Implementation of the Rufiji Forest Action Plan - Coastal Forests of ...

Rufiji Environment Management Project 1 

Environmental Management and Biodiversity Conservation of Forests, 

Woodlands, and Wetlands of the Rufiji Delta and Floodplain 

Implementation of the Rufiji Forest Action Plan 

With Special Emphasis on Community Based Natural Resources 

Management and a Case study of Ngumburuni Forest 

The French Institute of Forestry, 

Agricultural and Environmental 

Engineering 

Jean-Maurice Durand 

Rufiji Environment 

Management Project 

Technical Report No. 45 

Oct 2003 

For more information please contact 

Project Manager, 

Rufiji Environment Management Project 

P O Box 13513 

Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 

Tel: 44 Utete Rufiji or 73731 / 0811 322366 Dar es Salaam 

Email: rempute1@bushmail.net or iucndar@epiq.or.tz 

Rufiji District 

Council 

1 The Rufiji District Council implements Rufiji Environment Management Project with technical assistance from IUCN – The World 

Conservation Union, and funding from the Royal Netherlands Embassy.

Rufiji Environment Management Project – REMP 

Project Goal 

To promote the long-term conservation through ‘wise use’ of the lower Rufiji forests, 

woodlands and wetlands, such that biodiversity is conserved, critical ecological functions are 

maintained, renewable natural resources are used sustainably and the livelihoods of the area’s 

inhabitants are secured and enhanced. 

Objectives 

• To promote the integration of environmental conservation and sustainable development 

through environmental planning within the Rufiji Delta and Floodplain. 

• To promote the sustainable use of natural resources and enhance the livelihoods of 

local communities by implementing sustainable pilot development activities based on 

wise use principles. 

• To promote awareness of the values of forests, woodlands and wetlands and the 

importance of wise use at village, district, regional and central government levels, and 

to influence national policies on natural resource management. 

Project Area 

The project area is within Rufiji District in the ecosystems affected by the flooding of the river 

(floodplain and delta), downstream of the Selous Game Reserve and also including several 

upland forests of special importance. 

Project Implementation 

The project is run from the district Headquarters in Utete by the Rufiji District Administration 

through a district Environmental Management Team coordinated by the District Executive 

Director. The Project Manager is employed by the project and two Technical Advisers are 

employed by IUCN. 

Project partners, particularly NEMC, the Coast Region, RUBADA, The Royal Netherlands 

Embassy and the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, collaborate formally through 

their participation in the Project Steering Committee and also informally. 

Project Outputs 

At the end of the first five –year phase (1998-2003) of the project the expected outputs are: 

An Environmental Management Plan: an integrated plan for the management of the 

ecosystems (forests, woodlands and wetlands) and natural resources of the project area that 

has been tested and revised so that it can be assured of success - especially through 

development hand-in-hand with the District council and the people of Rufiji. 

Village (or community) Natural Resource Management Plans: These will be produced in pilot 

villages to facilitate village planning for natural resource management. The project will 

support the implementation of these plans by researching the legislation, providing training 

and some support for zoning, mapping and gazettement of reserves. 

Established Wise Use Activities: These will consist of the successful sustainable development 

activities that are being tried and tested with pilot village and communities and are shown to 

be sustainable 

Key forests will be conserved: Forests in Rufiji District that have shown high levels of plant 

biodiversity, endemism or other valuable biodiversity characteristics will be conserved by 

gazettement, forest management for conservation, and /or awareness-raising with their 

traditional owners.

REMP Technical Report 45: Implementation of the Rufiji Forest Action Plan 

Summary 

Natural forests cover approximately the half of the Tanzanian national territory and most of them 

are rich in vegetation types. Yet, the decrease in this forest cover started several decades ago. 

Droughts, but also fires and illegal exploitation are the main reasons for this degradation. For a 

long time the Tanzanian forest policy has been focusing both on strict conservation and production. 

But the results of this policy have shown its limits. In the nineties, a world-wide trend to promote 

systems of local management involving rural communities was developed, most often under the 

leadership of international donors. In eastern and southern African countries, and particularly in 

Tanzania, this trend was expressed by a flurry of new forest acts facilitated by the development of 

more democratic systems. 

It is up to the District Council to enforce the new laws in Rufiji where over exploitation and 

deforestation are becoming a worrying issue. Promoted by the IUCN Rufiji Environment 

Management Project (REMP), a Forest Action Plan, approved by the Council in April 2003, aims 

to help the District to improve forest management with special emphasis on the communities’ 

participation, in order to reverse the trend of over exploitation and destruction. The Council 

decided to start the implementation of the plan by transferring the management of the Ngumburuni 

District Forest Reserve to the adjacent communities. This operation required an inventory of the 

resource and a study of the human context. 

The Ngumburuni forest 165 km South of Dar es Salaam, covers an area of 10 000 ha (including the 

3000 to 4000 ha District Reserve) to the northeast of Ikwiriri. It is mainly composed of primary and 

secondary (or disturbed) coastal forest. Yet, it is interspersed with Miombo and woodland patches. 

Ngumburuni still contains high biodiversity value areas, constituting a unique habitat for rare, 

endemic or threatened species. But over harvesting has severely diminished the forest capital and 

the average basal area is one of the lowest in Rufiji. The forest is criss-crossed by many trails and 

logging sites can be found even in the deepest parts. Other activities like charcoal burning or 

agriculture also damage it. 

But Ngumburuni is also a place where the neighbouring communities find basic livelihoods. People 

of six villages, Mangwi, Mkupuka, Muyuyu Umwe Centre, North and South used to harvest 

timber, firewood, edible plants or building materials in the forest. Most of them are aware of the 

bad condition of the forest and they often maintain that Ngumburuni is threatened with becoming 

an open woodland. Nevertheless, opinion is divided about the establishment of a participatory 

management. Some stakeholders are doubtful about the real will of the District Council to 

empower the communities. Some others think that it will be difficult for them to succeed where the 

authorities failed. Yet, many people are convinced that they must seize this opportunity and 

manage their natural resources themselves. In fact, no significant obstacle should hamper the 

implementation of a community-based (or a joint) forest management. The national and local 

institutional tools are now operational. But it will be indispensable to develop confident 

relationships between the communities and the District authorities. 

After two discussion rounds with the different stakeholders, the current report also proposes a 

framework for the development of a management plan, which will take into account the results of 

the forest analyses, the human context and the demands and the expectations of the communities. 

The main unifying threads are: 

• combining the necessary conservation and improvement of the coastal forest and the 

communities’ legitimate demand for livelihoods; 

• encouraging current and new non-timber activities; 

• stopping the most damaging uses; 

• empowering the communities for crucial issues like guarding, managing village areas, etc. 

These proposals are accompanied by a time frame planning the next steps of the process up to the 

start of the management plan enforcement, by September 2004. A crucial item pointed out is the 

i


search for financial support, which has already begun since REMP successfully applied to 

Switzerland for financial aid. Yet, these encouraging results will need intensive follow-up by the 

District. 

It could be one of the major lessons learnt from this study: the pilot role of the District Council 

must increase. Indeed, other forests need action (Ruhoi, Utete, Kichi Hills…) and the authorities 

must now find their own way to further the Forest Action Plan, which has hardly started. It is not 

too late. This study proposes elements of methodology, but the key words should be dynamism and 

initiative. Initiative for making a credible workplan, for finding funds but also for developing the 

indispensable relationship of trust with the communities who will, from now on, be partners 

impossible to ignore. 

ii


Muhtasari 

Misitu ya asili inafunika karibu nusu ya Tanzania, na mingi ina utajiri wa uoto mbalimbali. Hata 

hivyo kupungua kwa maeneo yaliyofunikwa na misitu hii kumeanza miaka mingi iliyopita. Ukame, 

moto na uvunaji holela/haramu ni baadhi ya sababu za uharibifu wa misitu. Kwa miaka mingi, Sera 

ya Taifa ya Misitu imekuwa ikisisitiza na kutia mkazo uhifadhi na uzalishaji wa misitu. Lakini 

matokeo ya Sera hii yameonyesha ufinyu kama siyo mapungufu. Miaka ya tisini (kuanzia 1990), 

mfumo wa dunia wa ushirikishwaji jamii katika usimamizi ulianzishwa kupitia wahisani wa 

kimataifa. Katika nchi za Mashariki na Kusini mwa Afrika, hasa Tanzania, mtazamo huu 

ulijionyesha kwa kuwa na sheria za misitu zilizotungwa kwa kufuata mifumo ya demokrasia. 

Ni jukumu la Halmashauri ya Wilaya ya Rufiji kutumia sheria hizi Wilayani hasa ukizingatia 

ukweli kuwa uvunaji holela na ukataji wa misitu ni suala la kutisha sana Wilayani. Kupitia Mradi 

wa Usimamizi wa Mazingira Rufiji (MUMARU) uliyoanzishwa na shirika la usimamizi wa 

mazingira duniani (IUCN), Mpango wa Usimamizi wa Misitu wilaya ya Rufiji ulipitishwa na 

Baraza la Waheshimiwa madiwani mwezi Aprili 2003. Dhumuni kuu la mpango huu ni kusaidia 

Wilaya katika kuboresha usimamizi wa misitu hasa kuzingatia ushirikishwaji wa jamii kwa lengo 

la kupunguza mwelekeo wa uvunaji uliyokithiri na uharibifu wa misitu. Halmashauri imeshaanza 

kutekeleza mpango huu wa Wilaya kwa kukabidhi jukumu la usimamizi wa Msitu wa Ngumburuni 

(msitu wa Halmashauri) kwa jamii inayozunguka msitu huu. Shughuli hii ilihitaji utafiti wa 

kuelewa raslimali ya msitu na kujua mahusiano ya kibinadamu na raslimali hizi. 

Msitu wa Ngumburuni upo kilomita 165 kusini mwa Da es Salaam, una eneo la hekta 10,000 

(inajumuisha hekta 3000 hadi 4000 za msitu wa serikali ya mitaa) kwa upande wa kazikazini- 

Mashariki mwa Ikwiriri. Msitu huu wa Kanda ya Pwani una maeneo yenye miti ya asili ambayo 

haijaharibiwa (ina misitu ya awali "Primary forest") sana na sehemu zingine msitu una maeneo 

yaliyoharibiwa, una miti inayomea/ kuchipua kwa upya baada ya kukatwa/kuharibiwa (Secondary 

forest). Aidha msitu huu una mabaki ya maeneo yenye miti ya Miombo na vifufutu/ uwanda wa 

vichaka,manyasi na miti mikubwa ya hapa na pale. Ngumburuni bado ina maeneo yenye bioanuai 

ya dhamani kubwa ambayo hulea aina mbalimbali ya viumbe hai. Baadhi ya viumbe hivi aidha si 

rahisi kupatikana au vinapatikana sehemu hii tu, ama vipo katika hatari ya kutoweka. Hata hivyo 

uvunaji uliyokithiri umepunguza sana mtaji wa msitu huu hasa ukiangalia idadi ya aina ya miti kwa 

eneo (hekta) ni wa kiwango cha chini sana ukilinganisha na misitu yote Wilayani Rufiji. Msitu una 

vinjia/mapito mengi na uvunaji wa miti hufanyika hadi katika miteremko mikali mno. Shughuli 

zingine kama vile uchomaji wa mkaa na kilimo zinachangia pia kuharibu msitu huu. 

Hata hivyo, Ngumburuni ni mahali ambapo jamii inayozunguka hujipatia vyanzo vya maisha yao. 

Watu wa vijiji sita vya Mangwi, Mkupuka, Muyuyu, Umwe Kati, Kaskazini na kusini huvuna 

mbao/ magogo, kuni, mazao ya msitu yanayoliwa na nguzo za kujengea katika msitu huu. Watu 

wengi wanaelewa kuwa hali ya msitu ni mbaya. Aidha wengine wanafikia kusema kuwa 

Ngumburuni inatishia kuwa uwanda wenye miti ya hapa na pale. Hata hivyo watu hutofautiana 

katika mtizamo wa mawazo kuhusu uanzishwaji wa usimamizi shirikishi wa jamii. Wengine 

wanahofu kuhusu utayari wa halmashuri kutoa madaraka kwa jamii. Wengine wanahisi kuwa ikiwa 

halmashauri kama serikali imeshindwa, basi ni vigumu kwa jamii kufanikiwa. Hata hivyo watu 

waliowengi wanasema, ni vyema kutumia mwanya huu waliopewa ili wa simamie maliasili zao 

wenyewe. Kusema kweli hakuna kikwazo cha kutishia utekelezaji wa usimamizi wa msitu ama 

kijamii au kwa njia ya ubia. Vitendea kazi vya kitaifa na kiasasi vimeanza kutumika. Lakini ni 

muhimu sana kuunda mahusiano yenye kuaminika na thabiti kati ya jamii na utawala wa Wilaya. 

Baada ya mizunguko miwili ya mazungumzo na wadau mbalimbali, taarifa hii ya sasa 

inapendekeza muundo wa kutengeneza mpango wa kusimamia msitu huu. Mpango huu utilie 

maanani matokeo ya utafiti wa awali, wa kuelewa kwa undani msitu na mahusiano yake na jamii 

husika, hususani mahitaji na matarajio yao kwa ujumla. Masuala muhimu ya kuzingatia ili kuwa na 

mafanikio mema ni: 

• Kuoanisha mambo muhimu ya uhifadhi na uboreshaji wa msitu wa pwani na haki ya 

kisheria na mahitaji ya jamii kimaisha. 

iii


• Kuhamasisha shughuli za sasa na zitakazobuniwa ambazo hazina athari kwa msitu 

(hazihusiani na mbao, magogo n.k) 

• Kusimamisha kabisa matumizi ambayo yanazidi uharibifu 

• Kuwapa uwezo jamii kwa masuala yenye tija hususani ulinzi/ doria na usimamizi wa eneo 

la kijiji husika n.k 

Mapendekezo haya yanafuatana na rasimu ya mpango wa kazi wa kuendelea na hatua zingine za 

kufuatwa hadi kufikia utekelezaji na usimamizi wa mpango ifikapo mwezi Septemba 2004. Suala 

muhimu lililojitokeza ni utafutaji wa msaada wa fedha.Hili limeshaanzwa kufanyiwa kazi kupitia 

mradi wa MUMARU ambao umeshaomba fedha kutoka mfuko wa msaada wa fedha nchini 

Swizalend. Hata hivyo matokeo haya yanayotia moyo yanahitaji ufuatiliaji wa Karibu wa Wilaya. 

Ingelikuwa moja ya masuala makuu ya kujifunza kutokana na utafiti huu: Jukumu hili la mfano 

katika halmashauri ya Wilaya ni lazima liongezeke. Kweli, misitu mingine bado inahitaji 

kutendewa kazi (Misitu ya Ruhoi, Utete, Vilima vya Kichi.) na mamlaka ya Wilaya ni lazima sasa 

kutafuta njia yao ya kuendeleza zaidi mpango wa usimamizi wa misitu Wilayani, ambao kwa 

uhakika tunaweza kusema bado haujaanza kutekelezwa. Haina maana kuwa shughuli hii 

imechelewa, ila utafiti huu unapendekeza njia ya kiutendaji.Hata hivyo neno kuu liwe kuuendeleza 

na kuuanzisha. Kuuanzisha kwa kuunda mpango wa utekelezaji wenye tija kwa kutafuta fedha na 

pia kuendeleza mahusiano yenye uwazi na uaminifu kwa jamii ambao watakuwa wabia, hivyo si 

vyema kuwapuuza kuanzia sasa na kuendelea. 

iv


Acknowledgements 

This work was conducted between May and September 2003 as part of my training period at 

ENGREF, the French Institute of Forestry, Agricultural and Environmental Engineering under the 

supervision of Georges Smektala. 

I would like to thank the entire REMP-IUCN staff in Utete and Dar es Salaam and the Rufiji 

District Council and technical staff for their help and kindness during the making of this study. 

Mr Richard Elibariki, a free-lance forester with many years of experience on participatory forest 

management in Rufiji, Ms Rose Hogan REMP Technical Adviser and Mr Mohamed L. Chande, 

District Lands Natural Resources and Environment Officer provided guidance and essential 

backstopping to the process. The field team with Mr Jonas Nambua, Assistant Forest Officer, Mr 

Revocatus X. L. Nandi, Land Use Plan Officer and Mr Hadji Mkungula, Assistant Game Officer 

and resource persons Mr Athman Ngwele and Mr Rachidi Meza from the local communities, 

endured with me the hardships of the fieldwork in the forest. 

Thanks are due to Stéphanie Duvail from CEH Wallingford/IRD for having accorded the first 

priority to the geometric correction and georeferencing of the aerial photographs of Ngumburuni. 

I also wish to present very, very special thanks to Olivier Hamerlynck for his confidence, his 

always relevant pieces of advice and the discovery of the coastal forest of eastern Africa. Maybe 

one day, somewhere else on the Earth… 

Lastly, I do not want to forget Pat Viollier for revising the English. 

v


Table of Contents 

Summary........................................................................................................................................................... i 

Muhtasari........................................................................................................................................................ iii 

Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................................................... v 

List of Tables.................................................................................................................................................. vii 

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................... viii 

List of Photographs ...................................................................................................................................... viii 

List of Abbreviations...................................................................................................................................... ix 

1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 1 

2 Context of the Study .............................................................................................................................. 2 

2.1 Tanzania and Rufiji District: a general overview........................................................................... 2 

2.2 A flurry of forest reforms, with special emphasis on participatory management, in Eastern and 

Southern Africa............................................................................................................................................. 6 

2.3 Tanzanian forestry resources and new policy................................................................................. 7 

2.4 The Rufiji Environment Management Project promoter of the Forest Action Plan ..................... 10 

3 Problem Analysis and Methodology................................................................................................... 12 

3.1 Objectives and problem analysis.................................................................................................. 12 

3.2 Context and brief description of the Ngumburuni forest.............................................................. 12 

3.3 Materials and Methods ................................................................................................................. 14 

4 Development of the Ngumburuni forest management plan ............................................................. 19 

4.1 Main features and description of the Ngumburuni forest............................................................. 19 

4.2 Analysis of the human context ..................................................................................................... 41 

4.3 Discussion on the conditions for successful implementation of the participatory management in 

Ngumburuni................................................................................................................................................ 65 

4.4 Framework for the development of the management plan ........................................................... 67 

4.5 Next steps and time frame to bring the process to a successful conclusion.................................. 89 

5 Lessons Learned from the study and some proposals to further the Forest Action Plan 

implementation .............................................................................................................................................. 91 

5.1 First evaluation of the operational action plan matrix implementation ........................................ 91 

5.2 Proposals to facilitate the implementation of the Forest Action Plan........................................... 95 

6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................ 99 

7 Bibliography....................................................................................................................................... 100 

8 Appendices.......................................................................................................................................... 103 

Appendix 1: Analysis of Forest Inventory Data............................................................................. 104 

Appendix 2: List of Species ........................................................................................................... 151 

Appendix 3: Transect Walks Report .............................................................................................. 159 

Appendix 4: GPS Co-ordinates...................................................................................................... 162 

Appendix 5: Map of Sample Plot Location.................................................................................... 164 

Appendix 6:Stakeholder Questionaires.......................................................................................... 165 

vi


List of Tables 

Table 1: Forest reserves in Rufiji District, surface areas and status (Forest Action Plan, 2002) ....... 9 

Table 2: Time frame of the study ..................................................................................................... 14 

Table 3: Participatory methods used in order to obtain information................................................ 17 

Table 4: Height / diameter equations used in Ngumburuni forest.................................................... 23 

Table 5: Single tree volumes equations............................................................................................ 23 

Table 6: Stand parameters in the main ecological units of the Ngumburuni forest. ........................ 23 

Table 7: Comparison of the stand parameters in Ngumburuni and in four other forests of the Rufiji 

District...................................................................................................................................... 24 

Table 8: Localisation of the different tree species ........................................................................... 24 

Table 9: List of timber species identified in the 44 sample plots..................................................... 25 

Table 10: The distribution of timber tree species by size classes in the Miombo patches 

(*Frequency of the regeneration and poles of the timber species in the 44 sample plots -%) . 29 

Table 11:The distribution of timber tree species by size classes in the Coastal forest patches 

(*Frequency of the regeneration and poles of the timber species in the 44 sample plots -%). 30 

Table 12: Areas of the different patches included in the main stands types map of the Ngumburuni 

forest......................................................................................................................................... 39 

Table 13: The number of interviewed stakeholders and their living places (* m.: men; w.: women) 

.................................................................................................................................................. 46 

Table 14: Synthesis of the forest uses by the forest-adjacent communities ..................................... 48 

Table 15: The different trees species used by the economic operators around Ngumburuni........... 49 

Table 16: The first volunteers for scouting, after the July 2003 meetings....................................... 58 

Table 17: Community-based management process acceptance for all villages ............................... 63 

Table 18: Comparison of the advantages / drawbacks of C.B.F.M., J.F.M. and a mixed system.... 69 

Table 19: List of the potential uses, ranking their effects on the forest ........................................... 73 

Table 20: Minimum felling DBH for the main commercial tree species (Forest rules – Government 

notices n o 462 and 463 – 1996; Malimbwi, 2000).................................................................... 77 

Table 21: Timber species that do not qualify for harvesting in Ngumburuni .................................. 77 

Table 22: Annual cuts in each vegetation unit ................................................................................. 78 

Table 23: Harvesting plan for the qualified timber species.............................................................. 79 

Table 24: Income per year likely to be generated by the full-tree licensing.................................... 79 

Table 25: Percentages of the fuel wood supply for various planted areas of Cassia siamea............ 80 

Table 26: Matching forestry actions and uses to parts of the forest................................................. 86 

Table 27: Practical indicators of Management success (according to Anonymous, 2002 c) ........... 88 

Table 28: Proposed operational matrix for the next steps of the implementation of the Ngumburuni 

management process ................................................................................................................ 89 

Table 29: Assessment of implementation of the Forest Action Plan operational matrix in August 

2000.......................................................................................................................................... 92 

Table 30: Rufiji forests surveyed by REMP and number of recorded sample plots (Malimbwi, 

2000) ........................................................................................................................................ 97 

vii


List of Figures 

Figure 1: Location map of Tanzania (doc. S.C.P.M.E.)..................................................................... 3 

Figure 2: Location of the Rufiji District on the Tanzanian political map (Doc. Blay-Foldex). ......... 4 

Figure 3: Landscape designations in Rufiji District (REMP). ........................................................... 5 

Figure 4: A rough location map of the Ngumburuni Forest Reserve and of the different 

neighbouring villages (O. Hamerlynck, REMP - 2003)........................................................... 13 

Figure 5: Size and shape of a sample plot........................................................................................ 16 

Figure 6: Surface geology of the east African coastal region (Burgess et al., 2000) ....................... 20 

Figure 7: Distribution of the different timber species found in the Ngumburuni forest (number of 

trees in the 44 sample plots)..................................................................................................... 27 

Figure 8: Distribution of the most abundant timber trees stems by diameter classes, in the 44 

sample plots.............................................................................................................................. 28 

Figure 9:Ecological Units in Ngumburuni Forest ............................................................................ 31 

Figure 10: Main stands types in Ngumburuni Forest....................................................................... 33 

Figure 11: Location of the villages and settlements......................................................................... 42 

Figure 12: Spatial organisation of an ancient inside-forest settlement: Ngumburuni. ..................... 43 

Figure 13: Spatial organisation of a recent forest-adjacent sub-village - Njianne ........................... 44 

Figure 14: The different stakeholders and their relationships with the forest.................................. 45 

Figure 15: All-encompassing diagram showing the goods and services provided by the 

Ngumburuni forest ................................................................................................................... 52 

Figure 16: Main trading networks of the Ngumburuni products...................................................... 56 

Figure 17: Overlap between the Ikwiriri extension project and the Ngumburuni forest.................. 60 

Figure 18: Position of the future Songas pipeline within the Ngumburuni forest............................ 62 

Figure 19: A possible Ngumburuni management diagram, based upon most of the stakeholders’ 

requests..................................................................................................................................... 71 

List of Photographs 

Photo No. 1 to 7: Biodiversity in Ngumburuni. 1: Black and white Colobus; 2: Elephant-shrew (photo 

Tanzanian Forest Conservation Group); 3: East Coast Akalat, a rare vulnerable endemic bird (photo O. 

Hamerlynck- REMP); 4: Baboon; 5: Dense coastal forest; 6: Elephant skull; 7: Dense Miombo.............. 22 

Photo No. 8: Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis)................................................................................................ 26 

Photo No. 10: Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis). ....................................................................................... 26 

Photo No. 9: Mvule (Milicia excelsa) commercially extinct in Ngumburuni............................................. 26 

Photo No. 11: Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa)........................................................................................... 26 

Photos No. 12 and No. 13: The two main manual sawing methods used in Ngumburuni. The second one is 

a pit-sawing site.......................................................................................................................................... 50 

Photo No. 14: A traditional house in Mkupuka, with a pole stock. ............................................................ 51 

Photo No. 15: A charcoal burner with a bag sold 2000 Tsh (1,94 $). Behind him, a small size kiln. ........ 51 

Photos No. 16 to 20: The most damaging activities, according to the stakeholders. 16: A charcoal earth 

mound kiln; 17: Agricultural clearing; 18: Overharvesting and wasting wood (an immature felled Mkongo 

– Afzelia quanzensis); 19: Truck traffic inside the coastal forest; 20: One of the numerous fires in the dry 

season. ........................................................................................................................................................ 55 

Photos No. 21 and 22: Mkongo seeds (“lucky beans”). They used to be sold as ornaments (necklaces) and 

charms. In South Africa, they are called Mkehli (betrothed girl) by the Zulu, for those black seeds, with 

their orange aril suggest a maiden’s red-ochred head-dress, which used to be worn in the period prior to 

marriage (PALGRAVE, 2002). .................................................................................................................. 82 

Photo No. 23: A twenty year old Cassia siamea plantation in Umwe South. ............................................. 82 

Photo No. 24: a low-cost hive under a Mkwaju (Tamarindus indica). ....................................................... 84 

Photo No. 25: Edible mushrooms are abundant in Ngumburuni (O. Hamerlynck). ................................... 84 

Photo No. 27: The Ruhoi Forest Reserve is mostly covered with closed woodland................................... 96 

Photo No. 26: Coastal forest relics in Ruhoi Forest Reserve (Sterculia appendiculata and Afzelia 

quanzensis). ................................................................................................................................................ 96 

Photo No. 28: Logs in the overharvested Utete Forest reserve................................................................... 96 

Photo No. 29: High biodiversity value coastal forests on the Kichi Hills. ................................................. 96 

viii


List of Abbreviations 

C.B.F.M.: Community Based Forest Management 

D.F.A.P.T.F.: District Forest Action Plan Task Force 

ENGREF: The French Institute of Forestry, Agricultural and Environmental Engineering 

F.B.D.: Forest and Beekeeping Division 

G.I.S.: Geographic Information System 

G.P.S.: Global Positioning System 

GTZ: Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit 

IUCN: The World Conservation Union 

J.F.M.: Joint Forest Management 

N.T.S.P.: National Tree Seeds Project 

P.F.M.: Participatory Forest Management 

REMP: Rufiji Environment Management Project 

RUBADA: Rufiji Basin Development Authority 

Tsh: Tanzanian shilling: 1030 Tsh = 1 $ (August 2003) 

WWF: The World Wide Fund 

ix

1 Introduction 


Tanzania has a wealth of natural forests ranging from mangroves to mountain and dry forests. More 

than 50 % of the country is covered with forests or woodland, which play a significant role in the 

national economy, but also in the daily lives of many rural communities. Former forest policies mainly 

focused on the preservation of the natural resources from exploitation and the exclusion of people from 

protected forests, meanwhile overlooking the vital needs of the local communities. Yet, the 2002 new 

Forest Act, taking note of the failures of these policies, promotes participatory management. 

The Rufiji District, the southernmost of the six districts in the Pwani (Coast) region, is at the heart of 

these new orientations. Indeed, the exploitation of the important forest resources has been conducted as 

a mining operation in Rufiji and almost all the forest are overharvested. Some valuable species are 

commercially extinct. In 2003, the District Council approved a Forest Action Plan promoted by the 

IUCN Rufiji Environment Management Project (REMP). This Plan aims to improve the management 

of the forests and to stop their destruction all over the District with special emphasis on community 

based management, according to the spirit of the new law. 

The District Council put a high priority on the Ngumburuni forest in order to start the implementation 

of the Plan, with the idea that this study case could become a model for similar management transfers 

elsewhere in Rufiji. Indeed, Ngumburuni includes a District Forest Reserve which the foresters have 

failed to control. In contrast, the forest still harbours exceptional biodiversity and in 2002 the finding of 

a population of the puguensis race of the Pale-breasted Illadopsis is one of the most significant 

ornithological discoveries made in Tanzania over the past 5 years. As some forest-adjacent 

communities asked to start a community based management system, the Council decided to survey the 

forest in close collaboration with the surrounding villages. Thus, this study, commissioned both by 

REMP and the Rufiji District Council, aims to develop a method of establishing a management plan 

and learning lessons from this pilot operation, to carry out a first assessment of the Forest Action Plan 

implementation. 

After a presentation of the national and local context and of the methodology, the current report will set 

out the results and analysis of the inventory of the Ngumburuni forest in order to describe the forest, its 

potential and physical constraints. Then, we will study the human context, i.e. the history of the forest, 

its perception by the different stakeholders, the wishes and expectations of the adjacent communities 

and their degree of motivation for a community based or a joint forest management. 

The outcome of these analyses, aiming also to verify the feasibility of a collaborative management 

process, will be the establishment of the framework of a management plan based on the main results 

and the recommendations and claims of the stakeholders. This part will be completed by the proposal 

of a program and a time frame to bring the operation to a successful conclusion. 

Finally, we will learn the lessons of this case study and develop proposals in order to help the District 

Council to further the Forest Action Plan. By reviewing all the planned actions proposed in the 

operational matrix, we will pinpoint the constraints and weaknesses and make suggestions in order to 

facilitate its implementation. 

1


2 Context of the Study 

2.1 Tanzania and Rufiji District: a general overview 

2.1.1 A brief presentation of Tanzania 

The United Republic of Tanzania is the largest country in Eastern Africa with a land area of 945 000 

km 2 . It is located between latitudes 1 o 00’ S and 11 o 48’ S and longitudes 29 o 30’ E to 40 o 30’ E (Sayer 

et al., 1992; Collective, 1998). Tanzania shares borders with eight countries: Malawi and Mozambique 

in the south; Burundi, Congo (D.R.C.), Rwanda and Zambia in the west; Kenya and Uganda in the 

north. The eastern side is the Indian Ocean coastline (about 1000 km). 

The climatic conditions range from coastal to alpine deserts on Mount Kilimanjaro. The coastal area 

experiences a tropical climate and is influenced by two monsoon winds: the south-east monsoon 

blowing northwards from March to September and bringing heavy intermittent rains; from December 

to March the north-east monsoon blows southwards and brings the hottest temperatures. The rainfall is 

generally erratic and varies from 400 mm in the central regions to 2500 mm in the highlands 

(Collective, 1998). 

According to the 1988 census, a population of 22 to 23 million was recorded. As the population grows 

by 2,8 to 3 % annually, we can now expect a total population of 35 million. Over 80 % of the 

Tanzanians are living in rural areas and most of them depend on land and natural resources for 

subsistence. The quality and the availability of arable land explain for the most part the internal 

population distribution. Obviously, population growth will increase pressure on land and natural 

resources. Agriculture and livestock keeping are still traditional and mainly extensive and the practice 

is not about to change. As the soils are generally naturally poor (they are typical tropical soils with low 

nutrient content), they become quickly exhausted, increasing land requirement. Agriculture mainly 

produces food crops and moreover, the production of export crops (sisal, cashew nuts,…) dropped due 

to unfavourable international market conditions. 

The country is divided into administrative regions, twenty on the mainland and five in Zanzibar, which 

has a special status and its own government. These regions are further divided into districts. Politically, 

the districts are governed by two entities. The Central Government is represented at this level by a 

District Commissioner who is the chief spokesman and in charge of all government matters. There is 

also a local political entity, which is the District Council, i.e. the assembly of councillors elected from 

each ward. The District Executive Director is the spokesman of the Council and the head of all the civil 

servants working within (Collective, 1997). 

Several standing committees and technical departments help the District Council to build and execute 

its policy. 

2


Figure 1: Location map of Tanzania (doc. S.C.P.M.E.). 

* RUFIJI 

3


2.1.2 Profile of the Rufiji District 

Rufiji is one of six districts in the Pwani region. The headquarters are in Utete, located about 200 km 

south of Dar es Salaam. It is divided into 91 registered villages, 19 wards and 6 divisions. Each village 

has its own government. The wards are run by the ward development committees headed by their 

respective councillors. They also have executive officers. At the division level there are divisional 

officers (Collective, 1997). 

Rufiji 

District 

Figure 2: Location of the Rufiji District on the Tanzanian political map (Doc. Blay-Foldex). 

The Rufiji District covers an area of 13 339 km 2 . Thirty eight percent of that area is covered by 

registered Forest Reserves (1668 km 2 ) and the Selous Game Reserve (3436 km 2 ). The Rufiji River, the 

largest in Tanzania and the fifth in Africa for the flow (900 m 3 /s), runs west – east to the Indian Ocean 

and cuts the territory of the district into two (Collective, 1997). There are also 13 lakes and several 

swamp areas. 

4


Ngumburuni 

Forest 

Ikwiriri 

Figure 3: Landscape designations in Rufiji District (REMP). 

5


The rainfall pattern is characterised by the two seasons described above. The average annual 

rainfalls vary from 850 mm at Utete to 1000 mm at Mohoro. There is a slight variation of 

temperature between the delta and the inland areas, because of the stabilising influence of the sea. 

The average temperature varies from 24 o C in June to 28 o C between December and February. 

The current population, according to the 2002 census is about 203,000 persons. It seems that there 

are more women than men. The major ethnic group is the Wandengereko. Other groups are also 

represented: Wanyagatwa, in the delta, Wamatumbi around the Kichi and the Matumbi Hills and 

Wapogo and Ngindo from neighbouring districts (Collective, 1997). The main economic activities 

in the District are fishing and subsistence agriculture and many of the field operations are done 

manually. The local populations have no tradition of keeping cattle and the presence of the tse-tse 

is not encouraging them to begin animal husbandry, except for poultry. Yet, recently, livestock 

keepers have been coming from the northern regions of Tanzania, attracted by the large grassland 

areas. At the most recent count (August 2003), there were 11,000 heads of cattle in the District, to 

be compared with a few hundred before 2002. There is also an unofficial economy and illegal 

logging is probably an important part of it, as it can be guessed considering the high number of 

lorries crossing Utete, Ikwiriri or Kibiti. Be that as it may, the Rufiji District is one of the less 

developed in Tanzania on criteria such as standard of living or access to services and basic 

amenities. 

2.2 A flurry of forest reforms, with special emphasis on participatory management, 

in Eastern and Southern Africa 

In spite of the fact that involving people in forest management has become common all over the 

world for a long time, participatory forest management in Africa has been slow to evolve. In the 

early nineties, Gambia was almost the only country which had proclaimed it as a national priority. 

But from 1995 to 2000, new forestry acts had been promulgated in many African countries, and 

particularly in Zanzibar, South Africa, Malawi, Zambia, Lesotho and Mozambique. From 2000 to 

2003, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Namibia and Swaziland joined the movement. In fact, nowadays, 

more than forty new national forest policies make participatory forest management an objective in 

Africa (Alden Wily, 2000). 

This reform wave originates in recent political changes. Indeed it occurs as east and southern 

African countries become more democratic, adopt more liberal economic strategies and new 

devolution rules. These forestry reforms have also been favoured by the promulgation of new land 

tenure laws clarifying the legal status of the land property. Yet, the incentive role of international 

donors, and particularly the World Bank, must also be emphasized. Indeed, the development of 

participatory management is linked to the criticism of the governmental action and the emergence 

of the structural adjustment, promoted by liberal ideas of the main international donors (Buttoud, 

2001). At the same time, the citizens are more and more demanding of an important role in 

managing the natural resources that they can find around their villages. 

Effective participatory management mainly consists of the transfer of the management to the 

adjacent communities relieving the authorities of their responsibilities concerning the results 

(Buttoud, 2001). 

There are three main types of participatory forest management (Alden Wily, 2001): 

• Joint Forest Management (J.F.M.) or co-management. This system consists in sharing the 

managerial powers, the use rights and the benefits between the foresters and the 

communities. In practice, the agreement can vary from passive cooperation to active 

management partnership. It depends on the degree of confidence between the authorities 

and the communities, but also on the real will to empower these communities; 

• Designated Management (first type of Community-Based Forest Management – C.B.F.M.). 

The community is empowered as the only manager of the forest, even if it is a Local or 

National Government Reserve. The management entity generally operates with a 

6


management plan agreed with the authorities. But the Government stays the owner of the 

forest; 

• Owner Management (second type of Community-Based Forest Management – C.B.F.M.). 

In that case, the community is not only the manager of the forest but also the owner. This 

system is being widely established with respect to those forests which are not forest 

reserves. 

Of course, each country is following its own way and we can now find a large diversity of 

management regimes. Thus, Lesotho and South Africa return the national forests to their original 

owners, hoping at the same time that they will contract specialised agencies to manage the more 

commercial and valuable ones. Uganda, Ethiopia or Niger have made the choice of developing 

P.F.M. in their most valuable forest reserves. Tanzania has made the main experiences in currently 

unreserved areas (Alden Wily, 2001). In that sense, the Ngumburuni operation, promoting a 

management transfer, could become a reference at least in Rufiji and maybe in the country. 

Much is expected from these new policies, maybe too much, and the donors supported it with 

important funds. Today, we can say that the various experiences have not always lived up to the 

expectations. To be efficient, participatory management must be implemented in favourable sociopolitical 

conditions. Particularly, the devolution laws must be really able to empower the 

communities (Buttoud, 2001). And sometimes things do not go as planned. For example, in the 

Dwesa-Cwebe Forest Reserve in the former Transkei region of the Eastern Cape (South Africa), 

the question of who has the power over decision-making is not solved, despite seven years of 

negotiations. This relative failure originates in the weakening of traditional leadership. Indeed its 

traditional authority over the allocation of land and resources has been challenged. On the other 

hand, the new community institutions lack local legitimacy (Anonymous, 2003). 

This example demonstrates that successful management needs more than so-called democratic 

institutional community structures. In Tanzania, this pattern of potential conflict can arise because 

the democratic structures have been imposed by the Government. Obviously, in Zimbabwe, 

Rwanda or Burundi, a similar risk exists, increased by the currently tense political situation. 

Fortunately, success stories also exist, for example in Namibia where four national forest reserves 

have been demarcated to be transferred to the neighbouring communities. Some other examples can 

be found in Tanzania or in Uganda (Alden Wily, 2000). In fact, successful participatory forest 

management needs strong support from both government and really empowered communities 

(Anonymous, 2003). 

In the case of Ngumburuni, after having studied the forest and the human context, we will analyse a 

list of criteria to verify that these supports exist and that the main conditions for a successful 

transfer of management are verified (cf. chapter III.3). 

2.3 Tanzanian forestry resources and new policy 

2.3.1 Tanzania is rich in vegetation types 

Estimates for closed forests in Tanzania vary from about 9000 km 2 to 16,000 km 2 according to the 

different authors (Sayer et al., 1992). But the whole country is reputed to be covered by 400,000 

km 2 of various woodland types, i.e. almost the half of the national area. In fact, the real surface is 

not well known, but it is probably decreasing because of fires, droughts and unplanned 

exploitation. 

Yet, Tanzania is still acknowledged for its forest richness. The main forest types are varied as they 

include montane forests, lowland forests, coastal forests, woodlands, thickets and bushlands, 

mangroves and swamps (Holmes, 1995). The woodlands (Miombo) and the coastal forests will be 

defined in the next chapters. The coastal forests, which are very important ecologically, are now 

greatly depleted, degraded and fragmented. All mangroves are legally protected nevertheless they 

7


are threatened too by overharvesting, conversion to agricultural land, salt production pans and 

prawn farming. 

In fact, most forests have been significantly exploited in a recent past. Encroachment, often for 

shifting cultivation, overharvesting, often illegal, and burning are the more damaging factors. In 

many places intensive pit-sawing has replaced mechanical logging. We will see that it is the case in 

Ngumburuni in particular. 

Timber, of legal or illegal origin, is most often exported, particularly and recently to east Asian 

countries. But a local market also exists, particularly for furniture. But it is not really organised and 

local high value products could be more developed. Firewood and charcoal demands are also 

increasing with the demographic growth. Obviously, more or less all of Tanzania depends on forest 

resources for cooking. Firewood accounts between 90 and 92 % of the total energy used in 

Tanzania and for around 95 % of the total wood products consumed in the country (Milledge, 

2003). It is likely to continue in the foreseeable future. 

2.3.2 Institutional framework of the Tanzanian forestry sector 

“The forests of Tanzania are covered by laws passed, or inherited and accepted, by the National 

Assembly. These laws are published by the Government Printer, Dar es Salaam as Chapters, 

Supplements, Orders or Notices which, until revoked or amended, remain the primary legislative 

control of the woody vegetation of the country” (Holmes, 1995). 

Until recently, these Tanzanian forest laws, often inherited from the colonial period, essentially 

promoted the state management or in some cases the management by district authorities (like for 

example in Ngumburuni). Indeed, historically, Tanzania had a former tradition of strict 

conservation as it is proved by the numerous national parks (11), game reserves (16) and the 

extensive forest reserves network (Sayer et al., 1992). Some productive forests exist too. But this 

policy is not very efficient in many cases because it is inhibited by shortages of staffs and 

implementation funds. Surveillance of large territories is indeed quite difficult for reduced teams 

and the people living in the neighbourhood do not feel involved in the management and are 

tempted to get what they can in the public domain. 

Yet, in 1999, Tanzania radically changed the legal status of the land common laws. The new act 

recognizes the common laws and allows people to get, own and transfer land rights and to gazette 

title deeds (Alden Wily, 2000). This major political change favours the new forest strategies aiming 

to allow the communities to create their own forest reserves. This first step was followed by a 

second one. Indeed, the new 2002 Forest Act (passed by Parliament in April 2002) designates 

community-based forest management as a major objective, also facilitated by the new land acts. In 

fact, as noted in I.2, it is a regional tendency and Malawi, Lesotho, Uganda or Mozambique, for 

example, voted similar laws. The Forest Act of 2002, which replaced the Forest ordinance of 1957, 

the Grass Fire Ordinance of 1943 and the Export of Timber Ordinance of 1953 (amended in 1989), 

and the National Forest Programme (2001-2010) are currently the main instruments to implement 

the Tanzanian forest policy. 

Community – based management is now developing in Tanzania and this new strategy is also 

favoured by existing local power structures. Indeed, the management by a community is based on 

the hypothesis that social control is more efficient than administrative control (Babin et al., 1998). 

As mentioned in I.2, to be effective, this principle must be supported by a real decentralisation and 

a real will to empower the communities. In Tanzania, where the Government was omnipresent 

during several decades, particularly the seventies and the eighties, it was not obvious. In fact, the 

Tanzanian community – based forest management finds its origin in a successful recovery of 

forests by thirteen communities (1991 – 1995). Initially, the Government planned to class them as 

national forest reserves. But the local populations were determined to get all they could before 

losing them. Incursions and damages were increasing and outsiders took part in it too. Eventually, 

in view of stopping the decline of the forests, the Government resolved to entrust their management 

8


to the communities. The villagers quickly succeeded in banning the damaging practices that they 

considered essential for their livelihoods only a short time before (Alden Wily, 2000). In Tanzania, 

the community-based management can be regulated by these village authorities. The local 

governance can indeed promulgate by-laws, registered by the District and applicable to everybody. 

Through this legal mechanism, the communities can seal their own forest rules and power 

structures into the law. It includes the right to lay down fines to offenders, to collect royalties and 

control their use. But as a counterpart, the community is officially responsible for the management 

of its forest. 

2.3.3 The forestry sector under pressure in Rufiji 

The forestry sector in Rufiji District is well described in the Forest Action Plan (2002). Through a 

bibliographical analysis, this paragraph just aims to extract the main lines. In Rufiji, the term 

“forest” refers to both woodland (Miombo and open woodland) and “real” forest. Rufiji has 

woodlands, coastal forests (cf. III.1.) and also mangroves and tidal forests in the delta. According 

to the Forest Action Plan, there are 18 forest reserves in the Rufiji District. 

Name Area (ha) Status 

Ruhoi 68633 Encroached, over exploited 

Mangrove 53255 Contains 14357 ha of non-forested land 

Tamburu 5997 Probably encroached and over exploited 

Katundu 5631 Under increasing exploitation 

Mtanza 4926 Encroached, over exploited 

Namakuttwa-Nyamuete 4700 Protected but starting to be encroached 

Rupiage 4118 Under increasing exploitation 

Ngumburuni 3104 Encroached, over exploited 

Kiwengoma 3104 Protected 

Mtita 2998 Over exploited 

Ngalakula 2399 Encroached, over exploited 

Mohoro 2349 Probably encroached and over exploited 

Kipo 1749 Encroached 

Kikale 988 Encroached 

Kingoma 988 Probably encroached 

Mchungu 949 Under increasing exploitation 

Utete 900 Under increasing exploitation 

Muhoro river 49 Status unknown 

Total 166837 

Table 1: Forest reserves in Rufiji District, surface areas and status (Forest Action Plan, 2002) 

The four forests written in bold type belong to the District authorities. Only the two forests 

written in italics have management plans. 

Over the last decade, the Rufiji forests have come under increasing exploitation. As shown in table 

1, about 54 % of the total forest reserves area is overharvested. We will see that it is particularly the 

case in Ngumburuni. The commercial demand of timber and charcoal is the main factor explaining 

this situation, because of the relative proximity of Dar es Salaam. For example, the quantities of 

charcoal produced and traded from Rufiji have been multiplied by 2,3 during the past ten years, in 

spite of a decrease in the mid nineties. Even in the local or national reserves, the weak human and 

financial capacities of the Forest Departments do not allow them to control illegal logging or 

charcoaling with sufficient efficiency (the District has only 2 to 3 forest officers without means). 

Moreover, the situation of the forests reserves ruled by the District is ambiguous because it is 

difficult to find the right balance between the necessity of conservation and the need of royalties, 

which is by far the main motivation of the District policy. We can note that 60 % (150 M Tsh – 146 

000 $) of revenue generated locally by Rufiji District comes from the forest. In addition, 7 % (88 M 

Tsh – 85 000 $) of central government forest revenue (7 % of the royalties) comes from Rufiji 

9


District. Every year, 10 000 m 3 of hardwood are exported from the District. It is important to know 

these figures before proposing a community-based management process. 

Presently, forestry in Rufiji is of a mining type (the illegal one, but also the legal one). Target 

species are logged out one by one until they become commercially extinct. Precious species such as 

Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis) are still being harvested, but most often under the recommended 

diameter. The seed sources are disappearing and the regeneration is threatened too. 

The conversion of some parts of the forests to cultivation is also increasing. Yet, for the moment, 

the land pressure stays relatively reasonable compared with some other African regions (in Rwanda 

or in Madagascar for example). But the settlers generally clear large areas because they do shifting 

cultivation most often. As the soil is quite poor, they give up their fields a few years after coming. 

Those fields quickly become woodlands or grasslands and have little chance of again becoming a 

closed forest. This issue could be partly solved by conserving seeding trees, but we note that it has 

never been done. 

2.4 The Rufiji Environment Management Project promoter of the Forest Action 

Plan 

The Rufiji Environment Management Project (REMP) is a IUCN project and it aims to “promote 

the long-term conservation through wise use of the lower Rufiji forests, woodlands and wetlands, 

such that biodiversity is conserved, critical ecological functions are maintained, renewable natural 

resources are used sustainably and the livelihoods of the area’s inhabitants are secured and 

enhanced” (Hogan et al., 1999). 

The main REMP objectives are (Hogan et al., 1999): 

• to promote the integration of environmental conservation and sustainable development 

through environmental planning within the Rufiji delta and floodplain; 

• to improve the natural resources management in the district, and to promote their 

sustainable use with special emphasis on the community-based management; 

• to promote awareness of the values of forests, woodlands and wetlands and the importance 

of wise use at village, district, regional and central government levels, and to influence 

national policies on natural resources management. 

An E.M.T. (Environmental Management Team), coordinated by the District Executive Director and 

linked to the District Administration, runs the Project from the District headquarters in Utete. 

Financing is given by the Dutch government through the IUCN regional office in Nairobi, Kenya. 

The main outputs of the projects should be environmental management plans and among them, 

documents dealing with the forest conservation. As said in the previous paragraphs, wood 

resources management is particularly problematical in Rufiji. That is why a Forest Action Plan was 

designed in view of improving this management according to the REMP principles and the local 

and national laws. 

The Forest Action Plan (2002) includes eleven key-activities. They aim to improve the general 

forest management in the District and to reverse the trend of overharvesting and destruction. They 

are briefly summarized here below: 

1. Demarcation of forest boundaries and definition of management responsibility and legal 

status. It supposes a participatory mapping of the forest and it aims to clearly know the resource, 

the stakeholders and their wishes about the management. 

2. Adoption of zoning and harvesting plans, including conservation areas, restrictions on the 

harvest of certain species, recommendations for exploiting the other ones (minimum diameters,…). 

10


3. Defining and controlling charcoal production areas. The villagers should be involved in 

licensing and monitoring this activity. 

4. Revitalizing and initiating collaborative forest management arrangements. The District has 

an active role to play in it by supporting the village committees and helping them for mobilising 

funds. 

5. Effective law enforcement and revenue collection. Some efforts should be made at the District 

level to improve the situation. Some simple measures should be taken: hammering logs in the 

field, mobile check points, etc. 

6. Consolidating the “whole tree” licensing system in the district, instead of licensing on the 

basis of logs. This measure aims to reduce wood waste. 

7. Adopting a moratorium on Mkongo harvesting and other depleted species. Such a measure 

should be adopted until these species achieve again some convincing level of regeneration. 

8. Promotion of Afrormosia angolensis from class V to class II, because of its high quality and 

an increasing demand for export. Some other species should also be promoted. It would contribute 

to loosening the pressure on more depleted species. 

9. Improving the revenue retention scheme at district level. In fact, these measures aim to 

strengthen the District forestry budget and consequently its action capacities. 

10. Revenue generation from the seeds. This activity could be a real opportunity, as it should be 

supported by the National Tree Seed Project which facilitates the collection and marketing of the 

seeds. 

11. Promoting the planting of indigenous tree species, for replenishment of harvested zones for 

example. Village wood lots could also be created. 

The present study fits into this process and aims to facilitate its implementation. The management 

transfer of one of the planned forest will be done according to these principles while, at the same 

time training a team of District officers. This team will be responsible for the next management 

transfer operations. 

11


3 Problem Analysis and Methodology 

3.1 Objectives and problem analysis 

This study aims mainly to start the implementation of the Rufiji Forest Action Plan, with special 

emphasis on the community-based natural resources management aspects and to formulate some 

propositions to facilitate and further this plan. Indeed, as we shall note in Chapter IV, its 

implementation has hardly begun. For a start, the Rufiji District has put a high priority on the 

Ngumburuni forest as a pilot area where participatory forest management, including the 

development of a management plan, is going to be tried out. Ngumburuni has been chosen because 

the District did not succeed in controlling it, because of its exceptional biodiversity and the high 

level of current threats and also because some adjacent villages declared themselves in favour of 

participatory management. In addition, as the human context is relatively complex, this operation 

could become a model for other management transfers in the District. That is why one of the main 

goals of this work is to design a simple method to develop such an operation, easy to replicate in 

other forests. Thus, the present report will set out the study of the Ngumburuni forest and of its 

human context, the framework of the management plan and the lessons learnt from it. 

This work has been realised with the permanent collaboration and under the responsibility of the 

Lands, Natural Resources and Environment department of the Rufiji District, which was asking for 

methodology. The Rufiji Environmental Management Project (REMP), promoter of this process, 

supplied our team with intellectual and logistical support. 

3.2 Context and brief description of the Ngumburuni forest 

As already noted, in order to start the implementation of the Forest Action Plan, REMP and the 

District chose the Ngumburuni forest as a pilot area. Indeed, the interest of this forest has been well 

known for a long time. Before the First World War, the German colonial authorities already 

demarcated a forest reserve there. Nowadays, the Ngumburuni Forest Reserve is managed in theory 

by the Rufiji District. But in fact, it is daily damaged by illegal activities. 

We have not restricted ourselves to study only the reserve, but we have also surveyed the forest 

beyond these historical boundaries, which are in fact unmarked. Indeed, the villages’ activities 

concern this total area. Thus, the surveyed area covers about 10 000 ha. According to the assertions 

of most of the stakeholders, we shall call “Ngumburuni” the entire surveyed area and not only the 

District Forest Reserve. 

Physically, the Ngumburuni forest is a mosaic of several wood patches which can be easily 

distinguished in the field: 

• the coastal forests which are very dense and contain a rich biodiversity (with rare and 

endemic species); 

• the Miombo which are wooded savannas where Julbernardia sp., Brachystegia sp. and 

Pterocarpus angolensis are dominant; 

• the woodlands which are also savannas but with smaller and scarcer trees, more shrubs and 

an abundance of grasslands; 

• the riverine forests on the floodplain along the river beds. 

These ecological units will be defined and described in chapter III, but we can give briefly some 

descriptive elements. The transition between the different patches is generally sharp and abrupt. 

Yet the different ecological units share an important number of species. Commercial timber wood 

species used to be abundant in Ngumburuni such as Milicia exelsa (Mvule), Dalbergia 

melanoxylon (Mpingo), Pterocarpus angolensis (Mninga) or Khaya anthotheaca (Mkangazi). But 

nowadays all the commercial species are over-harvested and trees of more than 30 cm in diameter 

are scarce. This observation alone may justify the implementation of a management plan. 

12


The forest is surrounded by 4 main villages (Mkupuka, Mangwi, Nyamtimba, Muyuyu) and the 

Ikwiriri township. 

To Dar es Salaam 

To Utete and 

Mozambique 

Nyamtimba 

Figure 4: A rough location map of the Ngumburuni Forest Reserve and of the different 

neighbouring villages (O. Hamerlynck, REMP - 2003) 

13


3.3 Materials and Methods 

The study has been realised according to the following time frame, in order to carry out four main 

steps: to know the Ngumburuni forest; to know the stakeholders and to debate with them about the 

management; to propose a framework for the management plan; to learn the lessons from this case 

in order to further the Rufiji Forest Action plan. 

Period Action 

28 th of April – 12 th of May Installation, bibliography, first visit in 

Ngumburuni forest, elaboration of the work 

plan. 

13 th of May – 20 th of June Inventory and description of the Ngumburuni 

forest. 

21 st of June – 29 th of June Mapping the forest – designing the inquiries 

and preparation of the awareness meetings. 

30 th of June – 20 th of July Inquiries among the different stakeholders. 

Awareness meetings. 

21 st of July – 27 th of July Collecting more information, particularly in the 

Forest and Beekeeping Division (Ministry of 

natural resources and Tourism - Dar es 

Salaam). 

28 th of July – 10 th of August Data analysis and elaboration of the framework 

of the forest management plan 

11 th of August – 2 nd of September Second round of meetings in the villages, 

adoption of a time frame for the next steps of 

the process. 

Visit of other forests and reflection about the 

Rufiji Forest Action Plan. 

3 rd of September – 30 th of September Writing of the report. 

Table 2: Time frame of the study 

3.3.1 Bibliography and first contact with the forest 

An abundant literature is available about the participatory management of natural resources and 

about the coastal forests ecosystems. The REMP library contains a lot of books about these topics 

and the first task was to study this bibliography. It has been completed by search of documents in 

Dar es Salaam and of websites. Thereafter, a first contact mission was organised in Ngumburuni 

forest and in Ikwiriri and Muyuyu. Its main goals were: 

• to get a first general view of the forest; 

• to organise the team for the inventory and the inquiries; 

• to get into contact with the leaders of the forest-adjacent villages; 

• to establish an initial timeframe. 

3.3.2 Description – inventory of the Ngumburuni forest 

3.3.2.1 Objectives of the inventory 

The technical study of the forest aims to: 

• delimit the different ecological areas, with particular attention on the rich coastal forests; 

• characterize the main forest stands; 

• identify suitable areas for conservation, timber wood harvesting but also for plantations and 

non-timber activities; 

14


• identify a possible ecological corridor for the fauna (particularly elephants and birds); 

• draw forest maps. 

3.3.2.2 The work to do 

The first task was the demarcation of the surveyed area on a Landsat image, after the first 

discussions with the communities. Thereafter, we used geo-referenced aerial photography prepared 

by Dr. Stéphanie Duvail from CEH Wallingford/IRD. 

The inventory has been made with sample plots in order to determine the different ecological areas 

and the different stand types. A sampling team was formed with agents of the District Lands, 

Natural Resources and Environment Office: Mr Jonas Nambua, Assistant Forest Officer, Mr 

Revocatus X. L. Nandi, Subject-matter Specialist on Land Use Planning (from the agricultural 

department) and Mr Hadji Mkungula, Assistant Game Officer. Two knowledgeable villagers (Mr 

Athman Ngwele and Mr Rachidi Meza) joined the team. Their intimate knowledge of the forest and 

its tree species (vernacular names) was essential. I was the sixth member and the coordinator of the 

field team. Mr Richard Elibariki, free-lance forest engineer, joined the field team during the two 

first days to provide help with the identification of the tree species. 

3.3.2.3 Materials and equipments 

The basic equipment used during the inventory was: 

• a G.P.S. GARMIN 12 for locating the sample plots in the field; 

• a SUUNTO clinometer for measuring the height of trees; 

• a tape measure for measuring the circumference of the trees at breast height (1,30 m); 

• a Landsat image of the forest with a longitude – latitude grid; 

• forms for filling in the data; 

• chalks for marking the trees; 

• 15 meters long ropes for materializing the sample plots. 

3.3.2.4 The inventory method 

a) Sampling 

A systematic sampling has been used because it is easy to implement in the field. 

b) Number of sample plots 

In order to calculate the number of sample plots, we used the following formula: 

n = T 2 .cv 2 /e 2 

T is given by the Student table for a probability level of 0,95: T = 2. 

To get cv and e, we used the results from inventory carried out in similar conditions (particularly 

the same area for the sample plots) in Miombo of Kiketo District. Since there are no other data for 

the other forest types, we consider that these figures are valid for them (following the example of 

Malimbwi, 2000). They showed that the sampling error of mean basal area per hectare ranged from 

7,7 to 9,8 % and that of volume from 8,6 to 12,5 %. Given time constraint of the training period it 

will be considered logical to reduce slightly the number of sampling spots by increasing the error to 

15 %. This level of precision is within acceptable limits for such natural forests. Taking an average 

coefficient of variation, cv, of estimated volume of 0,5 like in Kiketo, the number of sample plots 

in Ngumburuni will be: 

n = 4 x 0,25 / 0,0225 = 44 

15


c) Size and shape of sample plots 

The sample plots were circular with a radius of 15 m. Their area covered 0,071 ha. For the study of 

regeneration, we used a reduced concentric sample plot with a radius of 5 m. 

d) Recorded tree variables 

• species names (vernacular and botanical); 

• DBH (at 1,30 m); 

• number of stems; 

5m 

15 m 

Figure 5: Size and shape of a sample plot. 

• total height of three sample trees representative of the plot; 

• presence and names of poles and regeneration stems (DBH < 20 cm); 

• identification and diameter of stumps; 

• nature of the soils, according to a superficial observation. 

e) Layout of sample plots 

The plots were laid out in the field with the G.P.S. (WGS 84 system). After sampling in the forest 

they have been loaded in a computer and laid out on the maps. 

3.3.3 Mapping the Ngumburuni forest 

The base for mapping the forest were 4 scenes of a 1:50,000 aerial photography done by REMP in 

June 1999. These were geometrically corrected and geo-referenced in the WGS 84 system by Dr. 

Stéphanie Duvail from CEH Wallingford/IRD. The different vegetation units can be distinguished 

on it thanks to the contrast. During the inventory, we could first draw a rough map of the forest 

comparing the image and the vegetation patches where the sample plots were laid out. After having 

refined this first draft in the office, we went back into the field to determine the nature of some 

other points and to precise the demarcation of the different patches. We also discussed the current 

forest uses with the villagers who worked with us. The main trails and settlements were recorded in 

the G.P.S. too. Eventually, all the data were downloaded in a computer using the MAPMAKER 

G.I.S. 

With MAPMAKER, we drew maps showing the ecological units, the main forest stands and the 

management objectives and suggested forest uses. These maps will be saved on CDs in order to be 

used by the District staff during the following steps of the process. 

3.3.4 Study of the human context and start of the participatory process 

3.3.4.1 Objectives and target groups for interviews 

At first, the interviews and meetings aimed to explain the process to the communities and to 

understand the history of the forest, its perception by the different stakeholders and the interactions 

16


between the forest and the different villages or human groups around it. Particularly, it is useful to 

understand what they are thinking about the current situation and uses of the forest and what their 

wishes are for the future management. Another objective was to start to define with the villagers 

the new boundaries of the future managed forest. We have also discussed the main management, 

use and guarding rules that they would implement if they were the managers. 

During the mission carried out in the beginning of May and during the inventory we identified a list 

of stakeholders for interviews. They have been classed in three groups: economic operators, forestadjacent 

communities and Authorities (political leaders and civil servants). These three categories 

will be detailed in chapter III.2. 

In principle, the villages which could be involved in the management plan are: Muyuyu, Ikwiriri 

(Umwe), Mkupuka, Mangwi, Nyamtimba and their associated sub-villages. The final list was also 

discussed with the communities. 

3.3.4.2 Participatory methodologies for the interviews and meetings 

The inquiries were implemented in two main ways. At first we used semi-directive questionnaires, 

letting people express what they had to say on several themes linked to the forest management. 

Thereafter or with specialised people, we asked more closed questions in order to precise the 

issues. The themes of the inquiries were chosen according to the recommendations of the Forest 

Action Plan of Rufiji (cf. appendix n° 6). 

The following table suggests some participatory methods to facilitate obtaining information on the 

main forest issues. 

Process easier methods Issues 

Transect walks Condition, problems and future of the forest. 

Social mapping Who lives in the forest? 

Time lines History of the forest. 

Participatory mapping Do the communities know the current boundaries? 

Where should the new boundaries be? 

Ranking Least + most damaging uses. 

Visioning / drawing the ideal scenario How the forest should be managed in the future? 

Role play How the forest should be managed in the future? 

Seasonal calendar of forest uses Forest uses, pressure from destructive activities. 

Table 3: Participatory methods used in order to obtain information 

3.3.5 Data analysis and proposal of a management framework 

In collaboration with all the stakeholders, the aim was to develop the framework of a management 

plan, including multiple choices and possibilities and which can be finalised by the communities 

and the forest service of the District. 

The first task was the analysis of the data collected in the forest in order to map the different 

ecological areas and the main stands types. These maps were the basis for the discussions with the 

stakeholders and thereafter for developing the plan. We also calculated different parameters like 

basal areas and wood volumes and evaluate (qualitatively) the biodiversity, especially in the coastal 

forests. But in order to characterize the forest with practical criteria, we also compared these results 

with those used by the forest-adjacent communities. 

Thereafter, the inquiries were also sorted through. Indeed, we had to specify the perception of the 

forest by the different stakeholders, the current uses, the wishes about future management, etc. We 

prioritised a descriptive analysis rather than developing a statistical one, probably less adapted to 

17

our purpose. 


These results, both from the forest analysis and the inquiries, were compared with criteria 

permitting to formulate an opinion about the feasibility of a Participatory Forest Management 

(Chapter III.3). Then, the framework of the management plan was developed using mainly the 

propositions, observations and wishes of the different stakeholders, but also the recommendations 

of the Forest Action Plan and of the community-based forest management guidelines (Collective, 

2001 a). As much as possible, we have proposed several options for the different themes evoked in 

the plan, and particularly for the possible uses of the various identified ecological units. A map of 

the management objectives and of the uses has been proposed. The principle was not to dictate 

what should be done but to give the decision makers enough elements and proposals to make their 

own choices, with full knowledge of the constraints and assets of their ecological and human 

environment. 

Lastly, we also drew up a programme, including a time frame, in order to bring the process to a 

successful conclusion. Of course, this programme was discussed with the communities during the 

meetings of the end of August. 

3.3.6 Lessons of this study and some proposals to further the Rufiji Forest Action 

Plan 

The last part of the work is a reflection about the Forest Action plan itself. As the Ngumburuni 

operation is one of the first actions planned in this document, we have used this experience to 

assess the first steps of its implementation and to propose some elements to facilitate further 

initiatives. 

At first, we reviewed all the planned actions of the operational matrix proposed in the Forest 

Action Plan. After thorough discussions with the District staff, we established an evaluation of 

what has started or what has already been done. 

But we also pinpointed the constraints, weaknesses and bottlenecks. That is why a second step was 

devoted to make some proposals in order to facilitate the implementation of the Plan. The 

Ngumburuni experience, but also the visit of other forests and interviews of various people in the 

District or in Dar es Salaam were used for this task. 

18


4 Development of the Ngumburuni forest management plan 

4.1 Main features and description of the Ngumburuni forest 

4.1.1 A piece of the ecologically rich East African coastal region 

The Ngumburuni forest covers about 10,000 ha to the northeast of Ikwiriri township, 165 

kilometres south of Dar es Salaam. The official Forest Reserve, declared in German colonial times, 

is supposed to cover only 3000 to 4000 ha (the figures vary from one document to another but the 

outline of the reserve as shown on the official topographic maps covers 4545 ha). Ngumburuni 

suffers from overharvesting and most of commercial timber species are about to disappear. The 

threat is increasing because some parts of the forest are being cleared for cultivation, mainly by 

people originating from Muyuyu village. Moreover, a new bridge has been built over the Rufiji 

river, close to the southern part of Ikwiriri. Undoubtedly, it will increase the traffic on the road 

leading to Dar es Salaam. The export of timber and charcoal from the forests south of the river will 

increase, and Ngumburuni is also affected because of its closeness to Ikwiriri. As we will see in the 

following paragraphs, the Ngumburuni forest is a rich area from an ecological point of view and 

many people get cash income from its natural resources. That is why this forest has been 

designated as a pilot area for the implementation of the Rufiji Forest Action Plan. 

4.1.1.1 Defining the coastal forests 

The eastern African coastal forests, which are sometimes called “forests of Zanzibar – Inhambane 

regional mosaic” (White, 1983), stretch from the South of Somalia to Mozambique. Formerly, this 

several hundred kilometres wide strip followed the Indian Ocean coast. Nowadays, the coastal 

forests are quite fragmented and hardly cover 3000 km 2 , half of the estimated extent being in 

Mozambique. 

Basically, the coastal forests show dense closed canopy tree stands but they do not encompass the 

halophytic mangrove forests. There are several differences between the wide spread “miombo” 

woodlands and the coastal forests. In the first case, the tree crowns may touch but they generally do 

not overlap as they do in the second one. In woodlands, grasses are well developed while they are 

sparse or absent in coastal forests, but a shrub and liana layer is normally present (Burgess et al., 

2000). 

In Ngumburuni, as commonly in Rufiji, the coastal forests and the miombo and woodlands are 

juxtaposed in a kind of patchwork. Water is probably the key to explaining such a configuration. 

The drainage capacity of soils is also a factor. In the coastal plains of eastern Africa, there are about 

12 soil types supporting coastal forests. They range from “sandy soils with imperfect drainage”, 

“loams with imperfect drainage”, “loams with moderately good drainage”, “loams with imperfect 

drainage” and “clays with imperfect drainage” (Burgess et al., 2000). In Ngumburuni, most of the 

soils are sandy and they are obviously not really suitable for agriculture because the farmers 

abandon them after two or three years. This sand comes from the post Karoo mainly marine - but 

also fluviatile and more recent - sediments (Karoo is the geological period during which the first 

marine incursions occurred in Gondwanaland – 290 M.Y.A – 180 M.Y.A.). 

19


Ngumburuni 

Figure 6: Surface geology of the east African coastal region (Burgess et al., 2000) 

The coastal forests seem to be well adapted to the variable rainfall regime, which can be found in 

Rufiji. Average annual rainfall varies from 900 mm to 1400 mm. But there are significant daily, 

monthly and annual fluctuations in rainfall. The climate can be characterised by these very variable 

rainfall patterns, combined with incident sunlight and high temperature with little seasonal or 

annual variations. The coastal forests are obviously able to withstand severe water stresses. 

From an ecological point of view, the coastal forests are very rich. The literature records at least 

484 different tree species. The level of plant species endemism is high (several hundreds of 

endemic plant species). They have been listed amongst the world’s 25 biodiversity hotspots. This 

could be explained by their adaptation to the climatic variations. Some people suggest that coastal 

forests may be partial relics of the former pan-African tropical forest, fragments of a formerly 

contiguous lowland refugium centre for ancient species (Burgess et al., 2000). 

For many years, several species of mammals (bats, shrews, rodents) and birds have been known to 

be endemic in the coastal forests. Frequently, elephant-shrews cross the trails and several species of 

birds are confined to these particular ecological areas. The Ngumburuni forest is also a corridor for 

elephants, and especially the Ruhoi River valley. Indeed, many tracks can be found. During the 

inventory, we also observed many monkeys: black and white Colobus, baboons, vervets, blue or 

Syke’s monkey. 

* 

20


4.1.1.2 Defining the Miombo woodlands 

Miombo woodlands are widespread in central, eastern and southern Africa. They belong to the 

savannah ecosystems but, when they are mature and undisturbed, they look like close deciduous 

non-spinescent woodlands (Campbell, 1996). Miombo is dominated by three main genera: 

Brachystegia (21 species are represented all over the Miombo African area), Julbernardia and 

Isoberlinia. In Rufiji, the third genus is rather scarce, but Pterocarpus angolensis was once 

common. These genera belong to the legume family. The ground is most often covered with grass 

varying from sparse to dense. A shrub layer is generally present and is also variable in density and 

composition. With such a structure, it is not surprising that fires are one of the main characteristic 

features of Miombo woodlands, unlike the coastal forests which fire cannot penetrate. Miombo 

generally occur on nutrient-poor soils with a rainfall range from 650 to 1400 mm (Campbell, 

1996). When the soils are richer and/or the climate drier, Miombo are replaced by open woodlands 

like Acacia savannahs. 

Obviously, faunal richness is lower in the Miombo woodlands than in the coastal forests. It is 

probably a consequence of the extreme harshness of the dry season (Campbell, 1996). But there are 

herbivores specific to the Miombo regions and they have a distinctive avifauna (Grey Tit, Miombo 

Rock Thrush). In fact, in a patched structure like Ngumburuni, the diversity of wildlife in Miombo 

woodlands may be enhanced by overlapping with coastal forests zones. 

Human population density is still quite low in the Miombo regions. The density of livestock is low 

too. But at present, these densities are increasing and particularly in Tanzania where agricultural 

encroachments are spreading. For the time being the pressure remains moderate in Rufiji. 

Nevertheless, the Miombo woodlands are modified by people who get a large range of products 

from food and medicines to timber wood there. In Ngumburuni human pressure is likely to increase 

because of the closeness to several villages, to Ikwiriri township and to one of the main Rufiji 

roads. 

4.1.1.3 Defining the riverine forests 

Riverine forests develop along the course of the rivers, i.e. mainly the Ruhoi River in Ngumburuni, 

where they form strips generally characterized by a closed canopy. The structure is similar to the 

structure of the coastal forests and these two types share a lot of species. But, in riverine forests the 

species composition depends both on the interval between flooding events and the dynamics of 

areas drying up following changes in the river course (Burgess et al., 2000). The riverine forests 

are important for the biodiversity and even in the dry season, the permanent pools are frequented 

by the elephants or the buffalos, for example. They are also nesting places for the birds. 

21

1 

2 

3 

4 


5 

7 

6 

Photo No. 1 to 7: Biodiversity in Ngumburuni. 1: Black and white Colobus; 2: Elephantshrew 

(photo Tanzanian Forest Conservation Group); 3: East Coast Akalat, a rare 

vulnerable endemic bird (photo O. Hamerlynck- REMP); 4: Baboon; 5: Dense coastal forest; 

6: Elephant skull; 7: Dense Miombo. 

22


4.1.2 Results of inventory and description of the forest 

4.1.2.1 Data analysis 

In order to facilitate the study of the forest, we have calculated several parameters in terms of stocking, 

basal area and volume per hectare based on the 44 plots measured. 

a) Height / diameter and volume equations 

As the volume equations require height estimation for each tree, we have calculated height / diameter 

equations using the sample trees for each ecological unit, Miombo and coastal forests (Table 4). The 

calculation is explained in Appendix n o 1. 

Ecological unit Height / diameter equation R 2 Standard error N o of observations 

Miombo ln(H) = 0.722 + 0.590ln(DBH) 0.61 0.17 35 

Coastal forest ln(H) = 1.187 + 0.548ln(DBH) 0.42 0.23 84 

Table 4: Height / diameter equations used in Ngumburuni forest 

The single tree volumes were calculated using the following equations, determined by Sokoine 

University, Morogoro (Malimbwi, 2000): 

b) Stand parameters 

Ecological unit Equation 

Miombo V = 0.00001 . DBH 2,032 . H 0,66 

Coastal forests V = f . SBH . H 

Table 5: Single tree volumes equations 

V = tree volume (m 3 ) 

DBH = diameter at breast height (cm) 

SBH = tree cross sectional area at breast height (m 2 ) 

H = tree height (m) 

F = form factor = 0.5 

The stand parameters, stocking, basal area and volume per hectare, are shown in the following table. 

The basal areas and the volumes have been calculated both for all species and for the commercial 

species. The calculation is developed in Appendix n o 1. 

Ecological Statistical Stocking Basal area 

units calculations. (stems/ha) (m 2 Volume 

/ha) (m 3 Commercial Basal area 

/ha) (m 2 Commercial Volume 

/ha) 

(m 3 /ha) 

Average 96 10.4 106.4 3.3 40.1 

Miombo Standard 

deviation 

60 6.2 65.1 3.3 47.0 

Coastal Average 127 11.7 146.5 2.8 34.1 

forest Standard 

deviation 

48.9 6.1 89.6 3.2 41.8 

Table 6: Stand parameters in the main ecological units of the Ngumburuni forest. 

23


We can compare these stand parameters with those found in other forests of the Rufiji district 

(Malimbwi, 2000): 

Ecological unit Name of forest Basal area 

(m 2 Volume 

/ha) 

(m 3 /ha) 

Utete 12 107 

Miombo 

Weme 12.5 105 

Mbunju 13 127 

Ngumburuni 10.4 106.4 

Utete 9 85 

Coastal forest Weme 17 139 

Kichi 20 172 

Ngumburuni 11.7 146.5 

Table 7: Comparison of the stand parameters in Ngumburuni and in four other forests of the 

Rufiji District 

We can note that in Ngumburuni, the basal area is not very high, neither for Miombo nor for coastal 

forests. Generally, it is admitted that the basal area in Miombo hardly exceeds 15 m 2 / ha (Malimbwi, 

2000), but in Ngumburuni, we can find the lowest value in the District. The basal area of commercial 

species is also very low. These observations are indications of overharvesting. On the other hand, we 

can note that the volumes per hectare in Ngumburuni are not so low, compared to the values in other 

forests. It can mainly be explained by a more important average height of the trees, which is an 

indicator of the good productivity of the site. 

c) Species composition 

A total of 124 tree species were identified in the 44 sample plots (including regeneration and future 

stems). We have also recorded 7 species of shrubs and 2 of lianas without especially looking at them). 

Appendix n o 2 shows the list of these species and their vernacular names (mainly in Kiswahili and 

Kidengereko). For 68 species of trees (and 2 of shrubs), the botanical names were identified with the 

help of Mr Athman Ngwele and Mr Richard Elibariki and of several books and reports (Mbuya et al., 

1994, Beentje, 1994, Palgrave, 2002, Malimbwi, 2000). The distribution of these species in the 

different ecological units is shown in Table 8. 

Localisation of the trees Number of tree species 

In miombo 29 

In coastal forests 54 

In riverine forests 4 

In coastal forests and in miombo 29 

In coastal forests and in riverine forests 4 

In coastal forests, in riverine forests and in miombo 4 

Table 8: Localisation of the different tree species 

It is interesting to note that the coastal forest and the miombo share 33 species. Although they are 

arranged in quite distinct patches, they influence each other. Obviously, the biodiversity of miombo is 

increased by the contiguous coastal forest patches. As expected, the three genera Julbernardia, 

Brachystegia and Pterocarpus are present in the Ngumburuni miombo but are not especially 

dominant in the surveyed plots. Markhamia, Afrormosia or Acacia are well represented, too. 

In coastal forests, the biodiversity varies from one place to another. In fact, some places are obviously 

24


secondary forests, maybe former agricultural encroachments now overgrown with a typical coastal 

forest vegetation. 

d) Timber species 

The following table shows the timber species found both in coastal forest and Miombo patches. A total 

of 21 timber species were recorded in the inventory. 

Name of species (scientific) Name of species (vernacular) Class 

Afrormosia angolensis Mmangangwaru V 

Afzelia quanzensis Mkongo II 

Albizia versicolor Mtanga III 

Amblygonocarpus andongensis Nyamakwenge V 

Baphia kirkii Mtasi III 

Bombax rhodognaphalon Msufi Pori / Mkunya IV 

Brachystegia spiciformis Myombo III 

Cordyla africana Mndundu IV 

Dalbergia melanoxylon Mpingo I 

Hymenaea verrucosa Mnangu V 

Julbernardia globiflora Mtondoro III 

Markhamia lutea Mpugupugu II 

Markhamia obtusifolia Mtaranda / mtalawanda II 

Millettia stuhlmannii Mpangapanga / mnyamwea II 

Newtonia sp. Mdadarika II 

Pterocarpus angolensis Mninga II 

Sclerocarya birrea Mngongo V 

Sterculia appendiculata Mkweanyani / ngude V 

Tamarindus indica Mkwaju V 

Trichilia emetica Mlopolopo V 

Xeroderris stuhlmannii Mnondondo V 

Table 9: List of timber species identified in the 44 sample plots 

They constitute an average of 25 % of the total stocking in Ngumburuni (stems with a diameter 

exceeding 20 cm) as it is shown by figure 7. 

25


Photo No. 8: Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis). 

Photo No. 9: Mvule (Milicia excelsa) commercially 

extinct in Ngumburuni. 

Photo No. 10: Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis). 

Photo No. 11: Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa). 

26


75% 

4% 

2% 

2% 

3% 

1% 

2% 

4% 

7% 

Mkongo 

Mpugupugu 

Mtanga 

Mtasi 

Mnondondo 

Mlopolopo 

Mnangu 

Other timber 

species 

Non timber 

species 

Figure 7: Distribution of the different timber species found in the Ngumburuni forest (number of 

trees in the 44 sample plots) 

During the inventory, no mature Mpingo (Dalbergia melanoxylon) was found in the sample plots. This 

first class species was only present in the form of regeneration stems and only in one plot. The two 

more numerous timber species are Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis) and Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa). 

Mkongo has been found mainly in the coastal forest plots. Mnangu is present in Miombo, riverine or 

coastal forest plots. 

As it is suggested on the following graphs, the large diameter timber trees have become very scarce in 

the Ngumburuni forest. 

Number 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 > 60 

Diameter classes (cm) 

Number 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 > 60 


a) Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis) b) Mpugupugu (Markhamia lutea) 

27

Number 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

Number 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 


10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 > 60 

20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 

Diameter classes 

> 60 

(cm) Diameter classes (cm) 

c) Mtanga (Albizia versicolor) d) Mtasi (Baphia kirkii) 

20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 > 60 


Number 

Number 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 > 60 


e) Mlopolopo (Trichilia emetica) f) Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa) 

Figure 8: Distribution of the most abundant timber trees stems by diameter classes, in the 44 

sample plots 

We can note that the graphs show a general negative exponential distribution as expected for a natural 

forest with an active regeneration. We can also note that the stems with a diameter exceeding 50 cm are 

scarce, except for Mnangu. For the main timber species it is obvious that overharvesting is responsible 

for this situation. These observations are confirmed by a more complete study of the size distributions 

of all the timber species (number of stems and volumes per hectare) in the Miombo patches and in the 

costal forest, shown in table 10 and 11. 

We have also analyzed the regeneration of the timber species in reduced size sample plots (5 m radius), 

by noting presence or absence. Tables 10 and 11 give the percentage of plots where regeneration or/and 

future stems have been found. We must precise that the regeneration is often governed by the presence 

of seeding trees close by, but also by the local ecological conditions, particularly the light. In addition 

the existence of seedlings does not guarantee a fully-grown future without any human intervention. 

Nevertheless, if regeneration is present, we can consider that the concerned species stand a good 

chance of being well-represented in the future. 

In Miombo, Mpugupugu (Markhamia lutea) regeneration and future stems are present in 54,5 % of the 

sample plots. The percentage is 27.3 % for Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa) and Mtondoro (Julbernardia 

globiflora), 18,2 % for Mtanga (Albizia versicolor) and Mpangapanga (Millettia stuhlmannii) and only 

9,1 % for Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis). We have not found any regeneration for 7 Miombo timber 

28


species and among them Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis). Yet, we had found a beautiful stand of 

young Mninga in the northeastern part of the Ruhoi floodplain. Unfortunately, they were all cut just 

after the inventory (cf. appendix n o 3). We can also confirm that the first class species Mpingo 

(Dalbergia melanoxylon) is likely to disappear because its regeneration has become very scarce. These 

high value species are really threatened in Ngumburuni and they are likely to be at least commercially 

extinct. 

In coastal forest patches, the more represented regenerations are Mpugupugu (Markhamia lutea) with 

18,5 %, Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa) and Mtasi (Baphia kirkii) with 14,8 % and Mtanga (Albizia 

versicolor) with 11,1 %. We can still note that the Mkongo regeneration is also low in coastal forest 

(presence in only 7,4 % of the surveyed plots). In fact, even if Mkongo is one of the best-represented 

species, the diameters are generally quite low. Almost all the big Mkongo trees have been cut. A few 

Mninga regenerations exist, but probably without any future because it is typical Miombo species. 

Regeneration or future stems cannot be found for 7 species. 

Name of species Name of species Rege. 

(scientific) (vernacular) Level 20-30 cm class 30-40 cm class 40-50 cm class 50-60 cm class > 60 cm class 

* 

N (/ha) V (m3/ha) N (/ha) V (m3/ha) N (/ha) V (m3/ha) N (/ha) V (m3/ha) N (/ha) V (m3/ha) 

Afrormosia Mmangangwaru 0 

angolensis 

2.6 1.06 

Afzelia quanzensis Mkongo 9.1 

1.3 0.51 

Albizia versicolor Mtanga 18.2 

1.3 0.44 1.3 4.14 

Amblygonocarpus Nyamakwenge 0 

andongensis 

1.3 3.06 

Baphia kirkii Mtasi 0 

2.6 0.72 

Brachystegia Myombo 0 

spiciformis 

1.3 1.4 

Hymenaea verrucosa Mnangu 27.3 

1.3 3.54 

Julbernardia Mtondoro 27.3 

globiflora 

1.3 0.83 1.3 10.14 

Markhamia lutea Mpugupugu 54.5 

1.3 0.29 

Millettia stuhlmannii Mpangapanga 18.2 

1.3 0.69 

Pterocarpus Mninga 0 

angolensis 

1.3 1.54 

Sclerocarya birrea Mngongo 0 

1.3 0.79 

Tamarindus indica Mkwaju 9.1 

Xeroderris stuhlmanii Mnondondo 0 

2.6 4.21 2.6 6.62 

Table 10: The distribution of timber tree species by size classes in the Miombo patches 

(*Frequency of the regeneration and poles of the timber species in the 44 sample plots -%) 

29


Name of species Name of species Rege. 

(scientific) (vernacular) Level 20-30 cm class 30-40 cm class 40-50 cm class 50-60 cm class > 60 cm class 

* 

N (/ha) V (m3/ha) N (/ha) V (m3/ha) N (/ha) V (m3/ha) N (/ha) V (m3/ha) N (/ha) V (m3/ha) 

Afrormosia 

angolensis 

Mmangangwaru 0 

Afzelia quanzensis Mkongo 7.4 

Albizia versicolor Mtanga 11.1 

Baphia kirkii Mtasi 14.8 

Bombax 

rhodognaphalon 

Msufi Pori 0 

Cordyla africana Mndundu 0 

Hymenaea 

verrucosa 

Mnangu 14.8 

Markhamia lutea Mpugupugu 18.5 

Markhamia 

obtusifolia 

Mtaranda 3.7 

Newtonia sp. Mdadarika 0 

Pterocarpus 

angolensis 

Mninga 3.7 

Sterculia 

appendiculata 

Mkweanyani 0 

Tamarindus indica Mkwaju 0 

Trichilia emetica Mlopolopo 7.4 

Xeroderris 

stuhlmannii 

Mnondondo 0 

0.5 0.22 0.5 0.48 

3.7 1.79 1.6 1.42 1 2.02 

2.6 0.95 

3.7 1.7 0.5 0.64 

0.5 0.72 

1 1.85 

1 0.49 1.05 1.05 0.5 1.35 1.6 5.67 0.5 2.34 

2.6 0.91 0.5 0.72 

0.5 0.33 

0.5 0.37 

0.5 0.14 1.6 2.5 

1.6 0.68 1 1.06 0.5 1.05 

0.5 0.62 

0.5 1.46 

Table 11: The distribution of timber tree species by size classes in the Coastal forest patches 

(*Frequency of the regeneration and poles of the timber species in the 44 sample plots -%). 

4.1.2.2 Map and description of the forest 

The following description is based on the maps of the forest and on the observations made during the 

inventory and the transects carried out thereafter. Figure 9 is a map showing the different ecological 

units and the vegetation types. Figure 10 shows the main stands types. The nomenclature of this map 

has been established by comparing the communities’ perceptions and descriptions of the different parts 

of the forest, the basal area in the 44 sample plots and our own observations. For example, the”primary 

coastal forest” corresponds to places where the villagers say that “the canopy is closed”, where “they 

can not see the sky”, etc. Generally, the basal area is superior to 15 m 2 /ha there. “Secondary or 

disturbed coastal forests” are places where the trees have small sizes, the canopy is open and where 

many tracks of exploitation can be found. There is also the same type of differences between dense 

Miombo, where big trees are still present (Basal area > 8 m 2 /ha) and disturbed Miombo where they are 

scarce and where charcoal kilns and many stumps can be found. 

30

Mkupuka 

Ikwiriri 

Township 

Umwe North 

Umwe 

Umwe 

Centre 

South 


Figure 9 : Ecological units in the Ngumburuni forest 

Umwe 

lake 

Umwe south 

Ngumburuni 

To Mangwi 

Misuguri 

Njianne 

1 0 1 2 3 

Ruhoi River 

floodplain 

Figure 9:Ecological Units in Ngumburuni km 


Muyuyu 

EY KEY 

W 

Coastal forest 

Riverine forest 

Miombo 

Woodland 

Agriculture 

Marshland 

Water 

Road 

Main trails 

Villages and 

subvillages 

N 

S 

E 

Mbawa 

31


From the north to the south we can divide the forest into four main parts. 

The northern part, north of the Ruhoi river floodplain, is mostly coastal forest. The richest part, with 

high biodiversity value, is in the east (see the primary coastal forest patch on figure 10 and the forms of 

SP11, SP12, SP14 and SP15 in appendix n°1). Valuable species can be found there: Mkongo (Afzelia 

quanzensis), Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa), Mdadarika (Newtonia sp.), Mtanga (Albizia versicolor) 

or Mmangangwaru (Afrormosia angolensis). In that area the average basal area is more than 15 m 2 /ha, 

reaching 20 m 2 /ha in some places and the volumes range from 170 m 3 /ha to 236 m 3 /ha, but the stand is 

mainly constituted by a high density of relatively young trees. However some of them are quite big (for 

example, in SP11, a 60.5 cm diameter Hymenaea verrucosa). The west part is more disturbed, with 

secondary forests and important Miombo and woodlands areas overlapping. Close to the Mangwi trail, 

about 35 ha have been cleared for agriculture. Shifting cultivation is practiced in this encroachment. 

The Ruhoi river floodplain stretches all along the south of this part. It is mostly Miombo interspersed 

with patches of poorer woodland and grassland and with strips of riverine forest along the drainage 

lines, where the groundwater table is high over a long period. On the edge of the floodplain the 

Miombo consists of a relatively high density of commercial species: Mpangapanga (Millettia 

stuhlmannii), Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis), Mtondoro (Julbernardia globiflora) and Mkongo 

(Afzelia quanzensis). The basal areas recorded there are close to 12 m 2 /ha and the volumes exceed 145 

m 3 /ha in some places. The riverine forest strips really look like coastal forests and have more or less 

the same structure. Species such as Mkongo, Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa) or Mtasi (Baphia kirkii) 

are frequent in those strips. 

The central part of the forest corresponds approximately to the forest reserve. The northern and eastern 

areas are covered with tall primary coastal forest (cf. figure 10). The average basal area is close to 14 

m 2 /ha, reaching 20 m 2 /ha in some places. The highest volumes have been recorded there with a 

maximum of about 290 m 3 /ha. In fact, the basal area should reach and exceed those values everywhere 

in that part, but most of the large diameter high value trees have been harvested. Many stumps can be 

found and the forest is criss-crossed by many logging trails. Excessive logging has opened the canopy 

in many places and lianas are invading the gaps. Grasses are growing in some places too. This hinders 

regeneration, makes the forest more prone to fires and eventually favours its transformation into 

woodland. This phenomenon is particularly obvious in the southern area of this central part of the 

forest. From west to east, the coastal forests are interspersed with patches of Miombo and woodlands, 

sometimes of very poor biodiversity. In addition, in the west part, and above all in the east part, recent 

and former agricultural encroachments have totally cleared about 280 ha of the forest. 

The fourth part of the forest is the southern one, to the east of Umwe Lake. The area adjoining the lake 

is covered with coastal forest where the basal area can reach 17 m 2 /ha, but is generally lower than in 

the other parts of the forest. While the lake is a natural barrier against loggers, pit-sawing sites can be 

found in that area. 

32

Mkupuk 


To Mangwi 

Figure 

10: Main 

stands types in Ngumburuni 


Ngumburuni 

Ikwiriri 

Township 

Umwe 

North 

Figure 10 : Main stands types in the Ngumburuni forest 

Umwe Centre 

Umwe 

Lake 

Umwe South 

Njianne 

1 0 1 2 3 

km 

Muyuy 

KEY 

W 

N 

S 

Ruhoi River 

floodplain 

Primary coastal forest 

Secondary or disturbed 

coastal forest 


Dense Miombo 

Disturbed Miombo 

Woodland 

Agriculture 

Marshland 

Water 

Road 

Main trails 

Villages and subvillages 

E 

Mbawa 

33


In fact, the entire southern area is quite heterogeneous, including Miombo patches, wetlands and 

swamps. Some agricultural encroachments also stretch along the Ikwiriri – Muyuyu trail. But that 

heterogeneity makes this area very interesting, with a high biodiversity value, particularly because 

of the wetlands. With the G.I.S., we have measured the different areas for each ecological unit. The 

results are shown in the following table. 

Primary coastal 

forest 

Areas (ha) 

Secondary or 

disturbed coastal 

forest areas (ha) 

Dense Miombo 

Areas (ha) 

Disturbed Miombo 

Areas (ha) 

Woodlands 

Areas (ha) 


Areas (ha) 

Agricultural 

encroachments (ha) 

Total (ha) 

North of the Ruhoi River South of the Total 

Ruhoi River floodplain Ruhoi River 

537.32 - 2106.54 2643.86 

1439.99 3125.06 4565.05 

13.84 217.25 459.35 690.44 

176.88 12.87 698.87 888.62 

11.13 376.79 293.79 681.71 

12.57 235.55 - 248.12 

34.40 16.26 279.85 330.51 

2226.13 858.72 6963.46 10,048.31 

Table 12: Areas of the different patches included in the main stands types map of the 

Ngumburuni forest 

4.1.2.3 Discussion and general analysis of the situation of the forest 

The parameters analysed in the previous paragraphs, the observations and the discussions with 

villagers and different stakeholders show that the main problem of the Ngumburuni forest is 

excessive logging. During the inventory, we found between 30 and 40 pit-sawing sites. We 

personally caught two logging teams in the act. All the valuable species are heavily overharvested. 

Most of them such as Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis) and Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis) are now 

exploited while immature. The average diameter of many stumps is about 30 cm, which is now the 

harvesting diameter. Yet, recommended DBH of harvesting for Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis), 

Myombo (Brachystegia spiciformis) or Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis) could be set at 60 cm. 

For Mpangapanga (Millettia stuhlmannii) or Mpingo (Dalbergia melanoxylon), 40 cm could be 

permitted as a minimum harvesting size, as these trees are generally naturally small sized 

(Malimbwi, 2000). To dispose of the wood, illegal loggers are now trading the small diameter logs 

as off-cuts, i.e. that they are the branches of trees harvested previously instead of freshly cut treetrunks. 

In addition, the pit-sawing places show a high wastage of timber. For example, the stump heights 

exceed most often 15 cm, reaching 1 m in some places and they are not necessarily belonging to 

buttressed tree species. 

The analysis of the main stand parameters, and especially the basal area, shows that they are among 

the lowest in the Rufiji District, mainly because of the elimination of the more interesting big trees. 

But now, the elimination of the small trees, which has seriously begun, will have long-term 

impacts. The normal rotation times of the main species are no longer respected. Some species can 

disappear because in addition, the heavy impact exploitation creates large gaps in which lianas and 

grasses are growing, hampering regeneration. But some places are still of very high biodiversity 

value, particularly the north-eastern part, the central part and the south-western part of the forest. 

39


Another threat is the encroachment by agriculture. In the east central part of the reserve, a first 

agricultural area was cleared in the sixties but was reversed during Ujamaa (a collectivisation 

policy period) (Collective, 2002). Nowadays it is mainly a poor woodland. Recently the forest 

attracted new settlers and other encroachments occurred, mainly close to the main trails. Although 

this illegal occupation is increasing, it has not reached alarming proportions for the moment. 

Charcoal burning is another damaging activity. In Ngumburuni, as in many other forests, charcoal 

is produced through the traditional earthmound kilns. It is generally admitted that these kilns are 

inefficient and that the charcoal recovery rate ranges between 10 and 15 percent on weight basis 

(Collective, 2001 b). For the moment, the kilns are mainly built in Miombo areas and around them 

the charcoal burners make large harvesting gaps. We found several of them during the inventory. 

The different shapes of the kilns show that the charcoal burners come from different regions of 

Tanzania and not only from the Rufiji District. 

All these activities are most often illegal although some logging licenses are issued by the District 

authorities. The exploitation is made easier by the important trail network criss-crossing the forest 

in all directions. In addition, a new wooden bridge is being built over the Ruhoi river and will 

favour communications between the northern and southern parts of the forest. 

More generally we can conclude that the Ngumburuni forest still harbours important biodiversity, 

and constitutes a unique habitat for rare or threatened species. During the Songas pipeline survey 

Afromomum orientale, a plant endemic to Rufiji and Mkuranga Districts and two orchids, 

Microcoelia exilis and Microcoelia megalorrhiza, were found (Songas, 2003). Moreover it is a 

fauna corridor from Selous Game Reserve to Coastal areas, as it is proved by the numerous animal 

prints and dungs we have found during the inventory. Ngumburuni is a shelter for elephants, 

antelopes and Black-and-white Colobus, for example. Exceptional biodiversity is present for birds 

(Boswell et al., 2002) with the discovery of the second known population of the puguensis race of 

the Pale-breasted Illadopsis, the presence of red-listed species such as Southern Banded Snake 

Eagle and East Coast Akalat, occurrence of the rare African Pitta and a host of East Coast Biome 

species such as Tiny Greenbul, Fisher’s Greenbul, Little Yellow Flycatcher, Chestnut-fronted 

Helmet Shrike, Uluguru Violet-backed Sunbird, Kretschmer’s Longbill, Brown-breasted Barbet, 

and Black-breasted Starling. The very recent discovery of the dragonfly Teinobasis alluaudi in the 

Ruhoi floodplain is exciting, as it is only the second record of for the African mainland 

(Clausnitzer, 2003). 

But Ngumburuni is also a place where many people find basic livelihoods and where outside 

stakeholders make money, to such extent that the forest capital is really threatened by 

overharvesting. 

4.1.3 Orientations suggested by the data analysis and the in field observations 

The last remarks of the previous paragraph suggest that a balance must be found between the 

necessary conservation of the high biodiversity areas and a sustainable management of the other 

places and particularly the Miombo and woodlands. 

a) Conservation and improvement of the coastal forests 

For the coastal forests, conservation and improvement should be the basic rules. Conservation does 

not necessarily signify any human intervention or a hypothetical return to the climax. Regeneration 

cutting is conceivable for very mature trees. In natural forests, the windfall naturally contributes to 

the regeneration. So it is not a heresy to cut big old trees even in the coastal forests, provided that it 

is done with low impact and with the certainty that regeneration does exist or will appear. 

In the most damaged areas enrichment plantations of local species could improve the situation. 

Some places should probably be totally closed to logging because they have already been 

overharvested and no more big size tree can be found there. 

40


b) Encouraging non-timber activities 

In the coastal forests patches (but also in Miombo), non-timber uses can be encouraged and 

alternative livelihoods developed. We can think about beekeeping, mushroom harvesting and even 

tourist activities, for example, close to Umwe lake. 

c) Stopping the most damaging uses 

The agricultural encroachments and charcoal burning should be stopped. We can admit that the 

existing agricultural settlements can be kept, but new ones must be banned. The former agricultural 

encroachments could be replanted as forest, perhaps using quick growing species to settle incomes 

on the villagers involved in the management process. A mixture of species with existing ones is 

conceivable, for example in poor woodland areas. 

In the miombo areas, an appropriate management, including sustainable harvesting of high value 

species and strict control of the loggers, should be implemented under supervision of the 

communities. 

All these propositions, just sketched here on a technical basis, must now be confronted with the 

different stakeholders’ point of view. 

4.2 Analysis of the human context 

As proposed in chapter II, we visited all the surrounding villages. After arrival, we met the political 

leaders - Divisional Secretaries, Village Councillors and Ward Officers - to introduce and explain 

the process, according to the governmental and District policy and the REMP principles. We also 

explained the aim of our survey during the first month and that it allowed us to say that the forest is 

ecologically rich. Briefly, we presented the main results and the first draft of the map. Thereafter, 

we conducted interviews in order to understand the human background and the different interest 

flows between the various stakeholders and the forest itself. This work was based upon the 

principle: “to inform people, to be informed by people” (D’Arcy, 1993). The analysis of the human 

context results both from these inquiries and the awareness meetings we organised in each village. 

4.2.1 Brief social overview and identification of the different stakeholders 

During the forest inventory, we identified the villages, which could be involved in the future forest 

management. They are located on the following map. 

41

MKUPUKA 

IKWIRIRI 

TOWNSHIP 

UMWE CENTRE 


UMWE NORTH 

UMWE SOUTH 

Misimbo 

Ngumburuni 

Njianne 

MANGWI 

Misuguri 

MUYUYU 

1 0 1 2 3 

km 

Mbawa 

Figure 11: Location of the villages and settlements 

W 

N 

S 

Key 

MANGWI 

Mbawa 

NYAMTIMBA 

E 


Marshland 

Water 

built-up 

areas 

Road 

Main 

trails 

Villages 

Subvillages 

and 

settlements 

Only Umwe, North (1564 hab., 372 households), Centre (1946 hab., 468 households) and South 

(3159 hab., 742 households), Mkupuka (376 hab.), Nyamtimba (2000 hab.), Muyuyu (2344 hab.) 

and Mangwi (about 2000 hab.) are villages with a government and a chairman. Ngumburuni and 

Njianne, Mbawa, Misimbo are sub-villages respectively of Muyuyu, Nyamtimba and Mangwi. 

Umwe North, Centre and South are subdivisions of Ikwiriri and constitute the eastern part of the 

city. Ikwiriri is a typical Ujamaa creation. Indeed, from 1967 (Arusha Declaration), hundreds of 

artificial village communities have been created according to the Chinese collectivist model. These 

populations’ groupings aimed to make access to the basic amenities easier. Consequently, most of 

Ikwiriri people come from other places, particularly from the Rufiji River floodplain. 

The current economic activity is shared among traders, transporters, craftsmen and small industries 

(sawmills). Obviously, the unofficial economy is important too and many charcoal burners, 

medicine men or peasants sell their production in small markets or on the roadside. The Ikwiriri 

people’s way of life is close to a usual East African urban one and the forest does not appear to 

them as a vital source of livelihoods. On the other hand, they are aware that they can get benefits 

out of it. 

The people of the small surrounding villages have a different perspective. They depend more on the 

forest for their livelihoods and an important part of their food, medicines or building materials 

derives directly from Ngumburuni. In fact, the closer they are, the more concerned they feel. In 

Ngumburuni and Misuguri settlements, we can find the people living the most in harmony with the 

forest. It provides them with food, medicines, building poles, palms and spiritual values. They are 

42


Muslims, but Tambiko leaders can be found among them (cf. 4..2.2.1.) and even their graveyards 

are hidden in the deep forest. 

To the tarmac 

road To Mangwi 

To Njianne 

FOREST 

The oldest man’s family 

2 

5 

Polygamous families 

2 5 6 3 

7 6 7 4 5 

FOREST 

Number of 

occupants 

Each house is surrounded by 

Cassava or rice fields + 

Fruit trees (bananas, lemons) 

FOREST 

FOREST 

Figure 12: Spatial organisation of an ancient inside-forest settlement: Ngumburuni. 

The standard of living is generally lower in the small villages, where people are mostly farmers, 

than in Ikwiriri. In addition, there are also differences between them. For example, there are 

primary schools in Muyuyu and Mbawa, but not in Njianne. But, with a masjid and a store, Njianne 

is a bit more developed than Ngumburuni or Misuguri, which are agricultural settlements located 

inside the forest. The poverty level globally follows this village hierarchy, but there are also 

differences among the people inside the villages. 

43

To Muyuyu 

Cashew trees 


FOREST FOREST 

Fields 

Masjid 

Tea rooms 

Store 

FOREST FOREST 

To Mangwi 

Fields 

River bed 

Figure 13: Spatial organisation of a recent forest-adjacent sub-village - Njianne 

To Ikwiriri 

In these various places and also in Ikwiriri township, the different categories of stakeholders have 

been identified. They can be classed in three groups: economic operators, forest-adjacent 

communities and authorities (political leaders and civil servants). 

44

Divisional leaders 

Carpenters 


The following figure shows roughly their relationships with the Ngumburuni forest. 

Incomes 


products 

Charcoal burners 

Economic operators 

Ward leaders 

Political leaders 

Royalties 

Loggers 

Saw-millers 

Village leaders 

Authorities 


Customary 

and spiritual 

relationship 

Women 

Rules 

Villagers 

Children 

Men 

Civil servants 

Forest-adjacent 

communities 

“Specialised” villagers 

Hunters 


products 

Figure 14: The different stakeholders and their relationships with the forest 

Incomes 

Livelihoods 

Tambiko leaders 

(Spirit worshippers) 

Among these stakeholders, 183 persons were interviewed in all the communities. We chose them 

after consultations held with the village councils. In addition, we did our best to meet all the social 

categories: poor and richer strata, old, middle and young people for both genders. In many cases, 

we succeeded but it was sometimes difficult to get information from the women because of the 

Medicine 

men/women 

45


Muslim context. Nevertheless, we met 47 women and some of them were really interested in the 

process. The following table shows the distribution of the various interviewed people. 

Ngumburuni Njianne Umwe 

North 

Umwe 

centre 

Umwe 

South 

Ikwiriri Mkupuka Muyuyu Nyamtimba- 

Mbawa 

Mangwi- 

Misimbo 

Villagers 

(men) 

2 4 3 12 5 4 

Villagers 

(women) 

5 2 4 6 11 

Villagers 

(children) 

4 6 

Tambiko 

leaders 

1 3 

Medicine men 1 

Hunters 1 

Divisional 

leaders 

1 1 1 

Ward leaders 5 1 

Village 

12 17 (15 12 (10 10 1 3 (men) 14 

leaders 

(8 m., 4 m., 2 m., 2 (7 m., 

(6 m., 8 

w.) * w.) * w.) * 3 w.) 

* 

w.) * 

Civil servants 1 

Poles cutters 15 

Loggers 6 

Saw-millers 2 

Carpenters 5 

Charcoal 

burners 

1 1 

Total 3 9 29 21 18 17 33 18 9 26 

Table 13: The number of interviewed stakeholders and their living places (* m.: men; w.: 

women) 

4.2.2 Perception and current uses of the forest by the different stakeholders 

4.2.2.1 A place of taboos and spiritual events: the history of the Ngumburuni forest 

At first, we can note that many people know a few scraps of the forest history. But very few can tell 

the entire story. According to the different interviews, before the German colonization, the forest 

was in the influence area of the Zanzibar Arabian power. The Arabians used to harvest gum copal 

in the forest and probably ivory too. They were also slaves traders and captured some of them in 

that area. 

During this period and after, during the German colonialization, three main chiefs ruled the forest. 

Some of their names have been conserved. So in the 18 th century, Nyasinda ruled the area located 

north of the Ruhoi river. Another one, Mwamiya, ruled the southern part. From Mbawa to Kikale, 

the area was ruled by a third one called Mkali. All the surveyed area seems to be called 

Ngumburuni but, formerly, the forest was also called Makotwa (maybe a local chief’s name). Other 

families, the Magombo, the Msuko and the Kimbanga ruled the forest, perhaps in the beginning of 

the 20 th century. During that period, the forest was closed and contained many big trees. People 

needed the chiefs’ permission to cut a tree. In fact, the chiefs allowed or forbade the different 

activities in the forest. 

The German colonial authority began the demarcation of the reserve and it was finalised by the 

British. Yet, traditional chiefs still ruled the forest during the colonial period. There was a kind of 

agreement between them and the colonial authorities. For example, they collected the taxes in the 

46


name of the colonial power. Nevertheless, the loggers had to get permission from the forest 

authority before working, especially during the British period. The traditional power ended after 

independence. Then, Ngumburuni became a national forest reserve. During the seventies, the 

District got the control of the forest. 

During the history of the forest, several settlements appeared inside and close to the forest. 

Misimbo, for example, was created at the end of the 18 th century. The settlement called 

Ngumburuni is probably very ancient too. 

Other settlements formerly existed, especially before Ujaama, as it is proved by the presence of big 

mango trees and of former agricultural encroachments in several places. On the contrary, Njianne is 

recent. It was created in 1968. The people came from Ndundu (in the Rufiji River floodplain), but 

nowadays, they administratively depend on Muyuyu. The main event, which increased the human 

pressure, was the creation of Ikwiriri township during the Ujaama period. 

Ngumburuni has also always been a place of legends and spiritual activities. According to these 

legends, a spirit, called Mchela, lives in the deepest parts of the forest. Formerly, Mchela was a 

good spirit. People could pray him for recovery, rainfall or good harvests. For the time being, many 

people don’t practice and Mchela is not well regarded any more, people fear him. In fact, formerly, 

to go into the forest was regarded as dangerous. Giant snakes and mysterious orchards were 

supposed to exist there. If somebody ate the fruits, he was definitely lost. Yet, there was a medicine 

to treat this kind of event, but the Tambiko leaders had also to beg the spirit who confused the 

people. Sometimes, if you were lost, you only had to turn your shirt inside out to remember your 

way. In other places, if you cut a tree, it never fell. In fact, there were many taboos in the forest and 

the local people used to respect them. But, nowadays, the outsiders cut trees even in the Tambiko 

sites and nothing happens. So it encourages the local people to do the same thing. 

Formerly, the Tambiko spiritual activities took place in three main sites: Nyaugali, Kwa Mzungu 

and Kwa Munboka. These sites are supposed to be still active. At the end of each year, the people 

practiced Tambiko ceremonies in view of being protected during the following year. During these 

ceremonies, the people washed themselves with special forest plants and they often gave perfumed 

objects to the divinities. Even nowadays, some particular families are enabled to implement these 

Tambiko practices and sometimes, small temples can be found around the big trees. Indeed, the 

Tambiko is preferably practiced in non-disturbed parts of the forest, where big trees can be found. 

In fact, for the Tambiko leaders, the forest is not only a natural resources reservoir, but also a kind 

of living temple. Tambiko leaders can also help people at home. Then, the ceremonies are called 

Mbungi and Likwa. Their duration is about two or three days. They use drums, local beer and 

dances. 

But obviously, the Ujaama and the development of other religions have diminished the number of 

people practicing Tambiko or believing in it. The spiritual dimension of the forest still exists, but it 

is not as essential as it was a few decades ago. So, unfortunately, the forest is less respected. 

Unplanned harvesting began just after independence and has always increased since that date. 

4.2.2.2 The forest is a source of incomes and livelihoods for the forest-adjacent communities 

All forest communities use the forest, but to various degrees. People living inside or very close 

consider that it is an important part of their livelihoods (between 20 and 30 % and maybe more in 

dry years like 2003). For people living in Ikwiriri Township, it rather appears as an occasional or 

complementary source of revenue and they harvest wild fruits or plants more rarely. There are also 

gender differences. Indeed, women and men generally use the forest in different ways and women 

avoid going into the deepest parts of the forest. In fact, the more lucrative activities are done by 

men: commercial harvesting of timber and poles, charcoaling. Women rather deal with useful 

domestic activities: collection of fruits, edible plants, fuel-wood, weaving and dying materials. Yet, 

some activities are shared by both men and women, like medicine or mushroom collection. 

Tambiko is also practiced by both of them (it depends on the ceremony). For shifting cultivation, 

the forest is cleared by men but cultivation in itself is done by both of them. The children often fish 

47


in the rivers and harvest fruits. They also collect gum for making balls. 

Timber (for canoes or carpentry), off-cuts, charcoal are mainly traded. Poles, building and roofing 

materials are produced for both commercial and domestic goals. Fuel-wood, weaving and dying 

materials, mushrooms, edible plants and fruits are exclusively intended for domestic use. We can 

also note that the women from Mkupuka exploit clay for pottery in the forest. 

Hunting (antelopes and small mammals) and fishing in the Ruhoi River or in small swamps within 

the forest are complementary protein resources for the local communities. Medicine collection is 

also an important activity. Some Umwe South people consider that about 30 % of their medicine 

needs come from the forest. In addition, it is a source of income for medicine men and women, 

who sell the medicines in small shops, particularly in Ikwiriri, but also in Dar es Salaam. One of 

them, interviewed in Ikwiriri, explained that he uses many forest shrubs and trees species – 

between 25 and 30 - for medicine (leaves, barks or roots). The lowest price for one treatment being 

1000 Tsh (about 1 $) and the most expensive 128,000 Tsh (124 $) for a spirit affectation, we can 

guess that, with an average of three patients per day, it is a lucrative business. 

Forest uses 

Gender 

Men Women 

For 

home 

use only 

For sale Both Trend in use, 

according to the 

interviewees: 

Increasing (I); 

Decreasing (D); 

Stable (S) 

Timber x x I 

Charcoal burning x (x) x I 

Building poles 

collection 

x x I 

Roofing materials 

collection 

x x x I 

Fuel-wood 

collection 

x x I 

Wild honey 

collection 

x x D 

Beekeeping x x x S 

Weaving and 

dying materials 

x x S 

Fruits, mushrooms 

and edible plants 

collection 

x x x S 

Medicine 

collection 

x x x S 

Clay for pottery x x S 

Shifting 

cultivation 

x x x I 

Settlements in the 

forest 

x x x S 

Hunting x x S 

Firing for hunting 

and clearing 

skidding areas 

x x I 

Tambiko and ritual 

uses 

x x x D 

Table 14: Synthesis of the forest uses by the forest-adjacent communities 

48


4.2.2.3 The forest is a source of raw materials for economic operators 

As explained in chapter I, the Rufiji forests are under increasing pressure. This is particularly due 

to the development of small industries and of commercial harvesting of various wood materials. 

Around Ngumburuni, we have identified five main types of activities using trees. For the time 

being, their exploitation is of a mining type. 

Table 15: The different trees species used by the economic operators around Ngumburuni 

(*the canoe data come from Hamerlynck, 2003) 

Tree species Sawmills Poles Pit-sawyers Charcoal Canoes * 

Maemba (Mangifera indica) x 

Mbebeti (Albizia sp.) x 

Mfuru (Vitex doniana) x 

Mhanga x 

Mkatitu x 

Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis) x x x x 

Mkuruti x x 

Mkwaju (Tamarindus indica) x 

Mlopolopo (Trichilia emetica). x x 

Mmangangwaru (Afrormosia angolensis) x x 

Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa) x x x 

Mndototo (Lettowianthus stellatus) x 

Mndundu (Cordyla africana) x x 

Mneke (Pteleopsis myrtifolia) x 

Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis) x x x 

Mningahoka (Apodytes dimidiata) x 

Mpangapanga (Millettia stuhlmannii) x x 

Mpilipili (Sorindeia madagascariensis) x x 

Mpuya (Bersama abyssinica) x 

Msekeseke (Swartzia madagascariensis) x x 

Msufipori (Bombax rhodognaphalon) x 

Msweli (Grewia sp.) x 

Mtabwe (Grewia trichocarpa) x 

Mtanga (Albizia versicolor) x 

Mtasi (Baphia kirkii) x 

Mtete (Hymenocardia ulmoides) x 

Mtondoro (Julbernardia globiflora) x x x 

Mtopetope (Annona senegalensis) x 

Mvule (Milicia exelsa) x x x 

Mwakala x 

Myombo (Brachystegia spiciformis) x 

Economically, the main activity is the production of sawn wood. Several economic operators share 

this market. The most important are the four sawmills located in Ikwiriri. But there are also small 

ones around the forest. According to the interviews, they use eleven species of trees. Mninga and 

Mvule used to be particularly appreciated for furniture, but as they are now forbidden in Rufiji, the 

saw-millers have recently developed the exploitation of other species, for example Mtondoro or 

Mpangapanga. But it is quite sure that a black market exists for Mninga and Mvule. The sawmillers 

explain that these logs come from other regions, but they probably buy some coming from 

Ngumburuni forest, although they are almost commercially extinct. Mkongo has also been an 

alternative since the middle nineties. In Ikwiriri, it is mainly used for windows by the carpenters. 

Mkongo is still present in Ngumburuni, but the big sized stems are scarce. 

The forest is also an income source for the unemployed young people of the surrounding villages. 

Many of them have become illegal pit-sawyers. Indeed, as they have seen the outsiders cutting 

many trees without noticeable problems, they joined in the movement. As shown in table 15, they 

49


add harvesting pressure on the same species as the sawmills. During our transect walks (appendix 

n o 3), we have found a Mninga stand that was entirely cut. About ten trees were waiting for 

skidding. The maximum diameter was 39 cm. We caught two loggers in the act and we asked them 

if they were aware of the District initiative aiming to forbid Mninga harvesting. They said that they 

were aware, but they added that they continue this activity because, first and foremost, they are 

struggling for survival. The forest appears to them as a means of short-term poverty alleviation. 

They also specified that in the Kibiti and Jaribu-Mpakani check-points, the traders are allowed to 

pass with furniture made from Mninga wood. The pit-sawyers mainly sell the planks to the local 

carpenters in Ikwiriri and they scarcely deal with the saw-millers. They can saw from 5 to 10 

planks per week. The planks are 6-8 feet long x 6 inches wide x 2 inches thick. One Mkongo plank 

is sold 1500 Tsh (1,5 $) maximum. Other species planks are sold from 800 to 1200 Tsh (0,78 to 

1,17 $). They claim that the average diameter of the trees they harvest ranges from 30 to 40 cm. 

But in reality, many of them also cut smaller trees and sell them as so-called off-cuts, i.e. as 

branches of trees felled in the past. 

Another category of beneficiaries is the pole harvesters. In fact everybody is likely to cut poles in 

the forest to build his own house, because the traditional building technique implies the erection of 

a pole substructure (cf. photo No. 14). 

But this activity has become a commercial and lucrative one. The poles are sold: 

• by pieces for the big ones: 150 – 200 Tsh (0,15 – 0,20 $) each; 

• by batches of 25 – 30 poles for the small ones: 300 – 400 Tsh (0,30 – 0,40 $) for a batch. 

The interviewed pole harvesters told us that each of them sells an average quantity of 15-20 poles 

per week. With the population growth, particularly in Ikwiriri, the commercial demand for poles is 

increasing and becomes a threat to the forest. Indeed, the poles are not only cut among the shrub 

species but also among the regeneration stems of tree species. Fortunately, we can note in table 15 

that the more precious species are not cut for poles, yet with the surprising exception of Mkongo 

(Afzelia quanzensis). 

Photos No. 12 and No. 13: The two main manual sawing methods used in Ngumburuni. The second one is a 

pit-sawing site. 

50


Photo No. 14: A traditional house in Mkupuka, with a pole 

stock. 

Photo No. 15: A charcoal burner with a bag sold 2000 Tsh 

(1,94 $). Behind him, a small size kiln. 

Charcoaling is also a widespread activity around Ngumburuni. The charcoal burners generally 

work in Miombo and not in the coastal forest patches. But, they mainly use species like Mtondoro 

(Julbernardia globiflora), Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa) or Mkuruti, which are timber species 

too. They perceive the forest as a mining source of raw materials and, consequently, their activity is 

particularly destructive. A charcoal-burning site generally becomes an open woodland. 

The charcoal burners use several sizes of earth kilns. For example, a small one needs 4 trees (30 cm 

diameter) and gives 14 bags. It takes one week to produce this quantity. A larger one needs 35 trees 

and gives 100 bags. The production time is one month. The prices of the bags are: 

• 1000 Tsh (0,97 $) in the field; 

• 1800 – 2000 Tsh (1,75 – 1,94 $) on the tarmac roadside. 

In fact, their profit margin is very low. A study carried out in Ikwiriri (Kaale et al., 2000) showed 

that for people producing and selling their charcoal themselves, average monthly profit excluding 

their labour cost was around 62,000 Tsh (60,20 $). For those only selling in retail, their average 

monthly profit was 15,300 Tsh (14,85 $). Surely, this activity provides some money to people with 

few alternative sources of income, but it does not really help poverty alleviation and it is most 

damaging to the forest. But the wholesalers trading big quantities of charcoal in Dar es Salaam with 

important profit margins, are the main winners of this business 

We also mention canoe-making because it is a vital item in the Rufiji people’s livelihoods and 

because some of the interviewed stakeholders told us that this activity still exists in Ngumburuni. 

But it has probably become marginal because it is now very difficult to find the preferred species 

for canoes with a sufficient diameter. Canoes are now made from less adequate species (table 15), 

which have a much lower duration of use (Hamerlynck, 2003). 

We can also add that the forest provides the adjacent communities with non-material values. We 

already noted that it was the case for Tambiko spiritual activities, but neither can the ecological 

values be disregarded. Many stakeholders are aware of the importance of the forest for issues like 

fauna, water and more generally “mazingira” (environment). The following figure aims to 

summarize all these observations. 

51


LIVELIHOODS 

4.2.2.3.1.1 Ecological 

Food Timber Medicines 

values (Erosion control, 

water regulation, corridor for 

4.2.2.3.1.2 

Building and roofing materials 

animals) 

Weaving and dying materials 

Canoe materials 

Energy 

4.2.2.3.1.3 

HUMAN NEEDS 

Spiritual well-being 

SERVICES 

Spiritual and cultural 

Values (Tambiko sites, 

cemeteries) 

Environment (Mazingira) 

Food Health Clothes 

Houses Means of transport 

Figure 15: All-encompassing diagram showing the goods and services provided by the 


52


4.2.2.4 The forest is a source of royalties for the District 

As noted in 2.3.3, the forestry sector provides the District with most of its revenue. Obviously, 

Ngumburuni and the other District Forest Reserves are actually perceived by the foresters as a 

source of income. This income is generated by the licenses and the fines, mainly collected in 

several checkpoints located along the tarmac road leading to Dar es Salaam. Yet, due to the poor 

human capacities to manage the forest, the District resolved to transfer the management of the 

forest either partly or totally. Indeed, with increased community involvement the management will 

not be as bad as it was up to now. But for the moment, the District foresters are a bit doubtful about 

the capacity of the communities. In fact, the lack of trust is shared between the District and the 

communities. 

4.2.2.5 The perception of the current management 

Only the leaders are currently aware that a part of the forest is, at least theoretically, managed by 

the District. Nobody among the villagers and only 50 % of the economic operators can say who is 

the manager. Nevertheless a few more people know that a forest reserve exists but only the leaders 

can approximately locate the boundaries and very few of them can draw a rough map of the forest 

reserve. Yet, the northern boundary is better known because it is materialized by a main trail. 

Generally speaking, most of the stakeholders actually have a bad image of the management by the 

authorities. Their general feeling about this management is that it is a repressive but ineffectual 

one. When you ask the people what the words “environment” and “natural resources” (respectively 

mali asili and mazingira in Kiswahili) or “protection of nature” (Uhifadhi wa pori) mean to them, 

they generally answer in terms of forbidding, conservation without any use or fines given by the 

foresters. They are even more bitter since they consider that mali asili is a gift of God and that, 

therefore, they must at least be part of the management and also get benefits. 

But many of them are aware that it is necessary to implement a protection policy and a 

management plan including the forest itself and the fauna, because they are convinced that 

Ngumburuni is threatened. Simply, they are very doubtful about the capacity of the authorities to 

succeed in implementing management decisions and the all-repressive policy is less and less 

accepted. The participants in the transect walks, in particular, were very clear about that (appendix 

n o 3). 

4.2.2.6 III.2.2.6. The stakeholders perceive the forest to be in a bad condition 

All the stakeholders maintain that the forest has significantly changed over the past few decades. 

Before, the canopy was totally closed. Currently, the canopy is open and many trucks cross the 

forest thanks to the numerous trails. Shrubs, lianas and small trees are more numerous. According 

to a villager, “formerly, Ngumburuni was cold and wet, now it is hot and dry”. Consequently, many 

animals have left. Particularly, the number of elephants has diminished. Liechtenstein’s Hartebeest 

(Kongoni) and waterbucks were also more abundant a few decades ago. 

Most of the interviewed people are actually aware that excessive logging has increased for 15 years 

and that the forest is overharvested. It is now difficult to find big trees. Formerly, they were 

abundant. Precious species like Mvule or Mpingo were particularly numerous. But, they have 

practically disappeared, sometimes since the eighties (Mpingo for example). The sawmillers 

confirm that the main commercial species logs arriving from Ngumburuni in the sawmills have a 

smaller diameter than before. Most of the big trees are now from other species. Mkongo is still 

available but the diameters are small too. 

According to the various stakeholders, the most damaging causes for all these changes are: 

• excessive logging (and truck traffic inside the forest); 

• commercial harvesting of poles; 

• charcoaling; 

53

• fires; 


• shifting cultivation (in addition, the average productivity duration of this kind of fields 

doesn’t exceed 2 or 3 years, according to them); 

• harvesting of immature trees, sold as so-called off-cuts; 

• lack of a harvesting plan. 

In contrast, they consider that the least damaging uses are: 

• collection of weaving and dying materials; 

• collection of building and roofing materials for local domestic use; 

• collection of fuel-wood; 

• hunting, because it is only done by local people and it remains reasonable for the moment; 

• collection of edible fruits and plants; 

• collection of medicine; 

• collection of mushrooms. 

All the interviewees express a pessimistic feeling about the future of the forest. Most people are 

afraid it will become “an open woodland” or even “a desert” if nothing serious is done. Year after 

year, logging and fires change the aspect of the forest and it will increasingly become fragmented. 

Fire is a natural part of the Miombo ecosystem, but if repeated during the late dry season, humaninduced 

fires severely damage trees and hinder regeneration. Some of the more precious species, 

like Mpingo (Dalbergia melanoxylon), are particularly fire-sensitive. The fires are started both by 

the hunters and the loggers, respectively in view of driving game and clearing the skidding areas. In 

any case, it could exhaust the forest resources and the communities would have more problems 

making a living. The modest economic operators, like carpenters, think that maybe after ten years, 

the currently used species will become as scarce as Mninga is today. They fear that it will be more 

and more difficult to find wood. 

The Ujamaa operation, the industrialisation (creation of sawmills, development of the wood market 

in Dar es Salaam) and the increasing population in Ikwiriri are considered to be the fundamental 

causes of all these disruptions. But, with common sense, the villagers think that the main reason is 

poverty. Poor people cut trees in view of making some money for their essential needs, especially 

in dry years, like 2003. So they think that they have their own responsibility in the demise of the 

forest, but with differences among the local communities: Ikwiriri people are indicated as the most 

active users of the forest (by the other villagers, but also often by themselves). 

Yet, more than 90 % of the interviewed people are convinced that the outsiders damage the forest 

most. It is thought that they could easily get the legal permission from the District and even 

unofficially from the local communities’ leaders (who are paid for that, according to several 

interviewees). Even if local people admit that many of them also use the forest, they maintain that 

by far the main part of the benefits go to outsiders, especially logging companies coming from Dar, 

where they can sell the timber with a high added value. The local people mainly contribute 

manpower but for very low salaries. 

Local people hope that the worst can be avoided, but they think that their influence to prevent 

destruction is rather limited. At least, awareness must be raised with the villagers and all the 

communities must join to manage the forest. 

54

16 

18 

19 


17 

20 

THREATS 

THREATS 

Photos No. 16 to 20: The most damaging activities, according to the stakeholders. 16: A 

charcoal earth mound kiln; 17: Agricultural clearing; 18: Overharvesting and wasting wood 

(an immature felled Mkongo – Afzelia quanzensis); 19: Truck traffic inside the coastal forest; 

20: One of the numerous fires in the dry season. 

55


4.2.3 Overview of the main trading networks of the forest products 

FOREST 

MANAGEMENT 

PRODUCTION 

MARKETING 

AND 

TRANSFORMATION 

CONSUMPTION 

Licences and fines DISTRICT 

Licences and fines 

Village individual 

Producers 

(men, women, children) 

KEY: 

FOREST RESOURCES 

Semi-professional 

Producers 

(farmers - producers) 

SAWMILLS 

Fuel wood 

Timber 

Charcoal 

Poles 

monitors the Forest Reserve 

CARPENTERS CONTRACTORS 

VILLAGE CONSUMPTION URBAN CONSUMPTION 

Non-timber products 

Figure 16: Main trading networks of the Ngumburuni products 

Professional 

Producers 

WHOLESALERS 

RETAILERS 

EXPORT 

56


In fact, the District controls only the Forest Reserve. In this area, at least theoretically, all the 

products must be the object of a license there and especially timber. In the surrounding areas, 

access is free. But in practice, most of the inside-forest activities shown in figure 16 are done in 

illegally. Most of the stakeholders are aware of this and put up with it. Consequently, if the District 

really wants to change things, it will have to act at each level and not only depend on the 

communities to improve management. 

4.2.4 The wishes and suggestions of the different stakeholders for the management 

4.2.4.1 Discussion about the boundaries of the community-based managed forest 

According to all the stakeholders the boundary issue is delicate. The general opinion is that all the 

surrounding villages should be party to agreement on external and possible internal boundaries: 

Mangwi (+Misimbo), Mkupuka, Muyuyu (+ Njianne, Misuguri and Ngumburuni), Nyamtimba (+ 

Mbawa), Umwe (N,S and C + Mparange). 

Most of the villagers think that the entire surveyed area should be included in the future 

community-based managed reserve, and not only the current District reserve. Yet, Umwe North 

and Centre object to including the east part of Umwe Lake, which is included in the future Ikwiriri 

extension project (cf. III.2.4.1.). Another problem will be the Mbawa people’s claim to keep the 

northeastern part of the forest for their exclusive use. In addition, many farmers ask for the need of 

cultivation areas to be taken into account. 

4.2.4.2 What kind of organisation should be the manager of the forest ? 

The most often-proposed management system is based upon two levels of authority. According to 

80 % of the stakeholders, each village must create its own forest committee. Another proposal is to 

use the recently created environmental committees and to empower them with forest affairs. Above 

them, an intervillage committee, composed of representatives of each village committee, should 

control the entire forest and manage the relationships between the different groups of stakeholders. 

Consequently, the villagers suggest to divide the forest into demarcated areas, each one managed 

by one village committee, under the coordination of the intervillage authority. The village 

governments will have to empower the management entities so that they will be able to operate 

easily. 

The issue of a joint management system (communities + District) stays open. Most of the 

stakeholders think that technical and financial supports are essential and that improved 

communication between the communities and the authorities is necessary to implement efficient 

forest management. In addition, they feel inexperienced in forestry and they need training. The 

communities remain suspicious of the authorities and they fear that a huge part of the benefits will 

elude them. The sharing of the benefits will be the key-issue if a joint management system is 

decided for part of the forest. 

The composition of the different committees is also an issue. At first, there is a gender problem. 

Most of the interviewed women want an equal representation with the men and some of them are 

already volunteers, even for scouting. But in a traditional Muslim society, the practical 

implementation of this legitimate claim is not obvious. In addition, men are supposed, even by 

women, to know most about the forest, because they work there more often. A second issue is the 

representation of the economic operators involved in the forest exploitation, particularly the 

sawmillers. Opinions are divided. Fifty percent of the people think that it could be a good thing to 

involve them in the management process, at least because they know the wood market. The others 

think that the sawmillers will just have to respect the by-laws decided by the communities for the 

forest management. But the wood demand exists and this reality must be taken in account. Yet, we 

can note that Ngumburuni is only one of their wood sources (5 %, for example for one of the 

57


interviewed sawmills). The danger is that harmful practices and the harvesting of forbidden species 

will simply move to the villages with the least effective management. 

Finally, a way of monitoring the progress of the communities in managing the forest must be 

found. Most of the interviewed people think that it must be done by the communities themselves 

and that the District services will just be needed for technical advice during the first years of the 

process. But they will need to decide on simple and practical indicators. 

4.2.4.3 Protection and guarding issues 

A crucial issue in the future management plan is the guarding, and more generally the protection of 

the forest. Indeed, in view of stopping unplanned harvesting, a surveillance system must be 

implemented. This is a challenge in itself, because many stakeholders, local or outsiders, got into 

the habit of using the forest without any wisdom. 

Of course, the involvement of communities is essential, mainly because they are well placed to do 

it and also because there is no other realistic solution. Most of the villagers suggest organising 

patrols, with voluntary scouts chosen in each village. It is also conceivable to create checkpoints 

around the forest. The scouts must be sufficiently empowered to apprehend offenders and levy 

fines. According to the majority of interviewed people, the village governments should fix the fine 

levels at the intervillage management committee’s suggestion. They view the scouts’ task as 

essentially repressive, stating that if offenders fail to pay the fines, they have to be taken to the 

police or to court. However, alternative solutions should be considered. For example, offenders 

could be involved in plantations. If well trained, the scouts could also play an educational role. 

Yet, to be efficient, the scouts must be supported. First, they need training and basic equipment. In 

addition most of the interviewed people think, logically, that they must be paid, at least because of 

the time spent and the risks incurred. We can add that this is also a good way to avoid corruption. 

Maybe in the end, the necessary funds can be generated by the forest revenue, but an initial 

investment is probably indispensable. 

Their action must also be supported by the formulation of by-laws, defining clearly the rules, the 

forbidden and authorised activities. The necessity of a harvesting plan for the commercial trees 

species is particularly emphasized. With strong enough by-laws and regular patrols, it will be 

possible to establish a moratorium on the most threatened species. Information boards for public 

and users can also strengthen the surveillance task. 

Yet, even if an efficient control system is created, a political problem, well highlighted during the 

transect walks (appendix n o 3), remains. Indeed, if the authorities do not play the game and let 

smugglers pass through the checkpoints carrying furniture made from forbidden species, the 

surveillance work will be severely hampered. This fundamental issue is well explained in the Rufiji 

Forest Action Plan (2002). 

Name of volunteer Sex Name of the village 

Likasugana Ally Sobo M Umwe South 

Halima Mohamed mkumba F Mkupuka 

Omary Shamte Ngaima M Mkupuka 

Hussein Said Kiboko M Mkupuka 

Zainabu Omary Ndundu F Mkupuka 

Amina Ally Mapande F Muyuyu 

Rashid Salumu Meza M Ngumburuni (Muyuyu) 

Hamisi Mohamed Mkingiye M Umwe North 

Table 16: The first volunteers for scouting, after the July 2003 meetings 

Note that women are well represented 

58


4.2.4.4 Alternative uses and non-timber activities 

As mentioned in 4.2.2.2., forest-adjacent communities already have non-timber activities in 

Ngumburuni. But, presently, they are more a livelihood source at subsistence level rather than a 

real means for making money. Yet, with regard to protection of the forest, the development of a 

sustainable extraction of those non-timber products could contribute to the conservation. Indeed, 

this kind of activity is a possible alternative to the other destructive exploitation methods. 

Most of the interviewed people are mainly interested in beekeeping. Some of the villagers have 

already tried it or occasionally harvested wild honey. Three producers groups are supported by the 

District beekeeping development service (Ikwiriri) in the Ngumburuni neighbourhood, in Mtunda 

and Muyuyu. But, generally, the people have no experience and they need training to implement it 

on a large scale. In addition, they raise several problems: 

• the lack of funds for the starting investments; 

• the low selling prices; 

• a gender problem: the women are not always allowed by their husbands to develop 

beekeeping, in spite of this they are very interested; 

• fires hamper the beekeeping development. The hives are burnt, bees are killed and the 

favourable environment is destroyed. 

People are also interested in edible plants and mushrooms collection. But, the limit for developing 

those activities is their seasonal nature and they think that it is only adequate for their own 

consumption. Medicine collection can also be developed. But in view of generating revenues, it 

could be better to emphasize the harvesting of materials used for handcrafts (weaving and dying 

materials for example). Hunting is a prized activity and it needs to be planned and better organised. 

We have also asked their opinion about new kinds of activities like butterfly farming but they have 

never heard about it. On the other hand most of the interviewed people think that it is conceivable, 

and interesting, to promote a tourist activity in the forest. Indeed, they are aware of the 

Ngumburuni ecological richness and they are convinced that vision tourism could be implemented. 

The numerous populations of birds, elephants and monkeys and the relative proximity of Dar es 

Salaam are favourable elements. It could be a good source of income and encourage the forestadjacent 

communities to take care of the forest. Yet, this kind of initiative can be hampered by such 

issues as the Ikwiriri extension project (cf. III.2.5.1). Indeed, if Umwe lake is included in an urban 

area, it will be an attraction loss. People are not experienced in organising tourist activities, but 

they claim to be ready to welcome tourists. This would probably require investment into a forest 

canopy walkway as has been done in Uganda and elsewhere, training of local guides, etc. 

4.2.4.5 Tree Plantations 

Most of interviewed villagers think that plantations could be implemented, under the supervising of 

the management committee(s), for everybody’s benefit. Some of them have already tried teak or 

cashew trees plantations. But they would rather try local species like Mkongo or Mninga, for 

example. The committee(s) should allocate some plantation areas to each village. The degraded 

woodlands and former agricultural encroachments can also get an increased value in this way. It 

could compensate for the harvesting reduction in other parts of the forest 

The main difficulty, as for the other activities, will be to find an initial investment. Indeed people 

are ready to prepare the fields and to supply the manpower, but they must buy seeds or seedlings. 

Solutions can be found using logging taxes and fines. They can also force the loggers to give the 

committee the off-cuts they do not need. Selling these off-cuts, the villagers would make money for 

plantation investment. Some people think about involving private operators. Another issue is that 

you should allow several decades before getting benefits out of the plantations. Fast growing 

species should be chosen if this problem was considered as a major one (cf. 4.4.5.7). 

59


4.2.5 Analysis of the constraints likely to hamper the implementation of the 

community-based management 

4.2.5.1 The Ikwiriri extension project 

Umwe North and Centre’s leaders exposed the Ikwiriri extension project wich concerns the part of 

the forest located east of Lake Umwe. The G.P.S. coordinates of the extension show that it overlaps 

with 696 ha of the forest (mainly coastal forest). In addition, Lake Umwe and its connected 

marshlands would be included in this area. This extension aims to provide Ikwiriri with new 

settlement and agricultural zones. 

Ikwiriri 

Township 

1 0 1 

KEY 


Ikwiriri extension project 

in the forest 

Road 

Main trails 

marshland 

Figure 17: Overlap between the Ikwiriri extension project and the Ngumburuni forest 

In Umwe Centre, the project was presented only as a possible extension. But, in Umwe North the 

discussion was almost aggressive. They fear that the new forest management process can obstruct 

the extension of Umwe North for a bit less than 5 km in an easterly direction. They add that they 

don’t want to walk long distances to reach their future fields. 

This project may be worrying for the environment near Ikwiriri. Indeed, it would be a very 

damaging attack on the forest biodiversity. In addition, if the Umwe Lake and its connected 

wetlands were included in a settlement and agricultural area, they would become a sewer before 

long. It is also important to mention that should that part of the forest be sacrificed, the natural 

barrier that Lake Umwe constitutes will be lost and access by Ikwiriri township dwellers to the 

km 

W 

water 

N 

S 

E 

60


remaining forest will increase. Lastly, we must mention the ratification by Tanzania of the 

Biodiversity Agreement, and of the high ecological interest of the coastal forests, which are one of 

the 25 hotspots in the world. In fact there should be further loss of coastal forest anywhere in East 

Africa. 

Obviously, this project was designed on a geometrical basis, witjout any considerations for 

environmental values. It can (and must) be modified through a joint reflection on land use planning 

and involve a wide stakeholder community. Other less destructive (and quite more lucrative) 

alternatives are surely conceivable for the Ikwiriri influenced forest area. And at least, a serious and 

exhaustive environmental impact study should be carried out as it has been done for the pipeline 

project (cf. 4.2.5.2.). Anyway, this issue will have to be strongly taken into account in the next 

negotiations rounds, without losing sight of the existence, particularly in Umwe North, of a lobby 

defending this extension project and presenting it as a crucial item for the future. 

4.2.5.2 Constraints induced by the big infrastructures projects 

a) The Songas pipeline 

The Songas (a private Canadian company) pipeline will conduct natural gas from Songo Songo 

island to a power plant in Dar es Salaam. The pipeline corridor on the main land is about 203 km 

long, extending from Somanga Fungu seashore to Wazo Hill Cement Factory. It is set to pass 

through the northeastern part of the forest, as shown on the following map. 

An environmental impact study has been made, including recommendations for diminishing the 

impact of the project, particularly on high biodiversity value areas like Ngumburuni (Songas, 

2003). This document advises to clear the vegetation in a strip of only about 15 – 20 m of the rightof-way, 

especially on the edge of the Ruhoi floodplain where the orchids occur. It also advises that, 

during construction, used lubricants, chemicals, machinery parts, plastic bottles and tins should be 

disposed off safely away from all habitats along the corridor. This issue must not be underestimated 

as hundreds of workers will be involved in the construction. 

The construction roads and trails will also probably facilitate access to the eastern part of the forest 

and, consequently, it could increase the pressure on the natural resources, particularly timber. 

The future forest management entity will have to take into account a particularly crucial item: the 

fires. If they damage the habitat, they can also cause havoc to the pipeline and the environment in 

case there are any accidental gas leaks (Songas, 2003). This event is very unlikely, but it may 

happen. 

61



water 

Marshland 

1 0 1 2 3 

Songo Songo 

pipeline project 

Figure 18: Position of the future Songas pipeline within the Ngumburuni forest 

b) The new bridge over the Rufiji River 

The new bridge, located a few kilometers south of Ikwiriri township, is likely to change the 

communication flow between the southern regions and Dar es Salaam. Life in Ikwiriri is likely to 

change too. Particularly, it could increase the population even more and, consequently, the pressure 

on the forest (confirming the Ikwiriri extension project lobby’s opinion). Also it cannot be 

excluded that more illegal loggers or settlers coming from south of the River join in the pressures 

on Ngumburuni. 

4.2.5.3 The forest-adjacent communities internal constraints 

During the meetings and the interviews, we particularly strove to determine the degree of 

acceptability of the process of participatory forest management and to assess the people’s 

motivation level for it. We questioned both leaders and villagers and, generally, the first reactions 

of almost each of them were tinged with suspicion. But after a first round of explanations, the 

opinions became full of nuances. And after three weeks of meetings (July 2003), we could draw up 

the following table. 

1:80,000 

Key 

North 

Kms 

62


Table 17: Community-based management process acceptance for all villages 

(1: acceptance without major remarks; 2: acceptance with major remarks; 3: acceptance with doubts; 4: 

acceptance with unwillingness; 5: rejection) 

Names of Degree of 

Details and observations 

The villages Acceptance 

Muyuyu 1 In general, they agree with the process, but they have some issue 

with regard to the way they will be empowered. They are not 

trained for surveillance and they don’t know how to formulate bylaws. 

Umwe North 4 The proposals for a community-based forest management process 

were very negatively received. They think that they cannot get 

any land ownership except from RUBADA (Rufiji Basin 

Development Authority). So they don’t believe that the District 

can give them the forest to be managed. They want to favour the 

development of Ikwiriri township, also to the East of Lake Umwe 

(cf. 4.2.4.1.). They plan to clear a big collective farm in the 

southern part of the forest (in fact, on both sides of the lake). 

They know that the District is controlling the forest, but they 

think that it has already failed. The council seems to be 

influenced by a few people involved in the agricultural 

development. We must add that they often talk about cash 

changing hands. 

Umwe Centre 2 In general, they agree, but as Umwe North, they think about the 

extension of Ikwiriri in an easterly direction. The women don’t 

seem to receive information from the men. In fact, all the 

councillors seem to agree with the chairman’s points of view. 

They don’t dare to express their own opinions. But, actually, they 

are aware of the condition of the forest and they are convinced 

that better management is indispensable. They also have some 

ideas for community-based management. 

Umwe South 3 They do not really show that they are concerned by the process. 

Nevertheless, in general, they agree, but they mainly consider the 

potential benefits issues. 

Mkupuka 3 In Mkupuka, there is a general feeling of fear of what could 

happen if the new management system was implemented. 

Nevertheless some people can see the interest of the process and 

in fact, they don’t want to be left out of it. But they are doubtful 

about the means. The women are more aware of the benefits they 

can get from the forest (they gave the example of clay collection 

for pottery). Indeed, the women seem to take part in the forest 

activities more than in other villages (even charcoaling). 

Mkupuka people are not sure to be able to manage the forest 

efficiently, but some of them are already volunteering for 

guarding and patrolling. But they want the District to train them. 

Eventually, we can note it is relatively easy to assemble the 

Village Council. 

Mangwi - 3 The influence of the Divisional and Ward authorities are very 

Misimbo 

much appreciated in that community. We could not meet the 

village councillors without them. But these leaders really agree 

with the process. The problem is that we could not really get the 

opinion of the villagers. Some of them are obviously waiting to 

meet the other villages before taking a firm decision. There are 

several levels of understanding: the older people seem to be more 

enthusiastic than the young. They can positively influence the 

process. The women able to speak are those involved in the 

63

Names of 

The villages 

Nyamtimba- 

Mbawa 


Degree of 

Acceptance 

Details and observations 

village government and they don’t really make a choice. 

5 The leaders (divisional secretary, ward staff and village 

councillors) appreciate the process. But there is a big 

misunderstanding between them and Mbawa villagers. The 

biggest doubts come from the youngest people. The older ones 

are more interested in participatory forest management. It seems 

that there is a political conflict for the leadership. The confidence 

between the chairman and the Mbawa villagers seems to be very 

poor. They feel negative about the administrative initiatives, 

especially village legislation. In addition they think they are 

outside the forest and that they are not concerned by the 

management. We can also note that no women were present. 

Thereafter, during a second meeting, the Mbawa people told us 

that they did not agree with the process. The conflict between the 

generations seems to be evident. 

As shown in this table, Nyamtimba-Mbawa and Umwe North are the most problematic 

communities. Muyuyu and Umwe Centre are the most interested and the most aware of the forest 

issues. Between these two extremes, the other communities are rather in an expectant position. In 

particular, Mkupuka people feel that they are a bit out of the process and they want to know what 

the other villages are thinking about it. In fact, they fear to get only a very small part of the forest to 

manage. Nevertheless, they want to be part of the management process because most of them use 

the forest. But these opinions are not fixed and a few weeks after our meetings, we can note that the 

debate is going on within the villages and particularly in Mbawa where a more favourable position 

seems to appear. 

4.2.6 Orientations suggested by the human context analysis 

a) A need of intensive follow-up 

Everybody, even the more sceptical people, is aware that the forest is in a bad condition and that it 

is really threatened if nothing is done. But, at this stage in the process, many people are still 

doubtful about the genuine commitment of the District to implement community-based 

management and to share the benefits. So the first recommendation could be to operate the process 

continuously in the next months in view of minimizing the awareness intervals among the different 

stakeholders and among the villagers. Village assemblies must be organised to give them more 

clarification and to remove any ambiguity. Some people from the REMP pilot villages (Another 

REMP activity) could be involved in awareness meetings, because they are already experienced in 

natural resources management. 

b) The new management must allow the communities to make a livelihood and benefits 

Through better management, people are mainly looking for secured livelihoods and the generation 

of benefits. The conservation of some ecologically rich parts of the forest is necessary, according to 

them, but a crucial item for its implementation will be to compensate for the illegal, but lucrative 

logging activity. Obviously, non-timber activities will not be sufficient, at least because they will 

concern less people than logging. A joint forest management system could be implemented, at least 

for the forest reserve, but the majority of the villagers is doubtful about the District’s will to share 

the benefits with them. 

c) The forest should be shared in village management areas 

For the management in itself, the generally proposed system is a forest divided into village areas, 

managed by village committees, with an intervillage entity supervising the entire forest. The 

reflection about the management system should be developed around these proposals. But it must 

also include the necessity of specific activities areas (beekeeping, logging, plantation, conservation 

areas, etc.). 

64


d) Guarding the forest will be a crucial item 

Control and guarding will be crucial issues for the success of the process. The role of the scouts 

and the different rules must be formulated in by-laws. And information to the communities should 

be permanent (posters and signals inside the forest, involvement of the public in committee 

meetings, etc.). So, a basic investment is needed, at least to start the implementation of the 

management plan. 

4.3 Discussion on the conditions for successful implementation of the participatory 

management in Ngumburuni 

In a publication prepared for the seminar “Sustainable livelihoods in forestry” (Oxford, April 

1999), the World Bank gave the conditions for a successful participatory forest management 

(World Bank, 1999). This paragraph aims to review these different key issues and to analyse them 

in the particular context of Ngumburuni described in III.1 and III.2. Indeed, as the World Bank is a 

potential supporter of the Ngumburuni process (cf. III.5 and IV), it will be interesting to estimate 

the level of tallying with the criteria of this institution. 

4.3.1 At the political and institutional level 

4.3.1.1 Is there a governmental will to experiment new forest policies and a political 

stability associated with confidence in the governmental structures? 

As noted in Chapter I, Tanzania has started implementing a new forest policy (Forest Act, 2002). 

One of the most important parts of this new act deals with the participatory forest management and 

defines a legal framework to enforce it. Participatory management is also a key issue of the Rufiji 

Forest Action Plan, written with the help of REMP and approved by the District Council. As, in 

addition, the Land Act and the village political practices (possibility of formulating by-laws, etc.) 

are favourable, we can say that the political will and means really exist, even at the District level. 

Political stability is also present in Tanzania, especially in comparison with most of the 

neighbouring countries. But, paradoxically, the level of confidence between the communities and 

the “authorities” is, in general, not very high. The explanation is probably historical and the 

Ujaama period has left its mark on the populations. This issue is not insoluble but the local 

authorities must make the effort to meet the communities as much as needed, to explain their new 

approach and raise their awareness on the potential of community involvement in forestry. 

4.3.1.2 Does an institutional framework exist and are the forest authorities available? 

As already noted, the new Forest Act and, locally, the Forest Action Plan are strong institutional 

tools. The main problem is probably the forest staff. They are totally aware of the condition of the 

forest and of its importance for the local communities. In addition, they generally agree with the 

new forest policy. They have been well supported by the first phase of REMP and could benefit 

from the second phase. But there is a lack of means, particularly financial, and consequently a lack 

of dynamism. Financial support will be a crucial condition for the success of the process. On the 

other hand, forestry staff are not very numerous and not especially trained for this new forestry 

approach. This lack of human resources and capacity will probably be the main weakness for the 

implementation of the Forest Action Plan. 

4.3.1.3 Does coordination between the donors exist? 

Several donors are involved in forestry development (Netherlands, Switzerland, Finland, Denmark, 

Norway and, of course the World Bank). There is no special coordination between them, but the 

Forest and Beekeeping Division (F.B.D.) is in charge of the contacts and the follow-up of these 

issues. Yet, basically, as environment is within the mandate of local government, the District staff 

must take the follow-up of the Rufiji forest affairs in hand. 

65


4.3.2 At the social level 

4.3.2.1 Are the stakeholders clearly identifiable? Have they got a common perception of the 

forest natural resources, at least partly? 

Chapter 4.2 has shown the diversity of the stakeholders. Most of them have been identified. They 

are involved in the current forest activities to a variable degree, but generally, they consider that 

Ngumburuni is an important source of livelihood. Yet, there is a difference of perception between 

Ikwiriri (Umwe) people, who have a quasi-urban way of life, and the forest-adjacent villages. 

Umwe people are more worried about income issues than the others. But, almost all of the 

stakeholders are convinced that the forest is in bad condition, even if some of them, particularly in 

Umwe, wish to extend the agricultural encroachments. 

4.3.2.2 Does a confidence exist between the forest users? Are they volunteers for the 

participatory management? 

For the time being, there is no major conflict between the users about the forest and the level of 

confidence is not bad. The main problem comes from Mbawa sub-village which remains very 

doubtful about the process. There is a difference of opinion between them and the major village 

(Nyamtimba), where the authorities are rather favourable to the development of a management 

plan. The origin of this issue is obviously an internal power conflict. So we can hope that it will be 

solved. 

Nevertheless, the demarcation of internal boundaries and the formulation of restricting by-laws 

could cause tensions among the communities. The general meeting planned for the end of 

September 2003 can contribute to alleviate the possible misunderstandings. 

4.3.2.3 Are the communities able to formulate access and harvesting rules without being 

thwarted by the authorities? 

As already noted, in Tanzania the local communities are enabled to formulate by-laws and this 

power is particularly well-adapted for a community-based forest management. But an important 

work of awareness raising and provision of information must still be done to facilitate the 

acceptance of the new system by the populations and the leadership. 

The District authorities are totally involved in the process and they probably want to try sincerely 

to implement the process. Nevertheless, they will have to change some of their opinions, firmly 

rooted in their mind. Indeed, it will not be easy to give up a police attitude and to empower the 

communities without any ambiguity. They must also play the game and try to improve the law 

enforcement, particularly at the road checkpoints, where a stricter control of the wood transport 

should be carried out (especially with regard to ‘off-cuts’ of species that cannot be harvested such 

as Mninga). 

4.3.2.4 Are the forest users ready to decrease timber harvesting before the start of the new 

management? 

This issue has not been really discussed. It seems very difficult to stop these practices without 

guarding the forest, especially in this drought year. It is understandable that the people try to 

compensate for the lack of crops by harvesting timber. The District has forbidden the exploitation 

in Ngumburuni until a new management system is implemented but that is a decision that exists on 

paper only. 

4.3.2.5 Do village organisations already exist? 

Each village is governed by a Council enabled to formulate by-laws and to create committees. 

Some quite effective environment management committees have recently been constituted in the 

REMP pilot villages. Discussions about the creation of such committees have begun in the 

Ngumburuni-adjacent villages. Environment committees would be adequate because their mandate 

would be larger than the one of simple forest committees. Indeed, their mandate could include 

wildlife management, tourism and agricultural issues. In fact the Village Councils (and the Village 

Assembly) would remain the decision-makers. The environment committees would be their 

66


technical branch, especially in charge of the management of the natural resources, including the 

forest. 

The experience of the pilot villages is likely to be successfully reproduced around Ngumburuni, 

However, the real challenge will be to organise an inter-village committee, that would be 

representative of the various wishes concerning the uses of the forest and be able to enforce the 

commonly agreed rules. 

4.3.3 At the forestry level 

4.3.3.1 Are the stakeholders aware that the forest is threatened and that a management has 

become necessary? 

Most of the stakeholders, villagers, authorities and economic operators, are convinced that the 

natural resources, wood, fauna, habitats, have decreased in Ngumburuni. They are aware that 

charcoaling, excessive (legal and illegal) harvesting, etc. are the most damaging uses. That is why 

they, in general, have a pessimistic opinion about the future of the forest. Nevertheless, some of the 

villagers think that appropriate management could improve the condition of the forest. Since the 

first round of meetings in July, the idea of a C.B.F.M. has gained ground among the communities. 

4.3.3.2 Is the forest small enough to allow the users to know the boundaries, the forest itself 

and its potentials? 

With an area of 10 000 ha, the forest is well-grasped by most of the stakeholders. But, 

paradoxically, very few of them have a precise idea of the external boundaries which should be 

demarcated. In this report we propose to include the entire surveyed area, but of course, the 

decision will be taken by the communities and the District. 

On the other hand, the villagers have a good knowledge of the natural resources and of their uses. 

They will probably be able to formulate appropriate rules. Yet, the main challenge for hem will be 

to consider the forest not only as a source of income and benefits, but also as a common heritage 

which they must manage in a sustainable way, i.e. to reconcile their legitimate livelihood 

aspirations and the necessary conservation of this heritage. 

4.3.4 By way of conclusion: is participatory management possible in Ngumburuni? 

According to this short analysis, no major obstacle should hamper the implementation of a 

community-based (or a joint) forest management in Ngumburuni. The political and institutional 

tools exist and the communities are now convinced of the necessity of changing the rules if they 

want to continue to benefit from their environment. Nevertheless, we have also pointed out some 

issues which must be solved for a successful implementation of the process. One of the most 

important is probably the establishment of trusting relationships between the communities and the 

authorities. The proposals for the development of the future management plan will take into 

account the conditions and observations mentioned previously. 

4.4 Framework for the development of the management plan 

In accordance to the spirit of the participatory process, this framework does not aim to formulate 

the Ngumburuni forest management plan. The formulation of the management plan is first and 

foremost the task of the forest user communities, supported by technical backstopping by the 

District Council staff. For successful implementation it is essential that the communities can make 

their own choices. Still, in order to make informed decisions they need to have full knowledge of 

the facts. Therefore, the main goal here is to provide the decision-makers that will be appointed by 

the communities with a framework for the development of the management plan. This framework 

is constructed on the basis of the results of the previous analyses during the fieldwork in the area 

over the past months. Particular attention has been paid to the incorporation of the observations, 

remarks and wishes expressed by the communities. The framework also incorporates the 

recommendations of the Rufiji Forest Action Plan as approved by the Rufiji District Council and of 

the Community-based forest management guidelines developed by the Ministry of Natural 

67


Resources and Tourism. 

The main principles for formulating the management plan should be simplicity and conciseness, 

because it must be a document of action, implemented by people not particularly experienced in 

forestry. Therefore in the present document we examine a range of management possibilities, in 

view of providing the stakeholders with a maximum of elements to base their decisions on. But it 

should be borne in mind that the final plan will have to be brief and easy to implement. 

Nevertheless, the outline of the framework can, and probably should, be used for the writing of the 

operational management plan. 

This document covers the entire forest and woodland area surveyed during the participatory forest 

management process (see map). 

4.4.1 Background and management objectives 

The plan must include a first part describing the background: the forest, the communities and the 

uses. It should also state the management objectives. For the descriptive part all the elements 

provided in chapters 4.1 and 4.2 of the current report can be used. In this section, we will just 

expose the information that is likely to facilitate the formulation of the purposes of putting the 

forest under management. 

As a result of the discussions with the different stakeholders, it appears clearly that the 

communities have expectations about benefits and livelihood support from the forest. The analyses 

of the state of the forest and of the interviews with stakeholders has shown that the management 

will have to combine conservation objectives with sustainable production objectives. Consequently, 

the main management objectives are likely to be found among the following wider themes: 

• establishment of the forest ownership and demarcation; 

• protection and conservation (of the coastal forest patches, in particular); 

• production for livelihood support; 

• generation of financial benefits; 

• regulation of the forest use in order to ensure sustainability. 

4.4.2 Scenarios for the management system 

Two general options have been discussed with the stakeholders: a community-based forest 

management (C.B.F.M.) and a joint forest management (J.F.M.). The choice will be made after a 

round of negotiations, but basically, there are three possibilities: 

• a C.B.F.M. for the entire forest and woodland block; 

• a J.F.M. for the entire forest and woodland block; 

• a mixed system with areas under C.B.F.M. and others under J.F.M. as suggested in the 

Rufiji District Forest Action Plan. 

Indeed, the current situation of Ngumburuni does not leave the District Council with any other 

option but to share the management and therefore the benefits with the local stakeholders. In fact, 

for the District Council, the choice can be summarised with a quip: either to accept (for example) 

20 % of the benefits in the case of a joint management or to lose 100 % of the benefits in a few 

years if no management is implemented. 

Even if J.F.M. is considered the preferred option by the District, it is not well received by the 

communities. From the stakeholder analysis it is clear that the communities do not have confidence 

in the management capacity of the authorities. The experience elsewhere in Tanzania also suggests 

that J.F.M. has been less successful than C.B.F.M. 

The advantages and drawbacks of the three main management systems can be summarised as 

follows: 

68


Table 18: Comparison of the advantages / drawbacks of C.B.F.M., J.F.M. and a mixed system 

C.B.F.M. 

for the entire forest 

and woodland 

block 

J.F.M. 

for the entire forest 

and woodland 

block 

Mixed system 

C.B.F.M. + J.F.M. 

Advantages Drawbacks 

• The responsibility is not 

shared. 

• The communities feel really 

empowered. 

• The communities get all the 

benefits. 

• The management will 

benefit from the authority of 

the District. 

• The communities will 

benefit from the forestry 

• 

experience of the District staff. 

The conservation of the 

protected areas should in 

• 

theory be more effective. 

The conservation of the 

protected J.F.M. areas should 

be more effective. 


manage and benefit from their 

own forest areas. 


benefit from the forestry 

experience of the District staff. 

• Conservation may be more 

problematical: what 

immediate benefits can the 

communities derive from it? 

• The communities need 

more training and support. 

• The communities may not 

feel sufficiently empowered. 

They would probably believe 

that the District wants to own 

a larger chunk of forest at 

their expense. 

• Difficulties for sharing 

benefits and duties. 

• Risk of confusion: who 

will appear as the real 

manager ? 

• Difficulties for sharing 

benefits and duties in the 

J.F.M. areas. 

In fact, the choice among these options will mostly depend on the degree of confidence, which will 

be established between the District authorities and the villagers and maybe between the villagers 

themselves. It should be noted that under full implementation of the District Forest Action Plan the 

role of the communities in forest management should expand considerably in the District thus 

liberating the forest officers from some of their current tasks. This could make their supportive role 

more effective and result in an increased presence in the field, thus increasing the confidence of the 

communities in their management capacity. The next round of participatory meetings will be 

crucial in determining a management system that is in accordance with the will of the communities 

and that specifies the role and the duties of each party. 

Whatever the choice may be, the management authority will most probably have to be exercised at 

two levels, according to the recommendations of most of the villagers. Thus, each village should 

appoint its own environment committee, for example through election by the Village Assembly and 

with endorsement by the Village Council. The composition of the Village Environment Committee 

will have to be defined carefully, so that the sub-villages, especially those located inside or close to 

the forest, will be adequately represented. Lessons on this can be drawn from the REMP experience 

in the pilot villages. As a rule a minimum quota of women representatives should also be 

guaranteed, this in accordance with the legitimate request of most of the women interviewed. The 

women are important stakeholders and users of the forest and they are to be given management 

responsibility. 

The responsibilities and powers of the Village Environment Committees, with regard to forest 

issues should be defined and the relationship of the committees to their respective Village Councils 

clearly stated. The frequency of the meetings, the quorum (at least 50 %), and the best way to 

record minutes, will also need to be determined. 

As seven villages (Mangwi, Mkupuka, Muyuyu, Nyamtimba, Umwe Centre, North and South) are 

69


involved in the participatory forest management process, a supervising and coordinating committee 

is indispensable. Its main goal will be to harmonize the actions of all the Village Environment 

Committees and to keep a general overview on all the forest management. This inter-village (or 

ecosystem management) committee should also be more powerful in dealing with the relationships 

with the different authorities and outside stakeholders. It should be composed of representatives 

elected by each Village Environment Committee. If a joint management option is chosen, 

representatives of the District should also be members. Some functions (guarding for example), 

should be handled by the Village Environment Committees so it needs setting out in the plan how 

these will report to the inter-village committee. 

For efficient management the coordination between the different entities is essential. Also, 

reporting will be crucial. Thus, the Village Environment Committees should periodically report in 

writing to the Village Councils and to the inter-village committee (which, district-wide, could be 

formed by groups of villages using the same functional ecosystem unit, e.g. a lake or a forest rather 

than the more administrative ward structure). In the case of a J.F.M., copies of reports should also 

go to the District foresters. Even in the case of C.B.F.M. an information flow from the communities 

to the District technical staff would be preferable. Communication on matters on mutual interest 

should be organised at the inter-village committee level and special meetings could be set up 

especially for it. 

At each level, record books should be used to store the information, decisions and events dealing 

with the forest management and other environmental issues. For example, likely record books will 

include minutes, offences and fines, and have receipt, permit, patrol and account books. 

70


The following figure summarises (in a non-exhaustive way) what could be the Ngumburuni forest 

management system. 

Mangwi 

area 

COMPOSITION 

Chairperson 

Secretary, Treasurer 

Boundaries supervisor 

Village representatives 

District representatives 

(if joint management) 

COMPOSITION 

Chairperson 

Secretary 

Treasurer 

Patrol supervisor 

Scouts, members 

Mkupuka 

area 

Muyuyu 

area 

Inter-village committee or 

joint management 

committee 

Village environment 

committees 

Nyamtimba 

area 

Umwe 

Centre area 

ACTIONS 

- Internal and external boundaries 

supervision. 

- Conservation areas supervision. 

- Conflict resolution. 

- Coordination of Villages’ actions 

coordination 

- Patrolling and guarding. 

- Day-to-day management. 

- Implementation of the 

villages forest activities 

(plantations, licensing, nontimber 

activities,…). 

Umwe 

North area 

Figure 19: A possible Ngumburuni management diagram, based upon most of the 

stakeholders’ requests 

ACTIONS 

Umwe 

South area 

71


A crucial item in the implementation of the management will be the financial management. The 

plan must clearly set out how it expects any funds to be handled. As shown in figure 17, this will be 

the function of the treasurers. But their task should be based upon precise guidelines mentioning: 

• who will levy fines and fees; 

• who will hold the money; 

• where the money will be kept safely; 

• to whom and how often all funds received must be reported; 

• the list of permitted expenditure. 

Maximum transparency should be the fundamental rule of the financial management and any 

villagers should be able to access the record books if they would request it. The money from forest 

management may be spent on items directly linked to the forest issues (guarding or planting trees 

for example). But, as requested by the people, there must also be some direct benefits so that the 

forest contributes to poverty alleviation. 

4.4.3 Demarcation and supervision of the boundaries 

According to the different meetings in the villages, the establishment of the boundaries will not be 

an easy process and disputes are likely to arise. Basically, it will need joint meetings in the field 

involving all the neighbouring communities. This work will be facilitated by the use of a GPS, the 

map included in this report and its digital formats (with the help of the District staff) which can 

become the Geographic Information System (GIS) of the area. 

The first task will be to demarcate the external boundaries. We have noted during the interviews 

that a majority suggests including the entire surveyed area as the basic management unit. However, 

as a prerequisite, the issue of the proposed extension of Ikwiriri (Umwe North) to the East of Lake 

Umwe will have to be resolved. This first step is crucial and an agreement must be reached by all 

parties, otherwise the unresolved problems will arise again later. 

The second step will be the demarcation of internal management boundaries. Indeed, as the forest 

is likely to be managed on a village basis, it will be indispensable to fix the boundaries between the 

different village areas. Each village should be responsible for agreeing its own boundaries, but of 

course, in agreement with the neighbours. If some areas are under joint forest management, their 

boundaries must be demarcated in common with the District. It could also be useful to precisely 

demarcate the existing in-forest and near-forest settlements. Forcibly removing them should be 

avoided because their inhabitants have been living in those places for a long time and their 

knowledge and continuous presence will be useful for the management. Nevertheless, it will be 

essential to agree with the farmers on the limits beyond which their cropping activities will be 

banned. Special areas, particularly the plantation sites, should also be carefully demarcated. 

Inside the village areas, sub-divisions corresponding to management zones (conservation areas, 

various use areas, etc.) will have to be defined. The purpose of each area will be precisely and 

carefully described. 

In practice, marking the boundaries should be done for example by painted markings on trees. Each 

sign will have to be recorded by GPS and eventually downloaded in the digital map file, so that it 

will be possible to join a thorough and comprehensive printed map to the management plan. The 

best way to organise and supervise the work is to appoint a boundary supervisor, as suggested in 

figure 1. 

Those initial demarcations will have to be regularly maintained and controlled. This will be the 

function of the scouts, under the responsibility of the boundary supervisor. 

Yet, those boundaries need to be officially recognized. According to the usual gazettement process, 

after the village level agreement, the villagers will have to send their proposal to the District 

72


Council who will submit it to the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism for approval. This 

process is likely to be long and can take several months. The committee Chairman and the District 

staff will have to keep a careful eye on the unfolding of the process. As the experience in other 

parts of the District has shown excessive delays lead to discouragement and loss of momentum, 

detrimental to the management. The swift approval of the bylaws proposed by the communities is 

probably the most crucial step. 

4.4.4 Protection, guarding and enforcement of rules 

The most crucial item for the success of the management plan is the protection of the forest. Most 

of the interviewed people suggest organising patrol teams, with voluntary scouts selected in each 

village. During the surveys some volunteers have already proposed their services and local 

knowledge of the area, the tree species and their uses was often very impressive. Guarding is 

essential but it must be supported by clearly formulated rules. 

According to the C.B.F.M. guidelines, we can divide those rules in three categories. 

Access rules. This category will aim to define who may use the forest. In particular, the 

communities will have to decide if outsiders will be allowed or not to enter the forest, and if yes, 

under which conditions and for which uses. All this without losing sight of the current bad 

condition of the forest, caused by its effectively open access nature. They will also have to decide if 

each village must exclusively use its own managed area or if access to the other parts can be 

permitted. Perhaps such inter-village access could be limited to a restricted set of activities which 

would require the permission of the inter-village committee. 

Uses rules. Their main goal is to set out the authorised, restricted and forbidden uses. In addition, 

the plan must specify the uses permitted only on licenses with fees, those permitted on the issue of 

domestic user permits and those freely allowed for community members. Table 2 can assist in the 

communities’ choice as it makes an assessment of the potential forest uses and of their effects, 

according to the elements presented in the analyses in the full survey report. 

Other rules. For example, rules in order to reduce the fires. Fires should be strictly controlled and 

totally banned in some places, especially in the secondary coastal forest patches. Special rules 

could also be formulated for hunting or tourism if necessary. A decision should be also taken about 

charcoal burning. As noted in the full report, this is a very destructive activity. At least, if it is not 

possible to totally forbid it, the rules should specify the authorised species (avoiding the more 

valuable ones) and ban this activity in the more sensitive parts of the forest. 

Table 19: List of the potential uses, ranking their effects on the forest 

Potential Forest uses Should be 

stopped because 

highly damaging 

Could be 

sustained if 

limited 

Could be 

increased 

because less 

damaging 

Timber x (in coastal x (in Miombo 

forest patches) patches) 

Charcoal burning x 

Settlements 

forest 

in the x 

Shifting cultivation x 

Fuelwood collection x 

Beekeeping x 

Wild honey collection x 

Fruits, mushrooms and 

edible plants collection 

x 

Building 

collection 

poles 

x 

Indifferent 

73


Potential Forest uses Should be 

stopped because 

highly damaging 

Could be 

sustained if 

limited 

Could be 

increased 

because less 

damaging 

Indifferent 


x (if palms) x (if thatching 

collection 

materials) 

Weaving and dying 

materials 

x 

Medicine collection x (roots and 

barks) 

x (leaves) 

Hunting x 

Firing for hunting and 

clearing skidding areas 

x 

Clay for pottery 

x 

Tourism x (has not been 

tried) 

Butterfly farming x (has not been 

tried) 

Tambiko and ritual 

uses 

Rules will be respected only if information and awareness raising are efficient, but also if the 

punishments are a sufficient deterrent. So the plan must set out what will be the punishments 

placed upon the offenders. The most common idea, suggested by a majority of interviewed people 

is to give them fines. The rates should be fixed by the management committees, under the control 

of the Villages Councils. A harmonization is necessary at the inter-village level. 

However, poverty is surely one of the main causes for offences. From the villagers’ point of view, 

poverty is an every day and short-term issue and vital needs often lead simple people to be 

offenders. Consequently, to send offenders consistently to the police or to the District Court, as it is 

often suggested, is not a very constructive solution. That is why the plan should probably 

emphasize non-financial punishments. For example, the offenders could be required to plant trees 

or to maintain trails in the forest. This kind of sanction has also the advantage of being educational. 

Anyway, the full punishment outlay must be clearly described in the plan so that the scouts and the 

management authorities can apply them without any ambiguity. The bylaws formalising these 

arrangements need to be approved by the District Council. 

As protection is usually the heaviest task of C.B.F.M., the plan must also set out how it must be 

organised and carried out. At first, the scouts must be appointed, after election or on a voluntary 

basis. The management committee must decide the extent and duration of their mandate, the limits 

of their action and how to check on their performance (and consequently, how to deal with scouts 

who abuse of their status, or on the contrary, how to reward them for a beneficial intervention). The 

size and the frequency of the patrols should also be made explicit. 

Yet, even if an efficient protection is carried out, the inter-village committee will have to draw the 

authorities’ attention to illegal practices which they fail to effectively stamp out (e.g. wood 

smuggling, so-called off-cuts that in fact newly felled trees). The inter-village committee can put 

pressure on the District and or National authorities so that they will join in the hunt and efficiently 

apprehend and deal with the persistent offenders. 

4.4.5 Development of forestry actions 

This part of the plan will list and describe any actions aiming to rehabilitate the forest and to 

x 

74


develop its potential. Many possibilities are presented here, often suggested by the analysis of the 

stakeholder interviews, but they are also based on the results of the forest inventory work. The 

communities and the District forest office will have to choose their own priorities among those 

listed and probably to improve, adapt and mature them. 

According to the objectives given, the main lines of thinking proposed for the development of 

forestry actions will try to combine the necessary conservation of the richest parts of the forest with 

the legitimate expectations of the stakeholders. Thus, if some suggestions are likely to add 

constraints to the villagers’ habits, some others will try to compensate for such constraints by 

providing alternatives. Proposals such as the as creation of plantations, harvesting plans for the 

species that are still available or the development of non-timber activities, will clearly aim to bring 

benefits to the communities. 

4.4.5.1 Conservation zones and restoration of disturbed areas 

Effective Joint Forest Management agreements between communities and District could be 

particularly appropriate for the conservation of the high biodiversity value areas (the highest 

quality coastal forest patches). Indeed, the alliance between the communities’ in-field control and 

the official authority of the District, always respected even if it is denigrated, should be efficient. 

Non-destructive activities and low-impact rules 

Considering the high ecological value of the coastal forests, it would be the best if only nondestructive 

activities were allowed inside. But such a rule would be a real constraint for the 

communities, because the coastal forest represents 72 % of the forest area. The plan must define 

conservation areas, yet harvesting mature Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa) could be allowed inside 

on the previously described basis. The harvesting should follow low impact exploitation rules, for 

example: 

• to use the existing trails as much as possible; 

• to fell the trees in a direction which limits the damages; 

• to prohibit fuel deposits; 

• to prohibit pit-sawing in the conservation areas. 

Favouring regeneration 

Subject to these precautions, the exploitation of a small number of very mature trees (about 2 

stems/ha) could also favour the regeneration without disturbing the ecosystems too much. In fact, 

harvesting in those area must be organised as a real silvicultural operation. The notion of 

conservation, accepted with difficulty by the communities, could be thus well thought of, especially 

since the conservation areas can also be used for non-timber activities. 

Restoration and enrichment planting 

In the secondary or disturbed coastal forest, restoration can be considered. Enrichment planting 

could be part of the solution and a percentage of the income could be devoted to it. Enrichment 

planting has commonly been used for increasing the timber volume and the economic value of the 

secondary forests. The conditions for a successful operation include the provision of adequate light 

conditions, proper supervision and maintenance. Enrichment planting can be in lines or in patches. 

Scattered single seedlings or saplings must be avoided because they are generally suppressed by 

competition (Anonymous, 2002 c). Local high value species should be chosen for enrichment 

planting. For example, reintroducing Mvule (Milicia exelsa) could be interesting because, formerly, 

this species used to be abundant in Ngumburuni. So the site is favourable and Mvule can grow both 

in Miombo and in coastal forest. In addition, in favourable circumstances it is an evergreen tree, 

which will have a beneficial effect on the ecosystem. Unfortunately it does not have a rapid growth 

in height. Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis) is also an adequate species. In addition, we can note that, as 

Mkongo is still well represented in Ngumburuni, it will be essential to keep mature trees for 

seeding. 

75


4.4.5.2 Maintenance of a fauna corridor 

The Ruhoi River floodplain is not favourable for flood cultivation, because the water, which has a 

geothermic origin, is too salty. In fact, this area should be conserved, and particularly the riverine 

forest strips. Indeed, those riverine forests are shelters for birds and they contain a high 

biodiversity. Medicines and edible fruits are collected there. Most of the Ngumburuni timber tree 

species are represented in the strips. In addition, this floodplain is a natural corridor for the fauna, 

particularly the elephants and the buffalos. But, in order to be efficient in the long term, this 

corridor must have a continuation in the neighbouring Ruhoi Forest Reserve and on towards the 

Selous Game Reserve. The maintenance of favourable conditions for wildlife migration can both 

increase the touristic values and the potential for bushmeat harvesting. With the increasing traffic 

on the main coastal road Dar es Salaam Mtwara there will be an increase in accidents caused by 

collisions between migrating wildlife and transport vehicles. A study on the creation of a passage 

for the animals, preferably below the road on both sides of the Ruhoi floodplain (north and south) 

should be accorded a high priority. This tunnel should be linked to the Ngumburuni and Ruhoi 

forests by well- maintained forest corridors that are attractive to migrating animals. Examples exist 

in South Africa and Zimbabwe. 

4.4.5.3 Fire control, fire management 

A moratorium on fires in the forest areas 

Fires early in the dry season (which burn at relatively low temperature) and on a rotational basis 

e.g. every 3 or 4 years for a specific patch are acceptable and some typical Miombo species like 

Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis) have developed with fires as part of their natural ecosystem. The 

thick bark of Mninga, which looks like a crocodile skin, is a natural protection against fire. But if 

repeated all along the dry season and every year, the fires hamper the regeneration by destroying 

saplings, and they undervalue the wood because they cause flaws in it. Periods of around three or 

four years without fire should be the rule in Miombo and inspiration could be taken from the fire 

management in the Selous Game Reserve. 

The secondary and disturbed coastal forests are also prone to fire but they must absolutely be 

protected against it. Care should be taken to avoid spreading of controlled fires from the Miombo 

to the forest. Prevention and early stoppage of fires are also essential to the development of nontimber 

activities like beekeeping. 

Information, control and surveillance are the keys 

It would be the best if the management committee could impose a total fire ban, at least during the 

first five years of the implementation of the plan. An awareness campaign on the benefits of 

stopping the unregulated use of fire is important. 

4.4.5.4 A wise and controlled timber activity 

As noted by all the stakeholders, unplanned timber harvesting is currently one of the most 

damaging activities in Ngumburuni. This paragraph aims to determine the timber harvesting 

potential and to give recommendations, based on technical elements, to the decision-makers. 

First of all, it is important to agree on the Minimum harvesting DBH (Diameter at Breast Height, 

1.3m above the ground) of the timber species recorded during the Ngumburuni inventory. They are 

given in Table 3. The proposed diameters have been determined by comparing the official 

recommendations given by the Forest Rules, which have been considered as a minimum level, and 

the results and data of the REMP technical report dealing with other Rufiji forests (Malimbwi, 

2000). Malimbwi’s recommendations are often stricter than the Forest Rules, particularly 

concerning the naturally small size species (Millettia stuhlmannii, Dalbergia melanoxylon, 

Markhamia lutea). For these he recommends to consistently adopt 40 cm. Considering the 

deteriorated condition of the forest they are the only realistic option. For example, Government’s 

recommendation (Forest Rules) for Mpingo is 20 cm and Malimbwi’s one is 40 cm. In such a case, 

we have adopted the second diameter for our study. 

76


Table 20: Minimum felling DBH for the main commercial tree species (Forest rules – 

Government notices n o 462 and 463 – 1996; Malimbwi, 2000) 

Name of species (vernacular) Name of species (scientific) Minimum harvesting DBH (cm) 

Mdadarika Newtonia sp. 50 

Mkongo Afzelia quanzensis 60 

Mkwaju Tamarindus indica 60 

Mkweanyani / Ngude Sterculia appendiculata 50 

Mlopolopo Trichilia emetica 40 

Mmangangwaru Afrormosia angolensis 50 

Mnangu Hymenaea verrucosa 50 

Mndundu Cordyla africana 50 

Mngongo Sclerocarya birrea 50 

Mninga Pterocarpus angolensis 60 

Mnondondo Xeroderris stuhlmanii 60 

Mpangapanga / Mnyamwea Millettia stuhlmannii 40 

Mpingo Dalbergia melanoxylon 40 

Mpugupugu Markhamia lutea 40 

Msufi Pori / Mkunya Bombax rhodognaphalon 60 

Mtanga Albizia versicolor 50 

Mtaranda / Mtalawanda Markhamia obtusifolia 40 

Mtasi Baphia kirkii 50 

Mtondoro Julbernardia globiflora 40 

Myombo Brachystegia spiciformis 40 

Nyamakwenge Amblygonocarpus andongensis 50 

Using the distribution of timber tree species by size classes and the frequency of the regeneration in 

the 44 sample plots, we have drawn up the list of the species, which do not qualify for harvesting 

under the following criteria: 

• less than 1 harvestable stem/ha (according to the minimum DBH shown in previous table 3) 

• absence of regeneration in at least 90 % of the sample plots. 

The results are shown in the Table 21. 

Table 21: Timber species that do not qualify for harvesting in Ngumburuni 

Name of species (vernacular) Name of species (scientific) Justification 

Mdadarika Newtonia sp. No harvestable size, no regeneration 

Mkongo Afzelia quanzensis No harvestable size, but if protected, 

good potential for the future 

Mkwaju Tamarindus indica No harvestable size and only few 

regeneration stems in Miombo 

Mkweanyani / Ngude Sterculia appendiculata To few mature trees, no regeneration 

Mlopolopo Trichilia emetica To few mature trees and only few 

regeneration stems, but if protected, good 

potential for the future 

Mmangangwaru Afrormosia angolensis No harvestable size, no regeneration 

Mndundu Cordyla africana No harvestable size, no regeneration 

Mngongo Sclerocarya birrea No harvestable size, no regeneration 

Mninga Pterocarpus angolensis No harvestable size, no regeneration, 

endangered and forbidden by District 

rules 

Mnondondo Xeroderris stuhlmannii No harvestable size, no regeneration 

Mpangapanga / Mnyamwea Millettia stuhlmannii No harvestable size 

77


Name of species (vernacular) Name of species (scientific) Justification 

Mpingo Dalbergia melanoxylon No harvestable size, no regeneration, 

endangered, likely to be commercially 

extinct 

Mpugupugu Markhamia lutea No harvestable size 

Msufi Pori / Mkunya Bombax rhodognaphalon No harvestable size, no regeneration 

Mtaranda / Mtalawanda Markhamia obtusifolia No harvestable size and only few 

regeneration stems 

Mtasi Baphia kirkii No harvestable size, but if protected, 

good potential for the future 

Myombo Brachystegia spiciformis No harvestable size, no regeneration 

Nyamakwenge Amblygonocarpus andongensis No regeneration 

The results speak volumes about the exhausted condition of the forest. Indeed, only three species 

qualify for harvesting: Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa), both in Miombo woodland and coastal 

forests, Mtanga (Albizia versicolor) and Mtondoro (Julbernardia globiflora) in Miombo. The first 

one is in class V and the two others are in class III. Nevertheless, three other species have a good 

potential for the future: Mtasi (Baphia kirkii), Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis) and Mlopolopo 

(Trichilia emetica). If they are protected during the implementation of this plan, they could qualify 

for harvesting in the next one. An inventory, targeting these species in particular, should be done at 

the end of this planning period to evaluate the harvesting possibilities. Their regeneration should be 

protected by management intervention such as fire protection. 

Consequently, in this framework document we only propose a harvesting plan for the three 

qualified species. Since there are no growth and yield data for the different forest types in Rufiji 

(Malimbwi, 2000), we have chosen to develop a harvesting plan by annual cuts using area control. 

The annual cut is calculated as: 

AC = A / R 

AC: annual cut (ha/year) 

A: area (ha) 

R: Rotation age (years); R = 30 

The lack of data led us to adopt a hypothetical rotation age of 60 years assumed in 30 years (1/2 

rotation age) felling cycles for both Miombo and coastal forests. This hypothesis, which seems 

credible, is generally used by the foresters working in Rufiji (Malimbwi, 2000). Table 22 shows the 

area for each vegetation type and the annual cut calculated with the previous formula. 

Table 22: Annual cuts in each vegetation unit 

Vegetation type Area (ha) Annual cut (ha/year) 

Coastal forest 7208.91 240 

Miombo 1579.06 53 

Each year, Mtanga (Albizia versicolor) and Mtondoro (Julbernardia globiflora) will be harvested 

in Miombo in 53 ha areas. Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa) will be harvested in 240 ha areas only in 

coastal forest patches, which are the natural ecosystem of this species. Mnangu is also present in 

Miombo, but the inventory results show that only one diameter class is well represented. 

Consequently, Table 23 shows the allowable cuts for those three timber species. 

78

Species 

name 

Mnangu 

(Hymenaea 

verrucosa) 

Mtondoro 

(Julbernardia 

globiflora) 

Mtanga 

(Albizia 

versicolor) 


Table 23: Harvesting plan for the qualified timber species 

Rotation 

age (years) 

Minimum 

felling 

DBH (cm) 

Stocking 

(stems/ha) * 

Stems/annual 

cut 

Allowable cut 

Volume 

(m 3 /ha) * 

Volume/annual 

cut (m 3 ) 

60 50 2.1 504 8.01 1922 

60 40 1.3 69 10.14 537 

60 50 1.3 69 4.14 219 

According to the recommendations of the Rufiji Forest Action Plan, it will be in the interest of the 

management committee to impose full-tree licensing, i.e. to sell the permits on the basis of the fulltree 

volume. Consequently, the income potentially generated by licensing the three qualified 

species can be calculated on the basis of the official Forest Rules fees (Anonymous, 2001 a). 

Table 24: Income per year likely to be generated by the full-tree licensing 

Name of species Class Fee per cubic 

metre 

Tsh ($) 

Volume/annual 

cut (full tree 

licensing) 

m 3 

Annual Income 

Tsh ($) 

Mnangu 

(Hymenaea verrucosa) 

V 10,000 

(9.70) 

1922 19,220,000 

(18,643) 

Mtondoro 

(Julbernardia globiflora) 

III 30,000 

(29.10) 

537 17,190,000 

(15,627) 

Mtanga 

(Albizia versicolor) 

III 30,000 

(29.10) 

219 6,570,000 

(6373) 

Total 42,980,000 

(41,728) 

The potential annual income, reaching almost 43 MTsh, is not exceptional, but, if judiciously used, 

it could help the communities to equip themselves with basic amenities. Of course, it can also help 

them to control and manage the forest in a sustainable way, with the hope that more species will 

qualify for harvesting in the next plan. If the species are adequately protected during the present 

one that hope is not vain. 

Indeed, the implementation of such a restricted harvesting plan implies that the committees strictly 

manage the logging activity. They must have their own hammer and provide the guards with the 

means to organise an efficient control of the harvested species and volumes. 

4.4.5.5 Pole harvesting 

The collection of poles is part of the day-to-day life of the forest-adjacent communities. 

Nevertheless, this activity should respect several rules. At first, the harvesting of valuable tree 

species should be totally prohibited, because it threatens the regeneration and thus the future value 

of the forest. Therefore, the plan will have to mention that the collection of poles will be limited to 

non-valuable tree and shrub species. This activity should also be banned from the conservation 

areas. 

The issue of the commercial harvesting stays open. The communities will have to decide if they 

want to maintain this possibility. If yes, they will have to fix fees payable on these products and to 

strictly control the species harvested. But, for the use of poles for local consumption, it would be 

79


preferable to maintain this activity as free of charge, as it has been asked by a majority of the 

interviewees. 

4.4.5.6 Energy issues 

Limiting fuel-wood collection in the conservation areas 

Fuel wood collection should be avoided in the conservation areas. This measure should be easy to 

implement as the women, who collect the most of the firewood, generally avoid going into the 

deepest parts of the forest, which have the biggest conservation potential. Dry wood collection can 

be allowed elsewhere, particularly in Miombo and this activity should remain free of charge for the 

local communities. The collection of firewood contributes to the reduction of the fire hazard and 

therefore contributes to managament. 

Development of alternatives 

The plan should propose innovation and diversification for the fuel-wood supply issue. Thus, 

progressively, alternative solutions can complete the fuel-wood collection in the forest with the aim 

of diminishing the pressure on the natural resource. A first solution could be to progressively cut 

down the senile cashew trees, which are abundant around the forest. These can then be used for 

firewood. They could be replaced by fast growing fuel-wood species like for example Cassia 

siamea. 

We have estimated the area to be planted for satisfying different percentages of the communities’ 

need for fuel-wood. 

a) Estimate of the total need for fuel-wood 

The total population of the seven villages is about 13,400. As it grows by 2.2 % annually 

(Collective, 2001 g), we can expect a population of 17,000 by 2014 (for a management plan 2004 – 

2014). The average annual consumption of fuel wood per capita, determined in Ikwiriri, is 523 kg 

(Collective, 2001 g). Then the total annual need for fuel wood in 2014 will be 17,000 x 523 = 

8,891,000 kg. 

b) Estimate of the quantity of fuel-wood produced by Cassia siamea 

When we studied a Cassia siamea planted forest in Cameroon, we determined that an average of 

3,5 trees of 4 metres high could produce a 40 kg bundle of fuel-wood (branches only). This 

quantity represents 2,5 – 3 days of consumption for a family of ten persons (Durand et al., 2003). 

c) Calculation of the area to be planted 

If the communities want to satisfy 2 % of their fuel-wood need from the Cassia plantations, this 

will represent 177,820 kg, i.e. 4445 x 40 kg bundles. This quantity can be provided by 3,5 x 4445 = 

15,557 trees. If the density of plantation is at least 300 stems per hectare, the annual cut area will be 

15,557 / 300 = 52 ha. With a rotation of 5 years, the total planted area would need to be 260 ha. 

This calculation has been made for several percentages: 

Table 25: Percentages of the fuel wood supply for various planted areas of Cassia siamea 

Planted area (ha) Percentage of the fuel 

wood consumption 

260 2 

650 5 

1300 10 

As shown in Table 25, plantations can satisfy only a small part of the fuel-wood needs. Non-timber 

branches of the exploited trees can also be used. Indeed they are often abandoned in the forest. The 

harvesting rules formulated in the plan could force the loggers to put the off-cuts at the 

communities’ disposal. 

80


An agreement concerning the sawmill residues could also be attempted by the inter-village 

committee. These residues are already used in Ikwiriri. The quantities, produced by three sawmills, 

and consumed by the township for fuel wood and charcoal production are respectively 1193 t and 

612 t (Collective, 2001 g). If all the sawmills are involved and if a precise agreement is formulated 

between them and the communities, the residues can significantly contribute to the energy supply. 

As suggested in table 18, charcoal burning should be prohibited in all of the managed forest. As a 

compensation, charcoal areas can be demarcated in each village, but outside of the managed block. 

Indeed, open Miombo and woodlands are available around each village. Nevertheless, this activity 

should follow strict rules: 

• to be forbidden for outsiders; 

• the most valuable timber species should be avoided; 

• the charcoal burners must avoid to clear their entire working area and particularly, they 

must conserve seeding trees. 

4.4.5.7 The multi-purpose role of plantations 

Plantations are part of the strategy for helping the communities appropriate the new management 

system. They can be considered as compensations for the constraints caused by the creation of 

conservation areas. 

Preference for local species 

The species to be used should have a traditional economic value or be suitable for existing or 

potential activities. In addition, these species should be adapted to the local environment and able 

to tolerate the unfavourable conditions which can be found in the degraded areas. The main 

targeted uses will be: timber, poles and fuel wood production and restoration of degraded areas. As 

noted in most of the interviews, the communities have a preference for planting local species. In 

view of spreading the harvesting periods, it could be judicious to create mixed plantations using 

different species, for example: 

• Mtanga (Albizia versicolor), which is a fast growing species and can be exploited for poles 

(after three years) or timber (after forty years); 

• Mkangazi (Khaya anthotheca), characterised by a medium growing speed; 

• Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis) a high value species for the long term. 

Other species like Mpingo (Dalbergia melanoxylon), Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis) or Mvule 

(Milicia excelsa) have been successfully planted in the neighbouring region of Lindi (Milledge et 

al., 2003). In Rufiji, several successful experiments have been carried out, particularly for Mkongo. 

For example, in Ikwiriri, 1000 stems have been planted in the college and more than 50% have 

survived, without particular care. The seeds are easy to collect and Mkongo seeding trees are 

relatively abundant in and around Ngumburuni. 

Cassia siamea for fire-wood and reforestation 

Non-local species such as Cassia siamea can also be accepted because it is multi-purpose. We have 

already mentioned the interest for fuel-wood, but it can also produce poles and it is well adapted for 

the reforestation of cleared areas (Collective, 1989 b). In addition, it is a fast growing species. A 

plantation already exists between Umwe South and the forest. 

As a guide, we can give the selling prices of several tree seeds (Anonymous, 1999 b): 

• Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis): 6000 Tsh/kg (5,80 $); 1 kg can give 260 seedlings; 

• Mvule (Milicia excelsa): 36 000 Tsh/kg (35 $); 

• Mtanga (Albizia versicolor): 8400 Tsh/kg (8,15 $); 

• Cassia siamea: 7200 Tsh/kg (7 $); 1 kg can give 28 000 seedlings; 

81


Location of the plantations 

Plantations, particularly of the timber species, could be implemented in the agricultural 

encroachments located in the eastern part of the forest. These cover a total area of 251 ha and, 

because of the exhaustion of the soils, only a small surface is used for cultivation nowadays. Cassia 

siamea would be a good solution for the reforestation of the woodlands located in the western part 

of the forest, where about 245 ha are available. Providing alternative areas outside the forest could 

also be important for developing productive plantations. The communities will have to make a 

choice among these various possibilities. But the main issue will probably be the necessary basic 

investment. Planting trees is expensive and part of the forest revenue should be used for planations. 

Photos No. 21 and 22: Mkongo seeds (“lucky beans”). They used to be sold as ornaments 

(necklaces) and charms. In South Africa, they are called Mkehli (betrothed girl) by the Zulu, 

for those black seeds, with their orange aril suggest a maiden’s red-ochred head-dress, which 

used to be worn in the period prior to marriage (PALGRAVE, 2002). 

Photo No. 23: A twenty year old Cassia siamea plantation in Umwe South. 

4.4.5.8 The place of non-timber activities in the management plan 

a) Development of beekeeping 

82


Beekeeping is one of the most promising non-timber activities and its development has been 

suggested by many interviewees. The context is favourable and the Rufiji production of honey has 

significantly increased over the past 3 years: 

• 2000 – 2001: 9 tons; 

• 2001 – 2002: 9,8 tons; 

• 2002 – 2003: 25 tons. 

A beekeeping development project, managed by the District, aims to help Rufiji people to start 

beekeeping, in view of poverty alleviation. It targets especially the young people and the women. It 

supports 44 beekeeping groups all over the District. In addition, they organise training sessions to 

initiate people. 

For the time being, beekeepers produce three types of honey: Miombo (where species like 

Mtondoro – Julbernardia globiflora - or Acacia sp. are favourable), mangrove and floodplain. But, 

according to the Forest and Beekeeping Division (F.B.D. – Ministry of Natural Resources and 

Tourism) it is possible to produce honey in all parts of the forest, including coastal forest patches. 

Moreover, the costal forests are particularly favourable to this production because various flowers 

can be found almost throughout the year. Thus, it could be interesting to create a specific label 

“coastal forest honey” as such labelling already exists, for example for mangrove honey. This could 

also increase its ‘green’ appeal in European and American markets. 

The honey is consumed locally and it is also sent to Kibaha and Dar-es-Salaam for export. At 

present, the prices of honey range from 15,000 Tsh (14.60 $) to 25,000 Tsh (24.20 $) for 20 lts. 

The prices of beeswax range from 1000 to 2000 Tsh (0.97 to 1.90 $) per kg. The prices depend on 

the market demand, and this market seems to be reliable, even for beeswax for which there is a real 

unsatisfied commercial demand (F.B.D.). 

The wholesalers can collect the honey directly in the villages, if the quantity is significant. But if 

the local producers pack their honey, they can sell it at least 2000 Tsh per litre and, of course, get 

more income. But it is necessary to find a basic investment to buy the jars and, in addition, the 

quality must be impeccable. On an other hand, the making of hives is very easy. The villagers can 

group themselves in producers’ organisations. Such structures exist all over the country (example 

in Kibondo) and some of them can be found in Rufiji. The official policy encourages the creation 

of these organisations. 

Therefore, beekeeping should be a good alternative if a reliable market is guaranteed. This activity 

is less tiring for the people and non destructive for the forest. In addition, the new Beekeeping Act 

(Anonymous, 2002 b) allows the creation of beekeeping forest reserves and the National 

Beekeeping Policy document (Anonymous, 1998 b) introduces the notion of api-agro-forestry. If 

the communities decide on the creation of such beekeeping reserves they will have to demarcate 

them and to formulate the uses rules in by-laws, approved by the District. 

This activity could be carried out in the conservation areas which would be better protected by the 

status of beekeeping protected forest. This association could be an argument and an asset for a 

good acceptance by the communities of the notion of conservation. 

83


Photo No. 24: a low-cost hive under a Mkwaju (Tamarindus indica). 

b) Development of traditional activities 

The forest provides the communities with livelihood support through edible fruits, plants and roots, 

mushrooms, medicines, etc. To encourage and develop these activities can help the communities to 

better conserve and appropriate the forest. Indeed, the abundance of harvestable products is directly 

linked to the biodiversity. 

The management plan will have to mention the favourable areas, especially in the coastal forests. 

The harvesting of non-timber forest products should remain free of charge for the domestic uses 

and fees should be payable only for commercial exploitation, except perhaps for medicines. Indeed 

medicine-men or -women would simply pass on the resulting price rise to their patients. Such a 

measure could have negative social impacts. 

The management plan should also be 

the opportunity to rehabilitate the 

image of the natural forest products. 

Indeed, some highly palatable 

products are already actively 

exploited, but many others are only 

harvested during times of hardship 

and some are regarded as “poormen’s 

food” (Burgess et al., 2000). 

Therefore, the plan should propose 

practical measures to strengthen the 

knowledge, the information and the 

awareness about the use of plants, 

roots, barks, fruits and mushrooms. 

Photo No. 25: Edible mushrooms are abundant in Ngumburuni (O. Hamerlynck). 

c) Development of new activities 

During the interviews, we discussed possible non-traditional activities and the communities 

generally showed interest, particularly in tourism. Developing tourism has recently become a 

priority in Rufiji District and the recommendations of the technical report of the Rufiji Tourism 

Development Workshop (August 2003) clearly includes forest discovery. The conservation areas 

could be an opportunity of developing such an activity. Many trails already exist but they need 

maintenance. In addition, reception infrastructures would be necessary. 

84


Another alternative non-timber activity is butterfly farming. Indeed, it is already suited as an 

income-earning venture for forest-adjacent communities in several countries like Costa-Rica, 

which exports around $ 1million worth of live butterflies a year, or Kenya (Gordon et al., 2003). A 

reliable project also exist in Tanzania, in Muheza District (Tanga Region). It is expected that the 

villagers would earn at least 100 million Tsh (97,000 $) a year when the project reaches its peak 

(Libongi, 2003). This is because scarce butterflies, especially those endemic in the coastal forests, 

are in big demand in Europe and the U.S.A. 

This activity requires little investment, simple equipment and materials. Necessities are locally 

available and the basic skills are easily learned (Gordon et al., 2003). In addition this activity can 

be linked to conservation because it depends directly on forest resources for both butterflies and 

foodplants. Generating curiosity, it can also contribute to develop ecotourism. Such an activity 

should be explicitly mentioned in the management plan. 

Lastly, we can also think about gum copal collection. Gum copal is the resin from Mnangu 

(Hymenaea verucosa) and it has been harvested for a long time, particularly during the Arabian 

period. It was mainly traded via Zanzibar to the Arabic countries and India. Modern Tanzania 

exported about 350 t of copal a year around 1950. In Mkupuka, we met people who used to harvest 

this gum. It was used to make varnish and incense. Nowadays, it is exclusively harvested for local 

uses, because of the development of synthetic resins (Burgess, 2000). But some companies, 

particularly in Europe, are looking for this natural gum for high quality traditional varnishes and 

lacquers. The marketing potential of this product should be studied in more detail, as Mnangu are 

abundant in Ngumburuni. 

85


4.4.6 Zoning the forest 

After the choice and the definition of the forestry actions, it will be useful to include an action map in 

the management plan. Of course, this report does not aim to draw this map, but we are going to suggest 

some management areas likely to satisfy the main claims and wishes of all the stakeholders, taking the 

noted condition of the forest into account. 

Actions 

and authorised 

activities 

Table 26: Matching forestry actions and uses to parts of the forest 

AREA 1 

Conservation 

Timber harvesting X 

Only Mnangu 

AREA 2 

Improvement of 

coastal forests 

X 

Only Mnangu 

AREA 3 

Sustainable 

exploitation of 

Miombo 

X 

Mtondoro and 

Mtanga 

AREA 4 

Plantations 

X 

Planted species 

Pole collection X X X 


collection 

X 

Fuel-wood 

collection 

X X 

Fruits, mushrooms 

and edible plants 

collection 

X X X 

Weaving and dying 

materials collection 

X X X 

Medicine collection X X X 

Wild honey 

collection 

X X X 

Beekeeping X X X 

Agriculture X 

X 

Only in pre- Only in preexisting 

areas existing areas 

Hunting X X X 

Clay for pottery X X 

Tourism X X X 

Butterfly farming X 

X 

Caterpillars and Caterpillars and 

foodplants foodplants 

collection collection 

Tambiko uses X X X 

86

Mkupuka 

Ikwiriri 

Township 

Umwe Centre 


Figure x : Forestry actions and uses map 

UmweNorth 

Umwe South 

To MANGWI 

Misuguri 

Ngumburuni 

Njianne 

1 0 1 2 3 

km 

Muyuyu 

KEY 

Area 1 : conservation 

Area 2: Improvement 

of coastal forests 

Area 3: Sustainable 

exploitation of Miombo 

Area 4: Plantations 

Agriculture 

Woodlands 

Marshland 

water 

Road 

W 

Footpath 

Villages and 

sub-villages 

N 

S 

E 

Mbawa 

87


4.4.7 Management monitoring and assessment 

A crucial item for the success of the management will be the capacity of the communities (and of 

the District foresters in case of J.F.M.) to know at various stages of its enforcement if this 

management is working or not. This assessment requires practical indicators. Some of them are 

suggested in the following table. 

Table 27: Practical indicators of Management success (according to Anonymous, 2002 c) 

Items to assess Indicators 

Demarcation of the forest and of the 

management units 

Improvement of the condition of the 

forest; 

Conservation 

• Boundaries 

visible and known. 

• Cases of illegal 

felling decreasing. 

• Undergrowth 

appearing. 

• New tree 

seedlings increasing. 

• No new in-forest 

dwellers. 

• Fauna 

frequenting increasing. 

Efficiency of guarding • Number of fires 

decreasing. 

• Number of 

sanctioned offences 

• Cases of illegal 

felling decreasing. 

• Respect of the 

minimum harvesting diameters. 

Development of plantations • Number of 

hectares. 

• Quality of the 

plantations. 

Development of non-timber activities • Number of hives 

increasing. 

• New activities 

implementation. 

The plan must also mention the list of the persons responsible for collecting the information, 

making and issuing the assessment. A time frame must also be included. As a guide, we can 

propose a first assessment after two or three years, another one after five years and lastly one at the 

end of the planning period of 10 years. Finally, the possibility of amending the plan on the basis of 

the assessments must be incorporated. 

4.4.8 Time frame 

This important part of the plan will set target dates for decisions and actions. These dates should be 

realistic and not over-ambitious. The time frame can be divided in two or three parts, for example: 

• immediate actions (during the first year); 

• medium-term actions (3-5 years); 

• long-term actions (> 5 years). 

Among the immediate actions, we can mention the organisation of guarding, the first meetings, the 

creation of record books, the formulation of by-laws, etc. 

88


Towards the end of the plan, a simplified inventory, targeting the most promising species like 

Mtasi (Baphia kirkii), Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis) and Mlopolopo (Trichilia emetica), should be 

planned. Indeed, if the communities succeed in protecting them during the implementation of this 

plan, these species could qualify for harvesting in the next one. The time frame must mention this 

inventory and the expenditure for must also be planned. 

4.5 Next steps and time frame to bring the process to a successful conclusion 

A second round of meetings with the communities was held at the end of August 2003. The aim 

was to present the main results of the study and to explain to each community the others’ points of 

view. We also discussed a time frame for the next steps of the process (cf. table 27). The main 

immediate result of these discussions was a general agreement for a meeting involving all the 

communities and the District in early October 2003. The main goals of this meeting would be: 

• to favour the exchange of ideas among the different communities; 

• to inform the communities more precisely about the content of a management plan. The 

management plan framework part of the present report (III.4) will be translated into 

Kiswahili and given to them before the meeting; 

• to assist the communities with the establishment of the committees; 

• to establish a consensual time frame for the next steps of the process on the basis of the 

proposals given in table 28. 

Table 28: Proposed operational matrix for the next steps of the implementation of the 

Ngumburuni management process 

Objectives Actions Responsible actors Time frame 

Choice of the 

management 

system 

Establishment of 

the Committee(s) 

Search for 

financial support 

Demarcation of the 

boundaries and 

registration of the 

management area 

Negotiation between the villages 

and the District. 

Decisions at the village 

government level. 

Selection of the members and 

definition of how the 

committee(s) will operate. 

Presentation of the file to the 

Ministry and the donors (first 

contacts in September). 

As soon as the committee is 

constituted, they can apply to a 

forest fund managed by IUCN 

Netherlands (liaise with IUCN 

Tanzania office). 

Negotiation between the different 

communities. 

Negotiation between the 

communities and the District. 

Ground survey and marking of 

the boundaries within and around 

the forest (using paint on trunks, 

if necessary with different colours 

for the different zones). 

Recording the boundaries in the 

G.I.S. 

The District needs to make a 

register for the different types of 

managed forests. 


Village assemblies 

Ward leaders 


District administration 

Village councils 




Management committee(s) 

Village councils 




Forest and Beekeeping 

Division (Ministry) 

September - 

October 2003 

November 2003 

September – 

December 2003 

December 2003 – 

June 2004 

89


Objectives Actions Responsible actors Time frame 

Start-up of the awareness 

campaign and of the forest 

Preparation of the 

management plan 

document 

Development of 

by-laws and 

management 

agreements 

Implementation 

and monitoring 

surveillance. 

Choice of the management 

objectives and priorities. 

Identification of the immediate 

actions 

Writing of the management plan 

using the proposed framework. 

Writing the by-laws and 

agreements. 

Submission to District committee 

of works, economy and 

environment and later to full 

Council for approval. 

Enforcement of the management 

plan directives and by-laws. 

All the communities 



Management committee(s). 

Village councils. 

Ward committees 


Village councils. 


A crucial item pointed out in this matrix is the search for financial support. Indeed, we mentioned 

several times that the start of the management plan would need such support. REMP has already 

taken the initiative by applying to the N.C.C.R.-P.A.M.S. fund (Switzerland) for financial aid. This 

has been successful and $ 30,000 will be available in 2004 for both Ngumburuni and another 

ecosystem-based environmental management project around Lake Zumbi. In addition, Rufiji is 

among the 16 Tanzanian districts chosen for implementing a World Bank supported C.B.F.M. 

initiative. 

Yet, these encouraging results will need some backstopping and intensive follow-up by the District, 

especially with the Forest and Beekeeping Division. The role of the District must increase, 

particularly because REMP I will come to a close at the end of September 2003. The second phase 

is not expected before the early 2005. The District and the communities will have to take the 

process in hand and they will be responsible for a wise use of the funds. 

February – March 

2004 

March – April 

2004 

By September 

2004 (until 

September 2014 or 

2019 ?) 

90


5 Lessons Learned from the study and some proposals to further the 

Forest Action Plan implementation 

The Rufiji Forest Action Plan was approved by the District Council in April 2003. But the draft had 

been circulating since March 2002. This chapter aims to assess the first steps of its implementation 

and to formulate some proposals to facilitate it. For the time being, the main achievement is the 

start of the recommended collaborative forest management process in Ngumburuni. To date no 

other forest management transfer from local government to communities has been initiated by the 

District. REMP, WWF and the Mangrove Management Project had worked on C.B.F.M. and 

J.F.M. with pilot communities before the approval of the Forest Action Plan. That is why the first 

results of the present Ngumburuni process are a useful contribution to a reflection on the Forest 

Action Plan implementation. 

5.1 First evaluation of the operational action plan matrix implementation 

The Forest Action Plan contains an operational matrix pinpointing the activities to be carried out, 

assigning tasks to responsible stakeholders and proposing a timeframe. The following table takes 

stock of the implementation of the planned actions. 

The main general conclusion is that it is very little has been implemented and even less at the 

proper initiative of the District without REMP support. An excuse may be that it is difficult to 

correctly implement the operational matrix with the current District staff. The District Forest Office 

considers that about ten foresters would be needed to effectively implement the Forest Action Plan. 

Part of the solution could be to create a forest task force by assembling the District staff and the 

staff of the Mangrove Management Project, which operates in the District (based in Kibiti) but is 

more or less autonomous at present. Nevertheless, some of the proposed actions are really easy to 

carry out, such as the opening of a village forest register and starting an awareness campaign 

promoting village forest registration. 

91

Objectives 

To have clearly defined 

management responsibility, legal 

and management status for all the 

forests in Rufiji District 

To adopt zoning and harvesting 

plans for the forests in the district 

in order to enhance forest 

protection and systematic 

utilization of forest resources 

To revitalize and introduce new 

collaborative Forest Management 

initiatives in the district for 

effective participation of local 

communities in forest management 


Table 29: Assessment of implementation of the Forest Action Plan operational matrix in August 2000 

Planned Actions Evaluation 

• Defining management responsibility, legal and 

management status for all the forests in the district. 

• Earmarking forests for protection and utilization 

purposes (appendix 3 of the Forest Action Plan). 

• Effective law enforcement in protected areas. 

• Harvesting to be allowed only in those forests 

which are earmarked for collaborative forest 

management. 

• Involving villagers in the licensing and monitoring 

processes with clear benefit sharing mechanisms. 

• Enacting a district by-law on minimum harvestable 

diameters for different species in the district 

• Approving by-laws for existing CBFM initiatives 

• Introducing new areas for C.B.F.M. 

• Revitalizing village level forest committees 

• Adopting an elaborate system of benefit sharing 

and compensating local patrol men 

• Awareness raising and close follow up with 

technical advice 

• Applying for financial support from the World 

Bank’s initiative on Participatory Forest 

Management 

• REMP, with support from IRD is improving the maps of the Rufiji forests (to be 

completed before the end of 2003). 

• It is up to the District to exploit and update the existing documents (lists). These tasks 

are not particularly difficult and should be done before the end of 2003. 

• No evolution for the effective law enforcement. It is now necessary to draw up a 

patrolling program. 

• A reflection about clear benefit-sharing mechanisms has just begun for Ngumburuni. 

The results could be used for other places. 

• For enacting a district by-law on minimum harvestable diameters, the table 19 in III.4 

of this report can be used. 

• Ngumburuni is the first experience of a control transfer from a local government forest 

reserve, theoretically managed by the District to the communities. 

• Some village forest reserves and their by-laws have been approved recently by the 

District. 

• Kipo and Mmaru villagers have asked the District to start a C.B.F.M. process. The 

District will have to carry out a fast diagnosis of these forests. 

• Rufiji is among the 16 districts chosen for implementing a World Bank supported 

CBFM initiative. But lobbying must be carried out. Contacts must be developed with 

several possible partners and also with the central administration, particularly with Mr 

Felician Kilihama, who co-ordinates all the financial forest issues. 

92


Objectives Planned Actions Evaluation 

To improve forest law enforcement 

and revenue collection situation in 

the district 

To consolidate the system of 

issuing licenses on whole trees in 

order to minimize wastes in the 

field. 

To adopt a moratorium on depleted 

species in the district in order to 

allow for their regeneration 

To promote Afrormosia angolensis 

from class V to class II for 

improved revenue collection and 

• Adopting a systematic harvesting plan which 

allows check-points and foresters to rotate in the 

field 

• Capacity building by increasing manpower and 

transport facilities. 

• Restricting licensing to specific days in a week 

• Hammering of logs and scaling to be done in the 

field 

• Introduction of new check-points 

• Promotion of law enforcement through village 

level scouts under collaborative forest management 

• Frequent checks from the FBD 

• Adopting and sticking to the new system in the 

district as a rule 

• Introducing an immediate by-law which bans the 

trade in off-cuts in the district 

• Liaising with the FBD in relation to the proposed 

species 

• Adopting the moratorium 

• Adopting an implementation strategy that would 

ensure that the suspension is effective 

• Liaising with the FBD on the proposal 

• Promoting the species into a higher class 

• Monitoring revenue collection from the species 

• District foresters have got a car (shared with other departments) since last year. They 

can also use the cars of the Mangrove Management Project. Some REMP vehicles 

should be available after the end of the current phase of the project provided that the 

forest department draws up a convincing workplan. 

• The foresters have got hammers, but hammering in the field is still the exception rather 

than the rule. 

• There are only three foresters in the District staff. The District has applied for 

additional staff, but, under structural adjustment, it is not easy to obtain. 

• Promotion of law enforcement through village level scouts will be tried in 

Ngumburuni. But a sustainable financial mechanism for the long-term payment of their 

expenses must be guaranteed. 

• The basic rules exist, but nothing has been implemented and no by-law has been 

formulated. 

• A moratorium on Mninga and Mvule has already been in force for a long time (though 

implementation is less than perfect). 

• But for the moment, no further reflection has been initiated on other species. Yet, 

Mkongo should urgently be included. 

• A letter has been send to National Forest Director in view of promoting several 

species, including Afrormosia angolensis and Combretum imberbe. 

93


Objectives Planned Actions Evaluation 

regulated harvesting after its promotion 

To generate some revenues for the 

district by selling its valuable tree 

seeds to the National Tree Seeds 

Project (NTSP). 

To promote the planting of 

indigenous tree species in the 

district 

To develop guidelines for 

sustainable agricultural practices in 

the district 

To implement an elaborate 

monitoring system for harvesting 

of forest products in the district 

• Registering good stands of trees with the N.T.S.P. 

• Facilitate the collection and marketing of seeds in 

collaboration with the N.T.S.P. 

• Identifying suitable species for regeneration 

• Introducing farm and village level nurseries 

• Provision of technical advice 

• Commissioning a multi-disciplinary team of 

consultants for the task 

• Introduction and adoption of improved 

agroforestry practices 

• Adopting a taungya system on the mangroves on 

experimental basis 

• Establishing hazardous slopes for cultivation in the 

district 

• Updating the established data base regularly 

• Including harvested areas in the database 

• Adopting a systematic harvesting system 

• For the moment, no contact with N.T.S.P. 

• It could be particularly interesting for Mkongo. 

• Information should be obtained by District staff for Mvule, Mpingo, Mninga or 

Mkangazi. Indeed, these species have already been tried for plantations. 

• But in view of developing seeds selling, it is necessary to find valuable stands, to ask 

the NTSP to officially record them and to protect them. 

• The District has already begun to promote Mkongo. Several plantations have been 

implemented. 

• But it must not rule out the possibility of planting other species, for example fuel 

wood. 

• Something has been done for rice cultivation in the mangroves (a kind of taungya). But 

deforestation is going on. 

• Soil conservation measures should be studied. 

• There is still little interaction or collaboration between the forest and agricultural 

departments 

• Nothing has been done. Even the 2002 data have not been entered into the Forest 

Action Plan database. 

94


5.2 Proposals to facilitate the implementation of the Forest Action Plan 

5.2.1 Development of new forest management initiatives 

5.2.1.1 Duration of the forest action plan 

As we can predict from the Ngumburuni process, the implementation of a participatory 

management process is quite long and can take several years. Consequently, the duration of the 

current action plan should be at least 10 or 15 years. Yet, there is no deadline for implementation in 

the Forest Action Plan and it could be useful to fix one. Indeed, it would force the District to 

elaborate a work plan. Intermediary evaluations should be carried out, for example, every three or 

four years. At the end of the plan, a major review should be carried out, taking into account the 

successes and failures of the past implementation period. 

5.2.1.2 Other forests need management 

At the end of this first action plan, the effective or potential managers of all the Rufiji forests 

should have been identified and recorded. It is compulsory according to the new Forest Act and the 

District must enforce it. It must be done simply and at low cost, on a register with simple 

descriptions and, if possible, rough maps (sketches) and identification of the villages involved. This 

system exists in other districts (Babati for example). A workplan should be prepared by the 

District, planning intervention zones and defining priorities, with a timetable and provisional 

expenditures. 

Besides Ngumburuni, we visited three other forests which should be included in the District 

priorities. The most interesting one is located on the Kichi Hills (cf. figure 3 in chapter I). This 

coastal forest covers an area of about 23,000 ha (probably the largest patch in the whole of 

Tanzania). In some parts is still well stocked. According Malimbwi (2000), the average stocking is 

about 2940 stems/ha and the average basal area 20 m 2 /ha. Eight potential timber species can be 

found there. Big Mvule (Milicia excelsa) can also be found, but without regeneration and sufficient 

stocking (Malimbwi, 2000). This forest also has a high biodiversity value and many endemic 

species of dragonflies, amphibians, birds and mammals (bush-babies, elephant-shrews) can be 

found in it (Perkin & Hamerlynck, 2001). 

Recently, this rich coastal forest was proposed to become a protected forest reserve and WWF 

worked on the project for several years. But the District authorities were not associated and internal 

WWF conflicts and external political ones hamper the unfolding of this initiative. In addition an 

all-weather road was built by the Selous Game Reserve, through the richest part of the forest, 

without any environmental impact study. This in spite of the fact that the Selous Game Reserve 

receives substantial support from donors such as WWF and GTZ, the German technical 

cooperation. The road facilitates the coming of new settlers, clearing large parts of the primary and 

secondary forest, and of course of loggers. During our visit, we have found four pit-sawing places. 

Nevertheless, the Kichi Hill forest is likely to be gazetted in September 2003. We can hope that a 

management plan will be developed thereafter and that the District authorities will join more 

closely in the process. 

Utete Forest Reserve (900 ha) and Katundu Forest Reserve (5631 ha) form a single forest block, 

close to the administrative centre of the District. The block is also one of the most overharvested. 

Many trails criss-cross it and the traffic of loggers’ trucks is constant. A great number of charcoal 

burners are active within the reserves, which are within walking distance of the foresters’ offices. 

This forest block is now intensively exploited and of course without any harvesting plan. An effort 

should be made to elaborate a restoration and management plan for this forest which stays useful 

for Utete. In addition, firewood and charcoal plantations could usefully replace the sterile cashew 

stands between Utete and the forest reserves. 

With an area of about 79,000 ha, the Ruhoi Forest Reserve is the largest in Rufiji. Theoretically, it 

95


is a local government forest reserve managed by the District Council, but the impression is that 

there is no difference in the management of Ruhoi forest and the woodlands surrounding it. Indeed, 

it seems to be overexploited and, in addition, large and recent agricultural encroachments have 

appeared in several places within the reserve. 

Yet, this forest is an important shelter for the fauna moving from the Selous Game Reserve to the 

coastal zones. Especially important are the coastal forest strips along drainage lines and on the 

edges of the Ruhoi River floodplain. Consequently, it is a vital place for the preservation of the 

corridor already evoked in the study of Ngumburuni. For such a large forest, the only solution is 

certainly a community-based management process involving all the surrounding villages. The 

forest should be divided into village areas and controlled by local scouts. If this project exists one 

day, a collaboration between Ruhoi and Ngumburuni management committees would be desirable, 

particularly concerning the fauna issues. 

Photo No. 28: Logs in the overharvested Utete 

Forest reserve. 

Photo No. 27: The Ruhoi Forest Reserve is mostly 

covered with closed woodland. 

Photo No. 26: Coastal forest relics in Ruhoi Forest 

Reserve (Sterculia appendiculata and Afzelia 

quanzensis). 

Photo No. 29: High biodiversity value coastal forests on 

the Kichi Hills. 

96


5.2.1.3 Some methodological elements for the development of other management plans 

For the other forests, it would be best if a complete study could be carried out. But, because of the 

lack of means, the next surveys will probably have to be simpler than the survey carried out in 

Ngumburuni. Nevertheless, they must include the following themes: 

• the knowledge of the forest (condition, potential, constraints,…); 

• the knowledge of the forest-adjacent communities (relationships with the forest, wishes, 

conflicts); 

• the framework of the management plan to guide the communities in the elaboration of their 

own one. 

The results of inventories by Malimbwi (2000) could be a good basis for developing harvesting 

plans in several Rufiji forests. Even if the sample plots have not always been very numerous, the 

results can be used and completed. The following table shows the surveyed forests and the number 

of sample plots studied by the Sokoine University team. 

Table 30: Rufiji forests surveyed by REMP and number of recorded sample plots (Malimbwi, 

2000) 

Name of forest Surveyed Area (ha) Number of sample plots 

Utete 23,981 68 

Weme 3437 61 

Mtanza 47,234 28 

Kichi 23,057 28 

Mbunju 6153 58 

A rough map of the forest can be hand-drawn using aerial photography or a Landsat image and the 

G.P.S. points. It is generally sufficient, at least for the discussions with the stakeholders. Of course, 

it would be ideal if the District could train one or two foresters or other staff for the use of 

Mapmaker software, which is relatively simple. Some of them have already got notions about it. 

The essential item thereafter is the precise and reliable demarcation of the boundaries in the field. 

Lastly, the other communities will be able to benefit from the Ngumburuni experience and 

meetings between the management committees should be organised. 

5.2.2 The pilot role of the District must increase 

As mentioned in table 29, the role of the District Lands, Natural Resources and Environment Office 

is central for the implementation of the Forest Action Plan, especially as the first phase of REMP 

ends in September 2003. They must particularly emphasize the development of management plans 

all over the District. Some documents and data already exist, it is up to the staff to update and 

exploit them. These first steps will not be very costly. 

Another crucial item is effective law enforcement. For the time being, the results are not very 

convincing. The main reason is obviously the lack of staff and means, but also perhaps a lack of 

flexibility and administrative habits. To deal with a new forest policy, new practices should be 

introduced. To improve law enforcement, District foresters’ patrols should be increased. But as the 

forest human capacity is low, expanded patrols could be organised involving other department 

officers (wildlife, fisheries even agricultural officers). But at first, a patrolling plan, with a 

timetable and a provisional budget must be drawn up. 

97


5.2.3 Financial aspects 

We can regret that the Forest Action Plan does not suggest any elaborate financial mechanism. In 

fact, it supposes that internal solutions must be found by the District and that the District will agree 

to invest a part of or its entire forest revenue in forestry action. Yet, these two points are not selfevident. 

The implementation of the Forest Action Plan supposes the mobilisation of important funds. For 

example, according to the F.B.D., no C.B.F.M. has been implemented in Tanzania without the 

support of a donor. We can guess that it will be the same in Rufiji. As noted for Ngumburuni, a 

significant basic investment is necessary, at least to start the process. As things stand, it is 

unrealistic to think that it could be provided by the District. In addition, there is a political issue. 

While the Central Government wants the District authorities to enforce the new Forest Act, at the 

same time, it asks the District Lands, Natural Resources and Environment Office to provide it with 

more timber royalties. Consequently, there are mainly two solutions to improve this situation and to 

stand a chance of succeeding in implementing the Action Plan. 

The first one is to improve the revenue collection at the District level and to reserve (a part of) the 

benefits for the implementation of the new policy. This recommendation is clearly and precisely 

mentioned in the Forest Action Plan, with practical solutions (cf. table 29). New practices, like full 

tree licensing or tree seeds selling, should be quickly undertaken. 

The second solution is of course to mobilise external financial support. The biodiversity, ecosystem 

function and economic values of the Rufiji Forests make this a realistic view. As mentioned in 

table 29, Rufiji is among the 16 districts chosen for implementing a World Bank supported CBFM 

initiative. And for Ngumburuni, REMP has got a fund from the Swiss Development Aid. But 

lobbying with other organisations and sources must be carried out by the District. Contacts must be 

developed with other possible partners and particularly IUCN Netherlands, which manages a 

tropical forest fund. The District administration can liaise with them not only for the Ngumburuni 

operation, but also for others, provided that they make a credible workplan before and that they 

make it clear that the communities are clearly in the driver’s seat. 

In both cases, the key words should be initiative and dynamism. The Forest Action Plan is 

ambitious, but it meets the spirit of the new law. REMP has provided the bricks, it is now up to the 

local authorities to build the wall by mobilizing the forces extant in the local communities. 

98

6 Conclusion 


The establishment of a management plan for the Ngumburuni forest and the empowerment of the 

adjacent communities constitute one of the first operations among those designated as priorities by 

the Rufiji District Forest Action Plan. At this stage of the process, we can conclude that the first 

results are encouraging. No major obstacle should hamper the implementation of participatory 

management in Ngumburuni. The communities are convinced of the necessity of taking in hand 

their environment in order to continue to benefit from its resources. In addition, a favourable 

institutional framework was developed a few years ago. 

Nevertheless, achieving the possible will not be easy. A significant number of issues must be 

solved: the choice of the management system, the demarcation of the forest boundaries, the 

awareness of the villagers and maybe the most important, the establishment of confidence between 

the authorities and the communities, including the finding of benefit-sharing arrangements in case 

of joint management. As the proposed plan recommends, a strictly controlled and restricting timber 

harvesting plan must be accompanied by adequate and judiciously studied compensatory measures. 

In fact, a subtle balance must be found between the requirement of conservation of the most 

valuable sites and the necessity for the resource-adjacent communities to continue to benefit from 

the forest that represents a significant part of their livelihoods. In addition, the District Council will 

have to avoid the obstructions to village empowerment which delayed the approval of other, similar 

operations (the Matumbi Hills and REMP Village Forest Reserves). 

All these observations were taken into account in the proposed framework for the management 

plan. For example, it attaches the utmost importance to the development of plantations and nontimber 

activities. They will not be miraculous solutions, but they will be able to contribute to 

adequate acceptance of the process by the villagers. However, it will be necessary to find funds to 

support the process, even if we can expect that the management will generate benefits likely to be 

invested in forest actions. The search has already successfully begun, but it needs follow-up. Thus, 

for the Ngumburuni operation, but also for all the actions planned in the Rufiji Forest Action Plan, 

the leading role of the District Council and of its technical staff must increase. We have made 

proposals in that sense, knowing that it will not be obvious under structural adjustment. 

Moreover, the effective enforcement of the Plan by the District authorities needs to be strongly 

embedded in a genuine resolve for action at Central Government level. Formulating the new Forest 

Act was a first step. Writing a local Forest Action Plan was a second one. But they will not change 

things significantly if the commitment of the local authorities, supported without any ambiguity by 

the Central Government, is not strong enough. 

But it is not too late. Implementation of the Rufiji Forest Action Plan is starting and the 

Ngumburuni forest can become a showcase for the new policy of the District Council, provided 

that dynamism and initiative do not falter when facing the obstacles. 

99

7 Bibliography 


ALDEN WILY, L. (2000) – Forest management and democracy in east and southern Africa: 

lessons from Tanzania – Gatekeeper Series – London. 

ALDEN WILY, L. (2001) – An introductory word on “community-based forest management” and 

“joint forest management”: what do they mean ? – The Arc Journal n° 12 – Tanzania Forest 

Conservation Group – Dar es Salaam – pp. 1-2. 

ANONYMOUS (1998 a) – National Forest Policy – Ministry of Natural Resources & Tourism of 

the United Republic of Tanzania – Dar es Salaam – 59 p. 

ANONYMOUS (1998 b) – National Beekeeping Policy – Ministry of Natural Resources & 

Tourism of the United Republic of Tanzania – Dar es Salaam – 57 p. 

ANONYMOUS (1999 a) – Investment opportunities in forestry and beekeeping – Ministry of 

Natural Resources & Tourism of the United Republic of Tanzania – Dar es Salaam – 28 p. 

ANONYMOUS (1999 b) – List of seeds for Tanzania – National Tree Seeds Project – Morogoro, 

Tanzania – 28 p. 

ANONYMOUS (2001 a) – The Forests Ordinance (Cap.389); The Forest rules (amendment 2001) 

– Ministry of Natural Resources & Tourism of the United Republic of Tanzania – Dar es Salaam – 

10 p. 

ANONYMOUS (2002 a) – Forest Act, 2002 – Act no 14 of 2002 – Ministry of Natural Resources 

& Tourism of the United Republic of Tanzania – Dar es Salaam - pp. 1159-1281. 

ANONYMOUS (2002 b) – Beekeeping Act, 2002 – Act no 15 of 2002 – Ministry of Natural 

Resources & Tourism of the United Republic of Tanzania – Dar es Salaam - pp. 1283-1333. 

ANONYMOUS (2002 c) – ITTO guidelines for the restoration, management and rehabilitation of 

degraded and secondary tropical forests – ITTO Policy Development Series n o 13 – International 

Tropical Timber Organisation, in collaboration with the Centre for International Forestry Research 

(CIFOR), FAO, IUCN and WWF – Yokohama, Japan – 84 p. 

ANONYMOUS (2003) – Participatory forest management; learning from experience – Web site: 

http://www.cifor.cgiar.org - Last document’s update: Thursday, February 06 2003 – Site designed 

by CIFOR – 2 p. 

BABIN, D., BERTRAND, A. (1998) – Comment gérer le pluralisme ? Subsidiarité et médiation 

patrimoniale – UNASYLVA, special issue: Managing Pluralism for sustainable forestry and rural 

development – CIRAD – 10 p. 

BEENTJE, H.J. (1994) – Kenya trees, shrubs and lianas – National Museums of Kenya – Nairobi, 

Kenya – 722 p. 

BOSWELL, A., MBILINYI, F., MBILINYI, N., MLAWILA, L. (2002) – A preliminary bird 

and bat survey of Nyumburuni forest reserve and neighbouring forests – REMP – 14 p. 

BURGESS, N.D., CLARKE, G.P. (2000) – Coastal forests of Eastern Africa – IUCN – Gland, 

Switzerland and Cambridge, UK – 443 p. 

BUTTOUD, G. (2001) – Gérer les forêts du Sud – L’Harmattan – Paris, France – 255 p. 

100


CAMPBELL, B. (1996) – The miombo in transition: woodlands and welfare in Africa – CIFOR – 

Bogor, Indonesia – 266 p. 

CLAUSNITZER, V. (2003) – Dragonflies of Rufiji District – REMP – 10 p. 

COLLECTIVE (1989) – Memento du forestier – CTFT – Ministry of Cooperation – Paris – 1266 

p. 

COLLECTIVE (1997) – Socio-economic profile of the Rufiji District – District Executive 

Director Office – Utete – 68 p. 

COLLECTIVE (1998) – Tanzania: country study on biological diversity – Government of the 

United Republic of Tanzania, Vice President’ Office – Dar es Salaam – 163 p. 

COLLECTIVE (2001 a) – Community-based forest management guidelines – Ministry of Natural 

Resources and Tourism – Dar es Salaam, Tanzania – 86 p. 

COLLECTIVE (2001 b) – Rapid feasibility study on social, cultural, institutions and technical 

information on production and utilization of biomass fuels in four villages in Ikwiriri township, 

Rufiji District – Tanzania Traditional Energy development and Environment Organization 

(TaTEDO) – Dar es Salaam – 51 p. 

COLLECTIVE (2002) – 10 th Project Steering Committee Meeting, field visit report – Rufiji 

Environment Management Project – Utete – 6 p. 

CRAFTER, S.A., AWIMBO, J., BROEKHOVEN, A.J. (1997) – Non-timber Forest Products: 

value, use and management issues in Africa, including examples from Latin America – IUCN – 

Gland, Switzerland – 167 p. 

D’ARCY, D.C. (1993) – Foresterie communautaire; diagnostic, suivi et évaluation participatifs – 

FAO – Rome – 134 p. 

DURAND, J.M., GALLETTI, S., OMBI, A. (2003) – Etude préalable à l’aménagement de la 

forêt plantée de Mogodé (Cameroun) – Rapport d’étude ENGREF, PRASAC, IRAD – ENGREF 

Montpellier – 38 p. 

GORDON, I, AYIEMBA, W. (2003) – Harnessing butterfly biodiversity for improving 

Livelihoods and forest conservation: the Kipepeo Project – Journal of Environment and 

development, vol. XX, n° X,- Sage publications – 17 p. 

HAMERLYNCK, O. (2003) – Canoes and some related livelihoods issues in Rufiji District - 

Rufiji Environment Management Project – Utete – 2 p. 

HOGAN, A.R., NANDI, R.X.L., MTIGA, M.O., CHIRWA, E.B., KILONZO, P., PETER, J. 

(1999) – Selection of pilot villages – A report on the rapid appraisal methodology used and the 

selections made, together with eleven individual village profiles – Technical report no 2 – Utete – 

125 p. 

HOLMES, J. (1995) – Natural forest handbook for Tanzania – Volume I, Forest ecology and 

management, 526 p. & volume II, Forest policy, planning and utilization, 362 p. – Sokoine 

University of Agriculture, Faculty of Forestry – Morogoro, Tanzania. 

KAALE, B.K., NDILANHA, A.E., SONGELA, F., ABDI, H. (2000) – Fuelwood and charcoal 

uses with possible alternative energy sources in Ikwiriri Township and Mbunjumvuleni village, 

Rufiji District – IUCN, REMP, Utete, 68 p. 

101


KESSY, J.F. and the District Forest Action Plan Task force (2002) – Rufiji Forest Action Plan 

(draft) – Rufiji District Council – Utete – 33p. 

LIBONGI, J. (2003) – Muheza residents take up butterfly-keeping to generate income – Business 

Time n° 771 – Dar-es-Salaam – pp.1-2. 

MALIMBWI, R.E. (2000) – An inventory report of the principal timber resources of the Miombo 

& riverine woodlands & forests of Rufiji District – REMP, technical report n o 12 – Utete - 49 p. 

MBUYA, L.P., MSANGA, H.P., RUFFO, C.K., BIRNIE, A., TENGNAS, B. (1994) – Useful 

trees and shrubs for Tanzania – Identification, propagation and management for agricultural and 

pastoral communities – Regional Soil Conservation Unit – Nairobi, Kenya – 542 p. 

Mc CLANAHAN, T.R., YOUNG, T.P. (1996) – East African ecosystems and their conservation – 

Oxford University Press – New-York, Oxford – 452 p. 

MILLEDGE, S.A.H., KAALE B.K. (2003) – Bridging the gap: linking timber trade from 

Miombo woodlands with infrastructure development and poverty eradication efforts in southern 

Tanzania – TRAFFIC East/Southern Africa – Dar es Salaam, Tanzania – 94 p. 

MOGAKA, H., SIMONS, G., TURPIE, J., EMERTON, L., KARANJA, F. (2001) – Economic 

aspects of community involvement in sustainable forest management in eastern and southern Africa 

– IUCN - Gland, Switzerland – 151 p. 

PALGRAVE, K.C. (2002) – Trees of Southern Africa – Struik Publishers – Cape Town – 1212 p. 

PERKIN, A., HAMERLYNCK, O. (2001) – The forests of Kichi Hills: Biodiversity values and 

threats – The Arc Journal n° 13 – Tanzania Forest Conservation Group – Dar es Salaam – pp. 5-7. 

SAYER, J.A., HARCOURT, C.S., COLLINS, N.M. (1992) – The conservation atlas of tropical 

forests; Africa – IUCN, Gland, Switzerland – World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, 

UK – 288 p. 

SONGAS (2003) – Songo Songo gas to electricity project, environmental studies, final report – 

Assessment of flora biodiversity along the Songo Songo gas to electricity pipeline corridor – 

SONGAS Ltd – 63 p. 

THOMSON, J.T. (1994) – Schéma d’analyse des incitations institutionnelles dans le domaine de 

la foresterie communautaire – FAO – Rome – 140 p. 

WHITE, F. (1983) – The vegetation of Africa. A descriptive memoir to accompany the 

UNESCO/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa – UNESCO, Paris – 356 p. 

WORLD BANK (1999) – Recent experience in collaborative forest management approaches: a 

review of key issues. Publication prepared for the seminar: Sustainable livelihoods in forestry – 

Oxford, U.K. 

102

8 Appendices 

List of Appendices 


Appendix 1: Analysis of Forest Inventory Data............................................................................. 104 

103

Appendix 1: Analysis of Forest Inventory Data 

Sample plot n o : SP1 

Ecological unit : Coastal forest 

X = 505996 


Y = 9127996 

Name of species (vernacular) Name of species (scientific) circumf. (cm) DBH (cm) Height (m) Section (m2) Height (calculated m) Volume (m3) 

Mbelebele Holarrhena pubescens 110 35.0 14 0.0963 23 1.11 

Mkibu Dombeya rotundifolia 86 27.4 0.0589 20 0.59 

Mkongo Afzelia quanzensis 75 23.9 0.0448 19 0.42 

Mpilipili Sorindeia madagascariensis 92 29.3 0.0674 21 0.70 

Mnangu Hymenaea verrucosa 95 30.2 22 0.0718 21 0.76 

Mndototo Lettowianthus stellatus 100 31.8 22 0.0796 22 0.87 


Msufi Pori Bombax rhodognaphalon 138 43.9 0.1515 26 1.97 


Total 0.6831 7.55 

Commercial species 0.2681 3.15 

Number of stems : 9 

Regeneration : 

Number of future stems : 

Nature of the soil : Loam 

Mpilipili (Sorindeia madagascariensis) 


104



X = 504560 


Y = 9128000 

Name of specie (vernacular) Name of species (scientific) circumf. (cm) DBH (cm) Height (m) Section (m2) Height (calculated m) Volume (m3) 

Mkarango / Mtindili 265 84.4 32 0.5588 37 10.41 

Mnangu Hymenaea verrucosa 180 57.3 0.2578 30 3.88 

Kilonzimwitu 106 33.7 0.0894 23 1.01 

Mnabia 70 22.3 0.0390 18 0.35 

Mtondodeka 75 23.9 0.0448 19 0.42 

Mlopolopo Trichilia emetica 98 31.2 30 0.0764 22 0.83 

Mkongodeka 72 22.9 0.0413 18 0.38 

Mtunda Manilkara sansibarensis 80 25.5 0.0509 19 0.49 

Mnabia 84 26.7 0.0561 20 0.56 

Mtunda Manilkara sansibarensis 77 24.5 32 0.0472 

19 0.45 

Mbebeti Albizia sp. 106 33.7 0.0894 

23 1.01 

Mbebeti 

Albizia sp. 

93 29.6 

0.0688 

21 0.72 

Total 

Commercial species 


Regeneration : Mpingwi 

Kipinga 

Kikobati 

Mbunduwakutu 

Mnyambara 


Nature of the soil : sandy 

1.4200 

0.3343 

20.49 

4.71 

105

Sample plot n o : SP3 X = 503115 Y = 9128008 




Mnuso 

82 26.1 

0.0535 20 0.52 

Mnuso 100 31.8 32 0.0796 22 0.87 

Mkangaviko 253 80.5 39 0.5094 

36 9.25 

Mbebeti Albizia sp. 

131 41.7 

0.1366 

25 1.73 

Mkuruti 

85 27.1 0.0575 20 0.57 

Mbebeti 

Albizia sp. 87 27.7 0.0602 20 0.61 

Mbebeti Albizia sp. 103 32.8 0.0844 

22 0.94 

Mmangaosungu 92 29.3 20 0.0674 

21 0.70 

Mmangaosungu 82 26.1 

0.0535 20 0.52 

Mmangaosungu 

71 22.6 

0.0401 18 0.36 

Total 

1.1421 

16.08 



0.0000 

0 



Nature of the soil : Loam / sandy 

Mngongoro (Monanthotaxis buchananii) 

Kikobati 

Mkuruti 

Mhanga 

Mambaato (Grewia goetzeana) 

106

Sample plot n o : SP4 X = 501675 

Y = 9127984 




Mtunda Manilkara sansibarensis 

73 23.2 18 0.0424 18 0.39 

Mlopolopo Trichilia emetica 

139 44.2 

0.1538 

26 2.01 

Mnangu Hymenaea verrucosa 185 58.9 31 0.2724 

31 4.16 

Mnangu Hymenaea verrucosa 63 20.1 0.0316 

17 0.27 

Mnangu 

Hymenaea verrucosa 90 28.6 

0.0645 

21 0.66 

Mungwai 

130 41.4 

0.1345 25 1.69 

Mungwai 130 41.4 18 0.1345 25 1.69 

Mlopolopo Trichilia emetica 74 23.6 0.0436 19 0.40 

Total 

0.8771 11.29 



0.5657 7.51 



Number of stumps : 

Nature of the soil : 

Mpingwi 

Mbelete (Teclea simplicifolia) 

Kobati 

Mbelete 

(Teclea simplicifolia) 

Kobati 

1 ( Mkongo - Afzelia quanzensis) 

sandy 

107


Ecological unit : Miombo 

X = 500223 


Y = 9127998 

Name of species (vernacular) Name of species (scientific) circumf. (cm) DBH (cm) Height (m) Section (m2) Height (calculated m2) Volume (m3) 

Mkongodeka 94 29.9 14 0.0703 15 0.60 

Total 

0.0703 0.60 



0.0000 0.00 




Mnyalanyai 

Mtondoro (Julbernardia globiflora) 

Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa) 

Mwaiji 

Sandy 

108



X = 505996 


Y = 9127996 


Mkundekunde Senna sp. 65 20.7 15 0.0336 17 0.29 

Mbunduwakutu 72 22.9 0.0413 18 0.38 

Mkongodeka 64 20.4 0.0326 17 0.28 

Mhanga 143 45.5 39 0.1627 27 2.16 

Mkuruti 122 38.8 20 0.1184 24 1.44 

Mkongodeka 176 56.0 0.2465 30 3.67 

Total 0.6351 8.21 

Commercial species 0.0000 0 





Mtete (Hymenocardia ulmoides) 


Mnuso 

Mpojoa 




Kinuso cha mkunguti 

Sandy 

109


Ecological unit : Riverine forest 


Y = 9129442 




Mkuruti 70 22.3 0.0390 18 0.35 

Mkuruti 95 30.2 15 0.0718 21 0.76 



Mkuruti 63 20.1 0.0316 17 0.27 

Mtasi Baphia kirkii 76 24.2 0.0460 19 0.43 

Mkongo Afzelia quanzensis 63 20.1 0.0316 

17 0.27 

Mkuruti 73 23.2 0.0424 18 0.39 

Mkuruti 101 32.1 0.0812 22 0.89 


Mkuruti 

85 27.1 0.0575 20 0.57 


Total 

0.7649 7.65 



0.4414 4.42 




Mtunda (Manilkara sansibarensis) 

Mkonge (Milletia dura) 





Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis) 

Sandy / Loam 

110


Ecological unit : miombo 


X = 503115 Y = 9129454 


Mninga Pterocarpus angolensis 125 39.8 18 0.1243 18 1.20 

Mpangapanga Milletia stulhmanii 90 28.6 22 0.0645 15 0.54 

Mtondoro Julbernardia globiflora 97 30.9 0.0749 16 0.65 

Mtondoro Julbernardia globiflora 272 86.6 25 0.5887 29 7.91 

Total 0.8524 10.31 





Nature of the soil : Sandy 

Mpugupugu (Markhamia lutea) 

Kipungu 

Mpome (Commiphora ugogensis) 

Mnyakara 


Mtopetope (Annona senegalensis) 

111



X = 504549 


Y = 9129453 

Name of species (vernacular) Name of species (scientific) circumf. (cm) DBH (cm) Height (m) Section (m Height (calculated m) 

2 ) Volume (m 3 ) 

Mlambunju Commiphora sp. 67 21.3 0.0357 13 0.27 

Mtopetope Annona senegalensis 78 24.8 12 0.0484 14 0.38 

Mneke Pteleopsis myrtifolia 105 33.4 17 0.0877 16 0.79 

Mwembe ngongo 176 56.0 20 0.2465 22 2.76 

Mtonga Strychnos spinosa 94 29.9 0.0703 15 0.60 

Mngongo Sclerocarya birrea 95 30.2 0.0718 15 0.62 

Total 0.5605 5.42 



0.0718 0.62 


Mpangapanga (Milletia stuhlmanii) 


Mpangapanga (Milletia stuhlmanii) 

Mkibu (Dombeya rotundifolia) 


Shrubs : Mpakacha (Deinbolia borbonica) 



112


Ecological unit : Coastal forest (secondary) 


Y = 9129446 


Mpome Commiphora ugogensis 122 38.8 17 0.1184 24 1.44 

Mtunda Manilkara sansibarensis 96 30.6 14 0.0733 21 0.78 

Total 

0.1918 2.22 



0.0000 0 


Mpambalaya 

Mkandabia 



Msisi ngololo 


Nature of the soil : Loam / Sandy 

113



X = 507456 


Y = 9129448 


Mtasi Baphia kirkii 90 28.6 30 0.0645 21 0.66 


Mnabia 130 41.4 27 0.1345 25 1.69 

Mngwai 131 41.7 0.1366 25 1.73 



Mnuso 85 27.1 0.0575 20 0.57 



Mkongo Afzelia quanzensis 105 33.4 0.0877 

22 0.98 


Total 1.1927 15.15 



0.8120 10.65 




Mnyambara 

Mtunda ( Manilkara sansibarensis) 

Mkahamba 

Mnyambara 

Matakogambuya 

Mnuso 

Mnuso 

sandy 

114


Y = 9129452 




Mkongo Afzelia quanzensis 103 32.8 32 0.0844 22 0.94 




Mnuso 133 42.3 30 0.1408 26 1.80 

Mdadarika Newtonia sp. 91 29.0 32 0.0659 21 0.68 

Mnabia 128 40.7 0.1304 25 1.63 

Mnabia 101 32.1 0.0812 22 0.89 


Mnuso 65 20.7 0.0336 17 0.29 

Mkuruti 66 21.0 0.0347 17 0.30 

Mkuruti 123 39.2 0.1204 24 1.47 

Mkuruti 120 38.2 0.1146 24 1.38 

Mkuruti 82 26.1 0.0535 20 0.52 

Mnuso 161 51.2 0.2063 28 2.92 

Msweli Grewia sp. 64 20.4 0.0326 17 0.28 

Total 1.4070 16.68 



0.4590 5.20 

Regeneration : Mkahamba 

Mnyanyati 

Mlopolopo (Trichilia emetica) 

Nyakahamba (Antidesma venosum) 

Mtiriri 

Number of future stems : Mkalioto 

Mtabwe ( Grewia trichocarpa) 

Mnuso 

Mnuso 

Mtabwe (Grewia trichocarpa) 


Number of stumps : Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis) (2) 

Mtasi (Baphia kirkii) (3) 

Nature of the soil : Sandy / Loam 

115

Sample plot n o : SP13 X = 510342 Y = 9130868 





Mtanga Albizia versicolor 69 22.0 22 0.0379 18 0.34 

Mtanga Albizia versicolor 66 21.0 0.0347 17 0.30 

Mohoro Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia 63 20.1 13 0.0316 17 0.27 

Mohoro Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia 86 27.4 0.0589 20 0.59 


Total 

0.2526 2.33 



0.1197 1.09 



Mtete (hymenocardia ulmoides) 

Mtasi (Baphia kirkii) 

Number of future stems : Mtanga (Albizia versicolor) 





Mohoro (Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia) 

Shrubs : Nyepagamba 

Number of stumps : 


sandy 

116



X = 508890 


Y = 9130879 



Mneke Pteleopsis myrtifolia 63 20.1 0.0316 17 0.27 



Mpugupugu Markhamia lutea 67 21.3 0.0357 18 0.31 

Mmangangwaru Afrormosia angolensis 75 23.9 0.0448 19 0.42 




Mkombasiko Crossopteryx febrifuga 68 21.6 0.0368 18 0.33 

Mndototo Lettowianthus stellatus 91 29.0 0.0659 21 0.68 

Total 

0.5985 6.26 



0.1650 1.51 

Regeneration : Mnungu (Zanthoxylum chalybeum) 

Mtanga (Albizia versicolor) 


Mkabusi (Rytigynia uhligii) 


Number of future stems : Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa) 

Mtejateja 




sandy / loam 

117


Y = 9130905 

Ecological unit : coastal forest 



Mnondondo Xeroderris stuhlmanii 113 36.0 21 0.1016 23 1.19 

Msufi pori Bombax rhodognaphalon 126 40.1 29 0.1263 25 1.57 


Mtumba Lannea schweinfurthii 132 42.0 27 0.1387 25 1.76 


Mtimbo 93 29.6 0.0688 21 0.72 

Msibondo 77 24.5 0.0472 

19 0.45 


Mkwaju Tamarindus indica 63 20.1 0.0316 17 0.27 

kikomopende 107 34.1 0.0911 23 1.03 





Total 1.0711 11.99 



0.4276 4.74 






Shrubs: 

Mbelebele (Holarrhena pubescens) 

Kinyunde (Cynometra suahilensis) 

Number of future stems : Mkonge (Milletia dura) 




118




X = 505998 Y = 9130900 






Mkuruti 69 22.0 0.0379 18 0.34 



Total 0.4419 4.71 



0.2119 2.29 


Mbunduwakutu 


kiingiri 

Number of future stems : Mtete (hymenocardia ulmoides) 




Shrubs : Mpwekanyati 

Msekea 


119


X = 504563 



Y = 9130893 


Mpugupugu Markhamia lutea 63 20.1 13 0.0316 17 0.27 


Mulaula Voacanga africana 76 24.2 13 0.0460 19 0.43 

Mulaula Voacanga africana 70 22.3 0.0390 18 0.35 

Total 0.1567 1.41 



0.0316 0.27 



Shrubs : 


Mpojoa 

Mulaula (Voacanga africana) 

Mpambalaya 

Nyakahamba 

Mpambalaya 

Mpojoa 

Mpakacha (Deinbolia borbonica) 

Sandy 

120


Ecological unit : Woodland 


X = 501662 Y = 9130890 


Mtondoro Julbernardia globiflora 160 50.9 20 0.2037 21 2.19 

Myombo Brachystegia spiciformis 89 28.3 17 0.0630 15 0.53 

Total 0.2668 2.72 




Mtaba (Ximenia caffra) 

Mnondura 

Mtaba (Ximenia caffra) 

Mnondura 

Number of future stems : Myombo (Brachystegia spiciformis) 


Kipomu 

Accacia sp. 

Mnungamo 

Shrubs : Msekea 


121



X = 500266 


Y = 9130857 



Mkolowa Accacia sp. 110 35.0 20 0.0963 17 0.88 

Mtumba Lannea schweinfurthii 130 41.4 0.1345 19 1.32 

Myombo Brachystegia spiciformis 120 38.2 25 0.1146 18 1.09 

Mtogo Diplorynchus condilocarpon 118 37.6 0.1108 17 1.05 

Mnondura 70 22.3 0.0390 13 0.30 


Mkolowa Accacia sp. 83 26.4 0.0548 14 0.45 

Total 0.7080 6.48 





Mtesa 

Mnondura 

Mpangapanga (Millettia stuhlmannii) 

Mhiru (Vangueria infausta) 

Number of future stems : Mhiru (Vangueria infausta) 

Mnondura 

Nature of the soil : sandy / loam 

122




X = 508809 Y = 9132524 


Mneke Pteleosis myrtifolia 95 30.2 20 0.0718 21 0.76 


Mnondura 109 34.7 22 0.0945 23 1.08 

Mneke Pteleosis myrtifolia 75 23.9 0.0448 19 0.42 

Mfuru Vitex doniana 123 39.2 0.1204 24 1.47 



Total 0.5577 6.21 



0.0000 0 


Mbigicho (Gardenia ternifolia) 

Mnungu (Zanthoxylum chalybeum) 

Mnyanyati / Mpwangati 



Number of future stems : Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis) 

Mneke (Pteleosis myrtifolia) 

Shrubs: Kinyunde (Cynometra suahilensis) 


123



Y = 9132349 

Ecological unit : Riverine forest 


Mbigicho Gardenia ternifolia 96 30.6 21 0.0733 21 0.78 

Mnee Syzygium guineense 74 23.6 22 0.0436 19 0.40 

Mnee Syzygium guineense 104 33.1 18 0.0861 22 0.96 

Myengawa Kigelia africana 148 47.1 0.1743 27 2.36 

Mbigicho Gardenia ternifolia 88 28.0 0.0616 20 0.63 



Mnee Syzygium guineense 119 37.9 0.1127 24 1.35 








Total 

1.5234 19.24 



0.0000 0.00 

Regeneration : Mkonge (Millettia dura) 



Mnee (Syzygium guineense) 

Mbukuli 

Mkonge (Millettia dura) 



Mtomondo (Rauvolfia caffra) 

Liana : 

Ngombere 

Nature of the soil : Clay / Loam 

124




X = 507312 Y = 9127984 


Mkuruti 75 23.9 0.0448 19 0.42 

Mkuruti 104 33.1 32 0.0861 22 0.96 


Mkuruti 75 23.9 0.0448 19 0.42 

Mkuruti 97 30.9 27 0.0749 21 0.80 

Mnuso 167 53.2 0.2219 29 3.21 

Mtopetope Annona senegalensis 75 23.9 0.0448 

19 0.42 

Mtopetope Annona senegalensis 63 20.1 0.0316 17 0.27 

Total 0.6161 7.19 



0.0000 0 


Mtete (2) (Hymenocardia ulmoides) 

Mkatitu (2) 

Mkingili 

Mpome (Commiphora ugogensis) 

Mningahoka (kifukura Nyoka) (2) (Apodytes dimidiata) 

Mnyambara 


125



X = 508465 


Y = 9126674 



Mpilipili 

Sorindeia madagascariensis 82 26.1 0.0535 20 0.52 

Mpilipili 

Sorindeia madagascariensis 99 31.5 0.0780 22 0.85 

Mdimupori Suregada zanzibariensis 292 92.9 33 0.6785 39 13.32 


Mpilipili Sorindeia madagascariensis 99 31.5 25 0.0780 22 0.85 

Mpome Commiphora ugogensis 99 31.5 0.0780 

22 0.85 

Mpilipili Sorindeia madagascariensis 75 23.9 0.0448 

19 0.42 

Mpome Commiphora ugogensis 90 28.6 

0.0645 21 0.66 



Total 1.4774 22.23 



0.0000 0 



Mkingili (5) 

Mbunduwakutu (2) 



Kipinga 

Sandy / loam 

126


Ecological unit : Totally destroyed woodland 


Y = 9126557 

Height (m) Section (m 2 Name of species (vernacular) Name of species (scientific) circumf. (cm) DBH (cm) ) Height (calculated m) Volume (m 3 ) 

none 

Total 

0.0000 0.00 



0.0000 0.00 



Mfuru (Vitex doniana) (18) 

Mpugupugu (Markhamia lutea) (10) 

Mulaula (Voacanga africana) (6) 

Mkwanga (Acacia tortilis) (1) 

Sandy 

127




X = 504585 Y = 9126548 


Mwakala 113 36.0 0.1016 23 1.19 







Mnabia 79 25.1 0.0497 19 0.48 


Total 

1.2281 16.27 



0.0000 0 

Regeneration : Mtasi (Baphia kirkii) (2) 

Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis) (1) 

Msweli (Grewia sp. ?) (1) 

Mkolekole (4) 

Mkingili (2) 

Kinganambele (2) 


sandy / loam 

128




Y = 9126556 



Mtete Hymenocardia ulmoides 74 23.6 18 0.0436 19 0.40 

Mmangwangwaru Afrormosia angolensis 102 32.5 0.0828 22 0.91 


Msweli Grewia sp. 65 20.7 0.0336 

17 0.29 

Mndototo 

Lettowianthus stellatus 139 44.2 0.1538 26 2.01 

Total 0.4522 5.13 



0.1196 1.24 


Mtaranda (Markhamia obtusifolia) 

Mnyambara 

Mohoro (Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia) 



Number of future stems : Mohoro (Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia) 


Mkuruti 



Sandy 

129


Y = 9126553 




Mndototo Lettowianthus stellatus 160 50.9 

0.2037 28 2.88 






Mpambalaya 136 43.3 0.1472 26 1.90 

Mndundu Cordyla africana 120 38.2 27 0.1146 24 1.38 




Total 1.3252 16.69 



0.4207 4.97 


Mkabusi (Rytigynia uhligii) 


Mtabu 

Mpingwi 

Number of future stems : Mtabu 

Shrubs : 



130



X = 500233 


Y = 9126545 

Name of species (vernacular) Name of species (scientific) circumf. (cm) DBH (cm) Height (m) Section (m 2 ) Height (calculated m) Volume (m 3 ) 

Muungo Acacia nilotica 65 20.7 10 0.0336 12 0.25 



Total 0.1574 1.28 




Mnywamaji (Laprothamnus zanguebaricus) 

Msegese (Piliostigma thonningii) 

Kiingiri 

Nature of the soil : Clay / loam 

131



X = 498759 


Y = 9126541 

Name of species (vernacular) Name of species (scientific) circ. (cm) DBH (cm) Height (m) Section (m2) Height (calculated m) Volume (m3) 


Mnondondo Xeroderris stuhlmannii 140 44.6 17 0.1560 19 1.58 

Nyamakwenge Ablygonocarpus andongensis 166 52.8 22 0.2193 21 2.39 

Total 0.5867 6.27 



0.3753 3.98 





Future stems : 







132




X = 498781 Y = 9125113 


none 

Total 0 0 



0 0 




Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis) 



Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis) 

Mpingo (Dalbergia melanoxylon) 



Loam 

133


X = 500218 



Y = 9125121 


Muukurio Lannea humilis 63 20.1 18 0.0316 17 0.27 




Mulaula Voacanga africana 63 20.1 17 0.0316 17 0.27 

Mpingo Dalbergia melanoxylon 130 41.4 0.1345 25 1.69 

Mpugupugu Markhamia obtusifolia 86 27.4 0.0589 20 0.59 



Mpome Commiphora ugogensis 106 33.7 0.0894 23 1.01 

Total 0.5336 5.51 











Mtiriri 

Mtopetope ( Annona senegalensis) 





sandy 

134



X = 501671 


Y = 9125104 


Kiombo 82 26.1 0.0535 14 0.43 

Kiombo 70 22.3 0.0390 13 0.30 

Mtanga Albizia versicolor 188 59.8 26 0.2813 23 3.23 





Mkongodeka 72 22.9 0.0413 13 0.32 

Mpumbili 67 21.3 0.0357 13 0.27 

Mfuru pori 70 22.3 0.0390 13 0.30 

Mtonga / Kiburuta Strychnos spinosa 76 24.2 0.0460 13 0.36 

Total 1.1037 11.48 



0.2813 3.23 




Matakoyambuya 


Shrubs : 


Msekea 


135




X = 503153 Y = 9125110 



Mtete Hymenocardia ulmoides 86 27.4 0.0589 20 0.59 

Mbebeti Albizia sp. 156 49.7 0.1937 28 2.70 

Mwakala 174 55.4 0.2409 30 3.56 

Mkweanyani / ngude Sterculia appendiculata 158 50.3 39 0.1987 28 2.79 

Mndundu Cordyla africana 197 62.7 25 0.3088 32 4.89 

Mangauzungu 

66 21.0 0.0347 17 0.30 

Mbunduwakutu 70 22.3 0.0390 18 0.35 

Total 1.1798 16.42 



0.6127 8.91 



Msweli (Grewia sp.) 

Mnyambara 

Kipungu 

Number of future stems : Mndototo (Lettowianthus stellatus) 

Kinyomwile 


Shrubs : 

Msekea 

kinyunde (Cynometra suahilensis) 


sandy 

136




X = 504569 Y = 9125094 


Mtiriri 130 41.4 20 0.1345 25 1.69 


Mtete Hymenocardia ulmoides 78 24.8 22 0.0484 19 0.46 

Mbunduwakutu 63 20.1 0.0316 

17 0.27 


Mkuruti 76 24.2 0.0460 19 0.43 

Mkuruti 78 24.8 0.0484 19 0.46 

Mkuruti 120 38.2 37 0.1146 24 1.38 

Mkongodeka 75 23.9 0.0448 19 0.42 


Total 0.7877 9.14 



0.3195 4.02 




Mpojoa 

kipungu 

Nyakaha mba (Antidesma venosum) 

Shrubs : 



137


Y = 9125104 





Mohoro Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia 93 29.6 0.0688 

15 0.59 

Mnabia 160 50.9 24 0.2037 

21 2.19 

Mlundikafuru 66 21.0 

0.0347 12 0.26 

Mlundikafuru 76 24.2 12 0.0460 13 0.36 



Total 0.5182 4.75 



0.0932 0.73 



Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis) 

Mhiya (2) 


Mkwaju (Tamarindus indica ) (3) 


Mkundekunde (Senna sp. ) 

Mikoche (Hyphaene compressa) (4) 

Loam 

138


Y = 9125101 




Mkwanga Acacia tortilis 102 32.5 14 0.0828 16 0.74 



Total 

0.1501 1.23 



0.0000 0.00 


Lianas : 


Mneke (Pteleosis myrtifolia) (10) 

Mpugupugu (Markhamia obtusifolia) (3) 

Mngwai (7) 

Msegese (Piliostigma thonningii) 

Mkwezingura (2) 

Loam / sandy 

139




Y = 9123668 


Mnondondo Xeroderris stuhlmannii 165 52.5 25 0.2166 21 2.36 

Mtasi Baphia kirkii 72 22.9 

0.0413 13 0.32 

Mtasi Baphia kirkii 64 20.4 

0.0326 12 0.24 

Mulaula Voacanga africana 102 32.5 16 0.0828 

16 0.74 

Mulaula Voacanga africana 82 26.1 0.0535 14 0.43 



Mkulo Trichilia dregeana 175 55.7 0.2437 

22 2.72 

Mpome Commiphora ugogensis 78 24.8 0.0484 14 0.38 

Total 

0.9110 9.05 



0.3221 3.14 

Regeneration : Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa) 

Mtomoni / Mtogo (Diplorynchus condilocarpon) 


Mtabu 

Mpugupugu 

(Markhamia lutea) 


Shrubs : 

Msekea 


sandy 

140




X = 503128 

Y = 9123667 



Mnangu Hymenaea verrucosa 176 56.0 23 0.2465 

22 2.76 


Mkomampembe 90 28.6 13 0.0645 15 0.54 

Mohoro Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia 75 23.9 0.0448 

13 0.35 


Mtogo / Mtomoni Diplorynchus condilocarpon 109 34.7 0.0945 17 0.86 

Mkulo Trichilia dregeana 94 29.9 19 0.0703 15 0.60 

Mkulo Trichilia dregeana 70 22.3 0.0390 13 0.30 

Mnondondo Xeroderris stuhlmannii 144 45.8 0.1650 20 1.70 

Mtogo / Mtomoni Diplorynchus condilocarpon 177 56.3 0.2493 22 2.80 

Mnondondo Xeroderris stuhlmannii 177 56.3 0.2493 22 2.80 





Total 1.6060 15.84 



0.6608 

7.25 

Regeneration : Mtabwe (Grewia trichocarpa) 






Number of future stems: Mtete (Hymenocardia ulmoides) 



Mkulo (Trichilia dregeana) 

Nature of the soil: 

Mngongoro (Monanthotaxis buchananii) 

Loam / sandy 

141




Y = 9123667 


Mwakala 93 29.6 20 0.0688 21 0.72 

Mnungu Zanthoxylum chalybeum 92 29.3 0.0674 21 0.70 


Mtiriri 297 94.5 21 0.7019 40 13.91 


Mnepa / Mneke Pteleopsis myrtifolia 100 31.8 22 0.0796 22 0.87 


Total 1.1302 18.45 




Mpuya (Bersama abyssinica) 


Mbelebele (Holarrhena pubescens) 


Mkundekunde (Senna sp.) 


Future stems : Nyakahamba (Antidesma venosum) 



Sandy / Loam 

142




Y = 9123648 


Mtopetope Annona senegalensis 120 38.2 16 0.1146 18 1.09 


Mbula / mula 176 56.0 24 0.2465 22 2.76 

Ngwai / Mgombakilanga 79 25.1 0.0497 14 0.40 




Total 1.0519 11.33 



0.0316 0.23 



Mbula 


Future stems : Mtanga (Albizia versicolor) 

Lianas : Mkwezingura 


143


X = 498805 



Y = 9123678 


Acacia sp. 116 36.9 24 0.1071 24 1.27 



Total 0.1831 1.95 




Kipinga 


Mneke (Pteleopsis myrtifolia) 






Msekea 


144



X = 500230 


Y = 9122235 




Mkongodeka 63 20.1 16 0.0316 17 0.27 

Mkuruti 130 41.4 24 0.1345 25 1.69 

Mkongodeka 68 21.6 0.0368 18 0.33 

Mkongodeka 85 27.1 0.0575 20 0.57 



Mkuruti 110 35.0 0.0963 23 1.11 

Mkongodeka 107 34.1 0.0911 23 1.03 

Mkongodeka 110 35.0 0.0963 23 1.11 

Mkongodeka 145 46.2 0.1673 27 2.24 

Total 1.2075 15.04 



0.0424 0.39 


Mbelebele (Holarrhena pubescens ?) 


Mbebeti (Albizia sp.) 

Mkuruti 

Number of future stems : Mtasi (Baphia kirkii) 

Mkongodeka 



145




Y = 9122207 



Mtete 

Hymenocardia ulmoides 67 21.3 0.0357 18 0.31 



Mkolowa Acacia sp. 83 26.4 13 0.0548 20 0.54 

Muumburu 102 32.5 0.0828 22 0.91 

Total 0.3110 3.09 



0.0703 0.74 


Muungoma (Acacia sp.) 




Number of future stems : Mtete (Hymenocardia ulmoides) 




146




Y = 9122218 




Mnabia 103 32.8 29 0.0844 22 0.94 




Mtaranda Markhamia obtusifolia 88 28.0 0.0616 20 0.63 


Total 

0.5378 5.77 



0.2893 3.21 


Mtabu 

Mtiriri 

Mulaula 

(Voacanga africana) 

Future stems : Mkongo (Afzelia quanzensis) 



Mnongoro (Monanthotaxis buchananii) 

Shrubs : 


Shingororo 


Sandy 

147


Calculation of the Height / Diameter Equation for the Miombo and Woodland Patches 

ln(H) 

cir. (cm) DBH (cm) Height (m) ln(DBH) ln(H) 

94 29.9 14 3.40 2.64 

125 39.8 18 3.68 2.89 

90 28.6 22 3.36 3.09 

272 86.6 25 4.46 3.22 

78 24.8 12 3.21 2.48 

105 33.4 17 3.51 2.83 

176 56.0 20 4.03 3.00 

160 50.9 20 3.93 3.00 

89 28.3 17 3.34 2.83 

105 33.4 22 3.51 3.09 

110 35.0 20 3.56 3.00 

120 38.2 25 3.64 3.22 

65 20.7 10 3.03 2.30 

94 29.9 12 3.40 2.48 

82 26.1 11 3.26 2.40 

163 51.9 23 3.95 3.14 

140 44.6 17 3.80 2.83 

166 52.8 22 3.97 3.09 

188 59.8 26 4.09 3.26 SUMMARY OUTPUT 

122 38.8 18 3.66 2.89 

217 69.1 21 4.24 3.04 Regression Statistics 

Height / diameter equation: 

95 30.2 15 3.41 2.71Multiple R 0.78157 

160 

76 

50.9 

24.2 

24 

12 

3.93 

3.19 

3.18R Square 

2.48Adj. R Square 

0.61085 

0.59906 

ln(H) = 0,722 + 0,590ln(DBH) 

102 32.5 14 3.48 2.64Standard Error 0.16797 

67 21.3 14 3.06 2.64Observations 

35 

165 52.5 25 3.96 3.22 

102 32.5 16 3.48 2.77ANOVA 

142 45.2 16 3.81 2.77 df SS MS F Significance F 

176 56.0 23 4.03 3.14Regression 1 1.461446 1.461446 51.80047 2.9905E-08 

90 28.6 13 3.36 2.56Residual 33 0.931029 0.028213 

94 29.9 19 3.40 2.94Total 34 2.392475 

120 38.2 16 3.64 2.77 

176 56.0 24 4.03 3.18 Coeff St. Error t Stat P-value Lower 95% Upper 95% Lower 95% Upper 95% 

183 58.3 20 4.06 3.00Intercept 0.72223 0.300871 2.400471 0.022172 0.11010482 1.334357 0.110105 1.334357 

X Variable 1 0.59017 0.082 7.197254 2.99E-08 0.42334224 0.757001 0.423342 0.757001 

148


Calculation of the Height / Diameter Equation for the Coastal Forest Patches 

cir. 

ln 

(cm) DBH (cm ) Height (m) (DBH) ln(H) 

110 35.0 14 3.6 2.6 

ln(H) 

95 30.2 22 3.4 3.1 

100 31.8 22 3.5 3.1 

265 84.4 32 4.4 3.5 

98 31.2 30 3.4 3.4 

77 24.5 32 3.2 3.5 

100 31.8 32 3.5 3.5 

253 80.5 39 4.4 3.7 

92 29.3 20 3.4 3.0 

73 23.2 18 3.1 2.9 

185 58.9 31 4.1 

3.4 

130 41.4 18 3.7 

2.9 

65 20.7 15 3.0 2.7 

143 

122 

45.5 

38.8 

39 

20 

3.8 

3.7 

3.7 

3.0 

ln(DBH) 

122 38.8 17 3 .7 2.8 

96 30.6 14 3 .4 2.6 

90 28.6 30 3.4 3.4 SUMMARY OUTPUT 

130 41.4 27 3.7 3.3 

190 60.5 32 4.1 3.5 Regression Statistics 

Height / diameter equation : 

103 

133 

32.8 

42.3 

32 

30 

3.5 

3.7 

3.5 Multiple R 

3.4R Square 

0.649326 

0.421624 

ln(H) = 1,187 + 0,548ln(DBH) 

91 29.0 32 3.4 3.5Adjusted R Square 0.414571 

77 24.5 18 3.2 2.9Standard Error 0.232018 

69 22.0 22 3.1 3.1Observations 84 

63 20.1 13 3.0 2.6 

91 29.0 26 3.4 

3.3ANOVA 

1 44 45.8 27 3.8 3.3 df SS MS F Significance F 

113 36.0 21 3.6 3.0 Regression 1 3.217908 3.217908 59.77638 2.37E-11 

126 40.1 29 3.7 3.4Residual 82 4.414259 0.053832 

132 42.0 27 3.7 3.3Total 83 7.632167 

115 36.6 21 3 .6 3.0 

89 28.3 19 3.3 2.9 Coeff St. Error t Stat P-value Lower 95% Upper 95% Lower 95% Upper 95% 

63 20.1 13 3.0 2.6Intercept 1.187091 0.250805 4.733124 9.12E-06 0.68816 1.686022 0.68816 1.68602218 

71 22.6 13 3.1 2.6X Variable 1 0.548458 0.070938 7.731519 2.37E-11 0.40734 0.689576 0.40734 0.68957581 

149

Height 


Height 

cir. (cm) DBH (cm) (m) ln (DBH) ln(H) 

cir. (cm) DBH (cm) (m) ln (DBH) ln(H) 

76 24.2 13 3.2 2.6 297 94.5 31 4.5 3.4 

95 30.2 20 3.4 3.0 100 31.8 22 3.5 3.1 

117 37.2 22 3.6 3.1 116 36.9 24 3.6 3.2 

109 34.7 22 3.5 3.1 73 23.2 22 3.1 3.1 

104 33.1 32 3.5 3.5 65 20.7 20 3.0 3.0 

92 29.3 22 3.4 3.1 184 58.6 34 4.1 3.5 

97 30.9 27 3.4 3.3 63 20.1 16 3.0 2.8 

108 34.4 31 3.5 3.4 130 41.4 24 3.7 3.2 

292 92.9 33 4.5 3.5 94 29.9 16 3.4 2.8 

99 31.5 25 3.5 3.2 67 21.3 15 3.1 2.7 

187 59.5 32 4.1 3.5 83 26.4 13 3.3 2.6 

134 42.7 36 3.8 3.6 129 41.1 25 3.7 3.2 

155 49.3 34 3.9 3.5 103 32.8 29 3.5 3.4 

68 21.6 20 3.1 3.0 88 28.0 15 3.3 2.7 

74 23.6 18 3.2 2.9 88 28.0 15 3.3 2.7 

113 36.0 28 3.6 3.3 95 30.2 15 3.4 2.7 

120 38.2 21 3.6 3.0 86 27.4 17 3.3 2.8 

120 38.2 27 3.6 3.3 96 30.6 21 3.4 3.0 

148 47.1 23 3.9 3.1 74 23.6 22 3.2 3.1 

63 20.1 18 3.0 2.9 104 33.1 18 3.5 2.9 

63 20.1 16 3.0 2.8 

63 20.1 17 3.0 2.8 

115 36.6 21 3.6 3.0 

158 50.3 39 3.9 3.7 

197 62.7 25 4.1 3.2 

130 41.4 20 3.7 3.0 

78 24.8 22 3.2 3.1 

120 38.2 37 3.6 3.6 

93 29.6 20 3.4 3.0 

150


Appendix 2: List of Species 

In alphabetical order of the vernacular names 

TREES 

Name of species (vernacular) Name of species (scientific) Class Ecological unit 

Kiingiri miombo - coastal forest 

Kikobati 


Kikomopende coastal forest 

Kilonzimwitu coastal forest 

Kinganambele coastal forest 

Kinuso cha mkunguti coastal forest 

Kinyomwile coastal forest 

Kiombo miombo 

Kipinga coastal forest 

Kipomu miombo 

Kipungu miombo 

Kobati coastal forest 

Mambaato Grewia goetzeana coastal forest 

Mangauzungu coastal forest 

Matakoyambuya miombo - coastal forest 

Mbebeti Albizia sp. coastal forest 

Mbelebele Holarrhena pubescens coastal forest 

Mbelete Teclea simplicifolia coastal forest 

Mbigicho Gardenia ternifolia coastal forest - riverine forest 

Mbukuli riverine forest 

Mbula / mula / mbura miombo 

Mbunduwakutu 


Mdadarika Newtonia sp. II coastal forest 

Mdimupori 

Suregada zanzibariensis coastal forest 

miombo - coastal forest - riverine 

Mfuru Vitex doniana 

forest 

Mfuru pori miombo 

Mhanga coastal forest 

Mhiru Vangueria infausta miombo - coastal forest 

Mhiya miombo 

Mikoche Hyphaene compressa miombo 

Mkabusi Rytigynia uhligii coastal forest 

Mkahamba coastal forest 

Mkalioto coastal forest 

Mkandabia coastal forest 

Mkangaviko coastal forest 

Mkarango / Mtindili coastal forest 

Mkatitu coastal forest 

Mkibu Dombeya rotundifolia miombo - coastal forest 

Mkingili coastal forest 

Mkolekole 


Mkolowa Acacia sp. 

miombo - coastal forest 

Mkomampembe 

miombo 

Mkombasiko Crossopteryx febrifuga coastal forest 

Mkonge Millettia dura 

riverine forest - coastal forest 


Mkongo Afzelia quanzensis II forest 

Mkongodeka miombo - coastal forest 

151



Mkulo Trichilia dregeana miombo 

Mkundekunde Senna sp. miombo - coastal forest 

Mkuruti coastal forest - riverine forest 

Mkwaju Tamarindus indica V? miombo - coastal forest 

Mkwanga 

Acacia tortilis miombo 

Mkweanyani / ngude Sterculia appendiculata V? coastal forest 

Mlambunju Commiphora sp. miombo 

Mlopolopo Trichilia emetica V coastal forest 

Mlundikafuru miombo 

Mmangangwaru Afrormosia angolensis V miombo - coastal forest 

Mmangaosungu coastal forest 

Mnabia / Mlabia miombo - coastal forest 


Mnangu Hymenaea verrucosa V forest 

Mndototo Lettowianthus stellatus miombo - coastal forest 

Mndundu Cordyla africana IV coastal forest 

Mnee Syzygium guineense riverine forest 

Mnepa / Mneke Pteleopsis myrtifolia miombo - coastal forest 

Mngongo Sclerocarya birrea V miombo 

Mngongoro Monanthotaxis buchananii miombo - coastal forest 

Mngwai miombo - coastal forest 

Mninga Pterocarpus angolensis II miombo - coastal forest 

Mningahoka (kifukura Nyoka) Apodytes dimidiata coastal forest 

Mnondondo Xeroderris stuhlmannii IV? miombo - coastal forest 

Mnondura 


Mnongoro Monanthotaxis buchananii coastal forest 

Mnungamo miombo 

Mnungu Zanthoxylum chalybeum miombo - coastal forest 

Mnuso 


Mnyakara / mwakala miombo 

Mnyambara coastal forest 

Mnyanyati / Mpwangati coastal forest 

Mnywamaji Laprothamnus zanguebaricus 

Pseudolachnostylis 

miombo 

Mohoro 

maprouneifolia miombo - coastal forest 

Mpambalaya coastal forest 

Mpangapanga / mnyamwea Millettia stuhlmannii II miombo 

Mpilipili Sorindeia madagascariensis coastal forest 

Mpingo Dalbergia melanoxylon I miombo - coastal forest 

Mpingwi / kipingwi coastal forest 

Mpojoa coastal forest 

Mpome Commiphora ugogensis miombo - coastal forest 

Mpugupugu Markhamia lutea II miombo - coastal forest 

Mpumbili miombo 

Mpuya Bersama abyssinica coastal forest 

Msegese 

Piliostigma thonningii miombo 

Msibondo coastal forest 

Msufi Pori / Mkunya Bombax rhodognaphalon IV coastal forest 

Msweli Grewia sp. ? coastal forest 

Mtaba Ximenia caffra miombo 

Mtabu miombo - coastal forest 

Mtabwe Grewia trichocarpa miombo - coastal forest 

152



Mtanga Albizia versicolor III miombo - coastal forest 

Mtaranda / mtalawanda Markhamia obtusifolia II coastal forest 

miombo - riverine forest - coastal 

Mtasi Baphia kirkii III forest 

Mtejateja 


Mtesa miombo 

Mtete Hymenocardia ulmoides miombo - coastal forest 

Mtimbo coastal forest 

Mtiriri coastal forest 

Mtogo / Mtomoni Diplorynchus condilocarpon miombo 

Mtomondo Rauvolfia caffra riverine forest 

Mtondoro Julbernardia globiflora III miombo 

Mtonga / Kiburuta Strychnos spinosa miombo 

Mtopetope Annona senegalensis miombo - coastal forest 

Mtumba Lannea schweinfurthii miombo - coastal forest 

Mtunda Manilkara sansibarensis coastal forest - riverine forest 

Mulaula Voacanga africana miombo - coastal forest 

Muukurio Lannea humilis coastal forest 

Muumburu coastal forest 

Muungo Acacia nilotica miombo 

Muungoma 

Acacia sp. coastal forest 

Mwaiji coastal forest 

Mwakala coastal forest 

Mwembe ngongo miombo 

Myengawa / mtandi / mwegea Kigelia africana riverine forest 

Myombo Brachystegia spiciformis III miombo 

Ngwai / Mgombakilanga miombo 

Nyakahamba Antidesma venosum coastal forest 

Nyamakwenge Amblygonocarpus andongensis V? miombo 

SHRUBS 


Kinyunde Cynometra suahiliensis coastal forest 

Mpakacha Deinbolia borbonica miombo - coastal forest 

Mpwekanyati coastal forest 

Msekea miombo - coastal forest 

Msisi ngololo coastal forest 

Nyepagamba 


Shingororo coastal forest 

LIANAS 


Mkweringura / Mkezingata 

miombo 

Ngombere / Ngombera riverine forest 

153


In alphabetical order of the scientific names 

TREES 



Mkolowa Acacia sp. miombo - coastal forest 

Muungoma Acacia sp. coastal forest 

Mkwanga 

Acacia tortilis miombo 


miombo - coastal forest - 

Mkongo Afzelia quanzensis II riverine forest 




Mtopetope Annona senegalensis miombo - coastal forest 

Nyakahamba Antidesma venosum 



miombo - riverine forest - 

Mtasi Baphia kirkii 

III coastal forest 

Mpuya 

Bersama abyssinica coastal forest 

Msufi Pori / Mkunya Bombax rhodognaphalon 

IV coastal forest 


Mlambunju Commiphora sp. miombo 



Mkombasiko Crossopteryx febrifuga 



Mtogo / Mtomoni 

Diplorynchus condilocarpon miombo 


Mbigicho Gardenia ternifolia coastal forest - riverine forest 

Mambaato Grewia goetzeana coastal forest 


Mtabwe Grewia trichocarpa miombo - coastal forest 

Mbelebele Holarrhena pubescens coastal forest 


Mnangu Hymenaea verrucosa V riverine forest 







Mnywamaji Laprothamnus zanguebaricus miombo 


Mtunda Manilkara sansibarensis coastal forest - riverine forest 



Mkonge Millettia dura riverine forest - coastal forest 

Mpangapanga / mnyamwea Millettia stuhlmannii II miombo 


Mnongoro Monanthotaxis buchananii coastal forest 


Msegese Piliostigma thonningii miombo 

Mohoro Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia miombo - coastal forest 

154





Mtomondo 

Rauvolfia caffra riverine forest 


Mngongo Sclerocarya birrea V miombo 





Mdimupori Suregada zanzibariensis coastal forest 

Mnee Syzygium guineense riverine forest 

Mkwaju 

Tamarindus indica V? miombo - coastal forest 


Mkulo Trichilia dregeana miombo 





riverine forest 



Mtaba Ximenia caffra miombo 

Mnungu 

Zanthoxylum chalybeum miombo - coastal forest 

SHRUBS 


Kinyunde Cynometra suahiliensis 


Mpakacha 

Deinbolia borbonica miombo - coastal forest 

155


List of species in each ecological unit 

TREES 


Kikobati coastal forest 

kikomopende 


Kilonzimwitu coastal forest 

Kinganambele coastal forest 

Kinuso cha mkunguti coastal forest 

Kinyomwile coastal forest 

Kipinga coastal forest 

Kobati coastal forest 

Mambaato Grewia goetzeana 


Mangauzungu 



Mbelebele 

Holarrhena pubescens coastal forest 


Mbunduwakutu coastal forest 


Mdimupori Suregada zanzibariensis 


Mhanga 



Mkahamba 


Mkalioto coastal forest 

Mkandabia coastal forest 

Mkangaviko coastal forest 

Mkarango / Mtindili coastal forest 

Mkatitu coastal forest 

Mkingili coastal forest 

Mkolekole coastal forest 

Mkombasiko 

Crossopteryx febrifuga coastal forest 



Mmangaosungu 




Mnongoro 

Monanthotaxis buchananii coastal forest 

Mnuso coastal forest 

Mnyambara 


Mnyanyati / Mpwangati coastal forest 

Mpambalaya 



Mpingwi / kipingwi coastal forest 

Mpojoa coastal forest 

Mpuya Bersama abyssinica coastal forest 

Msibondo coastal forest 

Msufi Pori / Mkunya Bombax rhodognaphalon IV coastal forest 



Mtejateja coastal forest 

Mtimbo coastal forest 

Mtiriri 



Muumburu coastal forest 

156



Muungoma Acacia sp. coastal forest 

Mwakala coastal forest 

Nyakahamba Antidesma venosum coastal forest 

Mwaiji coastal forest 

coastal forest - riverine 

Mbigicho Gardenia ternifolia 

forest 


Mkuruti 

forest 


Mtunda Manilkara sansibarensis 

forest 


Mkonge Millettia dura 

forest 

Kiombo miombo 

Kipomu 

miombo 

kipungu miombo 

Mbula / mula / mbura miombo 

Mfuru pori miombo 

Mhiya miombo 


Mkomampembe miombo 

Mkulo 

Trichilia dregeana miombo 

Mkwanga Acacia tortilis 

miombo 

Mlambunju Commiphora sp. 

miombo 

Mlundikafuru 

miombo 

Mngongo 

Sclerocarya birrea V miombo 

Mnungamo 

miombo 

Mnyakara / mwakala 

miombo 

Mnywamaji 

Laprothamnus zanguebaricus miombo 

Mpangapanga / mnyamwea Millettia stuhlmannii 

II miombo 

Mpumbili miombo 

Msegese Piliostigma thonningii miombo 

Mtaba 

Ximenia caffra miombo 

Mtesa miombo 

Mtogo / Mtomoni Diplorynchus condilocarpon miombo 




Mwembe ngongo 

miombo 


Ngwai / Mgombakilanga miombo 


Kiingiri miombo - coastal forest 

Matakoyambuya miombo - coastal forest 



Mkolowa Acacia sp. miombo - coastal forest 

Mkongodeka 



Mkwaju Tamarindus indica V? miombo - coastal forest 


Mnabia / Mlabia miombo - coastal forest 


157





Mngwai miombo - coastal forest 



Mnondura 


Mnungu Zanthoxylum chalybeum miombo - coastal forest 

Mohoro 

Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia miombo - coastal forest 




Mtabu miombo - coastal forest 

Mtabwe Grewia trichocarpa 




Mtopetope 

Annona senegalensis miombo - coastal forest 







Mkongo Afzelia quanzensis 

II riverine forest 


Mnangu Hymenaea verrucosa V riverine forest 

miombo - riverine forest - 

Mtasi Baphia kirkii 

III coastal forest 

Mbukuli riverine forest 

Mnee 

Syzygium guineense riverine forest 

Mtomondo Rauvolfia caffra 



SHRUBS 


Kinyunde 

Cynometra suahiliensis 


Mpwekanyati coastal forest 

Msisi ngololo coastal forest 

Nyepagamba coastal forest 

Shingororo 


Mpakacha Deinbolia borbonica miombo - coastal forest 

Msekea miombo - coastal forest 

LIANAS 

Name of species (vernacular) 

Mkweringura / Mkezingata 

Ngombere / Ngombera 

Name of species (scientific) Class Ecological unit 

miombo 


158

I. FOREWORD 


Appendix 3: Transect Walks Report 

TRANSECT WALKS REPORT 

For two days in July 2003, we conducted transect walks with villagers from Umwe South, 

Njianne, Ngumburuni and Mkupuka (first day) and from Mangwi-Misimbo, Umwe Centre, 

Umwe North and Muyuyu (second day). These transects aimed: 

• to observe together with villagers the real situation of the forest : how it is exploited, and 

what kind of uses are most damaging, particularly the fires ; 

• to collect their opinions, views and recommendations about the possible sustainable ways 

to use, secure and protect the forest ; 

• to begin a reflection about the future management of the forest and the main constraints. 

II. UNFOLDING OF THE TRANSECT WALKS 

First stopover : in a coastal forest patch. 

According to the villagers this patch (photo n° 1) is a secondary forest but, formerly, it was very 

dense. Obviously, it was already disturbed. The canopy is open in several places and some trails 

cross it. Some of the trees species, Mbebeti (Albizia sp.), Mlopolopo (Trichilia emetica) or 

Mkuruti, have been harvested and big trees are scarce. In that kind of forest the villagers used to 

collect medicines, edible fruits and fuel wood. They think that it is worth a try to improve and 

conserve those coastal forests but they ask about the means (technical and financial) to do so. 

Second stopover : in a Miombo patch. 

On the left edge of the Ruhoi River floodplain, this part of the forest is mostly Miombo, with 

Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis), Mnangu (Hymenaea verrucosa), Mtasi (Baphia kirkii) or 

Mtumbatumba (Lannea schweinfurthii). In that area the valuable species are heavily 

overexploited. Hunters and loggers set fires for driving game and clearing the skidding areas, 

respectively. According to the villagers, this part of the forest is really threatened with becoming 

an open woodland. Yet, it is mostly used by the communities, for fuel wood or building and 

roofing materials collection. 

Third stopover : An illegal logging area 

During the transect, we found about ten cut down immature Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis). 

All the surrounding area had been burnt for clearing. The average diameter of these trees is about 

30 cm. The minimum harvesting diameter recommended by the official Forest Rules is 45 cm and 

the sustainable harvesting diameter is rather around 60 cm (Hamerlynck, 2003). In addition, the 

heartwood, the only one commercially valuable, is even smaller. The observations made during 

this transect walk also revealed wasteful practices, because most of the loggers are inexperienced 

: trees cut at 50 cm to 1 m height, split logs, etc. In view of facilitating logs smuggling, they are 

traded as off-cuts, which are not subject to licensing. The biggest ones are slightly burnt so that 

they cannot be recognized by the forest officers in the checkpoints. No big valuable trees will be 

found for decades, even more so because fires hinder regeneration. All the participants were very 

dismayed and they agreed that this illegal harvesting does them harm. They had the feeling that 

someone had stolen their future benefits. 

159


Fourth stopover : two illegal loggers caught in the act on their pit-sawing place 

During the transect, two illegal loggers, coming from Mkupuka, were caught in the act. The 

participants asked them if they were aware that the District already took initiatives to stop them 

harvesting Mninga. They answered that they knew that. They carry on exploiting Mninga because 

in the Kibiti and Jaribu-Mpakani checkpoints, the traders are allowed to pass with furniture made 

from Mninga. They agreed that these trees were immature, but they added that, as they were 

unemployed and as the climate was not favourable for cultivation this year, they had no other 

choice to earn their living. According to the participants, this poverty argument is difficult to 

dispute. 

Fifth and last stopover : another pit-sawing place 

During this five hundred meters transect, we discovered three active pit-sawing sites. It gave the 

participants a good idea of what happens all over the forest. During the inventory, we found more 

than forty of them. Some outside loggers sometimes stay six months in the forest, exploiting 

several sites. 

III. CONCLUSIONS FROM THE TRANSECT WALKS 

• The participants realised the forest is in a truly bad condition. They also saw the impact 

from overharvesting. They had already heard about those issues, but having seen the 

threats themselves, they will be able to testify and to increase public awareness. 

• They emphasized the main forest management dilemma: how to reconcile the poverty of 

the surrounding villagers and the constraints of forest management? 

• They also emphasized the gaps in the District management, and particularly the control 

issues at Kibiti checkpoint. 

• They were convinced of the necessity of securing the forest so that the next generations 

could also benefit from it. They think that the restoration of the most degraded areas could 

be a good initiative. 

• Lastly, they added that, for the success of the process, it would be necessary to find 

support and particularly a basic investment, at least initially. 

160

1 

4 

7 

10 


2 

5 

8 

1 : Participants discussing the condition of a disturbed coastal forest. 

2 : Crossing the Miombo. 

3 : Palms used for covering the roofs of the traditional houses. 

4 : A young Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis) tested in order to know the 

thickness of the sapwood. 

5 – 6 : young Mninga felled along the transect. 

7 : A young Mninga stump (the diameter is 39 cm). 

8 : An old Mpingo log (Dalbergia melanoxylon). This first class species is 

now commercially extinct in Ngumburuni. 

9 : A pit-sawing place and two young illegal loggers caught in the act. They 

come from one of the surrounding villages. 

10 : A recent pit-sawing site. 

3 

6 

9 

161


Appendix 4: GPS Co-ordinates 

Point n o 

COORDINATES OF THE 

SAMPLE PLOTS 

X Y 

SP1 505996 9127996 

SP2 504560 9128000 

SP3 503115 9128008 

SP4 501675 9127984 

SP5 500223 9127998 

SP6 498754 9129446 

SP7 501681 9129442 

SP8 503115 9129454 

SP9 504549 9129453 

SP10 505997 9129446 

SP11 507456 9129448 

SP12 508893 9129452 

SP13 510342 9130868 

SP14 508890 9130879 

SP15 507418 9130905 

SP16 505998 9130900 

SP17 504563 9130893 

SP18 501662 9130891 

SP19 500266 9130857 

SP20 508809 9132524 

SP21 510365 9132349 

SP22 507312 9127984 

SP23 508465 9126674 

SP24 507440 9126557 

SP25 504585 9126548 

SP26 503103 9126557 

SP27 501665 9126553 

SP28 500233 9126545 

SP29 498758 9126541 

SP30 498781 9125113 

SP31 500218 9125120 

SP32 501671 9125104 

SP33 503153 9125110 

SP34 504569 9125093 

SP35 506022 9125109 

SP36 507405 9125101 

SP37 504559 9123668 

SP38 503128 9123667 

SP39 501666 9123667 

SP40 500231 9123648 

SP41 498805 9123679 

SP42 500230 9122235 

SP43 501679 9122207 

SP44 504553 9122218 


MAIN TRAILS 

Point n o X Y 

MAINR1 498776 9130050 

MAINR2 499105 9129852 

MAINR3 499633 9129391 

MAINR4 501778 9129347 

MAINR5 503115 9129443 

MAINR6 504585 9129416 

MAINR7 495823 9131311 

MAINR8 495935 9131237 

MAINR9 496469 9130854 

MAINR10 497005 9130932 

MAINR11 497834 9130824 

MAINR12 498586 9130435 

MAINR13 498964 9129936 

MAINR14 499270 9129731 

MAINR15 499963 9129521 

MAINR16 500617 9129401 

MAINR17 501121 9129323 

MAINR19 501461 9129260 

MAINR25 501921 9129315 

MAINR26 502080 9129306 

MAINR27 503028 9129429 

MAINR28 503519 9129433 

MAINR29 504073 9129477 

MAINR30 504508 9129488 

MAINR31 504766 9129269 

MAINR33 505145 9129023 

MAINR34 505761 9129015 

NOSOR1 505291 9123616 

NOSOR2 505273 9124004 

NOSOR3 505168 9124355 

NOSOR4 505125 9124650 

NOSOR5 505407 9125129 

NOSOR8 505599 9125569 

NOSOR9 505715 9126253 

NOSOR10 505894 9126802 

NOSOR11 505905 9127265 

NOSOR12 505962 9127620 

NOSOR13 505938 9128124 

NOSOR14 506001 9128667 

ETRA1 505874 9129468 

ETRA2 506055 9129468 

ETRA3 506242 9129351 

ETRA4 506787 9129313 

ETRA6 507376 9129153 

ETRA7 508016 9128979 

ETRA8 508460 9128538 

SOUTR1 508216 9123876 

SOUTR2 507832 9123918 

SOUTR3 507222 9123747 

SOUTR4 506851 9123609 

SOUTR5 506468 9123554 

SOUTR6 505691 9123499 

SOUTR7 505316 9123454 

SOUTR8 504889 9123406 

SOUTR9 504365 9123310 

SOUTR10 503396 9122959 

SOUTR11 502822 9122795 

SOUTR12 502402 9122312 

SOUTR13 502245 9121896 

SOUTR14 502236 9121580 

SOUTR15 502172 9120960 

SOUTR16 501910 9120460 

SOUTR17 501503 9120532 

SOUTR18 501123 9120698 

SOUTR19 500682 9120804 

SOUTR20 499995 9120753 

SOUTR21 499217 9120997 

SOUTR22 498521 9120732 

NORR1 505968 9129003 

NORR2 505907 9129325 

NORR4 505848 9129597 

NORR6 505861 9130502 

NORR7 505571 9131782 

NORR8 505654 9132366 

EAR1 506047 9128935 

EAR2 506366 9128740 

EAR3 506637 9128497 

EAR4 507011 9128269 

EAR6 508013 9127768 

162



VILLAGES 

Point n Y 

o X 

MANGWI 506952 9137244 

MKUPUKA 

UMWE 

494946 9133958 

CENTRE 498394 9121193 

NYAMTIMBA 518813 9141677 

UMWE SOUTH 498923 9120500 

UMWE NORTH 498308 9122235 

MUYUYU 508216 9123876 

COORDINATES OF THE SUB- 

VILLAGES 

Point n o X Y 

NJIANNE 505359 9123456 

MBAWA 513744 9130198 

NGUMBURUNI 506052 9128814 

MISIMBO 503896 9136575 

MISUGURI 505888 9130339 

COORDINATES OF 

AGRICULTURAL 

ENCROACHMENTS 

Point n o X Y 

AGEN1 498935 9125167 

AGEN2 505599 9125846 

AGEN3 505772 9126412 

AGEN4 505774 9129501 

AGEN5 505820 9130032 

AGEN6 505883 9130383 

AGEN7 503832 9123051 

AGEN8 503399 9122965 

AGEN9 502949 9122824 

AGEN10 502237 9121529 

AGEN11 498756 9125278 

AGEN12 498919 9125166 


COASTAL FOREST 

AREAS 

Point n o 

X Y 

COFO1 507197 9127606 

COFO2 504227 9128712 

COFO3 508990 9131045 

COFO4 504585 9129104 

COFO5 499247 9129728 

COFO6 507572 9129386 

COFO7 509626 9130796 

COFO8 501610 9130840 

COFO9 504229 9131112 

COFO10 504116 9131091 

COFO11 505778 9130867 

COFO12 507150 9130924 

COFO13 501123 9124358 

COFO14 501461 9122748 

COFO15 502099 9122592 

COFO16 500337 9122295 

COFO17 500503 9122984 

COFO18 503343 9125114 

COFO19 503674 9125085 

COFO20 504283 9125036 

COFO21 499945 9126970 

COFO22 499875 9127188 

COFO23 499675 9129422 

COFO24 501658 9130012 

COFO25 505360 9122697 

COFO26 505695 9131097 

COFO27 507593 9129417 


RIVERINE FOREST 

AREAS 

Point n o 

X Y 

RIV1 501847 9129522 

RIV2 502618 9129536 

RIV3 507441 9128728 


MIOMBO AREAS 

Point n o X Y 

MIOM1 500621 9129193 

MIOM2 500808 9129321 

MIOM3 500601 9126101 

MIOM4 499607 9125334 

MIOM5 508001 9128514 

MIOM6 502517 9121662 

MIOM7 506613 9124383 

MIOM8 498985 9125799 

MIOM9 498988 9126004 

MIOM10 499426 9127774 

MIOM11 499283 9128005 

MIOM12 500706 9124944 

MIOM13 507089 9129249 


WOODLANDS 

Point n o X Y 

WOLA1 505761 9129060 

WOLA2 501740 9129413 

WOLA3 504551 9129484 

WOLA4 500268 9125175 

WOLA5 502543 9125999 

WOLA6 501801 9129592 

WOLA7 505571 9125492 

WOLA8 508887 9127999 

WOLA9 500836 9124384 

WOLA10 500671 9124356 

WOLA11 507938 9129068 


IKWIRIRI EXTENSION 

PROJECT 

Point 

n o 

X Y 

IKEX1 497075 9125039 

IKEX2 498598 9125378 

IKEX3 502033 9122349 

IKEX4 502281 9120380 

IKEX5 500560 9121047 

IKEX6 498501 9121679 

IKEX7 494321 9121428 

IKEX8 494321 9123198 

IKEX9 495383 9125462 

163

Appendix 5: Map of Sample Plot Location 


164


Appendix 6:Stakeholder Questionaires 

INTERVIEW FORM n o : 

Economic 

operators 

Logging sawyers 

Saw-millers agents 

Carpenters 

Charcoal burners 

I. ECONOMIC OPERATORS AND THEIR EVERYDAY LIFE 

- At present, where do you work ? 

- Is this activity the only one you have ? 

- Do you work for your own business or do you do it on somebody else’s behalf ? 

Name(s): 

II. ECONOMIC OPERATORS AND THEIR PERCEPTION OF ENVIRONNEMENT 

AND OF THE FOREST IN PARTICULAR 

- What do you know about the history of the Ngumburuni forest ? 

- Do you know the current boundary of the forest (in the main lines) ? 

- Do you think the forest has changed over the years ? If yes, how and what are the causes? 

- What does the words “environment” (mali asili ? mazingira ?) and “protection of the nature” 

(uhifadhi wa pori) mean to you ? 

- What do you think about the condition, problems and future of the forest ? 

III. ECONOMIC OPERATORS AND FOREST MANAGEMENT 

- Who manages the forest now ? 

- What kind of organisation should be the manager of the forest and how should it operate? 

- At the present time, what tree species do you use ? 

- Is it possible to forbid harvesting of the scarcest tree species ? 

- The saw-mills (industrial and traditional) and the charcoal burners are satisfying a wood market 

demand. While protecting the forest, how should this reality be taken in consideration ? 

- If the forest was put under your management, how would you do it ? 

Sex: 

Location: 

Age (s): 

165


Near forest communities 

Name(s): 

Sex: 

Location: 

Age (s): 


Poorer and richer strates, 

old, middle and young 

Men 

Women 

Children 

Cult and medicine users Tambiko leaders 

(spirit worshippers) 

Trappers / hunters 

Initiation rites leaders 

Medicine men/women 

I. VILLAGERS AND THEIR EVERYDAY LIFE 

- At present, At what distance from the forest are you living ? 

- At the present time, what do you harvest from the forest ? 

- Do women and men use the forest in different ways ? If yes, how (cultural, spiritual 

activities,…) ? 

- Is anyone living in the forest ? If yes, where do they come from and who gave their permission 

to settle in the forest ? 

II. VILLAGERS AND THEIR PERCEPTION OF ENVIRONNEMENT AND OF THE FOREST 

IN PARTICULAR 






- In your village, who knows most about the forest and why ? 

- According to you, who uses the forest most ? Are outsiders using it too ? 

- Which uses are most and least damaging ? 


III. VILLAGERS AND FOREST MANAGEMENT 


- Where should the boundaries of the community-based managed forest lie ? Who will need to be 

party to agreeing these ? 

166



- How should the forest be protected and guarded ? Who will apprehend offenders, levy fines, fix 

the rates of these fines and what will happen if offenders fail to pay fines ? 

- How should the forest be used ? Are you interested in non-timber activities (beekeeping, 

pharmacology, butterfly farming, …) ? 

- Is it conceivable to have a tourist activity in the forest ? 


- What other actions will be needed to secure the forest and make it useful at a long-term? 

- How should the progress of the community in managing the forest be monitored ? 

- Is it conceivable to create plantations ? 

- What are the villagers ready to do for implementing plantations ? Can they find money 

for that ? From who ? 

- The saw-mills (industrial and traditional) are satisfying a wood market demand. While 

protecting the forest, how should this reality be taken in consideration ? 


167

Authorities 



Political leaders 

Civil servants 

I. PRESENTATION 

- At the present time, where are you in office ? 

- What are your functions ? 


Ward leaders 


Name(s): 

Sex: 

Location: 

Age (s): 

II. AUTHORITIES AND THEIR PERCEPTION OF ENVIRONNEMENT AND OF THE 

FOREST IN PARTICULAR 






- According to you, who uses the forest most ? Are outsiders using it too ? 

- Which uses are most and least damaging ? 


III. AUTHORITIES AND FOREST MANAGEMENT 


- Where should the boundaries of the community-based managed forest lie ? Who will need 

to be party to agreeing these ? 


- How should the forest be protected and guarded ? Who will apprehend offenders, levy fines, fix 

the rates of these fines and what will happen if offenders fail to pay fines ? 

- How should the forest be used ? Are you interested in non-timber activities (beekeeping, 

pharmacology, butterfly farming, …) ? 

- Is it conceivable to have a tourist activity in the forest ? 


- What other actions will be needed to secure the forest and make it useful at a long-term? 

- The saw-mills (industrial and traditional) are satisfying a wood market demand. While 

protecting the forest, how should this reality be taken in consideration ? 


168

Implementation of the Rufiji Forest Action Plan - Coastal Forests of ...

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?