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Review

Medicinal Plants for Dermatological Diseases: Ethnopharmacological Significance of Botanicals from West Africa in Skin Care

by
Mokgadi Ursula Makgobole
1,*,
Nomakhosi Mpofana
1 and
Abdulwakeel Ayokun-nun Ajao
2
1
Department of Somatology, Durban University of Technology, 47 Steve Biko Road, Durban 4001, South Africa
2
Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park, Johannesburg 2006, South Africa
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Cosmetics 2023, 10(6), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics10060167
Submission received: 14 November 2023 / Revised: 2 December 2023 / Accepted: 4 December 2023 / Published: 7 December 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Plant-Based Molecules and Materials in Cosmetics)
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Abstract

:
Skin disease is a severe health issue that affects a lot of people in Africa and is vastly underreported. Because of their availability, affordability, and safety, medicinal plants represent a major source of treatment for various skin diseases in West Africa. This review presents the medicinal plants used in treating skin diseases in West Africa and their available biological activities that have lent credence to their skin care usage. A total of 211 plant species from 56 families are implicated to be used in West Africa for several skin conditions such as aphthous ulcers, burns, eczema, scabies, sores, and wounds. Fabaceae is the most-implicated family (30 species) for the treatment of skin diseases, followed by Combretaceae (14 species) and Asteraceae (13 species). Most of the medicinal plants used are trees (93); leaves (107) were the most-used plant part, and decoction (73) was the preferred preparation method for the medicinal plants. The biological activities related to the pathology of skin diseases, such as antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties of 82 plants, have been evaluated. Based on their minimum inhibitory concentration, the most active antimicrobial plant is Brillantaisia lamium. Among the isolated phytochemicals, betulenic acid and lespedin were the most active, while plants such as Kigelia africana and Strophanthus hispidus showed significant wound-healing activities. This review highlights research gaps in the ethnobotanical studies of many West African countries, the biological activities of plants used to treat skin diseases, and the cosmetic potential of these plants.

1. Introduction

The human body’s largest and most vulnerable organ is the skin. It serves as a barrier and shield between the internal organs and direct microbial contamination and ultraviolet radiation [1]. It contains three layers: the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous. The epidermis, the outermost layer, protects the skin against infections caused by some microbes [2]. The dermis comprises follicles and glands and is essential for regulating body temperature, while the subcutaneous layer contains a network of connective tissues and fat [2]. Despite the dry and infertile nature of the skin, it is still home to millions of microbes, some of which are essential in preventing skin invasion by pathogens [3]. The nature of the skin significantly influences the type and abundance of microbes present, causing skin diseases or infections. For example, Corynebacterium and Staphylococcus species are abundant in the moist areas of the skin, while sebaceous areas are predominantly occupied by Propionibacterium species [4]. Also, different skin or systemic diseases may arise from broken skin or an imbalance between beneficial microbes and pathogens [5].
Skin disease is the fourth most common cause of illnesses in humans [6]. However, this may be inaccurate because reports have shown that a large percentage of people suffering from different skin conditions do not consult dermatologists [7]. Medicinal plants have long played a significant role in treating a wide range of illnesses, including skin diseases, which are not always reported but are self-treated [8]. In the last few decades, extensive efforts have focused on documenting medicinal plants to identify species that may be used in drug development [9]. Among these, some studies have reported or reviewed the plants used to treat skin diseases around the globe. For example, there is documentation of medicinal plants used for skin diseases in southern Africa, Pakistan, the south Balkan, and the eastern Mediterranean regions [10,11,12]. Many people in West Africa rely on traditional medicine/medicinal plants due to their accessibility and believe they are more potent and efficient in curing disease than conventional medicines or healthcare, which is inadequate in the region [13,14]. Also, many skin diseases tend to be so persistent and recurring that patients resort to many remedies, including herbal ones [1]. Therefore, quite a number of studies have aimed at documenting plants used to treat skin diseases in different West African countries. For example, the Akwa Ibom state of Nigeria [15], the northern region of the Republic of Benin [16], the northwest region of Cameroon [17], and many others.
Moreover, to validate the traditional uses of some of the documented plants, some other studies have tested the extracts from the plants for pharmacological activities related to skin diseases, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities, to prove their efficacy. For example, Rosamah et al. [1] investigated the pharmacological significance of Macaranga in dermatological diseases; Udegbunam et al. [18] confirmed the therapeutic activity of Crinum jagus in wound healing; and Anacardium occidentale extracts were tested on pathogenic microbes to verify its usefulness in skin care cosmetics by Gonçalves and Gobbo [19]. There are also many similar studies, but this information is scattered in the literature, which may account for the fact that none of the many cosmetic plants recognized by the European Pharmacopoeia are of West African origin [20]. This also underscores the significance of studies in this field. Therefore, this review aims to appraise all available information on the use of plants for treating skin diseases in West Africa to highlight research gaps and give a proper direction to future research on the dermatological significance of medicinal plants from West Africa.

2. Methodology

A comprehensive search of major journal websites and academic databases, such as African Journal Online, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Web of Science, was conducted. This aimed to retrieve all published ethnobotanical studies in the West African region up until September 2023. The keywords used in the search include the names of West African countries, ethnobotany, medicinal plants, indigenous plants, skin diseases, skin ailments, cosmetics, wounds, and West Africa. From the papers retrieved, plants used for skin diseases were extracted from the general ethnobotany. Plant names and their family were verified and updated using databases, namely: Tropicos (www.tropicos.org; accessed on 7 October 2023), World Flora Online (https://www.worldfloraonline.org/; accessed on 29 November 2023), and WFO Plant List website (https://wfoplantlist.org/plant-list; accessed on 7 October 2023). The selection of articles for this review was made on the basis of the following criteria:
  • It is published in English or translated to English.
  • At least one plant is listed for the treatment of skin diseases.
  • It studied the bioactivity of at least one of the plants in the list of plants documented.
  • If the ethnopharmacological study is carried out outside West Africa but examines the bioactivity of any documented plants used to treat skin diseases in the region. Figure 1 shows the PRISMA flowchart for the inclusion and exclusion procedure.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Diversity of the Medicinal Plants Used for Skin Diseases in West Africa

The western part of Africa is a tropical region with high annual rainfall and temperature. Hence, it is known to have a wide flora diversity. A total of 211 taxa are reported in this review as used in the treatment of various skin diseases or infections in the western part of Africa (Table 1). In comparison, 100 plant species were reportedly used for skin diseases in southern Africa [10], 545 species in Pakistan [11], and 967 in the South Balkan and East Mediterranean region [12]. Over 90% of the plants were reported from Nigeria, the Republic of Benin, Togo, Ghana, Cameroon, and the Ivory Coast, implying a large research gap in the ethnobotanical studies of many West African countries. The reported taxa belong to 56 different families. Among these, plants of the Fabaceae family were overwhelmingly preferred for combating skin diseases in West Africa, as 30 species from 23 genera represent them. This is followed by the family Combretaceae, with 14 species, half of which are from the genus Combretum. Asteraceae and Euphorbiaceae are also well represented, with 13 and 12 species, respectively (Figure 2). Overall, nine families—Fabaceae (30), Combretaceae (14), Asteraceae (13), Euphorbiaceae (12), Phyllanthaceae (8), Rubiaceae (8), Moraceae (8), Malvaceae (7), and Apocynaceae (7)—represented over 50% of the recorded plant species, while 22 species, were the only members of their respective families. The legume family (Fabaceae) is one of the most influential families of angiosperms in terms of medicinal uses across communities and regions worldwide [21]. Despite being the third largest family, its wide distribution worldwide could be a major reason for its widespread usage in traditional medicine [21]. The sustained use of the species of the Fabaceae family over time may also indicate their biological activities, and the phytochemistry of many species in this family has supported this hypothesis, showing that they contain critical active metabolites [22]. The biological activities and chemistry of the family Combretaceae have also revealed a wide range of useful phytochemicals [23]. However, other genera apart from the genera Combretum and Terminalia are rarely explored [24]. Asteraceae is the largest plant family and has always been highly represented in many ethnobotanical studies, and the family members are known to contain phytochemicals of medicinal importance [25].

3.2. Life Forms, Plant Parts Used, Mode of Preparation, and Conservation Statuses of the Plants

Over 60% of the plants implicated in this paper are woody species, comprising trees (93, 44%) and shrubs (40, 19%) (Figure 3). Other life forms are herbs (61, 29%) and climbers (17, 8%). Some studies have reported that herbs are the most-used medicinal plants due to their ease of harvesting [60,61]. Though this may be true for some individual studies, a holistic review of the ethnobotany of an area or an ailment category has revealed, in most cases, the prevalence of trees in traditional medicine [62,63]. Additionally, West Africa, being a tropical area, could be responsible for the abundance of trees in the region.
Regarding the plant parts or organs used in formulating or preparing various herbal medicines, leaves were more frequently used (107) than any other plant. Roots (55) and stems (39) were next, while all other plant parts had less than 20 use reports (Figure 4). The use of leaves in herbal remedies has always been highly reported, and the literature suggests it may be due to their ease of harvest [64]. It is also possible that leaves are especially well used for skin diseases because other reports on skin diseases [10,11] documented similar findings. However, the relatively high frequency of roots after the leaves could be related to the high prevalence of woody species implicated in this study. Also, the roots of plants are believed to contain a high quantity of phytochemicals because of their role in the absorption of nutrients [64]. Regrettably, harvesting medicinal plants’ roots for medicinal purposes poses the greatest conservation risk to plants because they are difficult to regenerate. Considering the mode of preparation, decoction (73) was the most preferred method, followed by crushing/juicing (50), and powdering, grinding, or pounding (39) (Figure 5). The decoction method has been reported as the most common method of preparation of medicinal plants around the world [17]. However, there is no clear scientific reason why the method is widely used. The use of the method of crushing or juicing in this review may be attributed to the nature of the disease, as it is the easiest and quickest method to apply the extracts from the plant topically to the skin. Figure 6 shows the number of plants used to treat different skin diseases; wounds, being the highest, are treated with 65 plants. Skin ulcers are treated with 46 plants and skin spots with 58. The pain associated with wounds and ulcers may account for the observed figures. As for skin spots, it is general knowledge that many people love spotless skin.
An assessment of the recorded plants’ conservation statuses revealed a lack of conservation status data for 43% of the recorded plants. Among the plants with conservation records, 113 have a conservation status of least concern (LC). Six plants (Afrofittonia silvestris, Afzelia africana, Allanblackia floribunda, Gossypium hirsutum, Khaya grandifoliola, and Vitellaria paradoxa) have a conservation status of vulnerable (VU), while two plants (Aframomum melegueta and Mangifera indica) have a conservation status of data deficient (DD). It was observed in this paper that most of the plants with no conservation assessments are herbs and climbers, implying that most conservation efforts have been centered on tree species. This highlights the need to intensify conservation studies on herbs and climbers that are used medicinally as they are also prone to extinction, like trees [65].

3.3. Biological Activities of the Recorded Plants

Millions of beneficial microorganisms and pathogens inhabit the skin surface, and their imbalance or breaking of the skin could cause skin diseases [3,5]. Skin diseases recorded in this review and treated with medicinal plants include abscesses, athlete’s foot, boils, measles, skin spots, as well as ulcers, whitlows, wounds, and many other skin infections. Due to the diversity and nature of these diseases, medicinal plants employed in treating skin disorders should possess pharmacological properties such as antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing activities. Still, the review revealed that a large percentage of the studies have focused on the antibacterial and antifungal studies of the plants used in the treatment of skin diseases. In contrast, only a few studies explored other biological activities. However, it should be noted that researchers have addressed, to a large extent, the recommendations from a previous study [10] by studying the response of some neglected bacteria to botanicals used in skin diseases. Out of the 211 plant species recorded in this review, the biological activities of 82 plants have been assessed (Table 2), while over 60% of the plants are yet to be evaluated for any activities related to skin diseases, highlighting the wide gap in research into the biological activities of traditionally used medicinal plants.
Most of the studies in this review examined the antibacterial and antifungal activities of the plants using different types of dermatophytes. Some of the most commonly chosen skin pathogens include the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, Epidermophyton floccossum, Bacillus subtilis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, while species of fungi in the genus Candida, especially C. albicans, were the most commonly tested fungi. Biological activities are a means of validating the efficacy of the traditional uses of plants. However, some of the activities recorded in Table 2 may not necessarily validate the use of the plants against skin diseases because the plant parts reportedly used in traditional medicine are different from those tested, and it is common knowledge that the type and quantity of the phytochemicals accumulated by different plant parts may be widely different. For example, the leaf juice of Achyranthes aspera is folklorically used to treat skin ulcers [15], but Gupta et al. [70] evaluated the antimicrobial activities of its root and stem. Likewise, the antimicrobial activities of the stem bark of Lannea acida were evaluated [133], but ethnobotanical records showed the use of its leaves in skin diseases [15,25]. Some of the most active antibacterial and antifungal plants based on their low MIC include the aerial part of Brillantaisia lamium (6.25 µg/mL), the essential oil of the seeds of Monodora myristica (8 µg/mL), the leaves of Flueggea virosa (8 µg/mL), the leaves of Dacryodes edulis (12.5 µg/mL), the essential oil from the aerial parts of Ageratum conyzoides (64 µg/mL), the aerial parts of Clerodendrum splendens (64 µg/mL), and the leaves of Pistia stratiotes (125 µg/mL). As regards the range of microorganisms susceptible to the extracts, alcohol extracts of Aloe vera leaf gel inhibited 115 skin pathogens [81]. Conversely, some plants were completely inactive, while others had very high MICs, thus making them inactive. For example, the aqueous extract from leaves of Lannea microcarpa was not active in all the skin pathogens tested [134], while the leaves of Sansevieria liberica and the roots of Hannoa undulata had a MIC value of 62.5 mg/mL each [127,151]. Some of these studies have confirmed or validated the ethnobotanical use of the plants, while others did not support their use. This may be due to the solvent extract used for the biological activities. It is also common practice to prepare herbal remedies using more than one plant for a single ailment for synergistic purposes or to treat the disease and symptoms [64]. Therefore, it is important to test the biological activities of medicinal plants following the traditional method of preparation and administration.
Plant secondary metabolites are the ingredients that confer therapeutic effects on medicinal plants [72]. An assessment of the antimicrobial activities of the phytochemicals of the plants in Table 2 was carried out. Though many of the plants have been evaluated for their phytochemistry, only a few phytochemicals have their antimicrobial activities carried out against skin pathogens. The alkaloidal fraction of Annickia chlorantha stem back showed significant antifungal activities both in vitro and in vivo [88]. Tamokou et al. [98] isolated seven compounds from the aerial part of B. lamium, among which lespedin (MIC = 6.25 µg/mL) and aurantiamide acetate (MIC = 50 µg/mL) significantly inhibited the growth of the tested skin pathogens. Betulenic acid isolated from the leaves of Mallotus oppositifolius also displayed a noteworthy activity against a dermatophyte, Microsporum langeronii with MIC value of 1.86 µg/mL [135]. Betulenic acid elicited the best antimicrobial activity with the lowest MIC value in this review.
Further research is required on the metabolite to ascertain its biotoxicity and synergistic effect with other antimicrobial metabolites to further explore its potency in developing a commercially available antimicrobial agent. Regarding the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of the plants, ethanol extracts of the leaves of Chassalia kolly showed excellent activities with an IC50 of 0.05 µg/µL and also showed higher anti-inflammatory activities than aspirin [103]. This is traditionally used in the treatment of ringworm [34]. Similarly, using the xylene and chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) anti-inflammatory model, Cyathula prostrata showed moderate activity [115], despite its traditional use for sores and rashes [28]. It is recommended that further studies into the activities of C. kolly be carried out to assess its complete activities, isolate active metabolites, and harness its potential in treating skin ailments.
Wounds are one of the most common skin problems that may occur in any part of the skin due to breaking/puncturing the skin or rupturing other body tissues. For the wound-healing activities of the plants, the n-butanol fraction of the hydroethanolic leaf extract of Trianthema portulacastrum accelerated wound healing in rats by increasing the contraction and epithelialization of the wound and decreasing the level of inflammatory markers [157]. This result validated the use of the plant in the management of wounds in Nigeria [15]. The alkaloidal extract from the stem bark of Alstonia boonei also significantly increases the rate of contraction of the wound and reduced the epithelialization period in vivo [83]; the plant is traditionally used for snakebites [36]. Similarly, in an in vivo study, the methanol extracts of the leaves and roots of Strophanthus hispidus and the roots and stem bark of Kigelia africana significantly increased wound contraction at days 11 and 7, respectively [131]. Agyare et al. [76] revealed that the aqueous and methanol extracts of Alchornea cordifolia displayed wound-healing capacity at days 1 (p < 0.05) and 9 (p < 0.001). Other plants implicated in the study that have demonstrated wound-healing capacity include Anthocleista djalonensis [92], Clerodendrum splendens [108], and Carapa procera [101].

4. Conclusions

This review compiled the list of plants used traditionally in Western Africa for combating various skin ailments and the available scientific studies that have been carried out on the plants. A large percentage of the data was reported from a handful of countries, showing a large research gap in many West African countries on the traditional use of plants for skin ailments. The family Fabaceae is by far the most used, while Combretaceae, Asteraceae, and Euphorbiaceae were also well used. The most common habit of the plants was tree; leaf was the most-used plant part; and decoction was the most-preferred method of preparation. The biological activities of 82 out of the 211 plant species have been carried out, which means many plants still need to be investigated for biological activities related to skin diseases in West Africa. Plants such as Brillantaisia lamium, Kigelia africana, and Strophanthus hispidus that have demonstrated strong biological activities related to skin diseases are recommended for further research to identify the active metabolites and their mode of action.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.A.-n.A., M.U.M. and N.M.; methodology, data curation, A.A.-n.A., M.U.M. and N.M.; writing—original draft preparation, A.A.-n.A., M.U.M. and N.M.; writing—review and editing, A.A.-n.A., M.U.M. and N.M.; funding acquisition, M.U.M. and N.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

Many thanks to Mukaila Yusuf Ola for proofreading the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. PRISMA flow chart showing total studies identified, removed, excluded, and included in the review.
Figure 1. PRISMA flow chart showing total studies identified, removed, excluded, and included in the review.
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Figure 2. Most cited plant families.
Figure 2. Most cited plant families.
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Figure 3. Life forms of the reported plants.
Figure 3. Life forms of the reported plants.
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Figure 4. Parts of plants used to make herbal remedies.
Figure 4. Parts of plants used to make herbal remedies.
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Figure 5. Mode of preparation.
Figure 5. Mode of preparation.
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Figure 6. Number of plants used in treating different skin diseases.
Figure 6. Number of plants used in treating different skin diseases.
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Table 1. Medicinal plants used to treat skin diseases in West Africa.
Table 1. Medicinal plants used to treat skin diseases in West Africa.
FamilyPlant SpeciesHabit and Conservation StatusCountryLocal NamePlant Part(s) Used Mode of PreparationAilment References
AcanthaceaeAcanthus montanus (Nees) T. Anderson Herb; LCNigeriaMbara ekpe (Akwaibom) Leaves Poultice.Abscess, boils, whitlow, and wounds[15]
AcanthaceaeAfrofittonia silvestris Lindau Herb; VUNigeriaMmeme (Akwaibom)Whole plant Crushed and the juice is topically used for skin spots; Poultice is applied to whitlow.Skin spots and whitlow[15]
AcanthaceaeBrillantaisia
lamium (Nees) Benth.		Herb; No RecordCameroonNo recordAerial partsDecoction of aerial parts is used to bath.Skin infections[26]
AcanthaceaeJusticia insularis T. AndersHerb; No RecordNigeriaNo recordWhole plant Crushed and the juice applied; poultice. Skin spots [15]
AiozoaceaeTrianthema portulacastrum L. Herb; No Record NigeriaNtia ntia ikon (Akwa Ibom) Leaves Decoction is used for bathing the affected area.Wounds[15]
AmaranthaceaeAchyranthes aspera L. Herb; No RecordNigeriaUdok mbiok LeavesCrushed and juice applied. Skin ulcers[15]
AmaranthaceaeAlternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Herb; No RecordNigeriaNkpok isip essien Leaves Crushed and the juice applied. Skin spots, measles [15]
AmaranthaceaeAmaranthus caudatus L. Herb; No RecordNigeriaInyan afia Leaves Leaf juice mixed with kaolin is applied.Abscess, boil, eczema, and skin eruption[15]
Amaranthaceae Celosia globosa SchinzHerb; No RecordCameroonNALeavesDecoction of the leaves in Cameroon.Athlete’s foot[26]
AmaranthaceaeCyathula prostrata (L.) Blume Herb; No RecordCote d’Ivoire, Guinea and NigeriaNkibe ubuk Leaves Decoction is taken orally in Nigeria, and Cote d’Ivoire for leprosy; the juice from macerated leaves is applied to cuts and bruises in Guinea.Leprosy, skin spots, scabies, sores, and rashes[15,27,28]
AmaryllidaceaeAllium cepa L. Herb; LCNigeria and West AfricaAlubosa (Yoruba)Bulb Poultice. Scorpion sting and skin disease[15,29]
Amaryllidaceae Allium sativum L. Herb; LCNigeriaAlubosa Ayu (Yoruba)Clove Poultice. Skin spots, burns, ulcers, and
scorpion sting		[15]
AmaryllidaceaeCrinum jagus (Thompson) Dandy Herb; LC NigeriaAyim ekpo, ekop-eyen (Akwa ibom), Ogede odo (Yoruba)Bulb Poultice. Whitlow [15]
Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. Tree; LC NigeriaKashu, CashewLeaves Poultice Ringworm and leprosy[15]
Anacardiaceae Lannea acida A. Rich. Shrub; LCNigeria and SenegalAyara nsukakaraLeavesCrushed and juice applied. Burns and skin infections[15,30,31]
AnacardiaceaeLannea microcarpa A. Rich Tree; LCRepublic of BeninSinmanRoot barkThe root bark is ground to powder and applied topically.Wounds [16]
Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica L. Tree; DDNigeriaMongoro Leaves Decoction for bathing and applied topically.Skin spots[15]
AnacardiaceaeOzoroa pulcherrima
(schweinf.) R. & A. 		Shrub; No Record Republic of BeninMukentétiéRoot barkThe root bark is ground into powder and applied topically.Wounds [16]
Annonaceae Annickia chlorantha (Oliv.) Setten & Maas Tree; LCNigeria and West AfricaOsopa (Yoruba)Leaves, stem bark Crushed and juice applied. Sores, ulcers, and wounds [32]
Annonaceae Annona senegalensis Pers.Tree; LCGhana, Mali, Nigeria, and TogoSawa-sawa (Yoruba), Tchoutchourè (Togo)Leaves and fruitsA poultice made from the leaves is used for leprosy, sores, and wounds in Ghana, Mali, and Nigeria.
Decoction of the leaves and fruits is taken orally for aphthous ulcers in Togo.		Leprosy, sores, and wounds [15,27,33,34]
Annonaceae Monodora myristica (Gaertn.) Dunal Tree; LC NigeriaEnwun Seeds Seeds are ground to powder and applied externally.Pediculosis and sores [15]
Annonaceae Uvaria chamae P. Beauv. Shrub; LC Nigeria and SenegalNkarika ekpoRoot Sap from the crushed root is applied topically.Snakebites and wounds [15,35]
AnnonaceaeXylopia aethiopica
(Dunal) A. Rich 		Tree; No Record Republic of BeninNadofachaSeedsDried seeds are ground into powder and applied topically.Wounds [16]
Apocynaceae Alstonia boonei De Wild. Tree; LCCameroon, Cote d’Ivoire; Nigeria, SenegalAhun (Yoruba)Stem bark Crushed and applied. Snakebites [15,36]
Apocynaceae Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton Herb; LC Gambia, Nigeria, and SenegalBomubomu (Yoruba)Leaves The poultice made from the leaves. Smallpox, skin eruption, snakebites, and wounds[15,27,37]
ApocynaceaeFuntumia elastica (Preuss) Stapf Tree; LC Cameroon and NigeriaEto okpo Leaves Juice from the crushed leaves is applied topically.Snakebites and wounds [15,36]
ApocynaceaeHolarrhena floribunda
(G.Don) T.Durand & Schinz		Tree; LC TogoKororo (Togo)LeavesDecoction of the leaves is taken orally.Aphthous ulcers[34]
ApocynaceaeLeptadenia hastata (Pers.) Decne Climber; No RecordSenegalMboom (wolof) Duto (mandingo)StemInfusion of woody stems is taken orally.Snakebites[15]
ApocynaceaeRauvolfia vomitoria Afzel Tree; LCNigeriakiko Leaves Crushed and applied. Ringworm and itchy body[15]
ApocynaceaeStrophanthus hispidus DC. Shrub; LC Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Nigeria, and SenegalIbok idan Root bark Crushed and applied. Snakebites, scorpion stings, cuts, skin ulcers, and sores[15,28,38,39,40]
Araceae Anchomanes difformis (Blume) Engl Herb; LCCote d’Ivoire and NigeriaNkokot Bulb Crushed and sap applied. Wounds [15,41]
Araceae Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Herb; LC Nigeria and Cameroon Ikpon ekpo
Ndai (Cameroon)		Whole plant, tubersCrushed and applied to the sore. Paste from grated tubers is applied on the part affected by whitlow and tied with a band.Insect bites, sores, and whitlow[15,17]
Araceae Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Tree; LCCameroon, Ghana, and NigeriaEyop Fruit pericarpPeeled and applied. Boil, scabies, and wounds[15,36,40]
Araceae Pistia stratiotes L.Herb; LC NigeriaAmana mmonWhole plant Powdered dry plant is applied topically.Wounds and sores[15]
Araceae Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) SchottHerb; No Record NigeriaIkpon mbakara Leaves Crushed and juice applied. Smallpox, skin spots, and fungal skin infection [15]
AsparagaceaeAgave sisalana Perrine Herb; No RecordTogoKolgragouRootDecoction of the root is taken orally.Aphthous ulcers[34]
Asparagaceae Dracaena arborea (Willd.) Link Tree; LCNigeriaOknoRoot bark Poultice. Boils and burns [15]
Asparagaceae Sansevieria liberica Gérôme & LabroyHerb; No Record NigeriaOkono ekpe Leaves, stem bark, Root Decoction, poultice. Eczema and snakebites[15]
AsphodelaceaeAloe vera (L.) Burm. f. Herb; LCNigeria, Cameroon, Ghana, Togo, and BeninEti erin (Yoruba)Leaves Gel from the crushed leaves is applied topically.Skin infections and wounds[15,17]
AsteraceaeAcanthospermum hispidum DCHerb; No Record TogoKpangsoyèWhole plantDecoction of the whole plant is taken orally. Aphthous ulcers[34]
AsteraceaeAgeratum conyzoides L.Herb; LCNigeriaImi esu (Yoruba)Whole plant Crushed in water and applied topically. The same preparation is taken orally for general skin infections.Rashes, skin ulcers, and wounds[15,42]
AsteraceaeAspilia africana (Pers.) C.D. Adams Herb; No RecordCameroon, Liberia, Nigeria, and Sierra LeoneEdemeron
Wowoh (Cameroon)		LeavesDecoction of the leaves in Cameroon. Leaves are crushed or squeezed on the wound in Nigeria and Cameroon.Wounds[15,17,20,27]
AsteraceaeBidens pilosa L.Herb; No RecordCameroon, Cote d’Ivoire, NigeriaNtafion ison
Shoctesuc (Cameroon)		Leaves Crushed and juice applied. Insect bites and wounds[15,17,41]
AsteraceaeChromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. Herb; LCCameroon, Ghana, NigeriaMbiet (Ghana)
Awolowo (Yoruba)
Twigi (Cameroon)		Leaves Crushed and juice applied. A poultice made from the leaves is used to cover the wound.Rashes, scorpion sting, snakebites, and Wounds[15,17,40]
AsteraceaeCrassocephalum biafrae (Oliv. & Hiern) S. MooreHerb; No Record NigeriaMkpafit LeavesDried leaves are ground into powder and applied to the wound. Wounds[15]
AsteraceaeCrassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. MooreHerb; No RecordNigeriaMkpafit LeavesJuice from the crushed leaves is applied.Boil, burns, and wounds [15]
AsteraceaeCyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob Herb; No RecordTogoKogbèdiyèAerial partDecoction is taken orally. Aphthous ulcers[34]
AsteraceaeEmilia coccinea (Sims) G. Don Herb; No RecordNigeria,
Cameroon 		Utime nse
Nsefouse (Cameroon)
Femefouse (Cameroon)		LeavesJuice from the crushed leaves is applied.Measles, rashes, wounds [15]
AsteraceaeEmilia sonchifolia (L.) DC Herb; No RecordNigeriaUtime nse, usio mmon LeavesJuice from the crushed leaves is applied.Measles, rashes, and Wounds[15]
AsteraceaeLaggera decurrens (Vahl) Hepper & J.R.I. WoodHerb; No RecordNigeriaEwedorun (Yoruba)Whole plantsDecoction of the whole plant is applied to the wound with cotton wool.Wounds[42]
AsteraceaeTridax procumbens L. Herb; LCNigeriaAyara utimense (Akwa Ibom), imi esu or apasa funfun (Yoruba) LeavesDecoction of the leaves is taken orally.Skin spots [15]
AsteraceaeVernonia amygdalina Delile Shrub; LC West AfricaEtidod (Akwa ibom) Ewuro (Yoruba)
Ying (Cameroon)		LeavesJuice from the crushed leaves is applied externally. The juice is mixed with palm oil in Yoruba culture.Chickenpox, measles, ringworm skin spots, skin infections and wounds [15,40]
BignoniaceaeKigelia africana (Lam.) Benth Tree; LCCote d’Ivoire, Nigeria, and SenegalNtabinim Stem barkDried stem bark is ground to powder and applied topically. Leprosy, snakebites, sores, and wounds [15,31,32]
BignoniaceaeNewbouldia laevis (P. Beauv.) SeemTree; LC Cote d’Ivoire and NigeriaTumo Stem bark and rootDecoction of stem back and root is taken orally.Boils and skin spots [15]
BignoniaceaeSpathodea campanulata P. Beauv. Tree; LC NigeriaEsenim Stem barkInfusion of stem back is applied externally for burns, bruises, skin infections, ulcers and wounds. Skin infections, ulcers and wounds[15,41]
BignoniaceaeStereospermum kunthianum
Cham.		Shrub; LC TogoEssogbalouLeavesDecoction is taken orally for herpes sores.Herpes sores[34]
Boraginaceae Heliotropium indicum L. Herb; LCBenin, Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal, and TogoEwe akuko (Yoruba); Soucondiè (Togo), Koklosou dinkpadja (Benin)Leaves and whole plantDecoction of the leaves is taken orally for boil in Nigeria; a poultice made from the leaves is applied to wounds and insect bites in Ghana and Senegal. Decoction of the whole plants is taken orally for aphthous ulcers in Togo.Boil, insect bites, and ulcers[15,31,32,34,43]
Brassicaceae Brassica oleracea L. Herb; No Record NigeriaEfere mbakara Leaves Poultice. Ringworm and skin ulcers[15]
Burseraceae Commiphora africana (A. Rich.) Engl. Tree; LCNigeriaEto komfi itiat Stem bark Decoction of the stem back is taken orally.Rashes caused by measles [15]
Burseraceae Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H.J. Lam Tree; No Record Cote d’Ivoire and NigeriaEben LeavesDecoction is applied externally. Leprosy and skin spots[15,27,44]
Burseraceae Dacryodes klaineana (Pierre) H.J. Lam Tree; LCNigeriaEben ikot Leaves and rootDecoction is of the leaves and root taken orally.Skin spots [15]
Cannabaceae Trema orientale (L.) Blume Tree; LC Cameroon and NigeriaNo recordWhole plantDecoction of the whole plant is used to bath or applied topically.Abscesses and
skin spots 		[15,45]
CapparaceaeMaerua angolensis DC Tree; LC Republic of BeninFetounanfèRoot barkThe root bark is ground to powder and applied topically.Wounds [16]
CaricaceaeCarica papaya L.Tree; LC CameroonPawpawLeavesLeaf juice is applied on fresh wounds.Wounds[17]
CelastraceaeApodostigma pallens
(Planch. ex Oliv.)
R.Wilczek		Climber; No Record Republic of BeninMukentetieRootThe chewed root is applied topically. Wounds[16]
CelastraceaeGymnosporia senegalensis
L. E. T. Loesener 		Shrub; LCRepublic of BeninMoukorouRoot barkRoot bark is ground to powder and applied topically. Wounds [16]
CelastraceaeMaytenus
senegalensis (Lam.) Exell		Shrub; No Record TogoLiakpangsoyè (Togo)Whole plantDecoction of the leaves is taken orally.Aphthous ulcers [34]
ChrysobalanaceaeMaranthes kerstingii (Engl.) Prance Tree; No RecordTogoPoundoulayzay (Togo)Leaves Decoction of the leaves is taken orally.Aphthous ulcers[34]
ChrysobalanaceaeParinari curatellifolia
Planch. ex Benth.		Tree; LCTogoMalay (Togo)LeavesDecoction of the leaves is taken orally.Aphthous ulcers[34]
ClusiaceaeAllanblackia floribunda Oliv Tree; VU NigeriaUdiaebion, ekporo-enin Leaves Decoction of the leaves is used for bathing. Skin spots[15]
ClusiaceaeSymphonia globulifera L. f. Tree; LC Cameron and Nigeria No recordBark, roots, and resinBoiled bark and roots are used as a wash to treat itch, and the resin is used to treat wounds and prevent skin infections in Cameroon. Leaves decoction for skin disease and skin spots in Nigeria.Itching, skin infections, and wounds [15,46,47]
CochlospermaceaeCochlospermum
planchonii Hook. f.		Shrub; No Record TogoKalantcheyah (Togo)LeavesDecoction of the leaves is taken orally.Aphthous ulcers[34]
Combretaceae Anogeissus leiocarpus (DC.) Guill. & Perr.Tree; No RecordCote d’Ivoire and NigeriaKolou (Togo)Leaves and Stem bark Infusion of stem bark in water is mixed with honey for skin ulcers, sores, and wounds. Decoction of leaves for aphthous ulcer.Wounds, skin ulcers, and sores[15,34,41]
CombretaceaeCombretum collinum
Fresen 		Tree; LCRepublic of BeninGberukporoRoot barkThe root bark is ground to powder and applied topically. Wounds [16]
CombretaceaeCombretum glutinosum
Perr. Ex DC 		Tree; LC Republic of BeninOudadaribouRoot barkPowdered root bark is incinerated and applied topically. Wounds [16]
Combretaceae Combretum hypopilinum DielsShrub; No RecordGambiaKatanyangkungoLeaves and
root		Decoction of both leaves and root is used to bath.Itchy body[48]
Combretaceae Combretum micranthum G. Don Shrub; LCCote d’Ivoire, Nigeria, and West Africa Asaka LeavesInfusion of the leaves is taken orally.Leprosy, sores
and skin spots		[27,31]
Combretaceae Combretum racemosum P. Beauv. Shrub; No Record NigeriaUyai asaka LeavesJuice from the crushed leaves is taken orally. Skin spots[15]
CombretaceaeCombretum sericeum G. Don Tree; No RecordRepublic of BeninCocopourkaRoot bark The root bark is ground to powder and applied topically. Wounds [16]
Combretaceae Combretum zeyheri Engl. & Diels Climber; LC NigeriaNdia asaka LeavesPoultice. Mump, skin eruption, and warts [15]
Combretaceae Guarea thompsonii Sprague & Hutch.Tree; VUNigeriaAfia ikpok eto Stem bark Sap produced from the crushing of the stem bark is applied topically.Skin diseases [15]
Combretaceae Guiera senegalensis
J.F. Gmel. 		Shrub; LCGuinea, Senegal, and West AfricaNo recordLeaves and twigsDecoction of the leaves is taken for leprosy. The twigs are chewed for scorpion stings.Leprosy and
scorpion bites		[31,35,49]
CombretaceaePteleopsis suberosa Engl. et Diels Tree; LCTogoKézinzinangLeaves and bark Decoction is taken orally.Aphthous ulcers[34]
CombretaceaeTerminalia avicennioides
Guill. & Perr. Fl. Seneg. Tent.		Tree; LCTogoKoyèkouloumryèAerial partDecoction is taken orallyAphthous ulcers[34]
Combretaceae Terminalia ivorensis A. Chev Tree; VUCote d’Ivoire, Ghana, and NigeriaNkot ebene Stem barkInfusion of the stem bark is applied topically.Sores and ulcers[15,27,28]
Combretaceae Terminalia superba Engl. & Diels Tree; No Record NigeriaAfia eto LeavesJuice from the crushed leaves is applied externally.Skin spots[15]
CommelinaceaeCommelina benghalensis L.Herb; LCCameroonWiwihLatexLatex is applied to the affected skin.Ringworm [17]
Commelinaceae Commelina diffusa Burn. f. Climber; LC NigeriaEkpa ekpa ikpaha Whole plantDried whole plant is ground to powder and applied externally. Sores and burns [15]
Convulvulaceae Ipomoea pileata Roxb Herb; No Record NigeriaMkpafiafian LeavesInfusion of the leaves is applied topically.Skin spots[15]
Convulvulaceae Ipomoea quamoclit L.Herb; No RecordNigeriaEdiam ikanikot LeavesPoultice. Boil and wounds[15]
Cucurbitaceae Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. Climber; No Record NigeriaIkon Seeds Seeds are ground and applied topically.Abscess and skin spots[15]
Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita maxima Duchesne Climber; No Record Ghana and NigeriaIkim LeavesJuice from the crushed leaves is applied topically.Boil and skin spots [15,27]
Cucurbitaceae Momordica balsamina L. Climber; No RecordNigeria and Senegal Mbiadon edon Whole plant Poultice. Boil[15]
Cucurbitaceae Momordica charantia L. Climber; No RecordGhana, Mali, Nigeria, and SenegalMbiadon edon
Nyenyen (Ghana)		Fruit Poultice; infusion of whole plants is taken orally in Ghana for snakebites.Boil, burns
snakebites, and ulcers		[15,40,50]
Dioscoraceae Dioscorea dumetorum (Kunth) Pax Climber; No Record NigeriaEnem (Akwa Ibom); Esuru (Yoruba) LeavesDecoction of the leaves is applied topically.Skin spots [15]
Dioscoraceae Dioscorea rotundata Poir Climber; No Record NigeriaEkoLeaves Infusion of the leaves is applied topically.Burns and skin spots [15]
EbenaceaeDiospyros
canaliculata De Wild.		Tree; LCCameroonNo recordStem barkNo record.Skin infections[26]
EuphorbiaceaeAcalypha fimbriata Schumach. & ThonnHerb; No RecordNigeriaOkokho nyin Leaves and twigsDecoction of leaves and twigs is used topically to bath.Skin spots and sores[15]
EuphorbiaceaeAcalypha hispida Burm. f. Shrub; No RecordNigeriaOkokho nyin Leaves Decoction of leaves is used externally to bath.Skin spots and sores[15]
EuphorbiaceaeAcalypha wilkesiana Müll. Arg. Shrub; No RecordNigeriaOkokho nyin Leaves Decoction of leaves is used topically to bath.Skin spots[15]
EuphorbiaceaeAlchornea cordifolia (Schumach. & Thonn.) Müll. Arg.Shrub; No RecordGhana, Nigeria, and West AfricaMbom Leaves and fruitsInfusion of the leaves; juice from the crushed fruits is applied topically.Skin spots and skin ulcers, skin spots, scorpion stings, and snakebites [15,29,40]
EuphorbiaceaeAlchornea laxiflora (Benth.) Pax & K. Hoffm. Shrub; LCNigeriaNwariwa LeavesInfusion of the leaves is used for skin spots and skin ulcers.Skin spots and ulcers[15]
EuphorbiaceaeEuphorbia hirta L.Herb; No Record NigeriaEtinkene ekpo Leaves The poultice made from the leaves is applied topically.Snakebites, scorpion stings, and insect bites[15]
EuphorbiaceaeJatropha curcas L. Shrub; LCTogoEssogbalou (Togo)
Medjai (Cameroon)		Leaves and latexDecoction of the leaves is taken for cancer sores. Latex from the cut stem is applied to the wounds.Cancer sores and
wounds 		[17,34]
EuphorbiaceaeJatropha gossypiifolia L. Shrub; LCNigeriaEto oko obio nsit Leaves Juice from the crushed leaves is applied topically.Eczema, ringworm, and scabies[15]
EuphorbiaceaeMacaranga barteri Mull. Arg. Shrub; LCGhanaOpamBarkDecoction of bark is taken orally. Footrot[50]
EuphorbiaceaeMallotus oppositifolius (Geiseler) Müll. Arg. Herb; LC Cameroon, Ghana, and NigeriaUman nwariwa Leaves or stem backDecoction of the leaves is applied topically.Skin spots [15,40,51]
EuphorbiaceaeManniophyton fulvum Müll. Arg. Climber; No Record NigeriaEkonikon Leaves and stem bark Infusion of the leaves and stem bark is applied topically.Scabies, ringworm, and eczema [15]
EuphorbiaceaeRicinus communis L.Shrub; LCNigeriaEto kasto Leaves and seeds Infusion of the leaves; expression of the oil from the seeds.Chickenpox smallpox, and skin spots [15]
FabaceaeAbrus precatorius L.Climber; No Record NigeriaNneminua
(Akwa ibom); Oju ologbo (Yoruba)		Leaves Juice from the crushed leaves is applied topically.Skin spots [15]
FabaceaeAfzelia africana Sm.Tree; VUNigeriaEyin mbukpo Stem bark Sap produced from the crushed stem back is applied topically.Leprosy, pimples, skin eruption, and wounds[15]
FabaceaeAfzelia bella HarmsTree; LC NigeriaEnyin mbukpo Leaves Juice from the crushed leaves is applied topically.Pimples[15]
FabaceaeAganope stuhlmannii (Taub.) Adema Tree; LC TogoKpodougboouAerial partDecoction is taken orally.Aphthous ulcers[34]
FabaceaeAlbizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Tree; LC NigeriaUbam Stem bark Poultice. Eczema and insect bites [15]
FabaceaeArachis hypogaea L.Herb; LC SenegalGerte (wolof) Jamba katalig (mandingo)NutPeanut oil mixed with powdered leaf of A. digitata is applied to wounds.Burns [52]
FabaceaeBaphia nitida Lodd.Tree; LC Ghana and NigeriaAfuo Leaves Juice from the crushed leaves is applied topically.Boils, skin ulcers, and wounds [15,40]
FabaceaeBurkea africana Hook Tree; LC TogoTchangbali (TogoLeavesDecoction of the leaves is taken orally.Aphthous ulcers[34]
FabaceaeCajanus cajan (L.) Huth Herb; No Record Nigeria and TogoNkoti
(Akwa Ibom); Otili (Yoruba); Assongoyè (Togo		Seeds and whole plantSeeds are ground into powder and applied topically for measles, smallpox, sores, skin ulcers, and skin spots in Nigeria. Decoction of the whole plants is taken orally for aphthous ulcers in Togo.Measles, sores, skin ulcers, skin spots, and smallpox [15,34]
FabaceaeDaniellia oliveri (Rolfe) Hutch. & Dalziel Tree; LCNigeria and TogoEnan-eto (Akwa Ibom); Hemou (Togo)Root, bark, and
leaves		Sap from the crushed root bark is applied topically in Nigeria.
Leaves and bark are macerated and taken orally for aphthous ulcers in Togo.		Aphthous ulcers and rashes [15,34]
FabaceaeDetarium microcarpum Guill. & Perr Tree; LC Nigeria and TogoKpayè (Togo)Bark, leaves, and rootsDried roots and leaves are ground into powder and applied externally for cuts, ulcers and wounds in Nigeria. Stem bark is macerated and taken orally for aphthous ulcers in Togo.Aphthous ulcers and wounds[15,34]
FabaceaeDistemonanthus benthamianus Baill. Tree; LC NigeriaEto-afia Root barkDecoction of the root bark is taken orally. Skin spot[15]
FabaceaeFaidherbia albida (Delile) A. ChevTree; LC GambiaBubrickRootNASnakebites[48]
FabaceaeLonchocarpus cyanescens (Schumach. & Thonn.) Benth. Shrub; No Record NigeriaAwa LeavesInfusion of the leaves is applied topically. Skin ulcers and skin spots [15]
FabaceaeLonchocarpus sericeus (Poir.) KunthTree; LCNigeriaIpappo (Yoruba)LeavesDecoction of the leaves with Vernonia macrocynus O.Hoffm is taken orally.Skin infections[42]
FabaceaeParkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R. Br. ex G. Don Tree; LC Nigeria and Togo Ukon uyayak (Akwa Ibom); Igi iru (Yoruba); Soulou (Togo)Stem bark Dried stem bark is ground to powder for ringworms in Nigeria. Decoction of the stem bark is used externally for skin infection in Nigeria and taken orally for aphthous ulcers in Togo.Aphthous ulcers, ringworm, and skin infection[15,34]
FabaceaeParkia clappertoniana KeayTree; No Record Nigeria and GhanaIgba (Yoruba)LeavesLeaves are ground with Loranthus with potash and taken orally with pap (Nigeria); Extract from the husk is used for sores and wounds in Ghana.Skin infections, sores, and wounds[42,53]
FabaceaePentaclethra macrophylla Benth Tree; LCNigeria Ukana Stem bark Decoction or infusion is used topically. Skin spots [15]
FabaceaePiliostigma thonningii
(Schum.) Milne-Redh.		Tree; No Record Republic of Benin, Nigeria, and TogoTilabaati (Benin); Pambakou (Togo)
Abafe (Nigeria)		Root and root bark Decoction of the root and fruit is taken orally for herpes sores and other skin diseases. The root bark is ground to powder and applied topically. Herpes sores and skin disease[16,34,42]
FabaceaePterocarpus erinaceus Poir. Tree; No RecordNigeria and TogoUkpa (AkwaIbom, Nigeria); Tém (Togo)Leaves and stem bark Decoction of the leaves and stem bark is used externally for skin spots in Nigeria. Latex from the plant is applied topically for herpes sores and ringworm in Togo.Herpes, ringworm sores, and skin spots[15,34]
FabaceaePterocarpus santalinoides L’Hér. ex DC. Tree; No RecordNigeria Nkpa-inyan Leaves Decoction is used topically.Skin spots[15]
FabaceaeSenegalia ataxacantha (DC.) Kyal. & Boatwr.Tree; LCNigeriaMbara okpok Leaves Juice from the crushed leaves is applied topically.Burn and sores[15]
FabaceaeSenna alata L (RoxbShrub; LC NigeriaAsunwon (Yoruba); Akoria (Bennin)Leaves and stem Juice from the leaves and stem is applied externally.Ringworms and skin spots[42]
FabaceaeSenna hirsuta (L.) H.S.Irwin & BarnebyHerb; No RecordCameroonTulushineLeavesDecoction of leaves is taken orally.General skin diseases[17]
FabaceaeSenna occidentalis (L.) LinkHerb; LC NigeriaFlower uduk-ikotLeaves Juice from the crushed leaves is applied topically. Abscess and chickenpox [15]
FabaceaeSenna tora (L.) Roxb.Herb; No Record NigeriaMfan udukikot Leaves Infusion of the leaves is applied topically.Skin spots and sores [15]
FabaceaeTamarindus indica L. Tree; LCNigeria and TogoOkukuk mbakara (Akwa Ibom, Nigeria); Nidié (Togo)Leaves and root bark Decoction of the root bark is used externally for bathing for skin spots in Nigeria. Decoction of the leaves is taken orally for aphthous ulcers in Togo. Aphthous ulcers and skin spots[15,34]
FabaceaeTetrapleura tetraptera (Schumach. & Thonn.) Taub. Tree; LC NigeriaUyayak (Akwa Ibom); Aidan (Yoruba)FruitsOil from the expression of the fruit is used externally for skin spots. Skin spots[15]
FabaceaeVachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H. Hurter & MabbTree; LC SenegalNep nep (wolof) Mbano (mandingo)Root Root infusion is applied topically.Herpes[52]
FabaceaeZornia latifolia Sm. Herb; No Record NigeriaUbok etikoriko LeavesSap from the crushed leaves or dried leaves ground into powder is applied topically.Snakebites and scorpion stings [15]
Gentianaceae Anthocleista djalonensis A. Chev. Tree; LCNigeriaIbu (Akwa Ibom); Sapo (Yoruba)Stem bark Sap from the crushed stem bark is used topically.Skin spots, sores, ulcers, and wounds [15]
Hypericaceae Harungana madagascariensis (Lam.) ex Poir.Tree; LC NigeriaOton Leaves, stem, root Infusion of the leaves, stem, and root is used topically.Skin spots [15]
HypericaceaeHypericum Lanceolatum Lam.Shrub; No Record CameroonNo recordStem barkNo record.Skin infections[26]
HypericaceaePsorospermum febrifugum SpachShrub; LCCameroonNo recordStem bark and rootDecoction of the stem bark for skin sores in HIV/AIDS patients. Powdered root is used topically on parasitic skin diseases. It is used for pimples, eruptions, and wounds when ground up and mixed with oil.Acne, leprosy, skin sores in HIV/AIDS patients, and skin infection.[54,55]
Lamiaceae Clerodendrum splendens G. Don Climber; No Record Mali and NigeriaMmon oyot adiaha ekiko LeavesJuice from the crushed leaves is applied topically.Skin spots and snakebites[15,29]
LamiaceaeMesosphaerum suaveolens (L.) KuntzeHerb; No Record Togo and
Gambia		Pinbinè (Togo)
Jammakarla (Gambia		RootRoot is macerated and taken orally for aphthous ulcers. Sap is applied to fresh cut.Aphthous ulcers and fresh cuts[34,48]
Lamiaceae Solenostemon monostachyus (P. Beauv.) Briq Herb; No RecordNigeriaNtorikwot Leaves Juice from the crushed leaves is added to water and applied topically.Measles [15]
Lamiaceae Vitex doniana Sweet Tree; LCWest AfricaNkokoro Root Poultice. Leprosy and wrinkles[15,31,56]
Malvaceae Adansonia digitata L. Tree; No Record Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, and Nigeria and Luru (Hausa)
Buback (Gambia)		Leaves and fruits Juice from the crushed leaves is applied topically.
Fruit pulp is applied to body blisters.		Body blisters, scorpion stings, and snakebites[15,48]
Malvaceae Bombax buonopozense P. Beauv. Tree; LCNigeriaUkim Stem bark Infusion of the stem bark is applied externally.Ringworm, rashes, and skin spots [15]
Malvaceae Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. Tree; LCCote d’Ivoire and NigeriaAkpu-ogwu (Igbo); Araba (Yoruba); Rimi (Hausa)Stem bark Decoction of the stem bark is used for bathing.Leprosy, sores, and skin ulcers [15,28]
Malvaceae Glyphaea brevis (Spreng.) Monach Shrub; LC NigeriaNdodiro Leaves Poultice. Burns and wounds [15]
Malvaceae Gossypium hirsutum L.Shrub; VU NigeriaEto-ofo LeavesJuice from the crushed leaves is applied topically.Sores, skin eruption, and wounds[15]
Malvaceae Sterculia tragacantha Lindl. Tree; LCNigeriaUdot eto Stem bark Sap from the crushed stem bark is applied topically.Boil, skin ulcers, and wounds[15]
Malvaceae Triumfetta cordifolia Guill., Perr. & A. RichShrub; No RecordNigeriaNkibbe ubuk LeavesJuice from the crushed leaves is applied topically.Skin spots [15]
MarantaceaeThaumatococcus danielli BenthHerb; No RecordNigeriaEwe iranLeavesPowder from the dried leaves is mixed with oil and applied to the affected area.Skin infections [57]
Melastomataceae Heterotis rotundifolia (Sm.) Jacq.-Fél. Shrub; LCNigeriaNyie ndan Whole plantDecoction of the whole plant is used externally for bathing. Measles[15]
MeliaceaeAzadirachta indica A. Juss. Tree; LCGhana and NigeriaIbok utoenyin Leaves, stem bark, root Infusion is used topically. Eczema, ringworm, skin spots, and scabies[15,40]
MeliaceaeCarapa procera DC. Tree; LC Ghana, Guinea, and NigeriaMkpono ubom Seeds Oil from the crushed seed is used externally.Burns, insect bites, and scabies[40,58]
MeliaceaeKhaya grandifoliola A. Juss. Tree; VUNigeriaOdala (Igbo), Oganwo (Yoruba)Stem bark Decoction is used topically.Skin spots [15]
MeliaceaePseudocedrela kotschyii
(Schweinf.) Harms		Tree; LC TogoHelitétéwiyéRootRoot maceration is taken orally.Aphthous ulcers[34]
MenispermaceaeChasmanthera dependens Hochst Climber; No Record Republic of BeninBoborouStemGround stem is applied topically or mixed with shea butter.Wounds [16]
MoraceaeAfromorus mesozygia (Stapf) E.M. GardenerTree; No RecordCameroonNo recordRoots, stem, and leaves No record.Dermatitis [26]
MoraceaeArtocarpus altilis (Parkinson) FosbergTree; No RecordCameroonNo recordRootsNo record.Abscesses, boils, and skin infections[26]
MoraceaeFicus sycomorus L. Tree; LCNigeriaSikamo Root Poultice. Snakebites [15]
MoraceaeFicus carica L. Tree; LC NigeriaUkimo Stem bark Dried stem bark is ground to powder and applied to the wounds.Wounds[15]
MoraceaeFicus exasperata Vahl Tree; LC Nigeria and TogoUkuok (Akwa ibom); Eepin (Yoruba); Laalayou (Togo)Leaves and rootSap from the crushed root is used externally for ringworms in Nigeria. Decoction of the leaves is taken orally for aphthous ulcers in Togo.Ringworm[15,34]
MoraceaeFicus ingens (Miq.) MiqShrub; LC Republic of BeninDekuru sanniRoot barkThe root bark is ground to powder and applied topically.Wounds [16]
MoraceaeFicus thonningii BlumeTree; LC Benin republicKudoroRootsAdventitious roots of F. thonningii and bark
of the root of Newbouldia laevis are ground into powder and applied topically.		Wounds[16]
MoraceaeTreculia obovoidea N.E.BrTree; LC CameronNo recordTwigsNo record.Skin disease[26]
MyristicaceaePycnanthus angolensis (Welw.) Warb. Tree; LC CameroonNo recordStem barkNo record.Fungal skin infection[26]
Myrtaceae Eugenia uniflora L. Tree; LC NigeriaNo recordLeaves Decoction of the leaves is taken orally.Skin spots [15]
Ochnaceae Lophira lanceolata Tiegh. ex Keay Tree; LC Nigeria and TogoTabsomang (Togo)Leaves, root bark and stemDecoction of the leaves and root back for chickenpox, fungal skin infection, and wounds in Nigeria. Stem is rubbed directly on the herpes sore in Togo.Chicken pox, herpes sores, and skin infections[15,34]
OchnaceaeOchna rhizomatosa
(Tiegh.) Keay		Shrub; No Record Republic of BeninYinkpenokaRoot barkThe root bark is ground to powder and applied topically for wounds.Wounds [16]
OchnaceaeOchna schweinfurthii
F. Hoffm.		Shrub; LCRepublic of BeninYinkpenokaRoot barkThe root bark is ground to powder and applied topically for wounds.Wounds [16]
OlacaceaeCoula edulis Baill.Tree; LC CameronNo recordstem barkNo record.Skin disease[26]
Phyllanthaceae Bridelia ferruginea Benth. Tree; LC NigeriaUdia afua Stem bark Infusion is used topically.Fungal skin infections and wounds[15]
PhyllanthaceaeFlueggea virosa, (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle Shrub; LC Republic of BeninOpanko (Benin), Tchaakatchaka (Togo)Root bark and aerial partRoot bark is incinerated and applied topically to wounds. Decoction is taken orally for aphthous ulcers.Aphthous ulcers and wounds[16,34]
PhyllanthaceaeHymenocardia acida Tul.Shrub; LC Togo, Republic of BeninKpaiKpai (Togo), Sinkakakou (Benin)Leaves, Root bark Decoction of the leaves is taken orally for aphthous ulcers. Root bark is ground to powder and applied topically to wounds.Aphthous ulcers and wounds[16,34]
Phyllanthaceae Maesobotrya barteri (Baill.) Hutch Tree; LC NigeriaNnyanyatet Root Sap from the crushed root is applied externally. Skin spots [15]
Phyllanthaceae Maesobotrya dusenii (Pax) Pax Tree; No Record NigeriaNnyanyatet Root Sap from the crushed root is applied externally.Skin spots [15]
Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn.Herb; No RecordNigeriaOyomokiso Whole plantDecoction of the whole plant is taken orally and for bathing. Skin spots [15]
PhyllanthaceaePhyllanthus pentandrus Schum. And ThonnShrub; No RecordNigeriaEhin olobeLeaves and fruit husksThe dried leaves are ground with Vigna plant, and the powder is then mixed with shea butter; the ointment is applied to boils. Boil[42]
Phyllanthaceae Uapaca togoensis Pax Tree; LCCôte d’Ivoire No recordRoot and stem barkPreparation from the root and stem bark. Leprosy and skin diseases[59]
Poaceae Andropogon gayanus Kunth Herb; No RecordNigeriaMbokko ekpo Leaves Dried leaves are ground to powder and used topically.Wounds [15]
PoaceaeImperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. Herb; LCNigeriaNdan inwan Rhizome Rhuzome is crushed and applied topically.Abscess and scorpion sting [15]
PoaceaePennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Herb; LCNigeriaNwan-mbakara Shoot Dried shoots are ground into powder and applied to the wounds.Wounds[15]
PoaceaeRottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) Clayton Herb; No RecordNigeriaMbokko enan ikotWhole plantDecoction of the whole plant is for bathing. Measles[15]
Polygalaceae Carpolobia lutea G. DonShrub; LCNigeriaIkpafun Leaves Decoction of the leaves is taken orally.Skin spots [15]
Polygalaceae Portulaca oleracea L. Herb; LC Ghana and NigeriaUton ekpu Whole plantDecoction of the whole plant is used for bathing. Dermatitis and skin spots [15]
Rubiaceae Borreria verticillata (L.) G. Mey. Herb; No RecordNigeriaNo recordLeaves Juice from the crushed leaves is applied topically.Eczema and skin spots[15]
RubiaceaeChassalia kolly (Schumach.) HepperShrub; No RecordTogoTiyah (Togo) RootsPaste made from the roots is applied topically.Ringworm[34]
RubiaceaeCrossopteryx febrifuga (Afzel. ex G.Don) Bents Tree; LCRepublic of BeninOtoupedouRoot barkThe root bark is ground to powder and applied topically.Wounds[16]
Rubiaceae Diodia sarmentosa Sw.Climber; No Record NigeriaNo recordLeaves Decoction of leaves is used topically. Skin spots[15]
RubiaceaeGardenia ternifolia
schumach. & Thonn		Shrub; LCRepublic of Benin and TogoKeyabouaka (Benin); Kaou (Togo)Root and root barkRoot decoction is applied topically for ringworms in Togo. Root bark is incinerated and mixed with palm kernel oil and used topically for wounds in Benin.Ringworm and
wounds		[16,34]
Rubiaceae Morinda longiflora G. Don Climber; No Record NigeriaNo recordLeaves Infusion of the leaves in water and used externally.Scabies[15]
Rubiaceae Nauclea latifolia Sm. Tree; LCNigeriaNo recordLeaves Juice from the crushed leaves is applied externally. Rashes [15]
RubiaceaeSarcocephalus latifolius
(Sm.) E.A.Bruce.		Tree; No Record TogoKayou (Togo)Root Decoction of the root is taken orally. Aphthous ulcers[34]
RutaceaeClausena anisata (Willd.) Hook. f. ex Benth. Shrub; LCNigeriaMbiet ekpene Stem bark Decoction of the stem bark is taken orally. Measles [15]
RutaceaeZanthoxylum gilletii (De Wild.) Waterman Tree; LCGhana and NigeriaNkek Root barkSap from the crushed root back is applied topically.Boil[15]
RutaceaeZanthoxylum zanthoxyloides
(Lam.) Zepern. & Timler		Tree; LC TogoKolgraguAerial partMaceration is taken orally. Aphthous ulcers[34]
Salicaceae Homalium letestui Pellegr. Tree; No Record NigeriaOton idim Leaves Decoction or infusion of the leaves is taken orally.Skin spots [15]
SapindaceaeBlighia sapida K.D. Koenig Tree; LCBenin Republic, Ghana, Nigeria, and TogoIshin (Yoruba), Kpiziyè (Togo)Leaves, fruit, and stem barkPounded bark is taken as an antidote to snake and scorpion bites. Decoctions of bark or fruit walls are applied to wounds. The ground-up leaves and salts are applied as a paste to treat yaws and ulcers. A calcinate made from the fruit or bark is applied externally for aphthous ulcers and herpes sores in Togo.Aphthous ulcers, herpes sores, snakebites, scorpion bites, and wounds[34,40,55]
SapindaceaePaullinia pinnata L. Tree; No Record Republic of Benin and TogoDikitinintibou (Benin); Adjandj kpouzou (Togo)Aerial
Part and root bark 		Decoction of the aerial part is taken orally for aphthous ulcers in Togo. Root bark is ground to powder and applied topically for wounds.Aphthous ulcers and wounds[16,34]
SapotaceaeVitellaria paradoxa
C.F. Gaertn 		Tree; VURepublic of Benin SomouLeafLeaves powder is mixed with butter and applied topically.Wounds[16]
SimaroubaceaeHannoa undulata (Guill.
& Perr.) Planch 		Tree; No Record Republic of BeninOkoupopodeRoot bark The root bark is ground and applied topically. Wounds [16]
Smilacaceae Smilax anceps Willd. Climber; No Record NigeriaNo recordLeaves, twigs Decoction is applied topically.Skin spot[55]
SolanaceaeDatura metel L. Herb; No RecordNigeria Nnya ekpo Leaves Juice from the crushed leaves is applied topically.Insect bites and scorpion stings[15]
SolanaceaeNicotiana rustica L. Herb; No RecordNigeria No recordLeaves Poultice. Skin ulcers, skin cancer, and wounds[15]
SolanaceaeNicotiana tabacum L. Herb; No RecordGhana and Nigeria Ewe taaba (Yoruba)Leaves Poultice. Skin ulcers, skin cancer, and wounds[15,40]
Ximeniaceae Ximenia americana L. Shrub; LCNigeriaNo recordRoot Sap from the crushed root is applied topically.Skin ulcers, rashes, and ringworm [15]
ZingiberaceaeAframomum melegueta (Roscoe) K.SchumHerb; DD Republic of Benin FètcharinanfèSeed The dried powder of the seed is applied topically. Wounds[16]
Table 2. Biological activities of the plants used against skin diseases in West Africa.
Table 2. Biological activities of the plants used against skin diseases in West Africa.
Plant SpeciesPlant Part(s) UsedBiological Activities/Extract or Isolated Compound UsedResultsActive MetabolitesReferences
Acalypha wilkesianaLeafAqueousThe extract inhibited C. albicans, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, P. vulgaris, S. aureus with zones of inhibition between 12 and 19 mm.Alkaloids, glycoside, terpenes, 15-hydroxy pentadecanoic acid, 1,2,3-propanetriyl ester, and 9-octadecanoic acid[66]
Acanthospermum
Hispidum		Whole plantAntifungal/Ethanol The extract inhibited pathogenic fungi, namely, C. albicans, M. luteus, M. roseus, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus, with zones of inhibitions between 12–18 mm.Acanthospermal B[67]
Acanthus montanusRoot
Leaf		Anti-inflammatory/Aqueous
Antifungal/Methanol 		The extract significantly inhibited acute oedema in the mouse ear and the rat paw at p < 0.05. Extract completely inhibited dermatophytic fungi, namely, Cladosporium sp., Fusarium sp., Trichophyton mentagrophyte, T. rubrum and T. soudanense at 100 mg/mL. Carbohydrates, alkaloids, tannins, glycosides, carbohydrates, flavonoids, and steroids.[68,69]
Achyranthes asperaRoot and stem Antifungal/Aqueous
Methanol 		Methanolic, aqueous root extract and methanolic extract of the stem were effective against Epidermophyton floccossum.Alkaloids, carbohydrates, flavonoids, proteins, amino acids, tannins, phenols, steroids, glycosides and saponins[70,71]
Aframomum meleguetaSeedAntifungal/Ethanol Ethanol extract was active against a range of dermatophytes. Flavonoids, phenols, tannins, saponins, and terpenoids [72]
Afzelia africanaLeafAntibacterial/Methanol Streptococcus pyogenes was significantly susceptible to the extract with 25.0 mm zone of inhibition.Alkaloids, anthraquinones, flavonoids, phenolics, glycosides, terpenoids, and steroids [73,74]
Ageratum conyzoidesAerial partAntimicrobial/Essential oilEssential oil was active against E. coli, E. faecalis, and S. aureus with zones of inhibition between 6.7 to 12.7 mm and MIC values between 64 to 256 μg/mL. β-caryophyllene, β-copaene, α-calacorene, and 1,10-di-epi-cubenol[75]
Alchornea cordifoliaLeafAntimicrobial and wound healing/Aqueous
ethanol		Both extracts demonstrated good activities against C. albicans, B. subtilis, E. coli, P. aeruginosa and S. aureus, with MIC values between 2.5–10.0 mg/mL. Both extracts also elicited significant wound-healing capacity on day 1 and day 9. Anthraquinones, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, saponins, sterols, and tannins[76]
Allanblackia floribundaLeaf, bark, stem bark, and
root 		Antibacterial/Butanol, chloroform, ethyl acetate, ethanol, and n-hexaneThe extracts displaced activity against A. flavus, B. subtilis, C. albicans, E. coli, S. aureus, P. vulgaris, P. aeruginosa with zones of inhibition between 5 and 35 mm.Alkaloids, anthraquinones, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and
terpenoids 		[77,78]
Allium sativumBulb Antifungal/AqueousThe extract had a significant antifungal effect on T. rubrum.Allicin, alkaloids, and tannins[79,80]
Aloe veraLeaf and
Gel		Antimicrobial/Ethanol The gel extracts showed activity against 115 g-positive and gram-negative skin pathogens, while the leaf extracts showed no such activity.Flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, and saponins.[81,82]
Alstonia booneiStem bark
Root bark		Antibacterial/Methanol
Wound healing/Alkaloid extract		Streptococcus pyogenes was significantly susceptible to extract with zone of inhibition of 25.0 mm.
The total alkaloid extract increased the wound contraction and decreased the epithelialization period. 		Alkaloids, cyanogenetic glycosides, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, and steroids [73,83]
Alternanthera bettzickianaAerial part Antifungal/Aqueous and methanol Aqueous and methanol extracts inhibited Candida albicans and E. floccossum inhibition zone of 9–11 mm. Alkaloids, anthocyanin, diterpenes, leucoanthocyanin, saponins, phenols, diterpenes, tannin, terpenoids, steroids, and xanthoprotein, [84]
Amaranthus caudatusWhole plant Antifungal/Dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, hexane, and methanolThe extracts were active against C. albicans.Flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, and cardiac glycosides[85]
Anacardium occidentaleFruit and stem barkAntimicrobial/Water: EthanolGrowth inhibition of S. aureus and S. epidermidis by the extracts.Tannin and flavonoids[19,86]
Anchomanes difformisLeaf and
Tuber		Antibacterial/EthanolLeaf extract was effective on P. aeruginosa with an inhibition zone of 21 mm; tuber extract inhibited B. subtilis and P. aeruginosa with zones of inhibitions of 35 and 29 mm, respectively.Alkaloids, tannins, and saponins [87]
Annickia chloranthaStem barkAntifungal/Alkaloid fractionThe fraction and its ointment formulation demonstrated antifungal activities against Candida spp. and dermatophytes.Alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, tannins, and saponins[88,89]
Anogeisus leiocarpusLeaf,
stem bark, and root bark		Antibacterial/EthanolIndividual extract and combination displayed strong activities against E. coli S. aureus, and P. aeruginosa with a zone of inhibition up to 15.80 mm.Anthraquinones, alkaloids phenols, tannins, and ellagic acids [90]
Anona senegalensisLeavesAntifungal/Aqueous and
methanol		Aqueous and methanol were active against Trichoderma spp. with zones of inhibition of 14.5 mm and 8.3 mm respectively.Alkaloids, flavonoids, and polyphenols[91]
Anthocleista djalonensisRootAntibacterial/MethanolThe extract inhibited E. coli, S. aureus, and Shigella sp. with inhibition zones between 14 and 20 mm. The extracts also elicited significant wound healing in vivo.Alkaloids, flavonoids, and volatile oils [92]
Aspilia africanaLeaf and
root 		Antimicrobial/Methanol Both extracts were active against B. substilis, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus, with 3–6 mm inhibition zones. Cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and terpenoids[93,94]
Azadirachta indicaLeafAntibacterial/Ethanol The extract inhibited E. coli and S. aureus with a maximum inhibition zone of 16 mm.β-sitosterol, flavonoid, lupeol, ferulic acid, and quercetin[95]
Baphia nitidaLeaf and
root		Antimicrobial/EthanolExtracts inhibited C. albicans, E. coli, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, and B. subtilis, with a zone of inhibition up to 35 mm. Flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, sterols, tannins[96]
Bidens pilosaLeaf Antimicrobial/EthanolThe ethanol extract was active against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. pyogenes, S. aureus, and P. aeruginosa inhibition zones between 2–5 mm.Alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, and tannins[97]
Brillantaisia
Lamium		Aerial partAntimicrobial activity/Dichloromethane and methanol (1:1)Extract, fraction and lespedin, the isolated compound demonstrated antimicrobial activities against pathogenic bacterial and fungi, namely, Candida tropicalis, Cryptococcus neoformans, Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis.β-sitosterol, sitosterol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside Aurantiamide acetate, campesterol, lespedin lupeol, and stigmasterol[98]
Calotropis proceraLeavesAntifungal/Ethanol Extracts inhibited the growth of pathogenic fungi, namely, Epidermophyton floccosum, M. gypreum, M. canis, T. mentagrophytes, and T. rubrum, with MIC values between 250 and 1000 µg/mL.Camphene, dodecanoic acid, linolenic acid, and thebaine[99,100]
Carapa proceraLeaf Antibacterial and wound healing/EthanolThe extract inhibited E. coli and S. aureus with MIC values between 2.5 and 5 mg/mL. The extract also demonstrated a significant wound-healing activity in rats.Saponins, steroids, and tannins [101]
Carica papayaFlowerAntibacterial/MethanolThe flower extract inhibited B. subtilis and E. coli with the zones of inhibition between 10 to 40 mm.Alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, saponins, and tannins [102]
Chassalia kollyLeafAntioxidant and anti-inflammatory/EthanolThe extract elicited excellent antioxidant activity with IC50 = 0.05 µg/µL) and showed higher anti-inflammatory activities than aspirin.Anthocyanins, flavonoids, and terpenes[103]
Chromolaena odorataLeaf, stem and
root 		Antimicrobial/Ethanol, hexane, and methanolAll the extracts inhibited the activities of pathogenic bacteria strains, such as B. cereus, E. faecalis, S. epidermidis, and P. vulgaris.Alkaloids, aurone, chalcone, flavone flavonol, phytates, and tannins [104,105]
Citrullus colocynthisFruit,
seed and root		Antimicrobial/EthanolExtracts were active on pathogens, causing skin infections with zones of inhibition between 10 and 22 mm.Alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, and tannins[106,107]
Clerodendrum splendensAerial partAntimicrobial and wound healing/MethanolThe extract was active against various bacteria and fungi with MIC values between 64 and 512 μg/mL. The extract also elicited wound-healing capacity by increasing wound epithelization, scar area and tensile strength.D-glucopyranoside of (22E, 24S) and stigmasta-5,22,25-trien-3β-ol (3)[108,109]
Colocasia esculentaLeaf and tuber Antibacterial/Methanol Both extracts inhibited the growth of E. coli, P. aeruginosa, P. mirabilis, S. aureus with zones of inhibition between 4–30 mm.10-fluoro trimethyl ester, 12,15-octadecatrienoic acid, decanoic acid, n-hexadecanoic acid, and pentadecanoic acid.[110]
Combretum collinumLeafAntibacterial/EthanolThe extract displayed activities against S. epidermidis, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and S. aureus with MIC values between 275.0 µg/mL 385.5 µg/mL.Myricetin-3-O-glucoside and myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside [111]
Crinum jagusBulbAntimicrobial/MethanolThe extract at 100 mg/mL inhibited C. albicans, S. aureus and B. subtilis with zones of inhibition of 14, 21, 25 mm, respectively. Alkaloids, catechin, tannins, flavonoids, saponins, and triterpenes[18,112]
Cyanthillium cinereumLeaf Antibacterial/Methanol The extract inhibited the activity of E. coli and S. aureus with zones of inhibition of 21 mm and 19 mm, respectively.Alkaloids, flavonoids, phenol, and terpenoids [113,114]
Cyathula prostrataWhole plantAnti-inflammatory/Ethyl acetateThe extract inhibited carrageenan, arachidonic acid, and xylene-induced tests.Flavonoids, phenols, cardiac glycosides, and terpenes [115]
Dacryodes edulisLeafAntibacterial/Ethanol Extract elicited significant activities against B. cereus, E. coli, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, with the zone of inhibition between 8 and 13 mm and MIC values between 12.5 and 250 µg/mL.Ethylgallate and quercitrin[116]
Daniellia oliveriLeaf and stem barkAntifungal/Aqueous and
methanol 		Extracts were active against several species of fungi, especially the Candida species. Alkaloids, anthraquinones, flavonoids, and saponins[117]
Dioscorea dumetorumTuber Antifungal/MethanolExtracts were active against Aspergillus niger and C. albicans.Alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols, saponins, and tannin[118]
Elaeis guineensisLeafAntibacterial/Methanol Extracts showed potent activities against B. cereus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa with inhibition zones of 7.7–11.3 mm.Alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and terpenoids[119]
Emilia coccineaLeafAntimicrobial/Methanol The extract was active against A. niger, C. albicans, E. coli, S. aureus, B. subtilis, and P. aeruginosa with MIC value between 5–25 mg/mL and inhibition zone up to 22 mm. Alkaloids, flavonoids, oxalate, tannins, phenols, and terpenoids[120,121]
Euphorbia hirtaLeaf and stemAntibacterial/Methanol
aqueous		Extracts inhibited E. coli, P. mirabilis, P. aeruginosa and S. aureus.Anthraquinones, alkaloids, flavonoids, and terpenoids[122]
Ficus thonningiiStem barkAntibacterial/MethanolThe extract inhibited a range of skin pathogens, such as P. aeruginosa and S. pyogenes, with inhibition zone up to 33.3 mm and MIC values between 1 and 1.25 mg/mL.Alkaloids, anthraquinones, saponins, and tannins[123]
Flueggea virosaLeafAntibacterial/Ethanol, chloroform and
petroleum ether		Extracts were active against S. aureus with MIC values between 8–16 µg/mL.β-sitosterol,11-O-acetyl bergenin, bergenin, daucosterol, kaempferol, gallic acid, and virosecurinine [124,125]
Funtumia elasticaStem barkAntifungal/Crude extractThe extract was active on A. flavus, C. albicans, T. mentagrophytes and Trichosporon cutaneum zones of inhibition between 11 to 17 mm.Anthocyanins, butacyanin, flavonoids, and tannins[126]
Hannoa undulataRootAntibacterial/EthanolThe extract was active against Cutibacterium acnes, K. pneumonia, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus with zonesof inhibition between 12 and 15 mm and MIC value of 62.5 mg/mL.Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, and triterpenes [127]
Heliotropium indicumWhole plantEthanol The extract showed activities against selected skin pathogens with zones of inhibition between 12 and 25 mm.Phenols, saponins, terpenoids, and cardiac glycosides[128]
Jatropha curcasLeafAntibacterial/MethanolExtract inhibited E. coli and S. aureus with zones of inhibition of 26 and 18 mm, respectively, as well as MIC of 0.125 mg/mL. Alkaloids, Flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and saponins[129]
Khaya grandifoliolaLeaf,
Stem bark, and
root 		Antibacterial/Methanol ethyl acetateExtracts were active against S. aureus and S. pyogenes with MIC value of 0.25 mg/mL.Alkaloids, phenols, flavonoids, and terpenoids[130]
Kigelia africanaLeaf and
stem bark 		Antimicrobial and wound healing/Methanol Both extracts demonstrated healing properties by increasing wound contraction significantly by 72% at 7 days. Extracts from the plant were also active against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, B. subtilis, and C. albicans with MIC values between 2.5–7.5 mg/mL.Flavonoids, iridoids, coumarins, naphthoquinones, terpenes, and terpenoids [131,132]
Lannea acidaStem barkAntifungal/Crude The extract inhibited the growth of fungi, namely Aspergillus favus, C. albicans, C. tropicalis, Fusarium solani, Rhyzopus stolonifera, with zones of inhibition ranging from 28.33 to 9.66 mm.Flavonoids, phenols, terpenoids[133]
Lannea microcarpaLeavesAntimicrobial/AqueousThe extract was not effective against E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and S. aureus.Flavonoids, phenolics, polyphenols, and terpenoids[134]
Macaranga barteriBarkAnti-inflammatory and wound healing/Ethanol Extract reduced inflammation and skin hyperalgesia in rats with carrageenan-induced edema.Gallic acid, macabarterin, 3-O-methylellagic acid, 4-O-b-d-xylopyranoside, and 3-O-methylellagic acid[1]
Mallotus oppositifoliusLeafAntifungal/Crude extract, fractions, and isolated compoundsThe extract, fractions and isolated compounds were active against dermatophytes (Microsporum langeroinii, M. audouin, Trichophyton rubrum, T. soudanense) with MIC values between 1.86 and 25,000 µg/mL. Betulinic acid, quercetin, and quercitrin[135]
Mangifera indicaSeed Antimicrobial/Essential oilThe extract demonstrated antimicrobial activities against tested organisms, namely, E. coli, C. albicans, S. aureus, and Mycobacterium smegmatis, with a zone of inhibition between 10–18 mm.Carbohydrates, polyphenols, terpenoids, sterols, carotenoids, fatty acids, and amino acids[136,137]
Momordica charantiaLeaf and
fruit		Antimicrobial/Methanol Extracts from the leaf and fruit inhibited C. albicans, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus.Anthocyanin, coumarin, cardiac glycosides, and tannins[138,139]
Monodora myristicaSeed Antimicrobial/Essential oilThe essential oil was active against different strains of S. aureus and E. coli with MIC values between 8 to 512 µg/mL.Monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes[140]
Nauclea latifoliaStem barkAntimicrobial/MethanolExtracts inhibited B. subtilis, C. albicans P. aeruginosa, zones of inhibition between 13 and 18 mm and MIC values between 0.5 and 4 mg/mL.Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, phytates, and tannins[141,142]
Newbouldia laevisLeafAntimicrobial/Methanol The extract inhibited the growth C. albicans, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus.Flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, and tannins, terpenes, [143]
Piliostigma thonningiiLeafAntifungal/Methanol The extract was active against dermatophytes with MIC values ranging from 13 to 24 mg/mLAlkaloids, flavonoids, and terpenoids[144]
Pistia stratiotesLeafAntifungal/MethanolThe extract was active against pathogenic fungi, namely, E. floccosum, M. gypseum and M. nanum T. rubrum, and T. mentagrophytes with MIC values between 125 µg/mL to 250 µg/mL. Alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, and phytosterols[145]
Psorospermum febrifugumStem barkAntibacterial/Ethanol,
Methanol, and
aqueous		Extracts were active against E. coli, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa and S. pyogenes with inhibition zones between 11 and 19 mm and MIC value of 6.25 mg/mL.Alkaloids, anthraquinones, flavonoids, steroids, tannins, terpenes, and xanthones[146]
Pycnanthus angolensisStem barkAntimicrobial/Aqueous and ethanolExtracts were active against C. albicans P. mirabilis, P. aeruginosa and S. aureus.Alkaloids, essential oils, glycosides,
flavonoids, saponins, and tannins		[147]
Rauvolfia vomitoriaStem barkAntifungal/DichloromethaneThe extract was active against A. niger and C. albicans with a zone of inhibition of up to 19 mm.Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, carbohydrates, and reducing sugars[148,149]
Ricinus communisLeafAntimicrobial/Aqueous and ethanolExtracts exhibited strong inhibitory activities against E. coli, K. pneumonia, S. aureus, and P. aeruginosa with zones of inhibition up to 35 mm. Tannins, saponins, terpenoids, flavonoids, and reducing sugar[150]
Sansevieria libericaLeafAntimicrobial/MethanolThe extract was active against B. cereus and S. aureus with MIC value of 62.5 mg/mL.Carbohydrates, flavonoids, and triterpenes [151]
Senna alataLeafAntifungal/MethanolThe extract inhibited C. albicans and S. pyogenes with 25.0 mm zone of inhibition.Alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, and terpenoids[73]
Spathodea campanulataLeaf and
flower		Antibacterial/EthanolBoth extracts inhibited the growth of B. subtilis, E. coli, S. aureus, and P. vulgaris, with zones of inhibition between 6–11 mm.Alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, phenolics, saponin, steroids, tannin, and terpenoids[152]
Stereospermum kunthianumLeaf Antibacterial/crude extract Extract inhibited E. coli, S. aureus, and P. aeruginosa with a zone of inhibition of up to 35 mm. The MIC values of the extract on the organism also ranged between 2.09 mg/mL and 4.17 mg/mL. Coumarins, fatty acids, and sterols[153]
Strophanthus hispidusLeaf and root Antimicrobial and wound healing/Methanol Both extracts improved wound contraction at day 11.
The extracts were also active against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, B. subtilis, and C. albicans with MIC values between 2.5–7.5 mg/mL.		Alkaloids, flavonoids, cardiac and cyanogenic glycosides, and saponins[131,154]
Symphonia globuliferaLeaf and
stem bark		Antimicrobial/AqueousLeaf extract was active against C. albicans, E. coli, S. aureus, and P. aeruginosa with zones of inhibition between 13 and 21 mm.Alkaloids, anthraquinones, flavonoids, tannins, and quinones [155]
Terminalia avicennioidesLeafWound healing and antioxidant/MethanolThe extract inhibited pathogens associated with wound infection and increased the concentration of superoxide dismutase and catalase from the healed skin tissues.Ellagic acids, flavonoids, phenols, and tannins[90,156]
Tetrapleura tetrapteraLeaf Antibacterial/MethanolThe extract was active on S. aureus and S. pyogenes with a zone of inhibition of between 21.5 to 25 mm Phenols, flavonoids, saponins, and alkaloids[73]
Trianthema portulacastrumLeafWound healing/n-Butanol fraction of hydroethanolExtract ointment (5% and 10% w/w) significantly promotes wound healing.Caffeic acid, ferulic acid Chlorogenic acid, and protocatechuic acid[157]
Tridax procumbensLeafAntimicrobial/EthanolThe extract was active against bacterial, namely, E. coli, S. pyogenes, S. aureus, B. subtilis and P. aeruginosa, with inhibition zones between 4–9 mm.Alkaloids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, and tannins[97]
Uvaria chamaeStem barkAntimicrobial/MethanolThe extract was active against E. coli, B. subtilis and S. aureus with zones of inhibition between 18 and 28 mm. Flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, tannins, [158]
Vernonia amygdalinaLeaf Antimicrobial/AqueousThe extract displayed significant activities against different strains of multi-drug resistant S. aureus.Alkaloids, flavonoids, phenol, tannins and terpenoids[159]
Vitellaria paradoxaNuts,
leaf,
stem and
root 		Antimicrobial/EthanolExtracts showed activity against pathogens with zones of inhibition between 11 and 30 mm and MIC values between 60 and 70 mg/mL.Alkaloids, carbohydrates, saponins, steroids, and tannins [160,161]
Xanthosoma sagittifoliumLeaf,
stalk, and root		Antifungal/EthanolThe extract inhibited the pathogenic fungi, T. rubrum, with an inhibition diameter of 18 mm, close to the standard drug, amphotericin (20 mm).Cardiac glycoside, flavonoids, tannins, phenols, and terpenoids[162,163]
Xylopia aethiopicaFruit Antimicrobial/Aqueous. methanol and essential oilThe extract was active against the pathogenic fungi, namely Microsporum canis, M. equinum, and T. mentagrophyte with inhibition zones of 2.84 to 3.5 mm.
The oil extract also showed significant activity against B. subtilis, Enterobacter aerogenes, E. coli, S. pyogenes, S. aureus, and Serratia marcescens.
Candida albicans was highly susceptible to the methanol extract zone of inhibition of 25.0 mm.		α-pinene, β-linalool, α-terpineol, pinocarveol, terpinene-4-acetate, α-thugene, β-phellandrene, β-caryophyllene, γ-terpinene, 1,8-cineole, acetyleugenol, benzylbenzoate, eugenol, cis-ocimene, and sabinene[73,164,165]
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Makgobole, M.U.; Mpofana, N.; Ajao, A.A.-n. Medicinal Plants for Dermatological Diseases: Ethnopharmacological Significance of Botanicals from West Africa in Skin Care. Cosmetics 2023, 10, 167. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics10060167

AMA Style

Makgobole MU, Mpofana N, Ajao AA-n. Medicinal Plants for Dermatological Diseases: Ethnopharmacological Significance of Botanicals from West Africa in Skin Care. Cosmetics. 2023; 10(6):167. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics10060167

Chicago/Turabian Style

Makgobole, Mokgadi Ursula, Nomakhosi Mpofana, and Abdulwakeel Ayokun-nun Ajao. 2023. "Medicinal Plants for Dermatological Diseases: Ethnopharmacological Significance of Botanicals from West Africa in Skin Care" Cosmetics 10, no. 6: 167. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics10060167

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