TYPE
Review
06 October 2022
10.3389/fpls.2022.1008881
PUBLISHED
DOI
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Ravi Gupta,
Kookmin University, South Korea
REVIEWED BY
Amit Kumar Mishra,
Mizoram University, India
Cheol Woo Min,
Pusan National University, South Korea
*CORRESPONDENCE
Neha Kaushik
neha.bioplasma@gmail.com
Abdel Khalid Essamadi
essamadi@uhp.ac.ma
Nagendra Kumar Kaushik
kaushik.nagendra@kw.ac.kr
SPECIALTY SECTION
Euphorbia species latex:
A comprehensive review on
phytochemistry and biological
activities
Rania Benjamaa1 , Abdelkarim Moujanni1 , Neha Kaushik2*,
Eun Ha Choi3 , Abdel Khalid Essamadi1* and
Nagendra Kumar Kaushik3*
Laboratory of Biochemistry, Neurosciences, Natural Resources and Environment, Faculty
of Sciences and Technologies, Hassan First University of Settat, Settat, Morocco, 2 Department of
Biotechnology, College of Engineering, The University of Suwon, Hwaseong-si, South Korea,
3
Department of Electrical and Biological Physics, Plasma Bioscience Research Center, Kwangwoon
University, Seoul, South Korea
1
This article was submitted to
Crop and Product Physiology,
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Plant Science
RECEIVED 01
August 2022
August 2022
PUBLISHED 06 October 2022
ACCEPTED 29
CITATION
Benjamaa R, Moujanni A, Kaushik N,
Choi EH, Essamadi AK and Kaushik NK
(2022) Euphorbia species latex: A
comprehensive review on
phytochemistry and biological
activities.
Front. Plant Sci. 13:1008881.
doi: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1008881
COPYRIGHT
© 2022 Benjamaa, Moujanni, Kaushik,
Choi, Essamadi and Kaushik. This is an
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forums is permitted, provided the
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or reproduction is permitted which
does not comply with these terms.
The genus Euphorbia includes about 2,000 species commonly widespread in
both temperate and tropical zones that contain poisonous milky juice fluid
or latex. Many species have been used in traditional and complementary
medicine for the treatment of various health issues such as dropsy,
paralysis, deafness, wounds, warts on the skin, and amaurosis. The medicinal
applications of these species have been attributed to the presence of various
compounds, and most studies on Euphorbia species have focused on their
latex. In this review, we summarize the current state of knowledge on
chemical composition and biological activities of the latex from various
species of the genus Euphorbia. Our aim was to explore the applications of
latex extracts in the medical field and to evaluate their ethnopharmacological
potential. The databases employed for data collection, are obtained through
Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct and Scopus, from
1983 to 2022. The bibliographic data indicate that terpenoids are the most
common secondary metabolites in the latex. Furthermore, the latex has
interesting biological properties and pharmacological functions, including
antibacterial, antioxidant, free radical scavenger, cytotoxic, tumor, antiinflammatory, healing, hemostatic, anti-angiogenic, insecticidal, genotoxic,
and mutagenic activities. However, the role of other components in the latex,
such as phenolic compounds, alkaloids, saponins, and flavonoids, remains
unknown, which limits the application of the latex. Future studies are required
to optimize the therapeutic use of latex extracts.
KEYWORDS
Euphorbiaceae,
applications
Frontiers in Plant Science
Euphorbia
01
species,
latex,
chemical
constituents,
biological
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Benjamaa et al.
10.3389/fpls.2022.1008881
Introduction
Furthermore, the latex of some Euphorbia species has been
used in traditional medicine to treat wounds and warts on the
skin (Özbilgin et al., 2019) as well as some nervous diseases,
dropsy, paralysis, deafness, and amaurosis (Gewali et al., 1989).
To our knowledge, no literature review provides a
comprehensive study on the latex of the genus Euphorbia. Here,
we review the current state of knowledge on the ethnomedicinal
uses, phytochemical composition, and biological activities of
the latex from more than 20 species of Euphorbia. The main
objective of this study is to present a database of knowledge and
research trends on latex of the genus Euphorbia with the aim
of providing basic data to promote future pharmacological and
phytochemical studies on spurge latex.
Plant latex is produced by more than 20,000 species
from around 40 families (Bauer et al., 2014). It is a fluid
found in specialized cells called “laticifera” that are located
throughout the plant (Ramos et al., 2020) and can have
different colors: white, yellow, red, or colorless. Because of
its sticky properties, the latex has been implicated in the
defense against herbivorous insects and used to produce
rubber (Agrawal and Konno, 2009). In addition, the latex
of various plant species contains a wide variety of bioactive
compounds, including proteins, enzymes, alkaloids, glycosides,
cardenolides, terpenoids, furanocoumarins, and starch (Konno,
2011). Moreover, the water insoluble fraction of the latex from
the families Euphorbiaceae, Asclepiadaceae, and Caricaceae has
shown lipase activity and can be used as a useful biocatalyst for
several synthetic applications in the food, pharmaceutical, and
detergent industries (Paques and Macedo, 2006).
Euphorbiaceae is one of the largest and oldest plant families
in the world, comprising approximately 300 genera and 8,000
species (Webster, 1987). This is one of the plant families
with latex-producing species (Lewinsohn, 1991). The Euphorbia
genus (commonly called spurge) incorporates a wide variety
of plants with biological and medical applications (Kemboi
et al., 2020). The species are distributed in both temperate
and tropical regions (Pahlevani and Mozaffarian, 2011), with
endemic species such as E. resinifera in Morocco (Chakir et al.,
2016), E. cubensis, E. helenae, E. munizii, and E. podocarpifolia
in Cuba (Steinmann et al., 2007), E. polycaulis in Iran (Nasr
et al., 2018), E. hainanensis in China (Tian et al., 2018),
E. fauriei and E. garanbiensis in Korea and Taiwan (Ki-Ryong,
2004), and E. boetica in the Iberian peninsula (Narbona et al.,
2007). Plants in this genus contain a white acrid, poisonous
milky juice fluid or latex that comes out when cut or damaged
(Bigoniya and Rana, 2008) and is extremely irritating to the skin
(Salehi et al., 2019).
The latex from several Euphorbia species has been
chemically investigated. It contains different biological
compounds, such as triterpenoids (Palocci et al., 2003; Kemboi
et al., 2020) diterpenes, ingenol, 12-deoxyphorbol esters (Priya
and Rao, 2011), triterpene alcohols, lanosterol,(Giner et al.,
2000), fatty acids, proteins, and enzymes (Spanò et al., 2012).
The terpenoids are the most abundant components of this
genus, which are known to have pharmacological activities,
which can offer a wide range of medicinal applications.
Distribution
The genus Euphorbia includes several species distributed in
both temperate and tropical zones (El-Ghazaly and Chaudhary,
1993). However, many species are also present in non-tropical
areas such as Africa and Central and South America (Liang et al.,
2014). Certain species are distributed in India, specifically in the
North and West (Pascal et al., 2017). This genus is represented
in Taiwan by eight species (Lin and Hsieh, 1991). There are
about 90 species mostly concentrated in Iran and 91 species in
Turkey (Nasseh et al., 2018), with about 70 species found in
China (Liang et al., 2014). On the other hand, in Brazil, the genus
is represented by about 64 species, with a degree of endemism of
about 50% (31 spp.) (Steinmann et al., 2007).
Description
The genus contains several species, which can be annual
or perennial, xerophytes, woody shrubs, or trees with a caustic
and poisonous milky latex (Berg, 1990). They are characterized
by the presence of fine or thick and fleshy or tuberous roots
(Pascal et al., 2017). The fruits are basically fleshy, with explosive
dehiscence (Dorsey, 2013). The species are generally recognized
by their inflorescences, which are called cyathium and resemble
a dicotyledonous flower. Each inflorescence contains a female
flower surrounded by several male flowers and is composed of
cup-like involucre formed by two bracts bearing four or five
often horned glands (Prenner and Rudall, 2007).
Phytochemical profile of
Euphorbia latex
Abbreviations: ABTS, 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic
acid); DPPH, 2,2-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl; E, Euphorbia; FRAP,
ferric reducing antioxidant power; FTIR, Fourier-transform infrared
spectroscopy; GAE, gallic acid equivalents; IC50, 50% inhibitory
concentration; LC50, lethal concentration, 50 percent; MIC, minimum
inhibitory concentration; MTT, (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5diphenyltetrazolium bromide); NMR, nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy; NO, nitric oxide; TEAC, trolox equivalent antioxidant
capacity.
Frontiers in Plant Science
Phytochemical investigations on different species of
euphorbia have shown the presence of diversity of constituents,
mainly terpenoids, enzymes and Natural Rubber. Table 1
shows the major terpenoids and Figures 1–6 showed the
02
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TABLE 1 Chemical Constituents of euphorbia genus latex.
Species
Compounds
References
E. peplus
Peplusol (1) Obtusifoloio (2), lanosterol (3), 24-methylenelanosterol (4), cycloartenol
(5) and 24-methylenecycloartano (6).
Giner et al., 2000
E. officinarum
7,8,12-triacetate 3-phenylacetate (7), ingol 7,8,12 triacetate
3-(4-methoxyphenyl)acetate (8), 8 methoxyingol 7,12-diacetate 3-phenylacetate (9),
3S,4S,5R,7S,9R,14R-3,7-dihydroxy-4,14-dimethyl-7[8 → 9] Abeo-cholestan-8-one
(10), 3β-acetoxy-norlup-20-one (11) and 4α,14α-dimethyl-5α-cholest-8-ene (12).
Daoubi et al., 2007; Smaili et al., 2017
E. obtusifolia
(2R,3R,4R,5R,7S,8S,9S,11E,13S,15R)-2,3,5,7,8,9,15-Heptahydroxyjatropha-6(17),11diene-14-one-7,8,9-triacetate-2,5-bis(2-methylbutyrate) (13),
(2R,3R,4R,5R,7S,8S,9S,11E,13S,15R)-2,3,5,7,8,9,15-Heptahydroxyjatropha-6(17),11diene-14-one-7,8,9-triacetate-2-isobutyrate-5-(2-methylbutyrate) (14),
(2R,3R,4R,5R,7S,8S,9S,11E,13S,15R)-2,3,5,7,8,9,15-Heptahydroxyjatropha-6(17),11diene-14-one-7,8,9-triacetate-2-nicotinate-5-(2-methylbutyrate) (15),
(2R,3R,4R,5R,7S,8S,9S,11E,13S,15R)-2,3,5,7,8,9,15-Heptahydroxyjatropha-6(17),11diene-14-one-8,9-diacetate-7-isobutyrate-2,5-bis(2-methylbutyrate) (16),
(2R,3R,4R,5R,7S,8S,9S,11E,13S,15R)-2,3,5,7,8,9,15-Heptahydroxyjatropha-6(17),11diene-14-one-2,8,9-triacetate-7-isobutyrate-5-(2-methylbutyrate) (17),
(2R,3R,4R,5R,7S,8S,9S,11E,13S,15R)-2,3,5,7,8,9,15-Heptahydroxyjatropha-6(17),11diene-14-one-7,9-diacetate-8-benzoate-2,3-bis(2-methylbutyrate) (18),
(2R,3R,4R,5R,7S,8S,9S,11E,13S,15R)-2,3,5,7,8,9,15-Heptahydroxyjatropha-6(17),11diene-14-one-8,9-diacetate-7-isobutyrate-2,3-bis(2-methylbutyrate) (19),
4,20-Dideoxyphorbol 12,13-bis(isobutyrate) (20),
4-Deoxyphorbol 12,13-bis(isobutyrate) (21), 17Acetoxy-4-deoxyphorbol 12,13-bis(isobutyrate) (22)
17-Acetoxy-4,20-dideoxyphorbol 12,13-bis(isobutyrate)
(23),4-deoxyphorbol 12,13-bis(isobutyrate) 20-acetate (24) and
4-epi-4-deoxyphorbol ester: 4-Epi-4-deoxyphorbol 12,13-bis (isobutyrate) (25).
Marco et al., 1999
E. tirucalli L
Euphol (26); tirucallol (27), ingenol (28) and 4-desoxyphorbol (29).
E. fischeriana
12-deoxyphorbol-13-tetradecanoate (30), 12-deoxyphorbol-13- (7Z)-hexadecenoate
(31), 12-deoxyphorbol-13-(9Z, 12Z)-octadecadienoate (32),
12-deoxyphorbol-13-hexadecanoate (33), 12-deoxyphorbol-13-(6Z)- octadecenoate
(34) and 12- deoxyphorbaldehy-13-hexadecanoate (35).
E. bicolor
Resiniferatoxin (36) and Abietic Acid (37).
Basu et al., 2019
E. umbellate
Lanosterol (38), cycloartenol (39), tirucallol (40), taraxasterol (41),lupeol (42),
phorbol-12,13,20-triacetate (43); 4-β phorbol (44); and 3
desoxo-3,16-dihydroxy-12-desoxyphorbol 3,13,16,20-tetraacetate (45).
Cruz et al., 2020
E. helioscopia
7α, 9β, 15β-triacetoxy-3β-benzoyloxy-14β-hydroxyjatropha-5E, 11E-diene (46),
euphoheliosnoid A (47), epieuphoscopin B (48), euphoscopin C (49),
euphohelioscopin A (50).
Hua et al., 2015
E. nerifolia
9, 19-cyclolanost-22(22’), 24-diene-3β-ol (Neriifoliene) (51), 5α-eupha-8,
24-diaene-3β-ol (Euphol) (52), 9, 19-cyclolanost-20(21)-en-24-ol-3-one
(Neriifolione) (53) and cycloartenol (54).
E. broteri
12-0-(2Z, 4E-octadienoyl)-4-deoxyphorbol-13 20-diacetate (55), 12-0-(2Z,
4E-octadienoyl)-phorbol-13, 20- diacetate (56), 20-acetyl-ingenol-3-decadienoate
(57), 3-0-tetradecanoyl-ingenol (58), 20-0-tetradecanoyl-ingenol (59) and
5-0-tetradecanoyl-ingeol (60).
E. lacteal
Tirucallol (61)
E. antiquorum
euphol 3-0-cinnamate (62), euphol (63), 24-methylenecycloartanol (64),
cycloeucalenol (65), β -Sitosterol (66); 3-0-cinnamoyl-20- hydroxy derivative of
lanostane or euphane (antiquol A) (67), 3- epi-anhydrohtsomentof (antiquol B) (68),
and 4-Acetoxyphenol (69).
E. resinifera
(2’S)-ingol 3,8-diacetate-7-(2’-hydroxy-6’- methoxyphenyl) acetate (Euphoresin A)
(70); (2’S)-ingol 3,8-diacetate-7-(2’-hydroxy-phenyl) acetate (Euphoresin B) (71),
euphatexol A (72), euphatexol B (27-nor-3-hydroxy-25-oxo-eupha-8, 23-diene) (73),
euphatexols C (3 β- hydroxyeupha-8,24-diene-1,7,11-trione) (74), euphatexol D ((24
R)-eupha-7,9,25- triene-3,24-diol) (75), euphatexol E (76), euphatexol F
(3b,7a)-dihydroxyeupha-8,24-diene-11-one) (77), euphatexol G
(3b,7a)-dihydroxy-24-methyleneeupha-8-ene-11-one)
(78).3β-hydroxy-12α-methoxylanosta-7,9(11),24-triene (79),
3β-hydroxy-12α-methoxy-24-methylene-lanost-7,9(11)-dien (80),
de Souza et al., 2019
Deng et al., 2021
Ilyas et al., 1998; Mallavadhani et al., 2004
Urones et al., 1988
Fernandez-Arche et al., 2010
Gewali et al., 1990
(Continued)
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TABLE 1 (Continued)
Species
Compounds
References
3,7-dioxo-lanosta-8,24-diene (81), and 3,7-dioxo-24-methylene-lanost-8-ene
(82). Resiniferatoxin (83)
Fattorusso et al., 2002; Qi et al., 2019;
Wang et al., 2019; Li et al., 2021, 2022
E. dendroides
Euphodendroidins E (84), euphodendroidins F (85), Euphodendroidin J
(2R,3R,4S,5R,7R,8R,9R,13S,15R)-8,9-Diacetoxy-2,5,15-trihydroxy-3,7dibenzoyloxy-14-oxojatropha-6(17), 11Ediene (86), euphodendroidins A (87),
Euphodendroidin K, (2R,3R,4S,5R,7R,8R,9R,13S,15R)-2,8,9-Triacetoxy-15hydroxy-7-benzoyloxy-3,5-diisobutyroyloxy-14-oxojatropha-6(17),11E-diene
(88), Euphodendroidin L (2R,3R,4S,5R,7R,8R,9R,13S,15R)-2,3,8,9-Tetracetoxy15-hydroxy-7-benzoyloxy-5-isobutyroyloxy-14-oxojatropha-6(17),11E-diene
(89), jatrophane ester (90), Euphodendroidin M,
(2R,3R,4S,5R,7R,8R,9R,13S,15R)-2,8,9-Triacetoxy-15-hydroxy-3-benzoyloxy5,7-diisobutyroyloxy-14-oxojatropha-6-(17),11E-diene (91), Euphodendroidins
B (92), Euphodendroidin N, (2R,3R,4S,5R,7R,8R,9R,13S,15R)-2,8,9-Triacetoxy3,15-dihydroxy-5,7-dibenzoyloxy-4-oxojatropha-6(17),11Ediene (93), (2R, 3R,
4S, 5R, 7R, 8R, 9R, 13S,- 15R)-2,9-diacetoxy-3, 8,
15-trihydroxy-5,7-dibenzoyloxy-14-oxojatropha-6(17), 11E-diene
(euphodendroidins O) (94), 13α-hydroxyterracinolides G (95),
13α-hydroxyterracinolides B (96), terracinolides J (97) and C (98).
Esposito et al., 2016
E. acrurensis
19-Hydroxyingol 3,12-diacetate 7,8-ditiglate (99), 19-Hydroxyingol
3,12,19-triacetate 8-tiglate (100), 19-Hydroxyingol 12,19-diacetate 8-tiglate (101),
Ingol 3,8,12-triacetate 8-isovalerate (102), ingol-3,8,12-triacetate-7-angelate
(103), Ingol 3,12-diacetate 7,8-ditiglate (104), ingol-3,8,12-triacetate-7-tiglat
(105), 8-O-methyl-ingol-3,12-diacetate-7-tiglate (106),
3,12-di-o-acethyl-8-o-tigloyli,gol (107), ingenol 3-angelate 5,20- diacetate (108)
and diester of 5-deoxyingenol (109).
Marco et al., 1999
E. nicaeensis
3b,5a,15b-triacetyloxy-2a-hydroxy-9a-nicotinyloxyjatropha-6
(17),11E-diene-14-one (110), 2a,5a,8a-triacetyloxy-15b-hydroxy-7bisobutanoyloxy-9a-nicotinyloxy-3b-propanoyloxyjatropha-6
(17),11E-diene-14-one (111), 5a,8a,9a-triacetyloxy-15b-hydroxy-3b,7bdiisobutanoyloxy-2a-nicotinyloxyjatropha-6 (17),11Ediene-14-one (112),
5a,8a,9a-triacetyloxy-15b-hydroxy-7b-isobutanoyloxy-2a-nicotinyloxy-3bpropanoyloxyjatropha-6 (17),11E-diene-14-one (113), euphodendrophane O
(114),5a,7 b,15b-triacetyloxy-9a-nicotinyloxy-3b-propanoyloxyjatropha-6
(17),11Ediene-14-one (115),
3b,5a,8a,15b-tetraacetyloxy-9anicotinyloxy-7b-isobutanoyloxyjatropha-6
(17),11E-diene-14-one (116), 5a,9adiacetyloxy-15b-hydroxy-7b-isobutanoyloxy8a-nicotinyloxy-3bpropanoyloxyjatropha-6 (17),11E-diene-14-one (117),
euphodendrophanes A (118), B(119), C (120), N (121), F (122), Q(123)and S
(124) 3S,24S)-tirucall-7-ene-3,24,25-triol (125),
(3S,24R)-tirucall-7-ene-3,24,25-triol (126) and inoterpene C (127).
Krstić et al., 2018, 2019
E. hermentiana.
3,12-O-diacetyl-7-O-benzoyl-8 methoxyingo l (128),
3,12-O-diacetyl-7-O-tigloyl-8- methoxyingol (129),
3,12-O-diacetyl-7-0-angeloyl-8-methoxyingol (130),
3,7,12-0-triacetyl-8-0-benzoyl-18-hydroxyingol (131),
3,7,12-O-triacetyl-8-O-benzoylingol (132), 3,7,12-O-triacetyl-8-0-tigloylingol
(133), 3,7,8,12-O-tetraacetylingol (134),
3,7,8,12,18-O-pentaacetyl-18-hydroxyngol (135),
3,7,12,18-O-tetraacetyl-8-o-benzoyl-18-hydroxy-ingol
(136),7-0-benzoyl-8-methoxy-12-0-acetylingol (137),
8-methoxy-12-O-acetylingol (138), 7-0-tigloyl-8-methoxy-12-0- acetylingol
(139), 8-0-benzoyl-12-0-acetylingol (140), 12-O-acetylingol (141),
7,12-O-diacetyl-8-O-tigloylingol (142) and 8-0-tigloyl-l2-0-acetylingol (143)
Lin and Kinghorn, 1983
E. Drupifera
eupha- 8, 24-diene-3-ol (144) and 12-deoxyphorbol-20-propanoate (145).
E. polygonifolia
3β,17a,20S)-Dammara-12,24-dien-3-ol (Polygonifoliol) (146),
(3β,20S)-Dammara-13(17),24-dien-3-ol (Isotirucallol) (147), Dammaradienol
(148), Dammaradienol (149), Lupeol (150), Lanosterol (151), Butyrospermol
(152), Tirucallenol (153), 24-Methylenelanosterol (154), Cycloartenol (155),
Taraxasterol (156), β-Amyrin (157), 24-Methylenecycloartanol (158),
Taraxasterol (159), α-Amyrin (160) and Multiflorenol (161).
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Famuyiwa et al., 2014
Giner and Schroeder, 2015
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FIGURE 1
Structure of chemicals compound 1, 7-10, 26-29 (Giner et al., 2000; Daoubi et al., 2007; de Souza et al., 2019).
chemical structures of terpenoids isolated from different
Euphorbia species.
fischeriana, E. bicolor, E. umbellate, E. helioscopia, E. nerifolia,
E. broteri, E. lacteal, E. antiquorum (Compounds 30–35, 46–
53, 55–57, 62–68) (Figures 2, 3), E. resinifera, E. dendroides, E.
acrurensis (Compounds 70–74, 76, 78, 81, 84–94) (Figure 4),
and (Compounds 95-98; 108-109) (Figure 5), E. nicaeensis
(Compounds 110–124) (Figure 6), E. hermentiana, E. Drupifera,
E. polygonifolia. Their resources from different Euphorbia
species are shown in Table 1.
Giner et al. identified six triterpene alcohols from E. peplus
latex (1–6) (Giner et al., 2000). Three new ingol diterpenes (7–
9) and a novel spirotriterpene (10) were isolated from the dried
latex of E. officinarum collected from Morocco. Theirs structures
were elucidated by means of mass spectrometry, extensive 1D
and 2D NMR (COSY, HMQC, HMBC, and NOESY), and X-ray
analysis (Daoubi et al., 2007).
Other compounds have also been confirmed from the
latex of E. officinarum, including (11) and (12). These were
Terpenoids
Phytochemical screening has revealed that terpenes are the
main constituents isolated from the latex of different species
of the Euphorbia genus (Shi et al., 2008). Most of them
are identified using high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC) (Deng et al., 2021), chromatography-mass spectroscopy
(GC-MS) (Cruz et al., 2020), NMR spectroscopic analysis
(Esposito et al., 2016), and thin layer chromatography
(Daoubi et al., 2007).
A total of approximately 161 compounds have been reported
from 19 species: E. peplus, E. officinarum, E. obtusifolia,
E. tirucalli L (Compounds 1, 7–10, 26–29) (Figure 1), E.
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FIGURE 2
Structure of chemicals compounds (30-35, 46-53) and (55) (Urones et al., 1988; Ilyas et al., 1998; Mallavadhani et al., 2004; Hua et al., 2015;
Deng et al., 2021).
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FIGURE 3
Structure of chemicals compounds (56-57, 62-68) (Urones et al., 1988; Gewali et al., 1990).
identified on the basis of spectroscopic data (NMR), which
showed a singlet at δ 2.15 ppm assigned to the methyl of the
carbonyl group at C-20 for compound (12) and a doublet of
doublet at δ 3.41 due to the resonance of H-3 for product
(13) (Smaili et al., 2017). Furthermore, twelve new compounds
(13–25) were isolated from E. obtusifolia latex (Marco et al.,
1999). Phytochemical characterization of Brazilian E. tirucalli
latex resulted in the isolation of triterpenes such as (26) and
Frontiers in Plant Science
(27) using Fourier transform-ion cyclotron resonance mass
spectrometry (FT-ICR MS) and Atmospheric Pressure Chemical
Ionization APCI (+) FT-ICR MS. In addition, two diterpene
esters (28, 29) were isolated by electrospray ionization Fourier
transform ion cyclotron mass spectrometry ESI (-) FT-ICR MS
and ESI (-) FT-ICR MS/MS (de Souza et al., 2019).
The fresh latex collected from the roots of E. fischeriana has
been analyzed using spectroscopic methods, HPLC, and GC-MS
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FIGURE 4
Structure of chemicals compounds (70-74; 76; 78; 81) and (84-94) (Esposito et al., 2016; Li et al., 2022).
analyses. The diterpenoids profile contained six aliphatic tigliane
diterpenoids (30-35) that were identified as major compounds.
Quantitative analyses by High-Performance Liquid
Chromatography with Diode-Array Detection (HPLC-DAD)
revealed that compounds (30) and (33) were also present in the
roots, stems, and leaves of E. fischeriana at varying proportions.
On the other hand, (30) and (33) were mainly accumulated
in the latex, with a value of greater than 232.31 ± 35.96 µg/g
and 4,319.07 ± 143.26l µg/g, respectively (Figure 7). These
two diterpenoids exhibited a marked antifeedant activity
against Helicoverpa armigera, with EC50 values of 2.59 and
15.32 µg/cm2 , respectively (Deng et al., 2021).
Analysis by UPLC-ESI-MS/MS of latex methanolic extract
samples from E. bicolor collected in Denton County, TX, USA
identified two diterpenes (36) and (37) (Basu et al., 2019)
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responsible for the anti-inflammatory (Fernandez et al., 2001)
and analgesic activity, respectively.
Compounds (38) to (43) were isolated from the hexane
fraction of the latex from E. umbellata. On the other hand,
the diterpenes (44) and (45), which were isolated from
dichloromethane and ethanol fractions, are characterized by
a tigliane nucleus (Cruz et al., 2020). In 2015, a new
jatrophane diterpenoid, (48), and four known macrocyclic
diterpenoids, (46), (47), (49), and (50), were isolated from
the stem latex of E. helioscopia using reversed-phase HPLC
equipped with a diode array detector and recorded at 238 nm.
It was observed that (50) moderately inhibits the release
of the cytokines TNF-α (IC50 = 23.7 ± 1.7 µM) and IL6 (IC50 = 46.1 ± 1.1 µM) and the chemokine MCP-1
(IC50 = 33.7 ± 3.8 µM) by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced
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FIGURE 5
Structure of chemicals compounds (95-98) and (108-109) (Marco et al., 1999; Esposito et al., 2016).
FIGURE 6
Structure of chemicals compounds (110-124) (Krstić et al., 2018).
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FIGURE 7
Content of compounds 30 and 33 in the different parts of E. fischeriana (***p < 0.001, student’s test) (Deng et al., 2021).
RAW 264.7 macrophages (Hua et al., 2015). Compounds (51)
and (52) have been reported in E. neriifolia (Mallavadhani et al.,
2004); compounds (53) and (54) were isolated from the same
species and their structures were identified using chemical and
physical data (1H NMR, 13C NMR, IR, and mass spectra)
(Ilyas et al., 1998).
Several studies have reported that many terpenoids from
the latex of Euphorbia species possess biological activities.
Compound (61) constitutes 0.3% of the latex obtained by
incision from the leaves of E. lacteal. It was identified by
comparing the spectroscopic data (NMR and CG-MS) from
the n-hexane/ethyl ether fraction and has been suggested to
exhibit an anti-inflammatory activity, as it suppresses ear
edema in a mouse model and inhibits nitrite production at
a concentration of 100 mM in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated
mouse macrophages (Fernandez et al., 2001).
Gewali et al. reported the isolation of compounds (62–69) in
E. antiquorum latex (Gewali et al., 1990).
In 2019, the two diterpenes (70) and (71) were isolated
from a methanol extract of the latex of E. resinifera Berg, and
Marco et al. reported in 1998 nine ingol esters (99–107)
bearing various types of acyl groups, acetyl and tigloyl moieties,
and two known ingenol esters as minor compounds in the latex
of E. acrurensis. The structure of compounds (99) and (104) is
characterized by the presence of two tiglate esters in C-7 and C8. Compound (105) is characterized by the presence of tiglate
at C-7. In contrast, compound (103) has an angelate residue
(Marco et al., 1999).
In recent years, fifteen diterpenoids (110–124) were
extracted from the latex of E. nicaeensis samples collected
in Serbia (Krstić et al., 2018). Meanwhile, three tetracyclic
triterpenes (125–127) were isolated in 2019 (Krstić et al., 2019).
Four new ingol esters (128–131) and compounds (132–143)
were isolated from E. hermentiana latex (Lin and Kinghorn,
1983). Compounds (144) and (145) were obtained from
methylated spirit extract of the E. drupifera latex by Famuyiwa
et al., and their structures were determined by 1D-NMR and MS
(Famuyiwa et al., 2014). In 2015, 16 triterpene alcohols (146–
161) were identified by Giner et al. from E. polygonifolia latex
(Giner and Schroeder, 2015).
their structures were elucidated by HR-ESI-MS, IR, UV, 1D, and
2D NMR (Wang et al., 2019). Moreover, diterpenoid (83) was
isolated by Fattorusso et al. (2002). Twelve compounds (70–82)
have been identified from E. resinifera. Two triterpenoids were
isolated by Qi et al., compound (72), which was reported for the
first time and was shown to contain a tetrahydrofuran ring, and
(73) (Qi et al., 2019). Furthermore, five triterpenoids (74–78)
were discovered by Li et al. (2022), and (79–82) were isolated in
2021 (Li et al., 2021).
The latex of E. dendroides was studied for its chemical
composition and anti- Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) activities.
The results showed the presence of six new jatrophane
esters, (86), (88), (89), (91), (93), and (94), and nine known
compounds, (84), (85), (87), (92), (90), (95), (96), (97),
and (98).
In an evaluation of 15 compounds, (90) and (97) showed
anti-CHIKV activity with EC50 values of 5.5 ± 1.7 and
15.0 ± 3.8 µM, respectively (Esposito et al., 2016).
Frontiers in Plant Science
Enzymes
Screening of Euphorbia latex has revealed the presence
of many enzymes, including proteolytic enzymes that may
be involved in plant defense against certain pathogens and
external environmental conditions (Domsalla et al., 2010; Fais
et al., 2021). The catalytic properties of lipases contained
in the latex of E. unispina have been described by Mazou
et al. (2017). The optimum temperature and pH for the
hydrolytic activity of the lipases were 50◦ C and 5, respectively.
The lipase was able to catalyze the hydrolysis of different
purified Tunisian E. peplus triacylglycerols such as tripalmitin,
trimyristin, trilaurin, tristearin, triolein, and trilinolein. In the
same way, Lazreg Aref et al. studied the lipolytic activity of
the latex lipase. The optimum lipase activity was obtained at
40◦ C and pH 8, with a molecular weight of about 40 kDa,
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which was determined using electrophoresis on dodecyl gel
sodium sulfate (electrophoresis on gel (SDS-PAGE) (Figure 8).
Tributyrin (TC4) and olive oil were used as substrates to
determine the specific activity of the lipase, which was found
to be 249 ± 12.45 and 161.4 ± 8.07 U/mg for TC4 and olive
oil, respectively. However, the lipase activity was inhibited by
sodium dodecyl sulfate (Lazreg Aref et al., 2014). Moreover,
the biological properties of the proteases have been reported.
A serine protease with a molecular weight of 61 KDa designated
as EuRP-61 was well purified from E. resinifera latex and
characterized. The enzyme was found to have a wide pH stability
range of 1–14 and a denaturation tolerance of up to 65–66◦ C.
The fibrinogenolytic activity of EuRP-61 was investigated, and
the optimal degradation of fibrinogen was found to have a
Michaelis constant (Km) of 4.95 ± 0.1 µM, a maximum velocity
(Vmax) of 578.1 ± 11.81 ng min−1 , and a catalytic efficiency
(Vmax/Km) of 116.8 ± 1 ng µM−1 min−1 (Siritapetawee
et al., 2020b). Siritapetawee et al. also studied the anticoagulant
and antithrombotic activities of EuRP-61, and reported that
this enzyme can hydrolyze human fibrin and inhibit platelet
aggregation via the ADP receptor pathway (Siritapetawee et al.,
2020a). Proteases such as euphorbain 1, eumiliin, mauritanicain,
EuP-82, miliin, and euphorbams y-l, –2, and –3 have been
purified and characterized from E. lathyris, E. milii var. hislopii,
E. mauritanica L, E. cf. lacteal, E. milii, and E. cyparissias,
respectively. The proteolytic activity of euphorbain1 is inhibited
by diisopropyl fluorophosphates, the fibrinogenolytic activity of
eumiliin is inhibited by β-mercaptoethanol and leupeptin. The
mauritanicain is reduced in its proteolytic activity by aprotinin
and AEBSF-HCl [4-(2-Aminoethyl)benzenesulfonylfluoride]
and EuP-82 is inhibited by serine protease specific inhibitor
phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) (Lynn and ClevetteRadford, 1983, 1985; Fonseca et al., 2010; Moro et al., 2013;
Siritapetawee et al., 2015; Flemmig et al., 2017). Furthermore,
a protease has been isolated from E. amygdaloides latex
using collapse of (NH4)2 SO4 fractionation and ion-exchange
chromatography. Maximum protease activity was observed at
60◦ C and pH 5 (Demir et al., 2005). Badgujar et al. found a
clotting cysteine protease called Nivulia-II, which they purified
from E. nivulia Buch.-Ham latex with DFPPNTCCCICC as the
N-terminal amino acid sequence; the enzyme is characterized by
a molecular weight of 43,670.846 Da and has an optimal activity
at pH 6.3 and 50◦ C, which can be inhibited by common thiol
blocking reagents (Badgujar and Mahajan, 2014).
Four
enzymes
have
been
purified
from
E. characias latex, an amine oxidase, a nucleotide
pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase, a peroxidase, and a
purple acid phosphatase, with molecular masses of 74, 5, 47,
and 30 ± 10 kDa, respectively (Padiglia et al., 1998; Mura
et al., 2008; Medda et al., 2011; Pintus et al., 2011). The
serine protease purified from E. hirta has fibrinolytic, esterase,
amidase, azocaseinolytic, fibrinogenolytic, and gelatinolytic
activities. Enzyme activity was found to be inhibited by PMSF
Frontiers in Plant Science
FIGURE 8
The molecular weight of the lipase from E. peplus latex (EPLL)
obtained by Sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) (Lazreg Aref et al., 2014).
and AEBSF, and the N-terminal sequence was determined to be
YAVYIGLILETAA/NNE (Patel et al., 2012). In addition, a class
III endochitinase with important roles in cellular defense has
been isolated from the latex of E. characias. This enzyme shows
strong activity at 50◦ C and pH 5.0, and its chitinase activity
can be enhanced by calcium and magnesium ions. Moreover,
the enzyme was found to hydrolyze colloidal chitin, yielding
N-acetyl-d glucosamine, chitobiose, and ketotriose as products
(Spano et al., 2015).
Natural rubber
Natural rubber (NR) is an important polymer found in
about 2,000 plant species (Arreguín, 1958). To date, Hevea
brasiliensis is considered the most important rubber-producing
plant (Laibach et al., 2015). NR from E. characias latex has been
extracted using different solvents such as acetone, acetic acid,
trichloroacetic acid, and Triton X-100, followed by successive
treatments with cyclohexane/ethanol and characterized. Acetic
acid has proven to be the most suitable solvent for rubber
extraction, with yields of 14.3%. 1 H NMR, and 13 C NMR
analysis showed that the NR has a molecular weight of 93,000
Da and contains cis-1,4-polyisoprene as shown in Figures 9, 10
(Spanò et al., 2012). FT-IR, NMR, and GPC analyses also
revealed that the NR from E. macroclada latex contains cis1,4-polyisoprene, with a molecular weight of 8.180E+2 with
polydispersity of 1.287 as shown in Figure 11 (Khan and
Akhtar, 2003; Azadi et al., 2020) separated and characterized
rubber hydrocarbon from E. caducifolia by different chemical
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methods. The analysis revealed a molecular weight of 15,275–
88,405 (M), iodine value of hydrocarbon of 310.91–350.80%,
percentage of unsaturation of 83.40–94.10%, a refractive index
of 1.49200–1.49325, and a specific gravity of 0.93102– 0.93628,
and identified cis-1,4-polyisoprene (Khan and Akhtar, 2003).
The agar well diffusion, disk diffusion, and broth
microdilution methods have been applied in vitro to test
the antimicrobial activity of fresh, diluted latex and some
fractions isolated from latex by calculating the inhibition
zone diameter and minimum inhibitory concentration
(MIC). In addition, different solvents have been used to
test the antimicrobial activity of latex or extracts against
the Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus pumilus, Staphylococcus
aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Bacillus subtilis, and
Micrococcus luteus, the Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli,
Citrobacter freundii, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Shigella flexneri,
Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi,
Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Erwinia amylovora, P. syringae
pv. tabaci, and Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae, and the
fungal pathogens Verticillium dahlia, Fusarium oxysporum f.
sp. melonis, and Penicillium expansum. In general, the fresh
latex of E. hirta shows a promising activity against B. pumilus
(24.98 mm), S. aureus (25.38 mm), S. pneumoniae (23.72 mm),
E. coli (27.93 mm), C. freundii (23.54 mm), and K. pneumoniae
(21.93 mm). Most of these recorded zones of inhibition
are larger than those of the positive controls (vancomycin
(22.29 mm), ceftriaxone (22.50 mm), ceftriaxone (22.50 mm),
ciprofloxacin (22.36 mm), and levofloxacin (21.70 mm)(Hussain
et al., 2014). The methanolic extract of latex from E. antiquorum
displays moderate inhibitory effects against E. coli and
S. flexneri, with inhibition zones of 5 and 4 mm respectively,
Biological activities of Euphorbia
latex
Several researchers have studied the biological activity
of spurge latex extracts and their chemical constituents,
both in vitro and in vivo. Euphorbia latex has antibacterial,
antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic, wound
healing, cytotoxic, hemostatic, genotoxic/mutagenic, and
insecticidal activities. Supplementary Table 1 summarizes
the results of various investigations concerning the biological
activities of latex from some species of the genus Euphorbia.
Antimicrobial activity
Several studies have explored the antibacterial activity of the
latex from Euphorbia species (Supplementary Table 1). Most
species in this genus exhibit moderate to strong antibacterial
characteristics.
FIGURE 9
The 1 H
NMR spectrum of rubber extracted from E. characias latex. Peaks at 5.31, 2.17, and 1.73 ppm are attributed to the olefinic, methylene
and methyl protons, respectively, of the cis-1,4-polyisoprene (Spanò et al., 2012). * and ** indicates 1 H NMR residual signal of cyclohexane (1.43
ppm) and methyl-protons of a trans-isoprene unit (1.62 ppm), respectively.
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FIGURE 10
The 13 C NMR
spectrum of rubber extracted from E. characias latex. The peaks at 135.2,125, 32.2, 26.4, and 23.4 arises from the two ethylenic,
two methylenic, and the methyl carbon atoms of the cis-1,4-polyisoprene, respectively (Spanò et al., 2012).
FIGURE 11
Molecular weight distribution of E. macroclada extracted rubber by GPC.
but not against K. pneumonia, S. aureus, or B. subtilis. Using the
agar plug method, researchers have shown that the methanolic
extract of latex from E. antiquorum reduces the growth of
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A. fumigatus, C. albicans, and A. flavus, with inhibition zones
of 12, 10, and 5–6 mm, respectively (Sumathi et al., 2011).
ML et al. examined the antimicrobial activity of different
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solvent extracts (acetone, chloroform, and diethyl ether) of
E. heterophylla latex. The acetone extract demonstrated a high
zone of inhibition against most microbes, including S. aureus,
P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, A. niger, and F. oxysporum. The diethyl
ether latex extract was more effective at inhibiting P. vulgaris
and Penicillium sp.
In addition, the antimicrobial activity of the triterpene
derivatives,
3β-acetoxy-norlup-20-one
and
3-chloro4α,14α-dimethyl-5α-cholest-8-ene, isolated from E. officinarum
latex, has been determined. When used at concentrations of 100
and 200 µg/ml, they were shown to reduce conidia formation
in six strains of V. dahliae (from 39 to 69%) as well as in
P. expansum and F. oxysporum f. sp. melonis (from 70 to 96%).
Moreover, they were also shown to inhibit the germination
of all strains at concentrations of 2, 10, 100, and 200 µg/ml
(ML et al., 2020).
The antibacterial activity of 3-chloro-4α, 14α-dimethyl5α-cholest-8-ene has been demonstrated against P. syringae
pv. tabaci, which causes tobacco wildfire disease, with an
inhibition diameter of about 16 mm (Smaili et al., 2017).
There are also reports of the antimicrobial activity of
compounds other than triterpenes. For example, methyl
palmitate, 5,9-hepta decadienoate, methyl 11 octadecenoate,
methyl octadecenoate, and 3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-2-hexadecenl-ol were isolated from E. caducifolia, and their antimicrobial
activity was determined for a broad range of Gram-positive
bacteria such as S. aureus (MIC = 262 µg/ml), M. luteus
(MIC = 212 µg/ml), and B. subtilis (MIC = 187 µg/ml),
Gram-negative bacteria such as E. coli (MIC = 225 µg/ml)
and S. typhi (MIC = 275 µg/ml), and fungi such as A. niger
(MIC = 150 µg/ml) and C. albicans (MIC = 175 µg/ml)
(Goyal et al., 1970).
Antioxidant activities and free
radical scavenger activity
Numerous studies have reported the antioxidant effects
of Euphorbia latex. Phenolic compounds and secondary
metabolites are generally responsible for the antioxidant
properties (Koh et al., 2002). The antioxidant action of latex
from E. dendroides L. collected in Texas, USA was studied using
different in vitro assays such as 2,2-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH), Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), and
Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and a concentration
range of 0.625–10 µg/mL. The DPPH, FRAP, and TEAC IC50
antioxidant activities were 2,927.01 ± 98.03, 4,383.13 ± 95.30,
and 7,580.95 ± 97.65 µmols of trolox equivalents (TE)/100 g
fresh weight of sample, respectively. This antioxidant power
can be attributed to the polyphenols, specifically phenolic
acids, and terpenoids contained in the latex of E. dendroids
(Smeriglio et al., 2019). Abdel-Aty et al. have reported that
the antioxidant properties of E. tirucalli latex extracts can be
attributed to phenolic and flavonoid compounds. They found
that the amounts of flavonoids and phenols found in the
FIGURE 12
Proposed model of the mechanisms involved in E. bicolor latex extract-evoked peripheral, nonopioid analgesia (Basu et al., 2019).
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FIGURE 13
Euphol isolated from the latex of E. tirucalli inhibited total number of tumor cell K-562 cells after treatment (12 h). (A) Control cells incubated
with RPMI only; (B) control cells incubated with DMSO (0.4%); (C) euphol treatment (23.4 µM); (D) euphol treatment (46.9 µM); (E)
imatinib (0.5 µM); and (F) doxorubicin (0.085 µM). v, viable cells; a, apoptotic cells (Cruz et al., 2018).
E. tirucalli latex extracts are about 4.3 and 10.5 mg EC/g
latex, respectively. These were able to scavenge free radicals
from DPPH and ABTS, with IC50 of 6.0 and 2.0 µg GAE/ml,
respectively. In addition, the phosphomolybdate assay revealed
that the latex also has a high reduction capacity, with an
EC50 value of 6.5 µg/m (Abdel-Aty et al., 2019). The latex
extract of E. bicolor samples collected in Texas, USA showed a
Frontiers in Plant Science
dose-dependent ABTS radical of 80%, a DPPH scavenging effect
of 8%, and a H2 O2 radical of 30% at the concentration of 20–100
µg/mL. Moreover, the 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging activity of the
latex extract from E. bicolor is strongly correlated with the
concentration of flavonoids and proanthocyanidins. The DPPH
and NO radical scavenging activities of the extract show strong
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FIGURE 14
Apoptosis inducing effect of euphol extracted from E. tirucalli was to B16F10 cells after 24 h of treatment with different concentrations
of euphol. (A) Control cells incubated with RPMI; (B) control cells incubated with DMSO (0.4%); (C,D) B16F10 cells treated with 70.3 and 35.2 µM
of euphol. Cell rounding:, bleb formation:, chromatin condensation:. Magnification = 1,000×, bar = 20 µm (Cruz et al., 2018).
FIGURE 15
Effect of latex treatment on tumor mass and tumor cell proliferation in untreated animals with tumor (W), animals with tumor treated with
25 µL/mL aqueous solution of latex (SW1), and animals with tumor treated with 50 µL/mL aqueous solution of latex at (SW2). Data are presented
as the mean + SEM. W, n = 11; SW1, n = 12; SW2, n = 14. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.001, and ***p < 0.0001 (one-way ANOVA followed by a post-hoc
Tukey test) (Martins et al., 2020).
correlation with phenolic compounds and terpenoids contents.
On the other hand, the H2 O2 radical scavenging activity shows
weak correlations with polyphenols contents (Basu et al., 2019).
and the environmental damage caused by the drugs (O’Brien,
1999; Daborn and Le Goff, 2004). The insecticidal activity of
E. bupleuroides latex samples from the east of Algeria has been
evaluated against German cockroach (Blattella germanica). The
insecticidal activity against adults and larvae was dependent
on the concentration and time of exposure and found to
be particularly effective against males and caterpillars (Azoui
et al., 2016). The insecticidal activity of xylene-latex extracts
from E. antiquorum collected in dry, intermediate, and wet
Insecticidal activity
The use of drugs to control parasites poses many challenges,
such as the resistance to insecticides developed by the parasites
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FIGURE 16
Morphological changes of HeLa and HRT-18 cells under treatment with latex of E. umbellata (Pax) Bruyn (A,D) controls; cells incubated with
RPMI only. (B) HeLa cells incubated with 500 and (C) 750 µg/ml of latex. (E) HRT cells incubated with 750 µg/ml and (F) 1,000 µg/ml of latex
(Luz et al., 2015).
zones of Sri Lanka has been studied against six species of
insect pests: Myzus persicae, Aphis gossypii, Aphis craccivora,
brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens), paddybug (Leptocorisa
oratorius), and blackbug (Scotinophara lurida) (De Silva et al.,
2008). The activity against two species of predatory ladybird
beetles, Harmonia octomaculata and Menochilus sexmaculatus
(Cheilomenes sexmaculatus), and the predatory spider Lycosa
pseudoannulata, was determined using the Potters’ sprayer
method. The three aphid species, A. craccivora, A. gossypii,
and M. persicae, showed a high level of mortality toward
the xylene-latex extract. On the other hand, H. octomaculata
and M. sexmaculatus did not show any mortality for
the xylene extract.
that E. bicolor latex extracts induce analgesia by reducing the
levels of oxidative stress biomarkers and pro-inflammatory
cytokines/chemokines in a rat model of orofacial pain. Figure 12
shows a proposed model of the non-opioid mechanism that
contributes to the peripheral analgesia induced by E. bicolor
latex extracts. It shows that local injection of phytochemicals
from E. bicolor latex at the site of injury may be effective
in reducing oxidative stress by reducing the plasma levels of
advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP) and increasing the
expression of the Nox4 protein, which leads to a decrease in the
levels of reactive oxygen species and consequently, the release of
the pro-inflammatory peptide (Basu et al., 2019).
Cytotoxic/tumor activity
Anti-inflammatory activity
Some species of the Euphorbia genus exhibit antitumor
activity against different cancer cell lines. The anticancer activity
of the phenolic extract of E. tirucalli was evaluated in vitro
on five cancer cell lines: MCF-7, A549, HL-60, HCT116, and
HepG2. The IC50 values of the extract against the MCF-7 and
A549 cancer cell lines were 1.65 ± 3.67 and 35.36 ± 3.82
µg/ml, respectively. In addition, it exhibited a potent cytotoxic
activity against HL-60, with an IC50 value of 22.76 ± 2.85 µg/ml,
while the IC50 value of doxorubicin was 21.87 ± 2.31 µg/ml.
However, it had no activity against HepG2 and HCT116 cancer
cells. These data suggest that these cancer cells were strongly
affected by the phenolic compounds detected in the latex extract
(Abdel-Aty et al., 2019). In another study of the same species;
the crude latex extract of E. tirucalli reduced the viability of
gastric adenocarcinoma cancer cells at concentrations of 100
The latex of the Euphorbia genus also has anti-inflammatory
effects. The anti-inflammatory effect of a hydrosoluble fraction
of E. royleana latex was investigated using different acute and
chronic test models in rats and mice, with acetylsalicylic acid
(ASA) as a positive control. The latex showed a significant
dose-dependent anti-inflammatory activity, as evidenced by the
reduction in the volume of exudate that resulted from the
migration of leukocytes, and showed a weak inhibitory effect
on the formation of granulomas induced by cotton pellets (Bani
et al., 2000). The anti-inflammatory effects of E. helioscopia latex
on carrageenan-induced paw edema have been tested in mice.
The latex (200 mg/kg) showed maximal anti-inflammatory
(68.75%) compared to the control (2 mg/kg indomethacin)
(59.38%) (Saleem et al., 2015b). Moreover, Basu, P et al. showed
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10.3389/fpls.2022.1008881
FIGURE 17
Photomicrography of Chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) vascular network formation. (A) Inhibitor dexamethasone; (B) the negative control
(water); (C) the test solution (E. tirucalli); and (D) the inducer control (Biocure Biomembrane) (Bessa et al., 2015).
and 200 µg/mL by up to 70 and 95%, respectively. This effect
could be associated with euphol, which is the main compound
found in this species (de Souza et al., 2019).
Cruz et al. investigated the cytotoxic effects of euphol
isolated from the latex of E. tirucalli against the K-562 and
B16F10 cell lines using the MTT assay and morphological
analysis. It was observed that this compound shows high activity
against both cell lines, with IC50 values of 34.56 ± 2.12
(µM) and 53.63 ± 10.16 (µM) after 72 h against K-562 and
B16F10 cells, respectively. Similarly, morphological analysis of
K-562 cells showed that, compared with the negative control
(DMSO treatment) and the positive control (treatment with
0.085 µM doxorubicin and 0.5 µM imatinib), the group
treated with 23.4 and 46.9 µM euphol had reduced total cell
counts and contained apoptotic cells, as shown in Figure 13.
In addition, morphological analysis of B16F10 cells after
24 h of treatment showed that euphol induces cell death
through apoptosis accompanied by cell rounding, membrane
bleeding, and chromatin condensation (Figure 14; Cruz et al.,
2018).
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Subsequent work has recently shown that when the aqueous
solution of latex from E. tirucalli, which contains triterpenes,
is orally administered to male Wistar rats for 15 days, the
tumor mass in the groups of rats treated with 25 µL latex/mL
and 50 µL latex/mL latex is significantly lower than that in
the control. Furthermore, a reduction of approximately 76% in
tumor cell proliferation is observed in Wistar rats treated with
50 µl latex/ml (p < 0.0001), as determined by the Alamar Blue
assay (Figure 15; Martins et al., 2020).
Additionally, the cytotoxic activity of E. umbellata latex was
tested by Luz et al. This study evaluated latex cytotoxicity on
human cervical adenocarcinoma (HeLa) and human ileocecal
colorectal adenocarcinoma (HRT-18) cells using the 3-(4,5Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT)
test and neutral red. The cell viability of HRT-18 cells was
reduced after 48 h when 100 to 1,000 g/ml concentrations
were used. Moreover, the latex induced dose- and timedependent cytotoxicity to HeLa cells. A photomicroscope was
used to analyze the cytotoxic effects of E. umbellata latex on
HeLa and HRT-18 cell morphology, including vacuolization,
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FIGURE 18
Histological sections stained with hematoxylin-eosin. Chorioallantoic membranes (CAMs) treated with the inhibitor control (dexamethasone)
show few connective tissue cells and few blood vessels (A,B). The inducer control (Biocure Biomembrane of Hevea brasiliensis latex) treatment
induced a large number of blood vessels and inflammatory foci (C,D). Treatment with the test solution of Euphorbia tirucalli latex resulted in a
large number of well-organized blood vessels and inflammatory foci (E,F) (Bessa et al., 2015).
was evaluated on chorioallantoic membranes (CAMs) of 80
fertilized chicken eggs through the application of a series of tests
such as the quantification of the percentage of vascularization,
histological analysis, and digital imaging; the aqueous solution
significantly increased neoangiogenesis (CAM vascular network
mean area and standard deviation of 46.3 ± 3.8 in the treated
group versus 31.8 ± 3.0 in the control group). On the other
hand, the mean surface of the vascular network in the inducer
control group (51.3 ± 3.9) was not significantly (p > 0.05)
different from that in the group treated with the E. tirucalli
latex test. The digital images of the vascular networks of the
control and the group treated with the aqueous solution of
E. tirucalli latex are shown in Figure 17. The results of the
histological analysis agreed with the results observed on the
digital images (Figure 18). The positive control and E. tirucalli
latex groups showed an increase in the number of blood vessels
and an inflammatory response, whereas few blood vessels were
found in the control group treated with 1% dexamethasone.
Thus, the latex of E. tirucalli led to the activation of the
inflammatory response (Bessa et al., 2015). On the other
hand, the anti-angiogenic activity of E. helioscopia latex (100
µg/mL) has been studied in fertilized white leghorn hen eggs.
rounding, loss of adhesion, blebbing, nuclear condensation, and
fragmentation. After 24 h, morphological alterations in HeLa
and HRT-18 cells were observed and were characterized by
the loss of adhesion, cellular rounding, formation of bubbles,
and condensation of chromatin, showing that apoptosis is the
pathway for destruction tumor (Figure 16; Luz et al., 2015).
Another study was carried out to determine the
concentration at which the latex extract of E. antiquorum
exhibits maximum protection and least toxicity to cells. It
has been reported to be safe to normal cells such as those
of brineshrimps (Artemia), S. cerevisiae, and chick embryo
fibroblast cells, and that the toxicity of latex increases with
increasing concentration.
Angiogenic and
genotoxic/mutagenic activity
Angiogenesis is the growth of new vessels from an existing
vascular system (Fan et al., 2006). In 2015, the pro-angiogenic
activity of an aqueous E. tirucalli latex solution (10 mg/mL)
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7.34 ± 0.72 U/g latex. Moreover, latex proteases have been
shown to exhibit coagulation activity. Whole blood clotting
times in mouse blood, human blood, and other mammals’
blood samples such as those from Capra hircus, Bos indicus,
Bubalus bubalis, and Ovibos moschatus were reduced by
treatment with proteases present in E. nivulia Buch.-Ham
latex. Other work has examined the wound healing activity of
E. caducifolia latex in excision and incision wound model mice
and study the effect of this latex extract on hydroxyproline
and DNA content.
The results showed a complete closure of the wound in
animals treated with E. caducifolia latex at concentrations
of 2.5 and 5.0 mg/g after the 15th day. On the other
hand, treatment with 10 mg/g allowed a total closure
of the wound after the 14th day. Also the results of
hydroxyproline content showed that the excised skin of
animals treated with the latex extract with a concentration of
0.50 and 1.0 mg/g was found to have a higher amount of
hydroxyproline compared to the control group, however the
increase in DNA content was statistically significant only in
the group treated with 10 mg/g ECL as shown in Figure 19.
The branching of blood vessels in the latex-treated groups
was similar to that in the quercetin-treated group (standard).
The genotoxic and mutagenic effects of E. helioscopia latex
at different concentrations (1,000, 200, 40, 8, and 1.6 µg/ml)
was evaluated by Saleem et al. No DNA damage was observed
in the lymphocytes and S. typhimurium reverts in latextreated plates could not be produce at any of the doses tested
(Saleem et al., 2015b).
Hemostatic and wound healing
activity
Evaluation of various proteolytic activities such as protease,
gelatinase, milk coagulation, and whole blood coagulation
in the latex enzymatic fraction of E. nivulia Buch.-Ham
revealed that this latex has hemostatic activity (Badgujar, 2014).
Regarding proteolytic activity, the latex showed significant
milk clotting activity with a value of 465.5 ± 0.37 U/g
latex and protease activity with a value of 9.20 ± 0.08 U/g
latex. In the gelatinase assay, the latex showed a value of
FIGURE 19
Effect of latex of E. caducifolia on hydroxyproline and DNA content. Values reported as Mean ± SEM (n = 6). The data were analyzed by one way
ANOVA followed by and Dunnett’s test. *P0.05 as compared with control group. ECL (latex of E. caducifolia) (Goyal et al., 2012).
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Author contributions
In addition, the histopathological examination of excised
skin showed the formation of new vessels with scattered
inflammatory cells in mice treated with the latex of E. caducifolia
(Goyal et al., 2012).
RB, AM, and AE: writing—original draft. NK and EC:
writing—review and editing. NKK, NK, EC, and AE: funding
and supervision. All authors contributed to the article and
approved the submitted version.
Conclusion
To our knowledge, this review represents the first report
summarizing the phytochemical analysis of spurge genus
latex and its pharmacological effects. Euphorbia is one of
the largest genera in the Euphorbiaceae family. This review
summarizes the available literature to identify compounds
with pharmacological activities extracted from the latex of
different species of Euphorbia. The major constituent secondary
metabolites of Euphorbia species are terpenoids, and most of
them have been identified using HPLC, GC-MS, and NMR
spectroscopic analysis. Latex extracts from Euphorbia species
have many pharmacological functions, including antimicrobial,
anticancer, anticholinesterase, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant,
cytotoxic, anti-angiogenic, genotoxic/mutagenic, and wound
healing activities, which have been demonstrated in various
in vitro and in vivo biological test models. However, other
components such as phenolic compounds, alkaloids, saponins,
and flavonoids isolated from the latex of these species have
been mostly ignored, which limits the diversity of application
of the latex from these plants. This review summarizes the
current understanding of the biological activities of secondary
metabolites from the latex of Euphorbia species. Our findings
may promote future studies that will help to optimize the
therapeutic use of latex extracts and could be useful for
scientists who need unexplored species that have not yet
been fully explored.
However, few studies have tested the biological activities of
the latex of the genus Euphorbia in vivo conditions, further
investigations are recommended in order to better understand
and discover more bioactive molecules. In addition, great
attention should be paid to study the pharmacokinetics and the
mechanism of action of the various compounds isolated from
the latex of this genus.
Funding
This study was supported by the National Research
Foundation (NRF) of Korea, funded by the Korea government
(NRF-2021R1C1C1013875, 2021R1A6A1A03038785, and
2021R1F1A1055694). This study was also supported by
Kwangwoon University Research Grant in 2022.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the
authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated
organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the
reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or
claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed
or endorsed by the publisher.
Supplementary material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be
found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/
fpls.2022.1008881/full#supplementary-material
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