambara Green Snake Usambara; Uluguru, Uzungwa Mountains and 

south to Misuku Mountains. 

*formally Geodipsas 



71 

5.4.4 Amphibians 

A total of 944 amphibians were captured during 1320 pitfall trapping nights. An additional 25 

individuals were captured opportunistically. These individuals represented at least 19 species 

and 7 families (Table 33). Thirty-seven individuals were retained for taxonomic purposes. A 

summary of trapping data is presented in Appendix 10. Ecological type, endemic status and 

IUCN status were compiled from the National Biodiversity Database (UDSM, 1997), IUCN 

(Hilton-Taylor, 2000) and Poynton & Broadley (1991). J. Poynton (Appendix 1) has verified 

specimen identifications. Common names are taken from Passmore and Carruthers (1995). 

Table 33 Summary of pitfall and opportunistic amphibian captures in Mlinga FR. 


type 

End. 

status 

IUCN 

2000 

UDSM 

1997 

CITES 

2001 


individuals 

captured 

ARTHROLEPTIDAE 

Arthroleptis stenodactylus Squeaker f W 59 

Arthroleptis xenodactyloides Squeaker f W 783 

Arthroleptis sp. (cf. xenodactylus)* Squeaker (F) (N) (VU) (98) 

BUFONIDAE 

Bufo maculatus Flat backed Toad O W 1 

Nectophrynoides tornieri F N VU I 2 

Mertensophryne micranotis ? N EN 2 

Schismaderma carens ? W 3 

HYPEROLIIDAE 

Afrixalus sp. Leaf-folding Frog ? ? 1 

Afrixalus ulugurensis Leaf-folding Frog F N VU 1 

Hyperolius tuberilinguis Reed Frog O W 1 

Leptopelis barbouri Tree Frog F W 1 

Leptopelis flavomaculatus Tree Frog F W 1 

Leptopelis parkeri Tree Frog F N VU 1 

Leptopelis ulugurensis Tree Frog F N VU 1 

MICROHYLIDAE 

Callulina kreffti F N VU 1 

Probreviceps macrodactylus Rain Frog F N NT 3 

RHACOPHORIDAE 

Chiromantis xerampelina Foam-nest Frog O W 1 

RANIDAE 

Arthroleptides martiensseni F N VU 3 

Phrynobatrachus krefftii Puddle Frog F N VU 5 

Phrynobatrachus acridoides Puddle Frog O W 1 

TOTAL 969 

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 33 and 34 











72 

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 33 and 34 continued. 

IUCN status: 







* Questionable field identification as Arthroleptis xenodactylus, potentially A. xenodactyloides. 

The only commonly captured genus in pitfall traps was Arthroleptis, the Squeakers that dwell 

in leaf litter (Table 33). Individuals in this genus were particularly difficult to identify to 

species level therefore particular care must be taken with the field identifications shown in 

Table 33 as Arthroleptis sp. (cf. xenodactylus). J. Poynton did not identify any of the voucher 

specimens as A. xenodactylus. 

The most interesting amphibian record was that of Schismaderma carens (Bufonidae). This 

record is thought to be a range extension, and represent the northern most record of this 

species (pers. comm. J. Poynton, 2002). 

In addition to pitfall trap and opportunistic captures, two further species were observed 

casually but not retained (Table 34). 

Table 34 Amphibians observed casually in Mlinga FR. 


type 

End. 

status 

IUCN 

2000 

UDSM 

1997 

CITES 

2001 

Certainty of 

identification 

RANIDAE 

Rana angolensis Common River Frog O W Certain 

CAECILIDAE 

Boulengerula boulengeri Caecilian F N I Certain 

A significant number of amphibians within Mlinga FR were either forest dependent, nearendemic 

or both. Eleven (52.4% of all amphibian species captured and observed) were forest 

dependent, and 10 (47.6%) classified as near-endemic. Seven species (33.3%) were 

vulnerable and one, Mertensophryne micranotis (Bufonidae) endangered (IUCN, 2000). The 

caecilian Boulengerula boulengeri was listed on Appendix I of CITES (CITES, 2001) (Tables 

32, 33 and 34). Eleven amphibian species have restricted ranges (UDSM, 1997) (Table 35). 

Table 35 Restricted ranges for endemic and near-endemic amphibians (UDSM, 1997). 

Species Common name Range 

Phrynobatrachus krefftii Puddle Frog Usambara and Magrotto Mountains. 

Boulengerula boulengeri Caecilian Usambara and Magrotto Mountains, and possibly Nguru 

Mountains. 

Arthroleptis xenodactylus Squeaker Usambara, Nguru and Uluguru Mountains. 

Nectophrynoides tornieri 

Mertensophryne micranotis 

Afrixalus ulugurensis 

East Usambara, Uluguru, Nguru and Udzungwa Mountains. 

Leaf-folding Frog Usambara, Magrotto, Uluguru, Nguru and Udzungwa 

Mountains. 

Leptopelis parkeri Tree Frog Usambara and Uluguru Mountains. 

Leptopelis ulugurensis Tree Frog Usambara, Uluguru, Nguru and Udzungwa Mountains. 

Callulina kreffti 

Usambara, Magarotto, Nguru, Uluguru and Udzungwa 

Mountains. 

Probreviceps macrodactylus Rain Frog Usambara, Uluguru and Rungwa, Udzungwa Mountains. 

Arthroleptides martiensseni 

Usambara, Magarotto, Uluguru, Nguru and Udzungwa 

Mountains. 



73 

5.4.5 Invertebrates 

5.4.5.1 Butterflies 

At least 103 species of butterfly were captured in Mlinga FR, using sweepnets and canopy 

traps. These species represented 5 families (Table 36). One hundred and fifty four specimens 

were retained for taxonomic purposes. Official verification of taxonomic identifications has 

yet to be obtained. Ecological type and endemic status were compiled using Larsen (1996), 

and Kielland (1990). 

The butterfly species list for Mlinga FR is presented to subspecies level in Table 36. This 

table also indicates whether butterflies have previously been recorded in the East Usambara 

mountains. Capture data is summarised in Appendix 11. 

Eighty seven percent of all butterfly species captured in Mlinga FR were widespread in 

distribution with only two species of near-endemic status. Thirty four percent of butterfly 

species were forest dependent, 26% forest dwelling, 30% non-forest species, and 12% 

unknown. If identifications are accurate (to be confirmed) at least five species records 

represent range extensions and eight represent those of uncommon, localised or rare species 

(Table 36). 

Table 36 Summary of butterflies captured in Mlinga FR. 

Species 

Ecol. 

type 

End. 

status 

Other information 

Existing EU 

Record 

(Y / N) 

HESPERIIDAE 

Pardaleodes incerta F W Y 

Sarangesa maculata F W N 

Tagiades flesus f W Y 

Teniorhinus herilus f W Not common. N 

LYCAENIDAE 

Unknown sp. ? ? ? 

Alaena picata f W Y 

Axiocerses punicea f W Not common in Usambaras N 

Azanus moriqua O W N 

Eicochrysops hippocrates f W Y 

Eicochrysops masai O W Localised, mountains escarpments N 

Lampides boeticus O W N 

Leptotes pirithous O W Y 

Pentila tropicalis F W Y 

Pilodeudorix rodgersi f W N 

Teriominia subpunctata F W Y 

Tuxentius margaritaceus F W N 

NYMPHALIDAE 

Acraea sp. ? ? ? 

Acraea acara O W N 

Acraea acrita O W N 

Acraea aganice montana O W N 

Acraea alcinoe camerunica F W Rare N 

Acraea boopis ama F W Isolated populations, dry forest N 

Acraea cerasa cerasa F W Rare in Tanzania Y 

Acraea egina egina O W Y 

Acraea eponina eponina F W Y 

Acraea macaria hemileuca O W N 

Acraea natalica natalica O W Y 

Acraea quirina rosa F W Y 



74 


Species 

Ecol. 

type 

End. 

status 


Existing EU 

Record 

(Y / N) 

NYMPHALIDAE continued. 

Acraea satis F W Y 

Acraea servona kenya F W Usambara mountains Y 

Acraea uvui uvui ? W N 

Amauris sp. ? ? ? 

Amauris niavius dominicanus F W Y 

Amauris niavius niavius F W Y 

Apaturopsis cleochares schulzei f W Very local and uncommon Y 

Bicyclus auricrudus fulgidus F W N 

Bicyclus campinus carcassoni F W Y 

Bicyclus campinus ocelligerus F W Y 

Bicyclus safitza safitza O W Y 

Bicyclus sp. ? ? ? 

Byblia sp. ? ? ? 

Byblia ilithyia O W Y 

Charaxes sp. 1 ? ? ? 

Charaxes sp. 2 ? ? ? 

Charaxes bohemani O W N 

Charaxes brutus natalensis f W Y 

Charaxes candiope candiope f W Y 

Charaxes castor castor O W Y 

Charaxes chepalungu F W Kenya and Serengeti only N 

Charaxes cithaeron nairobicus F W Y 

Charaxes contrarius F W Y 

Charaxes jahlusa kenyensis f W Uncommon, local race Y 

Charaxes lasti kimbozae F W Y 

Charaxes lasti lasti f N Y 

Charaxes pollux mirabilis ? ? Y 

Charaxes protoclea azota f W Y 

Charaxes smaragdalis homonymus F W N 

Charaxes varanes vologese f W Y 

Charaxes violetta O W Y 

Charaxes violetta maritimus O W Y 

Charaxes xiphares F W Montane and sub-montane forests Y 

Charaxes zoolina zoolina O W Y 

Danaus chrysippus/dorippus O W Y 

Euphaedra neophron littoralis F W Y 

Euptera kinugnana F W Y 

Euryphura achlys F N Y 

Eurytela sp. ? ? ? 

Eurytela dryope angulata f W Y 

Eurytela hiarbas lita O W Y 

Euxanthe wakefieldi F W Lowland forest Y 

Gnophodes betsimena diversa F W Y 

Henotesia perspicua O W N 

Henotesia phaea phaea O W N 

Hypolimnas anthedon anthedon F W Y 

Junonia oenone oenone O W Y 

Junonia terea elgiva f W Y 

Melantis leda leda O W Y 

Neptidopsis fulgurata platyptera f W N 

Neptidopsis ophione velleda F W Y 



75 


Species 

Ecol. 

type 

End. 

status 


Existing EU 

Record 

(Y / N) 

Neptis sp. ? ? ? 

Neptis carcassoni F W Lowland forest Y 

Neptis jordani O W N 

Neptis laeta O W Y 

Neptis melicerta f W Y 

Neptis penningtoni O W West Tanzania N 

Neptis rogersi O W Coastal Kenya and Tanzania N 

Neptis saclava marpessa f W Y 

Neptis serena serena O W Y 

Neptis trigonophora trigonophora F W East Usambaras N 

Phalanta eurytis eurytis F W N 

Physcaeneura leda O W Coastal N.E. Tanzania and Kenya Y 

Pseudacraea lucretia protracta F W Y 

Pseudathyma plutonica plutonica F W West Tanzania N 

Sallya boisduvali omissa f W Y 

Sallya garega garega f W West Tanzania N 

Sallya natalensis f W Y 

PAPILIONIDAE 

Catopsilia florella O W Y 

Papilio ophidicephalus f W Y 

Papilio dardanus polytrophus f W Y 

PIERIDAE 

Appias lasti lasti f W Coastal and Masagati Y 

Belenois creona severina O W Y 

Belenois thysa thysa f W Y 

Colotis sp. ? ? ? 

Colotis euippe omphale O W Y 

Dixeia charina ? ? N 

Eronia cleodora O W N 

Eurema floricola orientis F W Y 

Eurema hapale O W Y 

Eurema regularis regularis f W Y 

Eurema senegalensis F W Y 

Leptosia alcesta inalcesta f W Y 

Nepheronia argia argia f W Y 

Nepheronia thalassina f W Y 

Existing EU record: Yes (Y) or No (N). This column only considers specimens to species level. 







E – Endemic: Species only found in the Usambara Mountains. 





76 

5.4.5.2 Molluscs 

A total of 297 molluscs were collected in zoological trapsites and opportunistically. 

Taxonomic determinations were not available at the time of publication. Specimens were 

deposited at the Zoological Museum of Copenhagen (refer to Appendix 1). 

5.4.5.3 Millipedes 

A total of 161 millipedes were collected in zoological trapsites and opportunistically. 

Taxonomic determinations were not available at the time of publication. Specimens were 

deposited at the Zoological Museum of Copenhagen (refer to Appendix 1). 

5.4.6 Distribution of endemic and forest dependent species 

Almost all endemic, near-endemic and forest dependent fauna were captured or observed 

outside the 12 most disturbed areas (Figure 24). Fire was the most significant form of 

disturbance in Mlinga FR and it is likely that fire poses the greatest threat to endemic and 

forest dependant fauna within the reserve. 

) 

rTS3 

• 

• 

• 

• 

rTS1 

• • r 

TS2 

• 

r 

TS4 

450m 

Scale: 

450m 

• 

rTS5 

• 

Key: 

Inaccessible 

Most highly disturbed plots 

r TS2 Trapsite 

Endemic, near endemic and forest dependent individuals 

•70 

• 35 

• 7 

Figure 24 Distribution of endemic, near-endemic and forest dependent fauna in comparison 

with the 12 most disturbed areas in Mlinga FR. 



77 

The most endemic and near-endemic species found during the four 10 day trapsites were at 

trapsite 4, in submontane habitat (Figure 25). 

10 

7 

Number of endemic species 

5 

3 3 

1 

0 

1 2 3 4 

Trapsite number 

Figure 25 Distribution of endemic or near-endemic species found at trapsites 1-4. 

Trapsite 1 (dominated by lowland riverine forest and cultivation habitat) supported the largest 

number of forest dependent species (Figure 26). Trapsite 2 (tall canopy lowland forest) 

supported least forest dependent species (Figure 26). The majority of forest dependent species 

at trapsite 1 were butterflies. 

25 

21 

Number of forest dependent species 

20 

15 

10 

5 

6 

12 

13 

0 

1 2 3 4 

Trapsite number 

Figure 26 Distribution of forest dependant species found at trapsites 1-4. 



78 

5.4 Discussion 

5.5.1 Introduction 

Mlinga FR is only 890ha but, despite its small size, the number of animal species recorded 

was comparable to those found in nearby forest reserves, such as Manga (size 1616ha) and 

Magarotto FR (size 1124ha) (refer to Frontier Tanzania, 1999 and Frontier Tanzania, 1996). 

Table 37 Summary of faunal families and species (identified to date) and inclusive of casual 

observations, dung surveys etc. 

Taxon Number of families Number of species 

Mammals (not including bats) 12 23 

Bats 5 9 

Birds 25 47 

Reptiles 10 25 

Amphibians 8 21 

Butterflies 5 125 

5.5.2 Species Abundance and Importance 

To provide a concept of species abundance, the frequency of species-capture was 

investigated. This makes the assumption that the frequency with which an animal is recorded 

reflects its general abundance. However, it must be noted that the abundance of highly cryptic 

species may not be reflected accurately. Also, this method does not provide a good measure 

of species distribution within the reserve. 

5.5.2.1 Mammals 

The most commonly captured mammal species was the forest dependent, near-endemic 

Beamys hindei (Lesser pouched Rat, 30 individuals captured), also listed as vulnerable by 

IUCN (2000). Other locally common captures included Praomys delectorum (Soft-furred Rat, 

26 individuals captured) and Lophuromys flavopunctatus (Brush-furred Rat, 17 individuals 

captured). Almost all of these captures took place at trapsite 4 in submontane forest. Lowland 

forest trapsites had less successful trapping success, particularly trapsites 2 and 3 with no 

water association. 

Other species recorded more than three times were Crocidura species (White-toothed 

shrews), Acomys species (Spiny mice) and Grammomys species (Narrow-footed woodland 

mice, although as identifications have not yet been verified, it cannot be determined whether 

these represent one or more species. 

Of the larger mammals, the most commonly encountered was Cercopithecus (n.) mitis 

(Gentle/Blue Monkey) sighted on at least 6 separate occasions in forested areas. Papio 

cynocephalus (Yellow Baboon) sightings were also common near the forest borders. Colobus 

angolensis palliatus (Angola Pied Colobus) were observed and heard a number of times, 

although it is unclear how many groups of individuals this may represent as the majority of 

observations were taken close to trapsite 2 in one forest patch. Potentially isolated populations 

such as these are locally vulnerable (Kingdon, 1997). 

Frequent aural records of Dendrohryax validus (Eastern Tree Hyrax), Otolemur 

crassicaudatus (Greater Galago) and Galagoides zanzibaricus (Zanzibar Galago) were heard 

during the survey suggesting that they are locally common throughout Mlinga FR. 



79 

Species recorded indirectly through spoor on many occasions were Thryonomys gregorianus 

(Cane Rat) and Cephalophus sp. (Duiker sp.), however it is difficult to establish how 

abundant such species are without further study. 

The most commonly captured bat species in all trapping locations except trapsite 3, where no 

bats were caught was Hipposideros caffer (Leaf-nosed Bat represented by 9 individuals). This 

species has relatively unspecific habitat preferences and is widespread in distribution. It is 

assumed therefore that this species is common throughout Mlinga FR. However, fruitbats 

(Lissonycteris angolensis and Myonycteris relicta) were only captured in submontane habitats 

at trapsite 4 and represented by few individuals (4 and 1 respectively). These species are 

likely to be locally threatened due to the limited amount of suitable forest habitat remaining in 

Mlinga FR, particularly Myonycteris relicta listed as vulnerable to extinction by UDSM 

(1997). 

5.5.2.2 Birds 

Bird species observed frequently, on more than three occasions, throughout the reserve by 

visual observation during the survey included; Lophaetus occipitalis (Long-crested eagle), 

Terathopius ecaudatus (Bateleur), Gypohierax angolensis (Palm-nut vulture), Tokus 

alboterminatus (Crowned Hornbill), Bycanistes bucinator (Trumpeter Hornbill), Mandingoa 

nitidula (Green-backed Twinspot), Tauraco fischeri (Fischer’s Turaco) and Numida meleagris 

(Helmeted Guineafowl). Of these, Mandingoa nitidula (Green-backed Twinspot) is a forest 

specialist and Tauraco fischeri (Fisher’s Turaco) has a restricted range to the East and West 

Usambara mountains and East African coastal forests. 

5.5.2.3 Reptiles 

No reptiles were captured in abundance; however, there were certain areas, for example 

trapsite 1, where Mabuya maculilabris (Speckle-lipped Skink) and Agama montana (Montane 

Rock Agama) individuals were frequently observed in open habitats. A significant proportion 

(27 %) of reptile records were forest dependent and near-endemic, and listed as vulnerable or 

endangered by UDSM (1997). The endangered Chamaeleo deremensis (Usambara 3-horned 

Chameleon) was observed only once during the survey near to trapsite 4 in submontane 

forest. 

5.5.2.4 Amphibians 

By far the most abundant amphibian genus was Arthroleptis (Squeakers) with 940 individuals 

captured. It is questionable whether the near-endemic and forest dependent species of this 

genus (A. xenodactylus) was captured in Mlinga FR. Tree frogs (Hyperolidae) in particular 

were not commonly encountered throughout Mlinga FR. 

The capture of three Schismaderma carens (Bufonidae) individuals in Mlinga FR represented 

a new amphibian species record for the East Usambara mountains (J. Poynton). Previously, 

this species had been recorded from Dodoma, Haubi Kondoa, Liwale, Marambangombe, 

Rukwa Hotel, Tendaguru and Sanjeri Pass (Passmore and Caruthers, 1995). Captures within 

Mlinga FR are therefore thought to represent the most northerly records of this species (J. 

Poynton, pers. comm.). 

More than 50% of all amphibian records in Mlinga FR were forest dependent and nearendemic. 



80 

5.5.2.5 Invertebrates 

The relative abundance of molluscs and millipedes was not determined as identifications are 

presently unavailable. 

Ten species of butterfly were caught 10 or more times. They were as follows (the number of 

individuals captured are shown in brackets): Bicyclus safitza safitza (71), Eurytela dryope 

angulata (59), Charaxes cithaeron nairobicus (20), Charaxes lasti lasti (18), Bicyclus 

campinus ocelligerus (17), Charaxes violetta maritimus (17), Euptera kinugnana (14), Sallya 

garega garega (14), Acraea aganice montana (12), Eurema floricola orientis (10). All but 

Eurema floricola orientis were members of the Nymphalidae family. 

Field identifications suggest that 32 (11%) of Mlinga FR’s captured butterfly species have not 

previously been recorded in the East Usambara mountains previously (analyses based on 

Pohjonen, 2001). 

5.5.2.6 Endemics and near-endemic species 

Of the 30 mammal, bird, reptile and amphibian species recorded in Mlinga FR, which were 

endemic or near-endemic to the Usambara mountains, only the following were recorded 

frequently during the survey, Beamys hindei (Lesser pouched Rat) (30 individuals captured), 

Dendrohyrax validus (Eastern Tree Hyrax) (heard regularly throughout the forest reserve) and 

Tauraco fischeri (Fischer’s Turaco) (recorded regularly throughout the forest reserve). Of 

these 31 endemic or near-endemic species, 11 were amphibians and 8 reptiles none of which 

were frequently encountered. Of the 2 near-endemic butterflies captured in Mlinga FR, only 

one Charaxes lasti lasi (Nymphalidae) was captured frequently (18 times). 

5.5.2.7 Forest dependent species 

Of the 35 mammal, bird, reptile and amphibian species which were dependant on primary or 

closed canopy forest, only the following were recorded frequently during this survey, Beamys 

hindei (Lesser pouched Rat), Lophuromys flavopunctatus (Brush-furred Rat) and Tauraco 

fischeri (Fischer’s Turaco). Of these 35 forest dependent species, 12 were amphibians and 9 

reptiles, none of which were frequently encountered. 

Of the 35 (32%) forest dependant butterfly species, only four species were caught frequently 

during the survey. These were Bicyclus campinus ocelligerus, Charaxes cithaeron nairobicus, 

Euptera kinugnana (all of the family Nymphalidae) and Eurema floricola orientis (Pieridae). 

5.5.2.8 High risk species 

With the assumption that species observed rarely may have a low abundance, species of 

conservation concern in Mlinga FR can be determined. The species that were observed 

infrequently (on less than two occasions) and were both forest dependent and endemic or 

near-endemic were as follows: 

Mammals: Paraxerus lucifer (Tanganyika mountain Squirrel). 

Birds: Alcedo semitorquata (Half-collared Kingfisher), Oriolus chlorocephalus (Greenheaded 

Oriole), Bubo vosseleri (Usambara Eagle-owl), Swynnertonia swynnertoni 

(Swynnerton’s Robin). 

Reptiles: Chamaeleo fischeri (Eastern Usambara Two Horned Chameleon), Chamaeleo tenue 

(Usambara Soft Horned Chameleon), Chamaeleo deremensis (Usambara Three Horned 

Chameleon), Rhampholeon brevicaudatus (Bearded Pigmy Chamaleon), Buhoma 

vauerocegae (Usambara Forest Snake), Aparallactus werneri (Usambara Centipede-eater), 

Leptosiaphos kilimensis (Kilimanjaro Five-toed Skink). 

Amphibians: Afrixalus ulugurensis (Leaf-folding Frog), Leptopelis ulugurensis (Tree Frog), 

Callulina kreffti, Probreviceps macrodactylus (Rain Frog), Boulengerula boulengeri 

(Caecilian). 



81 

5.5.3 Ecological Type 

A total of at least 228 faunal species were discovered in Mlinga FR. Of these, 72 species 

(31%) were classified as forest dependant or forest specialist (Table 38); 9 of these were 

mammals, 6 birds, 9 reptiles, 11 amphibians and 37 butterflies. A similar number of species 

were forest dwelling but not forest dependent, and non-forest species (Table 38). A total of 8 

species (% of all faunal species) lacked information regarding ecological type (Table 38). 

Table 38 Summary of ecological type of mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian and butterfly 

species. 

Ecological type No. of species % of total species 

recorded 

Forest dependent 72 31 

Forest dwelling but not forest dependent 72 31 

Non-forest species 76 33 

Unknown 8 5 

Total: 228 100 

5.5.4 Endemic Status 

Only 1 of the minimum 228 faunal species recorded in Mlinga FR were classified as endemic 

to the Usambara mountains (Table 39), this was the bird Emberiza cabanisis (Emberizidae). 

Thirty-one faunal species recorded (14%) were classified as near-endemic (Table 39). Of 

these 5 were mammals, 6 birds, 8 reptiles, 10 amphibians and 2 butterflies. The majority, 192 

faunal species (84%) recorded in Mlinga FR had distributions classified as widespread, whilst 

4 species (2%) lacked information regarding endemic status (Table 39). 

Table 39 Summary of endemic status of mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian and butterfly 

species. 

Endemic status No. of species % of total species 

recorded 

Endemic to the Usambara Mountains 1 0 

Near-endemic: ranges in restricted locations 31 14 

Widespread 192 84 

Unknown 4 2 

Total: 228 100 

5.5.5 Threat Status 

5.5.5.1 National Biodiversity Database (NBD) of Tanzania 

According to NBD (UDSM 1997) criteria, many species were categorised as endangered, 

vulnerable, near threatened or data deficient. 

Three species from Mlinga FR were categorised as Endangered towards extinction by the 

NBD. These species were Dendrohyrax validus (Eastern Tree Hyrax), Chamaeleo deremensis 

(Usambara Three-horned Chameleon) and Mertensophryne micranotis [Amphibian]. 

Nineteen species from Mlinga FR were categorised as Vulnerable to extinction by the NBD. 

These species were Myonycteris relicta (Collared Fruit Bat), Bubo vosseleri (Usambara 

Eagle-owl), Swynnertonia swynnertoni (Swynnerton’s Robin), Agama montana (Montane 

Rock Agama), Chamaeleo fischeri (E.Usambara Two-horned Chameleon), Chamaeleo tenue 

(Usambara Soft-horned Chameleon), Buhoma vauerocegae (Usambara Forest Snake), 

Crotaphopeltis tornieri (Tornier’s Cat-snake), Leptosiaphos kilimensis (Kilimanjaro Five-toed 



82 

Skink), Philothamnus macrops (Usambara Green Snake), Arthroleptis xenodactylus 

(Squeaker), Bufo brauni (Dead leaf Toad), Nectophrynoides tornieri [Amphibian], Afrixalus 

ulugurensis (Leaf-folding Frog), Leptopelis parkeri (Tree Frog), Leptopelis ulugurensis (Tree 

Frog), Callulina kreffti [Amphibian], Arthroleptides martiensseni [Amphibian] and 

Phrynobatrachus krefftii (Puddle Frog). 

Four species from Mlinga FR were categorised as Near threatened to extinction by the NBD. 

These species were Tauraco fischeri (Fisher’s Turaco), Tauraco hartlaubi (Hartlaub’s 

Turaco), Batis mixta (Forest Batis) and Probreviceps macrodactylus (Rain Frog). 

One species from Mlinga FR was categorised as Data deficient by the NBD, Beamys hindei 

(Lesser Pouched Rat). 

5.5.5.2 IUCN 2000 

According to IUCN 2000 criteria, species were categorised as endangered, vulnerable and 

lower risk/ near threatened to extinction. 

Only one species found in Mlinga FR was listed as Endangered to extinction by IUCN 2000. 

This was Chamaeleo deremensis (Usambara Three-horned Chameleon). 

Six species found in Mlinga FR, were categorised as Vulnerable to extinction by IUCN 2000. 

These species were Beamys hindei (Lesser pouched Rat), Dendrohyrax validus (Eastern Tree 

Hyrax), Paraxerus palliatus (Tanganika mountain Squirrel), Bubo vosseleri (Usambara 

Eagle-owl), Swynnertonia swynnertoni (Swynnerton’s Robin) and Rhampholeon 

brevicaudatus (Bearded Pigmy Chameleon). 

Three species found in Mlinga FR, were categorised as Lower risk/ near threatened to 

extinction by IUCN 2000. These species were Galagoides zanzibaricus (Zanzibar Galago), 

Miniopterus schriebersi (Long Fingered bat) and Tauraco fischeri (Fisher’s Turaco). 

5.5.5.3 CITES 2001 

Twenty species recorded during the survey of Mlinga FR were listed within 

Appendices I and II of CITES 2001. 

Two species were listed by Appendix I: Nectophrynoides tornieri [Amphibian] and 

Boulengerula boulengeri (Caecilian). 

Eighteen species were listed by Append ix II: Galagoides zanzibaricus (Zanzibar Galago), 

Otolemur crassicaudatus (Greater Galago), Otolemur garnettii (Small-eared Galago), Papio 

cynocephalus (Yellow Baboon), Cercopithecus (n.) mitis (Gentle Monkey), Colobus 

angolensis palliates (Angolan Pied Colobus), Aquila rapax (Tawny Eagle), Gypohierax 

angolensis (Palm-nut Vulture), Lophaetus occipitalis (Long-crested Eagle), Terathopius 

ecuadatus (Bateleur), Tauraco fischeri (Fisher’s Turaco), Tauraco hartlaubi (Hartlaub’s 

Turaco), Bubo vosseleri (Usambara Eagle Owl), Chamaeleo fischeri (East Usambara Twohorned 

Chameleon), Chamaeleo tenue (Usambara Soft-horned Chameleon), Chamaeleo 

dilepis (Common Flap-necked Chameleon), Chamaeleo deremensis (Usambara Three-horned 

Chameleon) and Cordylus tropidosternum (East African Spiny-tailed Lizard). 



83 

6.0 CONCLUSIONS 

Authors: Hall, S.M. and Oliver, S. pp. 83-84 

This report presents the data collected during the baseline biodiversity survey of Mlinga 

Forest Reserve. The report presents preliminary checklists of flora and fauna groups and 

categorises the ecological type, endemic and threat status of species. These two factors 

provide an indication of three aspects of biodiversity and conservation: 

1. the relationship between forest dependency and endemism; 

2. the extent to which non-forest species are established in the reserve; and 

3. the relationship between disturbance and areas of biological value. 

Mlinga Forest Reserve was gazetted in 1996. The gazetted reserve covers an area of 890ha, 

with an altitude range of 220m to 1069m. The forest reserve has altered significantly in recent 

years as a consequence of intensive widespread fires and is presently composed of a mixture 

of lowland forest, submontane forest, open woodland and rocky outcrop/summit habitat, all 

subject to a variety of different levels of disturbance. 

6.1 Disturbance 

Fire was the most significant threat to both flora and fauna in Mlinga FR, and was recorded in 

two thirds of all vegetation plots sampled. A comparison of present figures with those of 

Johannson and Sandy (1996) suggest that fire has significantly reduced forest area in Mlinga 

FR. Only six vegetation plots surveyed were recorded with canopy heights greater than 20m. 

Open grass/bushland and woodland habitats dominated in burnt areas, increasing the 

susceptibility of the reserve to future fire disturbance. 

Other forms of disturbance including pole and timber extraction, animal trapping, cultivation 

and pitsawing were low in Mlinga FR. Areas of particularly high levels of disturbance were 

mainly concentrated in north eastern areas of the forest reserve. The invasive species 

Maesopsis eminii was represented in only 1 vegetation plot by 1 individual, and is therefore 

not considered as a threat to the reserve at present. 

6.2 Species Richness 

Mlinga FR was found to contain a minimum of 269 species of plant, 23 mammal, 9 bat, 47 

bird, 25 reptile, 21 amphibian and 103 butterfly species (figures for molluscs and millipedes 

have yet to be determined). The number of fauna species found in Mlinga FR was comparable 

with nearby forest reserves despite its small size (refer to Frontier Tanzania, 1996 a & b and 

Frontier Tanzania, 1999). Relative to the other thirteen forest reserves surveyed by Frontier- 

Tanzania, Mlinga FR has an average species richness for plants and fauna. Species richness is 

likely to be associated with forest reserve size and the degree of forest isolation or 

fragmentation. Mlinga FR is both small in size with patchy distribution of forest habitats that 

are isolated as a consequence of fire disturbance. Genetic exchange between populations is 

thought to be limited and the future of all vulnerable and/or restricted range species is of 

concern. 

6.3 Flora 

Six tree and shrub species were recorded in the vegetation plots that were endemic to the 

Usambara Mountains and 17 had ranges restricted to the Eastern Arc and/or East African 

lowland forests. 41 species were recorded as dependent on primary or closed canopy forest, 

and of these species, 5 were endemic and 7 were near-endemic to the Usambara Mountains. 

Ten non-forest tree and shrub species had established within the reserve boundaries. 



84 

6.4 Fauna 

One bird sighted in Mlinga FR was categorised as endemic to the Usambara mountains, and 

thirty-two other faunal species were listed as near-endemic. Seventy-two faunal species were 

classified as forest dependant or forest specialist, many of which were butterflies. 

Three species recorded in Mlinga FR had endangered status (either listed by IUCN, 2000 or 

UDSM, 1997) these were: Dendrohyrax validus (Eastern Tree Hyrax), Chamaeleo deremensis 

(Usambara Three-horned Chameleon) and Mertensophryne micranotis [Amphibian]. 

6.5 Conservation 

The forests of the East Usambara mountains are recognised as being part of a Biodiversity 

Hotspot (Mittermeier, 1999), an Endemic Bird Area (ICBP, 1992), a Centre of Plant Diversity 

(WWF and IUCN) and a Globally Important Ecoregion (WWF). They are a conservation 

priority due to their floral and faunal diversity and to the high number of endemic species. 

The forests also have a direct value to surrounding communities as a principle water 

catchment area and as a source of fuel-wood and medicinal plants. 

The forests of the East Usambara mountains have been reduced to fragments within a matrix 

of agricultural land. Little forest remains outside of the gazetted forest reserves. For those 

species that are forest dependent, the forest reserves now provide almost the only available 

habitat. 

There are differences in the perceived value of the forests between the villagers and the Forest 

and Beekeeping Division. Alternative sources of building material and fuel are required in 

order to meet the needs of surrounding villages while ensuring the protection of the forests. 

The impact of fire is of serious concern throughout Mlinga Forest Reserve and increased 

protection is required to prevent future disturbance destroying the patches of forest that 

remain. Further degradation of forest habitats in Mlinga FR will lead to local population 

extinctions, particularly of those species identified as being at high risk. The loss of forested 

areas in Mlinga will also reduce the reliability of the water supply to neighbouring 

communities. 

According to local communities, past hunting has seriously depleted large mammal 

populations. Present data supports this. Little can presently be done to reverse this problem 

unless the need for forest meat disappears. 

Mlinga FR, as one of the smallest forest blocks in the East Usambara mountains, has a 

particularly high risk of flora and faunal population extinctions compared to larger forest 

reserves. Unfortunately since independence, the value of the Mlinga forest has not been so 

well understood by local communities, possibly as a result of population immigration from 

other regions of Tanzania. There is a need for older generations and forestry managers to 

reinstall a sense of responsibility amongst younger and less knowledgeable generations, to 

ensure the importance of the remaining forest is known. This will go some way towards 

helping the sustainable management of their forest reserve. Small-scale environmental 

education activities during the present survey went some way to promote such an idea (refer 

to Frontier Tanzania, 2002a and Frontier Tanzania, 2002b), but much work remains. Mlinga 

FR is thought to be a very suitable location for the implementation of Joint Forest 

Management activities. Surrounding communities have well organised and active village and 

environmental committees. 



85 

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89 

8.0 APPENDICES 

Appendix 1: Taxonomic Verification 

BOTANY 

Albert Ntemi Sallu EUCAMP P.O. Box 5869, Tanga, Tanzania. 

usambara@twiga.com 

ZOOLOGY 

Mammals: 

Prof. Kim Howell UDSM Department of Zoology University of Dar es Salaam, 

P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, 

Tanzania 

khowell@twiga.com 

Dr. Dieter Kock Frankfurt Zoological Museum Saugetiere III, Senckenberg, 

Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 

Frankfurt am Main, Germany 

dkock@sng.uni-frankfurt.de 

Amphibians: 



Tanzania 


Prof. J. Poynton British Natural History Museum Cromwell Road, South Kensington, 

London, UK. 

Reptiles: 



Tanzania 


Dr. Don Broadley Natural History Museum, Zimbabwe P.O. Box 240, 

Bulawayo, Zimbabwe 

bfa@coldfire.dnet.co.zw 

Molluscs: 

C/O Dr N. Scharff Zoological Museum University of Copenhagen, 

Universitetsparken 15, DK-2100, 

Copenhagen, Denmark 

Millipedes: 

C/O Dr N. Scharff Zoological Museum University of Copenhagen, 

Universitetsparken 15, DK-2100, 

Copenhagen, Denmark 



90 

Appendix 2: GPS Co-ordinates of vegetation plots 

Summary of GPS Coordinates of vegetation plots in Mlinga FR. 

Vegetation Plot Longitude Latitude Grid Ref. 37M Grid Ref. UTM 

1 E 038 o 44'51.6" S 05 o 03'29.7" 0472029 9440942 

2 E 038 o 45'06.1" S 05 o 03'28.5" 0472496 9440941 

3 E 038 o 45'21.1" S 05 o 03'29.8" 0472939 9440939 

4 E 038 o 44'36.7" S 05 o 03'58.9" 0471570 9440045 

5 E 038 o 44'22.2" S 05 o 04'00.4" 0471125 9440001 

6 E 038 o 44'07.5" S 05 o 04'00.3" 0470673 9440002 

7 E 038 o 43'53.2" S 05 o 03'59.6" 0470231 9440026 

8 E 038 o 45'35.7" S 05 o 03'29.8" 0473389 94404940 

9 E 038 o 45'35.7" S 05 o 03'59.2" 0473389 9440039 

10 E 038 o 44'50.8" S 05 o 03'57.4" 0472005 9440092 

11 E 038 o 44'21.8" S 05 o 03'28.4" 0471112 9439131 

12 E 038 o 44'36.6" S 05 o 04'28.2" 0471570 9439145 

13 E 038 o 44'49.9" S 05 o 04'28.9" 0471979 9439125 

14 E 038 o 45'35.8" S 05 o 03'15.1" 0473389 9441390 

15 E 038 o 45'21.9" S 05 o 03'14.9" 0472962 9441399 

16 E 038 o 45'07.3" S 05 o 03'15.1" 0472513 9441390 

17 E 038 o 45'35.7" S 05 o 03'44.5" 0473389 9440490 

18 E 038 o 45'21.5" S 05 o 03'44.6" 0472952 9440485 

19 E 038 o 44'50.7" S 05 o 03'47.0" 0472002 9440412 

20 E 038 o 44'36.9" S 05 o 03'44.5" 0471578 9440489 

21 E 038 o 44'22.7" S 05 o 03'45.6" 0471141 9440453 

22 E 038 o 44'08.2" S 05 o 03'46.4" 0470698 9440437 

23 E 038 o 43'53.6" S 05 o 03'46.3" 0470245 9440433 

24 E 038 o 43'36.0" S 05 o 03'47.0" 0469703 9440411 

25 E 038 o 45'35.2" S 05 o 04'13.0" 0473372 9439614 

26 E 038 o 45'21.1" S 05 o 04'13.8" 0472939 9439589 

27 E 038 o 44'36.6" S 05 o 04'13.6" 0471570 9439595 

28 E 038 o 44'07.4" S 05 o 04'13.1" 0470671 9439609 

29 E 038 o 44'22.0" S 05 o 04'13.6" 0470215 9439606 

30 E 038 o 44'36.6" S 05 o 04'42.9" 0471570 9438695 

31 E 038 o 44'37.1" S 05 o 04'57.3" 0471584 9438254 

32 E 038 o 44'49.8" S 05 o 04'57.4" 0471976 9438252 

33 E 038 o 45'05.7" S 05 o 04'27.6" 0472464 9439164 

34 E 038 o 45'24.2" S 05 o 04'30.5" 0473034 9439075 

Italic font: questionable GPS co-ordinate as a result of poor satellite response. 


Appendix 3: General vegetation plot descriptions 

Summary of vegetation plot descriptions in Mlinga FR. 

Plot 

Number 

Topography Altitude 

(masl) 

Slope 

(degrees) 

Vegetation 

Condition 

Canopy Height 

(m) 

Disturbance Category Features of Interest No. 

species 

No. 

Indivs 

Dominant sp. 

1 GLS 280 16 Open woodland

Appendix 3 continued. 

Plot 

Number 

Topography Altitude 

(masl) 

Slope 

(degrees) 

Vegetation 

Condition 

Canopy Height 

(m) 

Disturbance Category Features of Interest No. 

species 

No. 

Indivs 

Dominant sp. 

22 GLS 360 15 Lowland Forest 10-20 Fire None 8 28 Stereospermum kunthianum 

23 GLS 360 12 Open woodland

Mlinga Forest Reserve 93 

Appendix 4: New flora for the East Usambara plant biodiversity 

database 

Summary of new flora records for the East Usambara Plant Biodiversity Database (Pohjonen, 

2001) from vegetation plots and opportunistic collection, Mlinga FR. 

VEGETATION PLOT TREES AND SHRUBS 

EUPHORBIACEAE Pycnocoma littoralis Pax 1894 

MELASTOMATACEAE Warneckea schliebenii (Markgr.) Jacq.-Fel 1978 

MORACEAE Ficus holstii Warb 1894 

STERCULIACEAE Sterculia rogersii N.E.Br. 1921 

OPPORTUNISTIC COLLECTION AND OBSERVATION 

Angiospermae – Dichotyledonae 

CAPPARIDACEAE Ritchiea albersii Gilg 1903 

COMPOSITAE Aspilia abyssinica Vatke 1875 

CONNARACEAE Rourea coccinea (Schumach. & Thonn.) Roberty 1954 

EUPHORBIACEAE Acalypha forbesii S. Moore 1914 

EUPHORBIACEAE Erythrococca fischeri Pax 1894 

EUPHORBIACEAE Pycnocoma littoralis Pax 1894 

EUPHORBIACEAE Tragia benthamii Baker 1901 

LABIATAE Plectranthus lactiflorus (Vatke) Agnew 1974 

MALVACEAE Hibiscus micranthus L.f. 1781 

MELASTOMATACEAE Memecylon deminutum Brenan 1947 

RHIZOPHORACEAE Anisophyllea stuhmanii 

RUBIACEAE Polysphaeria lanceolata Hiern 1877 

VITACEAE Cyphostemma adenocaule (Steud. Ex A. Rich.) Desc. 1967 


GRAMINEAE Ophiurus exaltatus (L.) Kuntze 1891 


Appendix 5: Useful plants 

A summary of useful plants sampled systematically in vegetation plots and opportunistically in Mlinga FR (based on Ruffo, 1989). 

ANACARDIACEAE 

Building Poles Fuelwood Tool handles Pestles Mortars Ornamental Dyes Honey Edible 

fruits 

Sorindeia madagascariensis* + + + + Wooden spoons 

Other 

APOCYNACEAE 

Rauvolfia caffra* + + 

Wooden cups 

BORAGINACEAE 

Cordia Africana + + + 

Fernandoa magnifica + 

COMBRETACEAE 

Combretum schumannii + + + + 

Terminalia sambesiaca + + 

EBENACEAE 

Diospyros abyssinica + + 

EUPHORBIACEAE 

Bridelia micrantha* + + + + + + 

GUTTIFERAE 

Allanblackia stuhlmannii* + + + + (fat) 

Haronga madagascariensis + + + + + 


Cynometra sp. A (of FTEA) + + + + + 

Dialium holtzii + + 



Species 


Building 

Poles 

Fuelwood Tool handles Pestles Mortars Ornamental Dyes Honey Edible 

fruits 

Inga glaberrima (bas. Albizia glaberrima)* + + + 

Albizia gummifera* + + + 

Newtonia buchananii* + + + + 

Newtonia paucijuga* + 

Parkia filicoidea + 

Other 

LOGANIACEAE 

Anthocleista grandiflora * + 

MELIANTHACEAE 

Bersama abyssinica* + 

MORACEAE 

Antiaris toxicaria* + Balls & bird line 

Ficus exasperata * 

Ficus sur 

Milicia excelsa + + 

Balls & bird line 

Balls & bird line 

MYRSINACEAE 

Baeobotrys lanceolata (bas. Maesa lanceolata )* + 

MYRTACEAE 

Eugenia guineensis (syn. Synzigium guineense afromontanum) + + 

OLACACEAE 

Strombosia scheffleri* + + 



Species 

Building 

Poles 

Fuelwood Tool handles Pestles Mortars Ornamental Dyes Honey Edible 

fruits 

RUBIACEAE + + 

Oxyanthus speciosus 

Vangueria infausta + 

Other 

SAPINDACEAE 

Phialodiscus unijugatus (bas. Blighia unijugata)* + + + 

Zanha golungensis* + 

SAPOTACEAE 

Synsepalum cerasiferum (syn. Afrosersalisia cerasifera) 

Wooden cups 

STERCULIACEAE 

Cola clavata* + + Wooden spoons 

Cola scheffleri* + 

Leptonychia usambarensis 

Wooden spoons 

ULMACEAE 

Celtis mildbraedii + + + 

* Species also recorded in the regeneration layer. 


Appendix 6: Medicinal plants 

Summary of Medicinal Plants recorded in Mlinga FR (base on Ruffo et al., 1989b). 

Family Species Local name 

(kisambaa) 

Treatments 

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE Aristolochia densivenia Unkuhe 

BASELLACEAE Basella alba Ndelema Frigidity 

BURSERACEAE Commiphora zimmermannii Mnyakwa Preventing abortion 

CARICACEAE Cylicomorpha parviflora Mtondo 

COMPOSITAE Crassocephalum bojeri Eza Stomachache, dementia 

Baccharoides lasiopus (bas. Vernonia colorata) Hasanda Generalized body pains, hernia, rhematism 

EUPHORBIACEAE Tragia benthamii mbawa 

LABIATAE Hoslundia opposita Mshwee Infertility, stomach ache, impotence, generalised body pains, 

malaria, wounds, chronic cough and colds, convulsions 

LEGUMINOSAE: subfamily Mucuna pruriens 

Upupu 

PAPILIONACEAE 

Phaseolus unguiculatus (syn. Vigna unguiculata) 

Mkunde 

MENISPERMACEAE Triclisia sacleuxii Usisi 

PIPERACEAE Piper capensis ng'oko Epilepsy, infertility 



Family Species Local name 

(kisambaa) 

Treatments 

RUBIACEAE Pentas bussei Mnyampome Infertillity, kidney troubles especially in women, pneumonia 

RUTACEAE 

Citrus aurantifolia Ushuza Headache, dementia, generalized body pains, hernia, reumatism 

Clausena anisata Mjavikavi Infertility, leprosy, dementia, madness, gonorrhoea 

Toddalia asiatica Mdongonyezi Generalized body pains, chronic coughs and colds, tuberculosis 

SAPOTACEAE Afrosersalicia cerasifera Muhoe 

SIMAROUBACEAE Harrisonia abyssinica Mdadai Kidney troubles especially in women 

SOLANACEAE Capsicum sp. Mpilipili kisaka 

Solanum incanum Mtua Bewitchment, convulsions in children, hernia, madness, infertility, 

stomach ache in adults only, aphrodisiac 

Angiospermae - Monocotyledonae 

GRAMINEAE Stipa latifolia (bas. Olyra latifolia) Ufiha Allergy, convulsions, constipation, stomach ache 

Ophiurus exaltatus (syn. Rottboellia exaltata) Ushushi Allergy, prevention of abortion, convulsions, epilepsy, rashes 

DRACAENACEAE Dracaena deremensis Ung'weng'we 

ZINGIBERACEAE Aframomum angustifolium Samaka Schistomiasis, infertility 


Appendix 7: Regeneration plot descriptions 

Summary of rgenereration plot descriptions in Mlinga FR. 

Regen. 

plot 

Habitat Ground cover (%) Dominance (%) Soil Texture Soil Colour No. Individuals No. species 

Herbaceous 

vegetation 

Bare soil Litter Rocks Grasses Forbs Mosses 

/lichens 

Ferns 3x3m 6x6m 3x3m 6x6m 

1 Woodland 90 0 10 0 80 20 0 0 Loamy-clay Brown 1 1 1 1 

2 Woodland 60 20 20 0 70 30 0 0 Sandy-clay Red brown 15 17 5 5 

3 Lowland Forest 80 10 10 0 70 30 0 0 Loamy-clay Brown 23 57 5 11 

4 Woodland 20 5 5 50 80 20 0 0 Loamy-clay Dark grey 14 17 3 3 

5 Woodland 90 10 0 0 80 20 0 0 Sandy-loam Dark grey 9 24 4 5 

6 Lowland Forest 40 10 30 20 5 95 0 0 Sandy-loam Black 4 4 2 2 

7 Woodland 95 5 80 0 80 20 0 0 Sandy-clay Dark brown 2 2 1 1 

8 Grassland 70 0 10 20 95 5 0 0 Rocky Brown 0 0 0 0 

9 Scrub/Grassland 80 0 20 0 90 10 0 0 Sandy-loam Dark grey 0 0 0 0 

10 Lowland Forest 20 20 30 40 20 80 0 0 Sandy-loam Dark grey 10 13 6 7 

11 Lowland Forest / 

Grassland 

90 5 20 0 70 30 0 0 Loamy-clay Brown 1 3 1 2 

12 Sub-montane Forest 95 5 20 0 80 20 0 10 Sandy-clay Red brown 3 5 2 3 

13 Sub-montane Forest 40 20 20 20 90 10 0 0 Sandy-loam Light grey 5 8 2 3 

14 Scrub/Grassland 70 10 20 0 80 20 0 0 Sandy-clay Dark brown 4 6 2 2 

15 Woodland/Grassland 40 30 30 0 80 20 0 0 Loamy-clay Dark brown 3 3 2 2 

16 Woodland/Grassland 70 0 30 0 80 20 0 0 Loamy-clay Brown 2 2 2 2 

17 Scrub 60 30 10 0 95 5 0 0 Loamy-clay Light grey 10 10 2 2 

18 Lowland Forest 40 30 10 20 20 80 0 0 Sandy-loam Dark grey 0 0 0 0 

19 Lowland Forest/Scrub 70 20 80 5 95 0 0 0 Loamy-clay Red brown 3 19 3 6 



Regen. Habitat Ground cover (%) Dominance (%) Soil Texture Soil Colour No. Individuals No. species 

plot 

Herbaceous Bare soil Litter Rocks Grasses Forbs Mosses Ferns 3x3m 6x6m 3x3m 6x6m 

vegetation 

/lichens 

21 Lowland Forest 50 0 100 0 10 90 0 0 Sandy-clay Red brown 13 34 5 6 

22 Lowland 

90 40 60 0 95 5 0 0 Sandy-loam Dark brown 1 6 1 2 

Forest/Grassland 

23 Woodland/Grassland 80 0 20 0 90 10 0 0 Sandy-clay Dark brown 2 7 2 4 

24 Woodland/Grassland 90 5 5 0 95 5 0 0 Loamy-clay Dark grey 0 0 0 0 

25 Disturbed Lowland 

100 0 20 80 90 10 0 0 Sandy-loam Dark brown 1 13 1 1 

Forest 

26 Disturbed Lowland 

100 0 0 60 50 50 0 0 Sandy-loam Dark grey 3 8 1 1 


27 Lowland Forest 0 10 90 25 0 10 20 0 Sandy-clay Brown 59 86 5 8 

28 Lowland Forest 30 40 20 10 60 20 0 20 Sandy-clay Red brown 8 12 4 5 

29 Lowland Forest 70 10 20 0 80 20 0 0 Loamy-clay Brown 21 22 7 7 

30 Sub-montane 

20 70 10 15 10 90 0 0 Loamy-clay Dark brown 3 6 2 2 

Forest/Scrub 

31 Sub-montane Forest 10 40 50 0 0 90 0 10 Loamy-clay Brown 19 34 8 12 

32 Disturbed Sub-montane 30 20 60 10 30 70 0 0 Loamy-clay Dark brown 2 2 2 2 


33 Rock 80 0 0 20 60 20 10 10 Rocky 0 0 0 0 

34 Rock 20 20 0 60 80 10 10 0 Rocky 0 0 0 0 

MEAN 61.18 14.26 28.24 13.38 64.85 30.59 1.18 1.47 7.18 12.50 2.41 3.18 

Standard Deviation 29.70 16.15 27.10 21.10 32.04 29.92 4.09 4.36 11.18 17.92 2.12 3.09 



Appendix 8: Mammal capture data 

8a Summary of small mammal capture at zoological trapsites in Mlinga FR (refer to Tables 

18 and 19 for trapsite locations, descriptions and sampling intensity). 

Species 

Number of individuals caught in 

trapsites 1-5 (sampling intensity in 

Sherman trap nights) 

1 2 3 4 5 


individual 

s 

captured 


recaptures 

Total 

specimens 

taken 

(1000) (1000) (1000) (1000) (98) (4098) 

SORICIDAE 

Crocidura flavescens - - - - - - - 

Crocidura hildegardeae 4 - - - - 4 - 

Crocidura sp. 1 1 1 2 - 6 - 10 

CRICETOMYINAE 

Beamys hindei 1 - - 29 - 11 19 1 

MURIDAE 

Acomys spinosissimus 2 2 2 - - 6 - 3 

Acomys sp. 1 - - - - 1 - 1 

Lophuromys flavopunctatus - - - 15 2 10 7 2 

Praomys delectorum - - - 26 - 14 12 5 

Praomys sp. - - - - 1 1 - 1 

Grammomys ibeanus 1 1 - 1 - 3 - 2 

Grammomys macmillani 1 - 1 1 - 3 - 3 

Rattus rattus 1 - - - - 1 - 1 

Unknown sp. 1 1 - - - - 1 - 1 

Unknown sp. 2 1 - - - - 1 - 1 

GALAGONIDAE 

Galago zanzibaricus - 1 - - - 1 - 

TOTAL 14 5 4 74 3 100 38 31 

8b Summary of bat capture at bat-netting sites in Mlinga FR (refer to Table 20). 

Species 

Number of individuals caught in bat net 

sites 1-5 (sampling intensity in net square 

meter hours) 

Total no. 

individuals 

captured 

1 2 3 4 5 

(294) (735) (1087) (1015) (131) (3262) 

Total 

specimens 

taken 

NYCTERIDAE 

Nycteris grandis - 1 - - - 1 1 

PTEROPODIDAE 

Lissonycteris angolensis - - - - 4 4 3 

Myonycteris relicta - - - - 1 1 1 

RHINOLOPHIDAE 

Hipposideros caffer 1 2 - 3 1 9 4 

Hipposideros ruber ? ? - ? ? ? 

Hipposideros sp. - 2 - 1 - 1 1 

Rhinolophus clivosus 2 - - 1 2 5 3 

Rhinolophus fumigatus 1 2 - - 1 5 3 

Rhinolophus sp. - 1 - - - 1 

VESPERTILIONIDAE 

Miniopterus schriebersi 1 - - - - 1 1 

Pipistrellus kuhli/rueppelli - - - 1 - 1 1 

TOTAL 5 8 0 6 9 29 18 



Appendix 9: Reptile capture data 

Summary of reptile capture at zoological trapsites and during opportunistic collection in 

Mlinga FR (refer to Tables 18 and 19 for trapsite locations, descriptions and sampling 

intensity). 

Species 

Number of individuals caught 

in traps at trapsites 1-4 

(SAMPLING INTENSITY IN 

TRAP NIGHTS) 

1 2 3 4 

(330) (330) (330) (330) 

Casual 

collections 

Total no. 

individual 

s captured 

Total 

specimens 

taken 

AGAMIDAE 

Agama montana - - - - 1 1 1 


Chamaeleo* fischeri - - - - 1 1 1 

Chamaeleo* tenue - - - - 1 1 1 

Chamaeleo dilepis - - - - 1 1 1 

COLUBRIDAE 

Dasypeltis medici - 1 - - 1 2 2 

Lamprophis capensis - - - - 1 2 2 

Lamprophis fuliginosus 1 - - - 1 2 2 

Buhoma vauerocegae - - - 1 - 1 1 

Aparallactus werneri - 1 - - 1 2 2 

Philothamnus sp. - - - - 1 1 1 

Philothamnus macrops - - - - 1 1 1 

Crotaphopeltis hotambeia 1 - - - - 1 1 

Crotaphopeltis tornieri - - - - 1 1 1 

Thelotornis usambaricus 1 - - - 1 2 2 

CORDYLIDAE 

Cordylus tropidosternum - 1 - - - 1 1 

GEKKONIDAE 

Hemidactylus mabouia 1 - - - - 1 1 

SCINCIDAE 

Mabuya maculilabris 1 - - - - 1 1 

Lygosoma afrum 1 - - - - 1 1 

Leptosiaphos kilimensis - - - 1 - 1 1 

TOTAL 6 3 0 2 12 24 24 

*previously Bradypodion 



Appendix 10 : Amphibian capture data 

Summary of amphibian capture at zoological trapsites and during opportunistic collection in 


intensity). 

Species 


traps Trapsites 1-4 (sampling 

intensity in bucket pitfall nights) 

1 2 3 4 

(330) (330) (330) (330) 

Casual 

collections 

Total no. 

indivuals 

captured* 

Total 

specimens 

taken 

ARTHROLEPTIDAE 

Arthroleptis stenodactylus 37 12 - 9 1 59 1 

Arthroleptis xenodactyloides 571 11 195 4 2 783 10 

Arthroleptis sp. (cf. xenodactylus)^ 18 8 70 2 - 98 0 

BUFONIDAE 

Bufo maculatus - - - - 1 1 1 

Nectophrynoides tornieri - - - - 2 2 2 

Mertensophryne micranotis - 1 - - 1 2 2 

Schismaderma carens 1 - - ? 2 3 3 

HYPEROLIIDAE 

Afrixalus brachycnemis - - - - 1 1 1 

Afrixalus ulugurensis - - - - 1 1 1 

Hyperolius tuberilinguis - - - - 1 1 1 

Leptopelis barbouri - - - - 1 1 1 

Leptopelis flavomaculatus - - - - 1 1 1 

Leptopelis ulugurensis - - - - 2 2 2 

MICROHYLIDAE 

Callulina kreffti - - - 1 - 1 1 

Probreviceps macrodactylus - - - 3 - 3 1 

RHACOPHORIDAE 

Chiromantis xerampelina - - - - 1 1 1 

RANIDAE 

Arthroleptides martiensseni - - - - 3 3 3 

Phrynobatrachus krefftii - - - 1 4 5 3 

Phrynobatrachus acridoides - - - - 1 1 1 

TOTAL 627 32 265 20 25 969 37 

*May include recaptures 

^ Questionable field identification – potentially Arthroleptis xenodactyloides. 



Appendix 11: Butterfly capture data 

11a Summary of butterfly capture in canopy traps at zoological trapsites 1 to 4 in Mlinga FR 

(refer to Tables 18 and 19 for trapsite locations, descriptions and sampling intensity). 

Species 


canopy traps Trapsites 1-4 

(sampling intensity in butterfly 

trap days) 

1 2 3 4 

(50) (50) (50) (50) 

Total no. 

individual 

s captured 


specimens 

taken 

LYCAENIDAE 

Unknown sp. - - - 1 1 1 

NYMPHALIDAE 

Acraea satis - 1 - - 1 0 

Amauris niavius dominicanus - - 1 - 1 1 

Apaturopsis cleochares schulzei 2 2 - - 4 2 

Bicyclus auricrudus fulgidus 1 - - - 1 1 

Bicyclus campinus carcassoni 2 1 - - 3 0 

Bicyclus campinus ocelligerus 11 - 6 - 17 3 

Bicyclus safitza safitza 12 14 32 - 58 1 

Bicyclus sp. 1 1 - - 2 1 

Byblia ilithyia 1 - 1 - 2 1 

Byblia sp. - - 1 - 1 1 

Charaxes sp. 2 1 2 - 5 5 

Charaxes bohemani - - 1 - 1 1 

Charaxes brutus natalensis - - 3 - 3 2 

Charaxes candiope candiope 2 - - 1 3 1 

Charaxes castor castor - - 1 - 1 1 

Charaxes chepalungu - - 1 - 1 0 

Charaxes cithaeron nairobicus - 4 16 - 20 1 

Charaxes contrarius 1 - - - 1 1 

Charaxes jahlusa kenyensis - - 1 - 1 1 

Charaxes lasti kimbozae 1 1 - - 2 1 

Charaxes lasti lasti 1 9 8 - 18 1 

Charaxes pollux mirabilis - - 1 - 1 1 

Charaxes protoclea azota - - 1 - 1 1 

Charaxes smaragdalis kigoma - - 1 - 1 1 

Charaxes smaragdalis homonymus 2 - - - 2 1 

Charaxes varanes vologese - 1 - 1 2 1 

Charaxes violetta 1 - - - 1 1 

Charaxes violetta maritimus 2 15 - - 17 0 

Charaxes xiphares 3 - - - 3 2 

Danaus chrysippus/dorippus - - 1 - 1 1 

Euptera kinugnana 1 5 8 - 14 1 

Euryphura achlys - 3 - - 3 1 

Eurytela sp. 1 - - - 1 1 

Eurytela dryope angulata 13 17 28 1 59 4 

Eurytela hiarbas lita - - - 2 2 1 

Euxanthe wakefieldi - 1 - - 1 1 

Gnophodes betsimena diversa 2 - - - 2 1 

Henotesia perspicua - - 3 - 3 0 

Henotesia phaea phaea 1 - - - 1 1 

Melantis leda leda 2 3 1 - 6 1 

Neptidopsis fulgurata platyptera - - 1 - 1 1 



Appendix 11a continued. 

Species 


canopy traps Trapsites 1-4 

(sampling intensity in butterfly trap 

days) 

1 2 3 4 

(50) (50) (50) (50) 

Total no. 

individuals 

captured 

No. 

specimens 

taken 

NYMPHALIDAE continued. 

Neptidopsis ophione velleda - - 1 - 1 0 

Neptis carcassoni - - 1 - 1 0 

Neptis rogersi - - 1 - 1 0 

Neptis saclava marpessa 1 1 - - 2 1 

Neptis serena serena - - 1 - 1 1 

Neptis trigonophora trigonophora - - 1 - 1 1 

Pseudacraea lucretia protracta 1 - - - 1 1 

Pseudathyma plutonica 1 - - - 1 1 

Sallya boisduvali omissa 1 - - - 1 1 

Sallya garega garega 1 2 11 - 14 1 

Sallya natalensis 1 - 1 - 2 0 

PAPILIONIDAE 

Papilio dardanus polytrophus 1 - - - 1 1 

UNKNOWN 

Unknown sp. 4 - - - 4 4 

TOTALS 76 82 136 6 300 61 

11b Summary of butterflies caught sweepnetting at zoological trapsites and casually in 


intensity). 

Species 

Number of individuals 

caught in systematic 

sweepnetting Trapsites 1-4 

(sampling intensity in 

sweepnet hours) 

1 2 3 4 

(20) (20) (20) (20) 

Casual 

sweepne 

t 

captures 

Total no. 

individual 

s captured 


specimens 

taken 

HESPERIIDAE 

Pardaleodes incerta 2 - - - - 2 1 

Sarangesa maculata 1 - - - - 1 1 

Tagiades flesus 1 - - - - 1 1 

Teniorhinus herilus 1 - - - - 1 1 

Unknown sp. - - - 1 - 1 1 

LYCAENIDAE 

Alaena picata 2 2 - 2 - 6 2 

Axiocerses punicea 1 - - - - 1 1 

Azanus moriqua - - 1 - - 1 1 

Eicochrysops hippocrates 1 - - - - 1 1 

Eicochrysops masai 1 - - - - 1 1 

Lampides boeticus 1 - - - - 1 1 

Leptotes pirithous - - - - 1 1 1 

Unknown sp. 1 - - - - 1 1 

Pentila tropicalis 1 - 1 - - 2 1 

Pilodeudorix rodgersi 1 - - - - 1 1 

Teriominia subpunctata - 1 - - - 1 1 

Tuxentius margaritaceus - - 1 - - 1 1 



Appendix 11b continued. 

Species 


in systematic sweepnetting 

Trapsites 1-4 (sampling 

intensity in sweepnet hours) 

1 2 3 4 

(20) (20) (20) (20) 

Casual 

sweepnet 

captures 

No. 

individuals 

captured) 


specimens 

taken 

NYMPHALIDAE 

Acraea sp. 1 - - 2 1 4 4 

Acraea acara - 1 - - - 1 1 

Acraea acrita - - 1 - - 1 1 

Acraea aganice montana 5 3 3 1 - 12 2 

Acraea alcinoe camerunica - - 3 - - 3 2 

Acraea boopis ama 1 - - - - 1 1 

Acraea cerasa cerasa - 1 - - - 1 1 

Acraea egina egina - - - 1 - 1 1 

Acraea eponina eponina - - 1 - - 1 1 

Acraea macaria hemileuca 1 2 - - - 3 2 

Acraea natalica natalica 2 - 1 - 1 4 3 

Acraea quirina rosa - - - 8 - 8 1 

Acraea satis - 3 - - - 3 1 

Acraea servona kenya - - - 2 - 2 2 

Acraea uvui uvui 1 - - - - 1 1 

Amauris sp. 2 - - - - 2 1 

Amauris niavius dominicanus - - 1 2 1 4 0 

Amauris niavius niavius 4 - - - - 4 1 

Bicyclus campinus carcassoni - - 1 - - 1 0 

Bicyclus safitza safitza 2 2 9 - - 13 1 

Byblia ilithyia 1 - - - - 1 1 

Danaus chrysippus/dorippus - 1 - - - 1 1 

Euphaedra neophron littoralis 1 - - - - 1 1 

Eurytela dryope angulata 2 - 1 - - 3 1 

Henotesia perspicua 1 - - - - 1 1 

Hypolimnas anthedon anthedon - - 1 - 1 2 1 

Junonia oenone oenone 1 - - - - 1 1 

Junonia terea elgiva 1 - - - - 1 1 

Neptidopsis ophione velleda 3 - - 2 1 6 3 

Neptis sp. 2 - - 1 - 3 2 

Neptis carcassoni 1 - - - - 1 1 

Neptis jordani 1 - - - - 1 1 

Neptis laeta 3 - - - - 3 1 

Neptis melicerta - - - 1 - 1 1 

Neptis rogersi 1 - - - - 1 1 

Neptis saclava marpessa - 1 - - - 1 0 

Unknown sp. 1 - - - - 1 1 

Phalanta eurytis eurytis - - - - 1 1 1 

Physcaeneura leda 4 - 1 - - 5 2 

Sallya garega garega - - - - 1 1 1 

PAPILIONIDAE 

Catopsilia florella 1 - - - - 1 1 

Papilio dardanus polytrophus 1 5 - - - 6 0 

Papilio ophidicephalus - - 1 2 - 3 0 

PIERIDAE 

Appias lasti lasti - - - 3 - 3 1 

Belenois creona severina 1 - - - - 1 1 

Belenois thysa thysa 4 1 2 - - 7 3 



Appendix 11b continued. 

Species 


in systematic sweepnetting 

Trapsites 1-4 (sampling 

intensity in sweepnet hours) 

1 2 3 4 

(20) (20) (20) (20) 

Casual 

sweepnet 

captures 

Total no. 

individuals 

captured 


specimens 

taken 

PIERIDAE continued 

Colotis sp. 1 - - - - 1 1 

Colotis euippe omphale 2 - 1 - - 3 2 

Dixeia charina - - 1 - - 1 1 

Eronia cleodora 2 - - - - 2 1 

Eurema floricola orientis 3 - 4 - 3 10 1 

Eurema sp. 2 - - 1 - 3 1 

Eurema hapale 1 1 2 - - 4 1 

Eurema regularis regularis 2 - - - - 2 2 

Eurema senegalensis 8 - - - - 8 2 

Leptosia alcesta inalcesta 5 1 2 - - 8 1 

Nepheronia argia argia 2 1 - - - 3 1 

Nepheronia thalassina 1 - - - - 1 1 

UNKNOWN - - - - - 

Unknown sp. 2 - - 2 - 4 2 

TOTAL 94 26 39 31 11 202 91 



Appendix 12: Photographs 

Photograph taken from northern border of Mlinga FR, grassland in foreground at the border, 

woodland transition into lowland and submontane forest on slopes and ridge respectively. 

Photograph from noth western border of Mlinga FR, looking south. Stereospermum kunthiam 

with pink flowers in foreground. 



Appendix 13: East Usambara Conservation Area Management 

Programme Technical Paper Series 

(ISSN 1236-620X) 

The East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Papers Series 

consists of reports on forestry issues in the East Usambara Mountains. This series started in 

1991. These reports aim to make information more widely available to staff members of the 

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme, to the Forestry and Beekeeping 

Division, and to other institutions and individuals concerned and interested in the 

conservation of the East Usambara forests. 

The reports are prepared by staff members of the East Usambara Conservation Area 

Management Programme or by other researchers, consultants and interested individuals. The 

views expressed in the reports are those of the author(s). 

Current titles in the series are: 

1. Mwihomeke, S.T. 1991. Some notes to identify and discuss cooperation in forestry research in 

the East Usambara mountains. 

Räsänen, P.K. 1991. Outline of a research planning programme for the East Usambara 

Catchment Forest Project. 

2. Hyytiäinen, K. 1992. Forest management plan for Longuza teak plantations. 

3. Seymour, M. 1992. Manual harvesting of Maesopsis eminii in the East Usambara mountains, 

Tanzania. 

4. Newmark, W.D. 1992. Recommendations for wildlife corridors and the extension and 

management of forest reserves in the East Usambara mountains, Tanzania. 

5. Häkkinen, I. & Wambura, M. 1992. A Frame plan for the Amani Nature Reserve. 

6. Masilingi, W.M.K. 1992. Consultancy report on the legal establishment of the Amani Nature 

Reserve. 

7. Binagi, E.R. 1992. Consolidation of environmental education for adults: critique of FINNIDAfunded 

forestry projects in Tanzania. A case study of the East Usambara Catchment 

Forest Project. 

8. Tuominen, V. 1993. Marking of the forest reserve boundaries in the East Usambara mountains. 

9. Pirttilä, I. 1993. The discharge of Sigi River as an indicator of water catchment value of the East 

Usambara mountains in Tanzania. 

10. Hyytiäinen, K. 1993. Combined seed and timber production in Longuza Teak plantations, 

Tanzania. 

11. Kajembe, G.C. & Mwaseba, D. 1994. The extension and communication programme for the 

East Usambara Catchment Forest Project. 

12. Hyytiäinen, K. 1995. Land use classification and mapping for the East Usambara Mountains. 

13. Hall, J.B. 1995. Maesopsis eminii and its status in the East Usambara Mountains. 

14. Heinonen, P. 1995. PSPs in East Usambara Mountains: present findings and future 

recommendations. 

15. Mnyuku, F.C.N. 1995. Report on an inventory of selected proposed forest reserves in Muheza 

District, Tanga Region. 

16. Kamugisha, S.M. & Materu, E.M.A. 1995. Preliminary results from a study on water flow and 

in Sigi and Bombo rivers in the East Usambara mountains. 

17. Ellman, A., Tye, A., Rwamugira, S., Mallya, B., Mahenge, F. and Mndolwa, A. 1995. 

Development of forest trails and drive routes in the Amani Nature Reserve. 

18. Ellman, A.E. 1996. Handing over the stick? Report of a village forest management and farm 

forestry consultancy 

19. Kigula, J.J., Kijazi, M., Nyangasa, H., Mtango, J., Mahenge, F. 1998. Local communities 

aspirations and needs. 

20. Fowler, S. & Nyambo, B. 1996. Report of a short consultancy on the potential of biological 

control of invasive species in Amani Nature Reserve. International Institute for 

Biological Control & EUCFP. 



21 Howard, P.C. 1996. Baseline biological surveys in selected East Usambara forest reserves and 

forests, 1995-96 – project evaluation report 

22. Woodcock, K. 1995. Local utilisation and indigenous knowledge – two case studies on forest 

resources use in the East Usambara Mountains. 

23. Shaka J.M. & Msangi, A. 1996. Soils and vegetation of Bamba Ridge forest reserve, Maramba 

Division, Muheza District, Tanga. 

24. Shaka J.M. & Msangi, A. 1996. Soils and vegetation of Mlungui proposed forest reserve, 

Maramba Division, Muheza District, Tanga. 

25. Shaka J.M. & Msangi, A. 1996. Soils and vegetation of Kwamarimba and north Longuza forest 

reserve, Bombwera Division, Muheza District, Tanga. 

26. Shaka J.M., Kabushemera, W. & Msangi, A. 1996. Soils and vegetation of Kambai forest 

reserve, Bombwera Division, Muheza District, Tanga. 

27. Shelutete, M. 1996. Women in focus. Report of a consultancy on conservation and women in 

East Usambara. 

28. Johansson, S.G. & Sandy, R. 1996. Protected areas and public lands – land use in the East 

Usambara mountains. 

29. SEE. 1996. Biodiversity survey methods report. – Technical Paper of the Society for 

Environmental Exploration, London. 

30. Frontier Tanzania. 1996. Magarotto Forest. A biodiversity survey. 

31. Frontier Tanzania. 1996. Bamba Ridge Forest Reserve. A biodiversity survey. 

32. Frontier Tanzania. 1996. Mlungui proposed forest reserve. A biodiversity survey. 

33. Frontier Tanzania. 1996. Kwamarimba Forest Reserve. A biodiversity survey. 

34. Frontier Tanzania. 1996. Longuza Forest Reserve. A biodiversity survey. 

35. Frontier Tanzania. 1996. Kambai Forest Reserve. A biodiversity survey. 

36. Shaka, J.M., W. Kabushemera & A. Msangi.1997. A survey and vegetation of Semdoe 

proposed forest reserve, Bombwera Division, Muheza District, Tanga 

37. Vainio-Mattila, K., Mwasumbi, L. & Lahti, K. 1997. Traditional use of wild vegetables in East 

Usambara mountains. 

38. Sandy,R.P., Boniface, G. & Rajabu, I. 1997. A survey and inventory of the Amani Botanical 

Garden. 

39. Frontier Tanzania. 1999. Mtai Forest Reserve. A biodiversity survey. 

40. Frontier Tanzania. 1999. Kwamgumi Forest Reserve. A biodiversity survey. 

41. Frontier Tanzania 1999. Manga forest reserve. A biodiversity survey. 

42. Frontier Tanzania 2001. Doggart, N. H., Doody, K. Z., Howell, K. M., and Fanning, E. (eds.) 

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Mlinga Forest Reserve: a biodiversity survey. - Coastal Forests of ...

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