Fisheries in the Southern Border Zone of Takamanda - Impact ...
Fisheries in the Southern Border Zone of Takamanda - Impact ...
Fisheries in the Southern Border Zone of Takamanda - Impact ...
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Smithsonian Institution<br />
SI/MAB Biodiversity Program<br />
SI/MAB Series #8<br />
© 2003 by SI/MAB Biodiversity Program<br />
All rights reserved<br />
ISBN # 1-893912-12-4<br />
Library <strong>of</strong> Congress<br />
Catalog Control Number: 2003106957<br />
Cover design and <strong>in</strong>serts: Velvette De Laney<br />
Cover photographs: Western Bluebill, Spermophaga haemat<strong>in</strong>a (Carlton Ward, Jr). Views, animals, communities and<br />
research <strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon (Sunderland, Dallmeier, Ward Jr, Lucas).<br />
Op<strong>in</strong>ions expressed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> SI/MAB Series are those <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> authors and do not necessarily reflect those <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Smithsonian Institution or partner organizations.<br />
Suggested citation: Comiskey, J. A., T. C. H. Sunderland, and J. L. Sunderland-Groves, eds. 2003. <strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong><br />
Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest, SI/MAB Series #8. Smithsonian Institution, Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC.<br />
Pr<strong>in</strong>ted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> United States <strong>of</strong> America by Charter Pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g, Alexandria, VA, on recycled paper. This publication was<br />
made possible through <strong>the</strong> support <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups.
Table <strong>of</strong> Contents<br />
Recent SI/MAB Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii<br />
Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv<br />
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi<br />
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii<br />
1. <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Jacquel<strong>in</strong>e L. Sunderland-Groves, Terry C. H. Sunderland, James A. Comiskey<br />
Julius S. O. Ayeni, and Mar<strong>in</strong>a Mdaihli. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1<br />
2. Adaptive Management: A Framework for Biodiversity Conservation <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve,<br />
Cameroon<br />
James A. Comiskey and Francisco Dallmeier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9<br />
3. Vegetation Assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Terry C.H. Sunderland, James A. Comiskey, Simon Besong, Hyac<strong>in</strong>th Mboh,<br />
John Fonwebon, and Mercy Abwe Dione. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19<br />
4. Butterfly Fauna <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Ebwekoh Monya O’ Kah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55<br />
5. Biodiversity Assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Odonate Fauna <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Graham S. Vick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73<br />
6. Reptiles <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Mat<strong>the</strong>w LeBreton, Laurent Chirio, and Désiré Foguekem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83<br />
7. The Birds <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Marc Languy and Francis Njie Motombe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95<br />
8. Large Mammals <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Jacquel<strong>in</strong>e L. Sunderland-Groves and Fiona Maisels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111<br />
9 Surveys <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cross River Gorilla and Chimpanzee Populations <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest<br />
Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Jacquel<strong>in</strong>e L. Sunderland-Groves, Fiona Maisels, and Albert Ek<strong>in</strong>de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
ii<br />
10. <strong>Fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>Border</strong> <strong>Zone</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>a Mdaihli, Tim Du Feu and Julius S.O. Ayeni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141<br />
11. Distribution, Utilization, and Susta<strong>in</strong>ability <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Non-Timber Forest Products from <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Terry C.H. Sunderland, Simon Besong, and Julius S. O. Ayeni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155<br />
12. Landcover Change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon: 1986 - 2000<br />
Dan Slayback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173<br />
13. Future Conservation and Management <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Terry C. H. Sunderland, Jacquel<strong>in</strong>e L. Sunderland-Groves, James A. Comiskey,<br />
Julius S. O. Ayeni, and Mar<strong>in</strong>a Mdaihli. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Recent SI/MAB Publications<br />
Dallmeier, F., A. Alonso, and P. Campbell, eds. 2002. Special Issue: Biodiversity Monitor<strong>in</strong>g and Assessment for<br />
Adaptive Management: L<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g Conservation and Development. Environmental Monitor<strong>in</strong>g and Assessment 76.<br />
Dallmeier, F., A. Alonso and D. Kloepfer. 2002. Adventures <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ra<strong>in</strong>forest: Discover<strong>in</strong>g Biodiversity. Smithsonian<br />
Institution/Monitor<strong>in</strong>g and Assessment <strong>of</strong> Biodiversity Program, Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC, USA.<br />
Alonso, A., F. Dallmeier, and P. Campbell, eds. 2001. Urubamba: The Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> a Peruvian Ra<strong>in</strong>forest, SI/MAB<br />
Series #7. Smithsonian Institution, Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC, USA.<br />
Alonso, L. E., A. Alonso, T. S. Schulenberg, and F. Dallmeier. 2001. Biological and social assessments <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cordillera<br />
de Vilcabamba, Peru. RAP Work<strong>in</strong>g Papers 12 and SI/MAB Series #6. Conservation International. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton,<br />
DC, USA.<br />
Alonso, A., F. Dallmeier, E. Granek, and P. Raven. 2001. Biodiversity: Connect<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>the</strong> Tapestry <strong>of</strong> Life.<br />
Smithsonian Institution/Monitor<strong>in</strong>g and Assessment <strong>of</strong> Biodiversity Program and President’s Committee <strong>of</strong><br />
Advisors on Science and Technology. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC, USA.<br />
Alonso, A. and F. Dallmeier. 2000. Work<strong>in</strong>g for Biodiversity. Smithsonian Institution/Monitor<strong>in</strong>g and Assessment <strong>of</strong><br />
Biodiversity Program, Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC, USA.<br />
Comiskey, J. A., F. Dallmeier, and A. Alonso. 2000. Framework for assessment and monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> biodiversity. In:<br />
Encyclopedia <strong>of</strong> Biodiversity (S. Lev<strong>in</strong>, ed.). Volume 3, 63-73pp. Academic Press. San Diego, CA.<br />
Ojasti, J. 2000. Manejo de Fauna Silvestre Neotropical. Edited by F. Dallmeier. SI/MAB Series #5. Smithsonian<br />
Institution/MAB Biodiversity Program, Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC, USA.<br />
Herrera-MacBryde, O., F. Dallmeier, B. MacBryde, J.A. Comiskey and C. Miranda, eds. 2000. Biodiversidad,<br />
Conservación y Manejo en la Región de la Reserva de la Biosfera Estación Biológical del Beni, Bolivia /<br />
Biodiversity, Conservation and Management <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Region <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Beni Biological Station Biosphere Reserve,<br />
Bolvia, SI/MAB Series #4. Smithsonian Institution/MAB Biodiversity Program, Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC, USA.<br />
Alonso, A. and F. Dallmeier, eds. 1999. Biodiversity Assessment and Monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lower Urubamba Region,<br />
Peru: Pagoreni Well Site Assessment and Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, SI/MAB Series #3. Smithsonian Institution/MAB Biodiversity<br />
Program, Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC, USA.<br />
Alonso, A. and F. Dallmeier, eds. 1998. Biodiversity Assessment and Monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lower Urubamba Region,<br />
Peru: Cashiriari-3 Well Site and <strong>the</strong> Camisea and Urubamba Rivers, SI/MAB Series #2. Smithsonian<br />
Institution/MAB Biodiversity Program, Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC, USA.<br />
Dallmeier, F. and J. Comiskey, eds. 1998. Forest Biodiversity <strong>in</strong> North, Central and South America, and <strong>the</strong> Caribbean:<br />
Research and Monitor<strong>in</strong>g, Man and <strong>the</strong> Biosphere Series, Vol. 21. Par<strong>the</strong>non Press, Carnforth, Lancashire, UK.<br />
Dallmeier, F. and J. Comiskey, eds. 1998. Forest Biodiversity Research, Monitor<strong>in</strong>g and Model<strong>in</strong>g: Conceptual<br />
Background and Old World Case Studies, Man and <strong>the</strong> Biosphere Series, Vol. 20. Par<strong>the</strong>non Press, Carnforth,<br />
Lancashire, UK.
Mercy Abwe Dione<br />
Dept. <strong>of</strong> Biology, University <strong>of</strong> Buea<br />
Buea, Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Cameroon<br />
Julius S. O. Ayeni<br />
Project for <strong>the</strong> Protection <strong>of</strong> Forests around Akwaya<br />
(PROFA)<br />
GTZ-MINEF<br />
Mamfe, Manyu Division, Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce,<br />
Cameroon<br />
Simon Besong<br />
Botanical Researcher<br />
Project for <strong>the</strong> Protection <strong>of</strong> Forests around Akwaya<br />
(PROFA),<br />
GTZ-MINEF<br />
Mamfe, Manyu Division, Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce,<br />
Cameroon<br />
Laurent Chirio<br />
14 Rue des Roses<br />
06130 Grasse<br />
France<br />
James A. Comiskey<br />
Smithsonian Institution<br />
SI/MAB Program<br />
Conservation and Research Center, NZP<br />
1100 Jefferson Dr., SW, Suite 3123<br />
Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC 20560-0705<br />
USA<br />
Francisco Dallmeier<br />
Smithsonian Institution<br />
SI/MAB Program<br />
Conservation and Research Center, NZP<br />
1100 Jefferson Dr., SW, Suite 3123<br />
Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC 20560-0705<br />
USA<br />
Contributors<br />
Albert Ek<strong>in</strong>de<br />
Cross River Gorilla Research Project (Cameroon)<br />
Wildlife Conservation Society<br />
C/O Limbe Botanical and Zoological Gardens<br />
PO Box 437<br />
Limbe, Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Cameroon<br />
Tim du Feu<br />
Jersey JE3 6AW<br />
Channel Isles<br />
UK<br />
Désiré Foguekem<br />
Cameroon Biodiversity Conservation Society<br />
PB 3055 Messa Yaounde<br />
Cameroon<br />
John Fonwebon<br />
Limbe Botanical and Zoological Gardens<br />
PO Box 437<br />
Limbe, Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Cameroon<br />
Marc Languy<br />
BirdLife International Cameroon Programme<br />
Currently:<br />
Albert<strong>in</strong>e Rift Ecoregion Coord<strong>in</strong>ator<br />
WWF-Eastern Africa Regional Programme Office<br />
BP 62440<br />
00200 Nairobi<br />
Kenya<br />
Fiona Maisels<br />
Wildlife Conservation Society<br />
International Programmes<br />
2300 Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Boulevard<br />
Bronx, NY 10460, USA<br />
and<br />
I.C.A.P.B., Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh University, U.K.
Mat<strong>the</strong>w LeBreton<br />
Cameroon Biodiversity Conservation Society<br />
PB 3055 Messa Yaounde<br />
Cameroon<br />
Hyac<strong>in</strong>th Mboh<br />
Cross River Gorilla Research Project (Cameroon)<br />
Wildlife Conservation Society<br />
C/O Limbe Botanical and Zoological Gardens<br />
PO Box 437<br />
Limbe, Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Cameroon<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>a Mdaihli<br />
Project for <strong>the</strong> Protection <strong>of</strong> Forests around Akwaya<br />
(PROFA),<br />
GTZ-MINEF<br />
Mamfe, Manyu Division, Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Cameroon<br />
Ebwekoh Monya O' Kah<br />
Limbe Botanical and Zoological Gardens<br />
P.O Box 437<br />
Limbe, Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Cameroon<br />
Francis Njie Motombe<br />
Club Ornithologique du Cameroun<br />
PO Box 437, Limbe, Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Cameroon<br />
Dan Slayback<br />
Science Systems and Applications, Inc.<br />
Biospheric Sciences Branch, Code 923<br />
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center<br />
Greenbelt, MD 20771<br />
USA<br />
Terry C.H. Sunderland<br />
SI/MAB Biodiversity Program<br />
Smithsonian Institution<br />
and<br />
Royal Botanic Gardens Kew<br />
C/O Limbe Botanical and Zoological Gardens<br />
PO Box 437, Limbe, Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Cameroon<br />
Jacquel<strong>in</strong>e L. Sunderland-Groves<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Biological Sciences<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Sussex, UK<br />
and<br />
Cross River Gorilla Research Project (Cameroon),<br />
Wildlife Conservation Society<br />
C/O Limbe Botanical and Zoological Gardens<br />
PO Box 437,<br />
Limbe, Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Cameroon<br />
Graham S. Vick<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Biology<br />
Imperial College, University <strong>of</strong> London<br />
Silwood Park, Ascot, Berks, SL5 7PY<br />
United K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
v
The Smithsonian Institution has long been aware <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> southwestern Cameroon to global<br />
biodiversity and as a storehouse <strong>of</strong> resources with<br />
potentially significant value to humank<strong>in</strong>d. In <strong>the</strong> 1990s,<br />
scientists from <strong>the</strong> Division <strong>of</strong> Experimental Therapeutics<br />
at Walter Reed Army Institute <strong>of</strong> Research and <strong>the</strong><br />
Bioresources Development and Conservation Programme<br />
approached <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian with an <strong>of</strong>fer to jo<strong>in</strong> research<br />
<strong>in</strong> Nigeria and Cameroon aimed at us<strong>in</strong>g development <strong>of</strong><br />
pharmaceutical drugs to catalyze conservation <strong>of</strong><br />
biodiversity. Out <strong>of</strong> those <strong>in</strong>itial discussions, <strong>the</strong><br />
International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups for West<br />
Africa was formed, based on <strong>the</strong> belief that <strong>the</strong> discovery<br />
and development <strong>of</strong> pharmaceuticals and o<strong>the</strong>r useful<br />
products from natural resources can, under appropriate<br />
circumstances, promote susta<strong>in</strong>ed economic growth <strong>in</strong><br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g countries and conserve <strong>the</strong> biological<br />
resources from which <strong>the</strong> products are derived. Priority<br />
objectives were to establish and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>ventory <strong>of</strong><br />
species used <strong>in</strong> traditional medic<strong>in</strong>e; collect, chemically<br />
analyze, and test plant samples for potential medic<strong>in</strong>al<br />
development; identify key compounds for <strong>the</strong> treatment<br />
<strong>of</strong> diseases such as malaria, HIV-AIDS, cancer, cystic<br />
fibrosis, and leischmaniasis; establish and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><br />
research plots for long-term assessment <strong>of</strong> ecological<br />
dynamics <strong>in</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>forests; conduct economic value<br />
assessments <strong>of</strong> major species <strong>in</strong> host countries; and tra<strong>in</strong><br />
Nigerian and Cameroonian scientists and technicians <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> various aspects <strong>of</strong> plant research and ecology.<br />
For nearly ten years, <strong>the</strong> Smithonsian and<br />
Bioresources Development and Conservation Programme<br />
have coord<strong>in</strong>ated biodiversity conservation and tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
for <strong>the</strong> International Cooperative Biodiversity Group. The<br />
Smithsonian has focused on establish<strong>in</strong>g an extensive<br />
network <strong>of</strong> biodiversity monitor<strong>in</strong>g plots <strong>in</strong> Nigeria and<br />
Cameroon and an <strong>in</strong>tensively researched forest dynamics<br />
plot <strong>in</strong> Korup National Park, Cameroon. The goal is<br />
Preface<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> processes that ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><br />
biodiversity <strong>in</strong> Central and West African forests.<br />
Smithsonian has conducted detailed forest<br />
biodiversity assessments <strong>in</strong> collaboration with numerous<br />
partner organizations to provide basel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
needed to develop regional conservation strategies. We<br />
have also provided pr<strong>of</strong>essional tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> plant<br />
taxonomy, collection techniques, biodiversity monitor<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
data analysis, and environmental leadership for <strong>in</strong>-country<br />
students and natural resource technicians. Our o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
efforts <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region <strong>in</strong>clude support <strong>of</strong> herbariums,<br />
computer facilities, and o<strong>the</strong>r components <strong>of</strong> local<br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructure and capacity. Partners who have jo<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> drug screen<strong>in</strong>g and resource development aspect <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> program <strong>in</strong>clude Walter Reed Army Institute <strong>of</strong><br />
Research, University <strong>of</strong> Buea (Cameroon), University <strong>of</strong><br />
Dschang (Cameroon), University <strong>of</strong> Jos (Nigeria), Pace<br />
University (New York), Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Research Institute<br />
(Alabama), <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Utah, <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong><br />
Miami, and Florida State University.<br />
Fund<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>the</strong> overall program stems from <strong>the</strong><br />
International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups Program,<br />
a consortium <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> National Institutes <strong>of</strong> Health, <strong>the</strong><br />
Biological Sciences Directorate <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> National Science<br />
Foundation, and <strong>the</strong> Foreign Agriculture Service <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
U.S. Department <strong>of</strong> Agriculture. Cooperat<strong>in</strong>g National<br />
Institutes <strong>of</strong> Health agencies <strong>in</strong>clude Fogarty International<br />
Center, National Cancer Institute, National Institute <strong>of</strong><br />
Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institute <strong>of</strong><br />
Mental Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse, and<br />
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.<br />
The <strong>Takamanda</strong> Project was a collaborative, multi<strong>in</strong>stitutional<br />
effort to provide an <strong>in</strong>itial series <strong>of</strong><br />
assessments for selected taxa <strong>in</strong> this region <strong>of</strong><br />
southwestern Cameroon and elicit <strong>the</strong> data needed to form
a basel<strong>in</strong>e for future research and conservation.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve was relatively unexplored<br />
until this project. Increas<strong>in</strong>g threats to <strong>the</strong> long-term<br />
survival <strong>of</strong> both flora and fauna <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve prompted<br />
<strong>the</strong> authors and <strong>the</strong>ir respective affiliations to conduct <strong>the</strong><br />
biodiversity assessments that we report on <strong>in</strong> this book..<br />
An additional outcome <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Project<br />
was formal tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g through courses conducted by <strong>the</strong><br />
Smithsonian Institution <strong>in</strong> collaboration with <strong>the</strong><br />
Bioresources Development and Conservation Program,<br />
<strong>the</strong> International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups,<br />
WWF Cameroon, <strong>the</strong> Wildlife Conservation Society and<br />
<strong>the</strong> US Agency for International Development’s Central<br />
African Regional Program for <strong>the</strong> Environment.<br />
vii<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued capacity build<strong>in</strong>g was conducted throughout<br />
<strong>the</strong> different field activities.<br />
As an outgrowth <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> International Cooperative<br />
Biodiversity Groups Program, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Project is<br />
based on <strong>the</strong> premise that <strong>the</strong> discovery and development<br />
<strong>of</strong> products (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g pharmaceuticals) from natural<br />
resources may well promote susta<strong>in</strong>able use <strong>of</strong> those<br />
resources and contribute to <strong>the</strong> economic and social wellbe<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> local communities.<br />
Francisco Dallmeier<br />
National Zoological Park<br />
Smithsonian Institution
The editors <strong>of</strong> this publication extend <strong>the</strong>ir gratitude to <strong>the</strong><br />
many people who assisted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> preparation <strong>of</strong> this book,<br />
particularly those who worked <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field and whose<br />
valuable contributions are reflected <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> chapters<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>ed with<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Dan Slayback <strong>of</strong> NASA(formerly <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Peace Corps<br />
<strong>in</strong> Cameroon) was key to <strong>the</strong> production <strong>of</strong> maps, far<br />
beyond <strong>the</strong> call <strong>of</strong> duty.<br />
We thank <strong>the</strong> many technicians who worked on this<br />
project, especially "tree spotters" Anacletus Koufani <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> National Herbarium and Bioresources Development<br />
Conservation Programme-Cameroon, Maurice Elad <strong>of</strong><br />
Tropenbos, and Aron Bibout and Paul Owono Nguille <strong>of</strong><br />
ONADEF. With <strong>the</strong>ir expertise, much <strong>of</strong> this work and<br />
that which preceded it was <strong>of</strong> great value.<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>a Mdaihli and Julius Ayeni <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> GTZ-funded<br />
project PROFA were <strong>in</strong>strumental <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
multi-taxa approach employed throughout <strong>the</strong> study and<br />
were <strong>the</strong> source <strong>of</strong> much logistical, f<strong>in</strong>ancial, and moral<br />
support. Thanks also to Raphael Ebot, former Division<br />
Chief <strong>of</strong> Forestry for Manyu Division, for his unst<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g<br />
support <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> study and to <strong>the</strong> MINEF staff <strong>in</strong> Mamfe.<br />
The M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Scientific and Technical Research,<br />
most notably Mr. John Che, deserves our gratitude for<br />
facilitat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> procurement <strong>of</strong> relevant research and<br />
export permits.<br />
We are most pleased to recognize Dr. Nouhou Ndam<br />
and <strong>the</strong> staff <strong>of</strong> Limbe Botanical and Zoological Gardens<br />
and its marvelous herbarium for giv<strong>in</strong>g us an <strong>in</strong>stitutional<br />
home. We hope that our work has succeeded <strong>in</strong> promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> excellent research facilities <strong>of</strong> this center.<br />
Acknowledgments<br />
We appreciate <strong>the</strong> staff <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian MAB<br />
Program, most assuredly Tatiana Pacheco for her<br />
adm<strong>in</strong>istrative skills. Thanks also to Patricia Ojeda for her<br />
thorough work <strong>in</strong> verify<strong>in</strong>g species taxonomic<br />
nomenclatures, Deanne Kloepfer for review<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
edit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> chapters, and Bryan Hayum for his assistance<br />
<strong>in</strong> formatt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al publication, while Patrick<br />
Campbell, Alfonso Alonso, Francisco Dallmeier, Roger<br />
Soles, Adam Wilcox, Sandra Rub<strong>in</strong>i, and Geri Philpott<br />
provided additional reviews. Carlton Ward Jr. and authors<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chapters are responsible for photographs, while<br />
Velvette De Laney expertly executed <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>sert and cover<br />
designs.<br />
Fund<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>the</strong> vegetation assessments, tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
courses, and current publication was provided by <strong>the</strong><br />
International Cooperative Biodiversity Group for West<br />
and Central Africa. We thank <strong>the</strong> Bioresources<br />
Development and Conservation Programme, and<br />
especially Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Maurice Iwu, for cont<strong>in</strong>ued support<br />
for <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian Institution's work <strong>in</strong> Cameroon and<br />
Nigeria. Additional funds for tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g were provided by<br />
USAID’s Central African Regional Program for <strong>the</strong><br />
Environment.<br />
Last but not least, we extend our heartfelt<br />
appreciation to all Chiefs, Traditional Council Members,<br />
Youth Leaders, and community representatives <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve and its environs for <strong>the</strong>ir help,<br />
hospitality, and significant contributions to this<br />
publication. Mart<strong>in</strong> Ashu, Zach Abang, Mart<strong>in</strong> Tiko, Yisa<br />
Emmanuel, Jasper Obi, Denis Agbor, Esalo Godw<strong>in</strong>, and<br />
Jackson Aveh deserve special mention, although many<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs showed dedication <strong>in</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g this publication<br />
possible. As <strong>the</strong> say<strong>in</strong>g goes, "It takes two hands to tie a<br />
bundle!"
1 The region<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Jacquel<strong>in</strong>e L. Sunderland-Groves, Terry C. H. Sunderland,<br />
James A. Comiskey, Julius S. O. Ayeni, and Mar<strong>in</strong>a Mdaihli<br />
The Republic <strong>of</strong> Cameroon extends from 2° N to 13° N<br />
latitude and between 8° 25' E and 16° 20' W longitude.<br />
The country has a total area <strong>of</strong> 475,440 km² and is<br />
bordered by Chad, Nigeria, Congo, Gabon, Equatorial<br />
Gu<strong>in</strong>ea and a 350-km stretch <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Atlantic Ocean<br />
coastl<strong>in</strong>e. <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve (TFR) is located <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> Cameroon. The Reserve is<br />
part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Gu<strong>in</strong>eo-Congolean forest, which<br />
encompasses approximately 2.8 million km 2 mostly<br />
below 600 m, except where Precambrian highlands such<br />
as <strong>the</strong> Jos Plateau <strong>of</strong> Nigeria and <strong>the</strong> Cameroon<br />
Highlands rise above 1000m (Lawson 1996). The<br />
highest po<strong>in</strong>t is Mount Cameroon at 4,079 m.<br />
Ra<strong>in</strong>fall <strong>in</strong> this vast forest varies from 1500 to more<br />
than 10,000 mm per year, giv<strong>in</strong>g rise to a variety <strong>of</strong><br />
vegetation floristic regions (White 1983). The region<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>s 84% <strong>of</strong> known African primates, 68% <strong>of</strong> known<br />
African passer<strong>in</strong>e birds, and 66% <strong>of</strong> known African<br />
butterflies (Groombridge and Jenk<strong>in</strong>s 2000). For this<br />
reason, <strong>the</strong> Gu<strong>in</strong>eo-Congolian ra<strong>in</strong>forest is an important<br />
focal po<strong>in</strong>t for conservation efforts <strong>in</strong> Africa.<br />
The Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce and adjacent portions <strong>of</strong><br />
sou<strong>the</strong>astern Nigeria are rich <strong>in</strong> biodiversity.<br />
Floristically, this area is part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hygrophylous Coastal<br />
Evergreen Ra<strong>in</strong>forest, which occurs along <strong>the</strong> Gulf <strong>of</strong><br />
Biafra. This vegetation sub-unit is associated with high<br />
ra<strong>in</strong>fall levels (White 1983) and is part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cross-<br />
Sanaga-Bioko Coastal Forest ecoregion, an area <strong>of</strong><br />
52,000 km 2 (Olson et al. 2001, World Wildlife Fund<br />
2001). The ecoregion is considered an important center<br />
<strong>of</strong> plant diversity because <strong>of</strong> its probable isolation dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pleistocene (Davis et al. 1994).<br />
Chapter 1<br />
Protected areas <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region <strong>in</strong>clude Cross River<br />
National Park <strong>in</strong> Nigeria and Korup National Park <strong>in</strong><br />
Cameroon, as well as an extensive network <strong>of</strong> forest<br />
reserves such as Ejagham and <strong>Takamanda</strong> (Figure 1).<br />
2 <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve (05º59’-06º21’N: 09º11-<br />
09º30’E), cover<strong>in</strong>g 67,599 ha, is situated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
nor<strong>the</strong>rnmost corner <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce,<br />
nor<strong>the</strong>ast <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> extensive Cross River Valley. The<br />
Reserve stretches along <strong>the</strong> eastern border <strong>of</strong> Nigeria<br />
(Figure 2), which forms <strong>the</strong> north and northwest<br />
boundaries <strong>of</strong> TFR (Gartlan 1989).<br />
Created by decree <strong>in</strong> 1934, <strong>the</strong> area was first gazetted<br />
as part <strong>of</strong> a network <strong>of</strong> forest reserves (production<br />
forests) by <strong>the</strong> British colonial adm<strong>in</strong>istration <strong>in</strong> what<br />
was <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> British Cameroons. Ak<strong>in</strong> with forest policy<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> British Empire, TFR was <strong>in</strong>itially<br />
established to protect watersheds and restrict <strong>the</strong><br />
expansion <strong>of</strong> agricultural, but more importantly to<br />
conserve areas for future logg<strong>in</strong>g. As with all gazetted<br />
areas <strong>in</strong> Cameroon, <strong>the</strong> Reserve is managed on <strong>the</strong><br />
national level by <strong>the</strong> Cameroon Government Forestry<br />
Department’s M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Environment and Forests<br />
(MINEF) through <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>istry’s Manyu Division Office<br />
<strong>in</strong> Mamfe. The Manyu <strong>of</strong>fice is responsible to <strong>the</strong><br />
Prov<strong>in</strong>cial Delegate <strong>in</strong> Buea.<br />
3 Geomorphology and dra<strong>in</strong>age<br />
Much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowland forest area <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn and<br />
central part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve lies between 100 and 400 m.<br />
The terra<strong>in</strong> is roll<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowland areas, but rises<br />
sharply to an altitude <strong>of</strong> 1,500 m <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn part <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Reserve, where slopes are extremely steep. Small<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003, Pages 1 to 8
2 Sunderland-Groves et al.<br />
Figure 1. Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> Cameroon and <strong>the</strong> associated protected areas.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Protected areas<br />
(NP=National Park; FR=Forest<br />
Reserve; WS=Wildlife Sanctuary;<br />
CF=Community Forest)<br />
1 Korup NP<br />
2 Cross River NP,<br />
Oban Division<br />
3 Cross River NP,<br />
Okwangwo Division<br />
4 Afi Mounta<strong>in</strong> WS<br />
5 Afi River FR<br />
6 Bakala FR<br />
7 Bambuko FR<br />
8 Banyang Mbo WS<br />
9 Cross River North FR<br />
10 Cross River South FR<br />
11 Dibombe Mabobe FR<br />
12 Ejagham FR<br />
13 Ek<strong>in</strong>ta FR<br />
14 Mbe CF<br />
15 Mbulu Hills CF<br />
16 Meme River FR<br />
17 Mokoko River FR<br />
18 Mone River FR<br />
19 Mouyouka Komp<strong>in</strong>a FR<br />
20 Nta Ali FR<br />
21 Rumpi Hills FR<br />
22 S Bakundu FR<br />
23 Stubbs Creek FR<br />
24 Ukpon River FR
3<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003<br />
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Figure 2. <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve and nearby villages.
4 Sunderland-Groves et al.<br />
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hills, up to 725 m <strong>in</strong> elevation, lie to <strong>the</strong> north <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Obonyi villages along <strong>the</strong> border with Nigeria. The hills<br />
separat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> villages <strong>of</strong> Kekpane and Basho are similar<br />
<strong>in</strong> elevation, ris<strong>in</strong>g to between 600 and 700 m.<br />
A basement complex <strong>of</strong> granite, gneisses, schist, and<br />
quartzites underlies <strong>the</strong> region, giv<strong>in</strong>g to shallow<br />
sedimentary soils (ENPLAN 1974). Mar<strong>in</strong>e sediment<br />
deposition occurred dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Precambrian, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
ferrite derived from crystall<strong>in</strong>e rock and large areas <strong>of</strong><br />
alluvial soil toward <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reserve.<br />
The Cross River and its numerous headwater<br />
tributaries form <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> water system <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region. The<br />
general direction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> dra<strong>in</strong>age pattern is from north to<br />
south, with two major rivers, <strong>the</strong> Makone and Magbe,<br />
flow<strong>in</strong>g through <strong>the</strong> Reserve. (The Magbe is called <strong>the</strong><br />
Oyi on <strong>the</strong> Nigerian side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> border.) The Makone<br />
dra<strong>in</strong>s <strong>the</strong> Matene Highlands and runs southwest through<br />
<strong>the</strong> Reserve to meet <strong>the</strong> Munaya River. The Magbe flows<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
OCT<br />
NOV<br />
DEC<br />
Figure 3. Climatic data for Besong-Abang to <strong>the</strong> south <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
100<br />
Humidity (%)<br />
from Matene through Nigeria and curves back <strong>in</strong>to<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>; it represents a portion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve’s<br />
western boundary and eventually dra<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> Mamfe<br />
River.<br />
4 Climate and temperature<br />
The <strong>Takamanda</strong> area lacks accurate climatological data,<br />
which undoubtedly vary due to <strong>the</strong> elevational gradient<br />
that occurs with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> reserve. In general, <strong>the</strong> region has<br />
two dist<strong>in</strong>ct seasons with most ra<strong>in</strong>fall occurr<strong>in</strong>g from<br />
April to November, peak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> July and August with a<br />
second peak <strong>in</strong> September (Figure 3). The total annual<br />
ra<strong>in</strong>fall is probably similar to that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nigerian side <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> border <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Okwangwo region—up to 4,500 mm<br />
per year (World Wildlife Fund 1990). From November to<br />
April, <strong>the</strong> climate is ma<strong>in</strong>ly dry; some months, usually<br />
January and February, may receive no ra<strong>in</strong> at all. The<br />
mean annual temperature is about 27º C. Normally, it is<br />
cooler <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>y season than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> dry season.<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
30<br />
29<br />
28<br />
27<br />
26<br />
25<br />
Temperature (degrees centigrade)
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve<br />
5 Settlement and culture<br />
Three enclaved villages, Kekpane, Obonyi I, and Obonyi<br />
III, lie <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve. Five more villages are located<br />
along <strong>the</strong> Reserve’s boundary, and <strong>the</strong>re are additional<br />
outly<strong>in</strong>g villages. Letouzey (1985) estimated <strong>the</strong> human<br />
population <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> to be between 6 and 12<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals per km 2. A more recent survey calculated that<br />
<strong>the</strong> 43 villages with<strong>in</strong> and around TFR, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g 12<br />
villages on <strong>the</strong> Nigerian side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> border, conta<strong>in</strong><br />
15,707 people (Schmidt-Soltau et al. 2001).<br />
The dom<strong>in</strong>ant tribe with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area is Anyang, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> spoken language is Denya. The majority <strong>of</strong><br />
villagers, especially those located close to <strong>the</strong> Nigerian<br />
border, also speak or understand <strong>the</strong> closely-related Boki<br />
language, which is spoken on <strong>the</strong> Nigerian side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
border. Because <strong>of</strong> ethnic ties, people <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
communities appear to have long-stand<strong>in</strong>g aff<strong>in</strong>ity with<br />
nearby Nigerian villagers.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g gazettement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve, local<br />
poplulations were granted traditional rights to use <strong>the</strong><br />
forest for <strong>the</strong>ir subsistence-based livelihoods. They also<br />
have legal right <strong>of</strong> passage through TFR, and <strong>the</strong>ma<strong>in</strong><br />
travel route is <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> a strong cross-border trad<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pattern. Agriculture, hunt<strong>in</strong>g, fish<strong>in</strong>g, and <strong>the</strong> ga<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> non-timber forest products are widespread throughout<br />
<strong>the</strong> Reserve (Mdahli et al. this volume, Sunderland et al.<br />
this volume). The ma<strong>in</strong> agricultural activities are<br />
subsistence farm<strong>in</strong>g for maize, planta<strong>in</strong>, banana, yams,<br />
and cassava. Cultivation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se annual crops <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
extends for some distance from <strong>the</strong> villages and has<br />
resulted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> removal <strong>of</strong> virtually all <strong>the</strong> trees <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
immediate vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> settlements. Fur<strong>the</strong>r from <strong>the</strong><br />
villages, less extensive cultivation occurs, notably for oil<br />
palm, which is a major export from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> area.<br />
In anticipation <strong>of</strong> improved road access, cash crops—<br />
primarily cocoa and c<strong>of</strong>fee—have recently been<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduced to <strong>the</strong> area.<br />
6 Flora and fauna<br />
Despite identification <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area as a priority for<br />
conservation (Gartlan 1989), biodiversity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> region was not well known until relatively<br />
recently. Early expeditions concentrated on large<br />
mammals, particularly gorillas (Sanderson 1940, March<br />
1957, Critchley 1968 Struhsaker, 1967, Thomas 1988,<br />
Sunderland-Groves et al. this volume). A more<br />
comprehensive study <strong>of</strong> TFR provides significantly more<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation on <strong>the</strong> unique fauna <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area (Groves and<br />
Maisels 1999, Groves 2002). It is now known that <strong>the</strong><br />
Reserve and <strong>the</strong> neighbor<strong>in</strong>g Okwangwo region <strong>in</strong><br />
Nigeria are important areas for many large mammals,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g an isolated population <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cross River<br />
gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehli) and <strong>the</strong> Nigerian<br />
chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes vellerosus), drill<br />
(Mandrillus leucophaeus), and Preuss’s Guenon<br />
(Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus preussi). As well, <strong>the</strong> forest elephant<br />
(Loxodonta africana cyclotis) and buffalo (Syncerus<br />
caffer nanus) are local denizens.<br />
The wider biodiversity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
vegetation, rema<strong>in</strong>ed unstudied, although it was<br />
speculated that because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> transition from lowland<br />
forest to montane savanna, <strong>the</strong> area would be particularly<br />
diverse for all biological taxa (Gartlan 1989). Letouzey<br />
(1985) and ONADEF (n.d.) mapped vegetation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Reserve and <strong>the</strong> surround<strong>in</strong>g area as part <strong>of</strong> a national<br />
vegetation survey, provid<strong>in</strong>g two broad classification<br />
categories. Those studies were based on aerial<br />
photographs, however, ground-truth<strong>in</strong>g was not<br />
conducted. Subsequent work by Thomas (1988) and<br />
Etuge (1998) elicited more details with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> wide<br />
categories <strong>of</strong> Letouzey and ONADEF. Still, until <strong>the</strong><br />
present work (see Sunderland et al. this volume),<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> TFR vegetation was <strong>in</strong>adequate.<br />
The present study provides for <strong>the</strong> first time a<br />
comprehensive overview <strong>of</strong> biodiversity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> area us<strong>in</strong>g analytical techniques developed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian Institution’s Monitor<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
Assessment <strong>of</strong> Biodiversity Program (SI/MAB) with<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong> an adaptive management approach for<br />
conduct<strong>in</strong>g assessments and monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> biodiversity.<br />
The work was modeled <strong>in</strong> part on SI/MAB projects <strong>in</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r regions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Peru and Gabon<br />
(Comiskey et al. 2000, Dallmeier et al. 2002).<br />
5<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
6 Sunderland-Groves et al.<br />
7 Conservation issues at<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve<br />
In <strong>the</strong> past, <strong>Takamanda</strong> and <strong>the</strong> surround<strong>in</strong>g area had<br />
largely been protected, more by default than by design,<br />
because <strong>of</strong> its <strong>in</strong>accessibility. However, recent human<br />
activities such as a logg<strong>in</strong>g concession granted <strong>in</strong> 1995<br />
outside <strong>the</strong> Reserve and <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> a road from<br />
Mamfe to Akwaya (ongo<strong>in</strong>g) have enabled easier access<br />
to <strong>the</strong> area. Subsequently, <strong>the</strong> export <strong>of</strong> non-timber forest<br />
products, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g bushmeat, has <strong>in</strong>creased. With<br />
enhanced access, future logg<strong>in</strong>g and agricultural<br />
expansion, ei<strong>the</strong>r by <strong>the</strong> local population or through<br />
government concessions, have become major concerns.<br />
Without <strong>of</strong>ficial elevation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> protected status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Reserve, <strong>the</strong> forest is open to such activities.<br />
The major threat fac<strong>in</strong>g fauna <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve is<br />
hunt<strong>in</strong>g. Local people have had hunt<strong>in</strong>g rights, us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
traditional methods, s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> area was gazetted <strong>in</strong> 1934,<br />
but <strong>the</strong>y were prohibited from us<strong>in</strong>g firearms. Thus, most<br />
hunt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> bygone years was for subsistence. Today,<br />
smaller mammals such as duikers are killed through wire<br />
traps or snares, while larger mammals, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g apes,<br />
primates, elephants, and buffalos, are killed with rifles or<br />
locally made shotguns (“dane” guns). Almost all hunters<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area own a gun, and with few o<strong>the</strong>r options for<br />
alternative employment, hunt<strong>in</strong>g to provide bushmeat for<br />
trade (<strong>in</strong>come) is now common. Meat is consumed<br />
locally and exported to Mamfe and Bamenda <strong>in</strong><br />
Cameroon and across <strong>the</strong> border to Nigeria <strong>in</strong> large<br />
quantities. As a result, many mammal populations are<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g depleted at an alarm<strong>in</strong>g rate.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most important conservation species <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> is <strong>the</strong> gorilla. Recently, scientists concluded<br />
that <strong>the</strong> gorillas from this region are geographically and<br />
morphologically dist<strong>in</strong>ct from o<strong>the</strong>r gorillas (Sarmiento<br />
and Oates 2000), and <strong>the</strong>y are now recognized as <strong>the</strong><br />
fourth gorilla sub–species—<strong>the</strong> Cross River gorilla—and<br />
classified as critically endangered (IUCN 2000). Groves<br />
et al. (this volume) estimated <strong>in</strong> 2002 that <strong>the</strong>re were<br />
approximately 180 Cross River gorillas rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
TFR and <strong>the</strong> adjacent forest areas <strong>of</strong> Mone Forest<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Reserve and Mbulu, with a total overall population <strong>in</strong><br />
Cameroon and Nigeria <strong>of</strong> only about 270 weaned<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals. This total density is considerably less than<br />
that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> better known mounta<strong>in</strong> gorilla (Gorilla gorilla<br />
ber<strong>in</strong>gei). In <strong>the</strong> past, <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> threat to survival <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
gorilla was hunt<strong>in</strong>g. But s<strong>in</strong>ce 1998, when biological<br />
studies began <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>, hunt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> apes all but<br />
ceased through local community hunt<strong>in</strong>g bans. Now by<br />
far <strong>the</strong> greatest threat fac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Cross River gorilla is<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ued habitat fragmentation. Presently, <strong>the</strong> Cross<br />
River gorillas are restricted to highland areas where <strong>the</strong><br />
terra<strong>in</strong> is difficult to access and hunt<strong>in</strong>g pressure is thus<br />
lower. The gorillas appear to be unwill<strong>in</strong>g or unable to<br />
cross large tracts <strong>of</strong> lowland forest to <strong>in</strong>teract with o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
groups. The road from Mamfe to Akwaya, under<br />
construction, will almost certa<strong>in</strong>ly have an effect on any<br />
current gorilla movements between <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest<br />
Reserve and adjacent Mbulu forest, <strong>the</strong>reby <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> isolation <strong>of</strong> Cross River gorilla groups. If lowland<br />
forest corridors cannot be secured and if gorillas are<br />
deterred from us<strong>in</strong>g lowland corridors to reach gorilla<br />
groups <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r highland sites, <strong>in</strong>breed<strong>in</strong>g and loss <strong>of</strong><br />
genetic variation may imperil <strong>the</strong>se isolated groups.<br />
The forests <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> are also important for a<br />
great diversity <strong>of</strong> birds as recognized by Birdlife<br />
International when it designated <strong>the</strong> Reserve an<br />
Important Bird Area. Surveys by Languy and Motombe<br />
(this volume) registered 309 species, br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> total<br />
count for TFR to 313 species. Of <strong>the</strong>se, n<strong>in</strong>e species are<br />
classified threatened, one endangered, and two<br />
vulnerable with<strong>in</strong> IUCN categories. Sixteen additional<br />
bird species have restricted ranges—<strong>the</strong>ir total world<br />
range is less than 50,000 km 2 . Two species are new<br />
records for Cameroon, while an additional 20 species<br />
extend <strong>the</strong>ir range with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> country (Languy and<br />
Motombe this volume).<br />
Reptile diversity is equally impressive. The present<br />
study described 81 species <strong>in</strong> TFR, or about 30% <strong>of</strong><br />
Cameroon’s total (LeBreton et al. this volume). An<br />
additional three undescribed species were collected<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g recent visits, and several endemics and regional<br />
endemics as well as endangered species have been<br />
registered.
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve<br />
Butterflies (111 species, O’Kah this volume) and<br />
dragonflies (67 species, Vick this volume) have high<br />
levels <strong>of</strong> diversity. Both groups are important <strong>in</strong>dicators<br />
<strong>of</strong> forest change. Likewise, 54 species <strong>of</strong> fish were<br />
registered, many <strong>of</strong> which provide an important prote<strong>in</strong><br />
source to local communities (Mdaihli et al. this volume).<br />
Flora also proves to be extremely rich with more<br />
than 950 species <strong>of</strong> plants registered over <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> present surveys. Of <strong>the</strong>se, 351 species were trees with<br />
diameters greater than 10 cm (Sunderland et al. this<br />
volume). All species were registered <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> biodiversity<br />
plots <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve that will be <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> long-term<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>’s forest at different elevations.<br />
8 About <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Project<br />
The <strong>Takamanda</strong> Project arose from a general <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> area expressed by numerous government agencies<br />
and non-governmental organizations that have been<br />
conduct<strong>in</strong>g biodiversity assessments <strong>in</strong> Cameroon and<br />
neighbor<strong>in</strong>g Nigeria. Large mammal studies focus<strong>in</strong>g on<br />
<strong>the</strong> Cross River gorilla <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Akwaya area, supported by<br />
World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and <strong>the</strong> Wildlife<br />
Conservation Society (WCS), were <strong>in</strong>itiated <strong>in</strong> late 1997<br />
and are cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g. In early 2000, <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian<br />
Institution conducted a tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g course (“Biodiversity<br />
Assessment and Monitor<strong>in</strong>g for Adaptive Management”)<br />
<strong>in</strong> Mundemba, Cameroon, where participants expressed<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir desire to conduct biodiversity assessments <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve. Follow-up activities led to<br />
<strong>the</strong> current project. The authors <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> various chapters<br />
coord<strong>in</strong>ated field teams <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve. Primary<br />
objectives follow.<br />
• Identify key habitats us<strong>in</strong>g cartographic <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
and remote sens<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
• Describe forest structure, composition, and diversity.<br />
• Determ<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> current conditions (species<br />
composition, frequency <strong>of</strong> encounters, population<br />
densities) <strong>of</strong> key taxonomic groups, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g large<br />
mammals, birds, reptiles, and selected arthropods.<br />
• Ga<strong>the</strong>r and understand <strong>in</strong>digenous knowledge on <strong>the</strong><br />
species and <strong>the</strong>ir uses.<br />
• Evaluate fisheries activities.<br />
• Develop land-use change maps.<br />
This volume presents <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> surveys,<br />
which were conducted by numerous researchers and<br />
agencies. It provides an important first step <strong>in</strong><br />
document<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> impressive biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an area that<br />
has high conservation priority <strong>in</strong> Cameroon. Our goal is<br />
to provide a solid foundation for future conservation and<br />
management <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve and <strong>the</strong><br />
species that call it <strong>the</strong>ir home.<br />
Acknowledgments<br />
We gratefully acknowledge <strong>the</strong> contribution <strong>of</strong> all<br />
authors and <strong>the</strong>ir respective organizations. We thank <strong>the</strong><br />
Smithsonian Institution for its support and <strong>the</strong><br />
International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups for its<br />
fund<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vegetation studies and <strong>the</strong> current<br />
publication. Thanks to Dan Slayback for prepar<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
maps.<br />
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Zoological Society <strong>of</strong> London 14: 623-725.<br />
Sarmiento, E. E., and J. F. Oates. 2000. The Cross<br />
River Gorillas: A dist<strong>in</strong>ct subspecies Gorilla<br />
gorilla diehli Matschie (1904). American<br />
Museum <strong>of</strong> Natural History Novitates 3304.<br />
Schmidt-Soltau, K., M. Mdaihli, and J. S. O. Ayeni.<br />
2001. Socioeceonomic basel<strong>in</strong>e survey <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve. Unpublished report<br />
to PROFA (GTZ-MINEF) Office, Mamfe.<br />
Struhsaker, T. T. 1967. Prelim<strong>in</strong>ary report on a survey<br />
<strong>of</strong> high forest primates <strong>in</strong> West Cameroon.<br />
Report to Rockefeller University and <strong>the</strong> New<br />
York Zoological Society.<br />
Thomas, D. 1988. Status and Conservation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Gorillas (Cameroon). F<strong>in</strong>al Report,<br />
WWF-1613. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC: WWF-USA.<br />
White, F. 1983. The Vegetation <strong>of</strong> Africa. Paris:<br />
UNESCO.<br />
World Wildlife Fund. 1990. Cross River National<br />
Park (Okwango Division): Plan for Develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> Park and Its Support <strong>Zone</strong>. London: WWF-<br />
UK.<br />
World Wildlife Fund. 2001. Terrestrial Ecoregions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
World: A New Map <strong>of</strong> Life on Earth. Web page:<br />
http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/pr<strong>of</strong>iles/terres<br />
trial_at.html.
Adaptive Management: A Framework for Biodiversity Conservation<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
1 Introduction<br />
James A. Comiskey and Francisco Dallmeier<br />
As <strong>the</strong> world’s human population <strong>in</strong>creases, <strong>the</strong> threat to<br />
biodiversity becomes greater (WRI 2000). The situation<br />
is much more pronounced <strong>in</strong> tropical regions, with sub-<br />
Saharan Africa expect<strong>in</strong>g a rise <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> current population<br />
<strong>of</strong> 133 million to an estimated 189 million by 2020 and<br />
307 million by 2050. For Cameroon, a country with 18<br />
protected areas cover<strong>in</strong>g just over 2 million has, or 4.4%<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> country (WRI 2001), <strong>the</strong> current population <strong>of</strong><br />
about 15 million is estimated to <strong>in</strong>crease to 20 million by<br />
2020 and 31 million by 2050. The associated <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
demand for natural resources is likely to be expressed<br />
through land clearance for agriculture and bushmeat<br />
hunt<strong>in</strong>g at levels far beyond those now experienced <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
region. The demand for bushmeat has had <strong>the</strong> greatest<br />
impact on regional biodiversity, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> localized<br />
species ext<strong>in</strong>ctions (Eves et al. 2002). Under <strong>the</strong>se<br />
circumstances, <strong>the</strong>re is an urgent need to protect and<br />
study what biodiversity rema<strong>in</strong>s and develop strategies<br />
for its conservation.<br />
Southwestern Cameroon and adjacent sou<strong>the</strong>astern<br />
Nigeria are known as an important area for biodiversity<br />
(Obot and Ogar 1997, Sunderland-Groves et al. this<br />
volume). The Gu<strong>in</strong>eo-Congolian ra<strong>in</strong>forest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area is<br />
unique because <strong>of</strong> high ra<strong>in</strong>fall levels (White 1983) and<br />
<strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> highlands that provide a variety <strong>of</strong><br />
habitats for flora and fauna. The forests <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Forest Reserve (TFR), located <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rnmost tip <strong>of</strong><br />
Cameroon’s Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce and rang<strong>in</strong>g from 100<br />
to 1,500 m <strong>in</strong> elevation, are <strong>of</strong> particular value<br />
(Sunderland-Groves et al. this volume) and are regarded<br />
as hav<strong>in</strong>g significant conservation importance (Gartlan<br />
1989). Surveys <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> greater region have been conducted<br />
<strong>in</strong> Korup National Park to <strong>the</strong> south (for example,<br />
Rodewald et al. 1994, Larsen 1997, Cheek and Stuart<br />
1997), Ejagham Forest Reserve (Sunderland et al. 1997),<br />
Chapter 2<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Rumpi Hills (Usongo 1995). But until recently,<br />
most surveys conducted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> area focused<br />
primarily on large mammals and apes (Groves and<br />
Maisel 1999), and <strong>the</strong>re is little <strong>in</strong>formation to develop<br />
comprehensive conservation and monitor<strong>in</strong>g strategies<br />
for overall biodiversity.<br />
The series <strong>of</strong> biodiversity assessments <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> current<br />
volume are an important step <strong>in</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation for management <strong>of</strong> TFR. The Smithsonian<br />
Monitor<strong>in</strong>g and Assessment <strong>of</strong> Biodiversity Program<br />
(SI/MAB), <strong>in</strong> collaboration with <strong>the</strong> Wildlife<br />
Conservation Society, devised <strong>the</strong> framework for <strong>the</strong><br />
assessments, and <strong>the</strong> results confirm that TFR harbors a<br />
rich diversity <strong>of</strong> species, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g 15 large mammal<br />
species—eight <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m primates (Sunderland-Groves<br />
and Maisels this volume), more than 950 species <strong>of</strong><br />
plants (Sunderland et al. this volume), 313 bird species<br />
(Languy this volume), and 71 species <strong>of</strong> reptiles<br />
(LeBreton and Motombe this volume).<br />
In this paper, we take <strong>in</strong>to consideration <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
and recommendations from <strong>the</strong> assessments to present an<br />
overview <strong>of</strong> an adaptive management framework, which<br />
we propose as a means <strong>of</strong> implement<strong>in</strong>g conservation<br />
and monitor<strong>in</strong>g strategies for <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve.<br />
Adaptive management has been employed extensively <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> United States (for example, Walters 1986) and<br />
recently for conservation projects <strong>in</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong> America<br />
(Dallmeier et al. 2002) and Africa (SI/MAB 2002). A<br />
more detailed description <strong>of</strong> adaptive management<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and implementation has been published by<br />
Comiskey et al. (2000).<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003, Pages 9 to 17
10 Comiskey and Dallmeier<br />
2 Challenges Fac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Forest Reserve<br />
Until recently, <strong>the</strong> biotic resources <strong>of</strong> TFR have rema<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
isolated because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve’s remote location. The<br />
1990s, however, saw an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> number and<br />
activities <strong>of</strong> logg<strong>in</strong>g concessions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> TFR.<br />
The human population has grown <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region as access<br />
has improved to extract timber, with a subsequent<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> clearance <strong>of</strong> forest for agriculture<br />
(Slayback this volume) and a dramatic rise <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> trade <strong>of</strong><br />
bushmeat (Sunderland-Groves and Maisel this volume).<br />
Illegal hunt<strong>in</strong>g is <strong>of</strong> particular concern because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
presence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> endemic and highly threatened Cross<br />
River Gorilla <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve and <strong>the</strong> adjo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g highlands<br />
<strong>of</strong> Nigeria (Sunderland-Groves et al. this volume). An<br />
additional threat is posed by current construction <strong>of</strong> a<br />
road from Mamfe to Akwaya that will fur<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
access to <strong>the</strong> area, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> additional immigration and<br />
hunt<strong>in</strong>g. Fragmentation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> landscape as more families<br />
build houses and grow <strong>the</strong>ir crops is likely to have a<br />
negative impact on large mammal species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area,<br />
especially <strong>the</strong> Cross River Gorilla population that is<br />
already isolated <strong>in</strong> highland areas. Likewise,<br />
fragmentation is likely to affect o<strong>the</strong>r taxonomic groups<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> birds (Languy and Motombe this volume),<br />
reptiles (LeBreton et al. this volume) as well as <strong>the</strong><br />
arthropod populations (O’Kah this volume, Vick this<br />
volume). Population growth will likely put fur<strong>the</strong>r stra<strong>in</strong><br />
on <strong>the</strong> limited resources, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a rise <strong>in</strong> bushmeat<br />
hunt<strong>in</strong>g, fisheries (Mdaihli et al. this volume), and nontimber<br />
forest product use (Sunderland et al. this volume).<br />
3 The Adaptive Management<br />
Framework<br />
Adaptive management provides a means by which<br />
conservation and management practices can be improved<br />
through lessons learned. The process assumes that <strong>the</strong>re<br />
are uncerta<strong>in</strong>ties <strong>in</strong> management and that different<br />
practices can be tested and measured (Elz<strong>in</strong>ga et al. 1998,<br />
Comiskey et al. 2000). With<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> adaptive management<br />
framework, monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> biodiversity provides <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>formation to determ<strong>in</strong>e whe<strong>the</strong>r practices must be<br />
changed to achieve desired outcomes—<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
TFR, ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g biodiversity <strong>in</strong> an optimally<br />
function<strong>in</strong>g state. Human activities can have drastic<br />
impacts that may require long and costly <strong>in</strong>vestment for<br />
recovery <strong>of</strong> landscapes or species or that may cause<br />
irreversible changes such as <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> species. For <strong>the</strong>se<br />
reasons, management to conserve biodiversity can help<br />
avoid or mitigate such impacts (Naveh 1994, Freitag et<br />
al. 1998, van Jaarsveld et al. 1998, Poiani et al. 2000).<br />
This model has proven successful <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation with<br />
development projects <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> tropical forests <strong>of</strong> Peru<br />
(Dallmeier et al. 2002) and Gabon (SI/MAB 2002),<br />
help<strong>in</strong>g to m<strong>in</strong>imize <strong>the</strong> negative impacts <strong>of</strong> natural<br />
resource extraction on biodiversity.<br />
Adaptive management is a cyclical process that<br />
<strong>in</strong>volves four major steps, each <strong>of</strong> which allows for <strong>the</strong><br />
calibration <strong>of</strong> goals and objectives through feedback<br />
from monitor<strong>in</strong>g (Figure 1). The steps are: (1) determ<strong>in</strong>e<br />
<strong>the</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g objectives and plan, (2) implement<br />
management practices, (3) assess and monitor<br />
management practices, and (4) evaluate <strong>the</strong> results and<br />
make appropriate decisions, alter<strong>in</strong>g management<br />
practices, if necessary. Each step is periodically reviewed<br />
to assure that <strong>the</strong> appropriate <strong>in</strong>formation feeds <strong>the</strong> next<br />
level. The cyclical nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> process is essential to<br />
validate <strong>the</strong> results <strong>of</strong> each step (Holl<strong>in</strong>g 1978, Walters<br />
1986, Comiskey et al. 2000).<br />
4 Initial Steps <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest<br />
Reserve<br />
Recommendations for conservation and management <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve require a basic understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> conservation priorities and, where possible, ecosystem<br />
functions. The <strong>Takamanda</strong> Project, undertaken to provide<br />
this <strong>in</strong>formation, represented a multidiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary,<br />
coord<strong>in</strong>ated approach for ga<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>g, analyz<strong>in</strong>g, and<br />
dissem<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formation about TFR and <strong>the</strong><br />
surround<strong>in</strong>g area that has been <strong>in</strong>fluenced by different<br />
land-use activities. The World Wildlife Fund and Wildlife<br />
Conservation Society <strong>in</strong>itiated work <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve<br />
through a series <strong>of</strong> surveys to determ<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Cross River Gorilla, sub-species with high conservation<br />
priority (Sarmiento and Oates 2000). The two<br />
organizations sought assistance from <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian
Adaptive management<br />
Institution’s Monitor<strong>in</strong>g and Assessment <strong>of</strong> Biodiversity<br />
Program (SI/MAB) to help establish a biodiversity<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g program and build <strong>in</strong>-country capacity.<br />
4.1 Consultation and Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
SI/MAB and <strong>the</strong> Wildlife Conservation Society, <strong>in</strong><br />
collaboration with <strong>the</strong> Bioresources Development<br />
Conservation Program, consulted stakeholders with an<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> TFR. These <strong>in</strong>cluded local, national, and<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational experts and <strong>in</strong>stitutions with knowledge<br />
about <strong>the</strong> region (WWF, Birdlife International,<br />
Cameroon Ornithology Club, CamHerp, Limbe Botanic<br />
Gardens, GTZ) as well as government agencies<br />
(MINEF), representatives from <strong>the</strong> different<br />
communities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area, and national universities. From<br />
<strong>the</strong> outset, most stakeholders expressed a desire to share<br />
expertise, costs, and logistical arrangements <strong>in</strong><br />
conduct<strong>in</strong>g assessments and monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> remote<br />
TFR.<br />
As part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> International Cooperative Biodiversity<br />
Groups funded by <strong>the</strong> U.S. National Institutes <strong>of</strong> Health,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Smithsonian Institution and WWF with additiona<br />
support from <strong>the</strong> Central African Regional Program for<br />
<strong>the</strong> Environment conducted a tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g course on<br />
biodiversity assessment and monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Mundemba,<br />
Cameroon, <strong>in</strong> 2000. The participants, all <strong>of</strong> whom were<br />
stakeholders with an <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> conservation <strong>in</strong><br />
Cameroon, learned about use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> adaptive<br />
management framework as a tool for conservation<br />
management <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir respective projects. Initial plans and<br />
consultation for <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Project were discussed,<br />
and several organizations agreed to participate <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
project. Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> field personnel was conducted at<br />
<strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g course and cont<strong>in</strong>ued dur<strong>in</strong>g field<br />
assessments at TFR.<br />
4.2 Biodiversity Assessments<br />
Multi-stakeholder biodiversity assessments were<br />
completed <strong>in</strong> TFR dur<strong>in</strong>g 2001 and 2002 <strong>in</strong> different<br />
seasons. A series <strong>of</strong> protocols and sampl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
methodologies were developed and used by teams <strong>of</strong><br />
researchers at different locations. The research sites<br />
represented a range <strong>of</strong> vegetation types and elevations.<br />
The protocols helped ensure credible scientific research<br />
and analysis, <strong>the</strong> results <strong>of</strong> which can be used <strong>in</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
conservation and management recommendations for <strong>the</strong><br />
area.<br />
The project emphasized <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g site-specific<br />
objectives:<br />
• Identify key habitats, us<strong>in</strong>g cartographic <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
and remote sens<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
• Describe forest structure, composition, and diversity.<br />
• Determ<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> current conditions (species<br />
composition, frequency <strong>of</strong> encounters, population<br />
densities) <strong>of</strong> key taxonomic groups, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g large<br />
mammals, birds, reptiles, and selected arthropod<br />
groups.<br />
• Ga<strong>the</strong>r and understand <strong>in</strong>digenous knowledge on <strong>the</strong><br />
species and <strong>the</strong>ir uses.<br />
• Evaluate fisheries activities.<br />
• Develop land use change maps.<br />
Conduct<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> assessments over dry and ra<strong>in</strong>y<br />
seasons allowed <strong>the</strong> scientists to generate a robust<br />
basel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation about biodiversity <strong>in</strong> TFR for <strong>the</strong><br />
long-term monitor<strong>in</strong>g program.<br />
4.3 Information Dissem<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
The current publication forms an important first step <strong>in</strong><br />
determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g future activities for TFR. Each <strong>in</strong>stitution<br />
<strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Project produced a variety <strong>of</strong><br />
reports for <strong>the</strong>ir agencies and funders, as well as <strong>the</strong><br />
papers published <strong>in</strong> this book. The consensus among all<br />
participants was that TFR is extremely important to<br />
biodiversity and that we are only just beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g to ga<strong>in</strong><br />
an understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> different ecological components<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area. Never<strong>the</strong>less, TFR rema<strong>in</strong>s threatened by<br />
many land uses, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g road construction that will<br />
open <strong>the</strong> region to <strong>in</strong>creased immigration.<br />
The rema<strong>in</strong>der <strong>of</strong> this paper proposes adaptive<br />
management as a framework to achieve conservation and<br />
management goals <strong>in</strong> TFR and suggests potential next<br />
steps to implement such a program.<br />
11<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
12 Comiskey and Dallmeier<br />
5 Adaptive Management <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Much more basel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>formation needs to be collected<br />
from TFR, but as knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> different taxonomic<br />
groups <strong>in</strong>creases, conservation and management<br />
recommendations will be developed and adjusted.<br />
Design and implementation <strong>of</strong> conservation efforts that<br />
susta<strong>in</strong> biodiversity at an optimal level are a key goal for<br />
stakeholders <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region. Thus, <strong>the</strong> effectiveness <strong>of</strong><br />
conservation and management decisions must be closely<br />
monitored <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> future. There is no land-use or<br />
management plan for TFR. Such a plan will comprise <strong>the</strong><br />
first step to protect and manage <strong>the</strong> reserve. The plan<br />
should describe <strong>the</strong> resources that are <strong>of</strong> importance to<br />
<strong>the</strong> area and strategies for <strong>the</strong>ir conservation, lead<strong>in</strong>g to a<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g program to ensure <strong>the</strong> most effective<br />
management.<br />
5.1 Monitor<strong>in</strong>g Objectives and Plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Monitor<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> adaptive management framework<br />
<strong>in</strong>volves <strong>the</strong> collection and analysis <strong>of</strong> repeated<br />
measurements to evaluate progress toward meet<strong>in</strong>g<br />
conservation management objectives (Comiskey et al.<br />
2000). The <strong>in</strong>itial steps <strong>in</strong> def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and establish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g program <strong>in</strong>volve <strong>the</strong> collection <strong>of</strong> basel<strong>in</strong>e<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation that helps to establish conservation priorities,<br />
a process that has been <strong>in</strong>itiated <strong>in</strong> TFR.<br />
Changes <strong>in</strong> biodiversity have many causes,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g (among o<strong>the</strong>rs) variations <strong>in</strong> natural population<br />
cycles, climatic effects, and direct impacts from human<br />
activities, and <strong>the</strong>se are not fully known for <strong>the</strong> Reserve.<br />
Some monitor<strong>in</strong>g activities are already <strong>in</strong> place at TFR;<br />
ten one-hectare biodiversity plots have been established<br />
along an altitud<strong>in</strong>al gradient to evaluate long-term<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> floristic communities (Sunderland et al. this<br />
volume); monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> large mammals and apes—key<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong> general ecosystem health and human<br />
activities—is <strong>in</strong> place (Sunderland-Groves et al. this<br />
volume); and changes <strong>in</strong> land use have been monitored<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g remote sens<strong>in</strong>g over a ten-year <strong>in</strong>terval (Slayback<br />
this volume). The o<strong>the</strong>r assessments described <strong>in</strong> this<br />
volume will provide <strong>the</strong> basel<strong>in</strong>e upon which priority<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
taxa can be def<strong>in</strong>ed for monitor<strong>in</strong>g and aga<strong>in</strong>st which<br />
future change can be evaluated.<br />
5.1.1 Stakeholder consultation<br />
Fur<strong>the</strong>r stakeholder participation will help to identify <strong>the</strong><br />
next steps and priorities based on current knowledge <strong>of</strong><br />
TFR. Through cont<strong>in</strong>ued stakeholder workshops and<br />
consultations, critical biodiversity issues can be<br />
identified, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g priority areas for fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
assessments, <strong>in</strong>dicator species or taxa for monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
based on current knowledge, potential conservation and<br />
management strategies, and resources needed for <strong>the</strong><br />
next steps. For example, it is known that <strong>the</strong> population<br />
<strong>of</strong> apes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region is unique and threatened<br />
(Sunderland-Groves et al. this volume) and may be<br />
flagship species for conservation. Likewise, several<br />
important bird species may serve as <strong>in</strong>dicators for<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g and conservation purposes (Languy and<br />
Motombe this volume).<br />
5.1.2 Identify resource needs<br />
An understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> resource needs is essential to ensure<br />
success <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> project. Critical resources <strong>in</strong>clude time<br />
commitment and fund<strong>in</strong>g allocated to <strong>the</strong> project, as well<br />
as a sufficient number <strong>of</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>ed people to conduct<br />
biodiversity assessments, devise monitor<strong>in</strong>g strategies,<br />
and improve sampl<strong>in</strong>g protocols. These elements must be<br />
balanced with pr<strong>of</strong>essional expertise, adequate<br />
technology to manage <strong>in</strong>formation and voucher<br />
collections, and an appropriate budget for field<br />
equipment, data management, and publications. For<br />
TFR, resources are a particular challenge because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
remoteness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> region and <strong>the</strong> difficulty <strong>in</strong> access<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sites where assessment and monitor<strong>in</strong>g must be<br />
conducted.<br />
5.1.3 Capacity build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued support for local capacity is def<strong>in</strong>itely needed<br />
for <strong>the</strong> long-term success <strong>of</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g projects. Support<br />
and tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g should focus on develop<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> capacity <strong>of</strong><br />
ecologists who are already familiar with <strong>the</strong> ecosystem<br />
types <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve, taxa-specific specialists, skilled
Adaptive management<br />
Monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Objectives<br />
and Plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />
field technicians who can ga<strong>the</strong>r and identify field<br />
samples, data managers, and geographic <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
system (GIS) specialists to compile <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation.<br />
SI/MAB has found it useful to conduct courses <strong>in</strong> which<br />
participants with an <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ued tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g are<br />
identified and supported through on-<strong>the</strong>-ground tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g biodiversity assessments. Such candidates can<br />
reach a high level <strong>of</strong> expertise through hands-on<br />
experience, and, <strong>in</strong> some cases, this has facilitated <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ued academic and pr<strong>of</strong>essional careers. Through<br />
SI/MAB’s vegetation assessments at TFR, three<br />
Cameroonian collaborators have fur<strong>the</strong>red <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
education by complet<strong>in</strong>g Masters-level studies at local<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions.<br />
Implement<br />
Management<br />
Evaluation<br />
and<br />
Decision<br />
Mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Figure 1. Phases <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> adaptive management cycle as a model for <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
Assessment<br />
and<br />
Monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
5.1.4 Def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g specific management<br />
objectives and responses<br />
Once conservation priorities and <strong>the</strong> potential <strong>in</strong>dicators<br />
or species <strong>of</strong> conservation <strong>in</strong>terest are identified through<br />
consultations, <strong>the</strong> next step is to design a management<br />
strategy. For <strong>the</strong> TFR, <strong>the</strong> ideal management plan should<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude clear and specific objectives related to<br />
biodiversity—for example, ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> population<br />
<strong>of</strong> Cross River Gorillas at current levels. Such objectives<br />
provide <strong>the</strong> base for launch<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g program,<br />
which should be targeted at meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> objectives.<br />
A “threshold” level should also be determ<strong>in</strong>ed,<br />
beyond which some form <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tervention would be<br />
required to ensure <strong>the</strong> long-term survival <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
population(s) be<strong>in</strong>g monitored. In <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cross<br />
River Gorilla, a threshold population density must be<br />
13<br />
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14 Comiskey and Dallmeier<br />
identified at <strong>the</strong> outset, with <strong>the</strong> goal <strong>of</strong> def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t<br />
at which <strong>in</strong>action will imperil <strong>the</strong> population. Where<br />
sufficient knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> biology <strong>of</strong> populations is<br />
lack<strong>in</strong>g, it is particularly challeng<strong>in</strong>g to determ<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong><br />
proper threshold and identify <strong>the</strong> appropriate<br />
management response. That is why <strong>in</strong>itial assessments<br />
and more <strong>in</strong>-depth studies are so important.<br />
5.2 Implement Management<br />
Implementation <strong>of</strong> management and subsequent<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g enables researchers to decide whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>y<br />
are achiev<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> desired conservation goals. At TFR,<br />
implement<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> management plan may prove difficult<br />
because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> tenuous legal status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve and<br />
because sufficient personnel and f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g are not yet<br />
available. Therefore, monitor<strong>in</strong>g should be aimed at<br />
provid<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>formation that can be used to<br />
establish both a legal mandate and a conservation<br />
strategy. As an example, current construction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> road<br />
between Mamfe and Akwaya is likely to <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
immigration <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> area with a subsequent <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />
land clearance and bushmeat extraction. Monitor<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g remote sens<strong>in</strong>g, can help evaluate <strong>the</strong> extent and<br />
type <strong>of</strong> land-use changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region caused by <strong>the</strong> road<br />
(Slayback this volume), and <strong>the</strong> amount <strong>of</strong> habitat<br />
fragmentation can be correlated to impacts on species<br />
such as large mammals (Sunderland-Groves and Maisel<br />
this volume). The <strong>in</strong>formation can identify areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Reserve that are most at risk and provide <strong>the</strong> basis for<br />
implement<strong>in</strong>g conservation strategies. Market surveys<br />
can provide an evaluation <strong>of</strong> local bushmeat<br />
consumption and can be correlated to mammal survey<br />
data from <strong>the</strong> field.<br />
5.3 Assessment and Monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
The next stage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> adaptive management process<br />
addresses monitor<strong>in</strong>g options to establish potential<br />
alternatives for ga<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>g additional knowledge over a<br />
shorter period <strong>of</strong> time. The two most typical k<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>of</strong><br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g for this purpose are basel<strong>in</strong>e monitor<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
management-based monitor<strong>in</strong>g. Basel<strong>in</strong>e monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
elicits <strong>in</strong>formation to <strong>in</strong>crease understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> how<br />
natural processes operate on biotic components <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
study area. In TFR, basel<strong>in</strong>e monitor<strong>in</strong>g has been<br />
employed for vegetation along <strong>the</strong> altitud<strong>in</strong>al gradient<br />
(Sunderland et al. this volume). Information obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
over time from <strong>the</strong> plots add to our knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
dynamics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se habitat types and constitute <strong>the</strong><br />
basel<strong>in</strong>e for mak<strong>in</strong>g management recommendations<br />
related to forest resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve and o<strong>the</strong>r forests<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> region.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> adaptive management process, monitor<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
also l<strong>in</strong>ked to <strong>the</strong> implementation <strong>of</strong> some form <strong>of</strong><br />
management, provid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formation on whe<strong>the</strong>r<br />
management practices are achiev<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> desired outcome<br />
and, if not, po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g to needed changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
management approach. At TFR, <strong>in</strong>formation from<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g through remote sens<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> road<br />
construction could well be used to evaluate land-use<br />
changes. Monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> large mammal populations, as<br />
well as market surveys, will <strong>in</strong>dicate <strong>the</strong> degree to which<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased access for bushmeat hunt<strong>in</strong>g caused by <strong>the</strong><br />
road is impact<strong>in</strong>g those populations.<br />
5.3.1 Monitor<strong>in</strong>g design<br />
Initial assessments provide a basel<strong>in</strong>e to study long-term<br />
changes. Subsequent assessments help researchers<br />
evaluate changes that can be related to ecosystem health.<br />
Never<strong>the</strong>less, it is important to bear <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d that<br />
ecosystems are extremely complex entities, primarly<br />
because <strong>of</strong> numerous ecological <strong>in</strong>teractions among<br />
different biotic and edaphic variables <strong>in</strong> space and across<br />
time (for example, Diamond and Case 1986). A<br />
challenge for any monitor<strong>in</strong>g program is to dist<strong>in</strong>guish<br />
<strong>the</strong> changes that are <strong>in</strong>herent <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> natural population—<br />
<strong>the</strong> noise—from those that are <strong>in</strong>fluenced by external<br />
factors—<strong>the</strong> signal. In monitor<strong>in</strong>g, we compare <strong>the</strong><br />
results over time to those gleaned from basel<strong>in</strong>e<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g to detect whe<strong>the</strong>r change is an actual “signal”<br />
or merely “noise.”<br />
Monitor<strong>in</strong>g protocols should take <strong>in</strong>to consideration<br />
sampl<strong>in</strong>g design, data management and analysis,<br />
<strong>in</strong>terpretation <strong>of</strong> results, and report<strong>in</strong>g mechanisms.<br />
Objectives must specify <strong>the</strong> limits <strong>of</strong> change permitted<br />
before management action must be taken, and each
Adaptive management<br />
objective must be realistic, specific, and measurable. For<br />
example, qualitative monitor<strong>in</strong>g (habitat condition) is<br />
quicker and less expensive to conduct than quantitative<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g (estimates <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> frequency and abundance <strong>of</strong><br />
a species). However, qualitative monitor<strong>in</strong>g is <strong>of</strong>ten more<br />
variable because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> differences among observers.<br />
This has important implications—not only <strong>in</strong><br />
dist<strong>in</strong>guish<strong>in</strong>g real changes from those caused by<br />
sampl<strong>in</strong>g variability but also for management actions.<br />
5.3.2 Spatial and temporal scales<br />
Biodiversity assessment and monitor<strong>in</strong>g plans should be<br />
carried out at both local and regional scales to provide<br />
decision-makers with high-quality data and costeffective<br />
choices. At <strong>the</strong> spatial scale <strong>in</strong> TFR, sampl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
should take <strong>in</strong>to consideration proximity to local<br />
communities and variability <strong>in</strong> habitats along <strong>the</strong><br />
Reserve’s altitud<strong>in</strong>al gradient. For example, <strong>the</strong> current<br />
vegetation monitor<strong>in</strong>g strategy is focused on natural<br />
forest habitats at different elevations (Sunderland et al.<br />
this volume); future strategies might seek to ga<strong>the</strong>r<br />
basel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>in</strong> areas that are under management<br />
by local communities, thus <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g our understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> human impacts on biodiversity. At <strong>the</strong> temporal scale,<br />
sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> TFR must take <strong>in</strong>to account <strong>the</strong> variability <strong>in</strong><br />
biotic communities dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> wet and dry seasons<br />
because seasons affect our ability to detect noticeable<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> biodiversity over time.<br />
5.3.3 Sampl<strong>in</strong>g design<br />
Sampl<strong>in</strong>g strategies can be systematic, random, or<br />
stratified, depend<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>the</strong> taxa and sampl<strong>in</strong>g objectives.<br />
Random sampl<strong>in</strong>g, where po<strong>in</strong>ts have an equal<br />
probability <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g sampled, was used to conduct<br />
general collections <strong>of</strong> plants <strong>in</strong> TFR (Sunderland et al.<br />
this volume). Systematic sampl<strong>in</strong>g (employ<strong>in</strong>g a grid or<br />
transect) was conducted for <strong>the</strong> mammal and ape surveys<br />
(Sunderland-Groves et al. this volume). Stratified<br />
sampl<strong>in</strong>g, which <strong>in</strong>volves <strong>the</strong> def<strong>in</strong>ition <strong>of</strong> different<br />
habitats with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> reserve, was used to monitor<br />
vegetation (Sunderlant et al. this volume) and bird<br />
populations (Languy and Motombe this volume).<br />
Ultimately, <strong>the</strong> most appropriate method will stem from<br />
<strong>the</strong> specific objectives def<strong>in</strong>ed for <strong>the</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
program.<br />
The number and size <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> samples will be<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> precision required for monitor<strong>in</strong>g. If<br />
<strong>the</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g program is attempt<strong>in</strong>g to detect a small<br />
change, <strong>the</strong>n a large number <strong>of</strong> samples are needed. It is<br />
also necessary to decide whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> samples should be<br />
permanent or temporary. Permanent po<strong>in</strong>ts allow for<br />
repeated sampl<strong>in</strong>g, although <strong>the</strong>y cost more <strong>in</strong> time and<br />
money to establish. In TFR, <strong>the</strong> large ape populations are<br />
known to have a low density, but accurate estimates are<br />
difficult because even dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tense survey, only a few<br />
sight<strong>in</strong>gs have been registered (Sunderland-Groves et al.<br />
this volume). It will be very difficult to record precise<br />
estimates <strong>of</strong> changes <strong>in</strong> ape density because current<br />
personnel and f<strong>in</strong>ancial resources are not sufficient to<br />
enact <strong>the</strong> large-scale sampl<strong>in</strong>g strategy that is needed. For<br />
vegetation, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> sampl<strong>in</strong>g will be<br />
significantly less because <strong>the</strong> same populations, which<br />
are stationary, can be monitored over time (Sunderland et<br />
al. this volume).<br />
5.3.4 Data collection and management<br />
Data collection entails <strong>the</strong> measurement and assimilation<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field under consistent standards.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g assessments conducted to date <strong>in</strong> TFR, assistants<br />
and local guides have been tra<strong>in</strong>ed specifically for this<br />
task. Standard protocols were used to facilitate cross-site<br />
comparisons and evaluation <strong>in</strong> multi-taxa monitor<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Accurate transfer <strong>of</strong> data from field data sheets and<br />
secure storage <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation are required to ensure <strong>the</strong><br />
availability <strong>of</strong> credible data for analysis. Manag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
datasets <strong>in</strong>cludes data entry, verification, validation,<br />
archiv<strong>in</strong>g, and documentation. To assist <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> detection<br />
<strong>of</strong> errors at TFR, <strong>the</strong> vegetation team used <strong>the</strong><br />
Biodiveristy Monitor<strong>in</strong>g Database (BioMon), which<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporates validity checks <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> process <strong>of</strong><br />
transferr<strong>in</strong>g data from <strong>the</strong> field forms to <strong>the</strong> computer<br />
(Comiskey and Mosher 1999). In plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g program, <strong>the</strong> costs <strong>of</strong> data management<br />
should be <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> long-term budgets.<br />
15<br />
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16 Comiskey and Dallmeier<br />
5.4 Evaluation and Decision-mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Evaluation elicits answers to <strong>the</strong> questions that underly a<br />
project’s objectives and thus facilitates <strong>the</strong> process <strong>of</strong><br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g recommendations and <strong>the</strong> calibration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
overall program. Future activities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Project should <strong>in</strong>clude an evaluation process whereby <strong>the</strong><br />
results <strong>of</strong> biodiversity assessments and monitor<strong>in</strong>g are<br />
used to help achieve <strong>the</strong> project’s objectives. The<br />
evaluation should consist <strong>of</strong> a determ<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> whe<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>the</strong> collected data are subject to appropriate techniques<br />
for data management and analysis and if <strong>the</strong> data<br />
ga<strong>the</strong>red can be coupled with new technologies for<br />
analysis and management.<br />
Such an evaluation will enable team members to<br />
identify those mechanisms that work best <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> timely<br />
transfer <strong>of</strong> data and <strong>in</strong>formation for conservation<br />
decisions. Alternatives should be devised if it is<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ed that <strong>the</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g is not provid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
necessary <strong>in</strong>formation to evaluate management actions.<br />
Likewise, if management is not hav<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> desired<br />
outcome, o<strong>the</strong>r options must be explored. Ultimately, we<br />
must remember that <strong>the</strong> adaptive management process<br />
can help ensure <strong>the</strong> overall objective to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><br />
biodiversity at <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve <strong>in</strong> an optimal<br />
state.<br />
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<strong>of</strong> Natural History Novitates 3304.<br />
SI/MAB. 2002. Gabon Biodiversity Program:<br />
Biodiversity Research, Monitor<strong>in</strong>g and Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Gamba Complex, Gabon. (Ed. Campbell,<br />
P., F. Dallmeier, and A. Alonso). Brief<strong>in</strong>g Paper<br />
#3. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC: SI/MAB, Smithsonian<br />
Institution.<br />
17<br />
Sunderland, T.C.H., C.J. Ros, J.A. Comiskey, and A.<br />
Njiamnshi. 1997. The Vegetation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Campo<br />
Faunal Reserve and Ejagham Forest Reserve,<br />
Cameroon. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC: SI/MAB,<br />
Smithsonian Institution.<br />
Usongo, L. 1995. Biological and socio-economic<br />
survey <strong>of</strong> Rumpi and Nta Ali reserves. Report to<br />
<strong>the</strong> Korup Project, WWF Cameroon.<br />
van Jaarsveld, A.S., S. Freitag, S.L. Chown, C.<br />
Muller, S. Koch, H. Hull, C. Bellamy, M. Krüger,<br />
S. Endrödy-Younga, M. Mansell, and C.H.<br />
Scholtz. 1998. Biodiversity assessment and<br />
conservation strategies. Science 279: 2106-2108.<br />
Walters, C.J. 1986. Adaptive Management <strong>of</strong><br />
Renewable Resources. New York: McGraw-Hill.<br />
White, F. 1983. The Vegetation <strong>of</strong> Africa. Paris:<br />
UNESCO.<br />
WRI. 2000. A Guide to World Resources 2000 to<br />
2001. People and Ecosystems: The Fray<strong>in</strong>g Web<br />
<strong>of</strong> Life. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC: World Resources<br />
Institute.<br />
WRI. 2001. Biodiversity and Protected Areas <strong>of</strong><br />
Cameroon. Earthtrends. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC: World<br />
Resources Institute.<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
18<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest
Vegetation Assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Chapter 3<br />
Terry C.H. Sunderland, James A. Comiskey, Simon Besong, Hyac<strong>in</strong>th<br />
Mboh, John Fonwebon and Mercy Abwe Dione<br />
1 Introduction<br />
Aside from South Africa, Cameroon is <strong>the</strong> most<br />
biologically rich country known to date on <strong>the</strong> African<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ent (IUCN 1986). It encompasses an <strong>in</strong>tricate<br />
mosaic <strong>of</strong> diverse habitats, with moist, tropical forest<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> south and sou<strong>the</strong>ast and cover<strong>in</strong>g 54%<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> country (WCMC 1994), montane forest and alp<strong>in</strong>e<br />
savannah <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> highlands, and sub-sahelian savannah<br />
and near desert <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> far north (Letouzey 1968 and 1985,<br />
White 1983). These diverse habitats harbor more than<br />
9,000 species <strong>of</strong> plants, 160 <strong>of</strong> which are endemic<br />
(WCMC 1994). The majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> endemic taxa are<br />
concentrated around Mount Cameroon and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
highland areas.<br />
The forests <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cross-border region between<br />
Cameroon and Nigeria are also extraord<strong>in</strong>arily diverse,<br />
with a high degree <strong>of</strong> endemism (Davis et al. 1994). This<br />
area, where forest types are heavily <strong>in</strong>fluenced by<br />
dra<strong>in</strong>age patterns and topographical features, is <strong>the</strong> last<br />
refuge <strong>in</strong> Cameroon for <strong>the</strong> Cross River gorilla (Gorilla<br />
gorilla deihli; Sunderland-Groves et al. this volume).<br />
Compared to o<strong>the</strong>r forests <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Gu<strong>in</strong>eo-Congolian<br />
region, Cross River border forests are floristically<br />
diverse, with forest formations <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest<br />
Reserve (TFR) represent<strong>in</strong>g much <strong>of</strong> this diversity.<br />
This paper presents <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> a vegetation<br />
study conducted <strong>in</strong> TFR between September 2000 and<br />
July 2001. For a more complete description <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Reserve, see Sunderland-Groves et al. (this volume).<br />
1.1 Vegetation Surveys<br />
Botanical expeditions have been conducted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> larger<br />
study area s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> 1920s when numerous collections<br />
were made <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Obudu Plateau <strong>of</strong> Nigeria, which forms<br />
<strong>the</strong> western extension <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bamenda Highlands <strong>of</strong><br />
Cameroon (Hall and Medler 1975). Keay (1979)<br />
provides descriptions <strong>of</strong> habitats identified dur<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
botanical expedition conducted <strong>in</strong> 1948. On <strong>the</strong><br />
Cameroon side, attention has focused on <strong>the</strong><br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>ous region, especially Mount Cameroon (for<br />
example, Cable and Cheek 1998, Hall 1973, Richards<br />
1963a and b). To <strong>the</strong> west and border<strong>in</strong>g on Nigeria’s<br />
Cross River National Park, Korup National Park has<br />
been <strong>the</strong> sett<strong>in</strong>g for extensive botanical and ecological<br />
work, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g quantitative assessments (Newbery and<br />
Gartlan 1996), phenology (Newbery et al. 1996), and<br />
studies <strong>of</strong> nutrients and mycorrhizae (Gartlan et al. 1986,<br />
Newbery et al. 1988, Newbery et al. 1997). A<br />
prelim<strong>in</strong>ary botanical expedition to <strong>Takamanda</strong> was<br />
conducted by Etuge (1998). Two 1-ha biodiversity plots<br />
were established <strong>in</strong> 1997, <strong>the</strong> first <strong>in</strong> Cross River<br />
National Park and <strong>the</strong> second <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Okwangwo Division<br />
(Comiskey et al. unpublished data).<br />
Recently, <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian Institution established a<br />
forest dynamics plot where all trees with a diameter<br />
greater than 1 cm were measured <strong>in</strong> a 50-ha area <strong>in</strong><br />
Korup National Park (Schuster et al. 1999, Thomas et al.<br />
2003, Songwe et al. <strong>in</strong> press). To <strong>the</strong> north <strong>of</strong> Korup <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Ejagham Forest Reserve, two 1-hectare biodiversity<br />
plots were established <strong>in</strong> 1997 (Sunderland et al. 1997).<br />
These plots were remeasured <strong>in</strong> 2002 and provide <strong>the</strong><br />
first quantitative <strong>in</strong>formation on dynamics <strong>of</strong> forests <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> region (Comiskey and Sunderland unpublished data).<br />
1.2 <strong>Takamanda</strong> Vegetation Assessment<br />
Until recently, <strong>the</strong>re was a considerable lack <strong>of</strong> detailed<br />
knowledge about vegetative composition <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> area. As part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> present assessment, a<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003, Pages 19 to 53
20 Sunderland et al.<br />
prelim<strong>in</strong>ary landuse change and vegetation map was<br />
prepared by Slayback and Sunderland (see photo gallery,<br />
this volume). This chapter provides comprehensive<br />
descriptions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest types found <strong>in</strong> TFR.<br />
The objectives <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vegetation survey were to:<br />
• Elicit basel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>formation on <strong>the</strong> structure and<br />
composition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> different forested habitat types <strong>in</strong><br />
TFR.<br />
• Initiate long-term monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> vegetation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
area to help better understand <strong>the</strong> natural dynamics<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> different habitat types.<br />
• Build a framework for <strong>the</strong> assessment <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
taxonomic groups.<br />
• Complete a biological basel<strong>in</strong>e to <strong>in</strong>form elaboration<br />
<strong>of</strong> a management plan for <strong>the</strong> area.<br />
The current study presents <strong>the</strong> first comprehensive<br />
vegetation survey for <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve. The<br />
vegetation assessment we conducted is part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
network <strong>of</strong> long-term vegetation monitor<strong>in</strong>g sites<br />
established <strong>in</strong> Cameroon and Nigeria through <strong>the</strong><br />
International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups, a project<br />
exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> l<strong>in</strong>k between biodiversity and human<br />
health and drug discovery. Two long-term biodiversity<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g plots have been established <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ejagham<br />
Forest Reserve, located south <strong>of</strong> TFR, and three at <strong>the</strong><br />
Campo Faunal Reserve <strong>in</strong> South Prov<strong>in</strong>ce, Cameroon.<br />
3 Methods<br />
3.1 Introduction<br />
The methodology employed for <strong>the</strong>se surveys<br />
concentrated on both quantitative and qualitative<br />
assessments <strong>of</strong> vegetative composition. In <strong>the</strong> former,<br />
both permanent 1-ha biodiversity plots (BDPs) were<br />
established <strong>in</strong> conjunction with Modified Whitaker plots<br />
(MWPs). Ten 1-ha BDPs and 38 MWPs were established<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> Reserve (Table 1). In addition to <strong>the</strong><br />
quantitative vegetation assessment, qualitative surveys<br />
were undertaken through textensive collection <strong>of</strong><br />
voucher specimens.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
3.2 Quantitative sampl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
The assessment sites were determ<strong>in</strong>ed from an <strong>in</strong>itial<br />
reconnaissance survey <strong>of</strong> TFR, accompanied by<br />
exam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> available aerial photographs and <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong><br />
vegetative components identified (Sunderland 2000). At<br />
each site, it was <strong>in</strong>tended that:<br />
• <strong>the</strong> area should conta<strong>in</strong> species representative <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
habitat type;<br />
• <strong>the</strong> common and/or dom<strong>in</strong>ant species should be<br />
represented, and<br />
• <strong>the</strong> plots should be located <strong>in</strong> each habitat type to<br />
provide a “true” representation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area’s<br />
diversity.<br />
At each site, one BDP and four MWPs were<br />
established, us<strong>in</strong>g standard protocols (Figure 1). The<br />
protocol for establish<strong>in</strong>g a BDP (100 x 100 m), reported<br />
<strong>in</strong> detail by Dallmeier et al. (1992) and Dallmeier and<br />
Comiskey (1996), is <strong>in</strong> use at more than 300 plots <strong>in</strong> 23<br />
countries (Dallmeier and Comiskey 1998a, 1998b) and<br />
provides a unique comparative data set from forested<br />
regions throughout <strong>the</strong> tropics. All trees with a diameter<br />
at breast height (dbh; 1.3 m) ≥ 10 cm were measured,<br />
tagged, and marked. Where possible, measurements<br />
MWP<br />
100m<br />
MWP<br />
50 m<br />
1-ha Biodiversity<br />
Plot (BDP)<br />
100m<br />
MWP<br />
20 m<br />
500m<br />
Figure 1. Field arrangement <strong>of</strong> 1-ha biodiversity plots<br />
(BDPs) and modified Whitaker plots (MWPs)<br />
MWP
Vegetation Assessment<br />
Table 1. Location <strong>of</strong> plots <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon. The ten BDPs are numbered from P6 through P15. Plots 1-<br />
3 are sited <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Campo Faunal Reserve and plots 4 and 5 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ejagham Forest Reserve, Cameroon. MWPs are numbered M1<br />
to M36.<br />
Plot # Location Gazeteer Elevation Terra<strong>in</strong> and<br />
site description<br />
P6 Basho hills 06Ê07’818’’N;<br />
320m Steep slop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
M1,<br />
M2,<br />
M3,<br />
M4<br />
09Ê24’776’’E<br />
ridges<br />
P7 Basho hills 06Ê07’871’’N;<br />
400m On hillside<br />
M5,<br />
M6,<br />
M7,<br />
M8<br />
09Ê24’589’’E<br />
plateau<br />
P8 Matene to Mendi hills 06Ê18’349’’N;<br />
780m Steep slop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
M9,<br />
M10<br />
09Ê22’396’’E<br />
hillside<br />
P9 Mendi hills to Obudu 06Ê19’400’’N;<br />
1,200m Montane gallery<br />
M11,<br />
09Ê23’474’’E<br />
forest <strong>in</strong><br />
M12<br />
grassland<br />
P10, Mboh-Matene 06Ê11’340’’N;<br />
210m Flat plateau <strong>in</strong><br />
M13,<br />
M14,<br />
M15,<br />
M16<br />
09Ê20’339’’E<br />
lowland forest<br />
P11 Mboh-Matene 06Ê11’815’’N;<br />
210m Flat plateau <strong>in</strong><br />
M17,<br />
M18,<br />
M19,<br />
M20<br />
09Ê20’302’’E<br />
lowland forest<br />
P12 Magbe 06Ê07’488’’N;<br />
150m River<strong>in</strong>e forest;<br />
M21,<br />
M22,<br />
M23,<br />
M24<br />
09Ê12’888’’E<br />
flat plateau<br />
P13 Magbe 06Ê07’885’’N;<br />
150m River<strong>in</strong>e forest;<br />
M25,<br />
M26,<br />
M27,<br />
M28<br />
09Ê13’109’’E<br />
flat plateau<br />
P14 <strong>Takamanda</strong> camp 06Ê03’160’’N;<br />
120m Flat plateau <strong>in</strong><br />
M29,<br />
M30,<br />
M31,<br />
M32<br />
09Ê16’794’’E<br />
lowland forest<br />
P15 <strong>Takamanda</strong> camp 06Ê03’264’’N;<br />
120m Flat plateau <strong>in</strong><br />
M33,<br />
M34,<br />
M35,<br />
M36<br />
09Ê16’507’’E<br />
lowland forest<br />
21<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
22 Sunderland et al.<br />
avoided protrusions occurr<strong>in</strong>g at dbh on <strong>the</strong> trunk. The<br />
height <strong>of</strong> all <strong>in</strong>dividuals was also measured.<br />
Through <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>of</strong> herbs and o<strong>the</strong>r life forms,<br />
MWPs provide a more comprehensive overview <strong>of</strong><br />
forest diversity, composition, and structure than do<br />
BDPs, where <strong>the</strong> focus is trees ≥10cm dbh. To represent<br />
as wide a vegetation sample as possible, MWPs were<br />
established <strong>in</strong> a standard formation <strong>in</strong> close proximity to<br />
BDPs. Along each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> four 100-m long sides <strong>of</strong> each<br />
BDP, a MWP was sited perpendicular at a l<strong>in</strong>ear distance<br />
<strong>of</strong> 500 m (Figure 1). Hence, each BDP had four<br />
“satellite” MWPs sited around it except plots P8 and P9<br />
that were sited <strong>in</strong> narrow strips <strong>of</strong> montane gallery forest<br />
and where only two MWPs were established.<br />
MWPs, each 0.1-ha (20 x 50 m) <strong>in</strong> size, are<br />
composed <strong>of</strong> 13 multi-scale, rectangular, nested subplots<br />
<strong>of</strong> proportional dimensions, corrected for slope<br />
(Stohlgren 1995). All trees ≥ 10 cm dbh were measured,<br />
marked, and identified throughout MWPs. In <strong>the</strong> center<br />
20 x 5-m ‘C’subplot, all trees ≥ 5 cm dbh were measured,<br />
marked, and identified. In a similar fashion, all trees ≥ 1<br />
cm dbh were measured <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> two 5 x 2-m ‘B1’ and ‘B2’<br />
subplots. All <strong>in</strong>dividual stems <strong>of</strong> herbaceous plants were<br />
identified and counted, but not marked, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ten 2 x 0.5m<br />
‘A’ subplots.<br />
3.3 Qualitative sampl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Random collections <strong>of</strong> fertile material were undertaken<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> Reserve for <strong>the</strong> duration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> field work,<br />
both by pr<strong>of</strong>essional botanists and villagers tra<strong>in</strong>ed as<br />
parataxonomists to ensure <strong>in</strong>tense local <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> data collection process and to help allay suspicions<br />
regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> removal <strong>of</strong> botanical samples. The local<br />
collectors were responsible for <strong>the</strong> sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> voucher specimens outside <strong>the</strong> plots<br />
(more than 50% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> total specimens), and <strong>the</strong>y<br />
contributed significantly to knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve’s<br />
flora. The presence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> collectors on a year-round basis<br />
also helped <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> record<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> phenological differences<br />
between seasons.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
3.4 Identification <strong>of</strong> plant material<br />
Through <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional tree spotters, many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
species encountered on <strong>the</strong> plots were identified <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
field. Voucher specimens were not collected where a<br />
consensus was achieved as to identification <strong>of</strong> a sampled<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual (that is, three <strong>in</strong>dividuals agree on each field<br />
identification). Voucher specimens were collected for<br />
specimens that could not be identified <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field. To<br />
avoid unnecessary duplication <strong>of</strong> effort, morphospecies<br />
were identified and a s<strong>in</strong>gle representative voucher<br />
collected for each. These vouchers, along with <strong>the</strong> fertile<br />
vouchers collected dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> qualitative surveys, were<br />
identified at <strong>the</strong> Limbe Botanic Garden Herbarium.<br />
Duplicates have been sent for confirmation to family<br />
specialists <strong>in</strong> herbaria around <strong>the</strong> world, and it is likely<br />
<strong>the</strong> checklist will cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be revised as <strong>the</strong> duplicates<br />
are exam<strong>in</strong>ed. Name changes, authorities, and synonymy<br />
were checked us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Missouri Botanical Garden’s<br />
Tropicos nomenclature database.<br />
3.5 Data analysis<br />
Each assessment site was described based on <strong>the</strong> species<br />
“importance value <strong>in</strong>dex” (IVI). Hence, species with <strong>the</strong><br />
highest IVI are referred to as <strong>the</strong> most “important” at that<br />
site (Comiskey et al. 2001). The IVI is calculated as<br />
follows:<br />
Rel. Density =<br />
Basal Area (BA) = pi (½ dbh) 2<br />
Relative Basal Area =<br />
# <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual s <strong>of</strong><br />
BA <strong>of</strong><br />
species<br />
species<br />
x 100<br />
# <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual s <strong>of</strong> allspecies<br />
x 100<br />
BA all species<br />
Frequency = Number <strong>of</strong> quadrats <strong>in</strong> which a species is<br />
found<br />
Frequency <strong>of</strong> a species<br />
Rel. Frequency =<br />
x 100<br />
Frequency <strong>of</strong> all species<br />
Cover value <strong>in</strong>dex (CVI) = Relative density + Relative<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ance.
Vegetation Assessment<br />
Importance value <strong>in</strong>dex (IVI) = CVI + Relative<br />
frequency<br />
The most appropriate measures <strong>of</strong> diversity to use<br />
for 1-ha plots are <strong>the</strong> Shannon-We<strong>in</strong>er <strong>in</strong>dex (H’) and<br />
Fischer’s <strong>in</strong>dex (α), which have been shown to be more<br />
representative <strong>of</strong> diversity <strong>in</strong> larger areas. Shannon’s<br />
<strong>in</strong>dex is a measure <strong>of</strong> uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty, provid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
probability <strong>of</strong> pick<strong>in</strong>g a dom<strong>in</strong>ant species at random:<br />
∑<br />
H ©<br />
= − pi<br />
ln pi<br />
where p i is <strong>the</strong> proportion <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>of</strong> a species<br />
(Relative density <strong>of</strong> species/100), and ln is <strong>the</strong> natural<br />
logarithm. The maximum value <strong>of</strong> H’ is <strong>the</strong> natural<br />
logarithm <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> species (ln S). Evenness (E)<br />
describes <strong>the</strong> distribution among species, reach<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
value <strong>of</strong> 1 when all species have equal numbers <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals. Pielou’s evenness is described by <strong>the</strong><br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g equation:<br />
H ©<br />
E =<br />
ln S<br />
Fisher’s Index (α) is def<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
equation:<br />
⎛ N<br />
S = α ln ⎜1 +<br />
⎝ α<br />
⎞<br />
⎟<br />
⎠<br />
where α was calculated us<strong>in</strong>g Biodiversity Pr<strong>of</strong>essional.<br />
Alpha is particularly useful as it enables accurate<br />
extrapolation to larger population sizes.<br />
4 Results<br />
4.1 General floristics<br />
The results and discussion <strong>in</strong> this section are based on<br />
analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> data ga<strong>the</strong>red dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> present study.<br />
These data consist <strong>of</strong> 14,374 <strong>in</strong>dividual plant records<br />
from TFR that were ga<strong>the</strong>red dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> field surveys. In<br />
summary, <strong>the</strong>se plant records:<br />
• total 4,628 <strong>in</strong>dividual trees ≥ 10cm dbh measured <strong>in</strong><br />
ten BDPs and represent<strong>in</strong>g 351 species, 210 genera,<br />
and 58 families. Cumulatively, <strong>the</strong> trees have a mean<br />
dbh <strong>of</strong> 29 cm and a mean basal area (BA) <strong>of</strong> 30.8<br />
m 2 /ha.<br />
• total 8,885 <strong>in</strong>dividuals, represent<strong>in</strong>g 442 species, 243<br />
genera, and 75 families recorded from MWPs;<br />
• total 861 voucher specimens represent<strong>in</strong>g 612<br />
species, 277 genera, and 91 families.<br />
In all, <strong>the</strong> 14,374 <strong>in</strong>dividual records represent 953<br />
species, 504 genera, and 113 families (Appendix 1).<br />
4.2 Vegetation classification<br />
The plots were locaed <strong>in</strong> five ma<strong>in</strong> habit types. For<br />
purposes <strong>of</strong> this study, <strong>the</strong>se are def<strong>in</strong>ed as lowland forest<br />
(with a number <strong>of</strong> sub-types), lowland ridge forest, midelevation<br />
forest, montane forest, and high-altitude<br />
grassland. Table 2 shows general characteristics <strong>of</strong> each<br />
plot.<br />
4.2.1 Lowland forest<br />
Lowland forest covers much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn half <strong>of</strong> TFR<br />
and despite some variation, is somewhat homogenous <strong>in</strong><br />
its structure and composition. A common component <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> lowland forests is <strong>the</strong> family Huaceae, represented by<br />
<strong>the</strong> extremely gregarious Afrostyrax kamerunensis that<br />
occurs <strong>in</strong> great abundance (Figure 2). This species is<br />
present throughout <strong>the</strong> forest formations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> entire<br />
TFR. The Irv<strong>in</strong>giaceae is well represented <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowland<br />
forest and exhibits particularly high levels <strong>of</strong> diversity.<br />
Along with Kla<strong>in</strong>edoxa gabonensis and Desbordesia<br />
glaucescens, <strong>the</strong> genus Irv<strong>in</strong>gia is represented by I. gabonensis,<br />
I. wombolu, I. robur, I. Smithii, and I. grandifolia.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r large canopy trees <strong>in</strong>clude Alstonia congensis,<br />
Blighia welwitchii, Canarium schwe<strong>in</strong>furthii, Carapa<br />
procera, Duboscia macrocarpa, Entandrophragma<br />
angolense, Lophira alata, Lovoa trichilioides, Ongokea<br />
gore, Panda oleosa, Parkia bicolor, Par<strong>in</strong>ari exselsa,<br />
Pentaclethra macrophylla, Pentadesma butyracea,<br />
Piptandeniastrum africanum, Plagiostylea africanum,<br />
Pterocarpus soyauxii, Symphonia globulifera, and<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>alia <strong>in</strong>vorensis. To a lesser extent, <strong>the</strong><br />
Caesalp<strong>in</strong>iaceae is also represented <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest canopy,<br />
23<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
24 Sunderland et al.<br />
Table 2. Summary <strong>of</strong> floristic data for plots <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Site Plot # # <strong>of</strong><br />
trees<br />
with species <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Berl<strong>in</strong>ia bracteosa, B. craibiana,<br />
Afzelia pachyloba, A. bip<strong>in</strong>densis, Microberl<strong>in</strong>ia bisulcata,<br />
Erythrophloem ivorense, Gilbertiodendron brachystegioides,<br />
G. deweveri, Monopetalanthus letestui, M.<br />
microphyllus, and Brachystegia kennedyi.<br />
Along with Afrostyrax kamerunensis, <strong>the</strong> family<br />
Olacaceae dom<strong>in</strong>ates <strong>the</strong> middle-story <strong>of</strong> lowland forest<br />
with Strombosia grandiflora, S. pustulata, S. scheffleri,<br />
and Strombosiopsis tetandra be<strong>in</strong>g particularly abundant.<br />
The Ebenaceae are also a common component <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
middle-story, particularly <strong>the</strong> genus Diospyros<br />
represented by D. crassiflora, D. preussii, D. sanzam<strong>in</strong>ika,<br />
D. simulans, D. suaveolens, and D. zenkeri. The<br />
Celastraceae are also abundant with many species <strong>of</strong><br />
Salacia present. O<strong>the</strong>r abundant species are Angylocalyx<br />
zenkeri, Annickia chlorantha, Anonidium mannii,<br />
Polyalthia suaveolens, Calpocalyx d<strong>in</strong>klagei,<br />
Corynan<strong>the</strong> pachyceras, Cyrtogonone argentea,<br />
Dacryodes igaganga, Dactyladenia mannii, Dialium<br />
bip<strong>in</strong>densis, Discoglypremna caloneura, Garc<strong>in</strong>ia<br />
mannii, Grewia coriacea, Homalium dolichophyllum,<br />
Hypnodaphnis zenkeri, Isolona hexaloba, Monodora<br />
tenuifolia, Paus<strong>in</strong>ystalia macroceras, Plagiostyles<br />
africana, Polayalthia suaveolens, Protomegabaria<br />
stapfiana, Scottelia mimfiensis, Sor<strong>in</strong>deia grandifolia,<br />
Tabernaemontana crassa, Tapura africana, Treculia<br />
obovoidea, Usteria gu<strong>in</strong>eensis, Xylopia staudtii, and <strong>the</strong><br />
stilt-rooted Santiria trimera and Uapaca gu<strong>in</strong>eensis.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
# <strong>of</strong><br />
species<br />
Shannon©s<br />
Index (H©)<br />
Evenness<br />
(E)<br />
Common small trees <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> understory <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
Antidesma lac<strong>in</strong>iatum var. lac<strong>in</strong>iatum, Baphia<br />
leptobotrys, B. nitida, Dorstenia tub<strong>in</strong>ata, Lasian<strong>the</strong>ra<br />
africana, Maesobotrya dusenii, Mareya micrantha,<br />
Mareyopsis longifolia, Massularia acum<strong>in</strong>ata, R<strong>in</strong>orea<br />
dentate, and Rothmannia lujae.<br />
Common herbs <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> closed-canopy lowland forest<br />
are Costus englerianus, Dracaena camerooniana, D.<br />
phrynoides, Dorstenia mannii, D. barteri var. multiradiata,<br />
Mapania amplivag<strong>in</strong>ata, Renealmia polypus, and<br />
Scadoxus c<strong>in</strong>nabar<strong>in</strong>us. The Commel<strong>in</strong>aceae is also well<br />
represented <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> herbaceous layer, notably Aneilmia<br />
ben<strong>in</strong>ense, Palisota ambigua, P. barteri, P mannii, P.<br />
capitata, and Pollia condensata. Groups <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> crimson<br />
rosettes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> parasitic Thonn<strong>in</strong>gia sangu<strong>in</strong>ea are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
seen on <strong>the</strong> forest floor.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> lowland forest, additional vegetation sub-types<br />
are dist<strong>in</strong>guishable; that is, river<strong>in</strong>e forest and extensive<br />
areas <strong>of</strong> secondary forest. Two plots were established <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> river<strong>in</strong>e forest, but only qualitative collections were<br />
conducted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> secondary forests.<br />
4.2.1.1 River<strong>in</strong>e forest<br />
Fisher©s<br />
Index<br />
Mean dbh<br />
(cm)<br />
Total<br />
BA<br />
Lowland ridge forest 6 491 103 3.95 0.85 39.7 30.0 34.7<br />
Lowland ridge forest 7 498 98 3.82 0.83 36.0 32.8 42.1<br />
Lowland ra<strong>in</strong>forest 10 414 90 3.86 0.86 34.8 29.7 28.7<br />
Lowland ra<strong>in</strong>forest 11 428 113 4.01 0.85 50.1 25.4 21.7<br />
Lowland (river<strong>in</strong>e) ra<strong>in</strong>forest 12 426 93 3.81 0.84 36.1 30.9 32.0<br />
Lowland (river<strong>in</strong>e) ra<strong>in</strong>forest 13 477 118 4.03 0.84 50.2 29.3 32.1<br />
Lowland ra<strong>in</strong>forest 14 406 83 3.62 0.82 31.0 35.6 40.5<br />
Lowland ra<strong>in</strong>forest 15 438 91 3.89 0.87 33.7 31.1 33.2<br />
Mid-altitude 8 527 64 3.29 0.79 19.1 24.4 24.6<br />
Montane/savanna 9 523 74 3.59 0.84 23.5 21.3 18.6<br />
The extensive dra<strong>in</strong>age pattern <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> region<br />
has given rise to large areas <strong>of</strong> lowland forest heavily<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluenced by seasonal <strong>in</strong>undation and periodic flood<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
This forest formation is relatively extensive with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>
Vegetation Assessment<br />
Figure 2. Structure and composition <strong>of</strong> lowland forest habitat <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon, from biodiversity plots,<br />
show<strong>in</strong>g relative density and relative basal area by (a) species, and (b) family.<br />
(a)<br />
Afrostyrax kamerunensis<br />
Strombosiopsis tetrandra<br />
Strombosia grandifolia<br />
Treculia obovoidea<br />
Irv<strong>in</strong>gia gabonensis<br />
Kla<strong>in</strong>edoxa gabonensis<br />
Cylicodricus gabunensis<br />
Tabernaemontana crassa<br />
Duboscia macrocarpa<br />
(b)<br />
Alstonia congensis<br />
Olacaceae<br />
Euphorbiaceae<br />
Leg-Mimosoideae<br />
Huaceae<br />
Irv<strong>in</strong>giaceae<br />
Leg-Caesalp<strong>in</strong>ioideae<br />
Apocynaceae<br />
Annonaceae<br />
Leg-Papilionoideae<br />
Sterculiaceae<br />
Relative Density<br />
Relative BA<br />
0 2 4 6 8 10<br />
Relative Density<br />
Relative BA<br />
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14<br />
25<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
26 Sunderland et al.<br />
lowland forest, somewhat dist<strong>in</strong>ct <strong>in</strong> composition from<br />
<strong>the</strong> terra firma forest described above, and particularly<br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forests along <strong>the</strong> Magbe and Oyi<br />
rivers. The vegetation is dom<strong>in</strong>ated by Protomegabaria<br />
stapfiana and Uapaca staudtii with Oubangia alata,<br />
An<strong>in</strong>geria sp. Aubrevillea kerst<strong>in</strong>gii, Cynomentra<br />
sanagaensis, Diogoa zenkeri, and Belonophora talbotii<br />
less abundant. Large populations <strong>of</strong> Pandanus and <strong>the</strong><br />
utilitarian palm Raphia hookeri are common where <strong>the</strong>re<br />
is seasonal flood<strong>in</strong>g, creat<strong>in</strong>g swamp forest. O<strong>the</strong>r<br />
monocotyledons such as rattan palms as well as members<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Marantaceae (especially Aetnidia conferta and<br />
Sarcophrynium priogonium var. priogonium) and<br />
Z<strong>in</strong>giberaceae (Aframomum spp.) are also a common<br />
component <strong>of</strong> this formation.<br />
At <strong>the</strong> edges <strong>of</strong> wider rivers such as <strong>the</strong> Makone,<br />
Kanahia laniflora (Asclepiadaceae) is commonly seen<br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> gravel. Along smaller rocky streams, <strong>the</strong><br />
forest is <strong>of</strong>ten characterized by a rich herbaceous flora, <strong>in</strong><br />
particular a number <strong>of</strong> species <strong>of</strong> Impatiens (I. irv<strong>in</strong>gii,<br />
and I. namniamensis) and Begonia (B. ciliobracteata and<br />
B. quadrialata subsp. quadrialata). The highly seasonal<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> area also means that variations<br />
<strong>in</strong> water levels <strong>in</strong> many rivers and streams expose<br />
extensive rocky areas. Common and persistent colonizers<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se <strong>of</strong>t-flooded rocks <strong>in</strong> open areas are Biophytum<br />
umbraculum and <strong>in</strong> forest streams Anubias barteri. Both<br />
are found throughout <strong>the</strong> lowland forest areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> TFR.<br />
4.2.1.2 Secondary forest<br />
Because agriculture is an important component <strong>of</strong><br />
survival throughout <strong>the</strong> TFR area, cultivated areas <strong>of</strong><br />
annual crops surround villages <strong>in</strong> and outside <strong>the</strong> Reserve<br />
boundary. Trees are generally removed from cultivated<br />
land, although <strong>the</strong> oil palm (Elaeis gu<strong>in</strong>eensis) and<br />
characteristic Ceiba pentandra are regularly found on<br />
<strong>in</strong>tensively cropped farmland. Fur<strong>the</strong>r from villages,<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r cultivated areas are more commonly cleared on a<br />
rotational basis <strong>in</strong> extensive formations <strong>of</strong> farm fallow<br />
and later secondary forest. Farm fallow conta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
extensive groves <strong>of</strong> oil palm, many <strong>of</strong> which are planted<br />
as annual crops along with early colonizers such as<br />
Alchornea floribunda, Musanga cecropioides, and<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Anthocleista vogellii and dense thickets <strong>of</strong> Marantaceae<br />
(particularly Marantochloa spp. and Thaumatococcus<br />
danielii) and Z<strong>in</strong>giberaceae (Aframomum sp.). Climbers<br />
and scandent shrubs such as Adenia cissampeloides,<br />
Clerodendrum splendens, C. umbellatum, He<strong>in</strong>sia<br />
cr<strong>in</strong>ita, Gloriosa superba, Jateorhiza macrantha,<br />
Momordica cissoides, Mussaenda tenuifolia, Paull<strong>in</strong>ia<br />
p<strong>in</strong>nata, and Smilax anceps are also common <strong>in</strong><br />
secondary forest.<br />
Land <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area that is not cultivated for up to 20<br />
years regenerates well and forms dense secondary forest<br />
formations that grade easily <strong>in</strong>to closed-canopy forest.<br />
This late-secondary forest is characterized by large trees<br />
such as Piptadeniastrum africanum, Ric<strong>in</strong>odendron<br />
heudelotii subsp. africanum, Vitex grandifolia,<br />
Pycnanthus angolensis and smaller trees: Leea gu<strong>in</strong>eensis,<br />
Milletia barteri, Myrianthus arboreus, Harungana<br />
madagascariensis, Barteria fistulosa,Rauvolfia vomitoria,<br />
Tabernaemontana crassa,and Voacanga bracteata.<br />
4.2.2 Lowland ridge forest (300-500 m)<br />
As <strong>the</strong> altitude <strong>in</strong>creases sharply <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> north <strong>of</strong> TFR,<br />
long f<strong>in</strong>ger-like ridges protrude <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> lowland forest.<br />
Although <strong>the</strong>y conta<strong>in</strong> many elements <strong>of</strong> lowland forest<br />
flora, <strong>the</strong>se ridges provide gradation from true lowland<br />
forest to mid-elevation and montane forest and <strong>in</strong> some<br />
areas are quite dist<strong>in</strong>ct <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir vegetative composition.<br />
The ridge forest formation is particularly prevalent <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Kekpani/Basho hills and to a lesser extent <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> higher<br />
areas to <strong>the</strong> north <strong>of</strong> Obonyi I and to <strong>the</strong> south <strong>of</strong> Matene<br />
as <strong>the</strong> lowland expanse gives way to higher land.<br />
These long ridges are <strong>of</strong>ten characterized by stands<br />
<strong>of</strong> even-aged canopy trees (Figure 3), usually Lophira<br />
alata, Canarium schwe<strong>in</strong>furthii, Term<strong>in</strong>alia superba,<br />
Nauclea diderichii, and Poga oleosa. The<br />
Caesalp<strong>in</strong>iaceae is better represented <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ridge forest<br />
through Berl<strong>in</strong>ia bracteosa, Afzelia bip<strong>in</strong>densis,<br />
Microberl<strong>in</strong>ia bisulcata, and Erythrophloem ivorense.<br />
All <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se species are valued as timber, and <strong>the</strong>se ridges<br />
probably conta<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> greatest abundance <strong>of</strong> merchantable<br />
timber <strong>in</strong> TFR. The abundance <strong>of</strong> such large <strong>in</strong>dividuals,<br />
with a correspond<strong>in</strong>gly clear understory, <strong>of</strong>ten creates an
Vegetation Assessment<br />
Figure 3. Structure and composition <strong>of</strong> lowland ridge forest habitat <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon, from biodiversity<br />
plots, show<strong>in</strong>g relative density and relative basal area by (a) species, and (b) family.<br />
(a)<br />
Treculia obovoidea<br />
Desbordesia glaucescens<br />
Lophira alata<br />
Carapa procera<br />
Calpocalyx d<strong>in</strong>klagei<br />
Protomegabaria stapfiana<br />
Berl<strong>in</strong>ia bracteosa<br />
Tabernaemontana crassa<br />
Plagiostyles africana<br />
(b)<br />
Tapura africana<br />
Euphorbiaceae<br />
Leg-Mimosoideae<br />
Leg-Caesalp<strong>in</strong>ioideae<br />
Moraceae<br />
Irv<strong>in</strong>giaceae<br />
Ochnaceae<br />
Meliaceae<br />
Olacaceae<br />
Leg-Papilionoideae<br />
Guttiferae<br />
Relative Density<br />
Relative BA<br />
0 2 4 6 8 10<br />
Relative Density<br />
Relative BA<br />
0 5 10 15 20<br />
27<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
28 Sunderland et al.<br />
impressive ca<strong>the</strong>dral-like effect. The Myristicaceae is<br />
represented by large numbers <strong>of</strong> Scyphocephalium<br />
mannii and Coelocaryon preussii. O<strong>the</strong>r trees present<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude Allanblackia floribunda, Tapura africana,<br />
Bielschmiedia obscura, Canthium arnoldianum,<br />
Chrysophyllum beguei, C. boukokoensis, Zanthoxylum<br />
heitzii, Aubrevillea kerst<strong>in</strong>gii, Pseudospondias<br />
microcarpa, Camptostylus mannii, Maran<strong>the</strong>s glabra,<br />
Newtonia grandifolia, and Dacryodes kla<strong>in</strong>eana.<br />
The ridge forests are not only species diverse. Their<br />
flora is also unique <strong>in</strong> TFR. In <strong>the</strong> Kekpani/Basho hills,<br />
<strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g species were not recorded elsewhere<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g our surveys: Allophyllus bullatus, Anisophyllea<br />
polyneura, Anopyxis kla<strong>in</strong>eana, Antrocaryon<br />
kla<strong>in</strong>eanum, Aulacocalyx talbotii, Camptostylus mannii,<br />
Chytranthus mortenhanii, Cola anomala, C. verticillata,<br />
C. semecarpophylla,Dialium pachyphyllum, Diospyros<br />
cococarpa, D. physocalyc<strong>in</strong>a, Drypetes preussii,<br />
Lecaniodiscus cupanioides, Leonardoxa africana,<br />
Manniophyton fulvum, Maprounea membranacea,<br />
Microdesmis zenkeri, Petersianthus africanus, Pterygota<br />
macrocarpa, Rhabdophyllum aff<strong>in</strong>e, Soyauxia<br />
gabonensis, Strychnos asterantha, Trichilia gilgiana,<br />
Trilipisium madagascariensis, Uapaca acum<strong>in</strong>ata,<br />
Uapaca staudtii, and Uvariodendron connivens<br />
The understory <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ridge forests is relatively open<br />
with a notable absence <strong>of</strong> herbs and smaller shrubs. The<br />
genera Cola and Diospyros dom<strong>in</strong>ate this layer, and <strong>in</strong><br />
many areas Cola semecarpophylla form sparse,<br />
monospecific stands.<br />
4.2.3 Mid-elevation forest (500-800 m)<br />
At higher elevations, particularly <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn part <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Reserve, <strong>the</strong>re is a dist<strong>in</strong>ct and perceptible shift <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
forest—from strictly lowland forest to mid-elevation<br />
and, consequently, montane forest and savannah<br />
grassland. The characteristic vegetation <strong>of</strong> mid-elevation<br />
forest is particularly evident <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> dramatic alteration <strong>in</strong><br />
relief from <strong>the</strong> villages <strong>of</strong> Matene to Mende, where <strong>the</strong><br />
forest changes from lowland forest (200 m) to midelevation<br />
forest (700 m) over a relatively small l<strong>in</strong>ear<br />
distance.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Alower canopy, a denser understory, and an <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
<strong>of</strong> epiphytic flora, particularly Pteridophytes and<br />
Orchidaceae, characterize <strong>the</strong> mid-elevation forest. The<br />
tree flora is dom<strong>in</strong>ated by <strong>of</strong> Vitex don<strong>in</strong>iana and V.<br />
ferrug<strong>in</strong>ea (Figure 4), <strong>the</strong> latter species occurr<strong>in</strong>g only <strong>in</strong><br />
mid-elevation forest. The flora is less diverse than <strong>the</strong><br />
lowland forest, and <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> species <strong>in</strong>clude Anthonotha<br />
cladantha, Homalium dolichophyllum, Tabernaemontana<br />
pachysiphon, Syzygium gu<strong>in</strong>eense, Santiria trimera,<br />
Garc<strong>in</strong>ia smeathmannii, Dactyledenia mannii,<br />
Allanblackia floribunda, Spondianthus preussii, and<br />
Xylopia staudtii. O<strong>the</strong>r species characteristic <strong>of</strong> this<br />
forest formation and not encountered elsewhere <strong>in</strong> TFR<br />
are Aidia micrantha, Bielschmiedia preussii,<br />
Camptostylus mannii, Casearia barteri, Carpolobia<br />
lutea, Clausena anisata, Garc<strong>in</strong>ia afzelii, Homalium<br />
doligophyllum, Hymenocardia acida, Microdesmis<br />
puberula, Ophiobotrys zenkeri, Oricia trifoliolata,<br />
Spondianthus sp., Synsepalum msolo, Syzygium<br />
gu<strong>in</strong>eense, and Trichilia heudelotii.<br />
Not surpris<strong>in</strong>gly, <strong>the</strong> tree flora <strong>of</strong> this forest<br />
formation conta<strong>in</strong>s both lowland and montane elements,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Strombosia grandifolia, Strombosiopsis<br />
tetandra, Cola ficifolia, Tabernaemontana pachysiphon,<br />
Santiria trimera, Allanblackia floribunda, and Garc<strong>in</strong>ia<br />
smeathmannii, which are generally regarded as lowland<br />
species, and Vernonia frondosa, Syzygium gu<strong>in</strong>eense,<br />
Olea capensis, Psychotria mannii, and Schefflera<br />
abyss<strong>in</strong>ica, which are generally found at higher altitudes.<br />
The middle layer <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mid-altitude forest is<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ated by R<strong>in</strong>orea dentata, Ixora marcrocarpa,<br />
numerous Salacia sp., Dichranolepis disticha,<br />
Campylospermum flavum, C. mannii, C. reticulatum, C.<br />
subcordatum, Dichapetalum heudelotii, Idertia axillaris,<br />
Massularia acum<strong>in</strong>ata, Ixora nematopoda, and<br />
Lasianthus batangensis. The tree fern Cya<strong>the</strong>a manniana<br />
also occurs at <strong>the</strong>se altitudes, mostly along streams and<br />
rav<strong>in</strong>es. The herbaceous Acanthaceae are well<br />
represented (Acanthus montanus, Crossandrella<br />
dusenii), and many species such as Brachystephanus<br />
nemoralis, Oreocanthus mannii, and Brilliantasia<br />
owariensis form dense thickets.
Vegetation Assessment<br />
Figure 4. Structure and composition <strong>of</strong> mid-elevation forest habitat <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon, from biodiversity<br />
plots, show<strong>in</strong>g relative density and relative basal area by (a) species, and (b) family.<br />
(a)<br />
Vitex ferrug<strong>in</strong>ea<br />
Anthonotha cladantha<br />
Chrysophyllum sp.<br />
Homalium dolichophyllum<br />
Syzygium gu<strong>in</strong>eense<br />
Tabernaemontana pachysiphon<br />
Santiria trimera<br />
Garc<strong>in</strong>ia smeathmannii<br />
Drypetes sp. 1<br />
Tricalysia sp.<br />
(b)<br />
Verbenaceae<br />
Leg-Caesalp<strong>in</strong>ioideae<br />
Sapotaceae<br />
Samydaceae<br />
Myrtaceae<br />
Apocynaceae<br />
Rubiaceae<br />
Euphorbiaceae<br />
Guttiferae<br />
Burseraceae<br />
Relative Density<br />
Relative BA<br />
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18<br />
Relative Density<br />
Relative BA<br />
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20<br />
29<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
30 Sunderland et al.<br />
Herbaceous flora <strong>of</strong> this forest formation is<br />
particularly diverse and <strong>in</strong>cludes Acanthus montanus,<br />
Aframomum pilosum, Marantochloa leucantha,<br />
Halopegia azurea, Nephthytis poisonii, Mapania<br />
amplivag<strong>in</strong>ata, Impatiens kamerunensis var.<br />
kamerunensis, and Osmunda regalis, with many species<br />
<strong>of</strong> Begonia (Begonia capillipes, B. ciliobracteata, B.<br />
microsperma, B. oxyloba, B. staudtii).<br />
4.2.4 Montane forest (800-1500 m)<br />
The montane forest formation is characterized by an<br />
extremely low and <strong>of</strong>ten disjunct canopy, large numbers<br />
<strong>of</strong> trees, a low total basal area, and lower species richness<br />
than lowland and mid-elevation forests. The epiphytic<br />
flora is also particularly well developed. At <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
altitud<strong>in</strong>al limit, <strong>the</strong>se forests tend to be restricted to<br />
valley bottoms and water courses where <strong>the</strong>y form<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>ctive “gallery” forests.<br />
The dom<strong>in</strong>ant woody species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> montane forest<br />
are Syzygium gu<strong>in</strong>eense (Figure 5), Xylopia staudtii,<br />
Macaranga occidentalis, Santiria trimera, Harungana<br />
madagascariensis, Bridelia micrantha, Anthonotha<br />
cladantha, Bridelia grandis, Sapium cornutum,<br />
Polyscias fulva, and Vernonia conferta. O<strong>the</strong>r species<br />
seem<strong>in</strong>gly restricted to montane forest <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
Anthocleista vogelii, Barteria nigritiana, Bersama<br />
abys<strong>in</strong>ica, Blighia unijugata, Calycosiphonia<br />
macroclamys, Craterosiphum montanum, Dactyladenia<br />
staudtii, Dracaena arborea, Eugenia spp., Ficus<br />
thonn<strong>in</strong>gii, F. vogeliana, Hannoa kla<strong>in</strong>eana, Homalium<br />
doligophyllum, Hymenocardia acida, Maran<strong>the</strong>s glabra,<br />
Margaritaria discoidea, Olea capensis, Psychotria<br />
mannii, P. camptopus, Sapium cornutum, Sapium<br />
ellipticum, Schefflera abyss<strong>in</strong>ica, Serican<strong>the</strong> sp.,<br />
Synsepalum brevipes, Trichilia monodelpha, Vernonia<br />
conferta, and Xylopia acutiflora.<br />
The herbaceous layer is dom<strong>in</strong>ated by many<br />
members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Costaceae (particularly Costus<br />
lucanusianus) and <strong>the</strong> Z<strong>in</strong>giberaceae (Aframomum<br />
pilosum and A. arund<strong>in</strong>aceum) as well as Dracaena<br />
phrynoides.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
4.2.5 High-altitude grassland<br />
This unique vegetation community forms a small part <strong>of</strong><br />
TFR plant communities and as such does not warrant a<br />
detailed discussion for purposes <strong>of</strong> this chapter.<br />
Significant work has been undertaken on vegetation <strong>of</strong><br />
Obudu Plateau <strong>in</strong> Nigeria, just across <strong>the</strong> border, and a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> checklists and vegetation descriptions <strong>of</strong> this<br />
high-altitude grassland have been published (Tuley 1966,<br />
Hall and Medler 1975a and b, Medler and Hall 1975,<br />
Keay 1979, Chapman and Chapman 2001). The<br />
transition zone between montane forest and grassland is<br />
comprised <strong>of</strong> large herbs and woody shrubs such as A.<br />
arund<strong>in</strong>aceum, Brilliantasia lamium, and<br />
Dichaetan<strong>the</strong>ra africana. The bracken Pteridium<br />
aquil<strong>in</strong>um subsp. aquil<strong>in</strong>um is also a common<br />
component <strong>of</strong> this transition zone, as is <strong>the</strong> spectacular<br />
Lobelia columnaris.<br />
The grassland is composed <strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong><br />
gregarious Gram<strong>in</strong>ae: Hyparrhenia diplandra, H.<br />
familiaris, H. rufa, H. bracteata, Andropogon<br />
auriculatus, Setaria anceps, Monocymbium<br />
ceeresiiforme, Loudetia camerunensis, Panicum<br />
hochstetteri, Eragrostis tenuifolia, and E. cameroonensis.<br />
Colonists <strong>in</strong>clude many small herbs and woody shrubs,<br />
notably Ageratum sp., Aspilia africana, Bartsia petitiana,<br />
Desmodium repandum, Oldenlandia sp. Cyanotis<br />
barbata, and Kyll<strong>in</strong>ga. In <strong>the</strong> small peaty hollows <strong>of</strong><br />
exposed rocks, <strong>the</strong> t<strong>in</strong>y <strong>in</strong>sectivorous Utricularia mannii<br />
is also relatively common.<br />
5 Discussion<br />
5.1 Montane Forest <strong>Zone</strong>s<br />
As has been observed elsewhere (for example, Morton<br />
1986), <strong>Takamanda</strong> forests are divided <strong>in</strong>to different<br />
vegetation types characterized by elevation and degree <strong>of</strong><br />
exposure. The upper reaches <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest<br />
Reserve give way to grassland at an elevation <strong>of</strong> 1500 m.<br />
Though this comprises a low total area <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reserve, it<br />
is <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g to note <strong>the</strong> low altitude at which it occurs.<br />
At Mount Cameroon, <strong>the</strong> grassland habitat does not start<br />
until 2000 m (Richards 1963b), a characteristic observed
Vegetation Assessment<br />
Figure 5. Structure and composition <strong>of</strong> montane forest habitat <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon, from biodiversity plots,<br />
show<strong>in</strong>g relative dentity and relative basal area by (a) species, and (b) family.<br />
(a)<br />
Syzygium gu<strong>in</strong>eense<br />
Xylopia staudtii<br />
Santiria trimera<br />
Symphonia globulifera<br />
Macaranga occidentalis<br />
Harungana madagascariensis<br />
Bridelia micrantha<br />
Anthonotha cladantha<br />
Sapium cornutum<br />
Vepris sp.<br />
(b)<br />
Myrtaceae<br />
Euphorbiaceae<br />
Guttiferae<br />
Annonaceae<br />
Burseraceae<br />
Leg-Caesalp<strong>in</strong>ioideae<br />
Compositae<br />
Sapotaceae<br />
Rutaceae<br />
Rubiaceae<br />
Relative Density<br />
Relative BA<br />
0 5 10 15 20<br />
Relative Density<br />
Relative BA<br />
0 5 10 15 20 25<br />
31<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
32 Sunderland et al.<br />
Table 3. Comparison <strong>of</strong> structure and diversity <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve biodiversity plots with o<strong>the</strong>r biodiversity plots <strong>in</strong><br />
Cameroon and Nigeria.<br />
Plot # 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15<br />
# <strong>of</strong> trees 491 498 527 523 414 428 426 477 406 438<br />
# <strong>of</strong> species 103 98 64 74 90 113 93 118 83 91<br />
Mean dbh (cm) 30.0 32.2 24.4 21.3 29.7 25.4 30.9 29.3 35.6 31.1<br />
Total BA (m 2 <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
/ha) 34.7 42.1 24.6 18.6 28.7 21.7 32.0 32.1 40.5 33.2<br />
Plot # 1 2 3 4 5<br />
# <strong>of</strong> trees 397 402 394 525 526<br />
# <strong>of</strong> species 74 81 74 71 80<br />
Mean dbh (cm) 28.8 30.6 26.0 28.5 27.8<br />
Total BA (m 2 /ha) 30.8 30.0 35.0 33.2 34.0<br />
elsewhere <strong>in</strong> West Africa’s montane forests (Morton<br />
1986). The lower montane forest occurs at higher<br />
elevations elsewhere <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region than was observed <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>. Never<strong>the</strong>less, <strong>the</strong> proximity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Okwangwo region <strong>of</strong> Nigeria and <strong>the</strong> Obudu Plateau<br />
means that <strong>the</strong> two areas are similar <strong>in</strong> relation to<br />
altitud<strong>in</strong>al zonation <strong>of</strong> vegetation types (Hall and Medler<br />
1975, Keay 1979).<br />
5.2 Species Richness and Diversity<br />
The forests <strong>of</strong> southwestern Cameroon are generally<br />
known to conta<strong>in</strong> a rich species diversity because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
location <strong>in</strong> an area <strong>of</strong> high ra<strong>in</strong>fall. It is also believed that<br />
<strong>the</strong> area formed a Pleistocene refugium dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> last<br />
glacial advance, becom<strong>in</strong>g isolated and allow<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>the</strong><br />
development <strong>of</strong> regional endemic species (Lawson<br />
1996). The forests <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> appear to be even more<br />
diverse than those <strong>of</strong> surround<strong>in</strong>g areas. The number <strong>of</strong><br />
species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowland forest plots ranged from 83 to 113<br />
species/ha, with <strong>the</strong> river<strong>in</strong>e plots conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g between 93<br />
and 118 species/ha, and <strong>the</strong> ridge forests between 98 and<br />
103 species/ha (Table 3). To <strong>the</strong> south <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> lies<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ejagham Forest Reserve, where richness <strong>in</strong><br />
biodiversity plots reached 80 species/ha. The 50-ha<br />
Smithsonian forest dynamics plot at Korup averaged 86<br />
species greater than 10 cm dbh per ha (Songwe et al. <strong>in</strong><br />
press, Thomas et al. 2003). The Nigerian plots had lower<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Campo Ejagham Akampka<br />
N2<br />
471<br />
128<br />
21.2<br />
16.8<br />
Okwangwo<br />
N3<br />
467<br />
82<br />
26.9<br />
26.5<br />
species richness values <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Okwangwo region, while<br />
<strong>the</strong> highest species richness <strong>of</strong> all plots compared to <strong>the</strong><br />
study area was <strong>the</strong> Akampka site <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Oban region (128<br />
species/ha).<br />
TFR’s relatively high levels <strong>of</strong> diversity are<br />
undoubtedly due to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tricate mosaic <strong>of</strong> vegetation<br />
types and forest formations found along <strong>the</strong> Reserve’s<br />
altitud<strong>in</strong>al gradients. While it is agreed that species<br />
richness generally decreases with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g altitude, this<br />
correlation is not significant at TFR and only becomes<br />
marked <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> transition between <strong>the</strong> lowland forests<br />
(<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ridge forest) and <strong>the</strong> mid-elevation and<br />
montane forest. Species diversity does show a slight but<br />
significant decl<strong>in</strong>e with altitude (r 2 = 0.436, P = 0.038).<br />
Likewise, tree density shows a significant <strong>in</strong>crease with<br />
elevation (r 2 = 0.618, P = 0.07; Figure 6). These trends<br />
are <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with what has been observed at o<strong>the</strong>r sites.<br />
5.3 Vegetation Similarities<br />
Based on Sorensen’s coefficient, TFR’s montane and<br />
mid-altitude vegetation share more species than<br />
montane/lowland and lowland/mid-altitude vegetation.<br />
Comparable results were obta<strong>in</strong>ed from Jaccard’s<br />
coefficient <strong>of</strong> similarity. The shared taxa might be due to<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>uous vegetation belts that <strong>the</strong>se habitats share.<br />
Interest<strong>in</strong>gly, despite <strong>the</strong> unique composition <strong>of</strong> TFR
Vegetation Assessment<br />
Table 4. Similarity <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> plots to o<strong>the</strong>r plots <strong>in</strong><br />
Cameroon.<br />
habitats, some taxa were recorded at every assessment<br />
site, rang<strong>in</strong>g from lowland forest to montane forest.<br />
These <strong>in</strong>clude Protomegabaria stapfiana, Santiria<br />
tremira, Hypnodaphnis zenkeri, Xylopia staudtii,<br />
Tabernaemontana crassa, Strombosia grandifolia,<br />
Strombosia pustulata, Strombosiopsis tetandra, and<br />
Treculia oboviodea.<br />
5.4 Floristic Aff<strong>in</strong>ities<br />
The Reserve encompasses a unique region that <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
<strong>the</strong> full altitud<strong>in</strong>al vegetation range found <strong>in</strong> this part <strong>of</strong><br />
Cameroon. From our surveys, it is clear that vegetation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> area is somewhat dist<strong>in</strong>ctive and concurs with studies<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Nigerian side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> border (Hall and Medler<br />
1975, Keay 1979). As evidence <strong>of</strong> this uniqueness, <strong>the</strong><br />
Number <strong>of</strong> trees per hectare<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>/<br />
Campo<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
/ Ejagham<br />
Campo /<br />
Ejagham<br />
560<br />
540<br />
520<br />
500<br />
480<br />
460<br />
440<br />
420<br />
400<br />
Sorensen©s<br />
Coefficient<br />
Jaccard©s<br />
Coefficient<br />
0.277 0.161<br />
0.308 0.182<br />
0.491 0.325<br />
380<br />
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400<br />
Altitude (m)<br />
r2 = 0.618<br />
Figure 6. Relationship between altitude and tree density <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> biodiversity plots <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve,<br />
Camerooon.<br />
Caesalp<strong>in</strong>aceae are relatively poorly represented <strong>in</strong> TFR<br />
lowland forests, unlike <strong>the</strong> Ejagham and Korup forests to<br />
<strong>the</strong> south and <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> forested areas <strong>in</strong> Southwest<br />
Prov<strong>in</strong>ce. Ra<strong>the</strong>r, TFR lowland forests possess a far<br />
richer tree flora than <strong>the</strong>se o<strong>the</strong>r forests. Indeed, diversity<br />
decreases significantly as one moves from <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
(H′=4.61) to Ejagham (H′=3.69).<br />
This uniqueness is also evident when floristic<br />
similarities and evenness at TFR are compared to <strong>the</strong><br />
Ejagham forest, also <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce, and <strong>the</strong><br />
Campo region <strong>in</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn Cameroon. It came as a<br />
surprise that <strong>the</strong> geographically disjunct<br />
Campo/Ejagham shared more species than<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>/Ejagham and <strong>Takamanda</strong>/Campo (Table 4).<br />
For <strong>the</strong> montane forest and high-altitude grassland,<br />
however, <strong>the</strong> floristic aff<strong>in</strong>ities are more complex,<br />
result<strong>in</strong>g from climatic change and phytogeographical<br />
variance. Hall (1981) suggests that <strong>the</strong> montane forest<br />
flora <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Obudu area represents “an impoverished<br />
variant <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> flora <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowland forest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Oban<br />
hills,” a known Pleistocene refuge, with <strong>the</strong> addition <strong>of</strong><br />
an Afromontane element. The presence (if not<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ance) <strong>of</strong> many lowland species <strong>in</strong> TFR montane<br />
forest, along with Afromontane taxa, supports this<br />
hypo<strong>the</strong>sis and suggests that:<br />
• The “montane” forest is <strong>in</strong>fluenced by<br />
anthropogenic <strong>in</strong>terventions such as burn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> highaltitude<br />
grassland that is reduc<strong>in</strong>g its altitud<strong>in</strong>al<br />
extent and ability to regenerate; hence, <strong>the</strong> tree l<strong>in</strong>e is<br />
gradually reduc<strong>in</strong>g. This accounts for <strong>the</strong> significant<br />
numbers <strong>of</strong> lowland forest species <strong>in</strong> this forest<br />
formation.<br />
• At lower altitudes (
34 Sunderland et al.<br />
5.5 Economic Potential and Forest<br />
Exploitation<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> studies undertaken concurrently with this<br />
vegetation assessment present <strong>in</strong>formation with regard to<br />
<strong>the</strong> economic importance <strong>of</strong> TFR flora (for example,<br />
Zapfack 2001, Sunderland et al. this volume). These<br />
studies show clear evidence that lowland forests <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
area provide <strong>the</strong> greatest economic benefit to villagers <strong>in</strong><br />
and around TFR because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir value as a repository <strong>of</strong><br />
timber and non-timber species. Hence, <strong>the</strong>re is far less<br />
emphasis on exploitation <strong>of</strong> mid-elevation and montane<br />
forests for <strong>the</strong>ir plants (see also Schmidt-Soltau 2001).<br />
However, knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> density, abundance, and<br />
spatial distribution for many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se taxa is, at best,<br />
patchy.<br />
The picture with regard to timber is still far from<br />
complete. Not surpris<strong>in</strong>gly, this study found that midelevation<br />
and montane forest formations conta<strong>in</strong> few<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual species <strong>of</strong> timber value. In contrast, <strong>the</strong><br />
relatively unexploited lowland forests are relatively well<br />
stocked with timber species, but by far <strong>the</strong> most valuable<br />
areas for timber potential are <strong>the</strong> lowland ridge forests<br />
that conta<strong>in</strong> large numbers <strong>of</strong> highly merchantable timber<br />
species. The <strong>in</strong>accessibility <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se forests, particularly<br />
those <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kekpani/Basho hills, suggest that <strong>the</strong>se<br />
“timber reservoirs” may rema<strong>in</strong> untouched <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
foreseeable future. Of greater concern are <strong>the</strong> more<br />
accessible forest areas, particularly those along navigable<br />
waterways where timber exploitation is already under<br />
way <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> immediate vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> TFR and possibly<br />
with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve’s boundaries (particularly <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest<br />
areas around <strong>Takamanda</strong> village). It should be a<br />
management priority to del<strong>in</strong>eate clear guidel<strong>in</strong>es for <strong>the</strong><br />
timber resource as was recently done for non-timber<br />
forest products.<br />
5.6 Species <strong>of</strong> Conservation Priority<br />
Due to <strong>the</strong>ir restricted range, biological uniqueness, or<br />
over-exploitation, a number <strong>of</strong> TFR taxa have been<br />
identified for vary<strong>in</strong>g degrees <strong>of</strong> conservation priority<br />
(Table 5 and Appendix 2). Of particular note is <strong>the</strong><br />
presence <strong>of</strong> many timber species that have become<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
endangered elsewhere through exploitation. As discussed<br />
above, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>accessibility <strong>of</strong> many areas <strong>in</strong> TFR has<br />
precluded attempts at logg<strong>in</strong>g, and currently <strong>the</strong> stock<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> merchantable timber species throughout <strong>the</strong> area<br />
rema<strong>in</strong>s high. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, many taxa recorded below as<br />
possess<strong>in</strong>g conservation value have restricted ranges, and<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir presence <strong>in</strong> TFR supports <strong>the</strong> observation that <strong>the</strong><br />
levels <strong>of</strong> endemism recorded <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cameroon highlands<br />
are represented at TFR.<br />
Although <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> taxa <strong>of</strong> conservation<br />
value and importance occur mostly <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tricate<br />
mosaic <strong>of</strong> lowland and ridge forest formations, <strong>the</strong><br />
ecological fragility and anthropogenic pressure on <strong>the</strong><br />
montane forest and high-altitude grassland suggest <strong>the</strong>se<br />
ecotypes are <strong>of</strong> considerable conservation value. In this<br />
latter ecosystem, <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> many species more<br />
commonly associated with <strong>the</strong> East African highlands<br />
(see Hedberg 1964) make this entire region <strong>of</strong> particular<br />
floristic <strong>in</strong>terest.<br />
In summary, <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> taxa <strong>of</strong> conservation<br />
importance with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> TFR <strong>in</strong>clude:<br />
Afzelia africana. Vulnerable. Although a<br />
widespread species <strong>of</strong> drier forest, it has decl<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
significantly through over-exploitation for timber to<br />
supply <strong>in</strong>ternational markets. In TFR, it is found <strong>in</strong><br />
lowland forests around Obonyi I.<br />
Afzelia pachyloba. Vulnerable. A ra<strong>in</strong>forest species<br />
that is heavily exploited for its commercial timber value,<br />
Afzelia pachyloba is found <strong>in</strong> TFR lowland forest around<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> and Obonyi I and <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kekpani/Basho hills.<br />
Ancistrocladus letestui. Vulnerable. This extremely<br />
rare forest climber is restricted to <strong>the</strong> forests <strong>of</strong> Cameroon<br />
and Gabon. The two records (Kekpani/Basho hills and<br />
Mende hill) from TFR are significant.<br />
Anopyxis kla<strong>in</strong>eana. Vulnerable. This monotypic<br />
genus has notably poor regeneration. In TFR, it was<br />
recorded only from <strong>the</strong> Basho hills.
Vegetation Assessment<br />
Antrocaryon micraster. Vulnerable. Scattered<br />
throughout semi-deciduous forests <strong>in</strong> tropical Africa, this<br />
emergent species is heavily exploited for its timber value.<br />
The species regenerates well <strong>in</strong> canopy gaps, and its fruit<br />
is an important food source for mammals (it is found<br />
commonly <strong>in</strong> gorilla dung <strong>in</strong> TFR). It is still present <strong>in</strong><br />
significant numbers <strong>in</strong> TFR lowland forest.<br />
Brachystegia kennedyi. Vulnerable. Restricted to<br />
sou<strong>the</strong>astern Nigeria and southwestern Cameroon, this<br />
species is a tall, straight timber tree with reputed local<br />
cultural importance. The species is <strong>in</strong> some decl<strong>in</strong>e due<br />
to land conversion <strong>in</strong> Nigeria and exploitation for its<br />
timber value. The largest and most stable population<br />
occurs <strong>in</strong> Cross River National Park <strong>in</strong> Nigeria, which<br />
makes those populations <strong>in</strong> TFR <strong>of</strong> particular value. We<br />
recorded it only from <strong>the</strong> Mboh-Matene area.<br />
Commel<strong>in</strong>a cameroonensis. Gold star rated. A herb<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest/savannah <strong>in</strong>terface restricted to <strong>the</strong> uplands<br />
<strong>of</strong> Cameroon, Bioko, and sou<strong>the</strong>astern Nigeria,<br />
Commel<strong>in</strong>a cameroonensis is threatened by annual<br />
burn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> grassland.<br />
Dacryodes iganganga. Vulnerable. This species <strong>of</strong><br />
limited distribution (Cameroon and Gabon) has been<br />
logged <strong>in</strong> large numbers for timber. Habitat destruction is<br />
also affect<strong>in</strong>g its regeneration. However, this species is<br />
relatively abundant <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowland forest formations <strong>of</strong><br />
TFR.<br />
Diospyros crassiflora. Endangered. This species,<br />
restricted to <strong>the</strong> Gu<strong>in</strong>eo-Congolian forest, has been<br />
virtually eradicated throughout much <strong>of</strong> its range for<br />
ebony wood. It is present only <strong>in</strong> remote areas such as<br />
TFR, where it is present <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Magbe and <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve.<br />
Drypetes preussii. Vulnerable. A rare species<br />
conf<strong>in</strong>ed to forest patches <strong>in</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>astern Nigeria and<br />
southwestern Cameroon (notably Cross River and Korup<br />
national parks), Drypetes preussii was recorded <strong>in</strong> TFR<br />
lowland forest formations.<br />
Eremospatha tessmanniana. Vulnerable. This<br />
extremely rare species <strong>of</strong> rattan palm is known from only<br />
three localities—Ebolowa <strong>in</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn Cameroon,<br />
Ebebiy<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Equatorial Gu<strong>in</strong>ea, and <strong>the</strong> Basho hills <strong>of</strong><br />
TFR.<br />
Eremospatha qu<strong>in</strong>quecostulata. Vulnerable. An<br />
uncommon species <strong>of</strong> rattan palm restricted to <strong>the</strong> closed<br />
canopy forests <strong>of</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>astern Nigeria and southwestern<br />
Cameroon, this tree is relatively abundant throughout<br />
TFR.<br />
Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum. Endangered.<br />
Endemic to <strong>the</strong> Gu<strong>in</strong>eo-Congolian forests <strong>of</strong> Central<br />
Africa, this species is decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g rapidly becuase <strong>of</strong> heavy<br />
exploitation and habitat loss. It occurs only <strong>in</strong><br />
undisturbed forest and was encountered only <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Mboh-Matene area <strong>of</strong> TFR.<br />
Microberl<strong>in</strong>ia bisulcata. Critically endangered.<br />
This species is restricted to <strong>the</strong> coastal forests <strong>of</strong><br />
Cameroon extend<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> Oban hills <strong>in</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>astern<br />
Nigeria. Large-scale habitat decl<strong>in</strong>e and exploitation for<br />
timber have caused a significant population decl<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
With<strong>in</strong> TFR, it was recorded only from farmbush <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> village.<br />
Oricia trifoliolata. Vulnerable. A small forest tree<br />
previously recorded only from Korup National Park and<br />
<strong>the</strong> forests around Mount Cameroon, Oricia trifoliolata<br />
was recorded from <strong>the</strong> Basho hills <strong>in</strong> TFR.<br />
Palisota lagopus. Gold star rated. A rare species <strong>of</strong><br />
Commel<strong>in</strong>aceae, known from very few collections and<br />
restricted to Cameroon, Palisota lagopus was collected<br />
alongside <strong>the</strong> Magbe River <strong>in</strong> TFR.<br />
5.7 Current Threats to Vegetation<br />
In general, TFR vegetation is subject to relatively little<br />
disturbance. The lack <strong>of</strong> significant encroachment greatly<br />
enhances <strong>the</strong> potential for management and conservation<br />
efforts with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area. However, current activities by<br />
villagers <strong>in</strong> and outside <strong>the</strong> Reserve pose a long-term<br />
threat to TFR’s biological <strong>in</strong>tegrity as summarized below.<br />
35<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
36 Sunderland et al.<br />
Table 5. Summary <strong>of</strong> taxa <strong>of</strong> conservation priority <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
Family Species Conservation status<br />
ACANTHACEAE Pseuderan<strong>the</strong>mum tunicatum Endangered (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
ANACARDIACEAE Antrocaryon micraster Vulnerable (Oldfield et al., 1998)<br />
ANCISTROCLADACEAE Ancistrocladus letestui Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
ANNONACEAE Uvariodendron connivens Lower risk, but conservation dependent (Oldfield et<br />
al. 1998)<br />
BORAGINACEAE Cordia platythyrsa Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
BURSERACEAE Dacryodes igaganga Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
CAESALPINIACEAE Afzelia africana Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
A. bip<strong>in</strong>densis Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
A. pachyloba Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
Brachystegia kennedyi Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
Dialium bip<strong>in</strong>densis Lower risk, near threatened (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum Endangered (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
Microberl<strong>in</strong>ia bisulcata Critically endangered (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
CELASTRACEAE Salacia volubilis Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek, 1998)<br />
COMBRETACEAE Term<strong>in</strong>alia ivorensis Vulnerable (Oldfield et al., 1998)<br />
COMMELINACEAE Commel<strong>in</strong>a camerunensis Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek, 1998)<br />
Palisota lagopus Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998)<br />
COMPOSITAE Crassocephalum boughyanum Black star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998)<br />
EBENACEAE Diospyros crassiflora Endangered (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
EUPHORBIACEAE Drypetes preussii Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
Uapaca vanhouttei Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998)<br />
GUTTIFERAE Garc<strong>in</strong>ia kola Vulnerable (Oldfield et al, 1998)<br />
LENTIBULARIACEAE Utricularia mannii Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998)<br />
MELIACEAE Entandrophragma angolense Vulnerable (Oldfield et al, 1998)<br />
Guarea cedrata Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
G. thomsonii Vulnerable (Oldfield et al, 1998)<br />
Lovoa trichilioides Vulnerable (Oldfield et al, 1998)<br />
MENISPERMACEAE Penianthus camerunensis Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998)<br />
OCHNACEAE Campylospermum mannii Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998)<br />
C. subcordatum Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998)<br />
Lophira alata Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
PALMAE Eremospatha qu<strong>in</strong>quecostulata Vulnerable (Sunderland 2001)<br />
E. tessmanniana Vulnerable (Sunderland 2001)<br />
Oncocalamus tuleyi Vulnerable (Sunderland 2001)<br />
RHIZOPHORACEAE Anopyxis kla<strong>in</strong>eana Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
RUBIACEAE Nauclea diderichii Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998); scarlet star rated<br />
(Cable and Cheek 1998)<br />
Pavetta longibracteata Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998)<br />
P. owariensis Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998)<br />
Petiticodon parviflorum Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998)<br />
Psychotria biferia var. biferia Black Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998)<br />
P. camptopus Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998)<br />
Tarenna lasiorachis Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998)<br />
RUTACEAE Oricia trifoliolata Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
STERCULIACEAE Cola flaviflora Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998)<br />
C. semecarpophylla Lower risk, but conservation dependent (Oldfield et<br />
al. 1998)<br />
Pterygota macrocarpa Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998)<br />
THYMELIACECEAE Dicranolepis glandulosa Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998)<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest
Vegetation Assessment<br />
• Agricultural encroachment <strong>in</strong> TFR has affected<br />
patches <strong>of</strong> forest vegetation, some <strong>of</strong> which are<br />
extensive, particularly <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowland forest<br />
formation that conta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>the</strong> greatest floristic<br />
diversity.<br />
• Uncontrolled and destructive harvest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> nontimber<br />
forest products is hav<strong>in</strong>g a deleterious effect<br />
on <strong>the</strong> populations <strong>of</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> high-value plants<br />
(particularly Carpolobia spp. and Massularia<br />
acum<strong>in</strong>ata). This exploitation will undoubtedly<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease as access is “improved” through current<br />
road-build<strong>in</strong>g plans.<br />
• Although very little timber exploitation has occurred<br />
with<strong>in</strong> TFR, <strong>in</strong>tensive logg<strong>in</strong>g activities undertaken<br />
<strong>in</strong> places such as <strong>the</strong> Kekukusem-<strong>Takamanda</strong> area<br />
suggest this might not be <strong>the</strong> case for much longer.<br />
• Intensive hunt<strong>in</strong>g is hav<strong>in</strong>g an as-yet unquantified<br />
effect on <strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g flora <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area. Elim<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> faunal agents <strong>of</strong> poll<strong>in</strong>ation and seed dispersal<br />
will affect <strong>the</strong> regeneration potential <strong>of</strong> many plant<br />
species over <strong>the</strong> long term.<br />
• Annual burn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> high-altitude grassland by<br />
nomadic cattle herders to provide fresh graz<strong>in</strong>g land<br />
is hav<strong>in</strong>g a negative impact on <strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g areas <strong>of</strong><br />
montane forest. The fires <strong>of</strong>ten spread <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> forest,<br />
seriously affect<strong>in</strong>g regeneration and <strong>the</strong>reby caus<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> forest to shr<strong>in</strong>k and <strong>the</strong> tree l<strong>in</strong>e to recede.<br />
Burn<strong>in</strong>g is also destroy<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> transition zone—<strong>of</strong>ten<br />
<strong>the</strong> habitat <strong>of</strong> many unique plant species—between<br />
forest and grassland to <strong>the</strong> extent that <strong>the</strong>re is little, if<br />
any, transition zone. The forest abruptly ends, and<br />
grassland beg<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
6 Conclusion and Recommendations<br />
for Conservation<br />
Broadly speak<strong>in</strong>g, TFR forest formations are species rich<br />
and diverse, qualities that are enhanced by <strong>the</strong> confluence<br />
<strong>of</strong> several habitat types <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area. The Reserve is special<br />
<strong>in</strong> that it represents a sharp gradation from lowland forest<br />
to sub-montane (highland) forest with <strong>in</strong>tact associated<br />
floristic variations. These forests are home to a wide<br />
range <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r biological taxa that also exhibit remarkable<br />
diversity.<br />
The unique biological and socio-economic nature <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> region makes implementation <strong>of</strong> applied<br />
conservation and susta<strong>in</strong>able management strategies a<br />
priority. Establishment <strong>of</strong> a focused, long-term<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g and research program will determ<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong><br />
efficacy <strong>of</strong> such efforts (Comiskey and Dallmeier this<br />
volume).<br />
Based on <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> this report, key<br />
recommendations for <strong>the</strong> conservation and management<br />
<strong>of</strong> TFR are:<br />
• In relation to floristic conservation priority, our<br />
surveys <strong>in</strong>dicate that all areas are <strong>of</strong> equal<br />
importance. While lowland forest formations,<br />
notably <strong>the</strong> ridge forest, conta<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> greatest levels <strong>of</strong><br />
diversity, <strong>the</strong> occurrence <strong>of</strong> taxa <strong>of</strong> greater<br />
conservation need lie at higher altitudes. In short, <strong>the</strong><br />
presence <strong>of</strong> an <strong>in</strong>tricate mosaic <strong>of</strong> forest types with<strong>in</strong><br />
each vegetation classification provides a patchwork<br />
<strong>of</strong> highly diverse, yet unique, habitats with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
entire TFR area. In addition, <strong>the</strong>re are few protected<br />
areas rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Cameroon that exhibit <strong>the</strong> full<br />
range <strong>of</strong> vegetation gradients from lowland forests to<br />
high-altitude grassland. Therefore, TFR is <strong>of</strong><br />
extreme national and <strong>in</strong>ternational conservation<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest. The implication <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs is that<br />
conservation and management efforts should focus<br />
on <strong>the</strong> vegetation <strong>of</strong> TFR <strong>in</strong> its entirety.<br />
• To “measure” <strong>the</strong> efficacy <strong>of</strong> conservation and<br />
management <strong>in</strong>itiatives with<strong>in</strong> TFR, it is imperative<br />
to monitor over time any changes <strong>in</strong> vegetation and<br />
floristic composition. Such a vegetation assessment<br />
provides a basel<strong>in</strong>e from which <strong>the</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
program can be fur<strong>the</strong>r developed. The 10 BDPs<br />
should be reassessed <strong>in</strong> 2004 and at subsequent fiveyear<br />
<strong>in</strong>tervals. These guidel<strong>in</strong>es should form <strong>the</strong><br />
basis <strong>of</strong> a long-term strategy for vegetation<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g. It is important to develop <strong>the</strong><br />
37<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
38 Sunderland et al.<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g program <strong>in</strong> close collaboration with<br />
MINEF.<br />
• To provide a macro-level assessment <strong>of</strong> vegetation<br />
changes over time, monitor<strong>in</strong>g should <strong>in</strong>corporate<br />
<strong>the</strong> periodic exam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> satellite images (every<br />
three to five years). This monitor<strong>in</strong>g effort,<br />
additional to that undertaken at <strong>the</strong> field level, will<br />
help determ<strong>in</strong>e changes <strong>in</strong> land cover (both natural<br />
and anthropomorphic) over time and will enable <strong>the</strong><br />
evaluation over <strong>the</strong> long term <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> effectiveness <strong>of</strong><br />
future management <strong>in</strong>terventions.<br />
• Exist<strong>in</strong>g agricultural encroachment <strong>in</strong>to TFR<br />
should be controlled through enforced respect <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> demarcated Reserve boundaries. Agricultural<br />
encroachment is a particular problem around <strong>the</strong><br />
communities <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>, Obonyi, Mfakwe, and<br />
Matene. Residents <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se communities should be<br />
made fully aware <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> location <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> boundaries<br />
and encouraged to respect <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
• Current uncontrolled exploitation <strong>of</strong> species used<br />
for non-timber forest products must be addressed<br />
immediately. Recommendations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> recent GTZcommissioned<br />
study conducted by Sunderland et al.<br />
(this volume) provide relevant guidel<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
• There is an urgent need to assess stock<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
timber resource <strong>in</strong> and around TFR and provide<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutional, technical, and logistical support to<br />
ensure that exploitation is undertaken <strong>in</strong> as<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able a manner as possible. Immediate<br />
management <strong>in</strong>terventions should <strong>in</strong>clude: (a) a<br />
community-based <strong>in</strong>ventory <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
potential (through regeneration studies) timber<br />
resources <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowland forest areas; (b) a review <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutional issues surround<strong>in</strong>g timber<br />
exploitation, particularly aimed at encourag<strong>in</strong>g local<br />
communities to control exploitation <strong>of</strong> timber by<br />
outsiders; and (c) <strong>the</strong> provision <strong>of</strong> guidel<strong>in</strong>es (and<br />
perhaps technical support) to allow small-scale<br />
exploitation <strong>of</strong> timber—based on sound ecological<br />
and social considerations—by villagers <strong>in</strong> and<br />
around TFR for direct market<strong>in</strong>g and sale.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
• Burn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> high-altitude grassland needs to be<br />
assessed and reviewed. A pilot study on <strong>the</strong> Obudu<br />
Plateau by <strong>the</strong> non-governmental organization<br />
Development <strong>in</strong> Nigeria (DIN) has shown that<br />
grassland protected from burn<strong>in</strong>g exhibits greater<br />
species diversity through ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forestto-savannah<br />
transition zone. Reductions <strong>in</strong> burn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
also enable <strong>the</strong> fragile montane forest to regenerate<br />
and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> itself.<br />
• When compared to o<strong>the</strong>r highly diverse areas <strong>in</strong><br />
Cameroon, TFR vegetation is considerably underrepresented<br />
<strong>in</strong> “<strong>in</strong>dicator groups;” that is, specialist<br />
taxa such as orchids, ferns, and fern allies and some<br />
key families <strong>of</strong> higher plants (for example, Violaceae<br />
and Lauraceae). Additional field-based research is<br />
urgently needed to fur<strong>the</strong>r evaluat<strong>in</strong>g vegetation<br />
diversity and species richness. The focus <strong>of</strong> future<br />
activities should be on <strong>the</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ued collection <strong>of</strong><br />
fertile voucher specimens. Hir<strong>in</strong>g local<br />
parataxonomists proved extremely useful <strong>in</strong><br />
garner<strong>in</strong>g specimens, while also provid<strong>in</strong>g ga<strong>in</strong>ful<br />
employment for villagers. Identification <strong>of</strong><br />
herbarium specimens and additional floristic<br />
analysis could be undertaken <strong>in</strong> collaboration with<br />
ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> National Herbarium <strong>in</strong> Yaounde or <strong>the</strong><br />
herbarium at Limbe Botanic Garden.<br />
Acknowledgments<br />
Special thanks are extended to Nkeng Philip, Anacletus<br />
Koufani, and Maurice Elad for <strong>the</strong>ir technical expertise <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> field and to all <strong>the</strong> community-based<br />
parataxonomists, whose work was particularly valuable<br />
<strong>in</strong> preparation <strong>of</strong> this chapter. Much gratitude is<br />
expressed to <strong>the</strong> Chiefs, Council Members, and villagers<br />
who provided considerable logistical support dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
field surveys. The authors also appreciate Mar<strong>in</strong>a<br />
Mdaihli, Julius Ayeni, Jacqui Groves, and Dan Slayback<br />
for <strong>the</strong>ir comments on an earlier draft <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> manuscript.<br />
Additional f<strong>in</strong>ancial and logistical resources were<br />
provided by GTZ/MINEF Project for <strong>the</strong> Protection <strong>of</strong><br />
forests around Akwaya (PROFA). This support enabled<br />
an <strong>in</strong>creased sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tensity than would o<strong>the</strong>rwise<br />
have been possible. Thanks to Dan Slayback for <strong>the</strong>
Vegetation Assessment<br />
preparation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> maps <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> vegetation<br />
classification and land use change maps <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> photo<br />
gallery.<br />
References<br />
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Hall, J.B. 1973. Vegetational zones on <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
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Hall, J.B., and J.A. Medler. 1975b. Highland<br />
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Institute de la Carte Internationale de la<br />
Vegetation.<br />
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annotated species list. Ife University Herbarium<br />
Bullet<strong>in</strong> 9: 1-41.<br />
Morton, J.K. 1986. Montane vegetation. Pages 247-<br />
271 <strong>in</strong>: Lawson, G.W. (ed.) Plant Ecology <strong>in</strong><br />
West Africa. New York: John Wiley and Sons<br />
Ltd.<br />
Newbery, D.M., I.J. Alexander, D.W. Thomas, and<br />
J.S. Gartlan. 1988. Ectomycorrhizal ra<strong>in</strong>-forest<br />
legumes and soil phosphorus <strong>in</strong> Korup National<br />
Park Cameroon. New Phytologist 109(4): 433-<br />
450.<br />
Newbery, D.M., and J.S. Gartlan. 1996. A structural<br />
analysis <strong>of</strong> ra<strong>in</strong> forest at Korup and Douala-<br />
Edea, Cameroon. Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Royal<br />
Society <strong>of</strong> Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh Section B Biological<br />
Sciences 104: 177-224.<br />
Newbery, D.M., N.C. Songwe, and G.B. Chuyong.<br />
1996. Phenology and dynamics <strong>of</strong> an African<br />
ra<strong>in</strong>forest at Korup, Cameroon. Pages 267-308<br />
<strong>in</strong>: Newbery, D.M., H. H. Pr<strong>in</strong>s, and N.D. Brown<br />
(eds.) Dynamics <strong>of</strong> Tropical Communities: The<br />
37th Symposium <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> British Ecological<br />
Society. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science.<br />
Newbery, D.M., I.J. Alexander, and J.A. Ro<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
1997. Phosphorus dynamics <strong>in</strong> a lowland African<br />
ra<strong>in</strong> forest: The <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> ectomycorrhizal<br />
trees. Ecological Monographs 67(3): 367-409.<br />
ONADEF. s.d. Carte forestiere d’Akwaya: NB-32-<br />
XVI. Scale 1:200,000<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Richards, P.W. 1963a. Ecological notes on West<br />
African vegetation II. Lowland forest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
sou<strong>the</strong>rn Bakundu Forest Reserve. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Ecology 51: 123-149.<br />
Richards, P.W. 1963b. Ecological notes on West<br />
African vegetation III. The upland forests <strong>of</strong><br />
Cameroons Mounta<strong>in</strong>. Journal <strong>of</strong> Ecology 51:<br />
529-554<br />
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around <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve.<br />
Unpublished report for PROFA, Mamfe.<br />
Schuster, B.G., J.E. Jackson, C.N. Obiji<strong>of</strong>or, C.O.<br />
Okunji, W. Milhous, E. Losos, J.F. Ayafor, and<br />
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conservation <strong>of</strong> biodiversity <strong>in</strong> West and Central<br />
Africa: A model for collaboration with<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous people. Pharmaceutical Biology<br />
37(Supplement): 84-99.<br />
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Reserve, SW Prov<strong>in</strong>ce, Cameroon. Unpublished<br />
report for <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian Institution’s<br />
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Faunal Reserve and Ejagham Forest Reserve,<br />
Cameroon. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC: Smithsonian<br />
Institution.
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Tropical Forest Science <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian<br />
Tropical Research Institute and Bioresources<br />
Development and Conservation Programme-<br />
Cameroon, Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, D.C.<br />
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high altitude tropical grassland. Bullet<strong>in</strong> de<br />
l’IFAN 28(3): 899-911.<br />
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1994. Cameroon: Conservation Status List<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
Plants. Report compiled from <strong>the</strong> WCMC Plants<br />
Database. Cambridge, UK: WCMC.<br />
Zapfack, L. 2001. Ethnobotanical Survey <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve. Unpublished report<br />
for PROFA/MINEF.<br />
41<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
42 Sunderland et al.<br />
Appendix 1. Plant species recorded <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
DICOTYLEDONS<br />
Acanthaceae<br />
Acanthus montanus (Nees) T. Anders.<br />
Anisotis sp.<br />
Asystasia sp.<br />
Brachystephanus nemoralis S. Moore<br />
Brillantaisia lamium (Nees) Benth.<br />
Brillantaisia owariensis P. Beauv.<br />
Brillantaisia vogeliana (Nees) Benth.<br />
Brillantaisia sp. 1<br />
Brillantaisia sp. 2<br />
Crossandra gu<strong>in</strong>eensis Nees.<br />
Crossandrella dusenii (L<strong>in</strong>dau) S. Moore<br />
Dicliptera verticillata (Forsk) C. Christus<br />
Dischistocalyx grandifolius C.B. Cl.<br />
Eremomastax speciosa (Hochst.) Cufod.<br />
Hypoestes arisata (Vahl) Soland. ex Roem. & Schult.<br />
Justicia extensa T. Anderson<br />
Justicia sp.<br />
Lankesteria brevior C.B. Cl.<br />
Phaulopsis ciliata (Willd.) Hepper<br />
Pseuderan<strong>the</strong>mum tunicatum (Afzel) M.-Redh.<br />
Stenandrium gu<strong>in</strong>eense (Nees) Vollesen<br />
Thomandersia hensii De Wild. & Th. Dur.<br />
Alangiaceae<br />
Alangium ch<strong>in</strong>ense (Lour.) Harms<br />
Amaranthaceae<br />
Cyathula prostrata Blume<br />
Anacardiaceae<br />
Antrocaryon kla<strong>in</strong>eanum Pierre<br />
Antrocaryon micraster A. Chev. & Guill.<br />
Pseudospondias microcarpa (A. Rich.) Engl.<br />
Pseudospondias sp.<br />
Sor<strong>in</strong>deia grandifolia Engl.<br />
Sor<strong>in</strong>deia sp. 1<br />
Sor<strong>in</strong>deia sp. 2<br />
Trichoscypha acum<strong>in</strong>ata Engl.<br />
Trichoscypha arborea (A. Chev.) A. Chev.<br />
Trichoscypha sp.<br />
Ancistrocladaceae<br />
Ancistrocladus letestui Pellegr<strong>in</strong><br />
Anisophylleaceae<br />
Anisophyllea polyneura Floret<br />
Anisophyllea sp.<br />
Poga oleosa Pierre<br />
Annonaceae<br />
Annickia chlorantha (Oliv.) Setten & Maas<br />
Annickia sp.<br />
Annona sp.<br />
Anonidium mannii (Oliv.) Engl. & Diels<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Artobotrys sp.<br />
Cleistopholis patens (Benth.) Engl. & Diels<br />
Friesodielsa sp.<br />
Hexalobus crispiflorus A. Rich.<br />
Isolona hexaloba (Pierre) Engl. & Diels.<br />
Monodora sp.<br />
Monodora tenuifolia Benth.<br />
Polyalthia sauveolens Engl. & Diels<br />
Popowia sp.<br />
Uvaria sp<br />
Uvariodendron connivens (Benth.) R.E. Fries<br />
Uvariodendron molundense R.E. Fries<br />
Uvariodendron sp. 1<br />
Uvariodendron sp. 2<br />
Ghesq.<br />
Uvaropsis sp.<br />
Xylopia acutiflora (Dunal) A. Rich.<br />
Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal.) A. Rich<br />
Xylopia hypolampra Mildbr.<br />
Xylopia parviflora (A. Rich.) Benth.<br />
Xylopia qu<strong>in</strong>tasii Engl. & Diels.<br />
Xylopia staudtii Engl. & Diels.<br />
Xylopia sp.<br />
Apocynaceae<br />
Alstonia boonei De Wild.<br />
Alstonia congensis Engl.<br />
Baissea multiflora A.DC.<br />
Baissea sp<br />
Funtumia elastica (Preuss) Stapf<br />
Funtumia sp.<br />
Hunteria umbellata (K. Schum.) Hallier f.<br />
Landolphia robustior (K.Schum.) Persoon<br />
Landolphia sp. 1<br />
Landolphia sp. 2<br />
Picralima nitida (Stapf.) Th. Dur.<br />
Picralima sp. 1<br />
Picralima sp. 2<br />
Pleiocarpa mutica Benth.<br />
Pleiocarpa rostrata Benth.<br />
Pleiocarpa sp.<br />
Rauvolfia caffra Sond.<br />
Rauvolfia mannii Stapf<br />
Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel.<br />
Strophanthus hispidus DC.<br />
Strophanthus sp.<br />
Tabernaemontana pendulifolia K.Schum.<br />
Tabernaemontana crassa Benth.<br />
Tabernaemontana eglandulosa Stapf<br />
Tabernaemontana grandulosa (Stapf) Pichon<br />
Tabernaemontana pachysiphon Stapf<br />
Voacanga africana Stapf
Vegetation Assessment<br />
Voacanga bracteata Stapf<br />
Voacanga psilocalyx Pierre ex Stapf<br />
Voacanga sp. 1<br />
Voacanga sp. 2<br />
Araliaceae<br />
Polyscias fulva (Hiern) Harms<br />
Schefflera abyss<strong>in</strong>ica (Hochst.) Harms<br />
Aristolochiaceae<br />
Pararistolochia promissa (Mast.) Keay<br />
Pararistolochia sp.<br />
Ascelpiadaceae<br />
Kanahia laniflora (Forsk.) R. Br.<br />
Gongronema latifolium Benth.<br />
Mondia sp.<br />
Balanophoraceae<br />
Thonn<strong>in</strong>gia sangu<strong>in</strong>ea Vahl<br />
Balsam<strong>in</strong>aceae<br />
Impatiens irv<strong>in</strong>gii Hook.f.<br />
Impatiens kamerunensis var. kamerunensis Warb.<br />
Impatiens niamnamensis Gilg<br />
Begoniaceae<br />
Begonia capillipes Gilg<br />
Begonia ciliobracteata Warb.<br />
Begonia microsperma Warb.<br />
Begonia oxyloba Welw. ex Hook.f<br />
Begonia quadrialata subsp. quadrialata Warb.<br />
Begonia staudtii Gilg<br />
Begonia sp. 1<br />
Bignoniaceae<br />
Newbouldia laevis (P. Beauv.) Seem. ex Bureau<br />
Bombacaceae<br />
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.<br />
Borag<strong>in</strong>aceae<br />
Cordia platythyrsa Baker<br />
Burseraceae<br />
Canarium schwe<strong>in</strong>furthii Engl.<br />
Dacryodes edulis (G. Don.) H.J. Lam.<br />
Dacryodes igaganga Aubr. & Pellegr.<br />
Dacryodes kla<strong>in</strong>eana (Pierre) H.J. Lam.<br />
Santiria trimera Oliv.<br />
Cecropiaceae<br />
Musanga cecropioides R. Br.<br />
Myrianthus arboreus P. Beauv.<br />
Myrianthus preussii Engl.<br />
Celastraceae<br />
Salacia alata De. Wild.<br />
Salacia erecta (G.Don) Walp.<br />
Salacia lehmbachii Loes.<br />
Salacia loloensis Loes.<br />
Salacia loloensis Loes.<br />
Salacia pyriformoides Loes.<br />
Salacia staudtiana Halle<br />
Salacia talbotii Bak.f.<br />
Salacia volubilis Loes. & W<strong>in</strong>kl.<br />
Salacia sp. 1<br />
Salacia sp. 2<br />
Salacia sp. 3<br />
Salacia sp. 4<br />
Salacia sp. 5<br />
Salacighia letestuana (Pellegr.) Blakelock<br />
Chrysobalanaceae<br />
Dactyladenia lujae (De Wild.) Prance & F. White<br />
Dactyladenia mannii (Oliv.) Prance & F.White<br />
Dactyladenia staudtii (Engl.) Prance & F.White<br />
Dactyladenia sp. 1<br />
Dactyladenia sp. 2<br />
Maran<strong>the</strong>s glabra (Oliv.) Prance<br />
Maran<strong>the</strong>s sp. 1<br />
Maran<strong>the</strong>s sp. 2 Blume<br />
Par<strong>in</strong>ari excelsa Sab<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Par<strong>in</strong>ari glabra Oliv.<br />
Par<strong>in</strong>ari sp.<br />
Combretaceae<br />
Combretum bracteatum (Laws.) Engl. & Diels<br />
Combretum cuspidatum Planch ex Benth<br />
Combretum hispidum Laws.<br />
Combretum latialatum Engl. Ex Engl. & Diels<br />
Combretum orophilum Liben<br />
Combretum sp. 1<br />
Combretum sp. 2<br />
Combretum sp. 3<br />
Pteleopsis hylodendron Mildbr.<br />
Strephonema mannii Hook.f.<br />
Strephonema sp.<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>alia ivorensis A.Chev.<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>alia superba Engl. & Diels<br />
Compositae<br />
Ageratum conyzoides L.<br />
Ageratum sp.<br />
Aspilia africana (Pers.) C.D. Adams<br />
Cass<strong>in</strong>ia sp.<br />
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq.<br />
Crassocephalum bougheyanum C.D. Adams<br />
Gutenbergis nigritiana Sch. Bip.<br />
Spilan<strong>the</strong>s ulig<strong>in</strong>osa Sw.<br />
Syndrella nodiflora Gaertn.<br />
Vernonia amygdal<strong>in</strong>a Delile<br />
Vernonia biafrae Oliv. & Hearn<br />
Vernonia conferta Benth.<br />
Vernonia frondosa Oliv. & Hiern<br />
Connaraceae<br />
Agelaea obliqua (P. Beauv.) Baill.<br />
43
44 Sunderland et al.<br />
Agelaea pentagyna (Lam.) Baill.<br />
Agelaea sp. 1<br />
Agelaea sp. 2<br />
Cnestis aurantica Gilg.<br />
Cnestis ferrug<strong>in</strong>ea DC.<br />
Cnestis macrophylla Gilg. ex. Schellenb.<br />
Cnestis tomentosa Hepper<br />
Cnestis sp. 1<br />
Cnestis sp. 2<br />
Cnestis sp. 3<br />
Connarus sp.<br />
Jollydora duparquetiana (Baill.) Pierre<br />
Convulvulaceae<br />
Neuropeltis acum<strong>in</strong>ata (P. Beauv.) Benth.<br />
Cucurbitaceae<br />
Momordica cissoides Planch ex Benth.<br />
Momordica sp.<br />
Dichapetalaceae<br />
Dichapetalum choristilum Engl.<br />
Dichapetalum heudelotii (Planch ex Oliv.) Baill.<br />
Dichapetalum <strong>in</strong>signe Engl.<br />
Dichapetalum madagascariense Poir<br />
Dichapetalum pallidum (Oliv.) Engl.<br />
Dichapetalum rudatisii Engl.<br />
Dichapetalum tomentosum Engl.<br />
Dichapetalum sp. 1<br />
Dichapetalum sp. 2<br />
Dichapetalum sp. 3<br />
Dichapetalum sp. 4<br />
Dichapetalum sp. 5<br />
Tapura africana Oliv.<br />
Dilleniaceae<br />
Tetracera alnifolia Willd.<br />
Ebenaceae<br />
Diospyros conocarpa Gurke & K. Schum.<br />
Diospyros crassiflora Hiern.<br />
Diospyros hoyleana subsp. hoyleana F. White<br />
Diospyros iturensis (Gurke) Letouzey & F. white<br />
Diospyros monbuttensis Gurke<br />
Diospyros physocalyc<strong>in</strong>a Gurke<br />
Diospyros preussii Gurke<br />
Diospyros sanza-m<strong>in</strong>ika A. Chev.<br />
Diospyros simulans F. White<br />
Diospyros suaveolens Gurke<br />
Diospyros zenkeri (Gurke) F. White<br />
Diospyros sp.<br />
Erythroxyllaceae<br />
Erythroxylum mannii Oliv.<br />
Euphorbiaceae<br />
Alchornea floribunda Mull. Arg.<br />
Alchornea hirtella Benth.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Antidesma lac<strong>in</strong>iatum var lac<strong>in</strong>iatum Mull. Arg.<br />
Antidesma membranaceum Mull. Arg.<br />
Antidesma venosum Mull. Arg.<br />
Antidesma vogelianum Mull. Arg.<br />
Antidesma sp.<br />
Bridelia grandis Pierre<br />
Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill.<br />
Bridelia sp.<br />
Crotonogyne preussii Pax.<br />
Crotonogyne sp.<br />
Cyrtogonone argentea (Pax) Pra<strong>in</strong><br />
Dichostemma glaucescens Pierre<br />
Discoclaoxylon hexandrum (Mull. Arg.) Pax & K.<br />
H<strong>of</strong>fm.<br />
Discoglypremna caloneura (Pax) Pra<strong>in</strong><br />
Drypetes gossweileri S. Moore<br />
Drypetes leonensis Pax<br />
Drypetes molunduana Pax & K. H<strong>of</strong>fm.<br />
Drypetes preussii (Pax) Hutch.<br />
Drypetes sp. 1<br />
Drypetes sp. 2<br />
Drypetes sp. 3<br />
Drypetes sp. 4<br />
Erythrococca anomala (Juss. ex Poir) Pra<strong>in</strong><br />
Grossera major Pax<br />
Hymenocardia acida Tul.<br />
Hymenocardia heudelotii Mull. Arg.<br />
Hymenocardia lyrata Tul.<br />
Leptopus sp. Sprague & Hutch.<br />
Macaranga barteri Mull. Arg.<br />
Macaranga hurifolia Beille<br />
Macaranga monandra Mull. Arg.<br />
Macaranga occidentalis (Mull. Arg.) Mull. Arg<br />
Macaranga sp<strong>in</strong>osa Mull. Arg.<br />
Macaranga sp. 1<br />
Macaranga sp. 2<br />
Maesobotrya dusenii (Pax) Hutch.<br />
Maesobotrya staudtii (Pax) Hutch.<br />
Maesobotrya sp.<br />
Mallotus oppositifolius (Geiseler) Mull. Arg.<br />
Manniophyton fulvum Mull. Arg.<br />
Maprounea membranacea Pax & K. H<strong>of</strong>fm.<br />
Mareya micrantha Mull. Arg.<br />
Mareya sp.<br />
Mareyopsis longifolia (Pax) Pax & K. H<strong>of</strong>fm.<br />
Margaritaria discoidea (Baill.) Webster<br />
Phyllanthus discoides Mull. Arg<br />
Phyllanthus mannianus Mull. Arg.<br />
Plagiostyles africana (Mull. Arg.) Pra<strong>in</strong><br />
Protomegabaria stapfiana<br />
Protomegabaria sp. (Beille) Hutch.
Vegetation Assessment<br />
Pycnocoma cornuta Mull. Arg.<br />
Pycnocoma macrophylla Benth.<br />
Sapium cornutum Pax<br />
Sapium ellipticum (Hochst.) Pax<br />
Sapium gu<strong>in</strong>eensis (Kuntze) Benth.<br />
Sapium sp.<br />
Spondianthus preussii Engl.<br />
Spondianthus sp.<br />
Tetracarpidium conophorum (Mull. Arg.) Hutch. & Dalz.<br />
Tetrorchidium didymostemon (Baill.) Pax & K. H<strong>of</strong>fm.<br />
Thecacoris batesii Hutch.<br />
Thecacoris leptobotyra (Mull. Arg.) Brenan<br />
Thecacoris stenopetala (Mull. Arg.) Mull. Arg.<br />
Thecacoris sp.<br />
Tragia sp.<br />
Uapaca acum<strong>in</strong>ata (Hutch.) Pax & K.H<strong>of</strong>fm.<br />
Uapaca gu<strong>in</strong>eensis Mull. Arg.<br />
Uapaca paludosa Aubr. & Landri<br />
Uapaca staudtii Pax<br />
Uapaca vanhouttei De Wild.<br />
Flacourticaceae<br />
Caloncoba glauca (P. Beauv.) Gilg<br />
Caloncoba sp.<br />
Camptostylus mannii (Oliv.) Gilg<br />
Casearia barteri Mast.<br />
Casearia sp.<br />
Homalium letestui Pellegr.<br />
Homalium sp.<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dackeria dentata (Oliv.) Gilg.<br />
Ophiobotrys zenkeri Gilg<br />
Scottellia coriacea Chev.<br />
Scottellia kla<strong>in</strong>eana Pierre<br />
Scottellia mimfiensis Gilg.<br />
Scottellia sp.<br />
Guttiferae<br />
Allanblackia floribunda Oliv.<br />
Allanblackia sp.<br />
Garc<strong>in</strong>ia afzeli Engl.<br />
Garc<strong>in</strong>ia gnetoides Hutch. & Dalziel<br />
Garc<strong>in</strong>ia kola Heckel<br />
Garc<strong>in</strong>ia mannii Oliv.<br />
Garc<strong>in</strong>ia punctata Oliv.<br />
Garc<strong>in</strong>ia smeathmannii (Planch. & Triana) Oliv.<br />
Garc<strong>in</strong>ia sp. 1<br />
Garc<strong>in</strong>ia sp. 2<br />
Harungana madagascariensis Lam ex Poir<br />
Mammea africana Sab<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Pentadesma butyracea Sab<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Pentadesma grandifolia Bak.f.<br />
Symphonia globulifera L.<br />
Huaceae<br />
Afrostyrax kamerunensis Perk<strong>in</strong>s & Gilg.<br />
Hypericaceae<br />
Endodesmia calpophylloides Benth.<br />
Endodesmia sp.<br />
Icac<strong>in</strong>aceae<br />
Alsodeiopsis mannii Oliv.<br />
Alsodeiopsis poggei var. robynsii Boutique<br />
Alsodeiopsis weissenborniana J. Braun & K. Schum<br />
Chlamydocarya thomsoniana Baill.<br />
Chlamydocarya sp.<br />
Lasian<strong>the</strong>ra africana P. Beauv.<br />
Lavigeria macrocarpa (Oliv.) Pierre<br />
Lavigeria sp.<br />
Irv<strong>in</strong>giaceae<br />
Desbordesia glaucescens Tiegh<br />
Irv<strong>in</strong>gia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex O' Rorke) Baill.<br />
Irv<strong>in</strong>gia grandifolia (Engl.) Engl.<br />
Irv<strong>in</strong>gia robur Mildbr.<br />
Irv<strong>in</strong>gia smithii Hook.f.<br />
Kla<strong>in</strong>edoxa gabonensis Pierre<br />
Ixonanthaceae<br />
Ochthocosmus calothyrsus (Mildbr.) Hutch. & Dalz.<br />
Ochthocosmus sessiflorus (Oliv.) Baill.<br />
Labiatae<br />
Ocimum gratissimum L.<br />
Ocimum sp.<br />
Platostoma africanum P. Beauv.<br />
Plectranthus decurrens (Gurke) J.K. Morton<br />
Solenostemon mannii (Hook.f.) Baker<br />
Lauraceae<br />
Beilschmiedia annacardioides (Engl. & K. Krauss) Robyns<br />
& Wilczek<br />
Beilschmiedia obscura Engl.<br />
Beilschmiedia preussi Engl.<br />
Beilschmiedia sp.<br />
Hypodaphnis zenkeri (Engl.) Stapf.<br />
Lecythidaceae<br />
Napoleonaea talbotii Bak.f.<br />
Napoleonaea sp.<br />
Petersianthus africanus (Welw. ex Benth. & Hook.f) Merr<br />
Petersianthus macrocarpus (P. Beauv.) Liben<br />
Leeaceae<br />
Leea gu<strong>in</strong>eensis G. Don<br />
Legum<strong>in</strong>osae<br />
Abrus precatorius L.<br />
Afzelia africana Sm.<br />
Afzelia bip<strong>in</strong>densis Harms<br />
45<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
46 Sunderland et al.<br />
Afzelia pachyloba Harms<br />
Albizia adianthifolia (Schum.) W.F. Wright<br />
Albizia glaberrima (Schum. & Thonn.) Benth.<br />
Albizia zygia (DC.) J.F. Macbr.<br />
Albizia sp.<br />
Amphimas ferrug<strong>in</strong>eus Pellegr.<br />
Amphimas pterocarpoides Harms.<br />
Amphimas sp.<br />
Angylocalyx oligophyllus (Bak.) Bak.f.<br />
Angylocalyx zenkeri Harms<br />
Angylocalyx talbotii Bak.f.<br />
Angylocalyx sp.<br />
Anthonotha cladantha (Harms) J. Leonard<br />
Anthonotha fragrans Exell & Hill.<br />
Anthonotha macrophylla P. Beauv.<br />
Anthonotha sp. 1<br />
Anthonotha sp. 2<br />
Aubrevillea kerst<strong>in</strong>gii (Harms.) Pellegr.<br />
Baphia laurifolia Baill.<br />
Baphia leptobotrys Harms.<br />
Baphia nitida Lodd.<br />
Baphia sp.<br />
Berl<strong>in</strong>ia bracteosa Benth.<br />
Berl<strong>in</strong>ia craibiana Bak.f.<br />
Brachystegia kennedyi Hoyle<br />
Calpocalyx d<strong>in</strong>klagei Harms.<br />
Copaifera mildbraedii Harms<br />
Crudia gabonensis Pierre ex Harms<br />
Cylicodricus gabunensis Harms<br />
Cynometra hankei Harms<br />
Cynometra mannii Oliv.<br />
Cynometra sanagaensis Aubr.<br />
Cynometra sp. 1<br />
Cynometra sp. 2<br />
Desmodium repandum (Vahl.) DC.<br />
Detarium macrocarpum Harms<br />
Dialium bipidensis Harms<br />
Dialium d<strong>in</strong>klagei Harms<br />
Dialium gu<strong>in</strong>eensis Willd.<br />
Dialium pachyphyllum Harms.<br />
Dialium zenkeri Harms<br />
Dialium sp.<br />
Didelotia africana Baill.<br />
Erythrophleum ivorense A. Chev.<br />
Erythrophleum sauveolens (Guill.&Perr.) Brenan<br />
Erythrophleum sp.<br />
Gilbertiodendron brachystegioides (Harms) J.<br />
Leonard.<br />
Gilbertiodendron dewevrei (De Wild.) J.Leonard.<br />
Gilbertiodendron sp.<br />
Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum (Vermosen)<br />
Harms<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Gossweilerodendron joveri Normand ex Aubr.<br />
Hylodendron gabunense Taub.<br />
Hymenostegia afzelii (Oliv.) Harms<br />
Isoberl<strong>in</strong>ia sp.<br />
Leonardoxa africana Aubrev.<br />
Leucomphalos capparideus Benth. ex Planch<br />
Microberl<strong>in</strong>ia bisulcata A. Chev.<br />
Millettia barteri (Benth.) Dunn<br />
Millettia mannii Baker.<br />
Millettia sanagana Harms<br />
Millettia sp. 1<br />
Millettia sp. 2<br />
Monopetalanthus letestui Pellegr.<br />
Monopetalanthus microphyllus Harms<br />
Mucuna flagellipes T. Vogel ex Hook.f.<br />
Newtonia grandifolia J.F. Villiers<br />
Newtonia griffoniana (Baill.) Bak.f.<br />
Newtonia sp.<br />
Oddoniodendron normandii Aubr.<br />
Ormocarpum sennoides (Willd.) D.C.<br />
Ormocarpum sp.<br />
Parkia bicolor A. Chev.<br />
Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth.<br />
Piptadeniastrum africanum (Hook.f.) Brenan<br />
Plagiosiphon longitubus (Harms) J. Leonard.<br />
Plagiosiphon multijugus (Harms) J. Leonard.<br />
Pterocarpus osun Craib.<br />
Pterocarpus soyauxii Taub.<br />
Rhynchosia mannii Baker<br />
Rhynchosia sp.<br />
Senna alata L.<br />
Stachyothrsus sp.<br />
Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f.<br />
Tetrapleura tetraptera (Schum & Thonn) Taub.<br />
Zenkerella capparidecea (Taub.) J.Leonard<br />
Zenkerella sp.<br />
Lentibulariaceae<br />
Utricularia mannii Oliv.<br />
Lepidobotryaceae<br />
Lepidobotrys staudtii Engl.<br />
Lobeliaceae<br />
Lobelia columnaris Hook.f.<br />
Loganiaceae<br />
Anthocleista obanensis Wernham<br />
Anthocleista schwe<strong>in</strong>furthii Gilg.<br />
Anthocleista vogelii Planch.<br />
Mostuea brunonis Didr.<br />
Strychnos asterantha Leeuwenb<br />
Strychnos boonei De. Wild.<br />
Strychnos camptoneura Gilg & Busse.<br />
Strychnos asterantha Leeuwenb.
Vegetation Assessment<br />
Strychnos phaeotricha Gilg<br />
Strychnos staudtii Gilg<br />
Strychnos sp. 1<br />
Strychnos sp. 2<br />
Strychnos sp. 3<br />
Usteria gu<strong>in</strong>neensis Willd.<br />
Malvaceae<br />
Urena lobata L.<br />
Medusandraceae<br />
Soyaneia sp,<br />
Soyauxia gabonensis Oliv.<br />
Melastomataceae<br />
Dichaetan<strong>the</strong>ra africana (Hook.f.) Jac. Fel.<br />
D<strong>in</strong>ophora spenneroides Benth.<br />
Dissotis rotundifolia (Sm.) Triana<br />
Melastomastrum sp.<br />
Memecylon engleranum Cogn.<br />
Tristemma littorale Benth.<br />
Meliaceae<br />
Carapa procera D.C.<br />
Carapa sp.<br />
Ekebergia sp.<br />
Entandrophragma angolense (Welw.) C. DC.<br />
Guarea cedrata (A. Chev) Pellegr.<br />
Guarea glomerulata Harms<br />
Guarea thompsonii Sprague & Hutch.<br />
Lovoa trichilioides Harms.<br />
Trichilia dregeana Sond.<br />
Trichilia gilgiana Harms.<br />
Trichilia heudelotii Planch.<br />
Trichilia monodelpha (Thonn.) J.J. de Wilde<br />
Trichilia rubescens Oliv.<br />
Trichilia tessmannii Harms.<br />
Trichilia welwitschii C. DC.<br />
Trichilia sp. 1<br />
Trichilia sp. 2<br />
Melianthaceae<br />
Bersama abyss<strong>in</strong>ica Fresen.<br />
Menispermaceae<br />
Cissampelos owariensis P. Beauv. ex D.C.<br />
Jateorhiza macrantha Excell & Mendonca<br />
Penianthus camerounensis A. Dekker.<br />
Penianthus longifolius Miers<br />
Penianthus sp.<br />
Stephania laetificata (Miers) Benth.<br />
Tiliacora funifera (Miers) Oliv.<br />
Tiliacora lehmbachii Engl.<br />
Tiliacora sp.<br />
Moraceae<br />
Antiaris africana Engl.<br />
Dorstenia africana (Baill.) C.C. Berg<br />
Dorstenia barteri var barteri Bureau<br />
Dorstenia barteri var multiradiata (Engl.) Hijman &<br />
C.C. Berg<br />
Dorstenia ciliata Engl.<br />
Dorstenia mannii Hook.f.<br />
Dorstenia turb<strong>in</strong>ata Engl.<br />
Dorstenia sp. 1<br />
Dorstenia sp. 2<br />
Ficus thonn<strong>in</strong>gii Blume<br />
Ficus vogeliana (Miq.) Miq.<br />
Ficus sp.<br />
Neosleotiopsis kamerunensis<br />
Treculia africana Decne<br />
Treculia obovoidea Decne<br />
Treculia sp.<br />
Trilepisium madagascariense DC.<br />
Myristicaceae<br />
Coelocaryon preussii Warb.<br />
Pycnanthus angolensis (Welw.) Warb<br />
Scyphocephalium mannii (Benth.) Warb.<br />
Staudtia kamerunensis Warb.<br />
Staudtia stipitata Warb.<br />
Staudtia sp.<br />
Myrs<strong>in</strong>aceae<br />
Ardisia staudtii Gilg.<br />
Ardisia sp.<br />
Maesa lanceolata Forsk.<br />
Myrtaceae<br />
Eugenia sp. 1<br />
Eugenia sp. 2<br />
Psidium guajava L.<br />
Syzygium gu<strong>in</strong>eense (Willd.) DC.<br />
Syzygium rowlandii Sprague<br />
Syzygium sp.<br />
Nyctag<strong>in</strong>aceae<br />
Boerhavia sp.<br />
Ochnaceae<br />
Campylospermum elongatum (Oliv.) Tiegh<br />
Campylospermum flavum (Schum & Thonn.) Farron<br />
Campylospermum mannii (Oliv.) Tiegh<br />
Campylospermum reticulatum P. Beauv.<br />
Campylospermum subcordatum (Stapf) Farron<br />
Campylospermum sp. 1<br />
Campylospermum sp. 2<br />
Campylospermum sp. 3<br />
Campylospermum sp. 4<br />
Idertia axillaris (Oliv.) Farron<br />
Lophira alata Banks<br />
Rhabdophyllum aff<strong>in</strong>e (Hook.f.) Tiegh<br />
Rhabdophyllum calophyllum (Hook.f.) Tiegh<br />
47<br />
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48 Sunderland et al.<br />
Rhabdophyllum sp.<br />
Olacaceae<br />
Aptandra zenkeri Engl.<br />
Diogoa zenkeri (Engl.) Exell & Mendonca<br />
Heisteria parvifolia Sm.<br />
Olax latifolia Engl.<br />
Olax mannii Oliv.<br />
Olax subscorpoidea Oliv.<br />
Ongokea gore (Hua) Pierre.<br />
Strombosia grandifolia Hook.f.<br />
Strombosia pustulata Oliv.<br />
Strombosia scheffleri Engl.<br />
Strombosia zenkeri Engl.<br />
Strombosia sp. 1<br />
Strombosia sp. 2<br />
Strombosia sp. 3<br />
Strombosiopsis tetrandra Engl.<br />
Oleaceae<br />
Olea capensis L.<br />
Opiliaceae<br />
Opilia sp.<br />
Oxalidaceae<br />
Biophytum umbraculum Welw.<br />
Biophytum zenkeri Guillaum<strong>in</strong><br />
Pandaceae<br />
Microdesmis pierlotiana J. Leonard<br />
Microdesmis puberula Hook.f.<br />
Microdesmis zenkeri Pax<br />
Microdesmis sp.<br />
Panda oleosa Pierre.<br />
Passifloraceae<br />
Adenia cissampeloides (Planch. ex Benth.) Harms<br />
Barteria fistulosa Mast.<br />
Barteria nigritiana Hook.f.<br />
Piperaceae<br />
Peperomia fernandopoiana C. DC.<br />
Piper gu<strong>in</strong>eense Schum. & Thonn.<br />
Polygalaceae<br />
Carpolobia alba G. Don<br />
Carpolobia lutea G. Don<br />
Primulaceae<br />
Vitaliana sp.<br />
Rhamnaceae<br />
Lasiodiscus marmoratus C.H. Wright<br />
Maesopsis em<strong>in</strong>ii Engl.<br />
Rhizophoraceae<br />
Anisophyllea polyneura Floret<br />
Anopyxis kla<strong>in</strong>eana (Pierre) Engl.<br />
Poga oleosa Pierre<br />
Rosaceae<br />
Rubus p<strong>in</strong>natus var afrotropicus (Engl.) C.E. Gust.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Rubiaceae<br />
Aidia micrantha (K. Schum.) White<br />
Aidia sp.<br />
Aoran<strong>the</strong> cladantha (K. Schum.) Somers<br />
Argoc<strong>of</strong>feopsis rupestris Robbrecht<br />
Atractogyne bracteata (Wernham) Hutch. & Dalz.<br />
Aulacocalyx talbotii (Wernham) Keay<br />
Aulacocalyx sp. 1<br />
Aulacocalyx sp. 2<br />
Belonophora talbotii (Wernham) Keay<br />
Bertiera breviflora Hiern<br />
Bertiera arctistipula N. Halle<br />
Bertiera iturensis K. Krause<br />
Bertiera laxa Benth.<br />
Bertiera racemosa (G. Don) K.Schum<br />
Bertiera sp.<br />
Brenania brieyi (De Wild) Petit<br />
Calycosiphonia macroclamys (K. Schum.) J.F. Leroy<br />
Canthium arnoldianum (De. Wild. & Th. Dur.) Heppe<br />
Canthium sp.<br />
Chassalia cristata (Hiern) Bremek.<br />
Chazaliella sciadephora (Hiern) Petit & Verde.<br />
Chazaliella oddonii (De Wild.) Petit & Verde.<br />
Chazaliella sp.<br />
C<strong>of</strong>fea sp. 1<br />
C<strong>of</strong>fea sp. 2<br />
Colletoecema sp. 1<br />
Colletoecema sp. 2<br />
Corynan<strong>the</strong> pachyceras K. Schum.<br />
Corynan<strong>the</strong> sp.<br />
Crateristermum aristatum Wernham<br />
Cremaspora thomsonii Hiern<br />
Cuviera subulifera Benth.<br />
Eucl<strong>in</strong>ia longifolia Salisb.<br />
Gaertnera fissistiplua (K. Schum & K. Krause) Petit<br />
Gaertnera paniculata Benth.<br />
Gardenia imperialis K. Schum.<br />
Gardenia vogelii Hook.f. ex Planch.<br />
Geophila afzelii Hiern<br />
Geophila repens (L.) I.M. Johnston<br />
Geophila sp. 1<br />
Geophila sp. 2<br />
He<strong>in</strong>isa cr<strong>in</strong>ita (Afzel.) G. Tayl.<br />
Hekistocarpa m<strong>in</strong>utiflora Hook.f.<br />
Hymenocoleus sp.<br />
Hymenodictyon biafranum Hiern<br />
Ixora cocc<strong>in</strong>ea L.<br />
Ixora gu<strong>in</strong>eensis Benth.<br />
Ixora nematopoda K. Schum.<br />
Ixora sp. 1<br />
Ixora sp. 2
Vegetation Assessment<br />
Lasianthus batangensis K. Schum.<br />
Massularia acum<strong>in</strong>ata (G. Don) Bullock ex Hoyle<br />
Mitracarpus scaber Zucc.<br />
Mitragyna ciliata Aubr. & Pellegr.<br />
Mitriostigma sp.<br />
Mor<strong>in</strong>da lucida Benth.<br />
Mussaenda elegans Schum. & Thonn.<br />
Mussaenda sp.<br />
Mussaenda tenuiflora Benth.<br />
Nauclea diderrichii (De Wild. & Th. Dur.) Merr.<br />
Nauclea pobegu<strong>in</strong>ii (Pob. ex Pellegr.) Merr. ex Petit<br />
Oldenlandia lancifolia (Schumach.) DC.<br />
Oldenlandia sp.<br />
Oxyanthus laxiflorus K. Schum. ex Hutch. & Dalz.<br />
Oxyanthus formosus Hook.f. ex Planch<br />
Oxyanthus gracilis Hiern<br />
Pauridiantha canthiiflora Hook.f.<br />
Pauridiantha venusta N. Halle<br />
Pauridiantha viridiflora (Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.) Hepper<br />
Paus<strong>in</strong>ystalia macroceras (K. Schum.) Pierre<br />
Paus<strong>in</strong>ystalia sp.<br />
Pavetta staudtii Hutch. & Dalz.<br />
Pavetta longibracteata Bremek.<br />
Pavetta owariensis P. Beauv.<br />
Pavetta sp. 1<br />
Pavetta sp. 2<br />
Pentodon pentandrus (Schum. & Thonn.) Vatke<br />
Petitiocodon parviflorum<br />
Poecilocalyx schumannii Bremek.<br />
Polysphaeria macrophylla K. Schum.<br />
Porterandia cladantha (K.Schum.) Keay<br />
Psychotria biferia var biferia Hiern<br />
Psychotria camptopus Verdc.<br />
Psychotria ceratalabastron K. Schum.<br />
Psychotria gabonica Hiern<br />
Psychotria globosa Hiern<br />
Psychotria mannii Hiern<br />
Psychotria peduncularis (Salisb.) Systerm.<br />
Psychotria sp. 1<br />
Psychotria sp. 2<br />
Psychotria sp. 3<br />
Psychotria sp. 4<br />
Psychotria sp. 5<br />
Psychotria sp. 6<br />
Psychotria sp. 7<br />
Psychotria sp. 8<br />
Psychotria sp. 9<br />
Rothmannia hispida (K. Schum.) Fagerl<strong>in</strong>d<br />
Rothmannia lujae (De.Wild.) Keay<br />
Rothmannia sp. 1<br />
Rothmannia sp. 2<br />
Rutidea hispida Hiern<br />
Sabicea calyc<strong>in</strong>a Benth.<br />
Schumanniophyton magnificum (K. Schum) Harms<br />
Serican<strong>the</strong> sp.<br />
Sherbournia zenkeri Hua<br />
Tarenna thomasii Hutch. & Dalz.<br />
Tarenna eketensis Wernham<br />
Tarenna fusco-flava (K. Schum.) N. Halle<br />
Tarenna lasiorachis (K. Schum. & K.Krauss) Bremek.<br />
Tarenna sp.<br />
Temnocalyx sp.<br />
Tricalysia sp. 1<br />
Tricalysia sp. 2<br />
Tricalysia sp. 3<br />
Virectaria sp. 1<br />
Virectaria sp. 2<br />
Rutaceae<br />
Citropsis articulata (Willd. ex Spreng) Sw<strong>in</strong>gle & M.<br />
Kellerm.<br />
Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook.f.<br />
Clausena sp.<br />
Oricia sp. 1 Pierre<br />
Oricia sp. 2<br />
Oricia trifoliolata (Engl.) Verdoorn<br />
Vepris sp.<br />
Zanthoxylum gillettii (De Wild.) P.G. Waterman<br />
Zanthoxylum heitzii (Aubr. & Pellegr.) P.G. Waterman<br />
Zanthoxylum poggei (Engl.) P.G. Waterman<br />
Zanthoxylum sp. 1<br />
Zanthoxylum sp. 2<br />
Samydaceae<br />
Homalium dolichophyllum Gilg.<br />
Sap<strong>in</strong>daceae<br />
Allophylus africanus P. Beauv.<br />
Allophylus bullatus Radlk.<br />
Blighia sapida K.D. Koenig<br />
Blighia unijugata Bak.<br />
Blighia welwitschii (Hiern) Radlk.<br />
Blighia sp.<br />
Chytranthus macrobotrys (Gilg.) Exell & Mendonca<br />
Hauman<br />
Chythranthus sp.<br />
Eriocoelum macrocarpum Gilg<br />
Laccodiscus ferrug<strong>in</strong>eus (Baker) Radlk.<br />
Lecaniodiscus cupanioides Planch.<br />
Majidea fosteri (Sprague) Radlk.<br />
Pancovia sp. Willd.<br />
Paull<strong>in</strong>ia p<strong>in</strong>nata L.<br />
Placodiscus glandulosus Radlk.<br />
Sapotaceae<br />
An<strong>in</strong>geria altissima (A. Chev.) Aubr. & Pellegr.<br />
49<br />
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50 Sunderland et al.<br />
An<strong>in</strong>geria robusta (A. Chev.) Aubr. & Pellegr.<br />
Chrysophyllum beguei Aubr. & Pellegr.<br />
Chrysophyllum boukokoensis Aubr. & Pellegr.<br />
Chrysophyllum sp. L.<br />
Englerophytum sp. K. Krause<br />
Omphalocarpum elatum Miers<br />
Omphalocarpum procerum P. Beauv.<br />
Pouteria alnifolia (Baker) Roberty<br />
Synsepalum brevipes (Baker) T.D. Penn.<br />
Synsepalum msolo (Engl.) T.D. Penn.<br />
Scrophulariaceae<br />
Bartsia petitiana (A. Rich.) Hemsl.<br />
Torenia thouarsii (Cham. & Scltdl.)<br />
Veronica abyss<strong>in</strong>ica Fresen.<br />
Scytopetalaceae<br />
Oubanguia alata Bak.f.<br />
Rhaptopetalum coriaceum Oliv.<br />
Rhaptopetalum sp.<br />
Simaroubaceae<br />
Hannoa kla<strong>in</strong>eana Pierre & Engl.<br />
Sterculiaceae<br />
Melochia sp.<br />
Cola acum<strong>in</strong>ata (P. Beauv.) Schott & Endl.<br />
Cola anomala K. Schum.<br />
Cola ballayi Cornu ex Heckel<br />
Cola chlamydantha K. Schum.<br />
Cola digitata Mast.<br />
Cola ficifolia Mast.<br />
Cola flaviflora Engl. & K. Krauss<br />
Cola flavo-velut<strong>in</strong>a K. Schum.<br />
Cola lepidota K. Schum.<br />
Cola millenii K. Schum.<br />
Cola nitida (Vent) Schott & Endl.<br />
Cola rostrata K. Schum.<br />
Cola semecarpophylla K. Schum.<br />
Cola verticillata (Thonn.) Stapf<br />
Cola sp. 1<br />
Cola sp. 2<br />
Cola sp. 3<br />
Leptonychia multiflora K.Schum.<br />
Leptonychia sp.<br />
Pterygota macrocarpa K. Schum.<br />
Pterygota sp.<br />
Scaphopetalum sp.<br />
Sterculia oblonga. Mast<br />
Sterculia subviolacea K. Schum.<br />
Sterculia tragacantha L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
Sterculia sp. 1<br />
Sterculia sp. 2<br />
Thymeliaceae<br />
Dicranolepis disticha Planch.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Dicranolepis glandulosa Engl.<br />
Tiliaceae<br />
Ancistrocarpus densisp<strong>in</strong>osus Oliv.<br />
Ancistrocarpus sp.<br />
Desplatsia chrysochlamys (Mildbr. & Burret) Mildbr. &<br />
Burret<br />
Desplatsia dewevrei (De Wild. & Th. Dur.) Burret<br />
Duboscia macrocarpa Bocq.<br />
Glyphaea brevis (Spreng.) Monach.<br />
Glyphaea sp.<br />
Grewia coriacea Mast.<br />
Grewia pubescens P. Beauv.<br />
Triumfetta sp.<br />
Ulmaceae<br />
Celtis tessmannii Rendle.<br />
Celtis zenkeri Engl.<br />
Trema orientalis (L.) Blume<br />
Urticaceae<br />
Pilea angolensis (Hiern.) Rendle<br />
Pilea sp.<br />
Verbenaceae<br />
Clerodendron dusenii Gurke<br />
Clerodendron grandifolium Gurke<br />
Clerodendrum globuliferum B. Thomas<br />
Clerodendrum splendens G. Don<br />
Clerodendrum umbellatum Poir.<br />
Clerodendrum sp. 1<br />
Clerodendrum sp. 2<br />
Clerodendrum sp. 3<br />
Vitex doniana Sweet<br />
Vitex ferrug<strong>in</strong>ea Schum. & Thonn.<br />
Vitex grandifolia Gurke<br />
Vitex rivularis Gurke<br />
Vitex sp.<br />
Violaceae<br />
Allexis sp.<br />
R<strong>in</strong>orea dentata (P. Beauv.) Kuntze<br />
R<strong>in</strong>orea oblongifolia (C.H. Wright) Marquand ex Chipp<br />
R<strong>in</strong>orea welwitschii (Oliv.) Kuntze<br />
R<strong>in</strong>orea kamerunensis Engl.<br />
R<strong>in</strong>orea sp. 1<br />
R<strong>in</strong>orea sp. 2<br />
R<strong>in</strong>orea sp. 3<br />
R<strong>in</strong>orea sp. 4<br />
R<strong>in</strong>orea sp. 5<br />
Vitaceae<br />
Ampelocissus cf cavicaulis (Baker) Planchon<br />
Cissus d<strong>in</strong>klagei Gilg. & Brandl.<br />
Vochysiaceae<br />
Erismadelphus exsul Mildbr.
Vegetation Assessment<br />
MONOCOTYLEDONS<br />
Amaryllidaceae<br />
Scadoxus c<strong>in</strong>nabar<strong>in</strong>us (Decaisne) Friis & Nordal<br />
Scadoxus pseudocaulus (Bjornst & Friis) Friis<br />
Araceae<br />
Anchomanes difformis (Blume) Engl.<br />
Anubias barteri Schott.<br />
Cercestis camerunensis (Ntepe-Nyame) Bogner<br />
Cercestis d<strong>in</strong>klagei Engl.<br />
Cercestis kamerunianus (Engl.) R. Br.<br />
Cercestis mirabilis (N.E. Br.) Bogner<br />
Culcasia d<strong>in</strong>klagei Engl.<br />
Culcasia scandens P. Beauv.<br />
Culcasia striolata Engl.<br />
Culcasia sp. 1<br />
Culcasia sp. 2<br />
Nephthytis poissonii (Engl.) N.E. Br.<br />
Nephthytis sp.<br />
Rhaphidophora africana N.E. Br.<br />
Stylochaeton sp.<br />
Commel<strong>in</strong>aceae<br />
Aneilema ben<strong>in</strong>iense (P. Beauv.) Kunth<br />
Aneilema sp.<br />
Coelotrype laurentii K. Schum.<br />
Commel<strong>in</strong>a camerunensis J.K. Morton<br />
Commel<strong>in</strong>a sp.<br />
Cyanotis barbata D. Don<br />
Palisota ambigua (P. Beauv.) C.B. Cl.<br />
Palisota barteri Hook.<br />
Palisota capitata Benth.<br />
Palisota hirsuta (Thunb.) K. Schum.<br />
Palisota lagopus Mildbr.<br />
Palisota mannii C.B. Cl.<br />
Palisota sp.<br />
Pollia condensata C.B. Cl.<br />
Polyspatha paniculata Benth.<br />
Polyspatha sp.<br />
Costaceae<br />
Costus fissiligulatus Gagnepa<strong>in</strong><br />
Costus englerianus K. Schum.<br />
Costus lucanusianus J. Braun & K. Schum.<br />
Cyperaceae<br />
Carex ech<strong>in</strong>ochloë Kunze<br />
Cyperus reduncus Hoechst ex Boeck<br />
Cyperus tenuis Sw.<br />
Kyll<strong>in</strong>ga sp.<br />
Mapania amplivag<strong>in</strong>ata K. Schum.<br />
Mapania macrantha (Boeck) H. Pfeiffer<br />
Dioscoreaceae<br />
Dioscorea mangenotiana J. Miege<br />
Dioscorea sp.<br />
Dracaenaceae<br />
Dracaena camerooniana Baker<br />
Dracaena phrynoides Hook.<br />
Dracaena sp.<br />
Gram<strong>in</strong>ae<br />
Cento<strong>the</strong>ca lappacea (L.) Desr.<br />
Leptapsis zeylanica Nees<br />
Panicum sp.<br />
Guaduella sp.<br />
Mel<strong>in</strong>is sp.<br />
Olyra latifolia L.<br />
Setaria megaphylla Th. Dur. & Sch<strong>in</strong>z.<br />
Liliaceae<br />
Chlorophytum sparsiflorum Bak.<br />
Chlorophytum sp.<br />
Gloriosa superba L.<br />
Marantaceae<br />
Aet<strong>in</strong>idia conferta (Benth.) Milne-Redh.<br />
Halopegia azurea (K. Schum.) K. Schum.<br />
Marantochloa filipes (Benth.) Hutch<br />
Marantochloa leucantha (K.Schum.) Milne-Redh.<br />
Marantochloa sp. 1<br />
Marantochloa sp. 2<br />
Marantochloa sp. 3<br />
Megaphrynium sp. 1<br />
Megaphrynium sp. 2<br />
Megaphrynium trichogynum Koechl<strong>in</strong><br />
Megaphrynium macrostachyum (Benth.) K. Schum.<br />
Sarcophrynium brachystachyum var brachystachyum<br />
(Benth.) K. Schum.<br />
Sarcophrynium priogonium var priogonium (K.Schum<br />
K. Schum.<br />
Sarcophrynium sp.<br />
Thaumatococcus daniellii (Benn.) Benth.<br />
Trachyphrynium braunianum (K.Schum.) Bak.<br />
Orchidaceae<br />
Ancistrochilus thomsonianus (Rchb.f.) Rolfe<br />
Ancistrorhynchus capitatus (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Summerh.<br />
Angraecum angustipetalum Rendle<br />
Angraecum aporoides Summerh.<br />
Angraecum birrimense Rolfe<br />
Brachycorythis macrantha (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Summerh.<br />
Cyrtorchis arcuata (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Schltr.<br />
Cyrtorchis chailluana (Hook.f) Schltr.<br />
Diaphanan<strong>the</strong> bueae (Schltr.) Schltr.<br />
Diaphanan<strong>the</strong> pellucida (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Schltr.<br />
Diaphanan<strong>the</strong> plehniana (Schltr.) Schltr.<br />
Diaphanan<strong>the</strong> sp.<br />
Eurychone rothschildiana (O' Brien) Schltr.<br />
Graphorkis lucida (Sw.) O. Kuntze<br />
Liparis sp.<br />
51<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
52 Sunderland et al.<br />
Nervilia sp.<br />
Plectrelm<strong>in</strong>thus caudatus (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Summerh.<br />
Polystachya albescens Ridl.<br />
Polystachya odorata L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
Polystachya sp.<br />
Solenangis scandens (Schltr.) Schltr.<br />
Palmae<br />
Elaeis gu<strong>in</strong>ensis Jacq.<br />
Eremospatha macrocarpa (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H.<br />
Wendl.<br />
Eremospatha qu<strong>in</strong>quecostulata Becc.<br />
Eremospatha tessmanniana Becc.<br />
Eremospatha wendlandiana Dammer ex Becc.<br />
Eremospatha sp.<br />
Laccosperma opacum (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) Drude<br />
Laccosperma robustum (Burr.) J. Dransf.<br />
Laccosperma secundiflorum (P.Beauv.) Kuntze<br />
Laccosperma sp. nov.<br />
Oncocalamus tuleyi Sunderland<br />
Raphia hookeri G. Mann & H. Wendl.<br />
Smilacaeae<br />
Smilax kraussiana Meisn.<br />
Smilax anceps Willd.<br />
Z<strong>in</strong>giberaceae<br />
Aframomum alboviolaceum (Ridley) K.Schum.<br />
Aframomum arund<strong>in</strong>aceum (Oliv. & Hanb.) K. Schum<br />
Aframomum citratum (Piereira) K.Schum.<br />
Aframomum flavum Lock<br />
Aframomum pilosum (Oliv. & Hanb.) K. Schum<br />
Aframomum sp. 1<br />
Aframomum sp. 2<br />
Aframomum sp. 3<br />
Aframomum sp. 4<br />
Renealmia africana (K. Schum.) Benth.<br />
Renealmia c<strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>nata (K. Schum.) Baker<br />
Renealmia polypus Gagnepa<strong>in</strong><br />
Renealmia sp.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
GYMNOSPERMS<br />
Gnetaceae<br />
Gnetum africanum Welw.<br />
FERNS & allies<br />
Aspleniaceae<br />
Asplenium sp.<br />
Cya<strong>the</strong>aceae<br />
Cya<strong>the</strong>a manniana Hook.<br />
Dennstaedtiaceae<br />
Pteridium aquil<strong>in</strong>um subsp aquil<strong>in</strong>um (L.) Kuhn<br />
Dryopteridaceae<br />
Filix sp.<br />
Lastreopsis barteriana (Hook.) Tardieu<br />
Hymenophyllaceae<br />
Osmunda regalis L.<br />
Lomariopsidaceae<br />
Bolbitis sp.<br />
Lomariopsis gu<strong>in</strong>eensis (Underw.) Alston.<br />
Lomariopsis sp. 1<br />
Lomariopsis sp. 2<br />
Marattiaceae<br />
Marattia frax<strong>in</strong>ea J. Sm.<br />
Selag<strong>in</strong>ellaceae<br />
Selag<strong>in</strong>ella myosurus (SW) Alston<br />
Selag<strong>in</strong>ella sp. 1<br />
Selag<strong>in</strong>ella sp. 2
Vegetation Assessment<br />
Appendix 2. Conservation priority speicies <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
5<br />
5<br />
e—2<br />
@e———A<br />
5<br />
ƒ———2˜<br />
@g———A<br />
g——2˜—<br />
@g—A<br />
5<br />
q——2—<br />
@q—A<br />
5<br />
q2˜——<br />
@g————A<br />
55 5<br />
5<br />
g—2—<br />
@g——A<br />
h2——<br />
@i˜——A<br />
5<br />
…——2—<br />
@v˜———A<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
w˜—2˜——<br />
@g————A<br />
5<br />
€——2—<br />
@g——A<br />
…———2—<br />
@i˜——A<br />
5<br />
€—2—<br />
@w——A<br />
5<br />
53<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
54 Sunderland et al.<br />
g—2˜—<br />
@y——A<br />
5<br />
5<br />
€2—<br />
@‚˜——A<br />
€—2——<br />
@ƒ———A<br />
†2—<br />
@†˜——A<br />
5<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
€——2˜———<br />
@‚˜——A<br />
€—2˜—2—F2˜—<br />
@‚˜——A<br />
€—2———<br />
@ƒ——A<br />
5<br />
€——2—<br />
@‚˜——A<br />
5<br />
y—2——<br />
@‚——A<br />
5<br />
h—2——<br />
@„——A<br />
5
1 Introduction<br />
Butterfly Fauna <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Butterflies (order Lepidoptera) constitute about 1% <strong>of</strong> all<br />
named <strong>in</strong>sects (Larsen 1996) and are one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most<br />
<strong>in</strong>tensively studied groups (Borror et al. 1989). Their<br />
comparatively large size and bright colors, species<br />
distributions and abundances, and <strong>the</strong> relative ease <strong>in</strong><br />
rear<strong>in</strong>g some species <strong>in</strong> captivity has led to a considerable<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> research—and some very <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
As example, it was genetic <strong>in</strong>formation from research on<br />
<strong>the</strong> polymorphic Swallow Tail (Larsen 1996), which <strong>in</strong><br />
Cameroon is represented by Papilio dardanus, that<br />
uncovered <strong>the</strong> Rhesus factor <strong>in</strong> human blood. O<strong>the</strong>r<br />
important advances made possible <strong>in</strong> part by research on<br />
butterflies <strong>in</strong>clude studies on <strong>the</strong> evolution <strong>of</strong> plan<strong>the</strong>rbivore<br />
<strong>in</strong>teractions (Ehrlich and Raven 1964, Johnson<br />
1994).<br />
From <strong>the</strong> human perspective, butterflies are both<br />
beneficial and harmful. In <strong>the</strong> beneficial category, some<br />
species <strong>of</strong> butterflies are prolific plant poll<strong>in</strong>ators, and<br />
many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se creatures have relatively high economic<br />
value as <strong>the</strong>y are used for enterta<strong>in</strong>ment, decorative art,<br />
and collections (Johnson 1994, Spiers 1990). The fact<br />
that some butterflies exhibit a high host specificity makes<br />
<strong>the</strong>m a potential biological control agent.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, Lepidoptera such as <strong>the</strong> gypsy<br />
moth (Lymantria dispar) can defoliate trees across large<br />
tracts <strong>of</strong> forest (Work and McCullough 2000), while<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs are crop pests (Haile and H<strong>of</strong>svang 2001).<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> 17,280 species <strong>of</strong> butterflies already<br />
described worldwide (Shields 1989), about 3,600<br />
occur <strong>in</strong> Africa (Carcasson et al. 1995)—many <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Gu<strong>in</strong>eo-Congolian tropical ra<strong>in</strong>forest, part <strong>of</strong> a larger<br />
region that conta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>the</strong> “greatest density <strong>of</strong> butterfly<br />
Ebwekoh Monya O’ Kah<br />
Chapter 4<br />
species” and is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> richest units <strong>of</strong> butterfly<br />
diversity, ma<strong>in</strong>ly because <strong>of</strong> humid and warm climatic<br />
conditions that allow several broods and a “consequent<br />
rapid evolution” (Carcasson et al. 1995).<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve (TFR) <strong>in</strong><br />
Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> Cameroon is <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> this<br />
diverse ra<strong>in</strong>forest. While <strong>the</strong> Reserve is expected to<br />
harbor a highly diverse butterfly fauna, no systematic<br />
study had been undertaken for this group (Fomete<br />
Nembot and Tchanou 1998) until <strong>the</strong> research that<br />
forms <strong>the</strong> basis for this paper. An assessment <strong>of</strong><br />
Lepidoptera at <strong>the</strong> Reserve took place dur<strong>in</strong>g 21 days<br />
between April and June 2001. The objective was to<br />
obta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial data on <strong>the</strong> composition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> butterfly<br />
fauna and elaborate <strong>the</strong> first-ever checklist for TFR.<br />
2 Methods<br />
Specimens were collected us<strong>in</strong>g 20 locally constructed<br />
aerial bait traps (Davies, 1994) placed at 16 survey sites<br />
that ranged between 200 and 800m above sea level,<br />
many <strong>of</strong> which were also used for vegetation, mammal,<br />
and bird surveys at <strong>Takamanda</strong>. All sites were georeferenced,<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g a Garm<strong>in</strong> 12XL GPS (Figure 1, Table<br />
1).<br />
The traps were set at different heights <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> canopy<br />
to capture and record species that typically feed at<br />
progressively higher levels. Bait (rotten fruit and dog<br />
faeces) was changed daily, and <strong>the</strong> traps were checked<br />
twice daily. Trapped butterflies were collected and<br />
identified.<br />
Sweep-nett<strong>in</strong>g was also carried out along forest<br />
paths at <strong>the</strong> sites where <strong>the</strong> aerial traps were placed and<br />
while travel<strong>in</strong>g among <strong>the</strong> sampl<strong>in</strong>g locations.<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003, Pages 55 to 71
56 O’Kah<br />
f22<br />
y2@w—˜A<br />
g—22@IE2—A<br />
ƒ22@IE2A<br />
H S IH<br />
u<br />
Specimens were placed <strong>in</strong> butterfly envelopes and<br />
preserved <strong>in</strong> airtight conta<strong>in</strong>ers with mothballs to prevent<br />
deterioration and protect <strong>the</strong> specimens from <strong>in</strong>vad<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>sects. Information on collection site, date, collector, and<br />
method <strong>of</strong> trapp<strong>in</strong>g (SN = Sweep Nett<strong>in</strong>g and CN =<br />
Canopy Nett<strong>in</strong>g) was documented.<br />
Identification was completed <strong>in</strong> Limbe, us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
identification keys and manuals as well as color plates as<br />
suggested by Larsen (1996). Where possible, specimens<br />
were identified to family, sub-family, species, and race.<br />
Classification followed that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Afrotropical Catalogue<br />
(Carcasson et al. 1995). Specimens whose full<br />
identification was not possible on site were sent to<br />
specialists. Specimens will be deposited primarily <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Limbe Botanic and Zoological Gardens, Cameroon.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
w—<br />
w—<br />
w——<br />
Figure 1. Sampl<strong>in</strong>g locations <strong>of</strong> butterflies <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
3 Results and Discussion<br />
A total <strong>of</strong> 111 species represent<strong>in</strong>g 4 families were<br />
identified from <strong>the</strong> 384 specimens collected<br />
(Appendix 1), with 79 specimens identified to<br />
species (Appendices 1 and 2).<br />
The majority (78%) <strong>of</strong> specimens were collected<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g sweep nett<strong>in</strong>g, while <strong>the</strong> canopy traps<br />
accounted for 22% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> collection. Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
survey 85 (22%) <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals were trapped us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
canopy traps, while 298 (78%) <strong>in</strong>dividuals were<br />
captured us<strong>in</strong>g sweep-nets. Canopy traps are known<br />
to attract only those species that prefer fruits. This<br />
method is best used dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> dry season when <strong>the</strong><br />
butterflies can forage freely over longer distances.<br />
The difference between capture rates <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> canopy
Butterfly Fauna<br />
Table 1. Study sites locations <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
Study sites Altitude (m) Site code Forest Type<br />
Between Obonyi I & Assam
58 O’Kah<br />
Table 3. Species found <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tact forest formations <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Species<br />
1. Pseudopontia paradoxa (wet forest)<br />
2. Graphium (Arisbe) latreillianus (moist forest)<br />
3. Aterica galene galene<br />
4. Bicyclus mesogena<br />
5. Catuna cri<strong>the</strong>a conjuncta<br />
6. Harma <strong>the</strong>obene blassi<br />
7. Hypolimnas d<strong>in</strong>archa<br />
8. Hypolimnas salmacis<br />
9. Neptis clarei<br />
10. Euxan<strong>the</strong> (Euxan<strong>the</strong>) eur<strong>in</strong>ome elgonae<br />
11. Eurema (Terias) senegalensis<br />
12. Epitola viridana<br />
Table 4. Summary <strong>of</strong> Butterfly conservation status for<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
# <strong>of</strong> Spp.<br />
Rare 5<br />
Common 76<br />
Primary forest species<br />
56<br />
Disturbance tolerant<br />
species<br />
Total no. <strong>of</strong> species<br />
fully identified<br />
were identified <strong>in</strong> our samples. It is not certa<strong>in</strong><br />
whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>se species are threatened <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Forest Reserve and face local ext<strong>in</strong>ction if<br />
precautions are not taken. However, <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong><br />
Family<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
25<br />
81<br />
No. <strong>of</strong><br />
specimens<br />
collected<br />
%<br />
specimens<br />
No. <strong>of</strong><br />
species<br />
<strong>the</strong>se rare species may <strong>in</strong>dicate undeterm<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
qualities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir habitats, which underscores <strong>the</strong><br />
need for <strong>the</strong>ir conservation and additional research.<br />
Table 2 presents <strong>the</strong> relative abundance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 10<br />
most frequent and 10 least frequent species <strong>in</strong> TFR.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> common species are typical <strong>of</strong> forests<br />
(Appendix 2), and <strong>the</strong>ir abundance here <strong>in</strong>dicates that<br />
<strong>the</strong> vegetation is characteristic <strong>of</strong> a nondegraded<br />
ra<strong>in</strong>forest. The <strong>Takamanda</strong> area is dom<strong>in</strong>ated by<br />
primary forest (see Sunderland et al. this volume), a<br />
condition verified by <strong>the</strong> proliferation <strong>of</strong> butterfly<br />
species such as Neptis clarei, Leptosia alcesta<br />
<strong>in</strong>alcesta, and Catuna cri<strong>the</strong>a conjuncta that will<br />
disappear at <strong>the</strong> first sign <strong>of</strong> forest disturbance<br />
(Larsen 1992). The least common species are also<br />
forest dwellers, but are more prone to disturbed<br />
and/or open forest formations, which comprise just a<br />
small portion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> area (see Slayback<br />
this volume).<br />
Table 3 shows <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tactness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> forest through <strong>the</strong> much higher number<br />
<strong>of</strong> primary forest-dependent species (56, or 69% <strong>of</strong><br />
all identified species) compared to disturbance<br />
tolerant species (25, or 31%). The majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
species found were common with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest reserve<br />
(Table 4). This is probably expla<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> fact that<br />
<strong>the</strong> forest is generally conducive to <strong>the</strong>ir survival.<br />
The Nymphalidae is <strong>the</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant family <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
area (Table 5), with 260 (68%) specimens <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> total<br />
384 collected and 74 (67%) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 111 identified to<br />
Table 5. Butterfly families represented with <strong>the</strong>ir respective number <strong>of</strong> specimens <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
%<br />
species<br />
Papilionidae 35 9 12 11<br />
Pieridae 60 16 14 13<br />
Lycaenidae 13 3 6 5<br />
Nymphalidae 260 68 74 67<br />
Unidentified 16 4 5 5<br />
Total 384 100 111 100
Butterfly Fauna<br />
7 8 109<br />
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 5 5<br />
species. Lycaenidae were <strong>the</strong> least common,<br />
account<strong>in</strong>g for 13 (3%) <strong>of</strong> all specimens and 6 (5%)<br />
<strong>of</strong> identified species. These f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs are not<br />
surpris<strong>in</strong>g; <strong>the</strong> Nymphalidae are among <strong>the</strong> most<br />
successful families <strong>in</strong> Africa at 1,517 species<br />
(Carcasson et al. 1995). Most members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> family<br />
are known to adapt to a variety <strong>of</strong> habitats, and<br />
species diversity with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> group is high. The family<br />
consists <strong>of</strong> many sub-taxa that were orig<strong>in</strong>ally<br />
considered separate families, while <strong>the</strong> danaids,<br />
satyrids, liby<strong>the</strong>ids, and riod<strong>in</strong>ids were once deemed<br />
to be <strong>the</strong> same family (Feltwell 1993).<br />
While Lycaenidae is a larger family than <strong>the</strong><br />
Nyphalidae, it was far surpassed by <strong>the</strong> latter <strong>in</strong><br />
specimens collected. This can probably be expla<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
by collector bias; Lycaenids are generally smaller <strong>in</strong><br />
size and less colourful than <strong>the</strong> Nymphalids, and<br />
hence less likely to be seen. Therefore, it is possible<br />
that <strong>the</strong> study area conta<strong>in</strong>s more species <strong>of</strong> all<br />
families collected from this survey and, if <strong>the</strong> bias is<br />
addressed <strong>in</strong> future studies, <strong>the</strong> checklist <strong>of</strong><br />
butterflies for <strong>Takamanda</strong> may be much longer.<br />
14<br />
10<br />
15<br />
13<br />
22<br />
17<br />
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16<br />
No. <strong>of</strong> s pecimens No. <strong>of</strong> spec ies<br />
Figure 2. Species richness <strong>of</strong> study sites expressed as species abundance <strong>in</strong> relation to <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals sampled for<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon (see Table 1 for site codes).<br />
28<br />
18<br />
36<br />
24<br />
52<br />
28<br />
Figure 2 illustrates <strong>the</strong> species richness <strong>of</strong> each<br />
site <strong>in</strong> relation to <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals sampled<br />
and <strong>the</strong> species that were identified. <strong>Takamanda</strong>,<br />
Matene Camp, and Obonyi I Camp were <strong>the</strong> three<br />
richest sites both <strong>in</strong> identified species and specimens<br />
collected. The least rich sites were Obonyi, Assam,<br />
Kekpane, and Obonyi I Camp Hills. The vegetation<br />
composition <strong>of</strong> a particular area will determ<strong>in</strong>e<br />
whe<strong>the</strong>r butterflies will <strong>in</strong>habit or visit <strong>the</strong> area and<br />
also <strong>the</strong>ir population density at any po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> time.<br />
Thus, it can be <strong>in</strong>ferred that <strong>Takamanda</strong>, Matene<br />
Camp, and Obonyi I Camp are more productive for<br />
and conducive to butterfly survival.<br />
Although species <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g forest disturbance, like<br />
those listed <strong>in</strong> Table 6 (for example, Junonia oenone<br />
oenone), are present <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study area, <strong>the</strong>ir numbers are<br />
sufficiently low enough to suggest failure <strong>in</strong> effectively<br />
coloniz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> area. This can only be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong><br />
fact that <strong>the</strong> forest does not provide conditions for <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
survival. Moreover, most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> species encountered are<br />
forest generalists ra<strong>the</strong>r than disturbed forest species. The<br />
generalists prefer forest clear<strong>in</strong>gs, forest edges, and forest<br />
paths, all <strong>of</strong> which occur throughout TFR.<br />
84<br />
43<br />
100<br />
49<br />
59<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
60 O’Kah<br />
Table 6. Indicators <strong>of</strong> secondary or disturbed forest <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
Species Sites occurr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
1. Eurema (Terias)<br />
hecabe solifera<br />
2. Danaus (Anosia)<br />
chrysippus aegyptius<br />
3. Junonia oenone<br />
oenone<br />
B/W Obonyi I & III,<br />
Matene Camp,<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> areas<br />
Assam, Obonyi I Magbe<br />
and <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Assam and <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Camp areas<br />
4. Junonia terea elgiva Assam, Matene Camp,<br />
Obonyi I Magbe<br />
Us<strong>in</strong>g butterflies as <strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong> forest quality<br />
suggests that Assam is <strong>the</strong> most degraded site, as nearly<br />
all species that occur <strong>the</strong>re prefer secondary habitat.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>, Matene Camp, and Obonyi I Magbe also<br />
show signs <strong>of</strong> degradation. Even though <strong>the</strong> sampl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sites were located <strong>in</strong> undisturbed areas away from <strong>the</strong><br />
camps, <strong>the</strong> species composition <strong>in</strong>dicates that some<br />
unseen factor is <strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g species composition <strong>in</strong> favor<br />
<strong>of</strong> butterflies that are adapted to degraded habitats. Three<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> four campsites sampled <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study are popular<br />
with such species.<br />
Table 7. Indicators <strong>of</strong> secondary or disturbed forest and<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir sites <strong>of</strong> occurrence <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve,<br />
Cameroon.<br />
Species Sites occurr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
1. Papilio Obonyi I Camp<br />
(Pr<strong>in</strong>ceps)<br />
dardanus<br />
2. Nepheronia Matene Camp, Kekpani Camp<br />
argia argia XI and <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
3. Leptosia alcesta<br />
<strong>in</strong>alcesta<br />
4. Euphaedra<br />
medon fraudata<br />
B/W Obonyi III and Kekpani,<br />
Obonyi I Camp and Obonyi I<br />
Magbe.<br />
B/W Obonyi III & Kekpani,<br />
B/W Okpambe & Assam,<br />
Kekpani Camp XI, Obonyi I<br />
Camp, Obonyi I Hills, Obonyi I<br />
Magbe, & <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
In short, our f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs may demonstrate that TFR is<br />
an <strong>in</strong>tact forest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial stages <strong>of</strong> degradation. This<br />
was not directly apparent from field observations, but<br />
analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> results <strong>of</strong> this study po<strong>in</strong>t to <strong>the</strong> fact that<br />
butterfly composition is more sensitive to changes and<br />
thus may provide a good <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong> future conditions.<br />
Still, we found species that are common throughout <strong>the</strong><br />
Reserve <strong>in</strong> different habitat types (Table 7).<br />
Though very little work has been undertaken on<br />
<strong>the</strong> butterfly fauna <strong>of</strong> Cameroon, <strong>the</strong> immediate<br />
neighbor<strong>in</strong>g forests between Korup (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
Rumpi Hills) and Oban Hills <strong>in</strong> Nigeria have been<br />
studied (Obot and Ogar 1997). A cursory analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> results from <strong>the</strong>se areas and those from our<br />
studies reveals an association <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> butterfly fauna.<br />
About 40% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> species identified for TFR were<br />
also found to occur <strong>in</strong> Korup and/or <strong>the</strong> Oban Hills.<br />
Genera such as Eurema, Junonia, Bicyclus,<br />
Charaxes, Acrea, Euphaedra, are all represented <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> communities <strong>of</strong> each site. There are, however,<br />
some common species (e.g. Papilio lormieri,<br />
Belenois sudanensis) that one would expect to f<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Korup list, but that curiously do not appear. The<br />
aff<strong>in</strong>ities between Korup and TFR are expla<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />
<strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong> two forests are virtually contiguous<br />
and share similar physical and biological<br />
characteristics. Many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> butterfly species <strong>of</strong> both<br />
forests are migrant species, some local migrants, and<br />
hence should be able to move between <strong>the</strong> two areas.<br />
Thus, it is likely attributed to <strong>the</strong> less degraded<br />
conditions <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve compared<br />
with Korup.<br />
4 Conclusion<br />
Because little data are available on butterfly<br />
distribution <strong>in</strong> Cameroon (Larsen 1997), <strong>the</strong> results<br />
<strong>of</strong> this study will contribute to:<br />
• a better understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> natural history <strong>of</strong><br />
different butterfly species,<br />
• <strong>the</strong>ir range, distribution, and aff<strong>in</strong>ity for different<br />
habitat types,
Butterfly Fauna<br />
Table 8. Species common to all forest categories occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
Species Sites occurr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
1. Papilio (Pr<strong>in</strong>ceps) dardanus Obonyi I Camp<br />
2. Nepheronia argia argia Matene Camp, Kekpani Camp XI and <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
3. Leptosia alcesta <strong>in</strong>alcesta<br />
B/W Obonyi III and Kekpani, Obonyi I Camp and<br />
Obonyi I Magbe.<br />
B/W Obonyi III & Kekpani, B/W Okpambe & Assam,<br />
4. Euphaedra medon fraudata Kekpani Camp XI, Obonyi I Camp, Obonyi I Hills,<br />
Obonyi I Magbe, & <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
• a checklist <strong>of</strong> species for <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest<br />
Reserve, and<br />
• basel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>formation needed to monitor <strong>the</strong><br />
success <strong>of</strong> conservation measures that use<br />
butterflies as <strong>in</strong>dicators.<br />
This study represents an important first step <strong>in</strong><br />
identify<strong>in</strong>g likely sites to concentrate conservation<br />
efforts, based on <strong>the</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g composition <strong>of</strong> species<br />
with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> butterfly community. Areas where<br />
degradation has occurred or is beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g to take<br />
place should be targeted for <strong>in</strong>itial conservation<br />
measures.<br />
The study can be improved through additional<br />
research over longer periods time to cover seasonal<br />
ranges with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> variety <strong>of</strong> habitat types. A key<br />
question that rema<strong>in</strong>s to be answered is whe<strong>the</strong>r or<br />
not us<strong>in</strong>g butterflies as <strong>in</strong>dicators will enable<br />
researchers to predict <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r taxa and<br />
<strong>the</strong>reby contribute immensely to studies <strong>of</strong> overall<br />
ecosystem health at TFR.<br />
References<br />
Borror, D. J., C. A. Triplehorn, and N. F. Johnson.<br />
1989. An Introduction to <strong>the</strong> Study <strong>of</strong> Insects. 6th<br />
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Carcasson, R. H., P. R. Ackery, C. R. Smith, and R.I.<br />
Vane-Wright (eds.). 1995. Carcasson’s African<br />
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Papilionoidea and Hesperioidea <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
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Davies, G. 1994. Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for wildlife surveys <strong>in</strong><br />
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Ehrlich, P. R., and P. H.Raven. 1964. Butterflies and<br />
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Feltwell, J. 1993. The Illustrated Encyclopedia <strong>of</strong><br />
Butterflies. Quarto Publish<strong>in</strong>g, London.<br />
Fomete Nembot, T., and Z. Tchanou. 1998. La<br />
gestion des ecosystems forestiers du Cameroun a<br />
l’aube de l’an 2000. Volume 2 (Monographies<br />
des sites critiques et annexes). IUCN, Yaoundé.<br />
Haile, A., and T. H<strong>of</strong>svang. 2001. Infestation,<br />
damage, and <strong>in</strong>secticidal control <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> stem<br />
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Noctuidae) on sorghum <strong>in</strong> Eritrea. Tropical<br />
Agriculture (Tr<strong>in</strong>idad) 78(4): 249-254.<br />
Johnson, S. D. 1994. Evidence for Batesian mimicry<br />
<strong>in</strong> a butterfly-poll<strong>in</strong>ated orchid. Biological<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> L<strong>in</strong>nean Society 53: 91-104.<br />
Larsen T. B. 1996. The Butterflies <strong>of</strong> Kenya and <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
Natural History. Oxford University Press. New<br />
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Larsen, T. B. 1997. Butterfly Inventory <strong>in</strong> Korup<br />
National Park, Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve and<br />
Surround<strong>in</strong>g Areas. Interim report for <strong>the</strong> Korup<br />
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<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
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Butterfly Fauna<br />
Appendix 1. Checklist <strong>of</strong> Butterflies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon (after Carcasson et al. 1995)<br />
Genus Species Race Authority and Year <strong>of</strong><br />
publication<br />
PAPILIONIDAE<br />
Papilio L<strong>in</strong>naeus, 1758<br />
Papilio (Pr<strong>in</strong>ceps) dardanus Brown<br />
Papilio (Pr<strong>in</strong>ceps) echerioides zoroastres Druce, 1878<br />
Papilio (Pr<strong>in</strong>ceps) hesperus hesperus Westwood, 1843<br />
Papilio (Pr<strong>in</strong>ceps) jacksoni Sharpe<br />
Papilio (Pr<strong>in</strong>ceps) lormieri Distant<br />
Papilio sp1<br />
Papilio sp2<br />
Graphium Scopoli, 1777<br />
Graphium (Arisbe) latreillianus <strong>the</strong>or<strong>in</strong>i (Aurivillius), 1881<br />
Graphium (Arisbe) leonidas leonidas (Fabricius), 1793<br />
Graphium (Arisbe) policenoides liponesco Suffert, 1904<br />
Graphium (Arisbe) porthaon (Hewitson)<br />
Graphium (Arisbe) ucalegon ucalegon (Hewitson), 1865<br />
PIERIDAE<br />
Pseudopontia Pl!tz, 1870<br />
Pseudopontia paradoxa (Felder and Felder)<br />
Eurema Hubner, 1819<br />
Eurema (Terias) hapale (Mabille)<br />
Eurema (Terias) hecabe solifera (Butler), 1875<br />
Eurema (Terias) senegalensis (Boisduval)<br />
Nepheronia Butler, 1870<br />
Nepheronia argia argia (Fabricius), 1775<br />
Colotis Hubner, 1819<br />
Colotis sp1<br />
Belenois Hubner, 1819<br />
Belenois sudanensis (Talbot)<br />
Dixeia Talbot, 1932<br />
Dixeia orbona vidua (Butler), 1900<br />
Appias Hubner, 1819<br />
Appias (Glutophrissa) epaphia orbona (Boisduval), 1833<br />
Appias (Glutophrissa) sab<strong>in</strong>a phoebe (Butler), 1901<br />
Mylothris Hubner, 1819<br />
Mylothris cont<strong>in</strong>ua cont<strong>in</strong>ua Talbot, 1944<br />
Mylothris sp1<br />
Leptosia Hubner, 1818<br />
Leptosia alcesta <strong>in</strong>alcesta Bernardi, 1959<br />
Leptosia nupta nupta (Butler), 1873<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
63<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
64 O’Kah<br />
Appendix 1 (cont.). Checklist <strong>of</strong> Butterflies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon (after Carcasson et al. 1995)<br />
Genus Species Race Authority and Year <strong>of</strong><br />
publication<br />
NYMPHALIDAE<br />
Acraea Fabricius, 1807<br />
Acraea (Acraea) aganice ugandae (van Someren), 1936<br />
Acraea (Acraea) tellus tellus (Aurivillius), 1893<br />
Acraea (Act<strong>in</strong>ote) conradti conradti Oberthur, 1893<br />
Acraea (Act<strong>in</strong>ote) sotikensis Sharpe<br />
Acraea sp1<br />
Acraea sp2<br />
Acraea sp3<br />
Acraea sp4<br />
Acraea sp5<br />
Danaus Kluk, 1802<br />
Danaus (Anosia) chrysippus aegyptius (Schreber), 1759<br />
Amauris Hubner, 1816<br />
Amauris (Amauris) niavius niavius (L<strong>in</strong>naeus), 1758<br />
Bicyclus Kirby, 1871<br />
Bicyclus mesogena (Karsch)<br />
Bicyclus smithi (Aurivillius)<br />
Bicyclus sp1<br />
Bicyclus sp2<br />
Bicyclus sp3<br />
Lachnoptera Doubleday, 1847<br />
Lachnoptera anticlia (Hubner)<br />
Phalanta Horsfield, 1829<br />
Phalanta eurytis (Doubleday)<br />
Kallimoides Shir!zu & Nakanishi , 19<br />
Kallimoides rumia (Doubleday)<br />
Hypolimnas Hubner, 1819<br />
Hypolimnas an<strong>the</strong>don an<strong>the</strong>don Doubleday, 1845<br />
Hypolimnas d<strong>in</strong>archa (Hewitson)<br />
Hypolimnas salmacis (Drury), 1773<br />
Hypolimnas sp1<br />
Salamis Boisduval, 1833<br />
Salamis anacardii (L<strong>in</strong>naeus)<br />
Junonia Hubner, 1819<br />
Junonia oenone oenone (L<strong>in</strong>naeus), 1758<br />
Junonia sophia <strong>in</strong>fracta Butler, 1888<br />
Junonia stygia gregorii Butler, 1896<br />
Junonia terea elgiva Hewitson, 1864<br />
Junonia sp1<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Butterfly Fauna<br />
Appendix 1 (cont.). Checklist <strong>of</strong> Butterflies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon (after Carcasson et al. 1995)<br />
Genus Species Race Authority and Year <strong>of</strong><br />
publication<br />
Sallya Hemm<strong>in</strong>g, 1964<br />
Sallya amulia rosa (Hewitson), 1877<br />
Sallya sp1<br />
Cyrestis Boisduval, 1832<br />
Cyrestis (Azania) camillus camillus (Fabricius), 1781<br />
Neptis Fabricius, 1807<br />
Neptis agouale Pierre-Baltus<br />
Neptis carcassoni van Son, 1959<br />
Neptis clarei Neave<br />
Neptis laeta Overlaet<br />
Neptis melicerta (Drury)<br />
Neptis nicobule Holland<br />
Neptis strigata Aurivillius<br />
Harma Doubleday, 1848<br />
Harma <strong>the</strong>obene blassi (Weymer), 1892<br />
Cymothoe Hubner, 1819<br />
Cymothoe caenis (Drury)<br />
Cymothoe fumana (Westwood)<br />
Cymothoe hobarti hobarti Butler, 1900<br />
Cymothoe sp1<br />
Pseudoneptis Snellen, 1882<br />
Pseudoneptis bugandensis bugandensis Stoneham, 1935<br />
Pseudacraea Westwood, 1850<br />
Pseudacraea lucretia protracta (Butler), 1874<br />
Euriphene Boisduval, 1847<br />
Euriphene (Euriphene) saphir<strong>in</strong>a saphir<strong>in</strong>a (Karsch), 1894<br />
Euriphene (Euryphura) chalcis (Felder and Felder)<br />
Euriphene sp1<br />
Euphaedra Hubner, 1819<br />
Euphaedra eupalus (Fabricius)<br />
Euphaedra medon <strong>in</strong>aequabilis Thurau, 1904<br />
Euphaedra orientalis Rothschild<br />
Euphaedra rex Stoneham<br />
Euphaedra sp1<br />
Euphaedra sp2<br />
Euphaedra sp3<br />
Bebearia Hemm<strong>in</strong>g, 1960<br />
Bebearia chriemhilda (Staud<strong>in</strong>ger)<br />
Bebearia mardania mardania (Fabricius)<br />
Bebearia sophus audeoudi (Riley), 1936<br />
Bebearia sp1<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
65<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
66 O’Kah<br />
Appendix 1 (cont.). Checklist <strong>of</strong> Butterflies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon (after Carcasson et al. 1995)<br />
Genus Species Race Authority and Year <strong>of</strong><br />
publication<br />
Bebearia sp2<br />
Bebearia sp3<br />
Aterica Boisduval, 1833<br />
Aterica galene galene (Brown), 1776<br />
Cynandra Schatz, 1887<br />
Cynandra opis (Drury)<br />
Catuna Kirby, 1871<br />
Catuna cri<strong>the</strong>a conjuncta Aurivillius, 1922<br />
Catuna sp1<br />
Catuna sp2<br />
Catuna sp3<br />
Catuna sp4<br />
Charaxes Ochsenheimer, 1816<br />
Charaxes e<strong>the</strong>ocles (Cramer)<br />
Charaxes lucretius <strong>in</strong>termedius van Someren, 1971<br />
Euxan<strong>the</strong> Hubner, 1819<br />
Euxan<strong>the</strong> (Euxan<strong>the</strong>) eur<strong>in</strong>ome birbirica Ungemach, 1932<br />
Euxan<strong>the</strong> (Hypomelaena) trajanus (Ward)<br />
Liby<strong>the</strong>a Fabricius, 1807<br />
Liby<strong>the</strong>a labdaca labdaca Westwood, 1851<br />
LYCAENIDAE<br />
Argyrocheila Staud<strong>in</strong>ger, 1892<br />
Argyrocheila <strong>in</strong>undifera Hawker-Smith<br />
Epitola Westwood, 1851<br />
Epitola viridana Joicey and Talbot<br />
Hypolycaena C. & R. Felder, 1862<br />
Hypolycaena hatita ugandae Sharpe, 1904<br />
An<strong>the</strong>ne Doubleday, 1847<br />
An<strong>the</strong>ne larydas (Cramer)<br />
Triclema Karsch<br />
Triclema nigeriae (Aurivillius)<br />
Azanus Moore, 1881<br />
Azanus ubaldus (Stoll)<br />
UNIDENTIFIED<br />
V sp1<br />
W sp1<br />
X sp1<br />
y sp1<br />
Z sp1<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest
Appendix 2. Butterfly species ecological and conservation status and <strong>the</strong>ir distribution/abundance at study sites <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.Note: With<br />
contributions from Ngalame Ebenezar who collected <strong>the</strong> specimens.<br />
Butterfly Fauna<br />
Species distribution<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Camp<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Obonyi I Magbe<br />
Obonyi I Hills<br />
Obonyi I Camp Hills<br />
Obonyi I Camp<br />
Matene Camp<br />
Kekpani Camp XI<br />
Kekpani Camp<br />
Kekpani<br />
B/W Okpambe & Assam<br />
B/W Obonyi III & Kekpani<br />
B/W Obonyi I & III<br />
B/W Obonyi I & Assam<br />
B/W Assam & Obonyi I<br />
Assam<br />
Secondary forest<br />
Primary forest<br />
Abundance<br />
Genus Species Race<br />
1 Acraea sp1 x 1<br />
2 Acraea sp2 x 1<br />
3 Acraea sp3 x 1<br />
4 Acraea sp4 x 1<br />
5 Acraea sp5 x 1<br />
6 Acraea (Acraea) tellus tellus c x x 2<br />
7 Acraea (Acraea) aganice ugandae c x x x 2<br />
8 Acraea (Act<strong>in</strong>ote) conradti conradti c x x 1<br />
9 Acraea (Act<strong>in</strong>ote) sotikensis c x x 1<br />
10 Amauris (Amauris) niavius niavius c x x 1<br />
11 An<strong>the</strong>ne larydas c x x 1<br />
12 Appias (Glutophrissa) epaphia orbona c x x x 2<br />
13 Appias (Glutophrissa) sab<strong>in</strong>a phoebe c x x x 2<br />
14 Argyrocheila <strong>in</strong>undifera r x x x 2<br />
15 Aterica galene galene c x x x x x 4<br />
16 Azanus ubaldus c x x 1<br />
17 Bebearia chriemhilda c x x 1<br />
18 Bebearia mardania mardania c x x x 2<br />
19 Bebearia sophus audeoudi c x x 1<br />
20 Bebearia sp1 x 1<br />
21 Bebearia sp2 x 1<br />
22 Bebearia sp3 x 1<br />
23 Belenois sudanensis c x x x 2<br />
67<br />
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68 O’Kah<br />
Species distribution<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Camp<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Obonyi I Magbe<br />
Obonyi I Hills<br />
Obonyi I Camp Hills<br />
Obonyi I Camp<br />
Matene Camp<br />
Kekpani Camp XI<br />
Kekpani Camp<br />
Kekpani<br />
B/W Okpambe & Assam<br />
B/W Obonyi III & Kekpani<br />
B/W Obonyi I & III<br />
B/W Obonyi I & Assam<br />
B/W Assam & Obonyi I<br />
Assam<br />
Secondary forest<br />
Primary forest<br />
Abundance<br />
Genus Species Race<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
24 Bicyclus mesogena c x x 1<br />
25 Bicyclus smithi c x x 1<br />
26 Bicyclus sp1 x 1<br />
27 Bicyclus sp2 x 1<br />
28 Bicyclus sp3 x 1<br />
29 Catuna cri<strong>the</strong>a conjuncta c x x x x x x 5<br />
30 Catuna sp1 x x x x x 5<br />
31 Catuna sp2 x 1<br />
32 Catuna sp3 x x x 3<br />
33 Catuna sp4 x 1<br />
34 Charaxes e<strong>the</strong>ocles c x x 1<br />
35 Charaxes lucretius <strong>in</strong>termedius c x x 1<br />
36 Colotis sp1 x 1<br />
37 Cymothoe caenis c x x x x 3<br />
38 Cymothoe fumana c x x x x x x x 6<br />
39 Cymothoe hobarti hobarti c x x x x x 4<br />
40 Cymothoe sp1 c x 1<br />
41 Cynandra opis c x x x 2<br />
42 Cyrestis (Azania) camillus camillus c x x 1<br />
43 Danaus (Anosia) chrysippus aegyptius c x x x x 3<br />
44 Dixeia orbona vidua c x x 1<br />
45 Epitola viridana c x x 1<br />
46 Euphaedra eupalus c x x x x 3<br />
47 Euphaedra medon <strong>in</strong>aequabilis c x x x x x x x x 7
Butterfly Fauna<br />
48 Euphaedra orientalis c x x x x x x x x 7<br />
49 Euphaedra rex c x x x x x x 5<br />
50 Euphaedra sp1 x 1<br />
51 Euphaedra sp2 x 1<br />
52 Eupheadra sp3 x 1<br />
53 Eurema (Terias) hapale x x x 2<br />
54 Eurema (Terias) hecabe solifera c x x x x 3<br />
55 Eurema (Terias) senegalensis c x x x x x x 5<br />
56 Euriphene sp1 x x 2<br />
57 Euriphene (Euriphene) saphir<strong>in</strong>a saphir<strong>in</strong>a c x x x x 3<br />
58 Euriphene (Euryphura) chalcis c x x 1<br />
59 Euxan<strong>the</strong> (Euxan<strong>the</strong>) eur<strong>in</strong>ome birbirica c x x 1<br />
60 Euxan<strong>the</strong> (Hypomelaena) trajanus c x x 1<br />
61 Graphium (Arisbe) latreillianus <strong>the</strong>or<strong>in</strong>i c x x x 2<br />
62 Graphium (Arisbe) leonidas leonidas c x x x x 3<br />
63 Graphium (Arisbe) policenoides liponesco r x x x 2<br />
64 Graphium (Arisbe) porthaon c x x 1<br />
65 Graphium (Arisbe) ucalegon ucalegon r x x 1<br />
66 Harma <strong>the</strong>obene blassi c x x x x x 4<br />
67 Hypolimnas an<strong>the</strong>don an<strong>the</strong>don c x x x 2<br />
68 Hypolimnas d<strong>in</strong>archa c x x 1<br />
69 Hypolimnas salmacis c x x x x x x x x 7<br />
70 Hypolimnas sp1 x 1<br />
71 Hypolycaena hatita ugandae c x x 1<br />
72 Junonia sp1 x 1<br />
73 Junonia stygia gregorii c x x x x x 4<br />
74 Junonia terea elgiva c x x x x 3<br />
75 Junonia oenone oenone c x x x 2<br />
76 Junonia sophia <strong>in</strong>fracta c x x x 2<br />
77 Kallimoides rumia c x x x x x 4<br />
78 Lachnoptera anticlia c x x x x 3<br />
79 Leptosia alcesta <strong>in</strong>alcesta c x x x x x 3<br />
80 Leptosia nupta nupta c x x x x 3<br />
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70 O’Kah<br />
Species distribution<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Camp<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Obonyi I Magbe<br />
Obonyi I Hills<br />
Obonyi I Camp Hills<br />
Obonyi I Camp<br />
Matene Camp<br />
Kekpani Camp XI<br />
Kekpani Camp<br />
Kekpani<br />
B/W Okpambe & Assam<br />
B/W Obonyi III & Kekpani<br />
B/W Obonyi I & III<br />
B/W Obonyi I & Assam<br />
B/W Assam & Obonyi I<br />
Assam<br />
Secondary forest<br />
Primary forest<br />
Abundance<br />
Genus Species Race<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
81 Liby<strong>the</strong>a labdaca labdaca c x x 1<br />
82 Mylothris cont<strong>in</strong>ua cont<strong>in</strong>ua c x x x x 3<br />
83 Mylothris sp1 c x 1<br />
84 Nepheronia argia argia c x x x x x 3<br />
85 Neptis agouale c x x x x x 4<br />
86 Neptis carcassoni c x x 1<br />
87 Neptis clarei c x x 1<br />
88 Neptis laeta c x x 1<br />
89 Neptis melicerta c x x 1<br />
90 Neptis nicobule c x x 1<br />
91 Neptis strigata c x x x 2<br />
92 Papilio sp1 x 1<br />
93 Papilio sp2 x 1<br />
94 Papilio (Pr<strong>in</strong>ceps) dardanus c x x 1<br />
95 Papilio (Pr<strong>in</strong>ceps) echerioides zoroastres c x x x 2<br />
96 Papilio (Pr<strong>in</strong>ceps) hesperus hesperus c x x x x 3<br />
97 Papilio (Pr<strong>in</strong>ceps) jacksoni c x x 1<br />
98 Papilio (Pr<strong>in</strong>ceps) lormieri c x x 1<br />
99 Phalanta eurytis c x x x x x x 5<br />
100 Pseudacraea lucretia protracta c x x 1<br />
101 Pseudoneptis bugandensis bugandensis c x x x x 3<br />
102 Pseudopontia paradoxa r x x x x 3<br />
103 Salamis anacardii c x x x x 3
Butterfly Fauna<br />
104 Sallya amulia rosa c x x x 2<br />
105 Sallya sp1 c x 1<br />
106 Triclema nigeriae r x x 1<br />
107 V sp1 x x 2<br />
108 W sp1 x 1<br />
109 X sp1 x x x x 4<br />
110 Y sp1 x x 2<br />
111 Z sp1 x 1<br />
TOTAL 55 25 13 9 1 18 17 5 1 2 10 43 24 1 5 28 49 3<br />
71<br />
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72<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest
Biodiversity Assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Odonate Fauna <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
1 Introduction<br />
Dragonflies (Odonata) are attractive <strong>in</strong>sects which are<br />
ideal for biodiversity studies. They are sensitive to<br />
pollution and habitat disturbance. They are excellent<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong> ecological health. Their present-day<br />
distributions are <strong>the</strong> result <strong>of</strong> past geological events and<br />
climatic fluctuations. There are approximately 6500<br />
species worldwide, classified <strong>in</strong> about 600 genera, but <strong>the</strong><br />
African dragonfly fauna, with about 900 species and 125<br />
genera, is generally considered to be impoverished<br />
compared with that <strong>of</strong> South-East Asia or Central and<br />
South America. This is probably caused by <strong>the</strong> long<br />
periods <strong>of</strong> aridity which occurred dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Pleistocene.<br />
Only drought-adapted species could survive <strong>in</strong> large<br />
areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ent. The upland mounta<strong>in</strong> cha<strong>in</strong> which<br />
runs <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> Gulf <strong>of</strong> Gu<strong>in</strong>ea, receives very high ra<strong>in</strong>fall;<br />
up to 10,000 mm (400”) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> Mount<br />
Cameroon, and over 3,000 mm at Mamfe (Vick 1999)<br />
and <strong>the</strong> dry season is short (usually at least 50 mm <strong>of</strong> ra<strong>in</strong><br />
even <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> driest month). The natural vegetation is<br />
evergreen ‘Biafran’ ra<strong>in</strong>forest. Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Pleistocene<br />
when <strong>the</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>forest <strong>in</strong> Africa was drastically reduced; a<br />
few areas persisted as lowland ra<strong>in</strong>forest refuges. These<br />
are generally near <strong>the</strong> coast and <strong>in</strong> areas which have <strong>the</strong><br />
heaviest ra<strong>in</strong>fall now. Botanical evidence suggests that<br />
<strong>the</strong> Cameroon/Nigeria border area is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se refugia<br />
(Mayr and O’Hara 1986), possibly <strong>the</strong> richest <strong>in</strong> Africa,<br />
and this survey was conducted to <strong>in</strong>vestigate <strong>the</strong><br />
dragonfly fauna and determ<strong>in</strong>e whe<strong>the</strong>r this also held true<br />
for Odonata.<br />
The Cameroon Dragonfly Project (CDP) was<br />
established <strong>in</strong> 1995 by Graham Vick and David<br />
Chelmick <strong>of</strong> England and Otto Mesumbe <strong>of</strong> Cameroon.<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Philip Corbet is <strong>the</strong> president. It is <strong>the</strong> first<br />
long-term dragonfly project <strong>in</strong> tropical Africa. The <strong>in</strong>itial<br />
Graham S. Vick<br />
concentration <strong>of</strong> effort has been <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Southwest<br />
Prov<strong>in</strong>ce as this region appears to be an important<br />
biodiversity hotspot. The objectives are to describe <strong>the</strong><br />
fauna taxonomically and produce a species list; to<br />
produce an identification key to adults (completed by<br />
Graham Vick); to describe <strong>the</strong> larvae and write larval<br />
keys (completed by David Chelmick); and f<strong>in</strong>ally, to<br />
identify areas <strong>of</strong> greatest conservation importance.<br />
Perhaps <strong>the</strong> most important <strong>of</strong> all is to ga<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
and cooperation <strong>of</strong> local people.<br />
2 Methods<br />
Chapter 5<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> record<strong>in</strong>g effort <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> CDP is based upon<br />
obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g samples <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> adult dragonflies us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
standard 38 cm diameter butterfly net. Specimens were<br />
preserved dry. When acetone was available, <strong>the</strong> samples<br />
were soaked for 12 hours prior to dry<strong>in</strong>g to preserve<br />
colour. Efforts were made to exam<strong>in</strong>e all possible<br />
habitats: ponds, streams and larger rivers. Careful<br />
search<strong>in</strong>g is necessary for some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most elusive<br />
species which breed <strong>in</strong> small trickles, <strong>in</strong> seepages, and <strong>in</strong><br />
one case, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> waterfilm flow<strong>in</strong>g over rocks near<br />
waterfalls. The species composition depends upon <strong>the</strong><br />
degree <strong>of</strong> shade <strong>of</strong>fered by <strong>the</strong> waterside vegetation and<br />
<strong>the</strong> proximity <strong>of</strong> extensive areas <strong>of</strong> forest for maturation<br />
and feed<strong>in</strong>g. Undoubtedly <strong>the</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest cover<br />
is crucial, and <strong>the</strong> most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> endemics appear to need<br />
extensive areas <strong>of</strong> primary forest. O<strong>the</strong>r species can<br />
tolerate more open habitats; disturbed forest and<br />
farmland must be exam<strong>in</strong>ed thoroughly if a full species<br />
list is to be obta<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most significant challenges encountered<br />
when attempt<strong>in</strong>g to sample Odonata <strong>in</strong> tropical forests is<br />
that <strong>the</strong> adults on which <strong>the</strong> specific identity depends are<br />
extremely elusive, can be difficult to catch, and<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003, Pages 73 to 82
74<br />
h—2@y——A<br />
2<br />
IE2—<br />
y2@w—˜A<br />
H S IH<br />
u<br />
Figure 1. Odonata sampl<strong>in</strong>g locations <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
frequently have behaviour patterns which mean that <strong>the</strong>y<br />
only visit water rarely. Feed<strong>in</strong>g and mat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>ten take<br />
place <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> tree canopy, and females only descend for<br />
oviposition. Larvae are surpris<strong>in</strong>gly easy to f<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
small streams and ra<strong>in</strong>forest pools which <strong>the</strong> rarest<br />
species occupy. The breed<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> larvae to adulthood<br />
<strong>the</strong>refore provides us with an unequivocal determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
and is <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>the</strong> only way to build up data for larval keys.<br />
We have already produced keys to African Anax spp.<br />
(Chelmick 1999) and to African Aeshna spp. (Chelmick<br />
2001), and descriptions <strong>of</strong> larvae <strong>of</strong> three <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g damselflies (Nubiolestes diotima,<br />
Stenocnemis pachystigma and Pentaphlebia stahli; Vick<br />
1998). A provisional version <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> larval key is presently<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g tested <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field (Chelmick <strong>in</strong> prep). Once keys<br />
are available it will be relatively easy for non-experts and<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
w—<br />
w—<br />
w——<br />
Vick<br />
para-taxonomists to improve odonate site databases.<br />
Breed<strong>in</strong>g also provides records <strong>of</strong> species which are<br />
never seen as adults. Ano<strong>the</strong>r method which has been<br />
very successful is <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> emergence traps which are<br />
placed over trickles and seepages <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest; adults are<br />
discovered with <strong>the</strong> larval shucks and this provides<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r method <strong>of</strong> associat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> two stages. The larval<br />
work has been one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most productive aspects <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Project and it is an excellent way <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g local<br />
people who enjoy <strong>the</strong> practical side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> work and <strong>the</strong><br />
wonder <strong>of</strong> see<strong>in</strong>g such a beautiful creature emerge from<br />
a drab aquatic ‘grub’. The research conducted <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> is a collaborative effort between CDP, <strong>the</strong><br />
Smithsonian Institution and <strong>the</strong> World Wildlife Fund.
Odonate assessment<br />
Table 1. Collection locations with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> and Mone Forest Reserves and <strong>the</strong> Mbulu Forest, 1997-2001. (TFR =<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve; MFR = Mone Forest Reserve: MF = Mbulu Forest<br />
AREA CODE / DESCRIPTION CO-ORDINATE / ALTITUDE<br />
01 Akwa Village, MFR 9Ê29©E, 6Ê03©N, 98m<br />
02 Ashunda Hill, MF 9Ê35©E, 6Ê10©N,
76<br />
The sites which have been surveyed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> period<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce 1997 are presented <strong>in</strong> Table 1.<br />
4 Discussion<br />
4.1 The Southwest prov<strong>in</strong>ce is a diversity<br />
‘hotspot’<br />
The greatest priority for <strong>the</strong> conservation <strong>of</strong> Odonata <strong>in</strong><br />
Western Africa lies <strong>in</strong> Cameroon and <strong>the</strong> adjacent regions<br />
<strong>of</strong> Nigeria, Equatorial Gu<strong>in</strong>ea and Gabon (Dijkstra and<br />
Vick, <strong>in</strong> press). Both <strong>the</strong> highland and lowland ra<strong>in</strong>forests<br />
have an odonate diversity that is unrivalled elsewhere <strong>in</strong><br />
Africa. This diversity seems to be especially high <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> Cameroon, a mounta<strong>in</strong>ous region<br />
adjacent to <strong>the</strong> eastern Nigerian border. The African<br />
dragonfly fauna may be less rich than that <strong>of</strong> tropical Asia<br />
and <strong>the</strong> neotropics but our recent work has discovered<br />
that Southwest Cameroon has species diversities that are<br />
almost as high (Vick 1999). The total number <strong>of</strong> species<br />
recorded <strong>in</strong> this prov<strong>in</strong>ce alone stands at 182; <strong>the</strong> number<br />
<strong>of</strong> forest-adapted species with restricted ranges are<br />
particularly high, and many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> widespread species <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> African savannah are absent (Vick 1999).<br />
As more sampl<strong>in</strong>g takes place <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region to <strong>the</strong><br />
west, extend<strong>in</strong>g from Gu<strong>in</strong>ea to Ghana, it appears that<br />
odonate species richness approaches that <strong>of</strong> Southwest<br />
Cameroon; for example <strong>the</strong> richest is <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ivory Coast<br />
with 175 species recorded. However, <strong>the</strong>se species totals<br />
are made up <strong>of</strong> a greater number <strong>of</strong> taxa which are<br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> African savannah (O’Neill and<br />
Paulson 2001); many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se taxa are widespread and<br />
occur over a huge area which extends from Senegal to<br />
<strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn Africa.<br />
The prov<strong>in</strong>ce also stands out from o<strong>the</strong>r species-rich<br />
areas <strong>of</strong> West Africa <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong><br />
phylogenetically <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g taxa present, such as those<br />
with aff<strong>in</strong>ities to <strong>the</strong> fauna <strong>of</strong> South America or<br />
Madagascar. It is also a center <strong>of</strong> diversity, possibly <strong>the</strong><br />
most important <strong>in</strong> Africa, for many forest-stream<br />
specialists such as <strong>the</strong> Calopterygidae (Vick <strong>in</strong> prep.).<br />
The Cameroon Dragonfly Project surveys between<br />
1995 and 2001 have focused on <strong>the</strong> areas around Mount<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Cameroon, Mount Kupe, <strong>the</strong> lowlands <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong><br />
Kumba, <strong>the</strong> Bakossi Highlands, and <strong>Takamanda</strong>. All <strong>of</strong><br />
our record<strong>in</strong>g has been <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce, except<br />
for a limited amount <strong>in</strong> Littoral Prov<strong>in</strong>ce on <strong>the</strong> east <strong>of</strong><br />
Kupe.<br />
4.2 Subsets <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fauna<br />
Vick<br />
In Southwest Cameroon <strong>the</strong>re is a marked faunal break at<br />
around 700m. In <strong>the</strong> lowlands <strong>the</strong>re is a rich<br />
representation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Gu<strong>in</strong>eo-Congolian fauna, but a<br />
limited degree <strong>of</strong> endemism. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, <strong>the</strong>re is<br />
a dist<strong>in</strong>ct submontane fauna above 700m which breeds <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> rapid rocky-bedded streams <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forested uplands,<br />
toge<strong>the</strong>r with associated marshes, seepages and<br />
waterfalls. Most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phylogenetically <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g taxa<br />
which have broader geographic aff<strong>in</strong>ities occur above<br />
700m <strong>in</strong> undisturbed forest. In fact, <strong>the</strong>re is a<br />
characteristic suite <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se species which are susceptible<br />
to disturbance and open<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> canopy; <strong>the</strong>se have <strong>the</strong><br />
potential to be used as <strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong> forest quality.<br />
Apart from <strong>the</strong> altitud<strong>in</strong>al break mentioned, <strong>the</strong>re is<br />
some evidence to suggest that <strong>the</strong>re may be two slightly<br />
different faunas which may be associated with dist<strong>in</strong>ct<br />
Pleistocene refugia (or at least parts <strong>of</strong> one refugium<br />
which have perhaps been separated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> past <strong>in</strong>to two<br />
ra<strong>in</strong>forest ‘islands’). North <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cross River, <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>, <strong>the</strong>re are <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g faunal elements which<br />
appear to be lack<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> south. The converse appears<br />
to also be true but fur<strong>the</strong>r work is needed to establish this.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> appears to be <strong>of</strong> major importance for<br />
odonate diversity. Survey<strong>in</strong>g is at an early stage <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
region and has only been carried out on <strong>the</strong> Cameroon<br />
side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> border, however <strong>in</strong>itial results <strong>in</strong>dicate a rich<br />
fauna, which is dist<strong>in</strong>ct from that fur<strong>the</strong>r south <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Prov<strong>in</strong>ce. To date, 67 species have been recorded,<br />
compared with 182 from <strong>the</strong> Prov<strong>in</strong>ce as a whole (Vick<br />
1999).<br />
4.3 Important relict elements <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fauna<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>re are relict genera with<br />
tropical American aff<strong>in</strong>ities. Pentaphlebia (only three
Odonate assessment<br />
species extant <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> subfamily - two species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Cameroon and Nigeria border region and one species <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Guyana Highlands). The larvae are adapted to cl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to <strong>the</strong> undersides <strong>of</strong> boulders <strong>in</strong> cold torrential streams.<br />
The species P. stahli occurs both north (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>) and south <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cross River, and it is<br />
essentially <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicator species <strong>of</strong> submontane streams<br />
flow<strong>in</strong>g through undisturbed forest. There is ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />
species, P. gamblesi, which is only known from Obudu,<br />
Nigeria (only one specimen has ever been found) and this<br />
could be expected <strong>in</strong> higher altitude forests <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>. Its larva awaits discovery and its<br />
relationships will be fasc<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g to discern.<br />
Nubiolestes diotima is <strong>the</strong> only African species <strong>of</strong> a<br />
small family, <strong>the</strong> Perilestidae, which is o<strong>the</strong>rwise<br />
neotropical. The discovery <strong>of</strong> its larva at Kupe and <strong>the</strong><br />
observation <strong>of</strong> synapomorphisms has added strength to<br />
its placement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> family (Vick 1998). It has been found<br />
at <strong>Takamanda</strong>. It occurs <strong>in</strong> backwaters <strong>of</strong> submontane<br />
streams which flow through dense forest.<br />
Genera with aff<strong>in</strong>ities with <strong>the</strong> Madagascar fauna are<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Megapodagrionidae: Nesolestes and Neurolestes.<br />
Neurolestes is represented by one species, tr<strong>in</strong>ervis,<br />
which appears to be relatively common <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
(and less so to <strong>the</strong> south); Nesolestes is known from<br />
across <strong>the</strong> border <strong>in</strong> Obudu, Nigeria, and at Mount Oku<br />
<strong>in</strong> Northwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce, and could be expected <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>, perhaps occurr<strong>in</strong>g with Pentaphlebia<br />
gamblesi at higher elevations than Pentaphlebia stahli<br />
and Neurolestes tr<strong>in</strong>ervis.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r biogeographical puzzles occur <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area such<br />
as Stenocnemis a platycnemidid not closely related to any<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r taxon (Vick 1998) and Tragogomphus (three<br />
species endemic to Cameroon and Nigeria).<br />
4.4 African demoiselles: <strong>the</strong> Calopterygidae<br />
The Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce is a hotspot for calopterygid<br />
diversity. Three genera are present, and <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
alone <strong>the</strong>re are 12 species (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g two ‘forms’ which<br />
appear to be specifically dist<strong>in</strong>ct) present <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> genera<br />
Umma, Phaon, and Sapho. In contrast, sampl<strong>in</strong>g to date<br />
<strong>in</strong> Ghana has revealed four species, while Uganda and<br />
Kenya share two; even Congo (DRC) only has five<br />
(O’Neill and Paulson 2001, Clausnitzer 2001). Most taxa<br />
are ra<strong>in</strong>forest-stream specialists. There appears to be a<br />
difference between <strong>the</strong> fauna <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>, north <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Cross River, and that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area to <strong>the</strong> south. Widespread<br />
taxa (i.e. occurr<strong>in</strong>g north and south <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cross River)<br />
are Umma mesostigma (see below) and Sapho<br />
orichalcea (mostly <strong>in</strong> submontane ra<strong>in</strong>forest). Phaon<br />
iridipennis is a common African taxon which occurs <strong>in</strong><br />
disturbed habitat <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region. A much more localised<br />
taxon, Phaon camerunense occurs from Gu<strong>in</strong>ea to<br />
Cameroon and it appears to be conf<strong>in</strong>ed to lowland<br />
ra<strong>in</strong>forest. Both species <strong>of</strong> Phaon have been found <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> and <strong>the</strong> areas to <strong>the</strong> south.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> genus Sapho, we have two taxa present to <strong>the</strong><br />
south (possibly a third pend<strong>in</strong>g verification), but to date<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> region we have only found <strong>the</strong><br />
predom<strong>in</strong>antly submontane, or cool-stream lowland<br />
species, Sapho orichalcea.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> genus Umma we have recorded eight taxa for<br />
<strong>the</strong> SW Prov<strong>in</strong>ce. Umma mesostigma is <strong>the</strong> most<br />
widespread species,occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>, and south<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cross River, <strong>in</strong> both submontane and lowland<br />
habitats, usually <strong>in</strong> forests, but not necessarily<br />
undisturbed. Ano<strong>the</strong>r species Umma longistigma occurs<br />
<strong>in</strong> two forms which may be separate species: one form<br />
occurs to <strong>the</strong> south <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cross River from <strong>the</strong> Bakossi<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>s southwards, while ano<strong>the</strong>r form with<br />
narrower <strong>in</strong>ferior appendages occurs <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>,<br />
Korup, and <strong>in</strong> adjacent parts <strong>of</strong> Nigeria. An endemic<br />
species Umma mesumbei occurs <strong>in</strong> submontane streams<br />
at Kupe and <strong>the</strong> Bakossi Mountians (Vick 1996). This<br />
species has not been recorded with<strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>.<br />
However, current surveys have rediscovered Umma<br />
purpurea, described from Mamfe <strong>in</strong> 1961. The species<br />
appears to be absent to <strong>the</strong> south, but curiously it is<br />
locally common on Bioko (Brooks and Jackson 2001).<br />
Umma puella is ano<strong>the</strong>r taxon which has only rarely been<br />
encountered s<strong>in</strong>ce its discovery <strong>in</strong> 1917. The species was<br />
found near Mount Cameroon <strong>in</strong> 1979 and at several sites<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> current study. This is an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
77<br />
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78<br />
species from a phylogenetic po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view as it does not<br />
fit neatly <strong>in</strong>to ei<strong>the</strong>r genus accord<strong>in</strong>g to present<br />
def<strong>in</strong>itions.<br />
There is only one o<strong>the</strong>r calopterygid taxon, Umma<br />
saphir<strong>in</strong>a known from <strong>the</strong> Rumpi Hills and adjacent<br />
areas <strong>of</strong> Nigeria.<br />
With seven genera present, <strong>the</strong> Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
also seems to be one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> centres <strong>of</strong> diversity for <strong>the</strong><br />
Tetra<strong>the</strong>mist<strong>in</strong>ae, a pleisiomorphic subfamily <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
worldwide Libellulidae. They are not colourful like most<br />
libellulids, <strong>the</strong>ir colours be<strong>in</strong>g yellow-green and black,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> species are almost entirely conf<strong>in</strong>ed to streams<br />
and ephemeral pools <strong>in</strong> dense ra<strong>in</strong>forest. This subfamily<br />
is <strong>of</strong> great evolutionary <strong>in</strong>terest as <strong>the</strong>y show a strik<strong>in</strong>g<br />
diversity <strong>of</strong> behaviour (Clausnitzer and Lempert 1998).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> libellulid species, <strong>the</strong> females oviposit<br />
<strong>in</strong> flight by dipp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> tip <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> abdomen <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> water<br />
so that <strong>the</strong>y are ‘washed’ <strong>of</strong>f and s<strong>in</strong>k to <strong>the</strong> bottom. In<br />
<strong>the</strong> tetra<strong>the</strong>mist<strong>in</strong>es <strong>the</strong>re is a range <strong>of</strong> oviposition<br />
strategies: species <strong>of</strong> Tetra<strong>the</strong>mis which breed<br />
exclusively <strong>in</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>forest pools settle and oviposit<br />
epiphytically on leaves several metres above <strong>the</strong> water;<br />
Notio<strong>the</strong>mis, Eo<strong>the</strong>mis, Malgassophlebia and<br />
Micromacromia which breed <strong>in</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>forest streams and<br />
pools oviposit <strong>in</strong> flight on banks well above water level;<br />
species <strong>of</strong> Allorhizucha oviposit <strong>in</strong> flight directly <strong>in</strong>to<br />
water as <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> more ‘modern’ libellulids. The recent<br />
discovery <strong>of</strong> an apparently endemic tetra<strong>the</strong>mist<strong>in</strong>e<br />
genus and species, Mesumbe<strong>the</strong>mis takamandensis, <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest north <strong>of</strong> Mamfe illustrates <strong>the</strong><br />
potential <strong>of</strong> this region (Vick 2000).<br />
Although survey<strong>in</strong>g is <strong>in</strong> its prelim<strong>in</strong>ary stages <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>, <strong>the</strong> discoveries so far <strong>in</strong>dicate that <strong>the</strong> area is<br />
likely to be one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> highest importance for odonate<br />
diversity <strong>in</strong> Africa. Although clearly part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong><br />
‘hotspot’ <strong>in</strong> Southwest Cameroon <strong>the</strong>re is some evidence<br />
to suggest that its species composition may be different<br />
from that <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> prov<strong>in</strong>ce. As very<br />
little sampl<strong>in</strong>g has yet taken place above <strong>the</strong> critical<br />
700m altitude at which most endemics would be<br />
expected, I would anticipate some excit<strong>in</strong>g discoveries to<br />
be made <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> future.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Acknowledgments<br />
I am grateful for <strong>the</strong> efforts <strong>of</strong> Otto Mesumbe, Jacqui<br />
Groves and Christopher Wild, and <strong>the</strong>ir helpers, who<br />
have provided me with samples to study. I would like to<br />
acknowledge <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ancial assistance that has been<br />
provided by <strong>the</strong> International Dragonfly Fund for help<br />
with Otto Mesumbe’s expenses when visit<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>. I am grateful to <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian Institution<br />
and CRES for encourag<strong>in</strong>g researchers who have been<br />
concentrat<strong>in</strong>g on o<strong>the</strong>r projects to help <strong>the</strong> Cameroon<br />
Dragonfly Project with our work.<br />
Re-collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>, WWF funded research<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1998/99 and Smithsonian 2000/01. We are grateful to<br />
Jacqui Sunderland-Groves, Christopher Wild and Otto<br />
Mesumbe, and helpers for samples from <strong>Takamanda</strong>.<br />
This total species list is based upon sampl<strong>in</strong>g funded by<br />
World Wildlife Fund, Cameroon Dragonfly Project and<br />
<strong>the</strong> Smithsonian Institution. Thanks to Dan Slayback for<br />
preparation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> map.<br />
References<br />
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Chelmick, D.G. 1999. Larvae <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> genus Anax <strong>in</strong><br />
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28(3): 209-218.<br />
Chelmick, D.G., 2001. Larvae <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> genus Aeshna<br />
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South West Prov<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> Cameroon (Zygoptera:<br />
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Vick, G.S. 1999. A checklist <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> dragonflies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
South West Prov<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> Cameroon with a<br />
description <strong>of</strong> a new species <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> genus<br />
Phyllogomphus Selys, 1854. Odonatologica<br />
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Vick, G.S. 2000. Mesumbe<strong>the</strong>mis takamandensis<br />
gen. nov., spec.nov., a new genus and species <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Tetra<strong>the</strong>mist<strong>in</strong>ae from Cameroon, with a key<br />
to <strong>the</strong> African genera <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> subfamily<br />
(anisoptera: Libellulidae). Odonatologica 29(3):<br />
225-237.<br />
Vick, G.S. <strong>in</strong> prep. A study <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> dragonflies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
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<strong>the</strong> regional species.<br />
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Appendix 1. Species list and sampl<strong>in</strong>g locations <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Family / Species<br />
Calopterygidae<br />
Notes Locations<br />
Phaon camerunensis Sj stedt, 1900 very local, shady ra<strong>in</strong>forest streams,<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly lowland<br />
01, 11, 13, 24<br />
Phaon iridipennis (Burmeister, 1839) widespread open- stream species 11, 13, 18, 24<br />
Sapho orichalcea McLachlan, 1869 ra<strong>in</strong>forest streams, ma<strong>in</strong>ly submontane 01, 02, 07, 08,<br />
10, 11, 12, 14,<br />
17, 19, 21<br />
Umma longistigma (Selys, 1869) narrow <strong>in</strong>ferior appendages ra<strong>in</strong>forest 06, 07, 08, 10,<br />
streams, ma<strong>in</strong>ly lowland<br />
11, 13, 18, 19,<br />
21, 23, 24<br />
Umma mesostigma (Selys, 1879) ra<strong>in</strong>forest streams, range <strong>of</strong> altitudes,<br />
fairly tolerant <strong>of</strong> farmbush<br />
05, 10, 17, 19, 21<br />
Umma puella Sj stedt, 1917 occurs north <strong>of</strong> Cross River and near 07, 11, 15, 17,<br />
Mount Cameroon- ra<strong>in</strong>forest streams 18, 19, 21<br />
Umma purpurea P<strong>in</strong>hey, 1961<br />
Amphipterygidae<br />
possibly two disjunct populations: north 01, 05, 18, 21, 24<br />
<strong>of</strong> Cross River and Bioko- ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
streams<br />
Pentaphlebia stahli F rster, 1909 rocky submontane streams, larvae cl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to underside <strong>of</strong> rocks. Related to<br />
Rimanella arcana <strong>in</strong> Venezuela<br />
17<br />
Chlorocyphidae very colourful, all stream-dwellers,<br />
strik<strong>in</strong>g courtship behaviour which<br />
usually requires some breaks <strong>in</strong> tree<br />
canopy to provide sunny spots for<br />
display<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Chlorocypha cancellata (Selys, 1879) 01, 12, 14, 21<br />
Chlorocypha curta (Hagen <strong>in</strong> Selys, 1853) 14, 23<br />
Chlorocypha glauca (Selys, 1879) 07, 18, 23<br />
Chlorocypha rubida (Hagen <strong>in</strong> Selys, 1853) 11, 17, 23<br />
Chlorocypha selysi Karsch, 1899 9<br />
Platycypha rufitibia (P<strong>in</strong>hey, 1961)<br />
Perilestidae<br />
23<br />
Nubiolestes diotima (Schmidt, 1941) very local endemic <strong>of</strong><br />
Cameroon/Nigerian border, backwaters<br />
<strong>of</strong> streams <strong>in</strong> submontane ra<strong>in</strong>forest. All<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r perilestids are neotropical<br />
10<br />
Megapodagrionidae<br />
Neurolestes tr<strong>in</strong>ervis Selys, 1885 local endemic - submontane ra<strong>in</strong>forests.<br />
Close to Madagascar species <strong>in</strong> genus<br />
Nesolestes<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
08, 19, 24<br />
Vick
Odonate assessment<br />
Family / Species Notes Locations<br />
Coenagrionidae all stream-dwellers, usually tolerant <strong>of</strong><br />
canopy loss<br />
Pseudagrion epiphonematicum Karsch, 1891 01, 02, 06, 16, 21<br />
Pseudagrion flavipes Sj stedt, 1900 11, 18<br />
Pseudagrion melanicterum Selys, 1876 01, 05, 09, 15,<br />
18, 24<br />
Pseudagrion serrulatum Karsch, 1894 13<br />
Pseudagrion sjostedti F rster, 1906 01, 14, 16, 17<br />
Pseudagrion hamoni* Fraser, 1955 09, 23<br />
Protoneuridae stream dwellers, usually <strong>in</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Chlorocnemis contraria Schmidt, 1951 12, 16, 17, 19, 21<br />
Chlorocnemis nigripes Selys, 1886 10, 11, 16, 17, 18<br />
Elattoneura balli Kimm<strong>in</strong>s, 1938 11<br />
Elattoneura nigra Kimm<strong>in</strong>s, 1938 11<br />
Elattoneura pru<strong>in</strong>osa ( Selys, 1886) 02, 05, 08, 09,<br />
10, 11, 12, 13,<br />
16, 17, 18, 22<br />
Prodas<strong>in</strong>eura vittata (Selys, 1886)<br />
Platycnemididae<br />
18, 21<br />
Mesocnemis s<strong>in</strong>gularis Karsch, 1891 Streams and larger rivers, usually habitat 01, 16, 17, 19<br />
tolerant<br />
Platycnemis rufipes (Selys, 1886) Stream dwellers, usually <strong>in</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>forest 24<br />
Gomphidae Almost all are stream-dwellers <strong>in</strong><br />
ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Diastatomma tricolor (Palisot de Beauvois, 1805) 17, 18<br />
Gomphidia gamblesi Gauthier, 1987 Assam - reared specimen from larva 19<br />
Lest<strong>in</strong>ogomphus angustus Mart<strong>in</strong>, 1911 23<br />
Paragomphus genei (Selys, 1841) Stream-dweller, usually habitat tolerant 3<br />
Paragomphus sp.3 12<br />
Paragomphus sp.4 6<br />
Tragogomphus aurivillii Sj stedt, 1900 Possibly first record s<strong>in</strong>ce description <strong>in</strong> 17<br />
1900<br />
Corduliidae Stream dwellers, usually <strong>in</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Phyllomacromia bicristulata [Legrand, 1975] 18, 24<br />
Phyllomacromia caneri (Gauthier, 1987) 17, 18<br />
Phyllomacromia funicularia (Mart<strong>in</strong>, 1906) 18<br />
81<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
82<br />
Family / Species Notes Locations<br />
Libellulidae Very diverse habitat requirements<br />
Allorrhizucha kl<strong>in</strong>gi Karsch, 1890 Stream dweller, tolerates partial loss <strong>of</strong><br />
canopy<br />
Atoconeura biord<strong>in</strong>ata Karsch, 1899 Rapid streams associated with forested<br />
habitats<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Vick<br />
02, 05, 08, 11,<br />
12, 13, 15, 18, 21<br />
Croco<strong>the</strong>mis erythraea (Brull!, 1832) Widespread, avoids ra<strong>in</strong>forest 16<br />
Cyano<strong>the</strong>mis simpsoni Ris, 1915 Sluggish silty streams <strong>in</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>forest 6<br />
Eo<strong>the</strong>mis zygoptera Ris, 1909 7<br />
Hadro<strong>the</strong>mis camarensis Kirby, 1889 Ra<strong>in</strong>forest 12, 17<br />
Hadro<strong>the</strong>mis versuta (Karsch, 1891) Ra<strong>in</strong>forest 11<br />
Hemistigma albipuncta (Rambur, 1842) Widespread and tolerant 02, 07, 18, 19, 23<br />
Mesumbe<strong>the</strong>mis takamandensis Vick, 2000 Described as new species and genus <strong>in</strong><br />
2000, known from Assam <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
only, presumably breed<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
streams or pools<br />
19<br />
Micromacromia camerunica Karsch, 1889 Ra<strong>in</strong>forest streams 7<br />
Notio<strong>the</strong>mis robertsi Fraser, 1944 Shady ra<strong>in</strong>forest pools 24<br />
Or<strong>the</strong>trum camerunense Gambles, 1959** Grassland pools and marshes 5<br />
Or<strong>the</strong>trum chrysostigma (Burmeister, 1839) Widespread 18, 19<br />
Or<strong>the</strong>trum julia Kirby, 1900 Widespread <strong>in</strong> secondary and disturbed<br />
ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
01, 18, 20, 21, 23<br />
Or<strong>the</strong>trum microstigma Ris, 1911 7<br />
Or<strong>the</strong>trum stemmale (Burmeister, 1839) Farmbush and disturbed forest 02, 11, 17,<br />
Palpopleura lucia (Drury, 1773) Widespread 07, 10, 15, 18<br />
Pantala flavescens (Fabricius, 1798) Widespread 5<br />
Porpax bipunctus P<strong>in</strong>hey, 1966 Possibly forest streams 07, 11, 21<br />
Tetra<strong>the</strong>mis bifida Fraser, 1941 Shady ra<strong>in</strong>forest pools, tolerates<br />
secondary forest<br />
6<br />
Tri<strong>the</strong>mis aconita Lieft<strong>in</strong>ck, 1969 Streams <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>in</strong> farmbush and disturbed 19<br />
forest<br />
Tri<strong>the</strong>mis arteriosa (Burmeister, 1839) Widespread, avoid<strong>in</strong>g ra<strong>in</strong>forest 05, 07, 09, 16,<br />
18, 23<br />
Porpaci<strong>the</strong>mis sp.* 11<br />
Tri<strong>the</strong>mis dichroa Karsch, 1893 Streams <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>in</strong> farmbush and disturbed 04, 18<br />
forest<br />
Tri<strong>the</strong>mis pru<strong>in</strong>ata Karsch, 1899 Streams <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>in</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>forest. 05, 23<br />
Zygonyx flavicosta (Sj stedt, 1900) Rapid streams associated with forested<br />
habitats<br />
12, 13, 17, 18, 21<br />
Zygonyx speciosa (Karsch, 1891) Rapid streams associated with forested<br />
habitats<br />
11, 21<br />
* = provisional determ<strong>in</strong>ation - identity at present unconfirmed<br />
**= this is a good species dist<strong>in</strong>ct from caffrum <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> author©s op<strong>in</strong>ion, based upon <strong>the</strong> very dist<strong>in</strong>ctive hamular structure -<br />
published <strong>in</strong> Vick, 1999<br />
21
1 Introduction<br />
Reptiles <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Mat<strong>the</strong>w LeBreton, Laurent Chirio, and Désiré Foguekem<br />
Cameroon has a rich reptile fauna <strong>of</strong> more than 265<br />
species (Chirio and LeBreton <strong>in</strong> prep.), result<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong><br />
country’s varied landscape and climate and its center <strong>of</strong><br />
diversity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> western highlands.<br />
While this diversity is well known and although<br />
many unique and characteristic species have been<br />
recorded from Cameroon, <strong>the</strong>re are few published local<br />
<strong>in</strong>ventories. Most lists were compiled dur<strong>in</strong>g general<br />
expeditions across Cameroon (Sternfeld 1908, 1909;<br />
Müller 1910; Neiden 1910a,b; Mertens 1938, 1940,<br />
1968; Monard 1951; Perret and Mertens 1957; Böhme<br />
1975b; Joger 1982; Böhme and Schneider 1987) or<br />
through studies <strong>of</strong> a taxonomic nature based on<br />
specimens <strong>in</strong> European or American museums (e.g.,<br />
Loveridge 1947, Klaver and Böhme 1992). Notable<br />
exceptions <strong>in</strong>clude studies <strong>of</strong> snake fauna from Yaoundé<br />
(Gaudu<strong>in</strong> 1970) and western Cameroon (Stucki-Stern<br />
1979) and short-term research on fauna <strong>in</strong> Campo Fauna<br />
Reserve (Ota et al. 1987) and Korup National Park<br />
(Lawson 1993).<br />
The non-governmental organization (NGO)<br />
CAMHERP has been operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Cameroon s<strong>in</strong>ce 1998,<br />
compil<strong>in</strong>g an atlas <strong>of</strong> reptiles and provid<strong>in</strong>g regional and<br />
local <strong>in</strong>ventories for o<strong>the</strong>r NGOs, <strong>the</strong> government sector,<br />
and regional projects. This paper presents <strong>the</strong> first list <strong>of</strong><br />
reptiles from <strong>Takamanda</strong> forest (<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest<br />
Reserve and adjo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g areas), based on four excursions to<br />
<strong>the</strong> area <strong>in</strong> 2001 and 2002, <strong>in</strong> cooperation with <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Surveys Project (GTZ/MINEF<br />
PROFAMAMFE) and Wildlife Conservation Society.<br />
2 Study area<br />
Chapter 6<br />
The sou<strong>the</strong>rn border <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve<br />
(TFR) is located approximately 15 km north <strong>of</strong> Mamfe <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> Cameroon (Figure 1 Chapter<br />
1). The reserve, approximately 67,500 ha <strong>in</strong> size, follows<br />
<strong>the</strong> Cameroon/Nigeria border for about 30 km.<br />
In a simple breakdown <strong>of</strong> natural vegetation, four<br />
major types can be determ<strong>in</strong>ed: lowland forest, medium<br />
altitude forest, montane forest, and elevated savanna<br />
(Sunderland et al. this volume). Derived vegetation types<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude cultivated areas, farm bush, and secondary forest<br />
around <strong>the</strong> reserve. Altitude varies from 100 m to about<br />
1,600 m.<br />
Four field trips were conducted <strong>in</strong> and around TFR<br />
over <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> one year. The first, from 14 - 30 May<br />
2001, focused <strong>the</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> Matene and Mende. At<br />
Matene, palm plantations, farm bush, dense lowland<br />
humid forest, and mid-elevation forest were exam<strong>in</strong>ed,<br />
while at Mende, gallery forest, montane forest, elevated<br />
grassland, and farmland were surveyed. The second trip,<br />
from 2 - 17 August 2001, centered on <strong>the</strong> villages <strong>of</strong><br />
Atolo—where sub-montane forest, ridge forest, farm<br />
bush and cocoa farms were <strong>the</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant vegetation<br />
types—and T<strong>in</strong>ta, where woodland savanna, moist<br />
evergreen forest, and <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terface between <strong>the</strong>se<br />
vegetation types were assessed. The third and fourth<br />
trips, from 6 - 19 December 2001 and 28 – 31 May 2002,<br />
exam<strong>in</strong>ed lowland forest areas <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> south <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reserve<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> villages <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>, Obonyi 1<br />
and 2, and Kekpane (Figure 2 <strong>in</strong> Chapter 1).<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003, Pages 83 to 94
84 LeBreton et al.<br />
3 Methods<br />
A team <strong>of</strong> experienced herpetologists, a graduate student,<br />
and field assistants from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> area carried out<br />
<strong>the</strong> field work. Field searches took place <strong>in</strong> areas<br />
where—and at times when—reptiles were known to be<br />
active or detectable, based on <strong>the</strong> experience <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> field<br />
researchers. Searchers looked for active reptiles on <strong>the</strong><br />
ground and <strong>in</strong> trees and shrubs. Inactive and burrow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
reptiles were sought beneath rocks, exfoliat<strong>in</strong>g layers <strong>of</strong><br />
bark, leaf litter, and fallen logs and <strong>in</strong> dark tree hollows<br />
and rock crevices (with <strong>the</strong> aid <strong>of</strong> a torch). Some<br />
search<strong>in</strong>g was undertaken at night along tracks and <strong>in</strong><br />
trees and houses, aga<strong>in</strong> with a torch. Captured reptiles<br />
were kept <strong>in</strong> cloth bags and small plastic conta<strong>in</strong>ers l<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
with moistened moss.<br />
Bottles <strong>of</strong> 10% unbuffered formal<strong>in</strong> were left with<br />
volunteers <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> villages <strong>of</strong> Mendé and Bidjan (close to<br />
Mamfe) from May to August 2001, <strong>in</strong> Atolo and T<strong>in</strong>ta<br />
from August 2001 to February 2002, and Obonyi 1 and<br />
2, Kekpane, and <strong>Takamanda</strong> villages from December<br />
2001 to May 2002 (Figure 1). Any reptiles killed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
villages were preserved <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> formal<strong>in</strong> and removed<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g subsequent field work. Shells, bones, and sk<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong><br />
tortoises and crocodiles were also recorded from some<br />
villages.<br />
All specimens were preserved <strong>in</strong> 10% unbuffered<br />
formal<strong>in</strong> or 70% alcohol. Specimens collected will be<br />
deposited <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Yaoundé I, Cameroon, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France.<br />
Pr<strong>in</strong>cipal works used <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> identification <strong>of</strong> species<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude: for geckoes, Loveridge (1947), van den<br />
Audenaerde (1967), and Perret (1963, 1986); for<br />
Mabuya, Hoogmoed (1974) and Chirio and Ineich<br />
(2000); for Panaspis, Perret (1973); for chameleons,<br />
Klaver and Böhme (1992) and Wild (1993); and for<br />
snakes, Chippaux (2001), Meirte (1992), Laurent (1964),<br />
and unpublished data <strong>of</strong> Van Wallach.<br />
4 Results<br />
A total <strong>of</strong> 71 described species from 15 families were<br />
identified from TFR and <strong>the</strong> immediately surround<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
area dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> field work. The 41 species <strong>of</strong> snakes<br />
made up 59% <strong>of</strong> all species encountered, and <strong>the</strong> family<br />
Colubridae was <strong>the</strong> most species-rich family (26<br />
species). Three additional—and possibly undescribed—<br />
species were also recorded, two <strong>of</strong> which have been<br />
found <strong>in</strong> numerous localities <strong>in</strong> Cameroon’s forests,<br />
while one is known only from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> and Furu-<br />
Awa areas.<br />
Ten o<strong>the</strong>r species, not recorded from <strong>Takamanda</strong>,<br />
have been recorded from <strong>the</strong> adjacent towns <strong>of</strong> Mamfe<br />
and Bidjan (approximately 15 km to <strong>the</strong> south) dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
current study (three species) or by Stucki-Stern (1979)<br />
(seven species). Unfortunately, <strong>the</strong> specimens collected<br />
by Stuki-Stern (1979) were destroyed, and identifications<br />
cannot be confirmed (Chris Wild pers.comm.).<br />
Two species—Chamaeleo montium and C.<br />
pfefferi—found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> area are endemic to<br />
Cameroon, while three o<strong>the</strong>r species—Chamaeleo<br />
wiedersheimi, Cnemaspis koehleri, and Panaspis<br />
rohdei—could be classed as regional endemics because<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir distribution also <strong>in</strong>cludes small areas <strong>in</strong> Nigeria,<br />
Equatorial Gu<strong>in</strong>ea, and Gabon.<br />
The tortoises K<strong>in</strong>ixys erosa and K. homeana are<br />
listed as Data Deficient and <strong>the</strong> Dwarf Crocodile<br />
Osteolaemus tetraspis as Vulnerable <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> IUCN’s Red<br />
Lists.<br />
Eleven species <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> Appendix II <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> CITES<br />
convention, which regulates <strong>in</strong>ternational commerce <strong>in</strong><br />
wildlife, were recorded from <strong>the</strong> area, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
terrestrial tortoises and dwarf crocodile noted above and<br />
chameleons, monitor lizards, and pythons.<br />
5 Discussion<br />
The number (81) <strong>of</strong> described reptile species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> area is similar to o<strong>the</strong>r locations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
volcanic cha<strong>in</strong> mounta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> Cameroon (65 species at<br />
Korup National Park [Lawson 1993] and 81 non-mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
reptile species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mount Cameroon area [LeBreton<br />
2002]). Also typical <strong>of</strong> African forests is <strong>the</strong> high<br />
proportion (62%) <strong>of</strong> snakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> species present at
Reptile Surveys<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>; compare to 65% at Korup National Park<br />
(Lawson 1993), 53% at Kibale National Park <strong>in</strong> Kenya<br />
(Vonesh 2001), and 56% <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mount Cameroon area<br />
(LeBreton 2002).<br />
5.1 Aff<strong>in</strong>ities/relationships with o<strong>the</strong>r areas<br />
Seventy-five percent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 65 reptile species found at<br />
Korup (Lawson 1993) and 78% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 81 non-mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
reptile species found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mount Cameroon area<br />
(LeBreton 2002) are also found at <strong>Takamanda</strong>. By<br />
contrast, <strong>the</strong> Bouba-Njida National Park area, dom<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
by savana, <strong>in</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Cameroon has only 25% <strong>of</strong> its 43<br />
species <strong>in</strong> common with <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> area<br />
(unpublished CAMHERP data).<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> reptile species found at <strong>Takamanda</strong> are<br />
forest dwellers, giv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> area an aff<strong>in</strong>ity with montane<br />
and sub-montane forest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> western parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
country, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Mount Cameroon and Korup. There<br />
are, however, a number <strong>of</strong> savanna species that appear to<br />
reach <strong>the</strong>ir sou<strong>the</strong>rn limit—at least <strong>in</strong> western<br />
Cameroon—<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> area.<br />
5.2 Species <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
The chameleons comprise a dist<strong>in</strong>ctive portion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
fauna <strong>in</strong> any part <strong>of</strong> Cameroon, and <strong>Takamanda</strong> is no<br />
exception. Five species have been recorded from <strong>the</strong><br />
area, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Dwarf Chameleon (Rhampholeon<br />
spectrum spectrum), Crested Chameleon (Chamaeleo<br />
cristatus), Mounta<strong>in</strong> Chameleon (C. montium),<br />
Wiedersheim’s Chameleon (C. wiedersheimi) and<br />
Pfeffer’s Chameleon (C. pfefferi). The latter three species<br />
are Cameroon endemics, or near endemics, and are<br />
known only from restricted areas <strong>in</strong> Cameroon.<br />
The presence <strong>of</strong> Pfeffer’s Chameleon at Mendé<br />
extends <strong>the</strong> range <strong>of</strong> this species west from <strong>the</strong> Bamenda<br />
area where it was recently found (unpublished<br />
CAMHERP data); o<strong>the</strong>r populations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> species are<br />
about 150 km fur<strong>the</strong>r south <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mounta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> Kupe and<br />
Manengouba (Wild 1993) and Nlonako (Herrmann et al.<br />
1999).<br />
Two subspecies (C. w. wiedersheimi and C. w.<br />
perreti) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> near-endemic chameleon C. wiedersheimi<br />
are known from Cameroon, C. w. perreti has an<br />
extremely restricted distribution and is known only from<br />
around <strong>the</strong> Manengouba Mounta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> Cameroon, while<br />
C. w. wiedersheimi, found at Mendé <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
area, is much more widespread. The <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals bridge <strong>the</strong> gap between known populations<br />
on <strong>the</strong> Obudu Plateau <strong>of</strong> Nigeria (Böhme 1975a,<br />
Gartshore 1986) and populations at Bafut <strong>in</strong> Cameroon<br />
(Böhme 1975b) and west <strong>of</strong> Bamenda <strong>in</strong> Cameroon<br />
(unpublished CAMHERP data). This subspecies occurs<br />
<strong>in</strong> grassland and <strong>in</strong> gallery forests between about 1500<br />
and 2200 m (Gartshore 1986).<br />
The Mounta<strong>in</strong> Chameleon (C. montium) was found<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> current field work at T<strong>in</strong>ta to <strong>the</strong> north <strong>of</strong> TFR,<br />
and <strong>the</strong>re is a s<strong>in</strong>gle record from nearby Atolo (Klaver<br />
and Böhme 1992). While <strong>the</strong>se two locations are close to<br />
each o<strong>the</strong>r, <strong>the</strong>y are o<strong>the</strong>rwise very isolated from o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
known populations <strong>of</strong> Mounta<strong>in</strong> Chameleon at Mt.<br />
Cameroon, Mt. Kupe, Manengouba, and Rumpi Hills.<br />
Forests to <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>ast <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> have not been<br />
surveyed, however, and <strong>the</strong> population may be more<br />
extensive <strong>in</strong> that area. This species is usually found <strong>in</strong><br />
moderate- to high-altitude forest (500 to 1300 m), <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
along forest edges and sometimes <strong>in</strong> cultivated areas<br />
(Klaver and Böhme 1992).<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> geckos, not endemic to Cameroon and<br />
known only from scattered localities, were found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> area. Three <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se species, Cnemaspis<br />
koehleri, Hemidactylus ech<strong>in</strong>us, and H. <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>alis,<br />
apparently depend on large, old trees where <strong>the</strong>y shelter<br />
beneath decorticat<strong>in</strong>g bark, among <strong>the</strong> roots <strong>of</strong> epiphytes,<br />
and <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r crevices. This dependency on older trees has<br />
perhaps led to a patchy distribution; much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest <strong>in</strong><br />
Cameroon is at least partially exploited, and few large,<br />
old trees rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> many areas. Two o<strong>the</strong>r gecko species<br />
were recorded <strong>in</strong> this study. Cnemaspis sp<strong>in</strong>icollis is<br />
found <strong>in</strong> rocky outcrops <strong>in</strong> densely forested areas, and<br />
Lygodactylus conraui is commonly found <strong>in</strong> palm<br />
plantations. Both are known only from scattered<br />
locations.<br />
85<br />
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86 LeBreton et al.<br />
Bothrolycus ater is a non-venomous snake restricted<br />
to central African forests, and <strong>in</strong> Cameroon <strong>the</strong>re are only<br />
scattered records from <strong>the</strong> extensive ra<strong>in</strong>forests <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
south and <strong>the</strong> elevated forests <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> west (unpublished<br />
CAMHERP data). A s<strong>in</strong>gle specimen was found dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
this field work <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> elevated forests at Mendé.<br />
5.3 Savanna species<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> savanna species known from <strong>the</strong> pla<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong><br />
nor<strong>the</strong>rn Cameroon were found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> area.<br />
The Royal Python (Python regius) is well known from<br />
<strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn edge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cameroon’s Adamawa Plateau<br />
north to Waza National Park. It is usually found <strong>in</strong> drier<br />
habitats, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g rocky hills and sometimes houses. In<br />
Nigeria, it is known from farmland and dryland ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
(Luiselli and Akani 1999). The records <strong>of</strong> this species<br />
from Bidjan dur<strong>in</strong>g this study are extremely isolated<br />
from <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r known locationsities <strong>in</strong> Cameroon, but are<br />
likely contiguous with populations <strong>in</strong> adjacent Nigeria<br />
(e.g., Cross River National Park; Jim Comiskey pers.<br />
obs. 2001).<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r savanna species, <strong>the</strong> egg-eat<strong>in</strong>g snake<br />
(Dasypeltis scabra), was recorded <strong>in</strong> elevated grassland<br />
around Mendé. This species is better known from <strong>the</strong> dry<br />
savanna fur<strong>the</strong>r north <strong>in</strong> Cameroon, but has also been<br />
recorded from Bamenda (unpublished CAMHERP data)<br />
and from elevated savanna <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r parts <strong>of</strong> Africa<br />
(Hughes 1983). This was <strong>the</strong> only snake recorded from<br />
<strong>the</strong> elevated grassland at Mende. All o<strong>the</strong>r species are<br />
apparently restricted to gallery forests.<br />
Panaspis kitsoni is a small sk<strong>in</strong>k commonly found <strong>in</strong><br />
lowland gallery forests on <strong>the</strong> Bénoué Pla<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Cameroon, but it is also known from scattered locations<br />
<strong>in</strong> western Cameroon and from Nigeria. Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
current field work, it was found <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> village<br />
and at Bidjan. The distribution <strong>of</strong> this species and its<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>uity with Nigerian populations is not yet clearly<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> western Cameroon.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
5.4 Undescribed species<br />
Three possibly undescribed species were found dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong>se surveys. An Agama, superficially similar to Agama<br />
agama and found <strong>in</strong> similar habitats but restricted mostly<br />
to <strong>the</strong> coast and h<strong>in</strong>terland, was found <strong>in</strong> four locations <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> forest area. A species <strong>of</strong> Mabuya allied to<br />
Mabuya aff<strong>in</strong>is was also recorded. Mabuya aff<strong>in</strong>is is<br />
found throughout <strong>the</strong> forests <strong>of</strong> Cameroon, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gallery forests on <strong>the</strong> Bénoué Pla<strong>in</strong>. The<br />
closely related undescribed species has been recorded<br />
from numerous locations throughout <strong>the</strong> Cameroon and<br />
Central African Republic forest block. The third species<br />
is a large gecko (Hemidactylus), similar to H. fasciatus<br />
but bigger and with less dist<strong>in</strong>ct broad bars on <strong>the</strong> back.<br />
In Cameroon, it has also been recorded from <strong>the</strong> Furu-<br />
Awa area north <strong>of</strong> Wum near <strong>the</strong> Nigerian border.<br />
6 Conclud<strong>in</strong>g remarks<br />
6.1 Implications for conservation<br />
6.1.1 Endemics and o<strong>the</strong>r species with<br />
localized or restricted distributions<br />
Much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cameroon highlands are be<strong>in</strong>g converted to<br />
agriculture and settlement. Thus, certa<strong>in</strong> species with<br />
restricted distributions are <strong>of</strong> conservation concern.<br />
Species found <strong>in</strong> areas particularly suitable for <strong>in</strong>tensive<br />
graz<strong>in</strong>g or cultivation may be affected by deterioration <strong>in</strong><br />
habitat quality caused by poor land management such as<br />
overgraz<strong>in</strong>g or clear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> habitat (especially elevated<br />
forests) for cultivation. These problems have already<br />
been identified <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manengouba and Bamboutos<br />
highlands where a number <strong>of</strong> lizards and frogs are<br />
exhibit<strong>in</strong>g s<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> stress brought on by human activities<br />
(Gartshore 1986). Our record<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
lizards <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve<br />
enhances <strong>the</strong> potential for conservation.<br />
6.1.2 Red List Species<br />
Numerous undescribed species have recently been<br />
discovered <strong>in</strong> Cameroon, and we are now obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> distribution <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r species.<br />
It is likely that better understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> species<br />
distribution and <strong>the</strong> factors that threaten some reptiles
Reptile Surveys<br />
will lead to a revision <strong>of</strong> IUCN’s Red Lists. Some species<br />
may be removed, while o<strong>the</strong>rs are added.<br />
As noted above, <strong>the</strong> Red List species found at<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>the</strong> Data Deficient terrestrial<br />
tortoises (K<strong>in</strong>ixys homeana and K. erosa) and <strong>the</strong><br />
Vulnerable Dwarf Crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis).<br />
Local people consume <strong>the</strong>se species, but it is not known<br />
how this affects populations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se reptiles <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> area.<br />
6.1.3 Local hunt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
The people <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> area collect several reptile<br />
species for food, most <strong>of</strong>ten as by-catch <strong>in</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g nets or<br />
on fish<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>es, through encounters dur<strong>in</strong>g cultivation,<br />
and along on forest paths or <strong>in</strong> villages. Direct hunt<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
unlikely, except perhaps for crocodile species.<br />
As stated above, many people <strong>in</strong> Cameroon<br />
consume <strong>the</strong> terrestrial tortoises K<strong>in</strong>ixys homeana and<br />
K<strong>in</strong>ixys erosa. They are likely to be captured while<br />
walk<strong>in</strong>g on forest tracks or dur<strong>in</strong>g cultivation. Numerous<br />
dried shells <strong>of</strong> both species were seen <strong>in</strong> local villages<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g this study. Insufficient data exist regard<strong>in</strong>g<br />
distribution and stresses to assess <strong>the</strong>ir conservation<br />
status, which is why <strong>the</strong>y are listed as Data Deficient <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Red Lists. However, a recent article on hunt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pressure <strong>in</strong> southwestern Cameroon (Lawson 2001)<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicated that around some villages and even <strong>in</strong> reserves,<br />
<strong>the</strong>se species are <strong>in</strong>tensely collected, with annual harvests<br />
up to 0.7 K<strong>in</strong>ixys per km 2 .<br />
Trionyx triunguis, a s<strong>of</strong>t-shelled aquatic tortoise<br />
known from scattered locations <strong>in</strong> Cameroon, <strong>in</strong>habits<br />
medium to large rivers <strong>in</strong> both savanna and forest areas.<br />
One dried shell <strong>of</strong> this species, kept after <strong>the</strong> meat <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
animal had been eaten, was found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> village <strong>of</strong><br />
Obonyi I dur<strong>in</strong>g this field work.<br />
Larger species <strong>of</strong> snakes, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Gabon Viper<br />
(Bitis gabonica), Horned Viper (Bitis nasicornis), Forest<br />
Cobra (Naja melanoleuca melanoleuca), Green Mamba<br />
(Dendroaspis jamesoni jamesoni), and African Rock<br />
Python (Python sebae), are all likely to be consumed by<br />
villagers <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> area. These creatures are<br />
probably encountered dur<strong>in</strong>g cultivation, while walk<strong>in</strong>g<br />
on forest tracks, or when <strong>the</strong>y enter villages. The aquatic<br />
snakes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> genus Grayia atta<strong>in</strong> a considerable size and<br />
are also likely to be consumed, as <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r parts <strong>of</strong><br />
Cameroon, if <strong>the</strong>y are captured <strong>in</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g nets or on<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>es. However, some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people <strong>in</strong>habit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
area avoid eat<strong>in</strong>g snakes for traditional reasons (Jacqui<br />
Sunderland-Groves pers. comm.).<br />
The Dwarf Crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis<br />
tetraspis) is locally consumed, as are <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r crocodile<br />
species (Crocodylus cataphractus and C. niloticus) that<br />
are likely to occur <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area. This factor may contribute<br />
to low numbers <strong>of</strong> crocodiles, but even as early as <strong>the</strong><br />
1960s, crocodile populations had been greatly reduced <strong>in</strong><br />
central Africa (Cott and Pooley 1972) and rema<strong>in</strong> so<br />
today (Luiselli et al. 2000), probably because <strong>of</strong> hunt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
for meat, export <strong>of</strong> sk<strong>in</strong>s, and degradation <strong>of</strong> habitat <strong>in</strong><br />
some areas.<br />
6.1.4 Intercont<strong>in</strong>ental Trade Species<br />
Because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> relative <strong>in</strong>accessibility <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Forest Reserve, <strong>the</strong> collection <strong>of</strong> species such as<br />
chameleons, tortoises, and pythons for <strong>in</strong>tercont<strong>in</strong>ental<br />
trade is unlikely to pose a conservation issue <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area.<br />
6.2 Additional study<br />
In reptile research, even a near-comprehensive list <strong>of</strong><br />
species is difficult to compile. The encounter rates for<br />
many snake species are low, and this is fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
complicated by <strong>the</strong> large number <strong>of</strong> secretive, burrow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
species found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> forests <strong>of</strong> Cameroon and variance <strong>in</strong><br />
wea<strong>the</strong>r conditions dur<strong>in</strong>g field work. For a<br />
comprehensive list, extensive field work dur<strong>in</strong>g different<br />
seasons and vary<strong>in</strong>g climatic conditions is necessary.<br />
In Cameroon, many traditional beliefs are associated<br />
with reptile species, and <strong>the</strong>se beliefs are <strong>of</strong>ten extremely<br />
localized. Some beliefs preclude <strong>the</strong> kill<strong>in</strong>g or eat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
certa<strong>in</strong> species. Management <strong>of</strong> reserves should <strong>the</strong>refore<br />
be sensitive to such beliefs, embrac<strong>in</strong>g those that enhance<br />
<strong>the</strong> conservation <strong>of</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> species. Given that reptiles are<br />
87<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
88 LeBreton et al.<br />
an important part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest fauna for <strong>the</strong> people <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>—as food, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> preparation <strong>of</strong> medic<strong>in</strong>es,<br />
and for traditional rituals—more research related to <strong>the</strong><br />
relationships between local villagers and reptiles could<br />
prove to be an important resource for future management<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest.<br />
Acknowledgments<br />
We appreciate <strong>the</strong> assistance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> GTZ, <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Forest Survey Project, and Wildlife Conservation Society<br />
(which funded this research), especially <strong>the</strong> work <strong>of</strong><br />
Jacqui Sunderland-Groves, Terry Sunderland, Mar<strong>in</strong>a<br />
Mdaihli, Eric Tah, and David Hoyle. Fieldwork was<br />
carried out by <strong>the</strong> co-author, Désiré Foguekem, Masters<br />
student at <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Yaoundé I, Paul Maklowodé,<br />
field herpetologist with 15 years experience <strong>in</strong> Central<br />
Africa, Cyriaque Ebodé, field herpetologist with 2 years<br />
experience <strong>in</strong> Cameroon, and field assistants from <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> area. The M<strong>in</strong>istry for <strong>the</strong> Environment and<br />
Forests, through Dr. Denis Koulagna, helpfully provided<br />
CAMHERP with permits to undertake <strong>the</strong> research.<br />
Thanks also to Jim Comiskey <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian<br />
Institution’s Monitor<strong>in</strong>g and Assessment <strong>of</strong> Biodiversity<br />
Program, who provided advice on <strong>the</strong> manuscript. The<br />
Cameroon Ornithological Club and its director,<br />
Guillaume Dzikouk, generously accommodate <strong>the</strong><br />
CAMHERP <strong>of</strong>fice <strong>in</strong> Yaoundé. We thank Dr. Ivan Ineich<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle for help<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to guide CAMHERP and its work. Thanks to Dan<br />
Slayback for prepar<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> map.<br />
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Herpetozoa 11(3/4): 99-107.<br />
Luiselli, L., E. Politano, and G.C. Akani. 2000.<br />
Crocodile distribution <strong>in</strong> S.E. Nigeria, Part II.<br />
Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter 19(1): 3-<br />
7.<br />
Meirte, D. 1992. Cles de deter<strong>in</strong>ation des serpents<br />
d‘Afrique. Kon<strong>in</strong>klijk museum voor midden-<br />
Afrika Tervuren, België. Annalen Zoologische<br />
Wetenschappen 267: 1-161.<br />
Mertens, R. 1938. Herpetologische Ergebnisse e<strong>in</strong>er<br />
Reise nach Kamerun. Abhandulungen der<br />
Senkenbergischen Naturforschenden<br />
Gesellschaft 442: 1-52.<br />
Mertens, R. 1940. Zur herpetology Kameruns und<br />
Deutsch Ostafrikas. Zoologischer Anzeiger 131:<br />
239-250.<br />
Mertens, R. 1968. Zur Kenntnis der Herpet<strong>of</strong>auna<br />
von Cameroon und Fernando Poo. Bonner<br />
Zoologische Beiträge 19(2): 69-84.<br />
Monard, A. 1951. Reptiles. (Résultants de la Mission<br />
Zoologique Suisse au Cameroun). Mémoires de<br />
l’Institut d’Afrique Noire, centre du Cameroun.<br />
Série: Sciences naturelles 1: 123-170.<br />
Müller, L. 1910. Bëitrage zur Herpetologie<br />
Kameruns. Abhandlungen der K. Bayer,<br />
Akadamie der Wissenschaften, II Kl. 24(3): 545-<br />
626.<br />
Neiden, F. 1910a. Neue reptilien und amphibien aus<br />
Kamerun. Arkiv für Naturgeschichte 76(1): 234-<br />
246.<br />
Neiden, F. 1910b. Die Reptilien (außer den<br />
Schlangen) und Amphibien. Die Fauna der<br />
deutschen Kolonien. (Herausgegben mit<br />
Unterstützung des Reichs-Kolonialamtes vom<br />
Zoologischen Museum <strong>in</strong> Berl<strong>in</strong>.) Reihe I:<br />
Kamerun 2: 1-74.<br />
Ota, H., T. Hikida, and J. Barcelo. 1987. On a small<br />
collection <strong>of</strong> lizards and snakes from Cameroon,<br />
West Africa. African Study Monographs 8(2):<br />
111-123.<br />
89<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
90 LeBreton et al.<br />
Perret, J.-L. 1963. Les Gekkonidae du Cameroun,<br />
avec la description de deux sous-espèces<br />
nouvelles. Revue suisse de zoologie 70(3): 47-<br />
60.<br />
Perret, J.-L. 1973. Contribution à l’étude de Panaspis<br />
(Reptilia, Sc<strong>in</strong>cidae) d’Afrique occidentale avec<br />
le description de deux espèces dist<strong>in</strong>ctes.<br />
Annales de la Faculté des Sciences (Yaoundé,<br />
Cameroun) 15-16 :81-90<br />
Perret, J.-L. 1986. Révision des espèces africa<strong>in</strong>s du<br />
genre Cnemaspis Strauch, sous-genre<br />
Ancyclodactylus Müller (Lacertilia,<br />
Gekkonidae), avec la description de quarte<br />
espèces nouvelles. Revue suisse de zoologie<br />
93(2): 457-505.<br />
Perret, J.-L., and R. Mertens. 1957. Étude d’une<br />
collection herpétologique faite au Cameroun de<br />
1952 à 1955. Bullet<strong>in</strong> de l’Institut français<br />
d’Afrique noire A 19(2): 548-601.<br />
Sternfeld, R. 1908. Die schlangenfauna von<br />
Kamerun. Mitteilungen aus dem Zoologischen<br />
Museum <strong>in</strong> Berl<strong>in</strong> 3(4): 397-432.<br />
Sternfeld, R. 1909. Die Schlangen Kameruns. Die<br />
Fauna der deutschen Kolonien. (Herausgegben<br />
mit Unterstützung des Reichs-Kolonialamtes vom<br />
Zoologischen Museum <strong>in</strong> Berl<strong>in</strong>.) Reihe I:<br />
Kamerun 1: 1-28.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Stucki-Stirn, M.C. 1979. Snake Report 721. A<br />
Comparative Study <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Herpetological Fauna<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Former West Comeroon/Africa.<br />
Switzerland: Herpeto-verlag.<br />
van den Audenaerde, D.T. 1967 Les Gekkonidae de<br />
l’Afrique centrale. Revue de Zoologie et de<br />
Botanique africa<strong>in</strong>es 76(1-2): 163-177.<br />
Vonesh, J. 2001. Natural history and biogeography <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> amphibians and reptiles <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kibale<br />
National Park, Uganda. Contemporary<br />
Herpetology 4.<br />
Wild, C. 1993. Notes on <strong>the</strong> rediscovery and <strong>the</strong><br />
congeneric associations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pfeffer’s<br />
Chameleon Chamaeleo pfefferi (Tornier 1900)<br />
(Sauria: Chamaeleonidae) with a brief<br />
description <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> hi<strong>the</strong>rto unknown female <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> species. British Herpetological Society<br />
Bullet<strong>in</strong> 45: 25-32.
Reptile Surveys<br />
Appendix 1. Reptiles from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.(a: Klaver and Böhme 1992; b: Stucki-Stern 1979; o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
records come from <strong>the</strong> present work)<br />
Testud<strong>in</strong>idae (terrestrial tortoises)<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
K<strong>in</strong>ixys erosa (Schweigger 1812) <br />
K<strong>in</strong>ixys homeana ( Bell 1827)<br />
Trionychidae (s<strong>of</strong>t-shelled tortoises)<br />
Trionyx triunguis (Forsk!l 1775)<br />
Crocodilidae (crocodiles)<br />
Osteolaemus tetraspis tetraspis (Cope 1861)<br />
Gekkonidae (geckoes)<br />
Cnemaspis koehleri (Mertens 1937) <br />
Cnemaspis sp<strong>in</strong>icollis (Müller 1907) <br />
Hemidactylus brookii angulatus (Hallowell 1852) <br />
Hemidactylus ech<strong>in</strong>us (O©Shaughnessy 1875)<br />
Hemidactylus fasciatus fasciatus (Gray 1842) <br />
Hemidactylus <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>alis (Werner 1897) <br />
Hemidactylus mabouia mabouia (Moreau de<br />
Jonnès 1818)<br />
Hemidactylus sp.<br />
<br />
Obonyi 1<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Obonyi 3<br />
Kekpane<br />
Basho 2<br />
Mamfe/Bidjan<br />
Maten!<br />
<br />
<br />
Lygodactylus conraui (Tornier 1902) <br />
Agamidae (dragon lizards)<br />
Agama agama (L<strong>in</strong>naeus 1758) <br />
Agama cf. agama <br />
Agama sylvanus (Macdonald 1981) <br />
Chamaeleonidae (chameleons)<br />
Chamaeleo cristatus (Stutchbury 1837) (a) <br />
Chamaeleo montium (Buchholz 1874) (a) <br />
Chamaeleo pfefferi (Tornier 1900)<br />
Chamaeleo wiedersheimi wiedersheimi (Nieden<br />
1910)<br />
Rhampholeon spectrum spectrum (Buchholz<br />
1874)<br />
Lacertidae (lacertid lizards)<br />
Holaspis guen<strong>the</strong>ri (Gray 1863)<br />
Lowland forest sites<br />
Mend!<br />
<br />
<br />
Atolo<br />
91<br />
T<strong>in</strong>ta<br />
<br />
<br />
Highland<br />
sites<br />
Savanna/<br />
forest<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
92 LeBreton et al.<br />
Appendix 1 (cont.). Reptiles from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Sc<strong>in</strong>cidae (sk<strong>in</strong>ks)<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Mabuya aff<strong>in</strong>is (Gray 1838) <br />
Mabuya cf aff<strong>in</strong>is <br />
Mabuya albilabris (Hallowell 1857) <br />
Mabuya maculilabris maculilabris (Gray 1845) <br />
Mabuya polytropis (Boulenger 1903) <br />
Mochlus fernandi (Burton 1836) <br />
Panaspis breviceps (Peters 1873) <br />
Panaspis kitsoni (Boulenger 1913) <br />
Panaspis rohdei (Muller 1910)<br />
Varanidae (monitor lizards)<br />
Varanus ornatus (Daud<strong>in</strong> 1803) <br />
Typhlopidae (bl<strong>in</strong>d or worm snakes)<br />
Typhlops angolensis (Bocage 1866)<br />
Typhlops congestus (Duméril and Bibron 1844)<br />
Typhlops ste<strong>in</strong>hausi (Werner 1909) <br />
Pythonidae (pythons)<br />
Calabaria re<strong>in</strong>hardti (Schlegel 1848)<br />
Python regius (Shaw 1802)<br />
Python sebae (Gmel<strong>in</strong> 1788) (b) <br />
Colubridae (colubrid snakes)<br />
Afronatrix anoscopus (Cope 1861) (b) <br />
Bothrolycus ater (Gün<strong>the</strong>r 1874)<br />
Buhoma depressiceps depressiceps (Werner<br />
1897)<br />
Dasypeltis fasciata (Smith 1849) <br />
Dasypeltis scabra (L<strong>in</strong>naeus 1758) <br />
Dipsadoboa underwoodi (Rasmussen 1993)<br />
Dipsadoboa unicolor unicolor (Gün<strong>the</strong>r 1858) <br />
Dipsadoboa viridis (Peters 1869)<br />
Gonionotophis brussauxi brussauxi (Mocquard<br />
1889)<br />
Grayia smythii (Leach 1818)<br />
Obonyi 1<br />
<br />
<br />
Lowland forest sites<br />
Obonyi 3<br />
<br />
Kekpane<br />
Basho 2<br />
Mamfe/Bidjan<br />
<br />
(b)<br />
<br />
(b)<br />
Maten!<br />
Highland<br />
sites<br />
Hapsidophrys l<strong>in</strong>eatus (Fischer 1856) <br />
Hapsidophrys smaragd<strong>in</strong>a (Schlegel 1837) (b) <br />
Mend!<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Savanna/<br />
forest<br />
Atolo<br />
T<strong>in</strong>ta<br />
<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Reptile Surveys<br />
Appendix 1 (cont.). Reptiles from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Lamprophis olivaceus (Duméril 1856) <br />
Lamprophis virgatus (Hallowell 1854)<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Mehelya capensis savorgnani (Mocquard 1887) <br />
Mehelya guirali (Mocquard 1887) (b) <br />
Mehelya poensis (Smith 1847) <br />
Mehelya stenophthalmus (Mocquard 1887) (b) <br />
Meizodon coronatus (Schlegel 1837)<br />
Natriciteres fulig<strong>in</strong>oides (Gün<strong>the</strong>r 1858) (b)<br />
Natriciteres olivacea (Peters 1854)<br />
Philothamnus car<strong>in</strong>atus (Andersson 1901)<br />
Philothamnus heterodermus (Hallowell 1857) (b)<br />
Philothamnus heterolepidotus (Gün<strong>the</strong>r 1863)<br />
Philothamnus nitidus (Gün<strong>the</strong>r 1863)<br />
Psammophis phillipsii (Hallowell 1844) <br />
Thelotornis kirtlandi (Hallowell 1844)<br />
Thrasops aethiopissa (Gün<strong>the</strong>r, 1862)<br />
Thrasops flavigularis (Hallowell 1852)<br />
<br />
Thrasops occidentalis (Parker 1940) (b)<br />
Toxicodryas bland<strong>in</strong>gii (Hallowell 1844) <br />
Toxicodryas pulverulenta (Fischer 1856) (b) <br />
Elapidae (front-fanged snakes)<br />
Dendroaspis jamesoni jamesoni (Traill 1843) <br />
Naja melanoleuca melanoleuca Hallowell 1857 <br />
Pseudohaje goldii (Boulenger 1895) (b) <br />
Viperidae (vipers)<br />
A<strong>the</strong>ris squamigera (Hallowell 1854) (b) <br />
Bitis arietans (Merrem 1820)<br />
Bitis gabonica (Duméril and Bibron 1845) (b) <br />
Bitis nasicornis (Shaw 1802) (b) <br />
Causus lichtenste<strong>in</strong>ii (Jan 1859)<br />
Lowland forest sites<br />
Obonyi 1<br />
<br />
<br />
Obonyi 3<br />
<br />
Kekpane<br />
Basho 2<br />
Mamfe/Bidjan<br />
<br />
(b)<br />
(b)<br />
(b)<br />
(b)<br />
Maten!<br />
Highland<br />
sites<br />
Causus maculatus (Hallowell 1842) <br />
Mend!<br />
Atolo<br />
93<br />
Savanna/<br />
forest<br />
T<strong>in</strong>ta<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003<br />
<br />
<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
94 LeBreton et al.<br />
Appendix 1 (cont.). Reptiles from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Atractaspididae (burrow<strong>in</strong>g asps)<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Obonyi 1<br />
Obonyi 3<br />
Aparallactus modestus (Gün<strong>the</strong>r 1859) <br />
Atractaspis irregularis irregularis (Re<strong>in</strong>hardt<br />
1843)<br />
Lowland forest sites<br />
Kekpane<br />
Basho 2<br />
Mamfe/Bidjan<br />
Maten!<br />
Highland<br />
sites<br />
Mend!<br />
Savanna/<br />
forest<br />
Atolo<br />
T<strong>in</strong>ta<br />
<br />
Polemon collaris collaris (Peters 1881) <br />
Polemon gabonensis gabonensis (Duméril 1856)<br />
(b)
1 Introduction<br />
Birds <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Marc Languy and Francis Njie Motombe<br />
Cameroon, stretch<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> Atlantic Ocean to Lake<br />
Chad, boasts a varied topography and many habitats. As<br />
a result, <strong>the</strong> avifauna is particularly rich; 928 species have<br />
been recorded to date (Languy et al. <strong>in</strong> press). The<br />
Cameroon government and <strong>in</strong>ternational organizations<br />
realize <strong>the</strong> need to document and protect <strong>the</strong> country’s<br />
biological diversity, and a number <strong>of</strong> field surveys were<br />
conducted from 1999 to 2001 to identify sites <strong>of</strong> high<br />
biological—particularly ornithological—value <strong>in</strong><br />
Cameroon through <strong>the</strong> Important Bird Area process,<br />
coord<strong>in</strong>ated by BirdLife International and implemented<br />
by <strong>the</strong> Cameroon Ornithological Club (COC).<br />
Still, <strong>the</strong> avifauna <strong>of</strong> Cameroon is poorly known<br />
when compared to countries <strong>in</strong> eastern and sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Africa as well as some West African countries. Dur<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
national workshop organized by BirdLife International<br />
and <strong>the</strong> COC <strong>in</strong> September 1998, Cameroon’s<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> region and <strong>the</strong> area west and north <strong>of</strong> Mamfe<br />
were identified as areas <strong>in</strong> need <strong>of</strong> field surveys (COC<br />
1998).<br />
Prior to this study, only a brief survey undertaken by<br />
World Wildlife Fund <strong>in</strong> 1988 (Thomas et al. 1989) had<br />
been completed <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> vic<strong>in</strong>ity, record<strong>in</strong>g fewer<br />
than 50 species. However, even that short list <strong>in</strong>dicated<br />
<strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> three sub-montane species—Blackcapped<br />
Woodland Warbler Phylloscopus herberti,<br />
Bocage’s Akalat Sheppardia bocagei, and Crossley’s<br />
Ground-thrush Zoo<strong>the</strong>ra crossleyi. This sub-montane<br />
component, toge<strong>the</strong>r with vast areas <strong>of</strong> lowland forest,<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t to potentially high bird diversity at <strong>Takamanda</strong> and,<br />
possibly, rare or even threatened species. In recognition<br />
<strong>of</strong> that potential, COC and BirdLife International<br />
proposed <strong>in</strong> 1998 that <strong>Takamanda</strong> be considered as an<br />
Important Bird Area; that is, a site <strong>of</strong> special conservation<br />
value for birds. IBAs are selected us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>ternationally<br />
recognized objective, scientific criteria.<br />
A portion <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> is adjacent to Obudu<br />
Plateau <strong>in</strong> Nigeria and thus is part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cameroon-<br />
Nigeria Mounta<strong>in</strong> range that stretches from Bioko to<br />
Tchabal Mababo and Tchabal Ngandaba and <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
Mt. Cameroon, Rumpi Hills, Mt. Nlonako, Bakossi<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong>s, Mt. Kupé, Mt. Manenguba, and Bamenda<br />
Highlands. This mounta<strong>in</strong> range is well known for its<br />
high degree <strong>of</strong> endemism <strong>in</strong> many taxa. For example, 24<br />
species <strong>of</strong> birds are restricted to this mounta<strong>in</strong> range.<br />
While birds on <strong>the</strong> ridge are relatively well known,<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> is an outlier that deserves attention.<br />
2 Methods<br />
Chapter 7<br />
The discovery <strong>of</strong> three sub-montane bird species by<br />
WWF <strong>in</strong> 1988 prompted us to focus on sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
highest altitudes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Reserve and check<br />
whe<strong>the</strong>r afro-montane species occur. At <strong>the</strong> same time,<br />
we recognized that most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve is covered by<br />
lowland forest (see Sunderland et al. this volume), and a<br />
special effort was made to cover this biome to <strong>the</strong> extent<br />
possible.<br />
Our primary method <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigation was to walk<br />
slowly <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest and to rema<strong>in</strong> sitt<strong>in</strong>g quietly at<br />
regular <strong>in</strong>tervals to record as many birds as possible,<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g b<strong>in</strong>oculars. Fourteen sites were sampled <strong>in</strong> this<br />
manner (Table 1 and Figure 1), and many species were<br />
identified by <strong>the</strong>ir calls or songs. We <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>the</strong> use<br />
<strong>of</strong> field guides, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g plates from Borrow and Demey<br />
(2002), and color copies <strong>of</strong> selected plates from Birds <strong>of</strong><br />
Africa. See Appendix 1 for a list <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> species we<br />
recorded.<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003, Pages 95 to 110
96 Languy and Motombe<br />
f<br />
5 q—2˜—<br />
w22@IE2—A<br />
y2@w—˜A<br />
H S IH<br />
u<br />
5 5<br />
Figure 1. Bird sampl<strong>in</strong>g sites <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Camerooon<br />
In addition to general observations, we used mist<br />
nets at eight sites (Figure 1 and Table 2) to maximize <strong>the</strong><br />
chances <strong>of</strong> record<strong>in</strong>g shy forest species.<br />
The bird survey lasted for a total <strong>of</strong> 36 field days<br />
(exclud<strong>in</strong>g transport) and was undertaken dur<strong>in</strong>g three<br />
time <strong>in</strong>tervals: 8-29 January 2001, 10-18 March 2001,<br />
and 10-22 December 2001. An experienced bird observer<br />
(Njie) was <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field dur<strong>in</strong>g all three <strong>in</strong>tervals and was<br />
responsible for data collection. Assistants from nearby<br />
villages acted as guides and also helped <strong>in</strong> erect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
mist nets.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
5<br />
w—<br />
w—<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
w——<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
3 Results<br />
3.1 Species richness<br />
A total <strong>of</strong> 309 species <strong>of</strong> birds were recorded dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
surveys, not <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g four species recorded by World<br />
Wildlife Fund <strong>in</strong> 1988 through <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> mist nets.<br />
Includ<strong>in</strong>g those species br<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>the</strong> total to 313 species<br />
known to occur <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>—an impressive number<br />
when compared to protected areas such as Campo<br />
National Park, Dja Faunal Reserve, or Lobeke National<br />
Park, which have been more extensively surveyed. We<br />
estimate that fur<strong>the</strong>r surveys at different times <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> year<br />
and <strong>in</strong> different sectors (particularly at <strong>the</strong> highest<br />
altitudes) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve should <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>the</strong> total number<br />
<strong>of</strong> species.
Assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bird Fauna<br />
Table 1. Location <strong>of</strong> observations <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest<br />
Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
Site Name Coord<strong>in</strong>ates<br />
Kekpani 06Ê05’841”N: 09Ê23’929”E<br />
Mbu 06Ê00’786”N: 09Ê27’389”E<br />
Assam 06Ê00’501”N: 09Ê27’559”E<br />
Mfakwe 06Ê03’695”N: 09Ê25’520”E<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> 06Ê01’146”N: 09Ê16’267”E<br />
Takwo 06Ê08’157”N: 09Ê.36.253”E<br />
Obonyi I 06Ê07’938”N: 09Ê15’465”E<br />
Obonyi III 06Ê07’784”N: 09Ê17’233”E<br />
Matene 06Ê16’150”N: 09Ê21’404”E<br />
Mende 06Ê19’385”N: 09Ê22’779”E<br />
Mbilishi 06Ê11’693”N: 09Ê27’401”E<br />
Basho I 06Ê08’366”N: 09Ê27’091”E<br />
Akwa 06Ê03’442”N: 09Ê28’500”E<br />
Nyang 05Ê57’115”N: 09Ê25’364”E<br />
This high diversity is almost certa<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>the</strong> result <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> variety <strong>of</strong> ecosystems found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve: lowland<br />
Gu<strong>in</strong>eo-Congolian forest (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g forested rivers),<br />
montane forests, and high-altitude grasslands. Of special<br />
significance is <strong>the</strong> transition forest between montane and<br />
lowland forests, a forest type that suffers from<br />
encroachment <strong>in</strong> Cameroon and Africa <strong>in</strong> general, but<br />
that holds a large variety <strong>of</strong> birds.<br />
Table 2. Location <strong>of</strong> mist nets <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve,<br />
Cameroon.<br />
Site Name Coord<strong>in</strong>ates<br />
Obonyi I forest 06Ê07’488”N; 09Ê12’888”E<br />
near Magbe<br />
River<br />
Mende Hills 06Ê19’400”N; 09Ê23’474”E<br />
Kekpani forest 06Ê05’841”N; 09Ê23’929”E<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
forest<br />
06Ê03’160”N; 09Ê16’794”E<br />
Mblishi forest 06Ê11’693”N: 09Ê27’401”E<br />
Obonyi III forest 06°07’784”N; 09°17’233”E<br />
Mbu 06Ê00’786”N: 09Ê27’389”E<br />
Nyang 05Ê57’115”N: 09Ê25’364”E<br />
3.2 Threatened species<br />
As shown <strong>in</strong> Table 3, n<strong>in</strong>e threatened species have been<br />
recorded so far <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>. Of <strong>the</strong>se, one—<strong>the</strong> Whitethroated<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong> Babbler Kupeornis gilberti—is<br />
considered “endangered.” Two—Grey-necked<br />
Picathartes Picathartes oreas and Bannerman’s Weaver<br />
Ploceus bannermani—are “vulnerable,” while six<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs—Hartlaub’s Duck Pteronetta hartlaubii, Yellowcasqued<br />
Wattled Hornbill Ceratogymna elata, Cameroon<br />
Montane Greenbul Andropadus montanus, Crossley’s<br />
Ground-thrush Zoo<strong>the</strong>ra crossleyi, Bangwa Forest<br />
Warbler Bradypterus bangwaensis, and White-tailed<br />
Warbler Poliolais lopezi—are “near threatened”<br />
(BirdLife International 2000).<br />
The occurrence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se species confirms <strong>the</strong> global<br />
significance <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve for imperiled<br />
bird species.<br />
3.3 Restricted-range/endemic species<br />
A key outcome <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> survey was <strong>the</strong> discovery <strong>of</strong> 16<br />
species with restricted ranges (Table 4). Restricted-range<br />
species have a total world range <strong>of</strong> less than 50,000 km²<br />
and thus are very limited <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir distribution. The species<br />
are grouped by Endemic Bird Areas (EBA), areas which<br />
encompass <strong>the</strong> overlapp<strong>in</strong>g breed<strong>in</strong>g ranges <strong>of</strong> restrcitedrange<br />
bird species, such that <strong>the</strong> complete ranges <strong>of</strong> at<br />
least two restricted-range species are entirely <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> boundary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> EBA (Stattersfield et al.<br />
1998). Thirteen <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 16 restricted-range species found<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> are conf<strong>in</strong>ed to <strong>the</strong> Cameroon-Nigeria<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong> cha<strong>in</strong>, and three are restricted to <strong>the</strong> Cameroon-<br />
Gabon lowlands.<br />
Such a vast array <strong>of</strong> restricted-range species shows<br />
<strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve as a<br />
sanctuary for species that are endemic to <strong>the</strong> Cameroon<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003<br />
97
98 Languy and Motombe<br />
Table 3. Threatened bird species <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest<br />
Reserve, Cameroon. EN: endangered; VU: vulnerable; NT:<br />
near-threatened.<br />
IUCN English name Scientific name<br />
EN White-throated<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong> Babbler<br />
Kupeornis gilberti<br />
VU Grey-necked<br />
Picathartes<br />
Picathartes oreas<br />
VU Bannerman©s Weaver Ploceus<br />
bannermani<br />
NT Hartlaub©s Duck<br />
Pteronetta<br />
hartlaubii<br />
NT Yellow-casqued<br />
Wattled Hornbill<br />
Ceratogymna elata<br />
NT<br />
Cameroon Montane<br />
Greenbul<br />
Andropadus<br />
montanus<br />
NT<br />
Crossley©s Groundthrush<br />
Zoo<strong>the</strong>ra crossleyi<br />
NT<br />
Bangwa Forest<br />
Warbler<br />
Bradypterus<br />
bangwaensis<br />
NT White-tailed Warbler Poliolais lopezi<br />
3.4 Biome-restricted species: Afromontane<br />
biome<br />
The survey also discovered a significant component <strong>of</strong><br />
afro-montane avifauna. Altoge<strong>the</strong>r, 28 afro-montane<br />
species were recorded (Appendix 1), more than<br />
previously believed existed <strong>in</strong> this area. For many<br />
species, <strong>the</strong>ir occurrence at <strong>Takamanda</strong> significantly<br />
extends <strong>the</strong>ir known range <strong>in</strong> Cameroon; for some,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Kupeornis gilberti and Poliolais lopezi, <strong>the</strong><br />
closest known records <strong>in</strong> Cameroon are more than 100<br />
km distant. Most montane species at <strong>Takamanda</strong> are<br />
known from <strong>the</strong> nearby Obudu Plateau <strong>in</strong> Nigeria<br />
(Fishpool and Evans 2001) however, so <strong>the</strong>ir presence is<br />
not totally unexpected.<br />
3.5 Biome-restricted species: lowland<br />
(Gu<strong>in</strong>eo-Congolian) forest biome<br />
The occurrence <strong>of</strong> 139 species restricted to <strong>the</strong> Gu<strong>in</strong>eo-<br />
Congolian forest (Appendix 1), although expected, is<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
particularly <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g and confirms that <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Forest Reserve holds a vast component <strong>of</strong> lowland forest<br />
avifauna. Protection <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve would preserve a<br />
representative sample <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowland forest avifauna.<br />
It should be noted that two species—Sun Lark<br />
Galerida modesta and <strong>the</strong> Bush Petronia Petronia<br />
dentate—which are more typical <strong>of</strong> Gu<strong>in</strong>ean savannas<br />
were recorded <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> grasslands.<br />
3.6 O<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g records<br />
The survey recorded two species that are new to<br />
Cameroon—Ussher’s Flycatcher Muscicapa ussheri,<br />
observed twice (once <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> its close relative<br />
Sooty Flycatcher Muscicapa <strong>in</strong>fuscate) and Grey-headed<br />
Bristlebill Bleda canicapilla, which was captured <strong>in</strong> mist<br />
nets on two occasions. The discovery <strong>of</strong> Ussher’s<br />
Flycatcher was not totally unexpected, given that <strong>the</strong>re<br />
are records <strong>of</strong> this bird about 50 km from <strong>Takamanda</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
eastern Nigeria (Elgood 1994). Grey-headed Bristlebill<br />
reaches its eastern limit at <strong>the</strong> Cameroon-Nigeria border.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r species <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong>clude Tufted Duck Aythya<br />
fuligula (Bobo et al. 2000), recorded on <strong>the</strong> Magbe River<br />
with o<strong>the</strong>r aquatic species, and Capuch<strong>in</strong> Babbler<br />
Phyllanthus atripennis, recorded at Obonyi 1 and<br />
Kepani.<br />
On four occasions, we recorded Kemp’s Longbill<br />
Macrosphenus kempi, a West African species that is<br />
sympatric with Yellow Longbill Macrosphenus flavicans<br />
as <strong>the</strong> two species meet along <strong>the</strong> Cameroon-Nigeria<br />
border. The only o<strong>the</strong>r site for Kemp’s Longbill <strong>in</strong><br />
Cameroon is Korup National Park (Rodewald and<br />
Bowden 1995).<br />
An <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g record from a biogeographical<br />
perspective is <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> both Red-cheeked Wattleeye<br />
Dyaphorophyia blisseti and Black-necked Wattleeye<br />
Dyaphorophyia chalybea. These two closely related<br />
species replace each o<strong>the</strong>r: Red-cheeked Wattle-eye is a<br />
West African species reach<strong>in</strong>g its eastern limit <strong>in</strong><br />
Cameroon, with records around Mt. Cameroon and<br />
Kumba (Louette 1981). The two species were not
Assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bird Fauna<br />
Table 4. Restricted range (total world range less than 50.000<br />
km²) bird species <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
GCL: species conf<strong>in</strong>ed to <strong>the</strong> Gabon-Cameroon Lowland<br />
Forest Endemic Bird Area; CNM: species conf<strong>in</strong>ed to <strong>the</strong><br />
Cameroon-Nigeria Mounta<strong>in</strong>.<br />
EBA English name Scientific name<br />
GCL Forest Swallow Hirundo fulig<strong>in</strong>osa<br />
GCL Grey-necked<br />
Picathartes<br />
GCL Rachel©s Malimbe<br />
CNM<br />
Cameroon Montane<br />
Greenbul<br />
CNM Grey-throated<br />
Greenbul<br />
CNM<br />
Cameroon Olive<br />
Greenbul<br />
CNM<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong> Rob<strong>in</strong>-<br />
Chat<br />
CNM<br />
Bangwa Forest<br />
Warbler<br />
CNM Brown-backed<br />
Cisticola<br />
Picathartes oreas<br />
Malimbus<br />
racheliae<br />
Andropadus<br />
montanus<br />
Andropadus<br />
tephrolaemus<br />
Phyllastrephus<br />
poensis<br />
Cossypha isabellae<br />
Bradypterus<br />
bangwaensis<br />
Cisticola discolor<br />
CNM Green Longtail Urolais epichlora<br />
CNM White-tailed Warbler Poliolais lopezi<br />
CNM Black-capped<br />
Woodland Warbler<br />
Phylloscopus<br />
herberti<br />
CNM White-throated<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong> Babbler<br />
Kupeornis gilberti<br />
CNM<br />
Cameroon Blueheaded<br />
Sunbird<br />
Cyanomitra oritis<br />
CNM Yellow-breasted<br />
Boubou<br />
Laniarius<br />
atr<strong>of</strong>lavus<br />
CNM Bannerman©s Weaver Ploceus<br />
bannermani<br />
recorded toge<strong>the</strong>r at <strong>the</strong> same spot (<strong>the</strong>y were about 3 km<br />
apart), but <strong>the</strong>ir ranges obviously meet <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>,<br />
with possibly an overlap and an ecological separation as<br />
shown by Eisentraut (1973) to occur around Mt.<br />
Cameroon and Kumba.<br />
The current surveys also extended to <strong>the</strong> north <strong>the</strong><br />
range <strong>in</strong> Cameroon <strong>of</strong> more than 20 lowland forest<br />
species.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, we recorded two adult males <strong>of</strong> an<br />
unidentified Malimbe Malimbus species at Obonyi I for<br />
more than 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes on a dead tree <strong>in</strong> farm bush. The<br />
description <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> birds fits <strong>the</strong> highly threatened and<br />
local Ibadan Malimbe Malimbus ibadanensis, which is<br />
so far known only from western Nigeria. The birds were<br />
vocal, and <strong>the</strong> song and calls did not fit any o<strong>the</strong>r species<br />
<strong>of</strong> Malimbe. Unfortunately, <strong>the</strong>re are no record<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> M.<br />
ibadanensis for comparison. Because Ibadan Malimbe is<br />
very rare and local, we need confirmation <strong>of</strong> our<br />
observation. We also note several unconfirmed records <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> closely related Cass<strong>in</strong>’s Malimbe Malimbus cass<strong>in</strong>i<br />
west <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sanaga, where this species is not found<br />
(Louette 1981, Keen 1993, Williams 1993). We do not<br />
rule out <strong>the</strong> possibility that <strong>the</strong>se records may refer to <strong>the</strong><br />
unknown species <strong>of</strong> Malimbe that we recorded or to<br />
Ibadan Malimbe.<br />
4 Conclusions<br />
4.1 <strong>Takamanda</strong> is an Important Bird Area<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve clearly qualifies as an<br />
Important Bird Area, based on <strong>the</strong> three follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
criteria: presence <strong>of</strong> endangered species, presence <strong>of</strong><br />
restricted-range species, and occurrence <strong>of</strong> a vast array <strong>of</strong><br />
biome-restricted species.<br />
4.2 Regional significance <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Forest Reserve<br />
The montane and sub-montane avifauna <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> is<br />
more important than previously thought. The highest<br />
sector <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve must be considered,<br />
from a biological po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view, as an extension <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Obudu plateau. The occurrence <strong>of</strong> a large montane<br />
avifauna, with several endangered and endemic species,<br />
def<strong>in</strong>itely deserves special attention from a conservation<br />
perspective. As noted, <strong>of</strong> special significance is <strong>the</strong> midaltitude<br />
transition forest, which suffers from<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003<br />
99
100 Languy and Motombe<br />
encroachment <strong>in</strong> Cameroon and Africa <strong>in</strong> general but<br />
holds a large variety <strong>of</strong> birds.<br />
This study also confirmed that <strong>Takamanda</strong> holds a<br />
large array <strong>of</strong> lowland forest species. This is an important<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g that fur<strong>the</strong>r emphasizes <strong>the</strong> conservation value <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> area because <strong>of</strong> its location at <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn limit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
lowland forest block. For many species, <strong>Takamanda</strong> is<br />
<strong>the</strong> largest forest block at <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn limit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
distribution.<br />
The Reserve also corresponds to <strong>the</strong> limit <strong>of</strong> several<br />
West African species, some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m be<strong>in</strong>g immediately<br />
replaced by <strong>the</strong>ir Central or East African equivalents. In<br />
addition to <strong>the</strong> conservation value <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve’s<br />
position at <strong>the</strong> border between West and Central African<br />
avifauna, <strong>Takamanda</strong> represents an opportunity for field<br />
research <strong>in</strong> biogeography.<br />
5 Recommendations<br />
Follow<strong>in</strong>g our prelim<strong>in</strong>ary surveys, we recommend <strong>the</strong><br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
1. The highest elevations <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve<br />
should be fully protected, toge<strong>the</strong>r with a significant<br />
proportion <strong>of</strong> transition forest.<br />
2. Because montane avifauna <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> and<br />
Obudu plateau form one biological unit, a transboundary<br />
conservation measure should be<br />
implemented for long-term protection.<br />
3. The lowland sector <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reserve is particularly<br />
important because it represents true Gu<strong>in</strong>eo-<br />
Congolian forest. This sector, at <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn edge <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> large Central African forest block, deserves<br />
conservation attention.<br />
4. There are approximately10 montane species and 10<br />
to 20 lowland forest species that are likely to be<br />
found <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> but that have not yet been<br />
recorded. More surveys should be conducted, <strong>of</strong> at<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
least 10 days duration <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> montane sector and two<br />
to three weeks duration <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowland sector.<br />
Optimal tim<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>the</strong> surveys is December at <strong>the</strong><br />
beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> breed<strong>in</strong>g season. Both tape<br />
record<strong>in</strong>gs (playback) and mist nett<strong>in</strong>g should be<br />
employed.<br />
Acknowledgments<br />
The authors thank <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian Institution<br />
Monitor<strong>in</strong>g and Assessment <strong>of</strong> Biodiversity Program<br />
(SI/MAB), BirdLife International, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest<br />
Surveys Project, and GTZ for <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>terest and support <strong>in</strong><br />
this study. Thanks to Dan Slayback for prepar<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
map.<br />
References<br />
BirdLife International. 2000. Threatened Birds <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
World. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx<br />
Edicions and BirdLife International.<br />
Borrow N., and R. Demey. 2001. A Guide to <strong>the</strong><br />
Birds <strong>of</strong> Western Africa. London: Christopher<br />
Helm.<br />
Bobo, K.,S., D. A. Ndeh, K. Y. Djabo, and L.<br />
Nayuoh. 2000. First records <strong>of</strong> Tufted Duck<br />
Aythya fuligula <strong>in</strong> Cameroon. Malimbus 22: 91-<br />
92.<br />
Cameroon Ornithological Club. 1998. Report on <strong>the</strong><br />
IBA workshop held <strong>in</strong> Yaoundé, September<br />
1998. Cameroon Ornithological Club (unpublished<br />
report).<br />
Eisentraut, M. 1973. Die wirbeltierfauna von<br />
Fernando Po and Westkamerun. Bonn Zoolog.<br />
Monogr. 3: 428.<br />
Elgood, J. H. 1994. The birds <strong>of</strong> Nigeria. B.O.U.<br />
Checklist No. 4 (second edition). British<br />
Ornithologists’ Union, Tr<strong>in</strong>g, UK.
Assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bird Fauna<br />
Fishpool, L. D. C. and M. L. Evans, eds. 2001.<br />
Important Bird Areas <strong>in</strong> Africa and Associated<br />
Islands: Priority Sites for Conservation.<br />
Newbury and Cambrdige, UK: Pisces<br />
Publications and BirdLife International<br />
(BirdLife Conservation Series No. 11).<br />
Keen. 1993. Bird trip report to Cameroon<br />
(unpublished report).<br />
Languy M., S. K. Bobo, F. M. Njie, K. Y. Njabo, J.M.<br />
Lapios, and R. Demey, <strong>in</strong> press. Species new to<br />
Cameroon and o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g records.<br />
Submitted to Malimbus.<br />
Louette, M. 1981. Birds <strong>of</strong> Cameroon: An annotated<br />
checklist. Verhand. A.W.L.S.K. 163: 1-295.<br />
101<br />
Rodewald, P. G., and C. G. R. Bowden. 1995. First<br />
record <strong>of</strong> Kemp’s Longbill Macrosphenus kempi<br />
<strong>in</strong> Cameroon. Bull. Brit. Orn. Cl. 115: 66-68.<br />
Stattersfield, A. J., M. J. Crosby, A. J. Long and D. C.<br />
Wege 1998. Endemic Bird Areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> World.<br />
Priorities for Biodiversity Conservation. Birdlife<br />
Conservation Series No. 7. BirdLife<br />
International, Cambridge, UK.<br />
Thomas, D. W. 1988. Status and Conservation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Gorillas (Cameroon). World Wildlife<br />
Fund 1613 (unpublished f<strong>in</strong>al report to WWF-<br />
Cameroon).<br />
Williams, E. 1997. Records made by E. Williams <strong>in</strong><br />
Cameroon (unpublished report).<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
102 Languy and Motombe<br />
Appendix 1. Checklist <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> birds <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon. IUCN: Threatened species, EN: endangered; VU:<br />
vulnerable; NT: near-threatened. RR: restricted-range species (total world range less than 50.000 km²). Biome: Species conf<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
to Afro-montane biome (Montane Forests: MF); Gu<strong>in</strong>eo-congolian forest biome (Lowland Forests: LF); Sudan-Gu<strong>in</strong>ea Savanna<br />
biome (Savanna: SV). Status: Status <strong>of</strong> bird <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve.<br />
IUCN RR Biome English name Scientific name Status MGR, Status<br />
Long-tailed Cormorant Phalacrocorax africanus Uncomm<br />
Green-backed Heron Butorides striatus Uncomm<br />
Little Egret Egretta garzetta Uncomm<br />
Hamerkop Scopus umbretta Frequent<br />
Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia episcopus Rare<br />
Hadada Ibis Bostrychia hagedash Frequent<br />
NT LF Hartlaub©s Duck Pteronetta hartlaubii Uncomm<br />
African Pygmy Goose Nettapus auritus Uncomm<br />
Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula Uncomm<br />
Osprey Pandion haliaetus Uncomm P. Migrant<br />
Black-shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus Uncomm<br />
Black Kite Milvus migrans<br />
Int / African,<br />
Common<br />
Migrant<br />
African Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vocifer Uncomm<br />
Palm-nut Vulture Gypohierax angolensis Frequent<br />
Western Banded Snake<br />
Eagle<br />
Circaetus c<strong>in</strong>erascens Uncomm<br />
LF Congo Serpent Eagle Dryotriorchis spectabilis Uncomm<br />
African Harrier Hawk Polyboroides typus Common<br />
Montagu©s Harrier Circus pygargus Uncomm P. Migrant<br />
European Marsh Harrier Circus aerug<strong>in</strong>osus Uncomm P. Migrant<br />
African Goshawk Accipiter tachiro Uncomm<br />
LF<br />
Chestnut-flanked<br />
Sparrowhawk<br />
Accipiter castanilius Uncomm<br />
LF<br />
Western Little<br />
Sparrowhawk<br />
Accipiter erythropus Rare<br />
Black Sparrowhawk Accipiter melanoleucus Frequent<br />
LF Long-tailed Hawk Urotriorchis macrourus Uncomm<br />
Lizard Buzzard<br />
Kaupifalco<br />
monogrammicus<br />
Common<br />
Red-necked Buzzard Buteo auguralis Frequent<br />
Long-crested Eagle Lophaetus occipitalis<br />
LF Cass<strong>in</strong>©s Hawk Eagle Spizaetus africanus Uncomm<br />
Crowned Eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus Frequent<br />
Crested Gu<strong>in</strong>eafowl Guttera pucherani Uncomm<br />
Common Quail Coturnix coturnix Rare<br />
LF Latham©s Forest Francol<strong>in</strong> Francol<strong>in</strong>us lathami Frequent<br />
Scaly Francol<strong>in</strong> Francol<strong>in</strong>us squamatus Common<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bird Fauna<br />
Appendix 1 (cont.). Checklist <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> birds <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
IUCN RR Biome English name Scientific name Status MGR, Status<br />
Double-spurred Francol<strong>in</strong> Francol<strong>in</strong>us bicalcaratus Frequent<br />
LF Nkulengu Rail Himantornis haematopus Rare<br />
LF White-spotted Flufftail Sarothrura pulchra Common<br />
African F<strong>in</strong>foot Podica senegalensis Frequent<br />
Rock Prat<strong>in</strong>cole Glareola nuchalis Rare<br />
Common Greenshank Tr<strong>in</strong>ga nebularia Uncomm P. Migrant<br />
Green Sandpiper Tr<strong>in</strong>ga ochropus Uncomm P. Migrant<br />
Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos Frequent<br />
African Green Pigeon Treron calva Common<br />
LF Blue-headed Wood Dove Turtur brehmeri Common<br />
Tambour<strong>in</strong>e Dove Turtur tympanistria Common<br />
Blue-spotted Wood Dove Turtur afer Common<br />
LF Afep Pigeon Columba unic<strong>in</strong>cta Common<br />
Red-eyed Dove Streptopelia semitorquata Frequent<br />
LF Grey Parrot Psittacus erithacus Frequent<br />
LF Black-collared Lovebird Agapornis sw<strong>in</strong>dernianus Uncomm<br />
Great Blue Turaco Corythaeola cristata Common<br />
LF Green Turaco Tauraco persa Common<br />
LF Yellow-billed Turaco Tauraco macrorhynchus Common<br />
Levaillant©s Cuckoo Oxylophus levaillantii Frequent<br />
Black Cuckoo Cuculus clamosus Frequent<br />
Olive Long-tailed Cuckoo Cercococcyx oliv<strong>in</strong>us Common<br />
African Emerald Cuckoo Chrysococcyx cupreus Common<br />
LF Yellow-throated Cuckoo Chrysococcyx flavigularis Frequent<br />
Klaas©s Cuckoo Chrysococcyx klaas Common<br />
Didric Cuckoo Chrysococcyx caprius Frequent<br />
Yellowbill Ceuthmochares aereus Common<br />
LF Black-throated Coucal Centropus leucogaster Uncomm<br />
Senegal Coucal Centropus senegalensis Common<br />
Barn Owl Tyto alba Uncomm<br />
African Scops Owl Otus senegalensis Uncomm<br />
LF Vermiculated Fish<strong>in</strong>g Owl Scotopelia bouvieri Rare<br />
LF Red-chested Owlet Glaucidium tephronotum Rare<br />
African Wood Owl Strix woodfordii Frequent<br />
LF Brown Nightjar Caprimulgus b<strong>in</strong>otatus Rare<br />
LF Black-shouldered Nightjar Caprimulgus<br />
nigriscapularis<br />
Uncomm<br />
Standard-w<strong>in</strong>ged Nightjar Macrodipteryx longipennis Frequent<br />
LF Sab<strong>in</strong>e©s Sp<strong>in</strong>etail Rhaphidura sab<strong>in</strong>i Frequent<br />
LF Black Sp<strong>in</strong>etail Telacanthura melanopygia Rare<br />
Mottled Sp<strong>in</strong>etail Telacanthura ussheri Rare<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
103<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
104 Languy and Motombe<br />
Appendix 1 (cont.). Checklist <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> birds <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
IUCN RR Biome English name Scientific name Status MGR, Status<br />
LF Cass<strong>in</strong>©s Sp<strong>in</strong>etail Neafrapus cass<strong>in</strong>i Frequent<br />
African Palm Swift Cypsiurus parvus Common<br />
European Swift Apus apus Common<br />
LF Bates©s Swift Apus batesi Frequent<br />
Speckled Mousebird Colius striatus Uncomm<br />
MF Bar-tailed Trogon Apaloderma vittatum Uncomm<br />
Nar<strong>in</strong>a Trogon Apaloderma nar<strong>in</strong>a Frequent<br />
LF Bare-cheeked Trogon Apaloderma aequatoriale Uncomm<br />
LF<br />
Chocolate-backed<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gfisher<br />
Halcyon badia Frequent<br />
Grey-headed K<strong>in</strong>gfisher Halcyon leucocephala Uncomm<br />
Blue-breasted K<strong>in</strong>gfisher Halcyon malimbica Frequent<br />
Woodland K<strong>in</strong>gfisher Halcyon senegalensis Frequent<br />
LF African Dwarf K<strong>in</strong>gfisher Ceyx lecontei Rare<br />
African Pygmy K<strong>in</strong>gfisher Ceyx picta Frequent<br />
LF White-bellied K<strong>in</strong>gfisher Alcedo leucogaster Uncomm<br />
Malachite K<strong>in</strong>gfisher Alcedo cristata Frequent<br />
Sh<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g-blue K<strong>in</strong>gfisher Alcedo quadribrachys Uncomm<br />
Giant K<strong>in</strong>gfisher Megaceryle maxima Uncomm<br />
LF Blue-headed Bee-eater Merops muelleri Rare<br />
LF Black Bee-eater Merops gularis Uncomm<br />
Blue-breasted Bee-eater Merops variegatus Uncomm<br />
White-throated Bee-eater Merops albicollis Common Migrant<br />
LF Blue-throated Roller Eurystomus gularis Uncomm<br />
Broad-billed Roller Eurystomus glaucurus Uncomm<br />
LF White-crested Hornbill Tockus albocristatus Uncomm<br />
LF Black Dwarf Hornbill Tockus hartlaubi Rare<br />
LF Red-billed Dwarf Hornbill Tockus camurus Frequent<br />
LF African Pied Hornbill Tockus fasciatus Common<br />
LF Pip<strong>in</strong>g Hornbill Ceratogymna fistulator Frequent<br />
LF White-thighed Hornbill Ceratogymna albotibialis Common<br />
LF<br />
Black-casqued Wattled<br />
Hornbill<br />
Ceratogymna atrata Uncomm<br />
NT LF<br />
Yellow-casqued Wattled<br />
Hornbill<br />
Ceratogymna elata Rare<br />
Grey-throated Barbet Gymnobucco bonapartei Frequent<br />
LF Bristle-nosed Barbet Gymnobucco peli Common<br />
LF Naked-faced Barbet Gymnobucco calvus Frequent<br />
LF Speckled T<strong>in</strong>kerbird Pogoniulus scolopaceus Common<br />
MF Western Green T<strong>in</strong>kerbird Pogoniulus coryphaeus Uncomm<br />
LF Red-rumped T<strong>in</strong>kerbird Pogoniulus atr<strong>of</strong>lavus Frequent<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bird Fauna<br />
Appendix 1 (cont.). Checklist <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> birds <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
IUCN RR Biome English name Scientific name Status MGR, Status<br />
LF<br />
Yellow-throated<br />
T<strong>in</strong>kerbird<br />
Pogoniulus subsulphureus Common<br />
Yellow-rumped T<strong>in</strong>kerbird Pogoniulus bil<strong>in</strong>eatus Common<br />
LF Yellow-spotted Barbet Buccanodon duchaillui Frequent<br />
LF Hairy-breasted Barbet Tricholaema hirsuta Frequent<br />
LF Yellow-billed Barbet Trachyphonus purpuratus Common<br />
LF Spotted Honeyguide Indicator maculatus Uncomm<br />
Lesser Honeyguide Indicator m<strong>in</strong>or Frequent<br />
Thick-billed Honeyguide Indicator conirostris Uncomm<br />
Least Honeyguide Indicator exilis Rare<br />
MF Tullberg©s Woodpecker Campe<strong>the</strong>ra tullbergi Uncomm<br />
LF Buff-spotted Woodpecker Campe<strong>the</strong>ra nivosa Uncomm<br />
LF Brown-eared Woodpecker Campe<strong>the</strong>ra caroli Rare<br />
Card<strong>in</strong>al Woodpecker Dendropicos fuscescens Common<br />
LF Fire-bellied Woodpecker Dendropicos pyrrhogaster Rare<br />
LF<br />
Yellow-crested<br />
Woodpecker<br />
Dendropicos xantholophus Rare<br />
Elliot©s Woodpecker Dendropicos elliotii Uncomm<br />
LF Grey-headed Broadbill Smithornis sharpei Uncomm<br />
LF Rufous-sided Broadbill Smithornis rufolateralis Frequent<br />
SV Sun Lark Galerida modesta Rare<br />
LF Square-tailed Saw-w<strong>in</strong>g Psalidoprocne nitens Common<br />
Black Saw-w<strong>in</strong>g Psalidoprocne pristoptera Common<br />
Grey-rumped Swallow Pseudhirundo griseopyga Uncomm<br />
Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica Frequent<br />
X LF Forest Swallow Hirundo fulig<strong>in</strong>osa Rare<br />
LF<br />
White-throated Blue<br />
Swallow<br />
Hirundo nigrita Uncomm<br />
Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica Common<br />
House Mart<strong>in</strong> Delichon urbica Uncomm<br />
Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava Uncomm<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong> Wagtail Motacilla clara Uncomm<br />
African Pied Wagtail Motacilla aguimp Uncomm<br />
Pla<strong>in</strong>-backed Pipit Anthus leucophrys Rare<br />
LF Long-legged Pipit Anthus pallidiventris Uncomm<br />
Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis Common<br />
Red-shouldered Cuckoo-<br />
Shrike<br />
Campephaga phoenicea Uncomm<br />
LF Petit©s Cuckoo-Shrike Campephaga petiti Uncomm<br />
Purple-throated Cuckoo-<br />
Shrike<br />
Campephaga quiscal<strong>in</strong>a Rare<br />
105<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
106 Languy and Motombe<br />
Appendix 1 (cont.). Checklist <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> birds <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
IUCN RR Biome English name Scientific name Status MGR, Status<br />
MF Grey Cuckoo-Shrike Corac<strong>in</strong>a caesia Rare<br />
LF Blue Cuckoo-Shrike Corac<strong>in</strong>a azurea Common<br />
NT X MF<br />
Cameroon Montane<br />
Greenbul<br />
Andropadus montanus Rare<br />
X MF Grey-throated Greenbul Andropadus tephrolaemus Frequent<br />
Little Greenbul Andropadus virens Common<br />
LF Little Grey Greenbul Andropadus gracilis Uncomm<br />
LF Ansorge©s Greenbul Andropadus ansorgei Uncomm<br />
LF<br />
Cameroon Sombre<br />
Greenbul<br />
Andropadus curvirostris Rare<br />
Slender-billed Greenbul Andropadus gracilirostris Common<br />
Yellow-whiskered<br />
Greenbul<br />
Andropadus latirostris Common<br />
LF Golden Greenbul Calyptocichla ser<strong>in</strong>a Uncomm<br />
LF Honeyguide Greenbul Baeopogon <strong>in</strong>dicator Common<br />
LF<br />
Sj!stedt©s Honeyguide<br />
Greenbul<br />
Baeopogon clamans Rare<br />
LF Spotted Greenbul Ixonotus guttatus Common<br />
LF Simple Greenbul Chlorocichla simplex Common<br />
LF Swamp Palm Bulbul<br />
Thescelocichla<br />
leucopleura<br />
Common<br />
X MF Cameroon Olive Greenbul Phyllastrephus poensis Uncomm<br />
LF Icter<strong>in</strong>e Greenbul Phyllastrephus icter<strong>in</strong>us Common<br />
LF Xavier©s Greenbul Phyllastrephus xavieri Uncomm<br />
LF White-throated Greenbul Phyllastrephus albigularis Uncomm<br />
LF Grey-headed Bristlebill Bleda canicapilla Uncomm<br />
LF Red-tailed Bristlebill Bleda syndactyla Uncomm<br />
LF Green-tailed Bristlebill Bleda eximia Common<br />
LF Eastern Bearded Greenbul Cr<strong>in</strong>iger chloronotus Common<br />
LF Red-tailed Greenbul Cr<strong>in</strong>iger calurus Common<br />
Common Bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus Common<br />
LF Forest Rob<strong>in</strong> Stiphrornis erythrothorax Common<br />
Bocage©s Akalat Sheppardia bocagei Uncomm<br />
MF White-bellied Rob<strong>in</strong>chat Cossyphicula roberti Rare<br />
X MF Mounta<strong>in</strong> Rob<strong>in</strong>-Chat Cossypha isabellae Rare<br />
Snowy-crowned Rob<strong>in</strong>-<br />
Chat<br />
Cossypha niveicapilla Uncomm<br />
LF Fire-crested Ale<strong>the</strong> Ale<strong>the</strong> diademata Common<br />
Brown-chested Ale<strong>the</strong> Ale<strong>the</strong> poliocephala Uncomm<br />
LF White-tailed Ant Thrush Neocossyphus poensis Common<br />
LF Rufous Flycatcher-Thrush Neocossyphus fraseri Common<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest
Assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bird Fauna<br />
Appendix 1 (cont.). Checklist <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> birds <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
IUCN RR Biome English name Scientific name Status MGR, Status<br />
Common Stonechat Saxicola torquata Uncomm<br />
Wh<strong>in</strong>chat Saxicola rubetra Uncomm<br />
NT MF Crossley©s Ground-thrush Zoo<strong>the</strong>ra crossleyi Uncomm<br />
African Thrush Turdus pelios Uncomm<br />
NT X MF Bangwa Forest Warbler Bradypterus bangwaensis Rare<br />
Black-faced Rufous<br />
Warbler<br />
Bathmocercus rufus Rare<br />
African/Eurasian Reed<br />
Warbler<br />
Acrocephalus<br />
baeticatus/scirpaceus<br />
Rare<br />
Icter<strong>in</strong>e Warbler Hippolais icter<strong>in</strong>a Rare<br />
LF Chatter<strong>in</strong>g Cisticola Cisticola anonymus Rare<br />
X MF Brown-backed Cisticola Cisticola discolor Uncomm<br />
Croak<strong>in</strong>g Cisticola Cisticola natalensis Uncomm<br />
Short-w<strong>in</strong>ged Cisticola Cisticola brachyptera Uncomm<br />
Tawny-flanked Pr<strong>in</strong>ia Pr<strong>in</strong>ia subflava Frequent<br />
Banded Pr<strong>in</strong>ia Pr<strong>in</strong>ia bairdii Frequent<br />
X MF Green Longtail Urolais epichlora Uncomm<br />
White-ch<strong>in</strong>ned Pr<strong>in</strong>ia Schistolais leucopogon Frequent<br />
MF Black-collared Apalis Apalis pulchra Uncomm<br />
Black-throated Apalis Apalis jacksoni Rare<br />
LF Black-capped Apalis Apalis nigriceps Uncomm<br />
LF Buff-throated Apalis Apalis rufogularis Common<br />
Grey Apalis Apalis c<strong>in</strong>erea Uncomm<br />
NT X MF White-tailed Warbler Poliolais lopezi Rare<br />
Grey-backed Camaroptera Camaroptera brachyura Common<br />
LF<br />
Yellow-browed<br />
Camaroptera<br />
Camaroptera superciliaris Common<br />
LF Olive-green Camaroptera Camaroptera chloronota Common<br />
LF Yellow Longbill Macrosphenus flavicans Common<br />
LF Kemp©s Longbill Macrosphenus kempi Uncomm<br />
LF Grey Longbill Macrosphenus concolor Common<br />
LF<br />
Rufous-crowned<br />
Eremomela<br />
Eremomela badiceps Common<br />
LF Green Crombec Sylvietta virens Common<br />
Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus Frequent P. Migrant<br />
Wood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix Uncomm P. Migrant<br />
X MF<br />
Black-capped Woodland<br />
Warbler<br />
Phylloscopus herberti Rare<br />
Garden Warbler Sylvia bor<strong>in</strong> Uncomm P. Migrant<br />
LF Green Hylia Hylia pras<strong>in</strong>a Common<br />
LF Cass<strong>in</strong>©s Flycatcher Muscicapa cass<strong>in</strong>i Common<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
107<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
108 Languy and Motombe<br />
Appendix 1 (cont.). Checklist <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> birds <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
IUCN RR Biome English name Scientific name Status MGR, Status<br />
African Dusky Flycatcher Muscicapa adusta Uncomm<br />
LF Yellow-footed Flycatcher Muscicapa sethsmithi Uncomm<br />
LF Dusky-blue Flycatcher Muscicapa comitata Uncomm<br />
LF Sooty Flycatcher Muscicapa <strong>in</strong>fuscata Uncomm<br />
Ussher©s Flycatcher Muscicapa ussheri Frequent<br />
Grey Tit-Flycatcher Myioparus plumbeus Frequent<br />
European Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca Uncomm P. Migrant<br />
LF<br />
Chestnut-capped<br />
Flycatcher<br />
Erythrocercus mccallii Common<br />
African Blue Flycatcher Elm<strong>in</strong>ia longicauda Common<br />
LF Dusky Crested Flycatcher Elm<strong>in</strong>ia nigromitrata Uncomm<br />
MF<br />
White-bellied Crested<br />
Flycatcher<br />
Elm<strong>in</strong>ia albiventris Uncomm<br />
LF<br />
Blue-headed Crested<br />
Flycatcher<br />
Trochocercus nitens Common<br />
African Paradise<br />
Flycatcher<br />
Terpsiphone viridis Frequent<br />
LF<br />
Rufous-vented Paradise<br />
Flycatcher<br />
Terpsiphone rufoc<strong>in</strong>erea Frequent<br />
LF<br />
Bates©s Paradise<br />
Flycatcher<br />
Terpsiphone batesi Common<br />
LF<br />
Red-bellied Paradise<br />
Flycatcher<br />
Terpsiphone rufiventer Common<br />
LF Shrike-Flycatcher Megabyas flammulatus Uncomm<br />
LF Chestnut Wattle-eye Dyaphorophyia castanea Common<br />
LF White-spotted Wattle-eye Dyaphorophyia tonsa Uncomm<br />
LF Red-cheeked Wattle-eye Dyaphorophyia blisseti Rare<br />
LF Black-necked Wattle-eye Dyaphorophyia chalybea Uncomm<br />
Yellow-bellied Wattle-eye Dyaphorophyia concreta Uncomm<br />
Scarlet-spectacled Wattleeye<br />
Platysteira cyanea Common<br />
Black-headed Batis Batis m<strong>in</strong>or Uncomm<br />
MF Grey-chested Illadopsis Kakamega poliothorax Common<br />
LF Brown Illadopsis Illadopsis fulvescens Common<br />
Pale-breasted Illadopsis Illadopsis rufipennis Common<br />
LF Blackcap Illadopsis Illadopsis cleaveri Common<br />
EN X MF<br />
White-throated Mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
Babbler<br />
Kupeornis gilberti Uncomm<br />
LF Capuch<strong>in</strong> Babbler Phyllanthus atripennis Uncomm<br />
VU X LF Grey-necked Picathartes Picathartes oreas Rare<br />
LF Tit-hylia Pholidornis rushiae Uncomm<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest
Assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bird Fauna<br />
Appendix 1 (cont.). Checklist <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> birds <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
IUCN RR Biome English name Scientific name Status MGR, Status<br />
LF Fraser©s Sunbird Deleornis fraseri Common<br />
Collared Sunbird Hedypt<strong>in</strong>a collaris Common<br />
LF Bates©s Sunbird C<strong>in</strong>nyris batesi Rare<br />
Olive Sunbird Cyanomitra olivacea Common<br />
X MF<br />
Cameroon Blue-headed<br />
Sunbird<br />
Cyanomitra oritis Uncomm<br />
Green-headed Sunbird Cyanomitra verticalis Uncomm<br />
LF<br />
Blue-throated Brown<br />
Sunbird<br />
Cyanomitra cyanolaema Common<br />
LF Green-throated Sunbird Chalcomitra rubescens Uncomm<br />
Olive-bellied Sunbird C<strong>in</strong>nyris chloropygia Common<br />
MF<br />
Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Double-collared<br />
Sunbird<br />
C<strong>in</strong>nyris reichenowi Uncomm<br />
Orange-tufted Sunbird C<strong>in</strong>nyris bouvieri Rare<br />
Splendid Sunbird C<strong>in</strong>nyris cocc<strong>in</strong>igastra Uncomm<br />
LF Johanna©s Sunbird C<strong>in</strong>nyris johannae Uncomm<br />
LF Superb Sunbird C<strong>in</strong>nyris superba Uncomm<br />
Yellow White-eye Zosterops senegalensis Common<br />
LF<br />
Western Black-headed<br />
Oriole<br />
Oriolus brachyrhynchus Common<br />
LF Black-w<strong>in</strong>ged Oriole Oriolus nigripennis Uncomm<br />
Mack<strong>in</strong>non©s Shrike Lanius mack<strong>in</strong>noni Uncomm<br />
LF<br />
Black-shouldered<br />
Puffback<br />
Dryoscopus senegalensis Frequent<br />
P<strong>in</strong>k-footed Puffback Dryoscopus angolensis Uncomm<br />
Brown-crowned Tchagra Tchagra australis Uncomm<br />
Tropical Boubou Laniarius aethiopicus Uncomm<br />
X MF Yellow-breasted Boubou Laniarius atr<strong>of</strong>lavus Rare<br />
MF F!lleborn©s Black Boubou Laniarius fuelleborni Frequent<br />
LF Sooty Boubou Laniarius leucorhynchus Uncomm<br />
Many-coloured Bush<br />
Shrike<br />
Malaconotus multicolor Uncomm<br />
LF Western Nicator Nicator chloris Common<br />
Red-billed Helmet Shrike Prionops caniceps Uncomm<br />
Square-tailed Drongo Dicrurus ludwigii Common<br />
LF Sh<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Drongo Dicrurus atripennis Common<br />
Velvet-mantled Drongo Dicrurus modestus Uncomm<br />
Pied Crow Corvus albus Uncomm<br />
MF<br />
Waller©s Chestnut-w<strong>in</strong>ged<br />
Starl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Onychognathus walleri Uncomm<br />
109<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
110 Languy and Motombe<br />
Appendix 1 (cont.). Checklist <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> birds <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
IUCN RR Biome English name Scientific name Status MGR, Status<br />
LF<br />
Forest Chestnut-w<strong>in</strong>ged<br />
Starl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Onychognathus fulgidus Uncomm<br />
Splendid Glossy Starl<strong>in</strong>g Lamprotornis splendidus Common<br />
Grey-headed Sparrow Passer griseus Uncomm<br />
SV Bush Petronia Petronia dentata Rare<br />
VU X MF Bannerman©s Weaver Ploceus bannermani Rare<br />
Spectacled Weaver Ploceus ocularis Rare<br />
MF Black-billed Weaver Ploceus melanogaster Uncomm<br />
LF Vieillot©s Black Weaver Ploceus nigerrimus Common<br />
Village Weaver Ploceus cucullatus Common<br />
LF Yellow-mantled Weaver Ploceus tricolor Uncomm<br />
LF Maxwell©s Black Weaver Ploceus alb<strong>in</strong>ucha Uncomm<br />
Dark-backed Weaver Ploceus bicolor Frequent<br />
LF Blue-billed Malimbe Malimbus nitens Frequent<br />
LF Crested Malimbe Malimbus malimbicus Frequent<br />
LF Red-vented Malimbe Malimbus scutatus Common<br />
X LF Rachel©s Malimbe Malimbus racheliae Uncomm<br />
LF Red-headed Malimbe Malimbus rubricollis Uncomm<br />
Yellow Bishop Euplectes capensis Uncomm<br />
Grey-crowned Negr<strong>of</strong><strong>in</strong>ch Nigrita canicapilla Common<br />
LF Pale-fronted Negr<strong>of</strong><strong>in</strong>ch Nigrita luteifrons Uncomm<br />
LF<br />
Chestnut-breasted<br />
Negr<strong>of</strong><strong>in</strong>ch<br />
Nigrita bicolor Uncomm<br />
LF White-breasted Negr<strong>of</strong><strong>in</strong>ch Nigrita fusconota Uncomm<br />
MF Red-faced Crimsonw<strong>in</strong>g Crytospiza reichenovii Rare<br />
LF Western Bluebill Spermophaga haemat<strong>in</strong>a Uncomm<br />
Green Tw<strong>in</strong>spot Mand<strong>in</strong>goa nitidula Uncomm<br />
Common Waxbill Estrilda astrild Common<br />
Black-crowned Waxbill Estrilda nonnula Common<br />
Bronze Mannik<strong>in</strong> Lonchura cucullata Common<br />
Black-and-white Mannik<strong>in</strong> Lonchura bicolor Uncomm<br />
MF Oriole F<strong>in</strong>ch L<strong>in</strong>urgus olivaceus Rare<br />
TOTAL NUMBER OF SPECIES:<br />
313<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest
Large Mammals <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
1 Introduction<br />
Jacquel<strong>in</strong>e L. Sunderland-Groves and Fiona Maisels<br />
Until recently, <strong>in</strong>formation regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> fauna <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve (TFR) was, at best,<br />
fragmentary (Allen 1930, Sanderson 1940, Struhsaker<br />
1967, Critchley 1968). No survey had been carried out <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> area s<strong>in</strong>ce 1987 (Thomas 1988). Due to<br />
<strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> available <strong>in</strong>formation, Sanderson’s specimen<br />
collections from areas surround<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Takamanda</strong>, housed<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> British Museum <strong>of</strong> Natural History, provided <strong>the</strong><br />
basis for a faunal checklist (Appendix 1). Fifty years<br />
later, Thomas (1988) confirmed <strong>the</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ued existence<br />
<strong>of</strong> 11 species <strong>of</strong> large mammals <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area reported by<br />
Sanderson. Before <strong>the</strong> start <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1998 survey, <strong>the</strong><br />
Sanderson 1934 collection, consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> all dry sk<strong>in</strong><br />
specimens except ungulates and bats, was exam<strong>in</strong>ed and<br />
verified (Dowsett 1997).<br />
The major objectives <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1998 study were to<br />
assess <strong>the</strong> current status <strong>of</strong> and threats to <strong>the</strong> population<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Critically Endangered (IUCN 2002) Cross River<br />
Gorilla Gorilla gorilla diehli. In addition, status <strong>of</strong> and<br />
threats to o<strong>the</strong>r large mammals <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve were<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigated: several large mammal species or subspecies<br />
were known to be endemic to <strong>the</strong> region, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
chimpanzee Pan troglodytes vellerosus, drill Mandrillus<br />
leucophaeus, Preuss’s guenon Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus preussi,<br />
and red eared guenon Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus erythrotis.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> forests <strong>of</strong> Central and West Africa, hunt<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
meat is <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g concern and is <strong>the</strong> major cause <strong>of</strong><br />
ape decl<strong>in</strong>e (Walsh et al. 2003) and <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r large<br />
mammal decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> general (Fa et al. 2002). Hunt<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
facilitated by <strong>in</strong>creased access made possible by <strong>the</strong><br />
construction <strong>of</strong> logg<strong>in</strong>g roads (M<strong>in</strong>nemeyer et al. 2002,<br />
Wilkie et al. 2000). In <strong>the</strong> Bamenda Highlands just east<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> area, most species <strong>of</strong> large mammals<br />
have been locally extirpated with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> last century<br />
(Maisels et al. 2001).<br />
A commercial road is currently be<strong>in</strong>g built <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> area between <strong>the</strong> towns <strong>of</strong> Mamfe and<br />
Akwaya (Sunderland-Groves et al. this volume). When<br />
complete, <strong>the</strong> road will cut directly between <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> forest and <strong>the</strong> Mone and Mbulu forests,<br />
allow<strong>in</strong>g ready access to <strong>the</strong> forests and, subsequently,<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased export <strong>of</strong> agricultural and forest products,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g bushmeat.<br />
Although development projects such as roads are<br />
important for <strong>the</strong> local human population, <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
accessibility to <strong>the</strong> area will undoubtedly affect <strong>the</strong> future<br />
survival <strong>of</strong> wildlife populations unless strict measures are<br />
taken to protect <strong>the</strong> animals. Follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> 1998 survey,<br />
emphasis was placed on work<strong>in</strong>g with local communities<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Cameroon M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Environment and Forestry<br />
(MINEF) to protect wildlife populations. Education<br />
materials were dissem<strong>in</strong>ated to <strong>in</strong>crease conservation<br />
awareness and promote Cameroon’s laws concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />
illegal hunt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> protected species.<br />
2 Methods<br />
2.1 Field methods<br />
Chapter 8<br />
In <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, two primary vegetation<br />
strata—lowland forest, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g river<strong>in</strong>e forest, and submontane<br />
forest, encompass<strong>in</strong>g ridge or “highland”<br />
forest—were identified and surveyed, us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> stratified<br />
random sampl<strong>in</strong>g technique. With<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se strata, two<br />
lowland sites were sampled: Oyi on <strong>the</strong> edge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Reserve and Makone <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> center <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve.<br />
Variation <strong>in</strong> sites was meant to reflect predicted<br />
differences <strong>in</strong> hunt<strong>in</strong>g pressure, where we presumed<br />
areas on <strong>the</strong> edge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reserve would be subject to more<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003, Pages 111 to 127
112 Sunderland-Groves and Maisels<br />
hunt<strong>in</strong>g. Three highland sites were also selected for<br />
survey: Matene <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn section <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve,<br />
Obonyi I <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> eastern part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve along <strong>the</strong><br />
border with <strong>the</strong> Okwangwo division <strong>of</strong> Cross River<br />
National Park <strong>in</strong> Nigeria, and Basho on <strong>the</strong> western edge<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve (Figure 2 <strong>in</strong> Chapter 1).<br />
The survey used standard l<strong>in</strong>e transect methods that<br />
are practiced widely <strong>in</strong> animal density census<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(Burnham et al. 1980, Buckland et al. 1993). General<br />
transect protocols followed White and Edwards (2000).<br />
Forest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> transects was cut just enough to allow one<br />
person to pass. All transects were marked at 25-m<br />
<strong>in</strong>tervals with flagg<strong>in</strong>g tape and allowed to settle for a<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imum <strong>of</strong> three days before <strong>the</strong>y were walked and data<br />
collected. The reason was to ensure that <strong>the</strong> disturbance<br />
and noise caused by cutt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> transects did not bias<br />
direct observations <strong>of</strong> mammals such as monkeys.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> lowland forest, 40 transects—all 2 km <strong>in</strong><br />
length, except for one that measured 3 km (81 km <strong>in</strong><br />
total) were laid out perpendicular to <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> rivers, <strong>the</strong><br />
Makone and <strong>the</strong> Oyi (20 along each river, each transect 1<br />
km apart from and parallel to <strong>the</strong> next). In this manner,<br />
<strong>the</strong> rivers were sampled along much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir lengths<br />
with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve, and vegetation on each side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
rivers was sampled <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> same proportion as it occurs <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> environment (Buckland et al. 1993). Four sampl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sections, Makone River East, Makone River West, Oyi<br />
East, and Oyi West, conta<strong>in</strong>ed 10 transects each and were<br />
surveyed dur<strong>in</strong>g both <strong>the</strong> dry and wet seasons. The o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
two lowland sites were sampled only <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> wet season.<br />
Sixteen transects were cut <strong>in</strong> submontane/ridge<br />
forest (8 km <strong>in</strong> total), five <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Matene and Obonyi 1<br />
hills, and six <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Basho hills. An additional 6 km <strong>of</strong><br />
basel<strong>in</strong>e was used to calculate encounter rates <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
submontane forest. Transect start<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts were selected<br />
randomly from a map and located us<strong>in</strong>g GPS. The<br />
basel<strong>in</strong>e was located parallel to <strong>the</strong> contour <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> hill,<br />
and transects were cut perpendicular to it. Each transect<br />
was 500 m <strong>in</strong> length; longer transects would not have<br />
sampled <strong>the</strong> desired topographical areas. The three<br />
highland forest areas were surveyed only dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> dry<br />
season as time constra<strong>in</strong>ts made it impossible to repeat<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> highland strata dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> wet season.<br />
Us<strong>in</strong>g portions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> basel<strong>in</strong>e as separate transects is<br />
statistically <strong>in</strong>valid because <strong>the</strong>y are not <strong>in</strong>dependent.<br />
The data collected <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong>direct mammal sign<br />
such as dung and tracks and direct observations (animals<br />
seen or heard). All evidence <strong>of</strong> human presence such as<br />
traps, snares, hunter paths, bush houses, spent cartridges,<br />
and gunshots was recorded to evaluate hunt<strong>in</strong>g pressures.<br />
Changes <strong>in</strong> topography and vegetation were also<br />
recorded along each transect.<br />
To standardize <strong>the</strong> sampl<strong>in</strong>g effort, <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong><br />
observers, speed <strong>of</strong> travel, and time <strong>of</strong> day were kept<br />
constant for each transect. Transects were not walked<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g heavy or medium ra<strong>in</strong>fall because such conditions<br />
affect mammal movements and observer reliability.<br />
Additional reconnaissance surveys <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
vegetation types <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve were carried out,<br />
especially <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> higher altitude areas, and all signs <strong>of</strong><br />
large mammals were recorded.<br />
2.2 Data analysis<br />
Although <strong>the</strong> survey was designed to estimate densities<br />
<strong>of</strong> animals, <strong>the</strong>re were too few observations to use <strong>the</strong><br />
DISTANCE program (Thomas et al. 2002), which<br />
requires at least 60 observations per species per stratum.<br />
Thus, we used encounter rate (number <strong>of</strong> animals or <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
sign encountered per kilometer) as <strong>the</strong> standard unit to<br />
assess <strong>the</strong> relative abundance <strong>of</strong> animal (and human)<br />
sign. Analysis <strong>of</strong> differences between datasets were made<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Mann-Whitney U test; unless data was paired,<br />
where we used <strong>the</strong> Wilcoxon Paired Rank test (Siegel<br />
and Castellan 1988).<br />
3 Results<br />
3.1 Species presence<br />
Fifteen species <strong>of</strong> large mammal were recorded with<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> TFR, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g forest elephant Loxodonta africana<br />
cyclotis <strong>in</strong> both lowland strata (Table 1). Of <strong>the</strong> eight<br />
primate species recorded, several are endemic, and some<br />
are <strong>in</strong>ternationally endangered. The gorilla Gorilla<br />
gorilla diehli is classified by IUCN (2002) as Critically
Large mammals assessment<br />
Table 1. Large mammal species recorded through transect and additional survey observations, <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve,<br />
Cameroon (S = Seen; H = Heard; T = Tracks seen; D = dung piles seen; P = path (where no fresh tracks were seen); F = feed<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sign; N = nest; red duikers refers to all medium-sized duikers, as species could not be reliably separated)<br />
Order<br />
Species<br />
Proboscidea<br />
Loxodonta<br />
africana<br />
cyclotis<br />
Artiodactyla<br />
Potamochoerus<br />
porcus<br />
Hyemoschus<br />
aquaticus<br />
English name<br />
Makone<br />
River<br />
East<br />
Makone<br />
River<br />
West<br />
Oyi<br />
East<br />
Oyi<br />
West<br />
Forest elephant D, T D, T D, T P<br />
Obonyi 1<br />
Hills<br />
Basho<br />
Hills<br />
Red river hog T T T T T T<br />
Giant forest hog T T T T<br />
Lowland Sites Highland Sites<br />
113<br />
Matene<br />
Hills<br />
Syncerus caffer<br />
Forest buffalo<br />
nanus<br />
T S, T T H<br />
Cephalophus<br />
silvicultor<br />
Yellow backed<br />
duiker<br />
T T T T<br />
Red duikers S, D, T S, T S, D, T T D, T T D, T<br />
Cephalophus<br />
monticola<br />
Primates<br />
Blue duiker S, H, D, T S, T S, H, T T D, T T<br />
Gorilla gorilla<br />
diehli<br />
Cross River<br />
gorilla<br />
N N, F D, N, F<br />
Pan troglodytes<br />
Chimpanzee<br />
vellerosus<br />
H, T, N H, D, N H, N N<br />
Mandrillus<br />
leucophaeus<br />
Drill D S<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
erythrotis<br />
Red-eared<br />
guenon<br />
S, H S S, H S, H H<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
mona<br />
Mona monkey S, H S, H S, H S, H S, H<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
nictitans<br />
Putty nosed<br />
guenon<br />
S, H S, H S, H S, H H H H<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
pogonias<br />
Crowned<br />
guenon<br />
H<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
preussi<br />
Preuss’s guenon S, H, D D S, H S H, F<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
114 Sunderland-Groves and Maisels<br />
Table 2. Encounter rates for large mammal species per kilometer <strong>of</strong> transect walked, <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon .<br />
Species Common Name N/L Individuals N/L Groups<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus mona Mona monkey 0.110<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus nictitans Putty nosed monkey 0.103<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus erythrotis Red eared guenon 0.081<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus preussi Preuss’s guenon 0.044<br />
Mandrillus leucophaeus Drill 0.007<br />
Red duikers Red duikers 0.037<br />
Cephalophus monticola Blue duiker 0.022<br />
Syncerus caffer Buffalo 0.007<br />
Endangered (Sunderland-Groves et. al. this volume), and<br />
three—chimpanzee Pan troglodytes vellerosus, drill<br />
Mandrillus leucophaeus, and Preuss’s guenon<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus preussi—are classed as Endangered. The<br />
red eared guenon Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus erythrotis is classified<br />
Vulnerable. O<strong>the</strong>r fauna encountered <strong>in</strong>clude duikers<br />
Cephalophus spp., forest buffalo Syncerus caffer nanus,<br />
and red river hog Potamochoerus porcus. All medium to<br />
large mammal species seen and heard or for which sign<br />
was recorded dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> study are listed by site <strong>in</strong> Table<br />
1. Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sites were previously surveyed by<br />
Thomas (1988), and <strong>the</strong> mammals recorded at that time<br />
are listed <strong>in</strong> Appendix 2 for comparison with <strong>the</strong> results<br />
<strong>of</strong> this study.<br />
3.2 Sight<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> transect surveys, encounter rates were very<br />
low (Table 2). No apes were seen at any site <strong>in</strong> any<br />
season, no ungulates were seen <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> highlands, and red<br />
duikers and Cephalophus monticola were seen only<br />
twice dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> 12-month survey period. There were no<br />
sight<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> any large mammals <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Matene hills. Only<br />
one large mammal sight<strong>in</strong>g was recorded <strong>in</strong> Obonyi I<br />
hills (a troop <strong>of</strong> C. mona monkeys), and only one sight<strong>in</strong>g<br />
was recorded <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Basho hills (a troop <strong>of</strong> C. preussi<br />
monkeys). C. preussi was seen only on <strong>the</strong> east banks <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Makone and Oyi Rivers. Drills were seen only once,<br />
on <strong>the</strong> east side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Oyi River. Sight<strong>in</strong>g data may be<br />
few <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> highlands for two reasons, apart from that <strong>of</strong><br />
few animals. First, <strong>the</strong> total length <strong>of</strong> transect surveyed<br />
was much shorter <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> three hill strata than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
lowlands. Second, <strong>the</strong> hill sites were only surveyed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
dry season when noise is created by walk<strong>in</strong>g on leaf litter.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
3.3 Vocalizations<br />
Vocalizations were recorded mostly from primates,<br />
although an occasional ungulate alarm call was heard.<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus nictitans was <strong>the</strong> most commonly heard<br />
monkey species. There were no significant differences<br />
between <strong>the</strong> frequency <strong>of</strong> vocalizations at <strong>the</strong> highland<br />
and <strong>the</strong> lowland sites for C. mona (P= 0.62) or C.<br />
nictitans (P=0.59). However, monkeys called more<br />
frequently on <strong>the</strong> east side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Makone River than on<br />
<strong>the</strong> west side (all monkeys pooled: P=0.0001; C.<br />
nictitans: P=0.0019) and more frequently on <strong>the</strong> east side<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Oyi River than on <strong>the</strong> west side (all monkeys<br />
pooled: P= 0.0013; C. nictitans: P= 0.0313). In addition,<br />
C. mona and C. nictitans called more dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> wet than<br />
<strong>the</strong> dry season (P=0.0501; P=0.021). The encounter rate<br />
<strong>of</strong> all monkey vocalizations comb<strong>in</strong>ed was highest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Figure 1. Encounter rate <strong>of</strong> monkey vocalizations at each<br />
site (95% confidence limits), <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve,<br />
Cameroon.<br />
Encounter rate/ km & 95% conf. limits<br />
0.8<br />
0.6<br />
0.4<br />
0.2<br />
0.0<br />
Basho<br />
Makone E<br />
Obonyi<br />
Oyi E<br />
Makone W<br />
Matene<br />
Oyi W<br />
Site surveyed
Large mammals assessment<br />
Table 3. Encounter rates for primates heard per kilometer <strong>of</strong> transect walked, <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Species<br />
Makone<br />
River<br />
East<br />
Makone<br />
River<br />
West<br />
Oyi<br />
East<br />
Basho hills (Figure 2) and, for C. nictitans, <strong>the</strong> Obonyi 1<br />
hills (Table 3). In <strong>the</strong> Matene hills, only C. nictitans was<br />
heard along <strong>the</strong> transects, although C. erythrotis was<br />
heard dur<strong>in</strong>g a ‘site selection’ walk.C. erythrotis was not<br />
seen at all along transects <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> highlands and rarely seen<br />
or heard <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowland areas (a total <strong>of</strong> 10 sight<strong>in</strong>gs and<br />
7 vocalization records <strong>in</strong> 12 months). Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
preussi was heard just 8 times on transect walks <strong>in</strong> 12<br />
months, twice <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> hills <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Basho area.<br />
Lowland Sites Highland Sites<br />
Oyi<br />
West<br />
Obonyi 1<br />
Hills<br />
Basho<br />
Hills<br />
Matene<br />
Hills<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
nictitans<br />
0.452 0.250 0.175 0.050 1.111 0.400 0.222<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus 0.143 0.100 0.175 0.050 0.800<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
preussi<br />
0.119 0.025 0.400<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
erythrotis<br />
0.095 0.050 0.050<br />
Makone<br />
River<br />
East<br />
Makone<br />
River<br />
West<br />
Oyi<br />
East<br />
3.4 Tracks, dung, and o<strong>the</strong>r signs<br />
115<br />
Track data were recorded at <strong>the</strong> hill sites dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> dry<br />
season when leaf litter covered <strong>the</strong> ground, mak<strong>in</strong>g it<br />
difficult to see tracks. In addition, <strong>the</strong> hill strata were<br />
mostly rocky, and tracks did not show up well. In <strong>the</strong><br />
lowland sites, frequent heavy ra<strong>in</strong>storms dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> wet<br />
season washed away tracks. Because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se conditions,<br />
<strong>the</strong> results <strong>in</strong> this section are somewhat subjective.<br />
Encounter rates for tracks were low throughout. The<br />
different animal tracks recorded along <strong>the</strong> transects were<br />
mostly made by ungulates, and most <strong>of</strong> those were<br />
Table 4. Encounter rates for large mammal species tracks per kilometer <strong>of</strong> transect walked, <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve,<br />
Cameroon.<br />
Species<br />
Lowland Sites Highland Sites<br />
Oyi<br />
West<br />
Obonyi 1<br />
Hills<br />
Basho<br />
Hills<br />
Matene<br />
Hills<br />
Red duikers 1.74 2.15 2.68 1.05 4.22 0.20 0.22<br />
Loxodonta 1.12 2.20 0.25 0.20<br />
Cephalophus<br />
monticola<br />
0.55 0.95 0.50 0.15 0.22 0.20<br />
Potamochoerus<br />
porcus<br />
0.29 1.10 0.85 1.25 0.89<br />
Syncerus caffer 0.12 0.20 0.10<br />
Hyemoschus<br />
aquaticus<br />
0.10 0.05 0.18 0.10<br />
Cephalophus<br />
silvicultor<br />
0.02 0.10 0.15 0.05<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
116 Sunderland-Groves and Maisels<br />
Table 5. Summary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dices <strong>of</strong> human pressure, <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon (data are encounter rates/km<br />
surveyed; numerical data stem from transects, "present" stems from reconnaissance surveys).<br />
Site Traps Hunter paths O<strong>the</strong>r paths<br />
assigned to medium-sized red duikers (Table 4.). The<br />
majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r tracks were from Cephalophus<br />
monticola and P. porcus. There were more C. monticola<br />
tracks <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Makone area than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Oyi area (P=0.004),<br />
but no significant differences between <strong>the</strong> two lowland<br />
sites for P. porcus (P=0.09) or “red” duikers (P=0.88).<br />
There were very few tracks <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> highland forest areas,<br />
perhaps due to expanses <strong>of</strong> rocky outcrops and large<br />
quantities <strong>of</strong> leaf litter. The Matene site was particularly<br />
poor <strong>in</strong> tracks; only one red duiker track was recorded.<br />
No significant difference (P=0.125; P=0.21) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
frequencies <strong>of</strong> elephant paths or tracks on <strong>the</strong> two sides<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Makone River was noted. A few elephant tracks<br />
and paths were recorded on <strong>the</strong> west side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Oyi, but<br />
<strong>the</strong> frequency was not different from <strong>the</strong> east side<br />
(P=0.69). There were no seasonal differences (P=0.11;<br />
P=0.29) for elephant paths at ei<strong>the</strong>r Makone or Oyi, both<br />
<strong>of</strong> which were surveyed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> wet and dry seasons. No<br />
elephant signs were seen <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> hill areas along transects,<br />
but elephant dung was seen on <strong>the</strong> steep part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Makone East site.<br />
So little dung was seen dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> study period, it<br />
was impossible to analyze. Only 15 dung piles <strong>of</strong> eight<br />
different mammal species were observed. The maximum<br />
nunber <strong>of</strong> dung piles for any one species was four. These<br />
records were not sufficient for analysis.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r signs (e.g.,<br />
cartridges, huts, gunshots)<br />
Makone River East 0.76 1.62 0.24 0.04<br />
Makone River West 0.30 2.97 1.00 0.02<br />
Oyi East 0.23 1.50 0.38 0.18<br />
Oyi West 1.10 1.55 0.55 0.04<br />
Obonyi 1 Present 1.33 - -<br />
Basho 0.80 1.00 - -<br />
Matene 0.22 2.00 - 0.04<br />
3.5 Human pressure<br />
Overall, more human signs (3.3 signs/km) were recorded<br />
at <strong>the</strong> lowland sites than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> highlands (1.9 signs/km).<br />
The only types <strong>of</strong> sign seen <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> highlands were traps,<br />
hunter paths, and bent sticks, while <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowlands, 11<br />
different types were recorded. The highest encounter rate<br />
for hunter’s paths was <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Makone River West area<br />
(Table 5). The number <strong>of</strong> hunter’s paths was significantly<br />
higher <strong>in</strong> this area than on <strong>the</strong> east side dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> wet<br />
season (P=0.01). There was no significant difference<br />
between <strong>the</strong> two sides <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> river for cartridge cases or<br />
non-hunt<strong>in</strong>g paths (P=0.58; P=0.061). There was no<br />
difference between <strong>the</strong> east and west sides <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Oyi<br />
river dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> wet season for any human sign (traps:<br />
P=0.11; hunt<strong>in</strong>g paths: P=0.24; cartridges: P= 0.19; o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
paths: P=0.78). Therefore <strong>the</strong> two sides <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Oyi River<br />
form a s<strong>in</strong>gle stratum <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> measurable human<br />
pressure. There was no significant difference between<br />
any <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> three highland sites for hunt<strong>in</strong>g paths for pairs<br />
<strong>of</strong> sites compared (P=0.32 to 0.85). Basho and Matene<br />
were compared for trap encounter rate: <strong>the</strong>re was no<br />
significant difference between <strong>the</strong>m (P=0.32).<br />
When all <strong>the</strong> data from <strong>the</strong> lowlands are compared<br />
with all data from <strong>the</strong> highlands (dry season only), <strong>the</strong>re<br />
were significantly more traps and hunter’s paths <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
lowlands than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> highlands (P=0.005; P=0.019),<br />
reflect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> higher hunt<strong>in</strong>g pressure <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowlands.
Large mammals assessment<br />
4 Discussion<br />
Because this was <strong>the</strong> first long-term survey <strong>of</strong> large<br />
mammals <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, no data exist to<br />
compare changes <strong>in</strong> encounter rates over time, except for<br />
gorillas <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1950s (see Sunderland-Groves et al. this<br />
volume). However, we did exam<strong>in</strong>e previous work <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
area to determ<strong>in</strong>e whe<strong>the</strong>r species that were once <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> no longer occur.<br />
The surveys revealed that <strong>the</strong> Matene forest had both<br />
<strong>the</strong> lowest diversity and abundance <strong>of</strong> large mammals.<br />
Local hunters at Matene village reported that <strong>the</strong>y now<br />
have to hunt <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Makone River area because <strong>the</strong>re are<br />
so few large mammals rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir own forests.<br />
The Makone area was found to have <strong>the</strong> greatest hunt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pressure, which may be <strong>in</strong>dicative <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> recent migration<br />
<strong>of</strong> Matene (and o<strong>the</strong>r) hunters to Makone.<br />
Species that are currently very scarce <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude elephant, buffalo, water chevrota<strong>in</strong>, and yellowbacked<br />
duiker. Elephants and buffalo were reported by<br />
Thomas to be “common” <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> center <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> 1987 survey, but elephants were nei<strong>the</strong>r seen<br />
nor heard <strong>in</strong> 1998 and 1999. Local hunters claimed that<br />
elephants entered <strong>Takamanda</strong> forest dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> wet<br />
season to feed on fruits such as bush mango Irv<strong>in</strong>gia<br />
gabonensis, and that <strong>the</strong>y returned to Nigeria where <strong>the</strong>y<br />
were not subjected to <strong>the</strong> same hunt<strong>in</strong>g pressure as <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>.<br />
Buffalo tracks and a s<strong>in</strong>gle sight<strong>in</strong>g were recorded <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> lowlands. Water chevrota<strong>in</strong> and yellow-backed<br />
duiker sign was very rare throughout <strong>the</strong> surveys and was<br />
recorded only <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowlands. Drill and crowned guenon<br />
were also rare. However, a more recent study (Groves<br />
2002) observed drills <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Basho hills, Mone Forest<br />
Reserve, and parts <strong>of</strong> Mbulu forest, f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se animals<br />
to be more widespread than reported here.<br />
Compar<strong>in</strong>g our f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs with those <strong>of</strong> Sanderson<br />
(1940) and Struhsaker (1967), it appears that at least one<br />
species <strong>of</strong> large mammal has gone ext<strong>in</strong>ct dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> last<br />
30 years; we did not record grey-cheeked mangabey<br />
Cercocebus albigena, although <strong>the</strong>y were noted by<br />
117<br />
Struhsaker. Local <strong>Takamanda</strong> hunters accurately<br />
described <strong>the</strong> color, size, and vocalization <strong>of</strong> this species<br />
and reported that a group rema<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Obonyi III area.<br />
The vernacular name for this species <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> is<br />
gebilika. The vernacular name <strong>of</strong> kebilika <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> adjacent<br />
forest area <strong>of</strong> Okwangwo <strong>in</strong> Nigeria is similar (Oates et<br />
al. 1990). However, C. albigena has not been recorded<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce 1967, and it is probably now locally ext<strong>in</strong>ct <strong>in</strong> both<br />
Okwangwo (Oates pers. comm) and <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>.<br />
The red-capped mangabey Cercocebus torquatus<br />
was recorded by Thomas (1988) near Makone West, and<br />
a specimen was collected just outside <strong>the</strong> Reserve (near<br />
<strong>the</strong> village <strong>of</strong> Atolo) <strong>in</strong> 1933 (Sanderson 1940). But <strong>the</strong>se<br />
are <strong>the</strong> only two reports <strong>of</strong> this primate species hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
existed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area, and dur<strong>in</strong>g this study, local hunters<br />
could not identify <strong>the</strong> species from a description <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
animal, vocalizations, or a photograph. It appears that C.<br />
torquatus previously existed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area, but was hunted<br />
out or that C. albigena was mistakenly identified as C.<br />
torquatus <strong>in</strong> earlier studies.<br />
The Sanderson collection <strong>in</strong>cludes two tantalus<br />
monkeys (Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus aethiops) sampled from around<br />
Mamfe. C. aethiops is mostly a grassland species, and it<br />
is possible that a few still rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> grassland sites north<br />
and east <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>. Certa<strong>in</strong>ly, it still occurs <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
grasslands <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kilum-Ijim area, some 100 km due east<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> (Maisels et al. 2001). Dur<strong>in</strong>g our 1998-<br />
1999 survey, local people said that this primate did not<br />
occur with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve.<br />
Leopard (Pan<strong>the</strong>ra pardus) and <strong>the</strong> giant pangol<strong>in</strong><br />
(Smutsia gigantea) were reported by local hunters <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g this study. Nei<strong>the</strong>r species was<br />
collected by Sanderson (1940), recorded by Thomas<br />
(1988), or observed dur<strong>in</strong>g this study. Occasional reports<br />
<strong>of</strong> leopard sight<strong>in</strong>gs were received, along with stories <strong>of</strong><br />
leopard sk<strong>in</strong>s traded across <strong>the</strong> border with Nigeria <strong>in</strong><br />
previous years. Pangol<strong>in</strong>s are a very popular bushmeat <strong>in</strong><br />
Africa, and although smaller sized pangol<strong>in</strong>s were<br />
observed several times <strong>in</strong> villages, it was widely reported<br />
that giant pangol<strong>in</strong>s had been extirpated from <strong>the</strong> area.<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
118 Sunderland-Groves and Maisels<br />
Bushmeat is still a prom<strong>in</strong>ent source <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>come and<br />
prote<strong>in</strong> for villagers <strong>in</strong> TFR. Although traditional hunt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
rights were granted to <strong>the</strong> local communities dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
establishment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve, <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> firearms has<br />
been prohibited s<strong>in</strong>ce 1934. Still, firearm hunt<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
widespread throughout <strong>the</strong> area. Until recently, access<br />
was limited mostly to footpaths, but hunt<strong>in</strong>g has been<br />
relatively <strong>in</strong>tensive and will only <strong>in</strong>crease with <strong>the</strong> new<br />
road if normal tropical forest trends (Bennett and<br />
Rob<strong>in</strong>son 2000a) apply. In 1988, Thomas reported that<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve probably conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>the</strong><br />
most significant populations <strong>of</strong> large mammals <strong>in</strong><br />
Cameroon west <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sanaga River. This is no longer <strong>the</strong><br />
case. We found that <strong>the</strong> perceptions <strong>of</strong> local people were<br />
paradoxical: on <strong>the</strong> one hand, hunters claimed that <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
forest resources such as bushmeat would never<br />
disappear. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, most people admitted that<br />
bushmeat was easily found ten years before our study,<br />
but had become very hard to f<strong>in</strong>d by 1999. This is a<br />
familiar story throughout forested Africa, where <strong>the</strong><br />
forest itself “hides” <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong> fauna is vanish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(Redford 1992, Bennett and Rob<strong>in</strong>son 2000b, Redford<br />
and Fe<strong>in</strong>s<strong>in</strong>ger 2000, Rob<strong>in</strong>son and Bennett 2000c).<br />
Although <strong>Takamanda</strong> still hosts a wide diversity <strong>of</strong> fauna,<br />
unsusta<strong>in</strong>able hunt<strong>in</strong>g rates are hav<strong>in</strong>g a rapid negative<br />
effect on wildlife populations. If such hunt<strong>in</strong>g practices<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ue at <strong>the</strong> current rate, more <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> large mammal<br />
species found today will vanish.<br />
In most humid tropical forests, prote<strong>in</strong> requirements<br />
<strong>of</strong> local communities are ei<strong>the</strong>r partly or almost entirely<br />
provided by wild animals, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g mammals, birds,<br />
fish, and <strong>in</strong>sects (Wilkie and Curran et al. 1998, Wilkie<br />
and Sidle et al. 1998, Bowen-Jones and Pendry 1999,<br />
Rob<strong>in</strong>son et al. 1999, Rob<strong>in</strong>son and Bennett 2000c). In<br />
tropical forests, <strong>the</strong> carry<strong>in</strong>g capacity for people who<br />
depend exclusively on wild meat cannot greatly exceed<br />
one person /km 2 (Bennett and Rob<strong>in</strong>son 2000a, b). No<br />
commercial hunt<strong>in</strong>g (that is, hunt<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>in</strong>come ra<strong>the</strong>r<br />
than prote<strong>in</strong>) <strong>of</strong> wild animals <strong>in</strong> tropical forests has, to<br />
date, been proved susta<strong>in</strong>able over <strong>the</strong> long term<br />
(Rob<strong>in</strong>son and Bodmer 1999, Bennett and Rob<strong>in</strong>son<br />
2000c). In 1999, <strong>the</strong> human population density <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area<br />
with<strong>in</strong> and around <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve was<br />
estimated at about 3.6 people/km 2 (Groves and Maisels<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
1999) and has more recently been estimated at more than<br />
4.6 people/km 2 (Schmidt-Soltau et. al. 2001.) Clearly,<br />
use <strong>of</strong> wildlife as <strong>the</strong> sole source <strong>of</strong> prote<strong>in</strong> by <strong>the</strong><br />
populations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> area is unsusta<strong>in</strong>able,<br />
particularly when coupled with commercial hunt<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
This research was supported by WWF Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands<br />
through <strong>the</strong> WWF Cameroon Program Office, Yaounde.<br />
We thank Cameroon’s M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Environment and<br />
Forestry (MINEF) and M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Scientific and<br />
Technical Research (MINREST) as well as <strong>the</strong> Chiefs<br />
and Traditional Council members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> villages <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve. A note <strong>of</strong> appreciation goes<br />
to John Oates, Steve Gartlan, Jaap Schoorl, Terry<br />
Sunderland, Bryan Curran, and all at <strong>the</strong> Mount Kupe<br />
Project, Cameroon, for <strong>the</strong>ir support and assistance. We<br />
are grateful to <strong>the</strong> field team—Albert Ek<strong>in</strong>de and Mpako<br />
Johannes—and guides Zacharia Abang, Mart<strong>in</strong> Tiko,<br />
Jasper Obi, Dennis Agbor, Mart<strong>in</strong> Ashu, and many<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs. Thanks to Dan Slayback for prepar<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> maps.<br />
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Rob<strong>in</strong>son, J. G. and R. E. Bodmer. 1999. Towards<br />
wildlife management <strong>in</strong> tropical forests. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Wildlife Management 63: 1-13.<br />
Rob<strong>in</strong>son, J. G., K. H. Redford, and E. L. Bennett. 1999.<br />
Wildlife harvest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> logged tropical forests.<br />
Science 284: 595-596.<br />
Sanderson, I. T. 1940. The mammals <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> north<br />
Cameroon forest area. Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond. 24:<br />
623-725.<br />
Schmidt-Soltau, K., M. Mdaihli, and J. S. O. Ayeni.<br />
2001. Socioeceonomic basel<strong>in</strong>e survey <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve. 65pp. Draft report to<br />
PROFA, Mamfe.<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
120 Sunderland-Groves and Maisels<br />
Siegel, S., and Castellan, N.J. JR. 1988. Nonparametric<br />
statistics for <strong>the</strong> behavioural sciences., 2nd edn.<br />
McGraw-Hill. New York.<br />
Struhsaker, T. T. 1967. Prelim<strong>in</strong>ary Report on a Survey <strong>of</strong><br />
High Forest Primates <strong>in</strong> West Cameroon. New York:<br />
Rockefeller University and <strong>the</strong> New York Zoological<br />
Society.<br />
Thomas, D. 1988. Status and conservation <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Gorillas (Cameroon). F<strong>in</strong>al Report , WWF-1613.<br />
WWF-USA<br />
Thomas, L., J. L. Laake, S. Str<strong>in</strong>dberg, F. F. C. Marques,<br />
S. T. Buckland, D. L. Borchers, D. R. AndersonK.<br />
P. Burnham, S. L. Hedley, and J. H. Pollard. 2002.<br />
Distance 4.0. Research Unit for Wildlife Population<br />
Assessment. St. Andrews, UK: University <strong>of</strong> St.<br />
Andrews.<br />
Walsh, P. D., K. A. Abernathy, M. Bermejo, R. Beyers, P.<br />
D. Wachter, M. E. Akou, B. Huijbregts, D. I.<br />
Mambounga, A. K. Toham, A. M. Kilbourn, S. A.<br />
Lahm, S. Latour, F. Maisels, C. Mb<strong>in</strong>a, Y. Mih<strong>in</strong>dou,<br />
S. N. Obiang, E.N., Effa, M. P. Starkey, P. Telfer, M.<br />
Thibault, C. E., G. Tut<strong>in</strong>, L. J. T. White, and D. S.<br />
Wilkie. 2003. Commercial hunt<strong>in</strong>g, ebola and<br />
catastrophic ape decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> western equatorial Africa.<br />
Nature 422:611-614.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
White, L., and A. Edwards. 2000. Conservation<br />
Research <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> African Ra<strong>in</strong> Forests: A Technical<br />
Handbook. Bronx, NY: The Wildlife Conservation<br />
Society.<br />
Wilkie, D. S., B. Curran, R. Tshombe, and G. A. Morelli.<br />
1998. Manag<strong>in</strong>g bushmeat hunt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Okapi<br />
Wildlife Reserve, Democratic Republic <strong>of</strong> Congo.<br />
Oryx 32: 131-144.<br />
Wilkie, D. S., J. Sidle, G. Boundzanga, P. Auzel, and S.<br />
Blake. 1998. Defaunation not deforestation:<br />
Commercial logg<strong>in</strong>g and market hunt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Congo. In: A. Grajal, J. Rob<strong>in</strong>son, and A. Vedder,<br />
eds. The <strong>Impact</strong> <strong>of</strong> Commercial Logg<strong>in</strong>g on Wildlife<br />
<strong>in</strong> Tropical Forests. Bronx, NY: Wildlife<br />
Conservation Society.<br />
Wilkie, D., E. Shaw, F. Rotberg, G. Morelli, and P. Auzel.<br />
2000. Roads, development, and conservation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Congo bas<strong>in</strong>. Conservation Biology 14: 1614-1622.
Large mammals assessment<br />
Appendix 1. Checklist <strong>of</strong> all British Museum <strong>of</strong> Natural History specimens exclud<strong>in</strong>g ungulates and bats, collected by<br />
Sanderson <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> areas surround<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
Species Common Name Year<br />
collected<br />
# Dry sk<strong>in</strong>s<br />
Specimens exam<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
by<br />
Area <strong>of</strong> Collection<br />
Gorilla gorilla Cross River gorilla 4 JG<br />
Pan troglodytes Chimpanzee 1933 2 RD Kendem (Mamfe Division)<br />
Mandrillus<br />
leucophaeus<br />
Drill 1932/1993 5 RD<br />
Mamfe, Atolo, Bali (Mamfe<br />
div.), Ikom Division<br />
Cercocebus<br />
torquatus<br />
Red capped<br />
mangabey<br />
1933 1 RD Atolo<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
aethiops<br />
Tantalus monkey 1932/1933 2 RD Mamfe<br />
Mamfe, Bashor II (=Basho II?),<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
mona<br />
Mona monkey 1932/1933 21 RD<br />
T<strong>in</strong>ta, Atlo (=Atolo), Assumb (=<br />
Assumbo), Ma<strong>in</strong>yu bridge<br />
(=Manuy bridge)<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
pogonias<br />
Crowned guenon 1933 2 RD Basho II, Atolo<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
preussi<br />
Preuss’s guenon 1933 2 RD T<strong>in</strong>ta<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
erythrotis<br />
Red-eared guenon 1932/1933 4 RD<br />
T<strong>in</strong>ta, Mamfe, Ishobi (=Eshobi?),<br />
Bashor?<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
nictitans<br />
Puttynose monkey 193? 5 RD<br />
Mamfe, Ma<strong>in</strong>yu bridge (=Manyu<br />
bridge)<br />
Galago elegantulus<br />
Elegant needle-<br />
(Euoticus<br />
clawed galago<br />
elegantulus)<br />
1932/1933 18 RD<br />
Mamfe, Mafe, Bagi (Mamfe<br />
div.), Eschobi “bush” (=Eshobi)<br />
Galago alleni<br />
Galago demidovii<br />
Allen’s squirrel<br />
galago<br />
1932/1933 7 RD Nchang, Mamfe, Mfatok<br />
(Galagoides<br />
demid<strong>of</strong>f)<br />
Demid<strong>of</strong>f’s galago 1933 1 RD Eshobi<br />
Arctocebus<br />
(calabrensis)<br />
aureus<br />
Calabar<br />
angwantibo<br />
1932/1933 5 RD Mamfe<br />
Peridicticus potto Potto 1932/1933 4 RD Mamfe<br />
Crocidura olivieri White-too<strong>the</strong>d<br />
shrew<br />
1932/1933 16 RD<br />
Mamfe, Eshobi, Eschobi-Mamfe<br />
bush,<br />
Civettictis civetta African civet cat 1932/1933 9 RD Mamfe, Atolo, Manyu bridge<br />
Genetta serval<strong>in</strong>a Serval<strong>in</strong>e genet 1932/1933 10 RD<br />
Mamfe, Bakebe, Okogong,<br />
Basso, Olulu (Assumbo)<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
121<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
122 Sunderland-Groves and Maisels<br />
Appendix 1 (cont.). Mammal checklist <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
Species Common Name Year<br />
collected<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
# Dry sk<strong>in</strong>s<br />
Specimens exam<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
by<br />
Area <strong>of</strong> Collection<br />
Genetta tigr<strong>in</strong>a Blotched genet 1932/1933 6 RD<br />
Mamfe, Kembong, N’dekwa,<br />
Victoria<br />
Mamfe, Eshobi, Victoria,<br />
Nand<strong>in</strong>ia b<strong>in</strong>otata African palm civet 1932/1933 21 RD Mbilishi (=Mblishe), Mkani<br />
(Obrubra div.)<br />
Herpestes naso<br />
Long-snouted<br />
mongoose<br />
1932/1933 3 RD<br />
Mamfe, Okoyong, Ma<strong>in</strong>yu<br />
bridge (= Manyu bridge)<br />
Atilax palud<strong>in</strong>osus Marsh mongoose 1932 2 RD Mamfe<br />
Crossarchus<br />
obscurus<br />
Cusimanse 1932/1933 6 RD<br />
Mamfe, Bachua etia, Nko<br />
(Abrubra div.?), Ma<strong>in</strong>yu bridge<br />
(=Manyu bridge), Bakebe<br />
Bdeogale nigripes Black-legged<br />
mongoose<br />
1932/1933 3 RD Mamfe, Bashauo<br />
Anomalurus<br />
derbianus<br />
Lord Derby’s<br />
anomalure<br />
1932/1933 9 RD<br />
Bassor, Bashor II, Bashaou,<br />
Bashor, Eshobi, Mamfe div.<br />
Anomalurus<br />
beecr<strong>of</strong>ti<br />
Beecr<strong>of</strong>t’s<br />
anomalure<br />
1932/1933 5 RD Eshobi, Mamfe<br />
Idiurus macrotis<br />
Long-eared fly<strong>in</strong>g<br />
mouse<br />
1932/1933 7 RD Eshobi, Besong Abang, T<strong>in</strong>ta,<br />
Idiurus zenkeri<br />
Zenker’s fly<strong>in</strong>g<br />
mouse<br />
1933 1 RD Eshobi<br />
Protoxerus<br />
stangeri<br />
African giant<br />
squirrel<br />
1932/1933 12 RD<br />
Okoyong, Ma<strong>in</strong>yu-Bali Mamfe,<br />
Eshobi, T<strong>in</strong>ta<br />
Heliosciurus<br />
rufobrachium<br />
Funisciurus<br />
Red-legged sun<br />
squirrel<br />
1933 12 RD<br />
T<strong>in</strong>ta, Mkpani (Obrubra div.)<br />
Nko<br />
auriculatus<br />
(oliviae)<br />
Rope squirrel 1933 2 RD Mamfe Eshobi<br />
Funisciurus<br />
Rope squirrel<br />
auriculatus (boydi)<br />
Funisciurus<br />
1933 1 RD T<strong>in</strong>ta<br />
leucostigma<br />
(talboti)<br />
Rope squirrel 1932/1933 11 RD Mamfe, Ekuri (Obrubra), Nko<br />
Aethosciurus<br />
poensis<br />
1933 2 RD Mamfe, Bashor Mamfe<br />
Myosciurus<br />
pumilio<br />
African pygmy<br />
squirrel<br />
- - RD<br />
SPECIMEN NOT FOUND AT<br />
BM<br />
Oenomys<br />
hypoxanthus<br />
Rusty-nosed rat 1932/1933 10 RD<br />
Mamfe, Assumbo, Bashor<br />
Mamfe<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Large mammals assessment<br />
Appendix 1 (cont.). Mammal checklist <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
Species Common Name Year<br />
collected<br />
Lophuromys<br />
sikapusi<br />
Hylomyscus alleni<br />
(canus)<br />
# Dry sk<strong>in</strong>s<br />
Specimens exam<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
by<br />
Brush-furred mouse 1932 5 RD Mamfe<br />
African wood<br />
mouse<br />
1932/1933 8 RD<br />
Stochomys Target rat - - RD<br />
Thamnomys<br />
rutilans<br />
Malacomys<br />
longipes<br />
Hybomys<br />
univittatus<br />
Broad-footed<br />
thicket rat<br />
1933 1 RD Mamfe-Eshobi<br />
Long-footed rat 1932/1933 12 RD<br />
Area <strong>of</strong> Collection<br />
123<br />
Mamfe, Besong Abang, Eshobi,<br />
Eschobi-Mamfe bush<br />
SPECIMEN NOT FOUND AT<br />
BM<br />
Mamfe-Eshobi bush, Mamfe,<br />
Eshobi<br />
Hump-nosed mouse 1932/1933 4 RD Mamfe, Assumbo<br />
Mastomys coucha Multimammate rat 1932/1933 18 RD Mamfe, Assumbo, T<strong>in</strong>ta,<br />
Cricetomys<br />
gambianus<br />
Giant-pouched rat 1933 1 RD Bachania Assumbo area<br />
Cricetomys em<strong>in</strong>i Giant-pouched rat 1932/1933 9 RD<br />
Lemniscomys<br />
striatus<br />
Mamfe, Bashauo, Bashor II,<br />
Assumbo, T<strong>in</strong>ta, Atolo<br />
Zebra mouse 1932/1933 11 RD Mamfe, Mamfe-Eshobi<br />
Praomys tullbergi S<strong>of</strong>t-furred rat 1932/1933 31 RD<br />
A<strong>the</strong>rurus<br />
africanus<br />
Brush-tailed<br />
porcup<strong>in</strong>e<br />
1932 4 RD Mamfe<br />
T<strong>in</strong>ta, Mamfe, Eshobi, Assumbo,<br />
Bakebe<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
124 Sunderland-Groves and Maisels<br />
Appendix 2. Large mammals observed <strong>in</strong> 1987 and 1998-99 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve. Data from Thomas et al. (1988)<br />
and <strong>the</strong> current study. Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sites surveyed <strong>in</strong> 1998 were not surveyed <strong>in</strong> by Thomas et al. The observational data are from<br />
<strong>the</strong> current study (1998).<br />
Site Stratum Site Name Species <strong>in</strong> 1987 Species <strong>in</strong> 1998 Observed Heard Dung Nests<br />
(1987) (1998) (1998)<br />
Camp 5 Stratum Makone Not mentioned <strong>in</strong> Loxodonta africana Y<br />
River East text Procavia ruficeps Y<br />
‘Wild cat© Y<br />
Red duikers Y Y<br />
Cephalophus<br />
monticola<br />
Y Y<br />
Gorilla gorilla Y<br />
Pan troglodytes Y Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
erythrotis<br />
Y Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus mona Y Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
nictitans<br />
Y Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
preussi<br />
Y Y Y<br />
"Squirrels" Y<br />
Crossarchus<br />
obscurus<br />
Y<br />
Opposite<br />
Camp<br />
Stratum<br />
2<br />
Makone<br />
River West<br />
Loxodonta<br />
africana<br />
Loxodonta africana<br />
Y<br />
5 & 6 Syncerus caffer<br />
Potamochoerus<br />
porcus<br />
Syncerus caffer Y<br />
Red duikers Y<br />
Gorilla gorilla<br />
Cephalophus<br />
monticola<br />
Y<br />
Mandrillus<br />
leucophaeus<br />
Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
erythrotis<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
erythrotis<br />
Y Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
mona<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus mona<br />
Y Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
nictitans<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
pogonias<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
nictitans<br />
Y Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
preussi<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
preussi<br />
Y<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Large mammals assessment<br />
Appendix 2 (cont.). Large mammal observational data from <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
Site<br />
(1987)<br />
Stratum<br />
(1998)<br />
Site Name<br />
(1998)<br />
Species <strong>in</strong> 1987 Species <strong>in</strong> 1998<br />
125<br />
Observed Heard Dung Nests<br />
Cercocebus<br />
torquatus<br />
- Stratum Oyi/Magbe Not mentioned Loxodonta africana Y<br />
East <strong>in</strong> text Red duikers Y Y<br />
Cephalophus<br />
monticola<br />
Y<br />
Mandrillus<br />
leucophaeus<br />
Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
erythrotis<br />
Y Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus mona Y Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
nictitans<br />
Y Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
preussi<br />
Y Y<br />
- Stratum<br />
4<br />
Oyi/Magbe Not mentioned <strong>in</strong> Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
text<br />
erythrotis<br />
Y Y<br />
West Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus mona Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
nictitans<br />
Y<br />
- Stratum Obonyi 1 Not mentioned Red duikers Y<br />
5 Hills <strong>in</strong> text Cephalophus<br />
monticola<br />
Y<br />
Gorilla gorilla Y<br />
Pan troglodytes Y Y Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
nictitans<br />
Y<br />
- Stratum Basho Hills Not mentioned Procavia ruficeps Y<br />
6 <strong>in</strong> text Gorilla gorilla Y Y<br />
Pan troglodytes Y Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus mona<br />
Y Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
nictitans<br />
Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
preussi<br />
Y<br />
A<strong>the</strong>rurus africanus Y<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
126 Sunderland-Groves and Maisels<br />
Appendix 2 (cont.). Large mammal observational data from <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
Site<br />
(1987)<br />
Stratum Site Name<br />
(1998) (1998)<br />
Species <strong>in</strong> 1987 Species <strong>in</strong> 1998<br />
Observed Heard Dung Nests<br />
Footpath Stratum Matene Red duikers Y<br />
between 7 Hills Pan troglodytes Y<br />
Mbilishe-<br />
Matene<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
erythrotis<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
erythrotis<br />
Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
mona<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus mona<br />
Y<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
nictitans<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
pogonias<br />
Mandrillus<br />
leucophaeus<br />
Cercopi<strong>the</strong>cus<br />
nictitans<br />
Y<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest
Large mammals assessment<br />
Appendix 3. Distribution <strong>of</strong> large mammal sight<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
g2<br />
@‚E—2A<br />
5<br />
g2—<br />
@g2A<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5 5<br />
55<br />
5<br />
g—2—<br />
@‚2A<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
v—2———<br />
@i—A<br />
g2—<br />
@€E2A<br />
5<br />
g2<br />
@€92A<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5 5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
g—2<br />
@‰E˜—2A<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5 5<br />
55<br />
5<br />
w2——<br />
@‡—2—A<br />
g2—<br />
@w—2A<br />
5<br />
g—2—<br />
@f2A<br />
5<br />
w—2—<br />
@hA<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5 5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
€—2<br />
@‚E2A<br />
5<br />
5<br />
5<br />
127<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
128<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest
Surveys <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cross River Gorilla and Chimpanzee Populations <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Jacquel<strong>in</strong>e L. Sunderland-Groves, Fiona Maisels and Albert Ek<strong>in</strong>de<br />
1 Introduction<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> and Mone rorest reserves and <strong>the</strong> Mbulu<br />
forest are located on <strong>the</strong> Cameroon side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nigerian-<br />
Cameroon border. Toge<strong>the</strong>r with <strong>the</strong> adjo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g area <strong>in</strong><br />
Nigeria—<strong>the</strong> Okwangwo division <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cross River<br />
National Park—<strong>the</strong>y form part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> last stronghold <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Cross River gorillas Gorilla gorilla diehli. These<br />
gorillas are classified as Critically Endangered (IUCN<br />
2000) and now occur only <strong>in</strong> four isolated subpopulations<br />
(Afi, Mbe, Obudu, and Okwangwo/<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>/Mone/Mbulu) with<strong>in</strong> an area <strong>of</strong> about 5,000<br />
km 2 .<br />
Cross River gorillas were orig<strong>in</strong>ally described as a<br />
new species (Gorilla diehli) by <strong>the</strong> German taxonomist<br />
Paul Matschie <strong>in</strong> 1904. Later taxonomic research<br />
reduced this species rank to that <strong>of</strong> a sub-species, lead<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to <strong>the</strong>ir eventual amalgamation with o<strong>the</strong>r lowland<br />
gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla; Rothschild 1904, 1906,<br />
Elliot 1912, Coolidge 1929, Groves 1970). However,<br />
craniometric research by Stumpf et al. (1998) reopened<br />
<strong>the</strong> question as to whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> Cross River gorilla is a<br />
sub-species. Additional study by Sarmiento and Oates<br />
(2000), <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> re-measurement <strong>of</strong> Nigerian and<br />
Cameroonian gorilla skulls, concluded that <strong>the</strong>se gorillas<br />
are <strong>in</strong>deed more taxonomically dist<strong>in</strong>ct than previously<br />
described, and <strong>the</strong>y are now recognized as <strong>the</strong> fourth subspecies<br />
<strong>of</strong> gorilla.<br />
Information on gorilla abundance and distribution<br />
with<strong>in</strong> this region has been documented for more than 70<br />
years (Allen 1930, Sanderson 1940, March 1957,<br />
Struhsaker 1967, Critchley 1968, Harris et al. 1987,<br />
Thomas 1988, Harcourt et al. 1988, 1989, Oates et al.<br />
1990, Groves 1996, Obot et al. 1997, Oates 1998). A call<br />
for surveys <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mamfe-Obudu region (Oates 1996)<br />
mentioned that hunt<strong>in</strong>g was a major environmental<br />
problem and recommended that biological surveys <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> should be undertaken, <strong>the</strong>n followed by<br />
conservation management. Field surveys were<br />
subsequently conducted by Sunderland-Groves <strong>in</strong> 1998<br />
and 1999 <strong>in</strong> Cameroon, which led to additional research<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2000 and 2001 that cont<strong>in</strong>ues today.<br />
The objectives <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial 1998-1999 surveys were<br />
to collect basel<strong>in</strong>e data on <strong>the</strong> large mammals <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
reserves, focus<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>the</strong> gorilla population, and assess<br />
conservation threats and potential. In relation to <strong>the</strong><br />
gorilla population, <strong>the</strong> aim was to obta<strong>in</strong> an estimate <strong>of</strong><br />
size and <strong>of</strong> habitat types most used by <strong>the</strong> animals.<br />
Results on apes from <strong>the</strong> 1998-1999 surveys are reported<br />
<strong>in</strong> detail <strong>in</strong> Sunderland-Groves and Maisels (<strong>in</strong> prep). To<br />
compare <strong>the</strong> results obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> 2000 and 2001, <strong>the</strong> 1998-<br />
1999 data are summarized <strong>in</strong> this paper.<br />
Although <strong>the</strong>re is still much to learn about this subspecies<br />
<strong>of</strong> gorilla, considerable progress has been made<br />
over a relatively short period <strong>of</strong> time, elict<strong>in</strong>g a more<br />
comprehensive overview <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir range, distribution, and<br />
abundance with<strong>in</strong> Cameroon.<br />
2 Ape Conservation Status<br />
Chapter 9<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to local tradition <strong>in</strong> this region, <strong>the</strong> meat <strong>of</strong><br />
great apes may not be sold, but gorilla hunt<strong>in</strong>g occurred<br />
before this survey started and still occasionally takes<br />
place <strong>in</strong> areas outside <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>. Ape populations are<br />
more vulnerable to hunt<strong>in</strong>g than smaller primates; <strong>the</strong>y<br />
recover very slowly from population reduction because<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>ter-birth <strong>in</strong>terval <strong>of</strong> about four years, late date<br />
<strong>of</strong> maturity, and complex social system (see Walsh et al.<br />
2003 for an overview <strong>of</strong> present gorilla status <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
region as a whole).<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003, Pages 129 to 140
130 Sunderland-Groves et al.<br />
In more recent years, gorilla groups <strong>in</strong> Cameroon-<br />
Nigeria border region <strong>the</strong> study area have become more<br />
fragmented and isolated as <strong>the</strong>ir habitat has succumbed to<br />
agricultural and o<strong>the</strong>r land development activities.<br />
Construction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> new road between <strong>the</strong> towns <strong>of</strong><br />
Mamfe and Akwaya, when completed, will cut directly<br />
between <strong>Takamanda</strong> and <strong>the</strong> Mone and Mbulu forests,<br />
prevent<strong>in</strong>g gorilla movement between <strong>the</strong> areas.<br />
Hunt<strong>in</strong>g and agricultural activities will have a similar<br />
effect on <strong>the</strong> chimpanzee populations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area that, like<br />
<strong>the</strong> gorillas, are fragmented and conf<strong>in</strong>ed to highland<br />
areas. In 1997, <strong>the</strong> chimpanzees <strong>of</strong> eastern Nigeria and<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> were described as a dist<strong>in</strong>ct sub-species Pan<br />
troglodytes vellerosus (Gonder et al. 1997), and although<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir numbers <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> wild have not been thoroughly<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigated, it is thought that <strong>the</strong> populations are<br />
decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The Cross River Gorilla Research Project<br />
(Cameroon) has <strong>in</strong>itiated conservation efforts to<br />
elim<strong>in</strong>ate hunt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se two species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region. The<br />
focus is on work<strong>in</strong>g with local communities and<br />
dissem<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> educational materials <strong>in</strong> collaboration<br />
with <strong>the</strong> jo<strong>in</strong>t M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Environment and Forests<br />
(MINEF)/GTZ project—Protection <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Forests<br />
Around Akwaya (PROFA).<br />
3 Study area<br />
The 675-km 2 <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve is mostly<br />
covered by Atlantic evergreen forest, rang<strong>in</strong>g from 100 m<br />
to 1500 m above sea level (Figure 2 <strong>in</strong> Chapter 1). Much<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowland forest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn and central parts <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Reserve is between 100 m and –400 m <strong>in</strong> elevation.<br />
The terra<strong>in</strong> is roll<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowlands, but rises sharply to<br />
1500 m <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve where slopes<br />
are extremely steep and areas <strong>of</strong> semi-deciduous forest,<br />
woody savannah (<strong>of</strong>ten degraded), and montane woody<br />
savannah with grasslands prevail between 1200 m and<br />
2200 m (Letouzey 1985). Around villages, <strong>the</strong> vegetation<br />
has been modified and is degraded evergreen lowland<br />
forest and farmbush (a mosaic <strong>of</strong> cultivation and fallow).<br />
The lowland forest is particularly diverse; it is thought to<br />
be part <strong>of</strong> a Pleistocene refugium. The forest formation is<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>ct as <strong>the</strong>re is a relative paucity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Caesalp<strong>in</strong>ioides, which are normally common <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Atlantic coastal forest (see Sunderland et al. this volume<br />
for a more detailed discussion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vegetation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
area). 0<br />
In 1985, <strong>the</strong> human population density <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> area was estimated at between 6 and 12<br />
people/km 2 (Letouzey 1985). In 1999 <strong>the</strong> approximate<br />
total human population, based on a complete census <strong>of</strong><br />
n<strong>in</strong>e villages, was estimated at 2,490 (Groves and<br />
Maisels 1999). A more recent socio-economic survey<br />
conducted by PROFAthat covered 43 villages with<strong>in</strong> and<br />
surround<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g 12<br />
villages on <strong>the</strong> Nigerian side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> border, estimated total<br />
human population at 15,707 (Schmidt-Soltau et al.<br />
2001). Socio-economic activities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region revolve<br />
strongly around <strong>the</strong> forest and its resources, especially for<br />
<strong>the</strong> villages that are far from markets (Ifeka 1999,<br />
Sunderland et al. this volume), and people who live <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
most remote villages depend almost entirely on<br />
bushmeat for <strong>the</strong>ir prote<strong>in</strong> requirements. They also rely<br />
on <strong>the</strong> harvest and sale <strong>of</strong> non-timber forest products as<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir ma<strong>in</strong> source <strong>of</strong> cash, particularly Irv<strong>in</strong>gia<br />
gabonensis, or “bush mango,” ra<strong>the</strong>r than on cultivated<br />
crops or livestock.<br />
The area has been historically partially protected by<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> access, but this is chang<strong>in</strong>g. Accessibility to <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Reserve from <strong>the</strong> Nigerian side is by foot<br />
only, but a new road from Mamfe (Figure 2 <strong>in</strong> Chapter 1)<br />
now allows access to with<strong>in</strong> 5 km <strong>of</strong> its limits from <strong>the</strong><br />
Cameroonian side. The Mone Forest Reserve is<br />
separated from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> reserve by a corridor <strong>of</strong><br />
ungazetted forest, which, at its narrowest, is about 7 km<br />
wide.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> 1998-1999 surveys, two ma<strong>in</strong> vegetation<br />
types were sampled: lowland forest and sub-montane<br />
forest. The study area comprised two lowland sites along<br />
<strong>the</strong> Makone and Oyi/Magbe rivers and three hill, or<br />
highland, areas—Matene, Obonyi, and Basho Hills—<br />
with<strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve (Figure 2 <strong>in</strong> Chapter<br />
1). The Makone flows through <strong>the</strong> middle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Oyi forms part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve’s southwestern
Gorilla and Chimp Surveys<br />
boundary. The 2000-2001 surveys concentrated solely<br />
on highland sites with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area.<br />
4 Methods<br />
4.1 Sampl<strong>in</strong>g design: 1998-1999<br />
A sampl<strong>in</strong>g design established prior to commencement<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> surveys, based on 1:50 000 maps <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area. The<br />
design comprised a series <strong>of</strong> standard l<strong>in</strong>e transects,<br />
which are widely used <strong>in</strong> animal density studies<br />
(Buckland et al. 1993). Transects were straight l<strong>in</strong>es<br />
oriented at right angles to <strong>the</strong> Makone and Oyi rivers <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> lowlands and at right angles to <strong>the</strong> slope <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> hill<br />
country. These orientations enabled sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
different vegetation types <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> proportions <strong>in</strong> which<br />
<strong>the</strong>y occur <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> environment. The objective <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
design was to estimate <strong>the</strong> density <strong>of</strong> apes and o<strong>the</strong>r large<br />
mammals <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> numbers per km².<br />
Data analysis would normally be carried out us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> computer program DISTANCE (Laake et al. 1993),<br />
which requires at least 10 transects per stratum (where<br />
“stratum” can be vegetation type, hunt<strong>in</strong>g pressure, or a<br />
comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two) and at least 60 observations per<br />
species per stratum to obta<strong>in</strong> a reliable density estimate.<br />
Sight<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> large mammals were too rare to use<br />
DISTANCE. But <strong>the</strong> transect design allowed subsequent<br />
comparisons between zones (and seasons), us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
encounter rate <strong>of</strong> observations per km (usually expressed<br />
as number <strong>of</strong> observations/km walked) and consider<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> transects as replicates.<br />
In 1998-1999, 40 transects, total<strong>in</strong>g 81km <strong>in</strong> length,<br />
were cut at <strong>the</strong> lowland sites and 8 km <strong>of</strong> transects were<br />
established at <strong>the</strong> highland sites. An additional 6km<br />
basel<strong>in</strong>e was used to calculate encounter rates <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> submontane<br />
forest. All lowland transects were sampled<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> wet season. The transects on <strong>the</strong> east sides <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Makone River and <strong>the</strong> Oyi/ Magbe East were also<br />
sampled <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> dry season. The three highland forest<br />
areas were sampled only <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> dry season. See<br />
Sunderland-Groves and Maisels (this volume) for<br />
additional <strong>in</strong>formation on 1998-1999 methodology.<br />
4.2 Sampl<strong>in</strong>g design: 2000-2001<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce practically no ape data were recorded <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
lowlands dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> earlier surveys, <strong>the</strong> 2000-2001<br />
surveys concentrated on highland sites with<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>. Five highland areas were selected for<br />
survey, us<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>e transects with<strong>in</strong> and border<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> area.<br />
Obonyi I hills and Basho hills were revisited, but <strong>the</strong><br />
Matene hills were not because so few animal signs were<br />
recorded <strong>in</strong> 1998-1999. Three additional highland sites<br />
were surveyed <strong>in</strong> 2000-2001: Takpe hill, Mblishe hill,<br />
and Atolo hill. Strictly speak<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> Mblishe and<br />
Atolo fall <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mbulu forest outside <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
boundary. However, <strong>the</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al <strong>Takamanda</strong> boundary<br />
reached close to <strong>the</strong> village <strong>of</strong> Atolo (Order 1937), and<br />
hence <strong>the</strong> sites were <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> data set.<br />
Four 500-m transects were surveyed at each hill site, for<br />
a total <strong>of</strong> 20 transects.<br />
Obonyi I, Basho, and Takpe were surveyed <strong>in</strong> both<br />
<strong>the</strong> dry and wet seasons. The hills at Mblishe and Atolo<br />
were sampled only <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> wet season. Highland transects<br />
were not pre-cut because it was reported that sections <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> transects cut at <strong>the</strong> lowland sites <strong>in</strong> 1998 were be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
used by local people as hunter paths. Instead, transects<br />
were simply measured us<strong>in</strong>g a hip-cha<strong>in</strong> (measur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
thread). Random nest searches (walk<strong>in</strong>g through <strong>the</strong><br />
forest look<strong>in</strong>g for gorilla nest sites <strong>of</strong>f <strong>the</strong> transects) were<br />
also carried out <strong>in</strong> each area, and we attempted to locate<br />
as many fresh nest sites as possible. These data<br />
supplemented <strong>in</strong>formation recorded on transects to<br />
obta<strong>in</strong> a more accurate estimate <strong>of</strong> group size and<br />
population per area. General reconnaissance nest<br />
searches were carried out <strong>in</strong> an additional six highland<br />
sites (Takpe east hills, Makile hills, Obonyi 3 hills,<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> hills, Mende hills and Umbuli hills) to<br />
confirm <strong>the</strong> presence or absence <strong>of</strong> apes.<br />
4.3 Data collection<br />
131<br />
Data collected on transects <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong>direct signs <strong>of</strong> apes<br />
(dung and tracks), ape nests, direct observations (animals<br />
seen or heard), and rough age <strong>of</strong> sign (fresh, recent, old).<br />
We also recorded <strong>the</strong> perpendicular distance from <strong>the</strong><br />
center l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> transect for DISTANCE, although this<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
132 Sunderland-Groves et al.<br />
proved unnecessary. All evidence <strong>of</strong> human activity<br />
(traps, snares, hunter paths, bush houses, spent cartridges,<br />
gunshots heard, etc.) was recorded to evaluate hunt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pressures. We also recorded changes <strong>in</strong> topography and<br />
vegetation along each transect. The sampl<strong>in</strong>g effort<br />
between transects was standardized by keep<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
number <strong>of</strong> observers, speed <strong>of</strong> travel, and time <strong>of</strong> day<br />
consistent. Transects were not walked dur<strong>in</strong>g heavy or<br />
medium ra<strong>in</strong>fall as this affects mammal movements and<br />
observer reliability (see Sunderland-Groves and Maisels<br />
this volume).<br />
For ape nests, care was taken to dist<strong>in</strong>guish “def<strong>in</strong>ite<br />
gorilla nest” (nest on <strong>the</strong> ground or tree nest with gorilla<br />
dung underneath) from “def<strong>in</strong>ite chimp nest” (tree nests<br />
with chimp dung underneath). If a nest site had both tree<br />
and ground nests, it was a def<strong>in</strong>ite gorilla nest site<br />
because chimps never build ground nests. Ape dung is<br />
easily dist<strong>in</strong>guished by smell and form, but old tree nests<br />
without dung cannot be assigned to gorillas or chimps<br />
with confidence. Therefore, nest sites where all nests<br />
were <strong>in</strong> trees were recorded as “tree-only nest sites.”<br />
Upon locat<strong>in</strong>g a nest site each area was thoroughly<br />
searched to ensure that all nests with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> group were<br />
identified and recorded. These data were <strong>the</strong>n used to<br />
calculate mean nest group size.<br />
Random nest searches were conducted <strong>in</strong> highland<br />
areas ei<strong>the</strong>r after data collection on transects had been<br />
completed or to confirm presence or absence <strong>of</strong> apes at<br />
sites where time was not sufficient to conduct transect<br />
surveys. The additional data recorded dur<strong>in</strong>g nest<br />
searches were used to calculate overall mean group size.<br />
Nest data collection dur<strong>in</strong>g random nest searches<br />
followed <strong>the</strong> same protocols as those undertaken dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
transect surveys.<br />
4.4 Data analysis<br />
4.4.1 Distribution <strong>of</strong> apes and <strong>of</strong> human<br />
pressure<br />
Distribution <strong>of</strong> gorillas and chimps with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Reserve and adjo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g forests was <strong>in</strong>ferred<br />
from <strong>the</strong> geographic location <strong>of</strong> sign that could be<br />
def<strong>in</strong>itely assigned to one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two species.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
4.4.2 Group size<br />
Each nest site is <strong>the</strong> sleep<strong>in</strong>g site for one group <strong>of</strong> apes<br />
for one night. All weaned <strong>in</strong>dividuals make one nest per<br />
night, so <strong>the</strong> size <strong>of</strong> each nest group is an <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong><br />
group size. There are variations as occasionally apes may<br />
make a second nest dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> night or sleep on <strong>the</strong><br />
ground without mak<strong>in</strong>g a nest. However, mean group<br />
size can be roughly calculated for gorillas us<strong>in</strong>g all nest<br />
groups that can def<strong>in</strong>itely be assigned to gorillas. Mean<br />
nest group size and standard deviation for nest groups<br />
that could only be assigned to “apes” were calculated<br />
from <strong>the</strong> tree-only nest sites.<br />
4.4.3 Abundance <strong>of</strong> apes and <strong>of</strong> human sign<br />
The encounter rate (number <strong>of</strong> observations per km <strong>of</strong><br />
transect) was used to estimate relative abundance <strong>of</strong><br />
humans and apes throughout <strong>the</strong> survey and also to<br />
compare between sites and seasons.<br />
Because DISTANCE could not be used, gorilla and<br />
chimpanzee densities were roughly calculated under <strong>the</strong><br />
formula proposed by Tut<strong>in</strong> and Fernandez (1984):<br />
[(N/A)/V][M]=D,<br />
where N=number <strong>of</strong> sleep<strong>in</strong>g sites, A=area sampled<br />
<strong>in</strong> km 2, V=mean number <strong>of</strong> days <strong>the</strong> nest rema<strong>in</strong>s visible,<br />
M=median nest group size, and D=number <strong>of</strong> weaned<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals/km².<br />
Encounter rates were calculated (number <strong>of</strong> nests or<br />
nest sites per km walked, per stratum, and/or per season)<br />
and compared between strata and seasons between this<br />
study and previous work by March (1957) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> same<br />
region, and gorilla surveys carried out elsewhere <strong>in</strong><br />
Africa (Williamson and Usongo 1995, Maisels and<br />
Cruickshank 1996, Hall et al. 1998).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> lowland forest at Lopé, Gabon, gorilla nests<br />
rema<strong>in</strong>ed visible for an average <strong>of</strong> 78 days (Tut<strong>in</strong> et al.<br />
1995). Mean chimp nest duration <strong>in</strong> Gabon was 113.6<br />
days (Tut<strong>in</strong> and Fernandez 1984). S<strong>in</strong>ce no data are<br />
available on <strong>the</strong> deterioration rate <strong>of</strong> nest sites <strong>in</strong>
Gorilla and Chimp Surveys<br />
Cameroon, this survey used <strong>the</strong> same figures recorded <strong>in</strong><br />
Lopé. It is possible that by us<strong>in</strong>g average nest duration for<br />
Gabon <strong>in</strong> this study, errors may have occurred. Due to <strong>the</strong><br />
faster decay rate and disappearance <strong>of</strong> ground nests, it is<br />
possible that some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> tree-only nests sites were<br />
actually made by gorillas. Subsequent work <strong>in</strong> Gabon by<br />
Tut<strong>in</strong> et al. (1995) showed that about 26% <strong>of</strong> gorilla nest<br />
groups “convert” to chimpanzee nests as <strong>the</strong>y age. If a<br />
gorilla group made nests <strong>in</strong> trees and on <strong>the</strong> ground,<br />
which is common (Tut<strong>in</strong> et al. 1995), only <strong>the</strong> tree nests<br />
will be visible after a given time, and <strong>the</strong> nest group may<br />
be erroneously assigned to chimps. Therefore, when <strong>the</strong><br />
densities <strong>of</strong> chimps and gorillas at a site have been<br />
calculated from formula 1, <strong>the</strong> miss<strong>in</strong>g 26% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gorilla<br />
nest groups must be calculated from <strong>the</strong> chimp density<br />
and reassigned to gorillas.<br />
It is not known whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> ratio <strong>of</strong> gorilla ground<br />
nests to tree nests is <strong>the</strong> same at all sites. Until evidence<br />
proves o<strong>the</strong>rwise, we use <strong>the</strong> same conversion factor as<br />
<strong>the</strong> Lopé team.<br />
Site<br />
Approximate<br />
altitude (m) Gorilla<br />
5 Results<br />
5.1 Sampl<strong>in</strong>g Effort<br />
We walked 122 km <strong>of</strong> transects <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowlands <strong>in</strong> 1998-<br />
1999 (some transects were walked twice <strong>in</strong> different<br />
seasons) and 8 km <strong>of</strong> transects and 6 km <strong>of</strong> basel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> highlands. An additional 28 km <strong>of</strong> transects and<br />
basel<strong>in</strong>e were walked (some transects were walked<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g two different seasons) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> highlands <strong>in</strong> 2000-<br />
2001, and additional nest searches were conducted at<br />
each site.<br />
5.2 Ape Distribution<br />
133<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> surveys between 1998 and 2001,we<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigated 12 highland areas and two lowland sites<br />
(Makone east/west and Oyi east/west). Gorillas were<br />
found to exist at six <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> highland sites, and chimpanzee<br />
or tree-only nests were located at n<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> highland<br />
sites. There was ape sign at two <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> highland sites<br />
(<strong>Takamanda</strong> and Mende).<br />
Table 1. Summary <strong>of</strong> gorilla and chimpanzee distribution from transect surveys and nest searches, <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest<br />
Reserve, Cameroon, 1998 - 2001 (+ <strong>in</strong>dicates that <strong>the</strong> species was present; T=transect; NS=nest search)<br />
Treeonly<br />
sites<br />
Transect/nest<br />
search<br />
Makone east and<br />
west (lowland)<br />
0-720 + + T, NS<br />
Oyi east and west<br />
(lowland)<br />
0-700 T, NS<br />
Takpe Hill 560 + + T<br />
East Takpe Hills 400 + + NS<br />
Basho Hill 640 + + T, NS<br />
Obonyi 1 Hills 725 + + T, NS<br />
Obonyi 3 Hills 260 + NS<br />
Mblishe Hills 740+ + T, NS<br />
Atolo Hills 1250 + T, NS<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Hill 570 NS<br />
Mende Hills 1530 NS<br />
Umbuli Hills (nr<br />
Matene)<br />
240-1500 + NS<br />
Matene Hills 420-875 + T, NS<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
134 Sunderland-Groves et al.<br />
q—2—2g—<br />
h˜<br />
G g q—<br />
y2@w—˜A<br />
H S IH<br />
u<br />
In <strong>the</strong> lowlands, gorilla and chimpanzee signs were<br />
found at one site—Makone River east. Although this was<br />
classified as a lowland site (
Gorilla and Chimp Surveys<br />
Table 2. Ape nests: Summary <strong>of</strong> all data both <strong>of</strong>f and on transects, <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon, 1999 and 2001<br />
(1999: L=136 km; 2001: L=28 km)<br />
Year Species<br />
1999 Gorilla gorilla<br />
deihli<br />
Pan troglodytes<br />
vellerosus<br />
2001 Gorilla gorilla<br />
deihli<br />
Pan troglodytes<br />
vellerosus<br />
Total #<br />
nest<br />
groups<br />
rate for tree-only nest groups was found to be higher <strong>in</strong><br />
both <strong>the</strong> Obonyi 1 hills and <strong>the</strong> Basho hills than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
lowland forests <strong>of</strong> Makone east, once more <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that apes were found more frequently <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> higher<br />
altitude areas. We assigned about 74% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se tree-only<br />
nests to chimpanzees.<br />
Although <strong>the</strong> sample size was small, a very rough<br />
estimate <strong>of</strong> ape density was made for <strong>the</strong> highlands and<br />
<strong>the</strong> lowlands follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Tut<strong>in</strong> and Fernandez (1984)<br />
formula and <strong>the</strong>ir suggested correction factor (Tut<strong>in</strong> et al.<br />
1995). In <strong>the</strong> highland areas, gorilla density was<br />
calculated between 1.2 and 1.8 <strong>in</strong>dividuals/km², while<br />
chimpanzee density was 0.93 to 1.40 <strong>in</strong>dividuals/km².<br />
For <strong>the</strong> lowlands, gorilla density was 0.03 to 0.05/km²,<br />
and chimpanzee density was 0.10 to 0.12/km². These are<br />
estimates with unknown precision because <strong>the</strong> sample<br />
size was so small. We <strong>the</strong>refore suggest that <strong>the</strong>re was<br />
about one gorilla/km² and perhaps one chimpanzee/km²<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> highlands, and almost no gorillas and fewer than<br />
0.1 chimpanzees/km² <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowlands.<br />
5.4 Ape Density Estimates 2000-2001<br />
Mean Median<br />
group size group size<br />
Fifty-eight gorilla nest sites and 76 chimpanzee or treeonly<br />
nest sites were recorded dur<strong>in</strong>g transect surveys and<br />
nest searches from September 2000 to August 2001.<br />
Eighteen gorilla nest sites and 15 chimpanzee or treeonly<br />
nest sites were recorded along 17 km <strong>of</strong> transect.<br />
# <strong>of</strong> nest groups seen<br />
from transects, all<br />
strata comb<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
135<br />
Encounter rate <strong>of</strong><br />
nest groups seen on<br />
transects (#/L)<br />
12 3.00 2.5 9 0.066<br />
49 2.73 2.0 30 0.221<br />
58 3.45 2.5 18 0.642<br />
76 2.86 2.5 15 0.536<br />
Three <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> areas surveyed were sampled twice, once <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> dry season and once <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> wet season, for a total <strong>of</strong><br />
28 observer-kms. When all nest data are considered,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g nests that appeared to be from s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals, mean group size and standard deviation for<br />
gorillas was 3.45 ± 3.52 (median 2.5), and mean<br />
chimpanzee (tree-only nests) was 2.86 ± 1.76 (median<br />
2.5) (Table 2).<br />
Along transects, <strong>the</strong> encounter rate for gorilla nest<br />
groups and <strong>in</strong>dividual nests was higher at Obonyi 1 hills<br />
and Basho hills than at Takpe (Table 3). No gorilla nests<br />
were encountered <strong>in</strong> ei<strong>the</strong>r Mblishe or Atolo dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
transect surveys, although gorilla nest sites were located<br />
<strong>in</strong> Atolo dur<strong>in</strong>g nest searches. Additional gorilla nest sites<br />
were recorded on <strong>the</strong> east side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Makile hill (Makone<br />
east).<br />
There were more chimpanzee (tree-only) nest sites<br />
recorded <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Obonyi I hills than at any o<strong>the</strong>r highland<br />
site (Table 4). Only one tree-only nest was observed <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Takpe hills along transects, but six additional<br />
chimpanzee nest sites were recorded dur<strong>in</strong>g nest<br />
searches. Chimp (tree-only) nests were not recorded <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> highland area close to Atolo. One chimp nest site was<br />
observed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> hills <strong>of</strong> Obonyi 3 and one close to <strong>the</strong><br />
village <strong>of</strong> Umbuli, located on <strong>the</strong> Nigerian border. More<br />
tree-only nest sites were recorded on <strong>the</strong> east side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Makile hill (Makone east).<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
136 Sunderland-Groves et al.<br />
Table 3. Encounter rate for gorillas along transects, <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon, 2001<br />
Site Nest groups<br />
Individual<br />
nests<br />
Survey distance<br />
(km)<br />
Groups/km Individuals/km<br />
Takpe Hill 4 6 7.0 0.57 0.86<br />
Basho Hill 7 14 7.0 1.00 2.00<br />
Obonyi I Hill 7 24 7.0 2.00 2.00<br />
Mblishe Hill - - 3.5 - -<br />
Atolo Hill - - 3.5 - -<br />
Total 18 44 28<br />
In all, 84% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gorilla nests detected were with<strong>in</strong><br />
5 m <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> transects (roughly 275,000m²), and 33% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
chimpanzee nests were with<strong>in</strong> 10 m <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> transects<br />
(280,000 to 555,400m²). Follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> formula <strong>of</strong> Tut<strong>in</strong><br />
and Fernandez (1984), a rough estimate <strong>of</strong> ape density<br />
was made (aga<strong>in</strong> based on small sample sizes). In<br />
apply<strong>in</strong>g this formula, we estimate that <strong>the</strong>re were<br />
approximately 2.06 gorillas/km 2 a n d 0.59<br />
chimpanzees/km 2 .<br />
To summarize, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve<br />
covers 676 km 2 ; 19% <strong>of</strong> this area is above 500 m, which<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se surveys was classified as highland. Us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> gorilla density figures calculated dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> 2000-<br />
2001 surveys results <strong>in</strong> an estimate <strong>of</strong> about 286 gorillas.<br />
Encounter rate/km walked<br />
2.5<br />
2<br />
1.5<br />
1<br />
0.5<br />
0<br />
traps<br />
hunters paths<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
This seems highly unlikely given <strong>the</strong> estimate from <strong>the</strong><br />
1998-1999 surveys and because gorilla sign was not<br />
recorded at all highland sites. We <strong>the</strong>refore ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> that<br />
<strong>the</strong> estimate is about 100 gorillas.<br />
5.5 Human Sign<br />
highlands lowlands<br />
When all data from <strong>the</strong> lowlands were compared with all<br />
data from <strong>the</strong> highlands (dry season only), <strong>the</strong>re were<br />
significantly more traps and hunters’ paths <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
lowlands than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> highlands, reflect<strong>in</strong>g more hunt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pressure <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowlands (Figure 2).<br />
The 2000-2001 surveys were only conducted <strong>in</strong><br />
highland areas, so we only compared hunt<strong>in</strong>g pressure<br />
among <strong>the</strong> highland sites (Figure 3). Dur<strong>in</strong>g transect<br />
Figure 2. Encounter rates <strong>of</strong> hunters paths and traps <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> highlands and lowlands, <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon,<br />
1998-1999
Gorilla and Chimp Surveys<br />
Table 4. Encounter rate for chimpanzees along transects, <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon, 2001<br />
Site Nest groups Individual nests<br />
Survey distance<br />
(km)<br />
Groups/km Individuals/km<br />
Takpe Hill 1 1 7.0 0.14 0.14<br />
Basho Hill 4 5 7.0 0.57 0.71<br />
Obonyi I Hill 8 26 7.0 1.14 3.71<br />
Mblishe Hill 2 5 3.5 0.57 1.43<br />
Atolo Hill - - 3.5 - -<br />
Total 15 37 28<br />
surveys, no bush huts were encountered <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> highland<br />
areas. As was <strong>the</strong> case <strong>in</strong> 1999, no traps were seen on<br />
transects <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Obonyi I hills or on <strong>the</strong> hill at Mblishe.<br />
All human sign (paths, traps, cartridges) comb<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicated that Mblishe had <strong>the</strong> lowest encounter rate <strong>in</strong><br />
relation to human pressure, suggest<strong>in</strong>g that it is <strong>the</strong> least<br />
hunted <strong>of</strong> all sites<br />
6 Discussion<br />
The most recent estimate <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cross River gorilla<br />
population <strong>in</strong> Cameroon is approximately 100 <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve with perhaps an additional 75<br />
to 80 <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> adjacent Mone and Mbulu forests<br />
(Groves 2002b), for an overall population <strong>in</strong> Cameroon<br />
and Nigeria <strong>of</strong> 250 to 270 gorillas. March (1957),<br />
Encounter rate/ km<br />
4<br />
3.5<br />
3<br />
2.5<br />
2<br />
1.5<br />
1<br />
0.5<br />
0<br />
137<br />
survey<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Nigerian side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> border, reported an<br />
encounter rate <strong>of</strong> 12 to 13 gorilla nests per km walked.<br />
The highest encounter rate for gorillas dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> 1998-<br />
2001 surveys was two nests/km, which is significantly<br />
lower than March’s observations.<br />
Cross River gorilla and Nigerian chimpanzee<br />
populations face a tenuous future. In particular, Cross<br />
River gorillas have been recorded <strong>in</strong> Cameroon only <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve and adjacent forest areas <strong>of</strong><br />
Mone Forest Reserve and Mbulu forest. These small subgroups<br />
and populations are now restricted to hill areas<br />
because <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased hunt<strong>in</strong>g and o<strong>the</strong>r human activities<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowlands. Thus, <strong>the</strong> overall population is<br />
fragmented, with little chance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sub-populations<br />
meet<strong>in</strong>g. Such fragmentation may not be recent. Studies<br />
Takpe Basho Obonyi I Mblishe Atolo<br />
Site<br />
Figure 3. Encounter rate <strong>of</strong> human sign at all sites, <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon, 2001<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
138 Sunderland-Groves et al.<br />
from more than 70 years ago (Allen 1932) reported that<br />
gorillas existed on steep, <strong>in</strong>accessible slopes <strong>in</strong> highland<br />
areas. Presumably hunters us<strong>in</strong>g guns were not as<br />
common <strong>the</strong>n as now, so <strong>the</strong> question <strong>of</strong> why <strong>the</strong> gorillas<br />
appear to prefer <strong>the</strong>se higher altitude (less hunted) sites<br />
and are unwill<strong>in</strong>g or unable to cross large tracts <strong>of</strong><br />
lowland forest awaits resolution.<br />
In <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, vegetation surveys<br />
(Sunderland et al. this volume) have not revealed a<br />
dramatic difference <strong>of</strong> known preferred gorilla foods <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> higher altitude sites. One possible determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g factor<br />
<strong>of</strong> fragmentation <strong>of</strong> at least some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gorilla groups <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> could be <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> major rivers. It<br />
would be nearly impossible for gorillas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Obonyi I<br />
hills to cross <strong>the</strong> Makone, Makwere, and Manyu rivers to<br />
reach gorillas <strong>in</strong> ei<strong>the</strong>r Takpe or Basho hills. This factor,<br />
coupled with high hunt<strong>in</strong>g pressure <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowland areas,<br />
may have caused <strong>the</strong> widespread fragmentation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
gorilla population.<br />
Construction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> road from Mamfe to Akwaya<br />
will cause more fragmentation. To date, <strong>the</strong> road has<br />
reached <strong>the</strong> village <strong>of</strong> Bandolo <strong>in</strong> Mbulu forest and has<br />
already created an ecological divide between <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
and Mone. If <strong>the</strong> road is completed, which seems likely,<br />
it will cut directly between <strong>Takamanda</strong> and Mbulu, and<br />
ape movement between <strong>the</strong> two forested areas will<br />
certa<strong>in</strong>ly cease.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> threats to gorilla and chimp populations <strong>in</strong><br />
most areas <strong>of</strong> Central Africa are commercial hunt<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
followed by ebola haemorrhagic fever <strong>in</strong> some localities<br />
(Walsh et al. 2003). The primary immediate threats to<br />
gorillas <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> area appears to be hunt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
connected to human activities, especially road<br />
construction. On <strong>the</strong> more positive side, villagers <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve implemented a local ban <strong>in</strong><br />
1998 on <strong>the</strong> shoot<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> gorillas and chimpanzees, and no<br />
credible reports <strong>of</strong> gorilla kill<strong>in</strong>gs have been registered<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> ban went <strong>in</strong>to effect. In 2002, <strong>the</strong> Cross River<br />
Gorilla Research Project launched an education program<br />
that focuses on conservation <strong>of</strong> Cross River gorillas.<br />
These <strong>in</strong>itiatives, along with recent anti-poach<strong>in</strong>g<br />
projects <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cameroon and GTZ/PROFA partnership,<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
are hav<strong>in</strong>g an effect with regard to conservation <strong>of</strong><br />
endangered species <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>. Atotal ban on hunt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> all endangered species must be <strong>in</strong>stigated and<br />
monitored to ensure survival <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gorilla population<br />
<strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> future—especially <strong>in</strong> light <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>evitable fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
fragmentation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> population as people move <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong><br />
area <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g road network.<br />
Acknowledgments<br />
This research was supported by WWF-Cameroon,<br />
Wildlife Conservation Society, <strong>the</strong> Margot Marsh<br />
Biodiversity Foundation through Conservation<br />
International, and <strong>the</strong> Whitley Foundation. We thank <strong>the</strong><br />
Cameroon M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Environment and Forests and<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Scientific Research, as well as <strong>the</strong> Chiefs,<br />
Traditional Council members, and guides from villages<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> and Mone forest reserves and Mbulu<br />
forest. Thanks to Dan Slayback for prepar<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> maps.<br />
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Feasibility Study. Appendix I. Conservation <strong>of</strong><br />
Gorillas and O<strong>the</strong>r Species. Interim report.<br />
Obot, E., J. Barker, C. Edet, G. Ogar, and E. Nwufoh.<br />
1997. Status <strong>of</strong> gorilla Gorilla gorilla gorilla<br />
populations <strong>in</strong> Cross River National Park and Mbe<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong>. Technical Report no. 3. Cross River<br />
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Adm<strong>in</strong>istration Forest Reserve. Order No. 38.<br />
Rothschild, W. 1904. Notes on anthropoid apes. Proc.<br />
Zool. Soc. London 2: 413-440.<br />
Rothschild, W. 1906. Fur<strong>the</strong>r notes on anthopoid apes.<br />
Proc. Zool. Soc. London 2: 465-468.<br />
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140 Sunderland-Groves et al.<br />
Sanderson, I. T. 1940. The mammals <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> north<br />
Cameroon forest area. Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond. 24:<br />
623-725.<br />
Sarmiento, E. E., and J. F. Oates. 2000. The Cross River<br />
gorillas: A dist<strong>in</strong>ct subspecies Gorilla gorilla diehli<br />
Matschie (1904). American Museum <strong>of</strong> Natural<br />
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Schmidt-Soltau, K., M. Mdaihli. and J. S. O. Ayeni.<br />
2001. Socioeceonomic Basel<strong>in</strong>e Survey <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve. Unpublished report to<br />
PROFA (GTZ-MINEF) Office, Mamfe<br />
Struhsaker, T. T. 1967. Prelim<strong>in</strong>ary Report on a Survey <strong>of</strong><br />
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Rockefeller University and <strong>the</strong> New York Zoological<br />
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<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Gorilla gorilla diehli Population <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> and Mone Forest Reserves and <strong>the</strong><br />
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<strong>Takamanda</strong> Gorillas (Cameroon). F<strong>in</strong>al Report.<br />
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<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
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Cameroon: ECOFAC Composante Cameroun and<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istere de l’Environnement, Cameroun.
1 Introduction<br />
<strong>Fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>Border</strong> <strong>Zone</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>a Mdaihli, Tim du Feu, and Julius S. O. Ayeni<br />
The Cameroonian–German (GTZ) Project for <strong>the</strong><br />
Protection <strong>of</strong> Forests Around Akwaya (PROFA)<br />
collaborates with local communities and authorities to<br />
achieve community-based conservation 1 . This approach<br />
aims to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> biological diversity <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Forest Reserve (TFR) and improve <strong>the</strong> forest-based<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g conditions <strong>of</strong> local peoples.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> collect<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e data for plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able resource use <strong>in</strong> TFR, fish<strong>in</strong>g was found to<br />
contribute as much as game hunt<strong>in</strong>g to consumption and<br />
<strong>the</strong> trad<strong>in</strong>g economy <strong>of</strong> villages with<strong>in</strong> and around <strong>the</strong><br />
Reserve (du Feu 2002). Yet, forest managers concentrate<br />
on <strong>the</strong> generation <strong>of</strong> revenue from timber and wildlife<br />
harvests. With<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong> formulat<strong>in</strong>g a susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
management plan for TFR, it <strong>the</strong>refore was necessary to<br />
provide basel<strong>in</strong>e scientific <strong>in</strong>formation on fish biology<br />
and on <strong>the</strong> economic benefits <strong>of</strong> fisheries <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> TFR area.<br />
This paper reports on fisheries <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn border<br />
zone <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve, based on a fisheries basel<strong>in</strong>e study<br />
undertaken from 23 October-3 December, 2000, under<br />
commission by PROFA. Information from <strong>the</strong> study and<br />
basel<strong>in</strong>e socio-ecological data (Ayeni and Mdaihli 2001,<br />
1 Community-based conservation attempts to move <strong>the</strong><br />
responsibility for natural resource management from <strong>the</strong> elite<br />
to <strong>the</strong> rural poor and from <strong>the</strong> urban to <strong>the</strong> village hamlets.<br />
This approach is focused on <strong>the</strong> people who live with and<br />
directly bear <strong>the</strong> costs <strong>of</strong> natural resource conservation. It<br />
enables local people to def<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong>ir own priorities and<br />
develop at <strong>the</strong>ir own pace and <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir own way—ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
knowledge and skills as <strong>the</strong>y go (Uph<strong>of</strong>f 1985). In an ideal<br />
situation, community-based conservation arises with<strong>in</strong> a<br />
community ra<strong>the</strong>r than be<strong>in</strong>g imposed through a top-down<br />
external force.<br />
Schmidt-Soltau 2001) are be<strong>in</strong>g used to draft a<br />
participatory plan for susta<strong>in</strong>able management <strong>of</strong> TFR<br />
forests.<br />
1.1 PROFA<br />
PROFA is adm<strong>in</strong>istered by <strong>the</strong> Divisional Delegation for<br />
Environment and Forests (Manyu Division at Mamfe),<br />
an agency <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Environment and Forestry<br />
<strong>in</strong> Yaoundé. The overall goal dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> first phase <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
PROFA (March 2000 to February 2003) was to develop<br />
a management plan that ensures <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>of</strong><br />
biodiversity <strong>in</strong> TFR and contributes to improvement <strong>of</strong><br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g conditions for people with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve’s border<br />
zones. A positive outcome <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first phase will enable<br />
expansion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> project to cover <strong>the</strong> nearby Mone Forest<br />
Reserve and extension <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> timeframe to 12 years<br />
(three-year orientation, eight-year implementation phase,<br />
and a “hand<strong>in</strong>g over” phase <strong>of</strong> one year).<br />
The follow<strong>in</strong>g are <strong>the</strong> anticipated project outputs:<br />
• Draft forest management plan for TFR, partially<br />
tested.<br />
• Participatory forest management capacity <strong>of</strong> local<br />
populations and <strong>the</strong> Divisional Delegation is<br />
streng<strong>the</strong>ned through cooperation among all<br />
<strong>in</strong>volved parties.<br />
• Traditional <strong>in</strong>come-generat<strong>in</strong>g activities and selfhelp<br />
<strong>in</strong>itiatives are identified, and a gender-sensitive<br />
strategy for susta<strong>in</strong>able resource management is<br />
developed and tested.<br />
2 Site description<br />
Chapter 10<br />
The Reserve is situated at <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn most corner <strong>of</strong><br />
Southwest Prov<strong>in</strong>ce, Cameroon, north <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cross River<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003, Pages 141 to 154
142 Mdaihli et al.<br />
Bas<strong>in</strong> and is separated from <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>astern section <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Cross River National Park <strong>in</strong> Nigeria by <strong>the</strong><br />
Cameroon-Nigeria <strong>in</strong>ternational border. Cover<strong>in</strong>g an<br />
area <strong>of</strong> 67, 599 ha, TFR conta<strong>in</strong>s an additional 6,500 ha<br />
<strong>of</strong> village enclaves. Matene settlements <strong>in</strong> Cameroon are<br />
sandwiched between <strong>the</strong> Cross River National Park and<br />
<strong>the</strong> TFR. The <strong>in</strong>troductory chapter by Sunderland-<br />
Groves et al. (this volume) provides full details <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
project area <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a map <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> village locations.<br />
The most prom<strong>in</strong>ent water body <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region, <strong>the</strong><br />
Cross River, and its many tributaries dra<strong>in</strong> southwestern<br />
Cameroon and sou<strong>the</strong>astern Nigeria. The Oyi River, a<br />
tributary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cross River, forms <strong>the</strong> greater part <strong>of</strong> it’s<br />
<strong>the</strong> Reserve’s western border, while <strong>the</strong> eastern and<br />
sou<strong>the</strong>rn borders <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve follow small rivulets and<br />
footpaths. Several small rivers flow south <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong><br />
Munaya and <strong>the</strong> Cross River. In <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Reserve, <strong>the</strong> hilly terra<strong>in</strong> rises to more than 1,000 m with<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>s reach<strong>in</strong>g up to 1,600 m.<br />
Two seasons, dry and wet, characterize ra<strong>in</strong>fall <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
study area. Typically, heavy ra<strong>in</strong>s start <strong>in</strong> mid-March and<br />
last to mid-November, with <strong>the</strong> dry season extend<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from <strong>the</strong> latter half <strong>of</strong> November to mid-March. Average<br />
yearly ra<strong>in</strong>fall ranges from 2,500 to 3,500 mm. Average<br />
monthly relative humidity at Besong-Abang south <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
study area ranges between 76% and 89%. The mean<br />
annual temperature is 23º C with an average maximum<br />
<strong>of</strong> 30º C and m<strong>in</strong>imum <strong>of</strong> 21º C. The hottest months are<br />
December to February. Temperatures decrease with<br />
altitude, and Mamfe at an elevation <strong>of</strong> 152 m records a<br />
maximum <strong>of</strong> 34º C <strong>in</strong> March compared to a m<strong>in</strong>imum <strong>of</strong><br />
18º C <strong>in</strong> January. Akwaya at an altitude <strong>of</strong> 1,500 m <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
nor<strong>the</strong>rn extremity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> study area is much cooler than<br />
Mamfe <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> south, and receives more ra<strong>in</strong>fall because<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> highlands.<br />
3 Materials and methods<br />
The data that form <strong>the</strong> basis for this paper were collected<br />
<strong>in</strong> two surveys—a fisheries basel<strong>in</strong>e study and a fisheries<br />
framework survey <strong>of</strong> TFR’s border zone areas.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
3.1 <strong>Fisheries</strong> Basel<strong>in</strong>e Study<br />
The fisheries basel<strong>in</strong>e survey (du Feu 2001) provided:<br />
• A checklist <strong>of</strong> fish species and literature on <strong>the</strong><br />
fishery <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study area.<br />
• A description <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> composition and <strong>the</strong><br />
approximate distribution <strong>of</strong> fish species and <strong>of</strong><br />
fisherfolk, fish<strong>in</strong>g methods, and seasonality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
fishery.<br />
• A summary <strong>of</strong> fish process<strong>in</strong>g and fish market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> area.<br />
Information on <strong>the</strong> fishery was obta<strong>in</strong>ed from<br />
discussions with fisherfolk and through two<br />
questionnaires, one for <strong>the</strong> whole fish<strong>in</strong>g village and <strong>the</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r for <strong>in</strong>dividual fisherfolk. Resident literate persons,<br />
identified by <strong>the</strong> village chief and tra<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> project<br />
team, adm<strong>in</strong>istered <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual questionnaires to 474<br />
people <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study area.<br />
To establish prelim<strong>in</strong>ary yields, a total <strong>of</strong> 72 catches<br />
were measured over five consecutive days. Us<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation, it was difficult to estimate catch per unit<br />
effort (CpUE) for different gear types because a variety<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g gear was used over <strong>the</strong> measurement period. In<br />
addition, fish<strong>in</strong>g activity was not estimated from<br />
fisherfolk who had <strong>the</strong>ir catches weighed because <strong>the</strong>y<br />
were fish<strong>in</strong>g at <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> question<strong>in</strong>g and <strong>the</strong>refore<br />
would have an unrepresentative high level <strong>of</strong> activity.<br />
Instead, activity questions were <strong>in</strong>cluded on <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual questionnaire, specifically: Had <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
gone fish<strong>in</strong>g over <strong>the</strong> past three days. This question alone<br />
produced a total <strong>of</strong> 1,440 activity records or an average<br />
<strong>of</strong> 3.04 activities per person (474 <strong>in</strong>dividuals) over <strong>the</strong><br />
three-day period.<br />
To establish prelim<strong>in</strong>ary yield estimates for <strong>the</strong><br />
survey area and <strong>the</strong> whole <strong>of</strong> TFR, <strong>the</strong> total number <strong>of</strong><br />
fisherfolk was obta<strong>in</strong>ed from <strong>the</strong> questionnaires <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
south and from <strong>in</strong>terviews with village chiefs <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
nor<strong>the</strong>rn areas. The mean catches and activity levels were<br />
derived from CpUE calculations for two villages and<br />
activity data from <strong>the</strong> fisheries basel<strong>in</strong>e survey. CpUE is<br />
based on <strong>the</strong> general assumption that <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong>
<strong>Fisheries</strong> Surveys<br />
Percentage activity<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual fish removed from a population will be<br />
proportional to <strong>the</strong> effort expended <strong>in</strong> tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> sample.<br />
Total population data, obta<strong>in</strong>ed from estimates <strong>of</strong><br />
Grooves and Maisels (1999) and Ayeni and Mdaihli<br />
(2001), were used to estimate per capita consumption <strong>of</strong><br />
fish. Because published literature on fisheries <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study<br />
area is scanty, reliance was placed on <strong>the</strong> collection <strong>of</strong><br />
unpublished reports <strong>of</strong> field expeditions on fisheries<br />
surveys (K<strong>in</strong>g 1996, Roberts 1975, Simon 1998) <strong>in</strong><br />
nearby Cross River National Park.<br />
Nomenclature and taxonomy used <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> current<br />
paper follows that <strong>of</strong> Lévêque et al. (1990, 1992) and<br />
Froese and Pauly (2003).<br />
3.2 <strong>Fisheries</strong> Framework Survey<br />
The fisheries framework survey was designed on <strong>the</strong><br />
basis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> basel<strong>in</strong>e study above. In 18<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g villages <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> TFR border zone area, all people<br />
who fish were counted, <strong>the</strong>ir names were recorded, and<br />
<strong>the</strong>y were grouped as follows:<br />
• Resident adult fishermen<br />
• Resident adult fisherwomen<br />
• Fisher children<br />
• Fishermen from o<strong>the</strong>r Cameroonian villages<br />
• Nigerian fishermen<br />
Adult fishermen<br />
Adult fisherwomen<br />
Fisherchildren<br />
Migrant fisherfolk<br />
Jan<br />
Feb<br />
March<br />
Apr<br />
May<br />
June<br />
July<br />
Aug<br />
Sept<br />
Oct<br />
Nov<br />
Dec<br />
Figure 1. Seasonality <strong>of</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g by fisherfolk <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border zone south <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
143<br />
In addition, <strong>the</strong> number and types <strong>of</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g gear,<br />
boats, and eng<strong>in</strong>es <strong>the</strong>y own were recorded.<br />
4 Results and discussion<br />
4.1 Seasonality <strong>of</strong> Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Fish<strong>in</strong>g is an activity conducted <strong>in</strong> all sorts <strong>of</strong> waters with<br />
peak activity extend<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>y season<br />
(December) <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> short, dry season <strong>in</strong> March (Figure<br />
1). At this time, <strong>the</strong> water currents are slow and <strong>the</strong><br />
river/stream levels less variable than dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> wet<br />
season. Fish also become more concentrated as <strong>the</strong> river<br />
level drops, mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m easier to catch.<br />
There is a rapid rise <strong>in</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g activity from October<br />
to December after <strong>the</strong> wet season when streams and<br />
rivers are empty<strong>in</strong>g. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this period, a large number<br />
<strong>of</strong> juvenile fish that hatched dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>s and used<br />
flooded areas and streams as nursery grounds are<br />
caught—primarily through <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> fish fences, traps,<br />
cast nets, and cross-over nets. However, fish<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
juveniles that have not had a chance to reproduce reduces<br />
<strong>the</strong> overall annual fish production <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water bodies.<br />
4.2 The Fisherfolk<br />
The 2001 fisheries framework survey identified<br />
approximately 2,400 part- and full-time fisherfolk <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
144<br />
Table 1. Type and number <strong>of</strong> fisherfolk <strong>in</strong> TFR, Cameroon.<br />
Type <strong>of</strong> Fisherfolk Number<br />
Resident fishermen 911<br />
Resident fisherwomen 625<br />
Fish<strong>in</strong>g children 722<br />
Migrant fishermen from Nigeria 31<br />
Migrant fishermen from Cameroon 110<br />
study area, <strong>of</strong> which 38% were resident adult males, 30%<br />
were children, 26% were resident adult females, 5% were<br />
migrants from with<strong>in</strong> Cameroon, and 1% were migrants<br />
from Nigeria (Table 1).<br />
4.3 Fish<strong>in</strong>g Equipment<br />
Dugout canoes or canoes made <strong>of</strong> sawn timber (planked<br />
canoes) are commonly used for fish<strong>in</strong>g, propelled by<br />
paddl<strong>in</strong>g s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>re are virtually no outboard eng<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> study area (Table 2). Fish<strong>in</strong>g gear <strong>in</strong>cludes gill nets,<br />
cast nets, drift nets, beach se<strong>in</strong>es, hand nets, hooks <strong>of</strong> all<br />
k<strong>in</strong>ds, poles and l<strong>in</strong>es, traps, fish fences, cutlasses, and<br />
bare hands.<br />
Typical gill nets have a mesh size <strong>of</strong> 3 <strong>in</strong>ches. When<br />
set parallel to <strong>the</strong> shore, <strong>the</strong>se nets have no harmful effect<br />
on <strong>the</strong> fishery. If set across <strong>the</strong> river, however, <strong>the</strong>y can<br />
block upstream breed<strong>in</strong>g movement and migration and<br />
capture large numbers <strong>of</strong> juvenile fish.<br />
Cast nets have a small mesh size <strong>of</strong> 1.5 – 2 <strong>in</strong>ches<br />
that can damage fish stocks through premature<br />
harvest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> juvenile fish.<br />
Drift nets usually target breed<strong>in</strong>g adults as <strong>the</strong>y<br />
migrate upstream to spawn. The number <strong>of</strong> nets is not<br />
sufficient to warrant concern, but should be monitored.<br />
Beach se<strong>in</strong>es, or “keli-keli,” are extremely<br />
destructive because as <strong>the</strong>y are hauled along, <strong>the</strong>y dredge<br />
<strong>the</strong> riverbed and thus destroy breed<strong>in</strong>g and nursery sites.<br />
This is a particular problem for cont<strong>in</strong>uous spawners<br />
such as cichlids.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Mdaihli et al.<br />
Scoop/hand net, commonly called “nylon trap” nets,<br />
have a mean mesh size <strong>of</strong> just one <strong>in</strong>ch. Large catches <strong>of</strong><br />
juveniles can be expected. Cichlids, <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> species<br />
caught, are not highly fecund and <strong>the</strong>refore prone to<br />
decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> yield if juveniles are over-fished. . Also <strong>of</strong><br />
concern is disturbance <strong>of</strong> breed<strong>in</strong>g nests as people wade<br />
through <strong>the</strong> streams with <strong>the</strong>ir nets.<br />
Large Hook, or <strong>the</strong> “number 1 hook,” represents <strong>the</strong><br />
least damag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> all fish<strong>in</strong>g methods, apart from <strong>the</strong><br />
associated fishery required for bait fishes. Large hooks<br />
target predator fishes; through decreases <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong><br />
predators, <strong>in</strong>creased yields <strong>of</strong> prey species lower <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
food cha<strong>in</strong> can be expected.<br />
Poles and l<strong>in</strong>es, known as “day hooks,” probably<br />
account for a large mortality <strong>of</strong> juveniles, judg<strong>in</strong>g from<br />
<strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> children fish<strong>in</strong>g and <strong>the</strong> small size <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
hooks that <strong>the</strong>y use.<br />
Wire traps are made <strong>of</strong> chicken wire with a s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />
open<strong>in</strong>g; <strong>the</strong>y are up to one meter <strong>in</strong> length. Traps are<br />
notorious for catch<strong>in</strong>g juvenile fish, particularly <strong>of</strong><br />
cichlids. Traps probably cause <strong>the</strong> highest mortality <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>se species.<br />
Fish fences catch all species <strong>of</strong> fish dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
juvenile’s migration from <strong>the</strong> streams where <strong>the</strong>y were<br />
spawned to <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> river from November to January.<br />
Care must be taken to accurately determ<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> number<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish fence sites and composition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> catch to make<br />
an accurate assessment <strong>of</strong> impacts.<br />
Table 2. Fish<strong>in</strong>g equipment used by fisherfolk <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Equipment # Equipment #<br />
Canoes 438 Hand nets 1,457<br />
Eng<strong>in</strong>es 1 Hooks 20,917<br />
Gill nets 6,793 Poles and l<strong>in</strong>es 2,328<br />
Cast nets 1,029 Traps 5,833<br />
Drift nets 422 Fish fences 84<br />
Beach se<strong>in</strong>es 21 Baskets 1,199
<strong>Fisheries</strong> Surveys<br />
4.4 Fish Poisons<br />
Two types <strong>of</strong> fish poison exist. The most dangerous is <strong>the</strong><br />
organo-chlor<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>secticide Gammal<strong>in</strong> 20 (Reid 1989),<br />
which are applied dur<strong>in</strong>g low water (November-March).<br />
Poisons from local plants are more widely used,<br />
especially by women, and have been recorded as far back<br />
as 1905 (Teugels et al. 1992). Traditional poisons <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
Trephosia, a leaf tree (local name Tach<strong>in</strong>kot, Kachi), <strong>the</strong><br />
bark <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Piptadeniastrum africanum (a tree; Groves<br />
and Maisels 1999), and two types <strong>of</strong> fruit—one <strong>of</strong><br />
Randia sp. (local names Ejibi, Kembu, Epum, and<br />
Otchuwatumwa) and <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> Omphalocarpum<br />
procerum.<br />
Cameroon law now bans chemical poisons. There is<br />
no prohibition on use <strong>of</strong> traditional poisons from local<br />
plants, but herbal poisons are banned if classified under a<br />
provision <strong>of</strong> Cameroon law that covers “all o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
methods deemed to be destructive aga<strong>in</strong>st fauna or<br />
balance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> aquatic ecosystem.”<br />
4.5 Fish Process<strong>in</strong>g and Market<strong>in</strong>g<br />
The only form <strong>of</strong> fish process<strong>in</strong>g is hot smok<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
commonly referred to as “dry<strong>in</strong>g.” All excess fish are<br />
smoked ei<strong>the</strong>r for storage <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> home or for sale to o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
households or markets. The most common fish eaten by<br />
village folk are fresh Clarias, Labeo, and tilapia. They<br />
sell larger, higher-priced fish and reta<strong>in</strong> smaller ones for<br />
home consumption.<br />
Every fish<strong>in</strong>g household performs its own smok<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
This may appear to be a waste <strong>of</strong> firewood and effort,<br />
especially given periodic, small catches. However, <strong>the</strong><br />
fish smoker is a simple structure made <strong>of</strong> a slatted shelf<br />
(usually bamboo) placed above <strong>the</strong> kitchen fire. Because<br />
<strong>the</strong> kitchen fire is always lit, <strong>the</strong>re is adequate smoke for<br />
cur<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Prior to smok<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong> fish are de-scaled, and <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>es and gills are removed. The fish is <strong>the</strong>n washed<br />
and, if smaller than 15 cm, placed flat on <strong>the</strong> smok<strong>in</strong>g<br />
shelf. If larger, a wood skewer is <strong>in</strong>serted through <strong>the</strong><br />
mouth to <strong>the</strong> tail so that <strong>the</strong> fish is bent circular. The<br />
person who caught <strong>the</strong> fish is usually responsible for<br />
prepar<strong>in</strong>g it, although this activity is sometimes shared<br />
with o<strong>the</strong>r members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> household. Fish are smoked<br />
for up to three days, <strong>the</strong>n placed <strong>in</strong> covered rattan baskets<br />
on a shelf about 2 m above <strong>the</strong> fire to rema<strong>in</strong> dry.<br />
There are few fish markets <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study area. Fish are<br />
ei<strong>the</strong>r consumed by <strong>the</strong> household (23% <strong>of</strong> surveyed<br />
catches) or taken to o<strong>the</strong>r houses for sale (77%). Thus,<br />
fish are an important source <strong>of</strong> prote<strong>in</strong> and <strong>in</strong>come.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> market for fish is <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study area is<br />
Mamfe; it is held every Saturday. A roadside market<br />
exists along <strong>the</strong> Mamfe-Nyang road. Its stops <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
Nyang (Wednesday), Mukonyong (Thursday), and<br />
Eshobi (Friday). Only two fish stalls were seen <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
road market, and both sold smoked crayfish <strong>of</strong> very poor<br />
quality. There are no fish markets west <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mamfe-<br />
Nyang road.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>y season when this survey was<br />
conducted, sea fish were sold ma<strong>in</strong>ly at Mamfe market,<br />
which had 12 stalls sell<strong>in</strong>g salt-water fish compared to 8<br />
sell<strong>in</strong>g freshwater fish. Fish sellers <strong>of</strong>fered ei<strong>the</strong>r<br />
freshwater or salt-water fish, never a mix. There was no<br />
price difference between <strong>the</strong> two. Salt-water fish came<br />
from Limbe on <strong>the</strong> coast and <strong>in</strong>cluded small stone heads,<br />
mullets, barracuda, and shrimp. Women take most<br />
freshwater fish to <strong>the</strong> Mamfe market and use <strong>the</strong><br />
proceeds from sell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> fish to purchase household<br />
items, although sometimes fish traders go to villages to<br />
buy fish for market. Fish sold at Mamfe are used for local<br />
consumption and not exported elsewhere.<br />
4.6 Fish Breed<strong>in</strong>g and Migration<br />
145<br />
From October to December, fish breed<strong>in</strong>g and migration<br />
occur <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> small streams dra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> project area. This<br />
period marks <strong>the</strong> time when hatchl<strong>in</strong>gs produced <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
preced<strong>in</strong>g ra<strong>in</strong>y season use <strong>the</strong> flooded streams as<br />
breed<strong>in</strong>g grounds before return<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> rivers. It is<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> same period, fish fenc<strong>in</strong>g, traps, cast nets and<br />
cross-over nets that cause high mortality to juvenile fish<br />
are frequently operated.<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
146<br />
Migrat<strong>in</strong>g Labeo spp. make up 10% <strong>of</strong> all recorded<br />
catches. This level is probably much higher when one<br />
<strong>in</strong>cludes catches dur<strong>in</strong>g annual migrations. The<br />
commercial importance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se fish presents a case for<br />
controll<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g effort dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir migration <strong>in</strong><br />
November.<br />
With<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest streams, large breed<strong>in</strong>g migrations<br />
<strong>of</strong> four species were recorded between October and<br />
December. The most common was migration <strong>of</strong> Labeo<br />
batesii, Hemigrammopetersius brevidorsalis, and Barbus<br />
sp. Similar migration <strong>of</strong> L. batesii have been reported <strong>in</strong><br />
streams <strong>of</strong> nearby Okwangwo Division <strong>of</strong> Cross River<br />
National Park at <strong>the</strong> villages <strong>of</strong> Bemi, Okwa I, Okwa II,<br />
and Kanyang (K<strong>in</strong>g 1997). Large-scale fish migrations <strong>of</strong><br />
Labeo coubie were also reported by Simon (1998) for <strong>the</strong><br />
same area <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> national park.<br />
4.7 Fish Species Caught<br />
About 40% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> adult populations (above 15 years <strong>in</strong><br />
age) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> villages fish, mostly for home consumption.<br />
Fish that are sold are ei<strong>the</strong>r fresh (50%) or smoked<br />
(50%). Figure 2 shows <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> fish groups harvested<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g various fish<strong>in</strong>g gear. Fishermen stated that cichlids<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir catch followed by predatory<br />
Hydrocynus sp. and Hepsetus sp. The Clariidae—for<br />
example, Clarias, Mochokidae, and Bagridae—are also<br />
abundant. Popular fish for consumption <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area are<br />
Tilapia, Crow–crow nose, Mbanga, Mudfish, Dog fish,<br />
and Snake fish (see Appendix 1 for common and specific<br />
names).<br />
It is <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g that predators such as Hydrocynus<br />
vittatus, Hydrocynus brevis, and Hepsetus odoe figure<br />
beh<strong>in</strong>d prey fish such as cichlids <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> catch. This may<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicate an abundance <strong>of</strong> prey species and perhaps a<br />
healthy fishery. The presence <strong>of</strong> flooded forest banks<br />
undoubtedly assists predators, provid<strong>in</strong>g “lay <strong>in</strong> wait and<br />
stealth” habitat for effective predation.<br />
Snake fish (Mastacembelidae) are also high on <strong>the</strong><br />
list <strong>of</strong> species captured, possibly because <strong>the</strong>y are easy to<br />
catch and <strong>the</strong>refore frequently mentioned. Not<br />
surpris<strong>in</strong>gly, <strong>the</strong> Siluriformes (Clarias sp. and Barbus<br />
sp.), ideally suited to <strong>the</strong> river<strong>in</strong>e/stream environment<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
and able to withstand low levels <strong>of</strong> oxygen <strong>in</strong> flooded<br />
areas, were also on <strong>the</strong> list, <strong>in</strong> fourth and fifth places.<br />
Bagridae and Mochokidae were also represented.<br />
4.8 Estimate <strong>of</strong> Fish Production<br />
Extrapolat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> sample to <strong>the</strong> total number <strong>of</strong> fisherfolk<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> survey area and multiply<strong>in</strong>g by <strong>the</strong> CpUE recorded<br />
from Bache and Kajifu villages and activity data from <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual questionnaire survey resulted <strong>in</strong> a yield<br />
estimate <strong>of</strong> 106.3 tons for November (Table 3). The<br />
methodology used here is a standard practice for<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> fish yields <strong>in</strong> African rivers (Welcome<br />
1976). It is likely that annual yields may differ from that<br />
obta<strong>in</strong>ed through simple multiplication by 12 months,<br />
given <strong>the</strong> vary<strong>in</strong>g levels <strong>of</strong> activity and CpUE expected<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> dry season. Levels <strong>of</strong> monthly activity<br />
obta<strong>in</strong>ed from <strong>the</strong> questionnaire survey were multiplied<br />
by <strong>the</strong> November CpUE (assumed constant) to more<br />
accurately project <strong>the</strong> annual yield and to give an idea <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> expected monthly variation (Figure 3). The result was<br />
an estimated annual yield <strong>of</strong> 1,056 ton, worth<br />
approximately FCFA 400 million, or about $700,000.<br />
4.9 Fish Biodiversity<br />
Mdaihli et al.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn sector <strong>of</strong> TFR along <strong>the</strong> Munaya River,<br />
some 54 fish species belong<strong>in</strong>g to 22 families have been<br />
recorded to date (Appendix 1). While not exhaustive, this<br />
list compares favorably with that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Okwangwo<br />
Division <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cross River National Park, whose<br />
tributaries also partly dra<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> greater portion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
study area. For <strong>the</strong> Okwangwo Division, K<strong>in</strong>g (1997)<br />
recorded 31 species represent<strong>in</strong>g 6 orders and 9 families.<br />
Several <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 90 species from <strong>the</strong> upper Cross River<br />
(Reid 1989) were confirmed as endemics, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Tetraodon pustulatus, Gobiocichla trewavasae,<br />
Afromastacembelus sexdecimsp<strong>in</strong>us, and a new species<br />
<strong>of</strong> Leptocypris.<br />
Literature on <strong>the</strong> fishery <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region is almost solely<br />
centered on checklists and descriptions <strong>of</strong> fish species,<br />
with little emphasis on <strong>the</strong> overall fishery (Moses 1981,<br />
1987; Reid 1989; Schliewen 1996; K<strong>in</strong>g 1997; Simon<br />
1998). Teugels et al. (1992) provides <strong>the</strong> most
<strong>Fisheries</strong> Surveys<br />
Eleotridae sp.<br />
Mormy rids<br />
Cithar<strong>in</strong>idae/Dishicho<br />
Mochokidae<br />
Bagridae<br />
Lates/Poly centropsis<br />
Clarias sp.<br />
Barbus/Alestes<br />
Mastacembelidae<br />
Hy rocy nus/Hepsetus<br />
Tilapia<br />
Labeo sp.<br />
Eleotridae sp.<br />
Cithar<strong>in</strong>idae/Dishicho<br />
Bagridae<br />
Lates/Polycentropsis<br />
Mormyrids<br />
Clarias sp.<br />
Mastacembelidae<br />
Barbus/Alestes<br />
Hyrocynus/Hepsetus<br />
Labeo sp.<br />
Tilapia<br />
Raiamas sp.<br />
Eleotridae sp.<br />
Lates/Polycentropsis<br />
Clarias sp.<br />
Labeo sp.<br />
Barbus/Alestes<br />
Mastacembelidae<br />
Hyrocynus/Hepsetu<br />
Tilapia<br />
Raiamas sp.<br />
Bagridae<br />
Eleotridae sp.<br />
Labeo sp.<br />
Turtle<br />
Barbus/Alestes<br />
Lates/Polycentropsis<br />
Tilapia<br />
Hyrocynus/Hepsetus<br />
Mastacembelidae<br />
Clarias sp.<br />
0 5 10 15 20<br />
Percentage frequency<br />
Gill Net<br />
Sample size: 1,335<br />
0 5 10 15 20<br />
Percentage frequency<br />
Cast net<br />
Sample size = 791<br />
0 5 10 15 20<br />
Percentage frequency<br />
Hand net<br />
Sample size: 186<br />
No 1 Hook<br />
Sample no: 635<br />
0 5 10 15 20 25<br />
Percentage frequency<br />
Figure 2. Frequency <strong>of</strong> species groups caught <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border zones south <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
147<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
148 Mdaihli et al.<br />
Mochokidae<br />
Barbus/Alestes<br />
Cover pot<br />
Ekpe<br />
Lates/Polycentropsis<br />
Labeo sp.<br />
Clarias sp.<br />
Mormyrids<br />
Turtle<br />
Eleotridae sp.<br />
Bagridae<br />
Labeo sp.<br />
Ekpe<br />
Lates/Polycentropsis<br />
Barbus/Alestes<br />
Clarias sp.<br />
Tilapia<br />
Mastacembelidae<br />
Hyrocynus/Hepsetus<br />
Lates/Polycentro<br />
Postmaster<br />
Police dog<br />
Eleotridae sp.<br />
Mochokidae<br />
Clarias sp.<br />
Mastacembelidae<br />
Tilapia<br />
Hyrocynus/Heps<br />
Barbus/Alestes<br />
Ekpe<br />
Mastacembelidae<br />
Hyrocynus/Heps<br />
Tilapia<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40<br />
Percentage frequency<br />
Foul hook longl<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Sample size = 20<br />
0 5 10 15 20<br />
Percentage frequency<br />
Baited hooks<br />
Sample size = 600<br />
0 5 10 15 20<br />
Percentage frequency<br />
All fish traps:<br />
rattan trap<br />
w ire trap<br />
bamboo trap<br />
Sample size = 360<br />
Figure 2 (cont.). Frequency <strong>of</strong> species groups caught <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border zones south <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.
<strong>Fisheries</strong> Surveys<br />
comprehensive list <strong>of</strong> fish species available and<br />
recognizes 166 species from 15 orders. Species <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
those from <strong>the</strong> lower Gu<strong>in</strong>ean ichthyo-faunal prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
and <strong>the</strong> upper Gu<strong>in</strong>ean, Nilo-Sudanian, and Zairian<br />
prov<strong>in</strong>ces. The Cross River has more fish species than<br />
any o<strong>the</strong>r comparable West African river bas<strong>in</strong> and<br />
presents a rich Ichthy<strong>of</strong>auna (Teugels et al. 1992). At <strong>the</strong><br />
present moderate levels <strong>of</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study<br />
area, no species can be classified as endangered, although<br />
<strong>the</strong> threats caused by specific fish<strong>in</strong>g methods are <strong>of</strong><br />
concern.<br />
4.10 O<strong>the</strong>r Aquatic Animals<br />
This study also <strong>in</strong>cluded questions ask<strong>in</strong>g fisherfolk how<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten <strong>the</strong>y observed o<strong>the</strong>r animals while fish<strong>in</strong>g. The<br />
objective was to provide additional <strong>in</strong>formation on <strong>the</strong><br />
abundance <strong>of</strong> aquatic wildlife. The monitor lizard was<br />
<strong>the</strong> most common creature seen, followed by <strong>the</strong> otter<br />
(Table 4). As expected, manatees and hippos, once<br />
Total Adult<br />
fishermen<br />
Adult<br />
fisherwomen<br />
149<br />
common, are now less so. Some shellfish such as prawns<br />
Macrobrachium sp. are harvested <strong>in</strong>side hollow Indian<br />
bamboo traps. Crabs, frogs, and toads receive little<br />
attention.<br />
5 Recommendations<br />
To obta<strong>in</strong> a good understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> fisheries, especially to<br />
enable PROFA to recommend measures that will prevent<br />
<strong>the</strong> valuable stocks <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Upper Cross River from be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
over-fished, it is recommended that <strong>the</strong> fisheries<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g system that was <strong>in</strong>itiated <strong>in</strong> March 2001 be<br />
carried on throughout <strong>the</strong> project’s lifespan. In particular,<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g should focus on beach se<strong>in</strong>es, cast nets, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> catch by fish fences and small hooks. Whenever <strong>the</strong><br />
catch exceeds <strong>the</strong> maximum susta<strong>in</strong>able fish yield,<br />
management measures to regulate <strong>the</strong> particular fishery<br />
will be needed.<br />
Table 3. Estimates <strong>of</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g effort, catch per unit effort, and yields for <strong>the</strong> border zones south <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> FR, Cameroon<br />
Fisherchildren Cameroon<br />
Fisherfolk<br />
Nigerian<br />
fisherfolk<br />
#<br />
Total number<br />
(frame)<br />
399 286 1,114 3 2<br />
Mean gear types<br />
used day -1 fisher -1 #<br />
3.7 1.7 1.6<br />
Percent activity 46 33 57 - -<br />
Effort (total fisher<br />
days month -1 ) ²<br />
5,560 2,860 18,973 - -<br />
CpUE (Kg fisher -1<br />
day -1 )<br />
8.96 5.62 2.13 - -<br />
Total yield (t) south<br />
<strong>of</strong> TFR ²²<br />
106.3 49.8 16.1 40.4 0 0<br />
Total yield TFR<br />
Total yield (t)<br />
239.2 132.6 48 58.6 0 0<br />
extrapolated to<br />
entire TFR area<br />
345.5 182.4 64.1 99 0 0<br />
² Fish<strong>in</strong>g effort = Activity x total number x 30 days per month,<br />
²² Where south <strong>of</strong> TFR = survey area, Entire area = survey area +TFR<br />
TFR= Reserve enclaves and support zones<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
150<br />
Monthly yield (t)<br />
200<br />
160<br />
120<br />
80<br />
40<br />
0<br />
Jan<br />
Feb<br />
March<br />
Apr<br />
May<br />
June<br />
July<br />
Aug<br />
Sept<br />
Oct<br />
Nov<br />
Dec<br />
Figure 3. Predicted monthly yield estimates <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
It is fur<strong>the</strong>r recommended that <strong>the</strong> campaign aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
<strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> Gammal<strong>in</strong> and traditional herbal fish poisons<br />
be cont<strong>in</strong>ued. Awareness already exists <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> villages,<br />
and almost all fisherfolk are aga<strong>in</strong>st this practice.<br />
To fur<strong>the</strong>r protect fish stocks, it is recommended that<br />
collection <strong>of</strong> fish eggs from migrat<strong>in</strong>g Labeo sp. be<br />
prohibited before <strong>the</strong> November migration.<br />
In addition, PROFA should open a small research<br />
center to store preserved fish specimens to assist <strong>in</strong><br />
compilation <strong>of</strong> fish species checklists and provide a<br />
useful fish identification tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g tool for data recorders.<br />
More research is required to determ<strong>in</strong>e any decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
patterns <strong>in</strong> mean sizes <strong>of</strong> fish caught by hand nets. The<br />
cichlids <strong>of</strong> importance <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fishery must be exam<strong>in</strong>ed to<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>e when precise remedial management measures<br />
should be implemented. In <strong>the</strong> meantime, it is safe to<br />
recommend that <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imum gear mesh size <strong>of</strong> 3 <strong>in</strong>ches<br />
recommended for most African lakes and rivers is<br />
appropriate for <strong>the</strong> study region.<br />
References<br />
Mdaihli et al.<br />
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Monitor<br />
lizard Otter Crocodile Manatee Hippo<br />
Varanus Aonyx Crocodylus Trichechus Hippopotamus<br />
Frequency niloticus capensis niloticus senegalensis amphibius<br />
Every week 59 31 21 16 18<br />
Once a month 23 29 41 20 20<br />
Once a year<br />
Sample size (#<br />
18 39 38 65 63<br />
fisher<br />
<strong>in</strong>terviewed)<br />
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Roberts, T.R. 1975. Geographical distribution <strong>of</strong><br />
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Southwick, C.H. 1976. Ecology and Quality <strong>of</strong><br />
Our Environment. Boston: Pr<strong>in</strong>dle, Weber and<br />
Schmidt.<br />
Sunderland, T.C.H. 2000. Report <strong>of</strong> reconnaissance<br />
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West Prov<strong>in</strong>ce, Cameroon. Unpublished<br />
mimeograph submitted by <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian<br />
Institution’s Monitor<strong>in</strong>g and Assessment <strong>of</strong><br />
Biodiversity Program. Mamfe: PROFA.<br />
(September)<br />
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Teugels, G., G. Reid, and R. K<strong>in</strong>g. 1992. Fishes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Cross River bas<strong>in</strong> (Cameroon-Nigeria)<br />
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Zoologiques 266.<br />
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W<strong>in</strong>emiller, K.O. and L.C. Kelso-W<strong>in</strong>emiller.<br />
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Fish. Biol. 45: 211-225.
<strong>Fisheries</strong> Surveys<br />
Appendix 1. List <strong>of</strong> fish species with "Pidg<strong>in</strong>" English and local dialect names <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
Family Species English Name Pidg<strong>in</strong> Name<br />
Bagridae Auchenoglanis bisculatus (Ge<strong>of</strong>frey Sa<strong>in</strong>t-<br />
Hillaire, 1808)<br />
Catfish<br />
Bagridae Bagrus docmak (Forskall, 1775) Silver catfish Male belly up<br />
Bagridae Bagrus flamentosus (Pellegr<strong>in</strong>, 1924) Silver catfish Male belly up<br />
Bagridae Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus (La Cép"de,<br />
1803)<br />
Catfish Belly up (female)<br />
Centropomidae Late niloticus (L<strong>in</strong>naeus, 1762) Nile perch Go#per<br />
Characidae Bryc<strong>in</strong>us brevis (Boulenger, 1903) African tetras Mbanga<br />
Characidae Bryc<strong>in</strong>us longipennis (Gun<strong>the</strong>r, 1864) African tetras Mbanga<br />
Characidae Hydrocynus brevis (Gun<strong>the</strong>r, 1864) Tiger fish Dog fish<br />
Characidae Micralestes elongates (Draget, 1957) Mbanga<br />
Characidae Micralestes humilis (Boulenger, 1899) Mbanga<br />
Cichlidae Pelvicachromis pulcher (Boulenger, 1901) Tilapia Bone back<br />
Cichlidae Pelvicachromis taeniatus (Boulenger, 1901) Tilapia Bone back<br />
Cichlidae Saro<strong>the</strong>rodon galilaeus (L<strong>in</strong>naeus, 1758) Tilapia Bone back<br />
Cichlidae Tilapia mariae (Boulenger, 1899) Tilapia Bone back<br />
Cithar<strong>in</strong>idae Cithar<strong>in</strong>us citharus (Ge<strong>of</strong>frey Sa<strong>in</strong>t-Hillaire, Moon fish<br />
1808)<br />
Sand leaf fish<br />
Cithar<strong>in</strong>idae Cithar<strong>in</strong>us latus (Muller & Troschel, 1845) Moon fish Sand leaf fish<br />
Clariidae Clarias agboyiensis (Sydenham, 1980) Catfish Mudfish<br />
Clariidae Clarias anguillaris (L<strong>in</strong>naeus, 1758) Catfish Mudfish<br />
Clariidae Heterobranchus bidorsalis (Ge<strong>of</strong>frey Sa<strong>in</strong>t-<br />
Hillaire, 1809)<br />
Catfish Mudfish<br />
Cypr<strong>in</strong>idae Barbus bynni occidentalis (Boulenger, 1911) Barbs Mbanga<br />
Cypr<strong>in</strong>idae Barbus lagoensis (Gun<strong>the</strong>r, 1868) Barbs Mbanga<br />
Cypr<strong>in</strong>idae Labeo parvus (Boulenger, 1902) African carps Craw-craw nose<br />
Cypr<strong>in</strong>idae Labeo senegalensis (Valenciennes, 1942) African carps Craw-craw nose<br />
Cypr<strong>in</strong>idae Raiamas nigeriensis (Daget, 1959) Aeroplane fish<br />
Dasyatidae Dasyatis garouaensis (Stauch & Blanc,<br />
1962)<br />
Ray Cover pot<br />
Denticiptidae Denticeps clupeoides (Clausen, 1959) Mbanga fish<br />
Distichodontidae Distichodus engycephalus (Gun<strong>the</strong>r, 1864) Grass-eaters<br />
Distichodontidae Ichthyborus monodi (Pellegr<strong>in</strong>, 1929) Grass-eaters<br />
Hepsetidae Hepsetus odoe (Bl0ch, 1794) African pike Dog fish<br />
Malapteruidae Malapterurus electricus (Gmel<strong>in</strong>, 1789) Electric fish Electric fish<br />
Mastacembelidae Aethiomastacembelus nigromarg<strong>in</strong>atus<br />
(Boulenger, 1898)<br />
Sp<strong>in</strong>y-eel Snake fish<br />
Mastacembelidae Caecomastacembelus decorsei (Pellegr<strong>in</strong>,<br />
1919)<br />
Sp<strong>in</strong>y-eel Snake fish<br />
153<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
154 Mdaihli et al.<br />
Appendix 1 (cont). List <strong>of</strong> fish species with "Pidg<strong>in</strong>" English and local dialect names <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
Family Species English Name Pidg<strong>in</strong> Name<br />
Mochokidae Brachysynodontis batensoda (Ruppell, 1832) Catfish Knock-a-knock<br />
Postmaster<br />
Mormyridae Campylomormyrus tamandua (Gun<strong>the</strong>r,<br />
1864)<br />
Trunkfish Elephant fish<br />
Mormyridae Gnathonemus petersii (Gun<strong>the</strong>r, 1862) Elephant fish Elephant fish<br />
Mormyridae Hippopotamyrus pictus (Marcusen, 1864) Trunkfish Elephant fish<br />
Mormyridae Hippopotamyrus psittacus (Boulenger, 1897) Trunkfish Elephant fish<br />
Mormyridae Marcusenius cypr<strong>in</strong>oides (L<strong>in</strong>naeus, 1758) Trunkfish Elephant fish<br />
Mormyridae Mormyrops oudoti (Daget, 1954) Trunkfish Elephant fish<br />
Mormyridae Mormyrus macrophthalmus (Gun<strong>the</strong>r, 1866) Trunkfish Elephant fish<br />
Mormyridae Mormyrus rume (Valenciennes, 1846) Trunkfish Elephant fish<br />
Mormyridae Mormyrus spp. Trunkfish Elephant fish<br />
Mormyridae Mormyrus tapirus (Pappenheim, 1905) Trunkfish Elephant fish<br />
Nandidae Polycentropsis abbreviata (Boulenger, 1901) Grouper<br />
Notopteridae Papyrocranus afer (Gun<strong>the</strong>r, 1868) Fea<strong>the</strong>r back Canda planty<br />
Notopteridae Notopterus nigri (Gun<strong>the</strong>r, 1868) African knife- fish Canda planty<br />
Osteoglossidae Heterotis niloticus (Cuvier, 1829) Bony tongue<br />
Phractolaemidae Phractolaemus ansorgii (Boulenger, 1901) Blood fish Mudskip<br />
Polypteridae Polypterus ansorgii (Boulenger, 1910) Bichir / Thorny-eel Snake fish<br />
Schilbeidae Schilbe brevianalis (Pellegr<strong>in</strong>, 1929) Butterfish Female belly up<br />
Schilbeidae Schilbe <strong>in</strong>termedius (Ruppel, 1832) Butterfish Female belly up<br />
Tetraodontidae Tetradon l<strong>in</strong>eatus (L<strong>in</strong>naeus, 1758) Puffer fish Football fish<br />
Tetraodontidae Tetradon pustulatus (Murray, 1857) Puffer fish Football fish<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest
Distribution, Utilization, and Susta<strong>in</strong>ability <strong>of</strong> Non-Timber Forest<br />
Products from <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Terry C.H. Sunderland, Simon Besong, and Julius S.O. Ayeni<br />
1 Introduction<br />
Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are materials<br />
derived from forests—exclud<strong>in</strong>g timber but <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
“bark, roots, tubers, corms, leaves, flowers, seeds, fruits,<br />
sap, res<strong>in</strong>s, honey, fungi, and animal products” (Clark<br />
and Sunderland <strong>in</strong> press). NTFPs are collected from a<br />
wide range <strong>of</strong> ecotypes such as high forest, farm fallow,<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rwise disturbed forest, and farmland (Peters 1996)<br />
for use as food, medic<strong>in</strong>e, and barter. In some cases, <strong>the</strong>y<br />
are <strong>the</strong> only means for residents <strong>of</strong> remote forests to<br />
participate <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> cash economy (Arnold and Ruiz-Perez<br />
1996). People throughout <strong>the</strong> tropics rely on <strong>the</strong> harvest<br />
and sale <strong>of</strong> NTFPs for <strong>the</strong>ir economic well be<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
It is only relatively recently that non-timber forest<br />
products have become <strong>the</strong> focus <strong>of</strong> research and<br />
development <strong>in</strong>itiatives (Neumann and Hirsch 2000),<br />
primarily to ensure susta<strong>in</strong>able use <strong>of</strong> forest resources to<br />
meet human needs while conserv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> natural systems<br />
that produce <strong>the</strong> goods (Wilkie 1999). This paradigm<br />
shift reflects <strong>the</strong> important role <strong>of</strong> NTFPs <strong>in</strong> conservation<br />
and community development <strong>in</strong>itiatives through both<br />
product promotion and coherent strategies for susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
use (Wollenberg and Ingles 1999, Neumann and Hirsch<br />
2000).<br />
The framework for susta<strong>in</strong>able use <strong>of</strong> NTFPs must<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude adequate basel<strong>in</strong>e knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> species<br />
concerned, an understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g systems <strong>in</strong><br />
which <strong>the</strong>se products are traded, and appropriate<br />
legislation (Cunn<strong>in</strong>gham 1999). Such a framework can<br />
serve as <strong>the</strong> mechanism for equitable distribution <strong>of</strong><br />
benefits, community participation <strong>in</strong> resource<br />
management, and generation <strong>of</strong> revenues from nontimber<br />
forest products (Neumann and Hirsch 2000).<br />
2 Importance <strong>of</strong> NTFPs <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve<br />
Chapter 11<br />
In common with many areas <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> tropics and elsewhere<br />
<strong>in</strong> West and Central Africa, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>habitants <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong><br />
Forest Reserve (TFR) and its environs depend heavily on<br />
exploitation <strong>of</strong> forest resources (Groves and Maisels<br />
1999, Ayeni and Mdaihli 2001, Schmidt-Soltau 2001,<br />
Zapfack et al. 2001). In particular, NTFPs help to<br />
stabilize <strong>in</strong>comes because <strong>the</strong>y can be harvested when<br />
demand for farm labor is low but when NTFP production<br />
is at its peak (Schmidt-Soltau 2001). It is estimated that<br />
70% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> total population <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> larger study area<br />
collects forest products for consumption and sale,<br />
represent<strong>in</strong>g an estimated <strong>in</strong>come <strong>of</strong> 500 million CFA<br />
(about $850,000) a year (Ayeni and Mdaihli 2001), or a<br />
mean <strong>of</strong> 190,000 CFA (about $320) per household—<br />
39% <strong>of</strong> total household <strong>in</strong>come (Schmidt-Soltau 2001).<br />
Recent f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs also estimate that <strong>the</strong> majority (68%) <strong>of</strong><br />
harvested NTFPs are sold <strong>in</strong> home communities, 19%<br />
are transported for sale <strong>in</strong> Nigeria, and 13% are traded <strong>in</strong><br />
local Cameroon markets (Schmidt-Soltau 2001,<br />
Sunderland 2001).<br />
In <strong>Takamanda</strong>, bush mango and eru comb<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
contribute to 82.2% <strong>of</strong> household <strong>in</strong>come (Table 1) and<br />
are by far <strong>the</strong> most valuable products to <strong>the</strong> communities<br />
with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve. The retail value per unit <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
products such as <strong>the</strong> Carpolobia cattle stick and Randia<br />
chew<strong>in</strong>g stick is relatively high, but most local<br />
communities realize very little from <strong>the</strong> harvest and sale<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se products, an <strong>in</strong>equity that is a key component <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> management <strong>of</strong> NTFPs <strong>in</strong> TFR as discussed <strong>in</strong> more<br />
detail below.<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003, Pages 155 to 172
156 Sunderland et al.<br />
Table 1. Major plant NTFPs from <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon, and <strong>the</strong>ir contribution to household <strong>in</strong>come (from<br />
Schmidt-Soltau 2001, Sunderland 2001)<br />
Common<br />
name<br />
Scientific name<br />
Plant part<br />
used<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Use<br />
%<br />
contribution<br />
to cash<br />
Ma<strong>in</strong> market(s)<br />
Bush mango Irv<strong>in</strong>gia gabonensis Seed Condiment, soup<br />
<strong>in</strong>come<br />
58.9 Ikom, Amana (Nigeria)<br />
and I. wombolu<br />
thickener<br />
Mamfe<br />
Eru Gnetum africanum and Leaves Edible vegetable 23.3 Ikom, Amana (Nigeria)<br />
G. buccholzianum<br />
Mamfe<br />
Njansang Ric<strong>in</strong>odendron<br />
heudelotii<br />
Seed Condiment 6.6 Mbu, Nyang, Mamfe<br />
Bush pepper Piper gu<strong>in</strong>eensis Seed, leaf Condiment, leafy 2.9 Ikom, Amana (Nigeria)<br />
vegetable<br />
Mamfe<br />
Chew<strong>in</strong>g Garc<strong>in</strong>ia mannii Wood Dental hygiene 1.9 Agbokim, Ikom (Nigeria)<br />
stick<br />
Mamfe<br />
Bush onion Afrostyrax<br />
Seed Condiment<br />
1.5 Ikom, Amana (Nigeria)<br />
kamerunensis<br />
Mamfe<br />
Bitter kola Garc<strong>in</strong>ia kola Seed Stimulant,<br />
medic<strong>in</strong>al<br />
1.0 Mbu, Nyang, Mamfe<br />
Raffia Raphia hookeri Leaves Thatch<strong>in</strong>g 0.7 Local sale with<strong>in</strong> TFR<br />
Hausa stick Carpolobia lutea and<br />
C. alba<br />
Stems Cattle stick 0.4 Ikom (Nigeria)<br />
Cola nut Cola nitida Seed Stimulant, cultural 0.4 Ikom, Amana (Nigeria)<br />
Mamfe<br />
Alligator<br />
pepper<br />
Aframomum spp. Seed Medic<strong>in</strong>al 0.3 Mbu, Nyang, Mamfe<br />
Akpa Tetrapleura tetraptera Seed pod Condiment 0.1 Mamfe<br />
Njabe Baillonella toxisperma Seed Oil 0.1 Local sale, Mamfe<br />
Essok Mushroom Edible 0.1 unknown<br />
Screw p<strong>in</strong>e Pandanus<br />
candelabrum<br />
Leaves Thatch<strong>in</strong>g for mats 0.07 Local sale with<strong>in</strong> TFR<br />
Rattan Laccosperma<br />
secundiflorum<br />
L. robustum and<br />
Eremospatha<br />
macrocarpa<br />
Stems Weav<strong>in</strong>g 0.07 Local sale with<strong>in</strong> TFR<br />
Ngongo Marantaceae Leaves Weav<strong>in</strong>g, wrapp<strong>in</strong>g 0.06 Local sale with<strong>in</strong> TFR<br />
Bush plum Dacryodes edulis Fruits Edible 0.06 Local sale with<strong>in</strong> TFR<br />
Poga Poga oleosa Seed Edible 0.06 Local sale with<strong>in</strong> TFR
Distribution, Utilization, and Susta<strong>in</strong>ability <strong>of</strong> NTFPs<br />
Figure 1. Location <strong>of</strong> NTFP surveys <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
2.1 Recent trends <strong>in</strong> NTFP trade <strong>in</strong> TFR<br />
Until <strong>the</strong> 1980s, most <strong>of</strong> TFR and its environs were<br />
relatively <strong>in</strong>accessible, except through pedestrian access.<br />
The majority <strong>of</strong> NTFPs were traded locally or were<br />
carried on <strong>the</strong> heads <strong>of</strong> residents across <strong>the</strong> Cameroon-<br />
Nigeria border. Logg<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> late 1980’s logg<strong>in</strong>g<br />
activities, particularly to <strong>the</strong> south <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve, led to<br />
<strong>the</strong> construction <strong>of</strong> access roads that reached as far as<br />
Bache and Okpambe (Figure 1) These roads facilitated<br />
greater access to TFR and its resources, with a<br />
correspond<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> harvest and trade <strong>of</strong> many<br />
NTFPs by both <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples and Nigerian traders.<br />
By early 1994, many Nigerians began “<strong>in</strong>vad<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
forest” (Ebot 2001) to harvest Gnetum, Carpolobia, bush<br />
mango, and Garc<strong>in</strong>ia chew<strong>in</strong>g stick, with <strong>the</strong> complicity<br />
157<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> local population. More recently, construction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Akwaya road, albeit sporadic, has led to <strong>the</strong> open<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
rural markets from Mamfe to Mbu (<strong>the</strong> latter operates<br />
only <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> dry season), provid<strong>in</strong>g additional means <strong>of</strong><br />
sell<strong>in</strong>g forest products. These changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructure<br />
and market<strong>in</strong>g conditions, coupled with <strong>the</strong> absence <strong>of</strong><br />
any formal controls, have led to <strong>the</strong> “significant overexploitation<br />
<strong>of</strong> NTFPs” with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study area (Ebot<br />
2001).<br />
This paper is based on <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> a study <strong>of</strong><br />
NTFPs <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve as part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> GTZfunded<br />
Protection <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Forests around Akwaya<br />
(PROFA) project. It reviews <strong>the</strong> NTFP sector with<br />
emphasis on <strong>the</strong> few forest resources that contribute<br />
significantly to household <strong>in</strong>comes. Each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
158 Sunderland et al.<br />
resources and <strong>the</strong> conditions under which <strong>the</strong>y are<br />
harvested and utilized or sold are discussed, along with<br />
<strong>the</strong> traditional, legislative, and <strong>in</strong>stitutional constra<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
perta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong>ir susta<strong>in</strong>able and equitable exploitation.<br />
Recommendations l<strong>in</strong>ked to <strong>the</strong> paper’s conclusions are<br />
provided to assist <strong>in</strong> creation <strong>of</strong> a framework for<br />
strategies that promote <strong>the</strong> NTFP sector.<br />
3 Methods<br />
The study was conducted from 19 November 2001 to18<br />
February 2002. It consisted <strong>of</strong> a series <strong>of</strong> semi-structured<br />
and <strong>in</strong>formal <strong>in</strong>terviews with resource users and staff <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Environment and Forestry <strong>in</strong> Yaoundé<br />
(MINEF), an <strong>in</strong>ventory-based resource assessment, and<br />
market surveys. A comprehensive literature review<br />
preceded <strong>the</strong> fieldwork.<br />
3.1 Semi-structured <strong>in</strong>terviews<br />
A series <strong>of</strong> semi-structured <strong>in</strong>terviews—employ<strong>in</strong>g an<br />
open format that allowed conversational, two-way<br />
communication—was undertaken <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> communities <strong>of</strong><br />
Kajifu, <strong>Takamanda</strong>, Obonyi I, Obonyi III, Matene,<br />
Mblishi, and Mfakwe (Figure 1). In each community, <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>terviews were conducted primarily with village council<br />
members and with resource users <strong>of</strong> key non-timber<br />
forest products. The users <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>in</strong>cluded women and<br />
members <strong>of</strong> youth organisations, which led to a more<br />
representative assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> NTFP sector. To<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutional and legislative constra<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
related to NTFPs, <strong>in</strong>formal <strong>in</strong>terviews commenced with<br />
MINEF staff <strong>in</strong> Mamfe.<br />
3.2 NTFP resource <strong>in</strong>ventory<br />
A randomly stratified, transect-based <strong>in</strong>ventory was<br />
completed dur<strong>in</strong>g January 2002 at four key communitymanaged<br />
forest areas <strong>in</strong> TFR: <strong>Takamanda</strong>, Obonyi I,<br />
Matene, and Mfakwe (Figure 1) These sites represent<br />
ecological and socio-economic variables prevalent <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Reserve, as identified by a number <strong>of</strong> researchers<br />
(Groves and Maisels 1999, Sunderland 2000, Schmidt-<br />
Soltau 2001) and provide a useful overview <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> NTFP<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
sector from both perspectives. The <strong>in</strong>ventory<br />
methodology <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
3.2.1 Layout<br />
In common with a tested methodology for NTFPs <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Mokoko River Forest Reserve (Sunderland and Tchouto<br />
1999), <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ventory for this study consisted <strong>of</strong> a series <strong>of</strong><br />
temporary, parallel, 10m-wide transects established<br />
along a basel<strong>in</strong>e at predeterm<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong>tervals <strong>of</strong> 100m<br />
(10% sampl<strong>in</strong>g). Each transect was 1km <strong>in</strong> length along<br />
a predef<strong>in</strong>ed compass bear<strong>in</strong>g. Ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a constant<br />
and correct bear<strong>in</strong>g along <strong>the</strong> transect is critical to ensure<br />
that all transects are parallel. The goal is to <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>the</strong><br />
full range <strong>of</strong> forest types along <strong>the</strong> length <strong>of</strong> each<br />
transect.<br />
3.2.2 Enumeration<br />
Once <strong>the</strong> transects were established, <strong>the</strong> enumeration<br />
team moved slowly along <strong>the</strong> transect and carefully<br />
searched with<strong>in</strong> 5 m ei<strong>the</strong>r side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> central l<strong>in</strong>e for<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>of</strong> all species selected for this <strong>in</strong>ventory<br />
(Table 2). The 5-m distance was checked with a tape<br />
measure for <strong>in</strong>dividuals considered borderl<strong>in</strong>e. All trees<br />
at least 4 cm <strong>in</strong> diameter at breast height (1.3 m above <strong>the</strong><br />
ground) were <strong>in</strong>cluded, as were all rattans, treelets, and<br />
shrubs at least 50 cm <strong>in</strong> height.<br />
Villagers proved to be <strong>the</strong> best spotters <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> desired<br />
taxa. A field botanist reviewed all <strong>in</strong>dividuals before <strong>the</strong>y<br />
were measured for dbh and/or height. The <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
was recorded on field worksheets along with <strong>the</strong> location<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals along <strong>the</strong> transects. Additional<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation <strong>in</strong>cluded life form, phenology, and evidence<br />
<strong>of</strong> harvest.<br />
3.2.3 Regeneration<br />
At 100-m <strong>in</strong>tervals along each transect, nested 5-m x 5m<br />
regeneration plots were established. All seedl<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> desired species below 50cm <strong>in</strong> height <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> plots<br />
were counted and recorded. The record<strong>in</strong>g sheets for <strong>the</strong><br />
regeneration plots were separate from <strong>the</strong> record<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sheets for <strong>the</strong> transect data.
Distribution, Utilization, and Susta<strong>in</strong>ability <strong>of</strong> NTFPs<br />
Table 2. NTFPs sampled <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Resource Species name Common name<br />
Bush mango Irv<strong>in</strong>gia gabonensis and<br />
I. wombolu<br />
Eru Gnetum africanum and<br />
Gnetum buchholzianum<br />
Carpolobia<br />
cattle sticks<br />
Randia<br />
chew<strong>in</strong>g sticks<br />
3.3 Market surveys<br />
Carpolobia alba and C.<br />
lutea<br />
Massularia (syn.<br />
Randia ) acum<strong>in</strong>ata<br />
A series <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal surveys were undertaken <strong>in</strong> January<br />
2002 at markets <strong>in</strong> Mbu, Nyang, Mukonyong, Eshobi<br />
and Mamfe. While <strong>the</strong>se surveys do not comprise a<br />
wholly representative assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> conditions under<br />
which most NTFPs are traded (particularly with <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> seasonality), <strong>the</strong>y do provide a useful<br />
overview <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> products be<strong>in</strong>g traded, by whom, and<br />
bush mango (vern.); ogbono (Igbo); bojep<br />
(Boki); eloweh (Ovande); kelua (Basho); gluea<br />
(Anyang)<br />
eru (Efik); eru (Ibibio); ukasi (Igbo); ikokoh<br />
(Ovande); gelu (Anyang); ecole (Boki)<br />
cattle stick (vern.); sanda (Hausa); nyerem-mbe<br />
(Ovande); okah (Boki); essa (Anyang); fesha<br />
(Basho)<br />
Randia chew<strong>in</strong>g stick (vern.); pako (Yoruba);<br />
odeng (Boki); egili (Ovande); egili (Anyang);<br />
feyili (Basho)<br />
njansang (vern.); ngoku (Basho); itche<br />
(Becheve); ngoge (Boki); ngongeh (Anyang)<br />
Njansang Ric<strong>in</strong>odendron<br />
heudelotii<br />
Bush pepper Piper gu<strong>in</strong>eensis kakwale (Ovande); iyeyeh (Becheve); ashoesie<br />
(Boki); taquale (Basho); acachat (Anyang)<br />
Garc<strong>in</strong>ia Garc<strong>in</strong>ia mannii Igbo chew<strong>in</strong>g stick (vern.); osun ojie (Boki);<br />
chew<strong>in</strong>g sticks<br />
okok (Efik); aku ilu (Igbo)<br />
Bush onion Afrostyrax kamerunensis felou (Basho); elonge (Becheve); eloweh<br />
(Ovande); elu (Anyang)<br />
Njabe oil Baillonella toxisperma moabi (Trade); bojie = stump, edjie = fruits<br />
(Boki); mpoh (Basho)<br />
Rattan canes Laccosperma<br />
gekwiya (Anyang) = large rattan; echie (Anyang)<br />
secundiflorum, L.<br />
robustum (large<br />
diameter); Eremospatha<br />
macrocarpa (small<br />
diameter)<br />
= cane ropes<br />
Fever bark Annickia (syn. Enantia)<br />
chlorantha<br />
kakerim (Boki); foukou (Basho); ekwoh<br />
(Anyang); <strong>of</strong>aechi (Becheve)<br />
159<br />
how. Assessments <strong>of</strong> markets at Ikom and Amana dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a recent study <strong>of</strong> NTFPs <strong>of</strong> Cross River State, Nigeria,<br />
elicited additional useful <strong>in</strong>formation about <strong>the</strong> nature<br />
and scale <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cross-border trade (Sunderland 2001).<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
160 Sunderland et al.<br />
No. <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals (n = 142)<br />
80<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
0~10<br />
10~20<br />
20~30<br />
30~40<br />
40~50<br />
4 Results and Discussion<br />
4.1 Bush mango (Irv<strong>in</strong>gia gabonesis 1 )<br />
Table 3 summarizes <strong>the</strong> transect data for Irv<strong>in</strong>ga<br />
gabonensis). The <strong>Takamanda</strong> and Matene sites have a<br />
greater abundance <strong>of</strong> bush mango than Obonyi I and<br />
Mfakwe. <strong>Takamanda</strong> and Obonyi I have relatively few<br />
large-diameter <strong>in</strong>dividuals (>10 cm dbh), <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
<strong>the</strong>re are less productive trees <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se areas. In <strong>the</strong> case<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong>, this is because <strong>of</strong> poor recruitment and<br />
survival to maturity, most likely stemm<strong>in</strong>g from overharvest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> fruit. Matene is by far <strong>the</strong> most productive<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
50~60<br />
60~70<br />
Size-class (cm)<br />
70~80<br />
80~90<br />
90~100<br />
Figure 2. Number <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals sampled and size-classes for bush mango, <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
Site<br />
Total no. <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
Mean no. <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals/ha<br />
>100<br />
area for bush mango, with high numbers <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
trees >10 cm dbh.<br />
The cumulative size-class distribution for bush<br />
mango shows irregularities <strong>in</strong> recruitment (Figure 2).<br />
This may be caused by <strong>the</strong> tendency <strong>of</strong> bush mango to<br />
mast, but is more likely due to long-term harvest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
fruits and seeds.<br />
1 Irv<strong>in</strong>gia wombolu is not common <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> TFR and was<br />
not encountered dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ventory.<br />
Table 3. Summary <strong>of</strong> data collected from transects for bush mango <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Mean no. <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals/ha<br />
>10cm dbh<br />
Mean dbh<br />
(cm)<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> 51 12.75 2.5 10.07<br />
Obonyi I 23 5.75 3 43.7<br />
Matene 46 11.5 8.25 38.02<br />
Mfakwe 22 5.5 3.75 23.5<br />
Mean (all sites) 35.5 8.88 4.38 28.82
Distribution, Utilization, and Susta<strong>in</strong>ability <strong>of</strong> NTFPs<br />
No. <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals (n = 490)<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
4.2 Randia chew<strong>in</strong>g stick (Massularia<br />
acum<strong>in</strong>ata)<br />
2~3 3~4 4~5 5~6 6~7 >7<br />
Table 4 summarizes <strong>the</strong> transect data for Massularia<br />
acum<strong>in</strong>ata. Distribution <strong>of</strong> Randia is relatively constant<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> Reserve, with correspond<strong>in</strong>gly constant<br />
numbers <strong>of</strong> productive stems / ha. The low mean dbh is<br />
a result <strong>of</strong> over-exploitation <strong>of</strong> larger <strong>in</strong>dividuals.<br />
The erratic cumulative size-class distribution shows<br />
irregular regeneration and recruitment, correspond<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
Size-class (cm)<br />
Figure 3. Number <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals sampled and size-classes for Randia, <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon.<br />
Site<br />
Total no. <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
Mean no. <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals/ha<br />
<strong>the</strong> removal <strong>of</strong> mature <strong>in</strong>dividuals (Figure 3). Hence,<br />
exploitation is hav<strong>in</strong>g a long-term effect on <strong>the</strong><br />
population.<br />
4.3 Hausa cattle stick (Carpolobia spp.)<br />
161<br />
Table 5 summarizes <strong>the</strong> transect data for Carpolobia spp.<br />
These are predom<strong>in</strong>antly lowland species and hence are<br />
not present <strong>in</strong> any significant numbers <strong>in</strong> higherelevation<br />
Matene. Over-exploitation <strong>in</strong> Obonyi I and<br />
Mfakwe resulted <strong>in</strong> low numbers <strong>of</strong> mature <strong>in</strong>dividuals,<br />
Table 4. Summary <strong>of</strong> data collected for Randia from transects <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Mean no. <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals/ha<br />
>10cm dbh<br />
Mean dbh<br />
(cm)<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> 157 39.25 13.75 3.23<br />
Obonyi I 143 35.75 8.75 3.19<br />
Matene 91 22.75 11 4.23<br />
Mfakwe 99 24.75 10.5 4.05<br />
Mean (all sites) 122.5 30.6 11 3.68<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
No. <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals (n = 315)<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
2~3 3~4 4~5 5~6 6~7<br />
Size-class (cm)
No. <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals (n = 345)<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
4.4 Chew<strong>in</strong>g stick (Garc<strong>in</strong>ia mannii)<br />
0~10 10~20 20~30 30~40 >40<br />
Table 6 summarizes <strong>the</strong> transect data for Garc<strong>in</strong>ia<br />
mannii. Obonyi I has by far <strong>the</strong> greatest populations <strong>of</strong> G.<br />
mannii, followed by <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r lowland sites at<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> and Mfakwe. This species is poorly<br />
represented <strong>in</strong> higher-elevation Matene, as expected. In<br />
general, <strong>the</strong> mean dbh for G. mannii is high for this<br />
species at <strong>Takamanda</strong>, when compared with <strong>the</strong> Mokoko<br />
area where <strong>the</strong> mean dbh is 4.28, and <strong>in</strong>dicates m<strong>in</strong>imum<br />
impacts from exploitation.<br />
Size class (cm)<br />
G. mannii shows a healthy cumulative size-class<br />
distribution, evidence <strong>of</strong> healthy regeneration and<br />
recruitment and few immediate impacts from<br />
exploitation (Figure 5). However, this population should<br />
be monitored, particularly with <strong>the</strong> recent <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />
harvest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> mature <strong>in</strong>dividuals.<br />
4.5 Bush onion (Afrostyrax kamerunensis)<br />
Table 7 summarizes <strong>the</strong> transect data for <strong>the</strong> bush onion.<br />
Bush onion is abundant at <strong>Takamanda</strong> and Matene,
No. <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals (n = 1065)<br />
1000<br />
900<br />
800<br />
700<br />
600<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
200<br />
100<br />
0<br />
where <strong>the</strong>re are greater proportions <strong>of</strong> secondary forest,<br />
and common <strong>in</strong> Obonyi I and Mfakwe. The cumulative<br />
size-class distribution <strong>in</strong>dicates good regeneration and<br />
recruitment and no immediate impacts <strong>of</strong> utilization<br />
(Figure 6).<br />
4.6 Fever bark (Annickia chlorantha)<br />
Table 8 summarizes <strong>the</strong> transect data for Fever bark.<br />
Compared to <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r three sites, <strong>Takamanda</strong> is<br />
characterized by fewer <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>of</strong> A. chlorantha.<br />
Matene and Mfakwe <strong>in</strong> particular have high<br />
50<br />
Size-class (cm)<br />
concentrations <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals with a high proportion <strong>of</strong><br />
productive stems.<br />
The cumulative size-class distribution for this<br />
species exhibits good regeneration and recruitment and<br />
no immediate impacts <strong>of</strong> utilization (Figure 7).<br />
4.7 Lianas: Eru (Gnetum spp.) and bush<br />
pepper (Piper gu<strong>in</strong>eensis)<br />
Piper gu<strong>in</strong>eensis shows a greater abundance <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve at 6.45 <strong>in</strong>dividuals/ha (Table<br />
9) than <strong>in</strong> Mokoko Forest Reserve as 4 stems/ha.<br />
Although <strong>the</strong>re are no comparative figures for Gnetum
No. <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals (n = 175)<br />
100<br />
90<br />
80<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
spp. and <strong>the</strong>se data do not show <strong>the</strong> species as<br />
uncommon, <strong>the</strong>re are many reports <strong>of</strong> local scarcity <strong>in</strong><br />
areas <strong>of</strong> high exploitation.<br />
4.8 Rattan palms<br />
50<br />
As Table 10 <strong>in</strong>dicates, both commercial species <strong>of</strong> rattan<br />
(L. secundiflorum and E. macrocarpa) can be considered<br />
abundant. Regeneration and recruitment for <strong>the</strong>se species<br />
are significant, and rattan is not at risk <strong>of</strong> over-harvest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve.<br />
Size-class (cm)<br />
4.9 Results from <strong>in</strong>terviews and surveys<br />
The rema<strong>in</strong>der <strong>of</strong> this paper is based primarily on <strong>the</strong><br />
results <strong>of</strong> our literature review, <strong>in</strong>terviews, and market<br />
surveys.<br />
4.9.1 Susta<strong>in</strong>ability issues<br />
In general, NTFP exploitation that is not destructive (for<br />
example, <strong>the</strong> removal <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fruits <strong>of</strong> bush mango) can be<br />
described as relatively susta<strong>in</strong>able as long as <strong>the</strong>re is<br />
evidence that <strong>the</strong> population is not decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g over time<br />
through <strong>the</strong> constant removal <strong>of</strong> reproductive material<br />
(Cunn<strong>in</strong>gham 1999). Destructive harvest<strong>in</strong>g practices<br />
that are undertaken at low levels <strong>of</strong> exploitation such as
Gnetum spp. Piper gu<strong>in</strong>eensis<br />
Site<br />
Total no. <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
Mean no. <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals/ha<br />
Total no. <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
Mean no. <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals/ha<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> 86 21.5 42 10.5<br />
Obonyi 1 181 45.25 33 8.25<br />
Matene 0 0 16 3<br />
Mfakwe 220 55 25.75 4<br />
Mean (all sites) 121.75 30.4 103 6.45<br />
<strong>the</strong> removal <strong>of</strong> bark strips (for example, Annickia<br />
chlorantha) may pose a threat to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual, but likely<br />
not to <strong>the</strong> population or species as a whole (Table 11). In<br />
general, many NTFPs such as bush mango, njansang,<br />
bush onion, and bush pepper, where <strong>the</strong> impacts <strong>of</strong><br />
harvest<strong>in</strong>g are m<strong>in</strong>imal, are not at immediate risk <strong>of</strong><br />
be<strong>in</strong>g over-exploited, and <strong>the</strong>re are few reports <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g scarcity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se products.<br />
Destructive harvest<strong>in</strong>g such as fell<strong>in</strong>g and removal<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual is wholly unsusta<strong>in</strong>able. In terms <strong>of</strong><br />
conservation, over-exploitation is exacerbated when a<br />
species occurs <strong>in</strong> low densities or has a restricted natural<br />
distribution (for example, Garc<strong>in</strong>ia mannii). As<br />
important, <strong>the</strong> removal <strong>of</strong> all mature <strong>in</strong>dividuals from an<br />
area poses a threat to local populations (for example,<br />
Carpolobia, Garc<strong>in</strong>ia, and Randia). In such cases, <strong>the</strong><br />
removal <strong>of</strong> reproductively mature <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
significantly impacts <strong>the</strong> regenerative potential <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
population, which has considerable long-term effects on<br />
<strong>the</strong> capacity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> species to replace itself.<br />
Recent <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> harvest <strong>of</strong> many NTFPs at<br />
TFR for export to Nigeria is evidence <strong>of</strong> significant local
Resource Life form Part <strong>Impact</strong> <strong>of</strong> Level <strong>of</strong> Susta<strong>in</strong>ability<br />
harvested harvest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Bush mango Canopy-emergent Fruits Low Relatively susta<strong>in</strong>able, good regeneration<br />
tree<br />
and community-level cultivation<br />
Eru Woody liana Leaves Low to medium Relatively susta<strong>in</strong>able if leaves are<br />
to high plucked and <strong>the</strong> stem is not cut, but<br />
(depend<strong>in</strong>g on destructive unsusta<strong>in</strong>able harvest<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
technique) <strong>of</strong>ten undertaken<br />
Njansang Canopy-emergent Fruits Low Relatively susta<strong>in</strong>able, good regeneration<br />
tree<br />
and community-level “encouragement”<br />
Carpolobia cattle Small to medium Stems High Highly unsusta<strong>in</strong>able because <strong>of</strong> removal<br />
sticks<br />
tree<br />
<strong>of</strong> whole stem, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g root collar<br />
Garc<strong>in</strong>ia chew<strong>in</strong>g Medium to large Bole High Highly unsusta<strong>in</strong>able; species has limited<br />
stick<br />
tree<br />
geographical range and is <strong>in</strong> danger <strong>of</strong><br />
ext<strong>in</strong>ction over <strong>the</strong> long term<br />
Randia chew<strong>in</strong>g Small to medium Stems High Highly unsusta<strong>in</strong>able; population<br />
stick<br />
tree<br />
beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g a significant decl<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Njabe Canopy-emergent Fruits (more Low to high Relatively susta<strong>in</strong>able if harvested for<br />
tree<br />
commonly<br />
fruits, but unsusta<strong>in</strong>able is harvested for<br />
timber)<br />
timber<br />
Bush pepper Climb<strong>in</strong>g Leaves and Moderate Relatively susta<strong>in</strong>able if leaves and fruits<br />
fruits<br />
are plucked and <strong>the</strong> stem is not cut<br />
Rattan canes Climb<strong>in</strong>g palms Mature stems Low to medium Relatively susta<strong>in</strong>able at current levels <strong>of</strong><br />
harvest<br />
scarcity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se resources <strong>in</strong> that country (Sunderland<br />
2001), a situation that is largely determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, and<br />
exacerbat<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong> current unsusta<strong>in</strong>able harvest <strong>of</strong> many<br />
NTFPs discussed <strong>in</strong> this paper.<br />
For example, harvest <strong>of</strong> Carpolobia stems is wholly<br />
unsusta<strong>in</strong>able. These stems are cut below <strong>the</strong> swollen<br />
root collar to capture natural “handles” for <strong>the</strong> cattle<br />
sticks. The damage is so great that <strong>the</strong>re is little or no<br />
prospect <strong>of</strong> regeneration through re-shoot<strong>in</strong>g, or<br />
coppic<strong>in</strong>g. Coupled with this, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals preferred<br />
for harvest are adolescents (dbh <strong>of</strong> 4-6cm); hence, many<br />
Carpolobia stems are removed before reach<strong>in</strong>g<br />
reproductive maturity. The loss <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se immature<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals seriously affects <strong>the</strong> population’s long-term<br />
potential for recruitment through seed production. In <strong>the</strong><br />
Kajifu area, Carpolobia no longer exists because <strong>of</strong> this<br />
practice.<br />
In addition, both harvesters and traders report that<br />
Randia is becom<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly scarce <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve.<br />
Harvesters must travel far<strong>the</strong>r and far<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> bush to<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d mature stems. While <strong>the</strong> species is still relatively<br />
common, destructive harvest<strong>in</strong>g is lead<strong>in</strong>g to a serious<br />
population decl<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
4.9.2 The effects <strong>of</strong> seasonality on NTFP<br />
activities<br />
While many non-timber forest products are available for<br />
harvest and sale all year, some are somewhat seasonal,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> economic cycle for many communities relies<br />
heavily on <strong>the</strong> tim<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se resources (Table 12). The<br />
effects <strong>of</strong> seasonality are particularly pronounced for<br />
bush mango and o<strong>the</strong>r fruit-produc<strong>in</strong>g species and have<br />
significant implications for household budgets.
Resource <strong>Impact</strong>s <strong>of</strong><br />
seasonality<br />
Availability<br />
Bush mango High Ra<strong>in</strong>y season type (I. gabonensis ) available June to<br />
September; dry season type (I. wombolu ) available<br />
February to April<br />
Eru Moderate All year, although <strong>the</strong>re is less pluck<strong>in</strong>g and reduction <strong>of</strong><br />
supply dur<strong>in</strong>g early ra<strong>in</strong>s as people are occupied with<br />
farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Carpolobia cattle sticks Low All year, although transportation problems <strong>in</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>y season<br />
restrict supply to markets<br />
Randia chew<strong>in</strong>g sticks Low All year, although transportation problems <strong>in</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>y season<br />
restrict supply to markets<br />
Njansang Moderate Fruits produced dur<strong>in</strong>g ra<strong>in</strong>y season, but after process<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y can be stored <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>itely<br />
Bush pepper Moderate Fruits produced <strong>in</strong> dry season; leaves can be harvested all<br />
year<br />
Garc<strong>in</strong>ia chew<strong>in</strong>g sticks Moderate All year, although <strong>in</strong>creased availability <strong>in</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>y season<br />
because <strong>of</strong> better boat access to remote creeks <strong>in</strong> forest<br />
Bush onion Moderate Fruits produced dur<strong>in</strong>g ra<strong>in</strong>y season, but after dry<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong>y<br />
can be stored for some time<br />
Njabe oil Moderate Fruits produced <strong>in</strong> early ra<strong>in</strong>s; oil can be stored<br />
<strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>itely<br />
4.9.3 Traditional resource management<br />
systems<br />
For some key resources, <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong><br />
communities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve have clear regulations<br />
concern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> harvest <strong>of</strong> NTFPs from <strong>the</strong>ir forestlands.<br />
For example, regulatory controls on access to eru and<br />
bush mango are particularly well developed—for <strong>the</strong><br />
most part, <strong>the</strong>y exclude “outsiders” from harvest—and<br />
generally throughout <strong>the</strong> study area, communities benefit<br />
substantially from <strong>the</strong> harvest and sale <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se resources.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong> harvest <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r forest products such as<br />
Randia or Carpolobia that are not traditionally valued <strong>in</strong><br />
TFR contributes little to ei<strong>the</strong>r household <strong>in</strong>comes or <strong>the</strong><br />
community purse. Dealers who purchase such NTFPs<br />
directly from community collectors pay only a token fee<br />
to register with <strong>the</strong> community. This nom<strong>in</strong>al fee is an<br />
encourag<strong>in</strong>g sign <strong>of</strong> an <strong>in</strong>stitutional structure <strong>in</strong> place that<br />
is able to regulate access to <strong>the</strong> harvest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> key NTFPs.<br />
Never<strong>the</strong>less, <strong>the</strong> proportion <strong>of</strong> benefits that accrue to <strong>the</strong><br />
communities <strong>of</strong> orig<strong>in</strong> is but a small fraction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al<br />
sales price <strong>of</strong> many nontimber forest products.<br />
Community members who are <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>in</strong>volved at <strong>the</strong><br />
collector level generally do not move <strong>the</strong> products along<br />
<strong>the</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g cha<strong>in</strong>, and hence <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
benefits from <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al po<strong>in</strong>t-<strong>of</strong>-sale for many NTFPs<br />
accrue mostly to non-<strong>in</strong>digenous wholesalers and traders.<br />
This is true even for traditionally valued products such as<br />
eru and bush mango.<br />
A primary reason for <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
<strong>in</strong>volvement along <strong>the</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g cha<strong>in</strong> is that most<br />
communities do not have a realistic notion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> true<br />
market value <strong>of</strong> some forest products. This is particularly<br />
<strong>the</strong> case for products that are not used locally to any great<br />
extent (for example, Randia and Carpolobia). In this<br />
regard, access to <strong>the</strong> resource base, or <strong>the</strong> resource itself,<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten unknow<strong>in</strong>gly undersold to outside harvesters or<br />
dealers, with many communities, at best, benefit<strong>in</strong>g only<br />
from <strong>the</strong> provision <strong>of</strong> labor. In addition, an <strong>in</strong>ability to<br />
process and store raw materials at <strong>the</strong> community level<br />
means that only <strong>the</strong> price <strong>of</strong> raw material production<br />
accrues to <strong>the</strong> communities. For bush mango, this is
fur<strong>the</strong>r exacerbated by <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong> markets are<br />
flooded dur<strong>in</strong>g times <strong>of</strong> production, and prices are<br />
correspond<strong>in</strong>gly low. If <strong>the</strong> material could be dried and<br />
stored effectively and released when prices are higher a<br />
greater level <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>come would result at <strong>the</strong> community<br />
level.<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people who participated <strong>in</strong> this study’s<br />
<strong>in</strong>terviews expressed a desire to enter <strong>the</strong> formal<br />
wholesale trade for some products, which would enable<br />
<strong>the</strong>m to sell directly <strong>in</strong> Nigeria. Lack <strong>of</strong> credit facilities<br />
was cited as a ma<strong>in</strong> barrier to success.<br />
4.9.4 Formal legislation<br />
Generally, people who harvest and sell NTFPs are<br />
from <strong>the</strong> “<strong>in</strong>formal sector;” that is, <strong>the</strong>y are essentially<br />
self-employed, not recognized <strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficial statistics, have<br />
little access to capital, and earn money from labor<strong>in</strong>tensive<br />
enterprises. From harvest to f<strong>in</strong>al consumption,<br />
<strong>the</strong> domestic trade <strong>in</strong> NTFPs is thus part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> “hidden”<br />
economy. As a result, “<strong>in</strong>formal” taxation practices<br />
abound, by both forestry <strong>of</strong>ficials and customs <strong>of</strong>ficers,<br />
particularly given <strong>the</strong> extent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cross-border trade.<br />
It is clear that <strong>the</strong> NTFP sector is a significant <strong>in</strong>come<br />
generat<strong>in</strong>g activity for communities <strong>in</strong> TFR. Captur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> benefits <strong>of</strong> this trade on a more formal basis would<br />
significantly change <strong>the</strong> manner <strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong>se resources<br />
are perceived and managed. Ensur<strong>in</strong>g that NTFP harvest<br />
and trade contributes to both rural and urban <strong>in</strong>comes, as<br />
well as to forest conservation, is <strong>the</strong> focus <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
discussion surround<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> entire sector. In Cameroon, a<br />
fundamental <strong>in</strong>stitutional change is needed to ensure that<br />
NTFPs can enter <strong>the</strong> formal trad<strong>in</strong>g, revenue, and<br />
taxation systems that apply to <strong>the</strong> timber resource, for<br />
example. Such change must occur at both <strong>the</strong> community<br />
level, where communities receive a fair price for access<br />
to <strong>the</strong> resource, and <strong>the</strong> level <strong>of</strong> MINEF.<br />
A major constra<strong>in</strong>t to <strong>the</strong> realization <strong>of</strong> formal<br />
revenues from <strong>the</strong> trade and sale <strong>of</strong> major NTFP<br />
resources at <strong>the</strong> community level is <strong>in</strong>adequate provision<br />
for NTFPs <strong>in</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g forestry legislation. Aside from<br />
permits issued by MINEF for <strong>the</strong> transport and<br />
evacuation <strong>of</strong> eru (Ndoye pers. comm.), many products,<br />
no matter <strong>the</strong>ir market value, are not <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
current permit system, which focuses primarily on<br />
medic<strong>in</strong>al plants (see box).<br />
MINEF recently created a directorate for NTFPs.<br />
Ideally this unit will be responsible for formaliz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
revenue collection for <strong>the</strong> NTFP sector. To date, no<br />
policy changes have been proposed.<br />
Despite <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> an adequate permit system, a key<br />
issue <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> control <strong>of</strong> forest resources is <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong><br />
capacity with<strong>in</strong> MINEF, an agency suffer<strong>in</strong>g from<br />
shortfalls <strong>in</strong> staff expertise, <strong>in</strong>adequate basic<br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructure, and logistical support to implement much<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> formal forestry legislation. This has undoubtedly<br />
fostered a culture <strong>of</strong> “private settlement” as accepted<br />
practice.<br />
Historically, a number <strong>of</strong> bilateral aid projects and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r conservation <strong>in</strong>itiatives have essentially created<br />
parallel <strong>in</strong>stitutions to Cameroon’s government services<br />
that function adequately while <strong>the</strong>y receive fund<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
are serviced by ex-patriot technical staff. However, many<br />
have no hope <strong>of</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g once, predictably, aid and<br />
support are withdrawn at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> project cycle.<br />
This sidel<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> MINEF has contributed to <strong>the</strong> current<br />
poor capacity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>istry, and <strong>in</strong> a twist <strong>of</strong> irony, poor<br />
capacity is cited as <strong>the</strong> reason why many aid agencies do<br />
not directly support MINEF. It might be argued that<br />
streng<strong>the</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> MINEF staff, provid<strong>in</strong>g logistical and<br />
technical support, and establish<strong>in</strong>g improved systems <strong>of</strong><br />
accountability and transparency with<strong>in</strong> MINEF would be<br />
a far better approach to management <strong>of</strong> forest resources.<br />
In this regard, some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> more <strong>in</strong>novative forest<br />
legislation currently under discussion would likely have<br />
more chance <strong>of</strong> success, particularly for <strong>the</strong> NTFP sector.<br />
4.9.5 Cultivation<br />
In certa<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>stances, cultivation can provide a long-term<br />
solution to over-exploitation <strong>of</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> forest resources if<br />
it is economically and biologically feasible. It is unlikely<br />
that cultivation is a viable option for many over-exploited<br />
NTFPs <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve, particularly with <strong>the</strong> poor market<br />
access prevalent <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area. However, community-level
Box. Large-scale exploitation <strong>of</strong> non-timber forest products<br />
(mostly medic<strong>in</strong>al plants) is subject to obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a permis<br />
d’exploitation. This permit determ<strong>in</strong>es <strong>the</strong> quantities to be<br />
exploited or collected with<strong>in</strong> a specified geographic area. The<br />
length <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> exploitation permit usually does not exceed one year<br />
(National Forestry Law no. 94/01; article 56; October 1994),<br />
except by special arrangement.<br />
The volume or amount <strong>of</strong> material allowed for exploitation<br />
depends on <strong>the</strong> desired material (fruits, bark, leaves, etc.). This<br />
quota is set by Cameroon’s Department <strong>of</strong> Forestry. However,<br />
even <strong>the</strong> most rudimentary basel<strong>in</strong>e and monitor<strong>in</strong>g data for<br />
estimat<strong>in</strong>g potential susta<strong>in</strong>able yield is woefully <strong>in</strong>complete for<br />
most, if not all, taxa.<br />
Exploitation permits also apply to special products such as eru.<br />
Even if special products are found on lands belong<strong>in</strong>g to private<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals, <strong>the</strong>y rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> property <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> state, except where<br />
<strong>the</strong>y have been “acquired” by <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual concerned (although<br />
it is not specified how acquisition may take place).<br />
<strong>in</strong>itiatives at plant<strong>in</strong>g bush mango have proved relatively<br />
successful, and <strong>the</strong>re is considerable opportunity to<br />
improve <strong>the</strong> varieties planted through early-yield<br />
cultivars <strong>of</strong> bush mango developed by Dr. Jonathon<br />
Okafor. This could alleviate an <strong>of</strong>ten-heard concern <strong>of</strong><br />
many community members that <strong>the</strong>y bush mango takes<br />
many years to beg<strong>in</strong> to bear fruit.<br />
In addition to bush mango, many residents <strong>of</strong> TFR<br />
showed enthusiasm for grow<strong>in</strong>g eru <strong>in</strong> home<br />
compounds. A number <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> village Chiefs who<br />
visited Limbe Botanic Gardens <strong>in</strong> late 2000, where eru<br />
cultivation is well advanced, <strong>in</strong>dicated considerable<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> this possibility.<br />
4.9.6 Product diversification<br />
The heavy reliance on just a few forest resources for<br />
<strong>in</strong>come at TFR can pose considerable hardship for some<br />
communities. The Matene area, <strong>in</strong> particular, is primarily<br />
dependent on <strong>the</strong> bush mango resource for access to <strong>the</strong><br />
cash economy, leav<strong>in</strong>g villagers vulnerable dur<strong>in</strong>g years<br />
<strong>of</strong> poor production. Product diversification would make<br />
a huge difference <strong>in</strong> this community and o<strong>the</strong>rs that also<br />
rely on two or three key products. For example, <strong>the</strong><br />
Matene people have historically ga<strong>the</strong>red honey for sale<br />
to o<strong>the</strong>r TFR communities, and <strong>the</strong> current value <strong>of</strong> this<br />
product (1,000 CFA/liter or about $1.30) could make this<br />
a viable <strong>in</strong>come-generat<strong>in</strong>g activity.<br />
4.9.7 Gender issues<br />
In contrast to <strong>the</strong> NTFP sector <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r areas, <strong>the</strong>re is<br />
considerable equity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> division <strong>of</strong> forest resource use<br />
and management at TFR. Women are active <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
harvest and sale <strong>of</strong> NTFPs, particularly eru (harvest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
only) and <strong>the</strong> harvest and local sale <strong>of</strong> njabe oil, njansang,<br />
and bush onion. Local development <strong>in</strong>itiatives aimed at<br />
promot<strong>in</strong>g and develop<strong>in</strong>g household strategies for<br />
improv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>comes from NTFPs (for example, provid<strong>in</strong>g<br />
basic mach<strong>in</strong>ery for crack<strong>in</strong>g njabe nuts and tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
eru cultivation) would likely have a better chance <strong>of</strong><br />
success if targeted to women’s groups with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
communities.<br />
5 Conclusions<br />
Forest resources such as Carpolobia and Randia that are<br />
harvested by non-<strong>in</strong>digenous peoples are removed with<br />
very few, if any, benefits accru<strong>in</strong>g to TFR communities.<br />
Although harvest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se resources is unsusta<strong>in</strong>able at<br />
current rates, MINEF has too few resources to protect<br />
<strong>the</strong>se species. The rudimentary village systems for<br />
controll<strong>in</strong>g forest resources (for example, Chiefs, village<br />
councils, and youth groups) are not fully capable <strong>of</strong><br />
ensur<strong>in</strong>g that an equitable share <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> NTFP trade and<br />
benefits accrues to local communities. In addition, <strong>the</strong><br />
highly porous Cameroon-Nigeria border and <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong><br />
adequate guidel<strong>in</strong>es for taxation <strong>of</strong> and revenue<br />
collection from <strong>the</strong> trade <strong>in</strong> NTFPs means that trade<br />
benefits are focused <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> “<strong>in</strong>formal” economy.<br />
The current rate <strong>of</strong> harvest <strong>of</strong> most NTFPs exceeds<br />
<strong>the</strong> ability <strong>of</strong> many species to regenerate, and <strong>the</strong> harvest<br />
<strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> species can be regarded as unsusta<strong>in</strong>able.<br />
This is obvious for species such as Carpolobia and<br />
Randia, but <strong>the</strong>re may also be deleterious long-term<br />
effects on regeneration from seed removal (bush mango)<br />
and <strong>the</strong> pluck<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> leaves (Gnetum spp.) that may be<br />
unquantifiable <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> short term. Long-term monitor<strong>in</strong>g
should be implemented both to determ<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> impacts <strong>of</strong><br />
harvest<strong>in</strong>g high-value NTFPs and to aid <strong>in</strong> devis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
guidel<strong>in</strong>es for susta<strong>in</strong>able management <strong>of</strong> all NTFPs.<br />
There is considerable potential to <strong>in</strong>troduce<br />
cultivation for some high value NTFPs, especially earlyyield<br />
cultivars <strong>of</strong> bush mango and eru for both household<br />
use and formal sale.<br />
Product diversification could help reduce <strong>the</strong> current<br />
heavy reliance on a few high-value NTFPs at TFR.<br />
Additional forest products should be <strong>in</strong>vestigated for<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir potential to contribute to household <strong>in</strong>comes.<br />
Acknowledgments<br />
The authors are grateful to all <strong>the</strong> Chiefs, village councils,<br />
youth groups, and resource users who provided <strong>the</strong><br />
majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation conta<strong>in</strong>ed with<strong>in</strong> this paper.<br />
Special gratitude is extended to Yisa Emmanuel <strong>of</strong><br />
Obonyi III for valuable <strong>in</strong>sights <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> NTFP trade and<br />
Tambe George for useful <strong>in</strong>formation regard<strong>in</strong>g MINEF<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Forestry Law. Thanks also to PROFA Project<br />
Advisor Ms. Mar<strong>in</strong>a Mdaihli for her comments on <strong>the</strong><br />
study report and for her support, both logistical and<br />
moral, throughout its preparation. Thanks to Dan<br />
Slayback for prepar<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> map.<br />
References<br />
Arnold, J. E. M., and M. Ruiz-Perez. 1996. Fram<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
issues relat<strong>in</strong>g to non-timber forest products<br />
research. Pp. 1-18 <strong>in</strong>: J. E. M. Arnold and M. Ruiz-<br />
Perez (eds.). Current Issues <strong>in</strong> Non-timber Forest<br />
Products Research. CIFOR, Bogor.<br />
Ayeni, J. S. O., and M. Mdaihli. 2001. Cameroonian-<br />
German (MINEF-GTZ) project for <strong>the</strong> Protection <strong>of</strong><br />
Forests Around Akwaya (PROFA): Project plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />
workshop. Mamfe.<br />
Clark, L. E., and T. C. H. Sunderland. In press. CARPE:<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>g knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> non-timber forest product<br />
sector <strong>in</strong> Central Africa. In: T. C. H. Sunderland and<br />
L. E. Clark (eds.). The Key Non-timber Forest<br />
Products <strong>of</strong> Central Africa: A State-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>knowledge.<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Missouri Press, Missoula.<br />
Cunn<strong>in</strong>gham, A. B. 1999. The management <strong>of</strong> non-wood<br />
forest products <strong>in</strong> protected areas: Lessons <strong>of</strong> a case<br />
study <strong>in</strong> multiple-use <strong>in</strong> Bw<strong>in</strong>di Impenetrable<br />
National Park, Uganda. Pp.143-160 <strong>in</strong>: T. C. H.<br />
Sunderland, L. E. Clark, and P. Vantomme (eds.).<br />
The Non-wood Forest Products <strong>of</strong> Central Africa:<br />
Current Research Issues and Prospects for<br />
Conservation and Development. Food and<br />
Agriculture Organisation, Rome..<br />
Ebot, R. 2001. Project for <strong>the</strong> Protection <strong>of</strong> Forest<br />
Around Akwaya (PROFA). Paper presented at <strong>the</strong><br />
PROFA plann<strong>in</strong>g workshop, Mamfe, 8th-13th May.<br />
Groves, J. L., and F. Maisels. 1999. Report on <strong>the</strong> Large<br />
Mammal Fauna <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve,<br />
Cameroon, with Special Emphasis on <strong>the</strong> Gorilla<br />
Population. Unpubl. report for World Wildlife Fund-<br />
Cameroon.<br />
Neumann, R. P., and E. Hirsch. 2000. Commercialisation<br />
<strong>of</strong> Non-timber Forest Products: Review and<br />
Analysis <strong>of</strong> Research. CIFOR, Bogor.<br />
Peters, C. M. 1996. Observations on <strong>the</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
exploitation <strong>of</strong> non-timber forest products: An<br />
ecologist’s perspective. Pp. 19-40 <strong>in</strong>: J. E. M. Arnold<br />
and M. Ruiz-Perez (eds.). Current Issues <strong>in</strong> Nontimber<br />
Forest Products Research. CIFOR, Bogor.<br />
Schmidt-Soltau, K. 2001. Human Activities <strong>in</strong> and<br />
around <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve. Unpubl.<br />
report for PROFA, Mamfe.<br />
Sunderland, T. C. H. 2000. Report <strong>of</strong> a Reconnaissance<br />
Mission to <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, SW<br />
Prov<strong>in</strong>ce, Cameroon. Unpubl. report for <strong>the</strong><br />
Smithsonian Institution’s Monitor<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
Assessment <strong>of</strong> Biodiversity Program (SI/MAB),<br />
Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC.
Sunderland, T. C. H. 2001. Cross River State Community<br />
Forest Project: Non-timber Forest Products Advisor<br />
Report. Department for International Development /<br />
Environmental Resources Management / Scott<br />
Wilson Kirkpatrick & Co Ltd., UK.<br />
Sunderland, T. C. H., a n d P. Tchouto. 1999. AParticipatory<br />
Survey and Inventory <strong>of</strong> Timber and Non-timber<br />
Forest Products<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mokoko River Forest Reserve,<br />
SW Prov<strong>in</strong>ce, Cameroon. Unpubl. report for<br />
USAID/CARPE.<br />
Wilkie, D. 1999. CARPE and non-wood forest products.<br />
Pp. 3-18 <strong>in</strong>: T. C. H. Sunderland, L. E. Clark, and P.<br />
Vantomme (eds.). The Non-wood Forest Products <strong>of</strong><br />
Central Africa: Current Research Issues and<br />
Prospects for Conservation and Development. Food<br />
and Agriculture Organization, Rome.<br />
Wollenberg, E., and A. Ingles (eds.). 1999. Incomes from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Forest: Methods for <strong>the</strong> Development and<br />
Conservation <strong>of</strong> Forest Products for Local<br />
Communities. CIFOR, Bogor.
Landcover change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve, Cameroon:<br />
1986-2000<br />
1 Introduction<br />
As with many areas <strong>of</strong> conservation <strong>in</strong>terest, <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve (TFR) is part <strong>of</strong> a dynamic,<br />
human-<strong>in</strong>fluenced landscape. Although located <strong>in</strong> a fairly<br />
remote region along <strong>the</strong> Nigerian border, <strong>the</strong> reserve is<br />
surrounded by numerous small villages on its eastern and<br />
sou<strong>the</strong>rn sides, with three villages enclaved with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
reserve itself (see figure 2 <strong>in</strong> Chapter 1). Figure 1<br />
graphically <strong>in</strong>dicates <strong>the</strong> relative proximity <strong>of</strong> much <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> reserve to human settlements and movement.<br />
Additionally, numerous old village sites scattered<br />
throughout parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reserve <strong>in</strong>dicate <strong>the</strong> extent and<br />
fluidity <strong>of</strong> previous human settlements.<br />
Until recently, access to <strong>the</strong> reserve was relatively<br />
difficult, <strong>of</strong>ten requir<strong>in</strong>g a day’s journey on foot to reach<br />
ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn boundary (from Mamfe) or <strong>the</strong><br />
nor<strong>the</strong>rn boundary (from <strong>the</strong> Obudu Cattle Ranch <strong>in</strong><br />
Nigeria). S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> late 1980s, however, access to <strong>the</strong><br />
area has been improved with <strong>the</strong> completion <strong>of</strong> a largespan<br />
bridge over <strong>the</strong> Manyu river at Mamfe. With this<br />
bridge <strong>in</strong> place, both logg<strong>in</strong>g companies and <strong>the</strong><br />
government have constructed unpaved roads <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong><br />
region. The government has also made significant<br />
progress on <strong>the</strong> long-awaited Mamfe-to-Akwaya road,<br />
which may be completed with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> next few years at<br />
current rates <strong>of</strong> progress. A network <strong>of</strong> footpaths<br />
currently connects most villages <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region to one<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
Given <strong>the</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g pattern <strong>of</strong> settlements and <strong>the</strong><br />
recently improved access to <strong>the</strong> region, we wanted to<br />
exam<strong>in</strong>e recent landcover change <strong>in</strong> and around TFR.<br />
Fortunately, <strong>the</strong> archive <strong>of</strong> high-resolution satellite<br />
imagery for <strong>the</strong> region <strong>in</strong>cludes clear images from 1986<br />
Dan Slayback<br />
and 2000, allow<strong>in</strong>g a study <strong>of</strong> landcover changes over<br />
that 14-year period.<br />
2 Methods<br />
2.1 Data<br />
Chapter 12<br />
NASA’s Landsat series <strong>of</strong> earth-observ<strong>in</strong>g satellites have<br />
been acquir<strong>in</strong>g medium to high-resolution multispectral<br />
earth imagery s<strong>in</strong>ce 1972. Start<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>the</strong> launch <strong>of</strong><br />
Landsat 4 <strong>in</strong> 1982, <strong>the</strong> satellites began carry<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> 30meter<br />
resolution Thematic Mapper (TM) <strong>in</strong>strument. The<br />
result<strong>in</strong>g TM data archive, from 1982 to present, is <strong>the</strong><br />
most extensive global collection <strong>of</strong> high-resolution<br />
imagery.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong> archive conta<strong>in</strong>s relatively few cloudfree<br />
images from <strong>the</strong> coastal areas <strong>of</strong> central Africa,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> scene cover<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> TFR (identified as WRS<br />
path 187 row 56). This is <strong>in</strong> part due to <strong>the</strong> extreme<br />
cloud<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> region and <strong>the</strong> satellite’s 16-day repeat<br />
coverage (any scene is observed only once every 16<br />
days). Also, previous data acquisition policies and<br />
technical difficulties h<strong>in</strong>dered <strong>the</strong> acquisition <strong>of</strong> imagery<br />
over central Africa until <strong>the</strong> launch <strong>of</strong> Landsat 7 <strong>in</strong> 1999.<br />
Fortunately, one relatively clear Landsat 5 image is<br />
available from December 12, 1986. This image and a<br />
clear Landsat 7 image from December 10, 2000 were<br />
acquired for this analysis.<br />
To ensure <strong>the</strong> precise image-to-image registration<br />
required for detect<strong>in</strong>g changes between an image pair,<br />
both scenes were orthorectified (by <strong>the</strong> EarthSat<br />
corporation). Orthorectification uses <strong>the</strong> known locations<br />
<strong>of</strong> many ground reference po<strong>in</strong>ts to remove <strong>the</strong> artificial<br />
curvature <strong>of</strong> satellite-acquired imagery, which is an<br />
artifact <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> satellite’s view<strong>in</strong>g geometry. Fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
preprocess<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> imagery was unnecessary; due to <strong>the</strong><br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003, Pages 173 to 179
174 Slayback<br />
7<br />
H S IH<br />
type <strong>of</strong> automated change detection methods used (a<br />
composite multi-date classification; more below),<br />
atmospheric correction was not required (Song,<br />
Woodcock et al. 2001). The full Landsat scenes were<br />
subset to a 1600 x 1760 pixel (~46 x 50 km) w<strong>in</strong>dow<br />
surround<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> TFR (Photo gallery).<br />
The Landsat TM <strong>in</strong>strument records imagery at 30meter<br />
resolution <strong>in</strong> 6 different spectral bands, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g 3<br />
bands <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> visible and 3 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>frared. Vegetation is<br />
known to respond strongly <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> red and <strong>in</strong>frared bands;<br />
healthy green leaf matter absorbs red radiation and<br />
strongly reflects near-<strong>in</strong>frared. Additionally, Boyd and<br />
Duane (2001) found that <strong>the</strong> green (band 2) and middle<br />
<strong>in</strong>frared (bands 5 and 7) wavelengths are useful <strong>in</strong><br />
discrim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g tropical forest regeneration. In humid<br />
tropical environments, imagery <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> blue wavelengths<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
7<br />
e˜2p<br />
7<br />
y2@w—˜A<br />
7<br />
e—22S22<br />
—22I222—<br />
†—<br />
g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚ g2‚<br />
x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€— x——2€—<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
y—2h<br />
7<br />
u<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
w—<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
w—<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
„———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „———— „————<br />
p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p<br />
‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚<br />
7<br />
7<br />
w——<br />
7<br />
7<br />
(band 1) is generally dom<strong>in</strong>ated by scatter<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>f <strong>of</strong> water<br />
vapor particles, and so appears very hazy, and relatively<br />
little useful ground-reflected signal penetrates this haze.<br />
Thus, I used <strong>the</strong> green (band 2), red (band 3), near<br />
<strong>in</strong>frared (band 4) and middle <strong>in</strong>frared (bands 5 and 7)<br />
bands for this analysis.<br />
2.2 Change classification<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
Changes <strong>in</strong> landcover between <strong>the</strong> two dates <strong>of</strong> imagery<br />
were estimated us<strong>in</strong>g standard supervised classification<br />
techniques. Specifically, <strong>the</strong> maximum likelihood<br />
algorithm method was used <strong>in</strong> PCI’s Imageworks<br />
s<strong>of</strong>tware package. This method assigns class<br />
membership based on <strong>the</strong> statistical properties (mean and<br />
standard deviation) <strong>of</strong> each def<strong>in</strong>ed class for all <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
image bands. The classes are def<strong>in</strong>ed manually; typically<br />
7 7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
w<br />
p<br />
‚<br />
Figure 1. 5 km buffers around village sites and 1 km buffers around roads and footpaths; much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reserve is with<strong>in</strong> a few<br />
hours walk <strong>of</strong> human settlements.<br />
7
Landcover change<br />
an operator with knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> imagery manually<br />
del<strong>in</strong>eates sites (groups <strong>of</strong> pixels) <strong>of</strong> each class on <strong>the</strong><br />
imagery. Based on <strong>the</strong> spectral character <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
sites, <strong>the</strong> maximum likelihood algorithm <strong>the</strong>n makes<br />
probability-based class assignments <strong>of</strong> all image pixels.<br />
To generate landcover change classes us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se<br />
classification methods, <strong>the</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sites were selected to<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude both change classes (such as “forest to nonforest”)<br />
and non-change classes (“unchanged lowland<br />
forest”), and <strong>the</strong> spectral bands from both dates <strong>of</strong><br />
imagery were <strong>in</strong>put to <strong>the</strong> classification procedure<br />
simultaneously. This is sometimes termed composite<br />
multi-date classification, s<strong>in</strong>ce images from both dates<br />
are composited and used toge<strong>the</strong>r, as if from a s<strong>in</strong>gle date.<br />
The prelim<strong>in</strong>ary orthorectification step makes this<br />
approach possible as it ensures <strong>the</strong> precise overlay <strong>of</strong><br />
images from different dates. After runn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
classification, some post-classification process<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
manual edit<strong>in</strong>g were conducted to clean up and f<strong>in</strong>alize<br />
<strong>the</strong> classification map.<br />
Various statistics were calculated from this f<strong>in</strong>al<br />
classification map to quantify changes <strong>in</strong> landcover. To<br />
provide better <strong>in</strong>sight <strong>in</strong>to where changes might be<br />
occurr<strong>in</strong>g most rapidly, <strong>the</strong>se measures were calculated<br />
for several regions: <strong>the</strong> entire 1600 x 1740 image subset;<br />
<strong>the</strong> area with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> TFR boundaries (exclud<strong>in</strong>g enclave<br />
communities); <strong>the</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two enclave communities<br />
(Obonyi and Kekpane); and <strong>the</strong> area with<strong>in</strong> a 5-km buffer<br />
zone surround<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> TFR.<br />
3 Results<br />
3.1 Change Classification<br />
Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sites for n<strong>in</strong>e different classes were <strong>in</strong>itially<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ed (see Sunderland et al. this volume) to <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
eight static classes (lowland forest, ridge forest, midelevation<br />
forest, montane forest, grassland/bare,<br />
secondary forest/farms, water, shadow), and one change<br />
class <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g forest conversion (forest → secondary<br />
forest/farms). Note that <strong>in</strong> a static <strong>in</strong>terpretation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
output classification (e.g. for a year 2000 landcover<br />
map), <strong>the</strong> forest conversion class would be added to <strong>the</strong><br />
secondary forest/farms class. No dist<strong>in</strong>ction was made<br />
175<br />
between secondary forest and farms because <strong>the</strong>se two<br />
landcover types are fluid and difficult to dist<strong>in</strong>guish;<br />
farms usually have a scatter<strong>in</strong>g, or more, <strong>of</strong> larger trees,<br />
and due to <strong>the</strong> agricultural practices <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region, areas<br />
<strong>of</strong> secondary forest will be farmed aga<strong>in</strong> after several<br />
years <strong>of</strong> forest regrowth. The four different types <strong>of</strong><br />
undisturbed forest (lowland, ridge, mid-elevation, and<br />
montane) were <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> classification both<br />
because we wanted to map <strong>the</strong> extent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se forest types<br />
(see Sunderland et al. this volume), and because lump<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong>m toge<strong>the</strong>r produces an overly broad and poorly<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ed forest class, which becomes confused with<br />
secondary forest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> classification results. Several<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r types <strong>of</strong> change might have also been <strong>in</strong>cluded, but<br />
were not, such as grassland → burned grassland, and<br />
forest regrowth (farms → secondary forest); <strong>the</strong>se were<br />
ei<strong>the</strong>r not <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest (<strong>the</strong> former) or too difficult to<br />
consistently differentiate (<strong>the</strong> latter). In ei<strong>the</strong>r case, we<br />
verified that <strong>the</strong>se areas were satisfactorily classified with<br />
<strong>the</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g scheme. For example, <strong>the</strong> grassland →<br />
burned grassland areas were rout<strong>in</strong>ely classified as<br />
grassland, and <strong>the</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> possible regrowth (farms →<br />
secondary forest) were classified as secondary forest. A<br />
class for shadow was necessary because <strong>the</strong> poor and<br />
variable illum<strong>in</strong>ation on <strong>the</strong> shadowed sides <strong>of</strong> hills<br />
makes differentiation <strong>of</strong> different landcovers much more<br />
difficult.<br />
The result<strong>in</strong>g classification was <strong>the</strong>n visually<br />
<strong>in</strong>spected, and <strong>in</strong> an iterative process, m<strong>in</strong>or adjustments<br />
were made to <strong>the</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g classes and certa<strong>in</strong><br />
classification parameters. Despite many such<br />
adjustments, it became apparent that an additional class<br />
would be useful to <strong>in</strong>dicate areas <strong>of</strong> “possible” secondary<br />
forest. These areas can typically be classified as ei<strong>the</strong>r<br />
lowland forest, secondary forest, or ridge forest,<br />
depend<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>the</strong> set <strong>of</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sites and classification<br />
parameters. However, as <strong>the</strong>se areas do not appear to be<br />
separable solely from image reflectances, it was decided<br />
to create a separate “possible secondary forest” (PSF)<br />
class. Generally, firsthand knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area is<br />
required to assign def<strong>in</strong>itive labels to <strong>the</strong>se regions, but<br />
many can be labeled based on a closer <strong>in</strong>spection <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
imagery; for example, <strong>the</strong> areas on hillsides not <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> villages are most likely undisturbed forest<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
176 Slayback<br />
(ridge or lowland). On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, a PSF area just<br />
south <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Obonyi enclave’s sou<strong>the</strong>rnmost po<strong>in</strong>t is<br />
known to be “elephant bush” – an area where extensive<br />
elephant activity has significantly affected <strong>the</strong> forest<br />
strFucture (and <strong>the</strong>reby its reflectance). It is important to<br />
note that <strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>of</strong> this additional class did not<br />
significantly impact <strong>the</strong> change class <strong>of</strong> primary <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
here (forest → secondary forest); <strong>the</strong> PSF is a static class<br />
and only significantly affected <strong>the</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> lowland,<br />
secondary, and ridge forests.<br />
The classification output was <strong>the</strong>n sieve-filtered to<br />
remove isolated <strong>in</strong>dividual or small groups <strong>of</strong> pixels. This<br />
filter<strong>in</strong>g improves <strong>the</strong> appearance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> results by<br />
remov<strong>in</strong>g what <strong>of</strong>ten appears to be speckle and noise, and<br />
<strong>in</strong>creases <strong>the</strong> accuracy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> results (see “Accuracy<br />
assessment” below), s<strong>in</strong>ce most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> landcover types <strong>in</strong><br />
this region naturally occur as fairly homogenous<br />
landscape features. The siev<strong>in</strong>g was applied to isolated<br />
groups <strong>of</strong> pixels with 6 or fewer members<br />
(approximately 0.5 ha); <strong>the</strong>se groups were changed to <strong>the</strong><br />
most common surround<strong>in</strong>g class. The f<strong>in</strong>al landcover<br />
change classification can be found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> photo gallery.<br />
3.2 Accuracy assessment<br />
In this area, <strong>the</strong>re is a fairly cont<strong>in</strong>uous gradation between<br />
farms, secondary forest, and undisturbed forest. Teas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
out <strong>the</strong>se at-times subtle differences can <strong>of</strong>ten push <strong>the</strong><br />
limits <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation available <strong>in</strong> this imagery. For<br />
this classification, <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>cipal difficulty was <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a balance between a good classification <strong>of</strong> secondary<br />
forest around villages and a good classification <strong>of</strong><br />
undisturbed forest between villages. This f<strong>in</strong>al result is<br />
felt to be <strong>the</strong> best compromise, although a conservative<br />
one; it may be underestimat<strong>in</strong>g to a small extent<br />
secondary forest around villages, <strong>in</strong> favor <strong>of</strong> lowland<br />
forest. However, <strong>the</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> change (forest conversion<br />
between 1986 and 2000) were quite stable <strong>in</strong> all versions<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> classification due to <strong>the</strong> clear signature produced<br />
by a change, over time, from undisturbed to secondary<br />
forest. The accuracy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> classification was assessed<br />
both quantitatively, us<strong>in</strong>g test<strong>in</strong>g sites, and qualitatively,<br />
rely<strong>in</strong>g upon personal familiarity with <strong>the</strong> region.<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Along with <strong>the</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sites, a separate set <strong>of</strong> test<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sites was also selected for each class. As with <strong>the</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
sites, <strong>the</strong>ir selection was based largely on visible imagery<br />
characteristics and knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> different landcover<br />
types, and not on ground-truth data. S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>se test<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sites are not <strong>in</strong>put to <strong>the</strong> classification procedure, <strong>the</strong>y can<br />
be used to <strong>in</strong>dependently evaluate <strong>the</strong> classification<br />
output via a confusion matrix; confusion matrices<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicates how <strong>the</strong> pixels <strong>in</strong> each test<strong>in</strong>g site were actually<br />
classified. Given <strong>the</strong> confusion matrix, <strong>the</strong> accuracy <strong>of</strong><br />
each class’ classification can be computed as a<br />
percentage.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al output classification (after siev<strong>in</strong>g), <strong>the</strong><br />
average accuracy (for example, <strong>the</strong> average <strong>of</strong> all<br />
accuracies) for <strong>the</strong> landcover classes, exclud<strong>in</strong>g water<br />
and shadow, was 87%, and <strong>the</strong> overall accuracy<br />
(weighted by <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> pixels <strong>in</strong> each test<strong>in</strong>g site)<br />
was 94%. (The overall accuracy is higher because <strong>the</strong><br />
undisturbed forest sites were relatively large and well<br />
classified). The confusion matrix shows that <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong><br />
error is a tendency towards classification as lowland<br />
forest; 18% <strong>of</strong> ridge forest, 9% <strong>of</strong> forest conversion, and<br />
6% <strong>of</strong> secondary forest test sites were classified as<br />
lowland forest. Also, 35% <strong>of</strong> PSF test sites were<br />
classified as lowland, but this is less surpris<strong>in</strong>g, s<strong>in</strong>ce we<br />
expect <strong>the</strong> PSF to really be ei<strong>the</strong>r lowland or secondary<br />
forest. Table 1 shows <strong>the</strong> classification accuracies for<br />
each class (for example, <strong>the</strong> percent <strong>of</strong> each test<strong>in</strong>g site<br />
that was classified correctly).<br />
Table 1. Accuracy (percent classified correctly) based on<br />
test<strong>in</strong>g sites<br />
Class Accuracy<br />
Lowland forest 100<br />
Secondary forest 92<br />
Possible secondary<br />
forest (PSF)<br />
65<br />
Forest conversion 91<br />
Ridge forest 70<br />
Mid-elevation forest 99<br />
Montane forest 86<br />
Grassland / bare 100
Landcover change<br />
Note that <strong>the</strong> generality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se results are<br />
dependent on <strong>the</strong> quality and representativeness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
test<strong>in</strong>g site pixels. For this study, only limited ground<br />
truth data was collected, and <strong>the</strong> test<strong>in</strong>g sites were<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ed manually based on limited data and personal<br />
familiarity with <strong>the</strong> region. For example, it is possible<br />
that <strong>the</strong> 9% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest conversion test<strong>in</strong>g site pixels that<br />
were classified as lowland forest actually are lowland<br />
forest; no site visits to those specific locations were<br />
made, and <strong>the</strong> test<strong>in</strong>g site pixels for forest conversion<br />
may actually conta<strong>in</strong> some lowland forest pixels.<br />
Never<strong>the</strong>less, <strong>the</strong>se results do <strong>in</strong>dicate that <strong>the</strong><br />
classification tends to a conservative estimate <strong>of</strong> forest<br />
conversion areas; none <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowland forest test<strong>in</strong>g site<br />
pixels were misclassified.<br />
The accuracy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> classification was also evaluated<br />
qualitatively, based on personal knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area<br />
and supplemented by a visit to <strong>the</strong> reserve <strong>in</strong> June 2002.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g this visit, <strong>the</strong> locations <strong>of</strong> transitions between<br />
secondary forest or farms and primary forest were noted<br />
and recorded with GPS measurements. Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
prelim<strong>in</strong>ary classifications, <strong>the</strong>se locations were used to<br />
help tune <strong>the</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sites and classification parameters.<br />
With <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al classification, <strong>the</strong>y were also checked to<br />
evaluate <strong>the</strong> result. Qualitatively, <strong>the</strong> result appears to<br />
capture quite well <strong>the</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> forest conversion around<br />
villages. As <strong>in</strong>dicated by <strong>the</strong> accuracy results above, <strong>the</strong>re<br />
may be some underestimation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> amount <strong>of</strong> forest<br />
conversion, <strong>in</strong> favor <strong>of</strong> lowland or secondary forest.<br />
Lack<strong>in</strong>g more extensive ground truth data, this<br />
conservative result is preferable.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> confusion surround <strong>the</strong> ridge<br />
forest class, and <strong>the</strong> results for certa<strong>in</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> image.<br />
The ridge forest class, although botanically dist<strong>in</strong>ct, has<br />
not been mapped to any extent previously, so selection <strong>of</strong><br />
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and test<strong>in</strong>g sites was based mostly on visual<br />
image characteristics and expected locations <strong>of</strong> this forest<br />
type. Geographically, <strong>the</strong> classification <strong>of</strong> ridge forest<br />
around Matene village (see figure 1 <strong>in</strong> chapter 1) is <strong>of</strong><br />
particular concern; this area was visited, and much <strong>of</strong><br />
what comes out <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> classification as ridge forest is<br />
most likely secondary forest. However, <strong>the</strong> higher<br />
elevation here may contribute to secondary forest<br />
appear<strong>in</strong>g as what elsewhere is ridge forest. Aside from<br />
this area around Matene, almost all ridge forest appears<br />
(<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> classification, as we believe is true <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field) on<br />
<strong>the</strong> sides or ridges <strong>of</strong> hills. To some extent, this may<br />
simply reflect <strong>the</strong> different illum<strong>in</strong>ation conditions on<br />
hillsides, but lack<strong>in</strong>g more extensive ground surveys <strong>of</strong><br />
this forest type, we cannot be sure. The o<strong>the</strong>r area <strong>of</strong><br />
concern is <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>astern corner <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> image, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> Akwaya. No visit was made to this region,<br />
which is at a significantly higher altitude than most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
image, and s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> vegetation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> region is quite<br />
different structurally from <strong>the</strong> lowland areas, we simply<br />
cannot know if <strong>the</strong> secondary and forest conversion<br />
classes are correct here.<br />
3.3 Change patterns<br />
177<br />
With <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al classification output, total areas were<br />
computed for each class, for 5 different zones <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
image: (1) <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve (exclud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
enclave communities), (2) <strong>the</strong> Kekpane enclave, (3) <strong>the</strong><br />
Obonyi enclave, (4) a 5-km buffer zone around <strong>the</strong><br />
outside <strong>of</strong> TFR, and (5) <strong>the</strong> entire 1600 x 1760 pixel<br />
image subset. Table 2 shows <strong>the</strong>se totals, omitt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
water and shadow classes.<br />
As can be seen <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al classification image<br />
(Figure <strong>in</strong> photo gallery), most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> forest<br />
conversion are located on <strong>the</strong> periphery <strong>of</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
villages and areas <strong>of</strong> preexist<strong>in</strong>g secondary forest/farms.<br />
This suggests that clear<strong>in</strong>g for farm<strong>in</strong>g is expand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to<br />
previously undisturbed forest; if <strong>the</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> forest<br />
conversion were also located with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se village centers<br />
and with<strong>in</strong> patches <strong>of</strong> secondary forest, that would tend<br />
to <strong>in</strong>dicate that those forest conversions were really from<br />
older secondary forest, not from undisturbed lowland<br />
forest. In a few cases, however, most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> farms around<br />
a village are from ‘recent’ forest conversion, such as<br />
Obonyi 1 (on <strong>the</strong> W side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> enclave) and Obonyi 2 (to<br />
<strong>the</strong> west <strong>of</strong> TFR); for those villages, farm<strong>in</strong>g may not be<br />
significantly expand<strong>in</strong>g beyond previously farmed areas.<br />
From <strong>the</strong> general patterns visible <strong>in</strong> this classification,<br />
however, one would tend to conclude that <strong>the</strong> farm<br />
rotation cycle is probably too short for secondary forest<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
178 Slayback<br />
Table 2: Areas <strong>of</strong> output classes (hectares) (*totals <strong>in</strong>clude areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water and shadow classes)<br />
Class Entire<br />
image<br />
from abandoned farms to return to <strong>the</strong> appearance <strong>of</strong><br />
undisturbed lowland forest.<br />
Significantly, some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most apparent<br />
farm<strong>in</strong>g expansion are those along <strong>the</strong> new Mamfe-<br />
Akwaya road, along <strong>the</strong> western side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mone Forest<br />
Reserve. Also, <strong>the</strong> villages on <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
image (Kajifor and Bache) have only recently become<br />
accessible by road (due to recent logg<strong>in</strong>g operations) and<br />
show considerable farm<strong>in</strong>g expansion <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir vic<strong>in</strong>ity,<br />
perhaps as a direct result. The longer term impact <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
roads on patterns <strong>of</strong> clear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region rema<strong>in</strong>s to be<br />
seen.<br />
4 Conclusion<br />
The <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve is currently undergo<strong>in</strong>g<br />
relatively little forest clear<strong>in</strong>g activity, except <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> enclaved villages and some villages located<br />
just outside <strong>the</strong> reserve boundary (for example,<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> village). However, rates <strong>of</strong> forest clear<strong>in</strong>g<br />
appear to be <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g, as <strong>the</strong> expand<strong>in</strong>g patterns <strong>of</strong><br />
forest conversion <strong>in</strong>dicate. Potentially half <strong>of</strong> all<br />
secondary forest with<strong>in</strong> TFR has been cleared <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> past<br />
14 years; if “possible secondary forest” is not <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
as secondary forest, <strong>the</strong>n 110 ha <strong>of</strong> secondary forest were<br />
preexist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 1986, and s<strong>in</strong>ce 1986 an additional 140 ha<br />
have been created from previously undisturbed forest.<br />
With<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> TFR, <strong>the</strong> PSF class appears generally not to be<br />
secondary forest, except for <strong>the</strong> elephant bush areas to <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Kekpane Obonyi 5-km<br />
buffer<br />
Lowland forest 144,425 40,750 1,540 2,550 42,240<br />
Secondary forest 5,010 110 70 300 1,280<br />
Possible sec. for. (PSF) 1,740 410 10 230 470<br />
Forest conversion 4,120 140 40 110 1,430<br />
Ridge forest 11,460 2,190 30 0 4,380<br />
Mid-elevation forest 12,090 5,260 0 0 4,430<br />
Montane forest 9,310 510 0 0 3,910<br />
Grassland / bare 15,170 3,220 4 10 8,440<br />
Total* 224,940 57,430 1,690 3,250 71,800<br />
south <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Obonyi enclave. What is unclear is how<br />
much regrowth needs to occur before secondary forest <strong>in</strong><br />
this region appears as primary forest <strong>in</strong> Landsat imagery.<br />
To some extent, such old secondary forest might be <strong>the</strong><br />
source <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> clear<strong>in</strong>g near villages, ra<strong>the</strong>r than<br />
relatively undisturbed lowland forest.<br />
To fully understand whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>se clear<strong>in</strong>g activities<br />
are significantly encroach<strong>in</strong>g upon <strong>the</strong> reserve would<br />
require a more detailed study. Although <strong>the</strong> historical<br />
satellite imagery archive is sparse, additional imagery <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> area could be exam<strong>in</strong>ed to determ<strong>in</strong>e more precisely<br />
when patches <strong>of</strong> forest were converted to farms. Also,<br />
any historical population data for <strong>the</strong> area would help<br />
shed light on how population pressure might be affect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
clear<strong>in</strong>g activities.<br />
Although rates <strong>of</strong> clear<strong>in</strong>g may not be alarm<strong>in</strong>g at<br />
<strong>the</strong> present for <strong>the</strong> TFR itself, <strong>the</strong> current and likely future<br />
activities around <strong>the</strong> reserve are alarm<strong>in</strong>g. Presently, <strong>the</strong><br />
reserve is r<strong>in</strong>ged by villages on almost all sides, and <strong>the</strong>se<br />
villages show active and expand<strong>in</strong>g areas <strong>of</strong> farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
activity. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, <strong>the</strong> expansion <strong>of</strong> roads <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong><br />
areas to <strong>the</strong> south and east <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reserve may not bode<br />
well for <strong>the</strong> flora or fauna <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> region; it is possible that<br />
<strong>the</strong> greatly improved access to markets and services<br />
provided by <strong>the</strong>se roads may lead to a significant <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
<strong>in</strong> clear<strong>in</strong>g activity. This could be for both <strong>the</strong> plant<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
both cash crops (such as cocoa, c<strong>of</strong>fee, and palm nuts),<br />
and for <strong>in</strong>creased subsistence crop farm<strong>in</strong>g, if
Landcover change<br />
populations also <strong>in</strong>crease; if improved access br<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
better schools and health services, out-migration from<br />
<strong>the</strong>se villages may be somewhat discouraged, or even<br />
reversed. The roads also provide improved market access<br />
for bushmeat, lead<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>creased hunt<strong>in</strong>g pressures.<br />
Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> above pressures – <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
clear<strong>in</strong>g, farm<strong>in</strong>g, and hunt<strong>in</strong>g – will contribute to <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>creased fragmentation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest, with potentially<br />
negative impacts on wide-rang<strong>in</strong>g species, such as <strong>the</strong><br />
endangered Cross River gorilla or <strong>the</strong> forest elephant<br />
populations. Even now, <strong>the</strong> Cross River gorilla<br />
populations are thought to be largely cut<strong>of</strong>f from one<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r and critically endangered (Sunderland-Groves et<br />
al.this volume)<br />
References<br />
179<br />
Boyd, D. S. and W. J. Duane. 2001. Explor<strong>in</strong>g spatial<br />
and temporal variation <strong>in</strong> middle <strong>in</strong>frared<br />
reflectance (at 3.75mm) measured from <strong>the</strong><br />
tropical forests <strong>of</strong> west Africa. International<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> Remote Sens<strong>in</strong>g 22(10): 1861-1878.<br />
Song, C., C.E. Woodcock, K. Seto, M. Pax-Lenney,<br />
and S.A. Macomber. 2001. Classification and<br />
change detection us<strong>in</strong>g Landsat TM data: When<br />
and how to correct atmospheric effects? Remote<br />
Sens<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Environment 75(2): 230-244.<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003
180<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest
Future Conservation and Management <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest<br />
Reserve, Cameroon<br />
Terry C. H. Sunderland, Jacquel<strong>in</strong>e L. Sunderland-Groves,<br />
James A. Comiskey, Julius S. O. Ayeni, and Mar<strong>in</strong>a Mdaihli<br />
The studies presented <strong>in</strong> this volume reflect <strong>the</strong> overall<br />
biological importance <strong>of</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve<br />
(TFR), <strong>the</strong> urgent need to protect <strong>the</strong> area to ensure its<br />
viability <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> future, and, ideally, implementation <strong>of</strong><br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able management practices. The studies also<br />
provide an important biological basel<strong>in</strong>e for <strong>in</strong>itiation <strong>of</strong><br />
long-term monitor<strong>in</strong>g that will aid evaluations <strong>of</strong><br />
conservation and management <strong>in</strong>terventions. Both flora<br />
and fauna <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area are extremely rich and diverse. The<br />
Reserve holds a wealth <strong>of</strong> biodiversity <strong>of</strong> national and<br />
regional importance.<br />
Three primary challenges face conservation efforts<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve, as described here.<br />
1. Uncontrolled hunt<strong>in</strong>g and unsusta<strong>in</strong>able harvest<br />
levels <strong>of</strong> non-timber forest resources such as <strong>the</strong><br />
hunt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> wildlife for bushmeat. If conservation<br />
measures are not undertaken <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> near term, <strong>the</strong><br />
Reserve may well become yet ano<strong>the</strong>r “empty<br />
forest” (Redford 1992) <strong>in</strong> Cameroon.<br />
2. Loss <strong>of</strong> forest cover to developments such as<br />
construction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mamfe-to-Akwaya road. This<br />
road will have several impacts: (a) <strong>the</strong> open<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
natural forest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve to large-scale motorized<br />
travel for people who normally pass through <strong>the</strong> area<br />
on foot; (b) <strong>the</strong> proliferation <strong>of</strong> trade routes; (c)<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased access for even more <strong>in</strong>tensive<br />
exploitation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reserve’s resources, notably<br />
timber and bushmeat. At <strong>the</strong> moment, a significant<br />
swath <strong>of</strong> forest is be<strong>in</strong>g cleared and converted to<br />
cocoa and c<strong>of</strong>fee plantations <strong>in</strong> anticipation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Mamfe-to-Akwaya road.<br />
3. Current legal status <strong>of</strong> TFR. The Reserve is a<br />
“production forest,” a designation that leaves open<br />
Chapter 13<br />
<strong>the</strong> potential for future commercial logg<strong>in</strong>g. Failure<br />
to ensure legal protection for <strong>the</strong> Reserve<br />
immediately augers ill for <strong>the</strong> area’s outstand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
biodiversity.<br />
Conservation <strong>in</strong> an area where people rely on<br />
exploitation <strong>of</strong> forest resources for <strong>the</strong>ir livelihoods is a<br />
sensitive and complex challenge. Despite considerable<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestments related to resolv<strong>in</strong>g this issue <strong>in</strong> recent years,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re are few successful examples or models <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrated conservation and development <strong>in</strong>itiatives<br />
where improved quality <strong>of</strong> life and conservation<br />
objectives have proved to be mutually compatible (Oates<br />
1999).<br />
In <strong>Takamanda</strong>, an area that is still relatively isolated,<br />
local amenities are few and far between. There are no<br />
piped water facilities, no electricity, few schools, and<br />
only one health center that is seldom staffed and carries<br />
few supplies. Local peoples are desperate for such<br />
amenities and view construction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mamfe-to-<br />
Akwaya road as a huge step forward <strong>in</strong> connect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
villages to <strong>the</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> Cameroon. In conjunction with this<br />
enthusiasm for “progress,” however, is <strong>the</strong> need to create<br />
an awareness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> grave environmental problems that<br />
roads and o<strong>the</strong>r alterations <strong>in</strong> forest cover create<br />
(Trombulak and Frissell 2000, Wilkie et al. 2000)—<br />
changes that may alter not only <strong>the</strong> environment but <strong>the</strong><br />
very lifestyle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> villagers and which must be<br />
constantly monitored to ensure <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imum amount <strong>of</strong><br />
environmental damage.<br />
Despite such complex issues, a number <strong>of</strong> activities<br />
are underway to address future conservation and<br />
management <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area. S<strong>in</strong>ce 1998, researchers have<br />
been conduct<strong>in</strong>g surveys focus<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>the</strong> Cross River<br />
gorilla and o<strong>the</strong>r large mammals <strong>in</strong> TFR and adjacent<br />
SI/MAB Series #8, 2003, Pages 181 to 182
182 Sunderland-Groves et al.<br />
Mone Forest Reserve and Mbulu forest. Funded by<br />
Wildlife Conservation Society’s Africa Program, this<br />
program records basel<strong>in</strong>e data, <strong>in</strong>corporates a<br />
conservation/education component, collaborates with <strong>the</strong><br />
Cameroonian government through <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong><br />
Environment and Forests (MINEF) and <strong>the</strong> GTZ<br />
collaborative project PROFA to support <strong>the</strong> enforcement<br />
<strong>of</strong> national wildlife laws. An immediate impact <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
efforts has been implementation <strong>of</strong> a community-led<br />
local ban on hunt<strong>in</strong>g for gorillas, chimpanzees, and drills.<br />
At <strong>the</strong> present time, this program is work<strong>in</strong>g with<br />
PROFA to assess <strong>the</strong> potential <strong>of</strong> upgrad<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
protective status—possibly to “wildlilfe sanctuary”—<strong>of</strong><br />
TFR and Mone Forest Reserve and to provide a degree<br />
<strong>of</strong> future protection for <strong>the</strong> Mbulu forest, which currently<br />
enjoys no formal protected area status.<br />
With regard to <strong>the</strong> future <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> MINEF/GTZ project<br />
PROFA <strong>in</strong> <strong>Takamanda</strong> and Mone, <strong>the</strong> aims are as<br />
follows:<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong> Forest Reserve<br />
• Undertake a review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> current protection area<br />
status <strong>of</strong> TFR accord<strong>in</strong>g to available, and<br />
appropriate, levels <strong>of</strong> protection under Cameroon’s<br />
1994 forestry law.<br />
• Complete <strong>the</strong> long-term management plan for TFR,<br />
with participation from stakeholders, for approval<br />
from <strong>the</strong> governments <strong>of</strong> Cameroon and Germany,<br />
to be followed by implementation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> plan.<br />
• Initiate (beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 2004) a comprehensive<br />
“village development program” to encourage <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>habitants <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area to commence economic<br />
activities that do not cause over-exploitation <strong>of</strong> forest<br />
resources. A possible component <strong>of</strong> this program<br />
will be to compensate hunters for lost <strong>in</strong>come if <strong>the</strong>y<br />
forego earn<strong>in</strong>gs obta<strong>in</strong>ed from <strong>the</strong> sale <strong>of</strong> bushmeat.<br />
• Cont<strong>in</strong>ue <strong>the</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g program for vegetation,<br />
large mammals—with special emphasis on<br />
gorillas—and monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r priority<br />
taxonomic groups as appropriate given available<br />
resources. .<br />
<strong>Takamanda</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Biodiversity <strong>of</strong> an African Ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
Mone Forest Reserve<br />
• Most immediate, demarcate <strong>the</strong> Reserve’s boundary.<br />
• Initiate basel<strong>in</strong>e biological and socio-economic data<br />
collection.<br />
• Complete a management plan, with participation<br />
from stakeholders, for approval from <strong>the</strong><br />
governments <strong>of</strong> Cameroon and Germany to be<br />
followed by implementation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> plan.<br />
• Initiate a monitor<strong>in</strong>g program for vegetation and<br />
large mammals to provide comparative <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
to that for TFR.<br />
The process followed by <strong>the</strong> various teams<br />
conduct<strong>in</strong>g assessments <strong>in</strong> TFR, as described <strong>in</strong> this<br />
volume, was highly successful <strong>in</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e<br />
biological <strong>in</strong>formation for conservation management.<br />
This model can easily be replicated at a relatively low<br />
cost spread over various conservation and fund<strong>in</strong>g<br />
organizations to conduct similar biodiversity assessments<br />
<strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r areas <strong>of</strong> Cameroon and Central and West<br />
Africa—particularly <strong>in</strong> areas that are known to be rich <strong>in</strong><br />
biotic resources but for which limited <strong>in</strong>formation is<br />
available. Multi-stakeholder, multi-taxonomic<br />
assessments are an important first step <strong>in</strong> def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
conservation priorities and potential management<br />
solutions.<br />
References<br />
Oates, J. F. 1999. Myth and Reality <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ra<strong>in</strong> Forest:<br />
How Conservation Strategies Are Fail<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> West<br />
Africa. Berkeley, CA: University <strong>of</strong> California Press.<br />
Redford, K. H. 1992. The empty forest. BioScience<br />
42(6): 412-422<br />
Trombulak, S. C., and C. A. Frissell. 2000. Review <strong>of</strong><br />
ecological effects <strong>of</strong> roads on terrestrial and aquatic<br />
communities. Conservation Biology 14(1): 18–30.<br />
Wilkie, D., E. Shaw, F. Rotberg, G. Morelli, and P. Auzel.<br />
2000. Roads, development, and conservation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Congo Bas<strong>in</strong>. Conservation Biology 14(6): 1614-<br />
1622.