International Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences

2014; 3(4): 284-289

Published online July 20, 2014 (http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ijnfs)
doi: 10.11648/j.ijnfs.20140304.18
ISSN: 2327-2694 (Print); ISSN: 2327-2716 (Online)

Antinutritional factors in plant foods: Potential health

benefits and adverse effects
Habtamu Fekadu Gemede1, 2, *, Negussie Ratta3
1
Center for Food Science and Nutrition, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
2
Food Technology and Process Engineering Department, Wollega University, P.O.Box: 395, Nekemte, Ethiopia.
3
Department of Chemistry, Addis Ababa University, P.O.Box: 1176, Addis Ababa Ethiopia

Email address:
fekadu_habtamu@yahoo.com (H. F. Gemede), simbokom@gmail.com (H. F. Gemede)

To cite this article:

Habtamu Fekadu Gemede, Negussie Ratta. Antinutritional Factors in Plant Foods: Potential Health Benefits and Adverse Effects.
International Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences. Vol. 3, No. 4, 2014, pp. 284-289. doi: 10.11648/j.ijnfs.20140304.18

Abstract: Anti-nutritional factors are compounds which reduce the nutrient utilization and/or food intake of plants or
plant products used as human foods and they play a vital role in determining the use of plants for humans. This paper is
aimed to review the updated scientific information regarding the potential health benefits and adverse effects associated
with major antinutritional factors found in plant foods. Antinutrients in plant foods are responsible for deleterious effects
related to the absorption of nutrients and micronutrients. However, some antinutrients may exert beneficial health effects at
low concentrations. For example, phytic acid, lectins, tannins, saponins, amylase inhibitors and protease inhibitors have
been shown to reduce the availability of nutrients and cause growth inhibition. However, when used at low levels, phytate,
lectins, tannins, amylase inhibitors and saponins have also been shown to reduce the blood glucose and insulin responses to
starchy foods and/or the plasma cholesterol and triglycerides. In addition, phytates, tannins, saponins, protease inhibitors,
goetrogens and oxalates have been related to reduce cancer risks. This implies that anti-nutrients might not always harmful
even though lack of nutritive value. Despite of this, the balance between beneficial and hazardous effects of plant
bioactives and anti-nutrients rely on their concentration, chemical structure, time of exposure and interaction with other
dietary components. Due to this, they can be considered as anti-nutritional factors with negative effects or non-nutritive
compounds with positive effects on health.

Keywords: Anti-nutritional factors, Potential Health Benefits, Adverse Health Effects, Plant Foods

of a diverse range of natural compounds capable of

1. Introduction precipitating deleterious effects in man, and animals
Anti-nutritional factors are a chemical compounds compound which act to reduce nutrient utilization and/or
synthesized in natural food and / or feedstuffs by the food intake are often referred to as anti-nutritional factors
normal metabolism of species and by different mechanisms [2].
(for example inactivation of some nutrients, diminution of Antinutrients are chemicals which have been evolved by
the digestive process or metabolic utilization of food/feed) plants for their own defense, among other biological
which exerts effect contrary to optimum nutrition [1]. Such functions and reduce the maximum utilization of nutrients
chemical compounds, are frequently, but not exclusively especially proteins, vitamins, and minerals, thus preventing
associated with foods and feeding stuffs of plant origin. optimal exploitation of the nutrients present in a food and
These anti-nutritional factors are also known as ‘secondary decreasing the nutritive value. Some of these plant
metabolites’ in plants and they have been shown to be chemicals have been shown to be deleterious to health or
highly biologically active. These secondary metabolites are evidently advantageous to human and animal health if
secondary compound produced as side products of consumed at appropriate amounts [3].
processes leading to the synthesis of primary metabolites. There have been several reviews in recent years
One major factor limiting the wider food utilization of about the antinutritional factors found in foods. Most
many tropical plants is the ubiquitous occurrence in them of them, however, deal with specific properties or
285 Habtamu Fekadu Gemede and Negussie Ratta: Antinutritional Factors in Plant Foods: Potential Health Benefits and
Adverse Effects

beneficial effects for specific antinutritional factors bound to phytate is not typically bio-available to any
found in a foods and / or feeds. However, this review animal that is non-ruminant. Ruminant animals, such as
was aimed to assess updated scientific information of cows and sheep, chew, swallow, and then regurgitate their
the potential health benefits and adverse effects of food. This regurgitated food is known as cud and is chewed
major antinutritional factors in plant foods. a second time. Due to an enzyme located in their first
stomach chamber, the rumen, these animals are able to
separate, and process the phosphorus in phytates. Humans
2. Antinutritional Factors in Plant and other non-ruminant animals are unable to do so [11].
Foods Phytate works in a broad pH-region as a highly
negatively charged ion, and therefore its presence in the
2.1. Tannins diet has a negative impact on the bioavailability of divalent,
and trivalent mineral ions such as Zn2+, Fe2+/3+, Ca2+, Mg2+,
The word tannin is very old and reflects a traditional Mn2+, and Cu2+. Whether or not high levels of consumption
technology. Tanning was the word used in the scientific of phytate-containing foods will result in mineral
literature to describe the process of transforming raw deficiency will depend on what else is being consumed. In
animal hides or skins into durable, nonputrescible leathers areas of the world where cereal proteins are a major and
by using plant extracts from different plant parts [10]. predominant dietary factor, the associated phytate intake is
Tannin is an astringent, bitter plant polyphenolic compound a cause for concern [12].
that either binds or precipitates proteins and various other
organic compounds including amino acids and alkaloids [4]. 2.3. Oxalate
The term tannin refers to the use of tannins in tanning
animal hides into leather; however, the term is widely A salt formed from oxalic acid is known as an Oxalate:
applied to any large polyphenolic compound containing for example, Calcium oxalate, which has been found to be
sufficient hydroxyls and other suitable groups to form widely distributed in plants. Strong bonds are formed
strong complexes with proteins and other macromolecules. between oxalic acid, and various other minerals, such as
Tannins have molecular weights ranging from 500 to over Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, and Potassium. This
3000 [5]. chemical combination results in the formation of oxalate
Tannins are heat stable and they decreased protein salts. Some oxalate salts, such as sodium and potassium,
digestibility in animals and humans, probably by either are soluble, whereas calcium oxalate salts are basically
making protein partially unavailable or inhibiting digestive insoluble. The insoluble calcium oxalate has the tendency
enzymes and increasing fecal nitrogen. Tannins are known to precipitate (or solidify) in the Kidneys or in the Urinary
to be present in food products and to inhibit the activities of tract, thus forming sharp-edged calcium oxalate crystals
trypsin, chemotrypsin, amylase and lipase, decrease the when the levels are high enough. These crystals play a role
protein quality of foods and interfere with dietary iron to the formation of kidney stones formation in the urinary
absorption [6]. tract when the acid is excreted in the urine [15].
Tannins are known to be responsible for decreased feed Oxalate is an anti-nutrient which under normal
intake, growth rate, feed efficiency and protein digestibility conditions is confined to separate compartments. However,
in experimental animals. If tannin concentration in the diet when it is processed and/or digested, it comes into contact
becomes too high, microbial enzyme activities including with the nutrients in the gastrointestinal tract [16]. When
cellulose and intestinal digestion may be depressed [9]. released, oxalic acid binds with nutrients, rendering them
Tannins also form insoluble complexes with proteins and inaccessible to the body. If food with excessive amounts of
the tannin-protein complexes may be responsible for the oxalic acid is consumed regularly, nutritional deficiencies
antinutritional effects of tannin containing foods [7, 8]. are likely to occur, as well as severe irritation to the lining
of the gut. In ruminants oxalic acid is of only minor
2.2. Phytate significance as an anti-nutritive factor since ruminal micro-
flora can readily metabolize soluble oxalates, and to a
Phytate (is also known as Inositol hexakisphosphate lesser extent even insoluble Ca oxalate. While the
(InsP6)) is the salt form of phytic acid, are found in plants, importance of the anti-nutritive activity of oxalic acid has
animals and soil. It is primarily present as a salt of the been recognized for over fifty years it may be a subject of
mono- and divalent cations K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ and interest to nutritionists in the future [17, 18].
accumulates in the seeds during the ripening period. Oxalic acid forms water soluble salts with Na+, K+, and
Phytate is regarded as the primary storage form of both NH4+ ions, it also binds with Ca2+, Fe2+, and Mg2+
phosphate and inositol in plant seeds and grains. In addition, rendering these minerals unavailable to animals. However
phytate has been suggested to serve as a store of cations, of Zn2+ appears to be relatively unaffected. In plants with a
high energy phosphoryl groups, and, by chelating free iron, cell sap of approximately pH 2, such as some species of
as a potent natural anti-oxidant [10]. Oxalis and rumex oxalate exists as the acid oxalate
Phytate is ubiquitous among plant seeds and grains, (HC2O4), primarily as acid potassium oxalate. In plants
comprising 0.5 to 5 percent (w/w) [22]. The phosphorus with a cell sap of approximately pH 6, such as some plants
 International Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences 2014; 3(4): 284-289 286

of goosefoot family it exists as oxalate (C2O4)2- ion In epidemiological studies, saponins have been shown to
usually as soluble sodium oxalate and insoluble calcium have an inverse relationship with the incidence of renal
and magnesium oxalates. Calcium oxalate is insoluble at a stones [22].
neutral or alkaline pH, but freely dissolves in acid [19].
2.5. Lectins
2.4. Saponins
Lectin comes from the Latin word “legere”, which
Saponins are secondary compounds that are generally means “to select”. Lectins have the ability to bind
known as non-volatile, surface active compounds which are carbohydrates. Nowadays, proteins that can agglutinate red
widely distributed in nature, occurring primarily in the blood cells with known sugar specificity are referred to as
plant kingdom. The name ‘saponin’ is derived from the “lectins” (Fereidoon S., 2014). The name “hemagglutinins”
Latin word sapo which means ‘soap’, because saponin is used when the sugar specificity is unknown. Lectins and
molecules form soap-like foams when shaken with water. hemagglutinins are proteins/glycoproteins, which have at
They are structurally diverse molecules that are chemically least one non-catalytic domain that exhibits reversible
referred to as triterpene and steroid glycosides. They binding to specific monosaccharides or oligosaccharides.
consist of nonpolar aglycones coupled with one or more They can bind to the carbohydrate moieties on the surface
monosaccharide moieties. This combination of polar and of erythrocytes and agglutinate the erythrocytes, without
non-polar structural elements in their molecules explains altering the properties of the carbohydrates (Sze Kwan Lam
their soap-like behaviour in aqueous solutions. & Tzi Bun Ng, 2013).
The structural complexity of saponins results in a Lectins are glycoproteins widely distributed in legumes
number of physical, chemical, and biological properties, and some certain oil seeds (including soybean) which
which include sweetness and bitterness, foaming and possess an affinity for specific sugar molecules and are
emulsifying properties, pharmacological and medicinal characterized by their ability to combine with carbohydrate
properties, haemolytic properties, as well as antimicrobial, membrane receptors. Lectins have the capability to directly
insecticidal, and molluscicidal activities. Saponins have bind to the intestinal muscosa, interacting with the
found wide applications in beverages and confectionery, as enterocytes and interfering with the absorption and
well as in cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. Due to transportation of 0.01% free gossypol within some low-
the presence of a lipid-soluble aglycone and water soluble gossypol cotton nutrients (particularly carbohydrates)
sugar chain(s) in their structure (amphiphilic nature), during digestion and causing epithelial lesions within the
saponins are surface active compounds with detergent, intestine. Although lectins are usually reported as being
wetting, emulsifying, and foaming properties [2]. labile, their stability varies between plant species, many
Saponins were treated as toxic because they seemed to lectins being resistant to inactivation by dry heat and
be extremely toxic to fish and cold-blooded animals and requiring the presence of moisture for more complete
many of them possessed strong hemolytic activity. destruction (Boehm and Huck, 2009).
Saponins, in high concentrations, impart a bitter taste and Lectins have become the focus of intense interest for
astringency in dietary plants. The bitter taste of saponin is biologists and in particular for the research and applications
the major factor that limits its use. In the past, saponins in agriculture and medicine. These proteins with unique
were recognized as antinutrient constituents, due to their characteristics have found use in diverse fields of biology
adverse effects such as for growth impairment and reduce and as more lectins are being isolated and their role in
their food intake due to the bitterness and throat-irritating nature elucidated, they continue to occupy an important
activity of saponins. In addition, saponins were found to place in agricultural and therapeutic areas of research (Sze
reduce the bioavailability of nutrients and decrease enzyme Kwan Lam & Tzi Bun Ng, 2013).
activity and it affects protein digestibility by inhibit various Lectins are carbohydrate binding proteins present in
digestive enzymes such as trypsin and chymotrypsin [21]. most plants, especially seeds like cereals, beans, etc., in
Saponins are attracting considerable interest as a result tubers like potatoes and also in animals. Lectins selectively
of their beneficial effects in humans. Recent evidence bind carbohydrates and importantly, the carbohydrate
suggests that saponins possess hypocholesterolemic, moieties of the glycoproteins that decorate the surface of
immunostimulatory, and anticarcinogenic properties. In most animal cells. Dietary lectins act as protein antigens
addition, they reduce the risk of heart diseases in humans which bind to surface glycoproteins (or glycolipids) on
consuming a diet rich in food legumes containing saponins. erythrocytes or lymphocytes (Sauvion et al., 2004). They
Saponin-rich foods are important in human diets to control function as both allergens and hemagglutinins and are
plasma cholesterol, preventing peptic ulcer, osteoporosis present in small amounts in 30% of foods, more so in a
and to reduce the risk of heart disease. Saponins are used as whole-grain diet. Lectins have potent in vivo effects. When
adjuvants in viral (e.g., Quillaja saponaria-21) and bacterial consumed in excess by sensitive individuals, they can cause
vaccine (e.g., Quillaja saponins) applications . A high 3 primary physiological reactions: they can cause severe
saponin diet can be used in the inhibition of dental caries intestinal damage disrupting digestion and causing nutrient
and platelet aggregation, in the treatment of hypercalciuria deficiencies; they can provoke IgG and IgM antibodies
in humans, and as an antidote against acute lead poisoning. causing food allergies and other immune responses (Boehm
287 Habtamu Fekadu Gemede and Negussie Ratta: Antinutritional Factors in Plant Foods: Potential Health Benefits and
Adverse Effects

and Huck, 2009) and they can bind to erythrocytes, comprising several carbon rings with side chains, one or
simultaneously with immune factors, causing more of the carbon atoms being replaced by a nitrogen.
hemagglutination and anemia. Of the 119 known dietary They are synthesized by plants from amino acids.
lectins, about half are panhemagglutinins, clumping all Decarboxylation of amino acids produces amines which
blood types. The remainder are blood-type specific. In react with amine oxides to form aldehydes. The
general, lectins alter host resistance to infection, cause characteristic heterocyclic ring in alkaloids is formed from
failure to thrive and can even lead to death in experimental Mannich-type condensation from aldehyde and amine
animals (Vasconcelos and Oliveira, 2004). groups [27].
Lectin comes from the Latin word “legere”, which The chemical type of their nitrogen ring offers the means
means “to select”. Lectins have the ability to bind by which alkaloids are subclassified: for example,
carbohydrates. Nowadays, proteins that can agglutinate red glycoalkaloids (the aglycone portion) glycosylated with a
blood cells with known sugar specificity are referred to as carbohydrate moiety. They are formed as metabolic by-
“lectins” (Fereidoon S., 2014). The name “hemagglutinins” products. Insects and hervibores are usual1y repulsed by
is used when the sugar specificity is unknown. Lectins and the potential toxicity and bitter taste of alkaloids [28, 29].
hemagglutinins are proteins/glycoproteins, which have at Alkaloids are considered to be anti-nutrients because of
least one non-catalytic domain that exhibits reversible their action on the nervous system, disrupting or
binding to specific monosaccharides or oligosaccharides. inappropriately augmenting electrochemical transmission.
They can bind to the carbohydrate moieties on the surface For instance, consumption of high tropane alkaloids will
of erythrocytes and agglutinate the erythrocytes, without cause rapid heartbeat, paralysis and in fatal case, lead to
altering the properties of the carbohydrates [23]. death. Uptake of high dose of tryptamine alkaloids will
Lectins have become the focus of intense interest for lead to staggering gate and death. Indeed, the physiological
biologists and in particular for the research and applications effects of alkaloids have on humans are very evident.
in agriculture and medicine. These proteins with unique Cholinesterase is greatly inhibited by glycoalkaloids, which
characteristics have found use in diverse fields of biology also cause symptoms of neurological disorder. Other toxic
and as more lectins are being isolated and their role in action includes disruption of the cell membrane in the
nature elucidated, they continue to occupy an important gastrointestinal tract [30].
place in agricultural and therapeutic areas of research [25].
Lectins are carbohydrate binding proteins present in 2.7. Protease Inhibitors
most plants, especially seeds like cereals, beans, etc., in Protease inhibitors are widely distributed within the plant
tubers like potatoes and also in animals. Lectins selectively kingdom, including the seeds of most cultivated legumes
bind carbohydrates and importantly, the carbohydrate and cereals. Protease inhibitors are the most commonly
moieties of the glycoproteins that decorate the surface of encountered class of antinutritional factors of plant origin.
most animal cells. Dietary lectins act as protein antigens Protease inhibitors have the ability to inhibit the activity of
which bind to surface glycoproteins (or glycolipids) on proteolytic enzymes within the gastrointestinal tract of
erythrocytes or lymphocytes [26]. They function as both animals. Due to their particular protein nature, protease
allergens and hemagglutinins and are present in small inhibitors may be easily denatured by heat processing
amounts in 30% of foods, more so in a whole-grain diet. although some residual activity may still remain in the
Lectins have potent in vivo effects. When consumed in commercially produced products. The antinutrient activity
excess by sensitive individuals, they can cause 3 primary of protease inhibitors is associated with growth inhibition
physiological reactions: they can cause severe intestinal and pancreatic hypertrophy. Potential beneficial effects of
damage disrupting digestion and causing nutrient protease inhibitors remain unclear, although lower
deficiencies; they can provoke IgG and IgM antibodies incidences of pancreatic cancer have been observed in
causing food allergies and other immune responses [27] populations where the intake of soybean and its products is
and they can bind to erythrocytes, simultaneously with high [33]. While protease inhibitors have been linked with
immune factors, causing hemagglutination and anemia. Of pancreatic cancer in animal studies, they may also act as
the 119 known dietary lectins, about half are anticarcinogenic agents. The Bowman-Birk inhibitors
panhemagglutinins, clumping all blood types. The derived from soybean have been shown to inhibit or
remainder are blood-type specific. In general, lectins alter prevent the development of chemically-induced cancer of
host resistance to infection, cause failure to thrive and can the liver, lung, colon, oral and esophagus [31].
even lead to death in experimental animals [28]. Trypsin inhibitor and chymotrypsin inhibitor are protease
2.6. Alkaloids inhibitors occurring in raw legume seeds. Trypsin inhibitors
that inhibit the activity of the enzymes trypsin and
Alkaloids are one of the largest groups of chemical chymotrypsin in the gut, thus preventing protein digestion,
compounds synthesised by plants and generally found as are found in many plant species mainly in different grain
salts of plant acids such as oxalic, malic, tartaric or citric legumes. Trypsin inhibitors are a unique class of proteins
acid. Alkaloids are small organic molecules, common to found in raw soybeans that inhibit protease enzymes in the
about 15 to 20 per cent of all vascular plants, usually digestive tract by forming indigestible complexes with
 International Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences 2014; 3(4): 284-289 288

dietary protein. These complexes are indigestible even in

the presence of high amounts of digestive enzymes.
Protease inhibitors reduce trypsin activity and to a lesser
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