Medicinal Orchid Usage in Rural Africa

Abstract

African usage of orchids is unique because among the natives health takes on a wider meaning than usual. Personal well-being also involves success in establishing friendship, business, love, hunts and protection against natural catastrophes. Nearly 50 species are employed as charms for such purpose.

As illness is believed to be caused by witchcraft or possession by spirits, vomiting may expel such noxious items. Many orchid species are employed to help one to puke. Some species cause a person to purge: others stop diarrhoea. They are usually served as infusions, but instillation of plant juice into the ear and application of powdered tubers on afflicted limbs are examples of alternative approaches. Ansellia africana and some species of Eulophia are employed as aphrodisiac. Orchids are also employed to help women to conceive and one species to ensure smooth labour. Of the 60 medicinal orchid species, a third belongs to the genus Eulophia. Africans believe that eating orchid tubers promotes health and some Africans eat orchids regularly. Over 50 orchid species (predominantly in Disa, Habenaria and Satyrium) have been identified in chikanda, a cake made with orchid tubers. If Africans are to continue consuming orchid tubers as chikanda, such orchids need to be managed as root crops.

Northern African countries belong to the Mediterranean region, and having once formed the outer reaches of the Ottoman Empire during the last millennia, current traditional herbal practices are closely linked with that of the Middle East and ancient Greece. Information on the use of orchids in this region is scarce. A rare reference to medicinal orchids from northern Africa describes Habenaria species as etse yihayu (restorative plants) which are used to overcome impotence in Ethiopia. In the traditional health practice of that country, plants are the primary source of drugs (Dawit 1987; Dawit and Estifanos 1986). In Tunisia, Ophrys lutea and Orchis anthropophora (syn. Aceras anthropophora R. Br.) are served as appetizers.

African salep makes use of Dactylorhiza sambucina (L) Soo (syn. Orchis lutea Dulac) and Orchis provincialis. In Beni-Suef, Upper Egypt, salep prepared with tubers of Orchis hircine Crantz. which is imported is boiled in milk to treat peptic ulcer (AbouZid and Mohamed 2011). However, Egyptian herbal medicine has existed for seven millennia, if not much longer, and its usage of herbs could have strongly influenced Greek medicine. The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1552 BC) which predates the Herbal of Dioscorides (c. 40–90 CE) by 1600 years describes over 700 different substances (von Klein 1905). Whether orchids feature in ancient Egyptian medicine will only be known when the full texts of all extant papyri are translated and made readily available to the public. The rest of this chapter will therefore focus on usage of orchids as medicine or food only in Central and South Africa (Figs. 17.1 and 17.2).

Fig. 17.1

Orchis anthropophora [as Aceras anthropophora]. From: Barla JB, Flora illustre de Nice et des Alpes-maritimes. Iconographie des Orchidees, t. 23, Fig. 1–13 (1868)

Fig. 17.2

Orchis provincialis Balb. Ex Lam. & D.C. From: Barla JB, Flore illustre de Nice et des Alpes-maritimes. Iconographie des Orchidees, t. 38 (1868)

Africans enjoy freedom from brittle bones because in addition to their genetic constitution, they eat root crops and roots of wild plants when foraging in forests. In the southern part of Africa, tubers of many orchid species are eaten as food, mostly as a relish or snack. Edible orchids, especially Satyrium carsonii, are preferred to fish, meat and other vegetables. There exists a belief in Malawi that eating edible orchids (chinaka; chikanda, a cake or meatless sausage prepared with edible orchids and peanuts) confers protection against illness and in one survey over two-thirds of the 117 people interviewed said that they ate orchids at least once a week. The popular edible orchids were Disa engleriana, D. robusta, D. zombica, Habenaria clavata, Satyrium ambylosaccos, S. buchananii and S. carsonii (Kasulo et al. 2009). Edible orchids contain 5.36% protein and 2.2% minerals and sufficient vitamin C and beta-carotene in 10 g of the tuber to meet minimum daily requirement. There is a large amount of calcium [22.120–33.574 mg/100 g (Lalika et al. 2013) or 48 mg/100 g (Kasulo et al. 2009)] even when compared with other root crops like potato (12 mg/100 g), sweet potato (14 mg/100 g), greater yam (24 mg/100 g), carrot (34 mg/100 g) and tapioca root (46 mg/100 g) (Leong and Morris 1947; Teoh and Teoh 1999).

Chikanda has been a village delicacy for hundreds of years, but the custom did not pose a threat to the edible orchid species in sub-Saharan Africa until the last decade of the twentieth century (Davenport and Ndangalasi 2003). In Malawi edible orchid tubers are known as Chanaka, Chikande or Nyama Yapans, the last term meaning ‘underground meat’. Women collect tubers of 15 species of terrestrial orchids (Disa, Habenaria, Satyrium) from the mountains, wash and sun-dry them to keep for later use. When boiled in potash, they produce a jelly-like substance which is eaten as a relish (Morris 1996). An investigation in Malawi found that all respondents reported eating orchid tubers as food. Their survey involved interviewing 147 individuals and 74 households in 18 villages in 2 districts where edible orchids occurred (Kasulo et al. 2009). High demand in some places like Zambia, a big consumer of chikanda, has given rise to cross-border trade and questions over its sustainability. It is estimated that between 2.2 and 4.1 million, orchid plants consumed in Zambia originate from Tanzania (Challe and Price 2009). They are comprised almost entirely of species of Disa, Habenaria and Satyrium which are called by their vernacular name, Chikanda. The government of Tanzania has designated 135 square kilometres of the Kitulo Plateau as a new National Park to protect the local flora and fauna, and perhaps this may help to protect some orchid species.

There is also an active cross-border trade of orchid tubers from Malawi to Zambia (Kasulo et al. 2009), and more recently supplies have arrived from Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Mozambique (Veldman et al. 2017). Edible orchids in the originating country include Satyrium carsonii, Disa zombica, Satyrium buchananii, Satyrium ambylosaccos, Disa engleriana, Disa robusta, other unidentified Disa species, Habenaria clavata and Habenaria walleri, all found predominantly in the highlands with Disa occurring in montane bogs. Chikanda tubers are varied and consist of a mixture of many species of terrestrial orchid tubers, some collected from neighbouring countries like Congo and Tanzania, and depending on their origin, the species would be different. They are traded in bulk at Zambia’s Soweto Market in Lusaka, with middlemen selling myala tubers at 150 ZMW (approximately US$15) per tin of 41 kg. A large bag contains 410 kg. On the other hand, vendors at Nakadoli Market in Kitwe sell tubers in small amounts, with portions costing only US 50 cents. Girls learn their trade from their mothers, and some continue working in the market for many years. To prevent loss from rot, tubers may be sun-dried and then grounded and sold in powder form. Chikanda cakes are also sold in these markets (Kim 2016) (Figs. 17.3, 17.4, 17.5, and 17.6).

Fig. 17.3

Disa engleriana (a–f) and Disa erubescens (g–j). From: Engler A, Drude O, Die Vegetation Erde: Sammlung pflanzengeographischer Monographien vol. 9(2): p 442 (1896–1928)

Fig. 17.4

Habenaria clavata (Lindl.) Rchb.f. From: Bolus, H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extratropicarum (Orchids of South Arica), vol 2: t. 43 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Fig. 17.5

Chikanda, a popular Central African cake made with orchid tubers. Photo: Soel-Jong Kim

Fig. 17.6

Chikanda tubers from varied species on sale at a local African market. Photo: Soel-Jong Kim

Thirteen species belonging to the three genera that were identified during a survey conducted by Nyomora in February to March when plants were in bloom, but the author submits that this may represent only 15% of all orchid species collected for chikanda (Nyomora 2005). An early study reported that in excess of four million tubers of 85 species of the three genera were collected annually (Davenport and Ndangalasi 2003). Most of these orchids are gathered by AIDS-/HIV-affected households, often headed by orphaned children who rely almost entirely on the sale of edible orchids for their livelihood. They are living from hand to mouth (Challe and Price 2009; Challe et al. 2011). They also eat the tubers in lieu of vegetable and meat (Nyomora 2005). Up to 80% of households in Tanzania are involved in the gathering of orchid tubers (Bone 2016) (Figs. 17.7 and 17.8). Table 17.1 lists the edible orchid species, mostly employed to prepare chikanda which have been positively identified.

Table 17.1 African edible orchid species. Many species are employed in the making of chikanda

Fig. 17.7

Disa barbata. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 3: t. 51 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Fig. 17.8

Satyrium bicorne [as Satyrium cucullatum]. From: Edward’s Botanical Register vol. 5: t. 416 (1819) [S Edwards]

Roots (or pseudobulbs) of Disa barbata (syn. Herschelia barbata), Disa venusta (syn. Herschelia venusta), Satyrium bicorne, Satyrium candidum, Satyrium carneum and Satyrium erectum were reported to contain a large quantity of sweet, mucilaginous and nutritious juice (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Gatherers are able to distinguish between edible and nonedible species within a genus. Edible tubers are sweet and contain sugar crystals, and they are referred to as manseke, vinsake, lidala or sidala, i.e. ‘female orchids’, whereas inedible tubers are bitter, watery and non-marketable and they are referred to as ‘male’ (Challe and Struik 2008; Lalika et al. 2013). Disa erubescens, Disa robusta and Satyrium atherstonei are additional examples of sweet tubers, and Satyrium crassicaule and Habenaria praestans var. praestans are examples of orchids with bitter tubers. Due to over-collection, in the areas studied, over a short period, populations of the sweet species were overtaken by the bitter species (Challe and Struik 2008). Several studies found that villagers prefer to collect tubers of Disa over those of Satyrium and Habenaria (Davenport and Ndangalaasi 2003; Nyomora 2005; Hamisy 2007; Challe and Price 2009). In Cameroon, tubers of Habenaria keayi and Habenaria zambesina are eaten as food (Kasulo et al. 2009). Three orchids (Habenaria cirrhata, Eulophia horsfallii, Nervilia bicarinata) are eaten in Benin (Assese et al. 2017).

As popular species become less easy to collect, alternative species are sought (Bone 2016). DNA barcoding employed by the team of Veldman, de Boer and their colleagues showed that many more species of orchids are being used for chikanda in Zambia than was previously discovered (Veldman et al. 2018). A recent investigation which examined six prepared chikanda cakes by DNA barcoding found Disa to be present in all samples, Satyrium in five out of six and Habenaria only in one (Veldman et al. 2017) (Figs. 17.9, 17.10, 17.11 and 17.12).

Fig. 17.9

Satyrium candidum. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 2: t. 60 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Fig. 17.10

Satyrium carneum. From: Curtis Botanical Magazine t. 1502–1547, vol. 37; t. 1512 (1813) [ST Edwards]

Fig. 17.11

Satyrium erectum [as Satyrium pustulatum]. From: Edward’s Botanical Register vol. 26: t. 18 (1840)

Fig. 17.12

Habenaria cornuta [as Habenaria ceratopetala]. From: Richard A, Tentamen florae Abyssinicae, Atlas, t. 88 (1851) [AC Vauthier]

The Darwin Initiative recently funded a project to manage the wild edible orchid trade in Zambia that will provide security and good livelihood for poor rural women and girls while at the same time preventing over-exploitation and cross-border trade of such orchids. The project is undertaken by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and supervised by Ruth Bone.

An Uppsala University team of researchers working with the Darwin Initiative has started a programme to identify the exact orchid species that are consumed in chikanda (Kim 2016; Veldman et al. 2017). They noted that a vernacular name may refer to several different plants because native plant traders are not familiar with their scientific names. For instance, iphamba refers to 12 different species, namely, Cyrtorchis arcuata, Diaphananthe millarii, D. xanthopollinia, Eulophia ensata, E. ovalis, E. leontoglossa, Microcoelia exilis, Mystacidium capense, M. venosum, Polystachya transvaalensis, Tridactyle bicaudata and T. tridentata.

Lourance Njopilai David Mapunda related that he met an old lady from Ilindiwe Village in Tanzania who informed him that she managed to grow orchids in the field by broadcasting a mature flower bunch mixed with soil in a farm. Some farmers reported obtaining larger tubers when they grew the orchid instead of collecting it from the wild. In the past, villagers only collected edible orchids from plants that did not flower (ironically referred to as female plants, Lidala, Sidala), whereas male plants that flowered (Ligosi, Sigosi, Likose) were not collected because they were responsible for seeding the next generation. This traditional practice is now ignored, and male plants are also collected.

In addition to species in the three traditional edible genera of Satyrium, Disa and Habenaria, Mapunda reported that Brachycorythis pleistophylla and Eulophia schweinfurthii were also collected for food (Mapunda 2007). In South Africa and Swaziland, tubers of Neobolusia tysonii and two varieties of Satyrium longicauda are also eaten, albeit not to a great extent (Long 2005) (Figs. 17.13 and 17.14). Tubers of Eulophia livingstoneana (Madagascar local name, Felatrandraka) and leaves and fruits of Eulophia reticulata (Madagascar names, Kamasina, Tandrokondrylahy, Kitandrokondrilahy) are eaten in Madagascar (Cribb and Hermans 2009).

Fig. 17.13

Brachycorythis pleistophylla. From: A Engler, O Drude, Die Vegetation der Erde: Sammlung pflanzengeographischer Monographien vol. 9(2): p 440, Fig. 31 A–D. (1896–1928). Fig. E illustrates plant of Brachycorythis tenuior showing its tubers

Fig. 17.14

Satyrium longicauda Lindl. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Aficaranum extratropicarum vol. 1: t. 70 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

The edible orchid, Bulbophyllum scaberulum, is moderately effective in killing roundworms. Another orchid, Cyrtorchis arcuata, is more effective, but it is only employed as a charm in South Africa (Chinsamy 2012) (Fig. 17.15).

Fig. 17.15

Bulbophyllum scaberulum [as Megaclinium fuerstenbergianum]. From: Cogniax A, Goossens A, Dictionaire Iconographique des orchidees, Maxillaria, vol. 11: Fasicle Megaclinium, t. 1 (1896–1907) [A Goossens]

People in Zaire were advised not to eat Eulophia kalende which is poisonous.

Orchids as Medicine

The role of orchids in Central and South Africa’s folk medicine takes a unique form that is closely bound to local cultural beliefs. It is influenced by their notion that illnesses, unease, even difficult situations and natural catastrophes are caused by spirits, witchcraft or charms employed by enemies and opportunists. Brain Morris who lived, worked and studied medicinal plants in Malawi for over 20 years stated that the term for medicine in Malawi is Mankhwala, cognate of the widespread term Bwanga. They cover a wide variety of substances—charms, amulets, protective medicine, medicine in the usual sense and modern pharmaceuticals—that are believed to possess an inherent ability to prevent or cure illnesses. One might say their usage is holistic: it extends beyond the specific therapeutic need. Mankhwala is also a good luck charm that helps a person to be liked by friends and employers, to get married, to establish a family, and to achieve success in hunts and agriculture. It protects a person against witchcraft. It promotes health and potency and has a role in life cycle passage (Morris 1996).

Emetics or compounds that induce a person to vomit are widely used in African folk medicine because there is a belief that this facilitates removal of the cause of the ailment. Orchids are generally employed in this manner, be it to treat cough in children, induce fertility in women and cure madness, or even as a love charm either consumed by the man or secretly administered to the woman that he cherishes.

In Malawi, 45 out of 74 households (61%) interviewed also reported using orchids as medicine to treat cough, abdominal and chest pain, eye infection, urinary disorders, ringworm, rheumatism and ‘fortanelle’ (presumably meaning headache?). Usage varied significantly from one district to another. It was common in Kasungu District where 38 households indicated that they used orchids for medicinal purposes, whereas in Mzimba district, only 7 households indicated such usage (Kasulo et al. 2009). In an extensive study of herbs employed in Southern Malawi, Brian Morris discovered that Bulbophyllum sandersonii and Eulophia cucullata were employed to treat infertility, impotence and other reproductive problems, but they were only 2 out of 80 plants so employed. Eulophia cucullata was also used as a goodwill charm (mwayi, chimwemwe) and in friendship or love potions (Morris 1996) (Figs. 17.16 and 17.17). Seven years later, Morris (1996) added ten more species to his list of medicinal orchids. The majority (Acampe pachyglossa, Angraecopsis parviflora, Calyptrochilum christyanum, Cyrtorchis arcuata, Microcoelia exilis, Polystachya tessellata, Tridactyle bicaudata and also Bulbophyllum sandersonii) were employed to treat stomach ailments (Mwanawamphepo) (Figs. 17.18, 17.19, 17.20, and 17.21). Bulbophyllum fuscum was used to treat heart ailments. Bulbophyllum maximum provided protection against sorcery, and roots of Tridactyle tricuspis was used to treat insanity. The orchids were used in infusion: additionally, stems of Tridactyle tricuspis were employed as a wash for mad people (Morris 1996). Disa polygonoides was employed to restore a person’s voice after an illness, and Polystachya ottoniana (iphamba lehlathi) was a medication for diarrhoea in Swaziland (Long 2005) (Fig. 17.22, 17.23, 17.24, and 17.25).

Fig. 17.16

Bulbophyllum sandersonii. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 1: t. 3 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Fig. 17.17

Eulophia cucullata. From: Curtis Botanical Magazine vol. 137 [ser. 34, vol. 7] t. 8397 (1911) [M Smith]

Fig. 17.18

Acampe pachyglossa. From: Pole-Evans IB, Phillips EP, Dyer RA, Codd LE, The flowering plants of South Africa. Vol. 30: t. 1175 (1954–1955) [C. Letty]

Fig. 17.19

Angraecopsis parviflora (Thouars) Schltr. [as Angraecum parviflorum Thouars]. From: Du Petit-Thouars LMA, Histoire paryiculiere des plantes Orchidees, t. 60 (1822)

Fig. 17.20

Calyptrochilum christyanum (Rchb.f.) Summerh. [as Angraecum schoellerianum Kraenzl. Ex Schweinf.]. From: Orchis. Monatsschrift fur Orchideenkunde, vol. 2: p. 41, Fig. 6 (1908)

Fig. 17.21

Cyrtorchis arcuata [as Angraecum sedenii]. From: von Lindemann E, Lindenia vol. 3: t. 135 (1887) [P. de Pannemaeker]

Fig. 17.22

Bulbophyllum fuscum Lindl. [as Bulbophyllum obanense Rendle]. From: Rendle AB, Baker EG, Catalogue of the plants collected by Mr. & Mrs. P.A.Talbot in Oban district, South Nigeria, t. 12 (1913) [Talbot]

Fig. 17.23

Bulbophyllum maximum (Ridley) Ridley [as Megaclinium platyrhachis Rolfe]. From: Curtis Botanical Magazine vol. 130 [ser. 3, vol. 60]: t. 7946 (1904) [M Smith]

Fig. 17.24

Tridactyle tricuspis (Bolus) Schltr. [as Angraecum tricuspis Bolus]. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Afixaranum extratropicarum, vol. 3: t. 13 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Fig. 17.25

Disa polygonoides. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 2: t. 84 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Orchids are also employed as medicine in Benin, West Africa, but here the situation is complex with four predominant tribes having different names (peculiar for their dialect) as well as different usages for the same species. Calyptochilum christyanum was employed by ethnic Gourmantche to handle dysmenorrhea and swollen feet. The Berba used it to treat malaria and snake bite, and the Waama employed it to treat ‘faith disease’. All three ethnic groups used it to get their babies to start walking early. Eulophia guineensis was employed by the three tribes to treat (1) cough, stomachache, (2) fever or (3) stomachache, respectively (Fig. 17.26). Berba used another Eulophia species (unidentified) as a laxative and to treat cough. A fourth tribe, Fulani, employed Habenaria cirrhata for bracing and Habenaria schimperiana to improve their eyesight. Middle-aged Fulani women who had more knowledge of orchids than the men used the root and fruit of Eulophia guineensis to treat a variety of diseases (not specified). Fulani also used Nervilia kostchyi to treat cough and stomachache, whereas Gourmantche employed it to relieve painful menstruation (Fig. 17.27). Nervilia bicarinata was employed by Gourmantche to treat fever, by Berba to relieve muscle ache, by Waama to relieve stomachache and by Fulani to treat jaundice and improve the flow of urine (Assese et al. 2017).

Fig. 17.26

Eulophia guineensis Lindl. var. purpurata. From: Warner R, Williams BS, The Orchid album vol. 1883: t. 89 (1883) [JN Fitch]

Fig. 17.27

Nervilia kotschyi (Rchb.f) Schltr. [as Pogonia purpurata Rchb. f. & Sonder]. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africaranum extratropicarum, vol. 1: t. 12 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Gourmantche employed Calyptrochilum christyanum to treat sick poultry, whereas Berba used Habenaria cirrhata for the same purpose. Three orchid species (Calyptrochilum christyanum, Eulophia guineensis and Nervilia bicarinata) also had spiritual usage. The authors noted that abundance of a species gave it more cultural significance and increased its likelihood of being employed medicinally or for spiritual purposes (Assese et al. 2017).

A recent survey found that 49 orchid species are considered medicinal in Africa, with Eulophia species playing a major role. However, vernacular names may be common to numerous plants; for instance, iphamba refers to 12 different species, namely, Cyrtorchis arcuata, Diaphananthe millarii, D. xanthopollinia, Eulophia ensata, E. ovalis, E. leontoglossa, Microcoelia exilis, Mystacidium capense, M. venosum, Polystachya transvaalensis, Tridactyle bicaudata and T. tridentata. Native plant traders are not familiar with scientific names. Only 15 species were handled in the usual manner of medicinal herbs, whereas three quarters of over 50 species were employed as love charms or as charms for protection (Chinsamy 2012). Many orchids are also eaten as food (Chinsamy et al. 2008, 2011). Table 17.2 lists the African orchid species that have been employed as medicine. Orchid species employed as charms are excluded from this list and presented separately in Table 17.3.

Table 17.2 African medicinal orchid species

Table 17.3 African orchid species employed as charms

Ansellia

Ansellia is now regarded as a single variable species (www.theplantlist.org, 2010) with flowers of different sizes, colours and patterns. It is the largest epiphytic orchid in Africa, growing conspicuously on the lower branches of lofty trees. In the typical form, Ansellia africana, petals are broader than the sepals, and they are characterized by broad brown bars over a yellow background. These plants are widely distributed across tropical East Africa. The so-called Ansellia gigantea (now considered to be a variant of Ansellia africana) occurs in South Africa. Flowers are smaller and of a pale yellow, with a small spots on the tepals. Sepals and petals are of the same width. Many intermediate colour forms exist (Stewart 1981). The amount of Ansellia africana sold in herbal markets exceeds that of all other orchids because of its alleged aphrodisiac properties (Chinsamy 2012) (Fig. 17.28).

Fig. 17.28

Ansellia africana [as Ansellia congoensis]. From: von Lindemann E, Lindenia vol. 2: t. 64 (1886) [P de Pannemaeker]

Stem of Ansellia gigantea being regarded as an aphrodisiac in the Acornhoek area of South Africa, Zulus would administer decoction of the stem to women with salacious intent. On the other hand, Zulu youths employed root of Ansellia (variety humilis) as a charm to prevent an unmarried woman from getting pregnant. They might also wear a leaf underneath their bangle when out courting. The way to be rid of bad dreams was to immerse one’s head in the smoke of burning roots of Ansellia or to partake of its stem infusion (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). In Zambia (formerly Northern Rhodesia), infusion of the leaf and stem was a folk remedy for madness (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Other orchid remedies for psychiatric conditions include Xhosa using roots of Brachycorythis ovata Lindl. (Imfeyamasele yentaba) in decoction to treat insanity; seeds of Polystachya ottoniana (Amabelejongosi) as a snuff in to produce a psychoactive or hallucinogenic effect which is an essential feature in certain African cultures; and an emetic prepared from Eulophia species to treat hysteria (Chinsamy et al. 2011) (Fig. 17.29).

Fig. 17.29

Brachycorythis ovata. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 3: t. 51 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

The whole plant of Ansellia africana is employed to treat respiratory disease, mainly asthma in southern Mozambique (Bandeira et al. 2001). Juice of Ansellia africana and roots of the plant (vernacular name Imfe-nkawu) were used to treat malaria in Senegal. In this country, sick children were bathed with a decoction of the plant. Infusion of the stem and leaves was employed for madness in Zambia. Zulu herbalists produced an emetic by boiling any part of the plant, whereas the Pedi in Transvaal employed an infusion of the plant to treat children with coughs. In East Africa juice from the heated stem was squeezed into the ear to relieve earache (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962), this usage being similar to the use of other orchids employed for earache in Southeast Asia and India (Dagar and Dagar 2003).

Eulophia Species

Eulophia is a large genus with 120 members distributed throughout the tropics but with a concentration in Africa. They are mostly terrestrial, growing in open scrub or grassland. The giant within the genus, Eulophia petersii, even thrives in the desert, and the Asian species Eulophia herbacea has been discovered popping out from the edge of a macadamized road. In Malawi, Eulophia cucullata, a metre tall, showy plant, with rose pink petals and lip, and the even taller Eulophia streptopetala (1.5 m) whose widely spaced flowers are dark green and brown with yellow petals and lip (Stewart and Campbell 1996) grow almost everywhere: they can be seen at the roadside and even persist in gum plantations (La Croix et al. (1991). Plants of Eulophia have robust, clustered pseudobulbs and narrow, plicate leaves. Long-lasting flowers are borne on an erect inflorescence which arises from the base of the pseudobulb. The generic name is derived from the prominent crested ridges or keels on the lip: eu (Greek, well) and lophos (Greek, plume) (Figs. 17.30 and 17.31).

Fig. 17.30

Eulophia petersii (Rchb.f.) Rchb.f. [as Eulophia caffra Rchb.f.]. From: Pole Evans IB, Flowering plants of (South) Africa, vol. 8: t. 313 (1828) [MM Page]

Fig. 17.31

Eulophia streptopetala. From: Edward’s Botanical Register vol. 12: t. 1002 (1826)

Numerous Eulophia species are employed in African village medicine. Male Lobedu chew the stem of an Eulophia species and swallow the juice to achieve a strong erection. Occasionally cow or goat’s milk is swallowed with the juice which is regarded as a potent aphrodisiac (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Roots of Eulophia reticulata were employed as an aphrodisiac in Madagascar (Cribb and Hermans 2009). Juice extracted by crushing the roots of Eulophia angolensis (syn. E. lindleyana) was instilled into painful ears, and shredded roots of the species were applied to syphilitic ulcers (Lawler 1984). Eulophia barteri was rendered into an astringent paste to set fractures and treat sprains. The whole plant of Eulophia beravensis [syn. Lissochilus beravensis], a lowland orchid found in deciduous woodland, sand and dunes on the western side of Madagascar (Cribb and Hermans 2009), was used to treat nervous disorders on the island (Figs. 17.32 and 17.33). Pseudobulb of Eulophia cucullata (syn. Eulophia dilecta, Lissochilus dilectus; vernacular names Amabelejongosi, Uhlamvu, Lwabafazi, Umabelejongosi, Undwendweni) was employed to treat scabies and skin disorders in Congo, Gabon and Zaire. Cooked roots of Eulophia cucullata was employed by Nyanja of Nyasaland to make a poultice. In Malawi, pseudobulbs of Eulophia cucullata (syn. Lissochilus arenarius) were boiled to make a poultice. Root infusion is consumed in small amounts by couple who were unable to have children (Hulme 1954; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Chinsamy 2012). Boiled pseudobulbs or roots of Eulophia galeoloides were fed to infants suffering from colic: Eulophia ensata Lindl. (iphamba yentaba, mahlane) and Eulophia streptopetala var. streptopetala (syn. Lissochilus krebsii) were also administered to sick babies (ailments not specified). Roots were employed as sedative by some African tribes (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Heated pseudobulbs of Eulophia tenella (syn. E. flaccida) were applied on sore limbs for pain relief in northern Lesotho (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Lawler 1984) (Figs. 17.34 and 17.35). Eulophia ovalis (local name, iphamba) was also employed to treat sore limbs (Chinsamy et al. 2011). Eulophia hians (syn. Eulophia clavicornis, E. madagascariensis, E. vaginata, E. bathiei) (local name in Madagascar, Tongolomboalavo), which grows in grassland, dry deciduous scrub and rocky outcrops at 1500–2500 m, is employed to treat boils in Madagascar. It is an unassuming plant with white and purple flowers that appear from December to March (Cribb and Hermans 2009). In South Africa it is employed to treat infertility (Chinsamy 2012) (Figs. 17.36 and 17.37). Root decoction of Eulophia petersii (saha/isaka), a common plant in Kenya and Natal which thrives despite being exposed to drying winds, strong sunlight and low rainfall (Stewart and Campbell 1970), served as a purgative in East Africa (Lawler 1984), and it is used to treat dropsy or heart failure in South Africa (Chinsamy 2012). Nursing women ate salted stems of Eulophia pulchra (syn. Eulophidium silvaticum, Oeceoclades pulchra) to encourage milk production (Lawler 1984). Eulophia speciosa R.Br. ex Lindl. (Amabelejongosi, Umlunge omhlope) was employed as an emetic (Chimsamy et al. 2011). In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, a 30 cm tall Eulophia species (unidentified) was employed as a wash to treat a form of madness known as hehetolu. The native name of the Eulophia is torepi meaning plant of the Efe’s ancestors (tore): Efe are hunter-gatherers in the Ituri forests (Terashima and Ichikawa 2003) (Figs. 17.38 and 17.39).

Fig. 17.32

Eulophia angolensis [as Lissochilus ugandae). From: Curtis Botanical Magazine t. 7992–8057, vol. 14 [ser. 4, vol. 1] t. 8044 (1901) [M Smith]

Fig. 17.33

Eulophia beravensis Rchb.f. [as Lissochilus beravensis (Rchb.f.) Perrier]. From: Flora de Madagascar et des Comores, Orchidees, vol. 49 (2): Orchidees, p. 45 (1941) [MJ Vesque]

Fig. 17.34

Eulophia ensata. From: Edward’s Botanical Register vol. 14: t. 1147 (1828) [M Hart]

Fig. 17.35

Eulophia tenella. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 2: t. 20 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Fig. 17.36

Eulophia ovalis Lindl. [as Eulophia pretoriensis L. Bolus]. From: Bolus H, Flowering plants of (South) Africa, vol. 13: t. 500 (1933) [MM Page]

Fig. 17.37

Eulophia hians [as Eulophia inequalis]. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol. 3: t. 8 (1913)

Fig. 17.38

Eulophia pulchra. From: l’Illustration horticole vol. 40: t. 181 (1893)

Fig. 17.39

Eulophia speciosa [as Lissochilus speciosus]. From: Edward’s Botanical Register vol. 7: t. 573 (1822) [M Hart]

Medicinal Orchids in Other Genera

Stomach disorders appear to have been common complaints. Boiled roots of Habenaria cirrhata, a montane species widespread from Sudan to Zambia and Madagascar at 2500–2700 m (Stewart and Campbell 1996), were administered for indigestion. In East Africa, boiled roots of Habenaria macranda were used as purgative, roots of Habenaria walleri from tropical swampy grassland for stomach disorders and decoction of roots of Bonatea steudneri (syn. Habenaria steudneri) from mountainous bushland and scrub (Stewart and Campbell 1996) for undiagnosed stomach disorders and influenza. Leaves or roots of Corymborkis corymbis which thrives in dense shade of lowland and evergreen forests in southern Africa were used as a purgative in Tanzania and Sierra Leone. Zulus employed root decoction of Habenaria epipactidea Rchb. f (syn. H. foliosa; vernacular name, umabelebuca omkhulu) to induce vomiting (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962): the orchid is widely distributed at medium altitudes in eastern Africa (Stewart and Campbell 1996). Aerangis biloba was used for this purpose in Gabon. South African tribes employed Satyrium bracteatum (syn. Satyrium cordifolium) as a vermifuge and Stenoglottis fimbriata root as enema and cure for flatulence (Figs. 17.40, 17.41, and 17.42).

Fig. 17.40

Corymborkis corymbis. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 2: t. 98 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Fig. 17.41

Aerangis biloba [as Angraecum bilobum]. From: Edward’s Botanical Register vol. 27: t. 35 (1841) [SA Drake]

Fig. 17.42

Stenoglottis fimbriata. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 2: t. 41 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Cynorkis is a large, terrestrial genus with 125 members most of which occur in the Indian Ocean islands off Africa (Hennessey 1981). One or more of its species is employed to treat burns in Madagascar (Lawler 1984). In East Africa, sores were treated with leaf infusion of Angraecum dives, sore eyes and sprains with Angraecum species and abscesses and hernia with Aerangis thomsonii: the last species is distributed in Kenya, Natal (South Africa) and Madagascar. Polystachya ottoniana (Amabelejongosi) is used to sooth teething pain in children and to treat diarrhoea and Satyrium bracteatum (Ubani lwenkangala) to treat intestinal worms (Chinsamy et al. 2008) (Fig. 17.43).

Fig. 17.43

Polystachya ottoniana. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 2: t. 32 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Coming to more serious illnesses, plant extracts of Acampe pachyglossa and of a Cyrtorchis species were employed as antimalarials. Angraecum moandense (syn. A. chevalieri) was used to treat people who vomited or coughed up blood.

Disa is a striking species when seen in the field because most of the species have brightly coloured flowers and grow in grassland. The name of the genus was derived by Swedish botanist Bergius from his native folklore: Disa was a beautiful lady who appeared wrapped in a fishing net when invited to appear before the king, ‘neither naked nor clothed’ (Stewart and Campbell 1996). In southern Africa people who have lost their ability to speak are fed an infusion of the pseudobulbs of Disa polygonoides. In Swaziland, Brachycorythis ovata subsp. ovata is employed to treat insanity (Long 2005).

Human Reproduction

At least nine orchid species were used at various stages in human reproduction. Plant juice of Manniella gustavi served not only as a purgative, it was a counter-poison in the Congo. Barren women used it to cleanse the belly (Lawler 1984). Emetic consisting of Disa aconitoides root infusion was administered to women to help them conceive (Chinsamy et al. 2011) (Fig. 17.44). In Swaziland, roots of Disa aconitoides subspecies aconitoides (ihlamvu, umashushu) were prescribed for women to help them conceive (Long 2005).

Fig. 17.44

Disa aconitoides. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 1: t. 79 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

In Basutoland, barren women drank daily infusions made with pseudobulbs of Eulophia tenella (syn. E. flaccida), Eulophia hians. or Eulophia livingstoneana (syn. E. robusta), the treatment continuing over a period of 4 months if she conceived. Eulophia tenella and Eulophia hians may be employed together to prepare the infusion (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962) (Fig. 17.45).

Fig. 17.45

Eulophia livingstoneana [as Eulophia robusta]. From: Pole Evans IB, Flowering plants of (South) Africa, vol. 8: t. 292 (1928) [L Guthrie]

Occasionally, the infusion was made with Eulophia livingstoneana, a species which is widespread throughout continental Africa, Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, in grassland and deciduous woodland, from sea level to 2350 m (Stewart and Campbell 1996). Cooked root of Eulophia cucullata (syn. Lissochilus arenarius) was a Zulu remedy for impotence and infertility (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Leaf decoction of Polystachya stauroglossa was administered to women in labour in Kenya. In East Africa, salted stems of Eulophia pulchra (syn. Eulophidium silvaticum) was employed as a galactogogue. Evening colic which is common in babies was tackled by feeding them with boiled pseudobulbs of Eulophia galeoloides.

Two medicinal orchids, Corymborkis corymbis and Disa chrysostachya (D. gracilis), are described as being harmful to humans or animals (Arnold et al. 2002).

Pharmacological Studies

Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticholinesterase activity and mutagenicity of South African medicinal orchids were investigated by Chinsamy et al. (2014). More than a third of the evaluated orchid extracts showed anti-inflammatory activity with root extract of Ansellia africana being the most potent. Eulophia hereroensis was the only extract to significantly inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes. Bulbophyllum scaberulum organic root extract exhibited both COX-2 selective inhibitory activity and anticholinesterase activity. Eulophia petersii pseudobulb and Ansellia africana root possessed free radical scavenging and strong antioxidant activities. Leaf extract of Tridactyle tridentata and root extracts of Cyrtorchis arcuata (Lindl.) Schltr. and Eulophia hereroensis exhibited the best antioxidant effects (Chinsamy et al. 2014). Ansellia africana exerts effects on the central nervous system (Bhattacharyya and van Staden 2016).

Seven South African medicinal orchids commonly traded in KwaZulu-Natal herbal markets were investigated for their antimicrobial activity by Chinsamy (2012), namely, Ansellia africana Lindl., Bulbophyllum scaberulum (Rolfe) Bolus, Cyrtorchis arcuata (Lindl.) Schltr., Eulophia hereroensis Schltr., Eulophia petersii (Rchb.f.) Rchb.f., Polystachya pubescens (Lindl.) Rchb.f. and Tridactyle tridentata (Harv.) Schltr. Dichloromethane (DCM) pseudobulb extract of Eulophia petersii pseudobulb inhibited all four bacterial strains tested [0.39 mg/ml against Staphylococcus aureus (which commonly infects the skin) and 0.78 mg/ml against Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae]. Lusianthridin, a phenanthrene present in Eulophia petersii, is active against Gram-positive bacteria (Kovacs et al. 2007). Aqueous extract of Tridactyle tridentata root was effective against Staphylococcus aureus, but aqueous extracts of the other six orchids were ineffective. Apart from Polystachya pubescens, the orchids did not yield aqueous extracts which were effective against the common fungus, Candida albicans (Chinsamy 2012).

Orchids produce phytoalexins to ward off predators so all medicinal orchids would show some degree of antimicrobial activity against bacteria and fungi. The need is to demonstrate that they are effective in treating infections in humans and animals. Whereas organic root extracts of Ansellia africana, Bulbophyllum scaberulum, Eulophia petersii and Tridactyle tridentata were moderately effective against the roundworm, Caenorhabditis elegans, leaf and root extracts of Cyrtorchis arcuata were the most effective (Fig. 17.46). Its aqueous extract was the single aqueous extract that was effective. Caenorhabditis elegans is a tiny free-living, nonparasitic South African roundworm made famous by the studies of Nobel Prize winner Sydney Brenner who demonstrated that humans do employ similar chemical messengers essential for species survival as those employed by the primitive roundworm, namely, oxytocin which is released during sex, childbirth and breast-feeding in humans and egg laying in the roundworm.

Fig. 17.46

Tridactyle tridentata [as Angraecum tridentatum]. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 1: t. 53 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Various explanations have been suggested to explain the significant antimicrobial, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of Eulophia petersii pseudobulb extracts and Eulophia hereroensis tuber and root extracts (Fig. 17.47). This could be due to their high total phenolic content. Alternatively, the significant levels of gallotannin content in E. hereroensis may have contributed to the bioactivity. The flavonoid content of Bulbophyllum scaberulum and Tridactyle tridentata may explain the potent activity observed in the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and acetylcholinesterase in South Africa (Chinsamy 2012) to the potent anthelmintic and antioxidant activities. The significantly higher levels of gallotannin content may explain the significant anti-inflammatory and anthelmintic activity of Ansellia africana.

Fig. 17.47

Eulophia hereroensis Schltr. [as Eulophia pillansii Bolus]. From Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Aficanarum extratropicarum, vol. 2: t. 27 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Charms and Talismans

Numerous cultural beliefs pertaining to sex, love, fertility and death involved the use of orchids in rural areas of South Africa. Protective charms top the list and employ any of 25 orchid species. Charms were made with orchids to repel evil or to protect against being hit by lightning. Indeed, among natural disasters, lightning and storms appear to be the top concerns. Ansellia africana, Habenaria dregeana and Habenaria epipactidea are employed for protection against lightning in Swaziland (Long 2005); whole plant infusion of Disa stachyoides, tuber infusion of Eulophia leontoglossa, root and stem infusion of Eulophia speciosa or bulb and leaf infusion of Habenaria dregeana may be employed to establish protection against lighting in South Africa (Chinsamy 2012). For protection from storms, Disa stachyoides and Eulophia speciosa are specified in Swaziland (Long 2005) and Eulophia leontoglossa, Eulophia speciosa, Habenaria dregeana and Habenaria epipactidea in South Africa (Chinsamy et al. 2011) (Fig. 17.39) (Table 17.3).

An interesting account of how a personal protective charm was prepared and employed was provided by Grant in 2016. Polystachya pubescens (iphamba) is employed to cope with situations believed to have arisen from witchcraft in Pondoland. When employed as intelezi, iphamba confuses the evil spirits, or it diverts lightning strikes. The two words are interesting: intelezi is derived from Buthelezi which translates it as ‘slipperiness’ referring to the ability of the medicine to make its user slippery and evade or get out of trouble. Iphamba is derived from ukuphamba which translates as dodge or outwit (Grant 2016).

This was how a young man from Malawi might prepare himself before going out to socialize. Instead of covering himself with deodorizing power or perfume, he would use a good luck charm for friendship, called konda (meaning ‘like’ or ‘love’). Roots of Paliberkanto (Microcoelia exilis) and chanasa (Myrothamnus flabellifolius, not an orchid) are soaked in oil which is then employed to anoint the body (Morris 1996) (Fig. 17.48).

Fig. 17.48

Microcoelia exilis [as Angraecum exilis], a leafless orchid. Adapted from: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 1: t. 6 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Charms were employed to protect a home, the orchid being made into an infusion to sprinkle around the house. Powder prepared by burning the whole plant of Habenaria epipactidea (local name, umabelebuca omkhulu) was mixed with sheep fat and applied to pegs placed in the ground around a new homestead (Chinsamy et al. 2011). Orchids documented for usage in a magical sense in southern Africa consist of around 48 species (Table 17.3) which include the following: Acrolophia cochlearis (Lindl.) Schltr. & Bolus, Aerangis mystacidii (Rchb. f.) Schltr., Ansellia africana Lindl. (forma A. gigantean Rchb. f.), Brachycorythis ovata, Corycium nigrescens Sond., Cyrtorchis arcuata (Lindl.) Schltr., Diaphananthe millarii (Bolus) H.P. Linder, D. xanthopollinia (Rchb. f.) Summerh., Disa polygonoides Lindl., D. stachyoides Rchb. f., D. versicolor Rchb. f., Eulophia angolensis (Rchb. f) Summerh., E. clitellifera (Rchb. f.) Bolus, E. cucullata (Afzel. Ex Sw.) Steud., E. ensata Lindl., E. hians Spreng. [including var. hians, var. inaequalis (Schltr.) S. Thomas; var. nutans (Sond.) S. Thomas, but excluding var. nutans], E. leontoglossa Rchb. f., E. ovalis Lindl. subsp. ovalis, E. parviflora (Lindl.) A. V. Hall, E. petersii Rchb. f., E. robusta Rolfe, E. speciosa (R. Br. Ex Lindl.) Bolus, E. streptopetala Lindl., E. tenella Rchb. f., E. welwitschii (Rchb. f.) Rolfe, Habenaria dives Rchb. f., H. dregeana Lindl., H. epipactidea Rchb. f., Liparis bowkeri Harv., L. remota J.L. Stewart & Schelpe, Microcoelia exilis Lindl., Mystacidium capense (L.f.) Schltr., M. venosum Harv. Ex Rolfe, Oeceoclades mackenii (Rolfe ex Hemsl.) Garay & Taylor, Polystachya modesta Rchb., Rangeris muscicola (Rchb.f.) Summerh., Satyrium parviflorum Sw., S. rhodanthum Schltr., Stenoglottis fimbriata Lindl., Tridactyle bicaudata (Lindl.) Schltr. and T. tridentata (Harv.) Schltr. (Arnold et al. 2002). Of these, 35 (over 72.92%) were also employed medicinally (Figs. 17.49, 17.50, 17.51, 17.52, 17.53, 17.54, and 17.55).

Fig. 17.49

Habenaria epipactidea Rchb.f. [as Habenaria foliosa (Sw.) Rchb.f.]. From Pole-Evans IB, Flowering plants of (South) Africa, vol. 4: t. 130 (1824) [S Gower]

Fig. 17.50

Corycium nigrescens [as Pterygodium nigrescens]. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 1: t. 6 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Fig. 17.51

Diaphananthe millarii [as Mystacidium millarii]. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 2: t. 5 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Fig. 17.52

Disa stachyoides. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 3: t. 65 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Fig. 17.53

Polystachya modesta [as Polystachya similis]. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 2: t. 33 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Fig. 17.54

Polystachya sandersonii. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 2: t. 31 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

Fig. 17.55

Tridactyle bicaudata [as Angraecum bicaudatum]. From: Harvey WH, Thesaurus capensis, or Illustrations of South African Flora, col. 2: t. 108 (1863) [WH Harvey]

It is not clear whether women have the knowledge or the right to use a protective (orchid) charm to defend themselves against the love charm. However, an enema-type tuber infusion could be used to neutralize evil charms put into food and drinks. This is prepared with Eulophia tenella (local name, untongazibomvana). There are also charms to get rid of bad dreams (Chinsamy et al. 2011). Water in which tubers of Eulophia clavicornis have been boiled is sprinkled to drive away evil. The tubers are made into dolls that represent fertility (Chinsamy 2012).

Next in popularity are love charms, prepared with any of 19 orchid species. Love charms appear to be popular in Swaziland as it makes use of 12 species (Liparis bowkeri, Aerangis mystacidii, Ansellia africana, Eulophia angolensis, E. ensata, Eulophia petersii, Microcoelia exilis, Mystacidium capense, Polystachya pubescens, P. transvaalensis, Satyrium longicauda, S. parviflorum). Even not counting the use of three species whose tubers in infusion are consumed when young men go courting, this is more than a third of the 33 species employed as medicine, food or charms in Swaziland (Long 2005) (Fig. 17.56).

Fig. 17.56

Polystachya transvaalensis. From: Pole Evans IB, Flowering plants of (South) Africa vol. 8: t. 297 (1928) [MM Page]

When an African native male is rejected, he might use an infertility-causing charm on the woman. An even more evil intent is embodied in the use of the ‘death charm’ which is prepared from dried powder of Habenaria dives (local name, inhluthi yotshani) tubers mixed with other herbs (Chinsamy et al. 2011) (Fig. 17.57). Large quantities of Eulophia streptopetala (Amabelejongosi) are traded in the herb market, being exceeded in amount only by Ansellia africana, because of its usage as a love/protective charm (Chinsamy 2012).

Fig. 17.57

Habenaria dives. From: Bolus H, Icones orchidearum Austro-Africanarum extra-tropicarum vol 8: t. 22 (1896–1913) [H Bolus]

(Other orchid species have also been reported to have medicinal uses in Africa, e.g. Bolusiella maudiae, Bulbophyllum nutans, Cheirostylis lepida and Disa chrysostachya, but since their usage were not specified, they are omitted in this short discussion.)