Table 1.
The traditional view of evolutionary trends in fruit and seed structure in the Caryophyllaceae (after Devyatov and Ermilova, 2002).
Fig 1.
The most probable topology from Maximum Likelihood analysis (ML) of combined plastid dataset.
Numbers above branches are bootstrap values >50% posterior probabilities > 0.95 from Bayesian analysis (BI) of the same dataset.
Fig 2.
Maximum Parsimony (MP) reconstruction of the evolutionary history of single-seed state based on combined plastid dataset.
Character states: 0—one-seeded fruits, 1—multi-seeded fruits, 2—conjoined (both one- and many-seeded) fruits within an individual. Morphological characters treated as unordered.
Fig 3.
Carpology of the families Simmondsiaceae, Physenaceae and Macarthuriaceae.
(A, C, D, F) Transverse sections of pericarp. (B, E) Transverse sections of seed coat. (A, B) Simmondsia chinensis, blue arrows indicate brachysclereids, vertical blue line indicates sclereid layer; vascular bundles are marked with asterisk. (C) Physena madagascariensis, vertical blue line indicates sclereid layers, vascular bundle are marked with asterisk. (D, E) Physena sessiliflora, vertical blue line indicates sclereid layer, vascular bundles are marked with asterisk, red arrow indicates trichome. (F) Macarthuria australis. Abbreviations: EM—embryo, EN—endocarp, EX—exocarp, M—mesocarp, SC—seed coat. Bars = 100 μm.
Fig 4.
(A) Microtea debilis, fruit with perianth. (B) Microtea portoricensis, fruit. (C) Telephium imperati, mamillate seed surface. Scale bar = 500 μm (A), 200 μm (B), and 100 μm (C).
Fig 5.
Carpology of the family Amaranthaceae s.str.
(A-D) Transverse sections. (A) Polycnemum arvense. (B) Bosea yervamora. (C) Pleuropterantha revoilii, asterisk marks vascular bundle, (D) Achyranthes bidentata. (E) Basally located free funiculi of Celosia trigyna. Abbreviations: CR—crystal, EN—endocarp, EX—exocarp, M—mesocarp, P—pericarp, PE—perisperm, SC—seed coat, T—testa, TE—tegmen. Scale bars = 100 μm (B-E), 10 μm (A).
Fig 6.
Carpology of the families Chenopodiaceae (A-E) and Sarcobataceae (F).
(A-E). Transverse sections. (A) Pericarp and seed coat of one of the dimorphic fruits of Axyris amaranthoides (Chenopodioideae-Axyrideae), vertical blue line indicates sclereid layer; cell cavities increase towards outside; crystals not present.(B) Fruit and seed of Chenopodium giganteum (Chenopodioideae-Chenopodieae). (C) Fruit and seed of Coryspermum sibiricum (Corispermoideae), vertical blue line indicates layer of sclereids. (D) Pericarp in the upper part of the fruit of Anabasis cretacea (Salsoloideae). (E) Seed coat of Anabasis cretacea. (F) SEM image of the young fruit of Sarcobatus baileyi forming radial wing. Abbreviations: EM—embryo, EN—endocarp, EX—exocarp, M—mesocarp, P—pericarp, PE—perisperm, SC—seed coat, T—testa, TE—tegmen. Bars = 10 μm (A), 50 μm (B-E), 500 μm (F).
Table 2.
Set of carpological characters for the subfamilies of Chenopodiaceae (see separate file).
Fig 7.
Carpology of the families Sarcobataceae (A), Nyctaginaceae (B-D), Basellaceae (E) and Didiereaceae (F).
Transverse sections. (A) Sarcobatus baileyi, vertical red line indicates sclereid layers. (B) Colignonia scandens. (C) Cryptocarpus pyriformis; (D) Boerhavia diffusa, fruit half with anthocarp. Blue arrow indicates the glandular hairs on the anthocarp surface; red arrow indicates the thin pericarp and seed coat, green line indicates anthocarp. (E) Tournonia hookeriana, asterisk marks vascular bundle. (F) Calyptrotheca taitensis. Abbreviations: CO—cotyledon, EN—endocarp, EX—exocarp, M—mesocarp, P—pericarp, PE—perisperm, R—radicle, SC—seed coat. Bars = 100 μm (A, D-F), 50 μm (B-C).
Fig 8.
Carpology of the families Lophiocarpaceae (A-C), Rivinaceae (D-E) and Petiveriaceae (F).
(B-F) Transverse sections. (A) SEM of the fruit (top view) of Lophiocarpus tenuissimus. (B) Lophiocarpus burchellii. (C) Corbichonia decumbens. (D) SEM of the seedcoat of Rivina brasiliensis, red arrow indicates trichomes. (E) Seguieria aculeata, asterisk marks one of the nests of sclereids. (F) Petiveria alliacea, green arrows indicate crystals and asterisk marks one of the nests of sclereids.Bars = 100 μm (A, D-F), 50 μm (B-C). Abbreviations: P—pericarp, PE—perisperm, SC—seed coat, T—testa, TE—tegmen.
Table 3.
Additional carpological differences between Lophiocarpus and Corbichonia.
Fig 9.
Endotegmen cell walls of Rivina humilis (SEM). Bar: 5 μm.
Fig 10.
MP reconstruction of the evolutionary history of pericarp succulence of combined plastid dataset.
Character states: 0—dry, 1—tendency to be fleshy and coloured (or rarely transparent); 2—both dry and fleshy fruits in one individual. Morphological characters treated as unordered.
Fig 11.
MP reconstruction of the evolutionary history of pericarp layers of combined plastid dataset.
Character states: 0–1(2–3) layers, 1—more than 3 layers. Morphological characters treated as unordered.
Fig 12.
MP reconstruction of the evolutionary history of pericarp topography of combined plastid dataset.
Character states: 0—no drastic differences in the consistency of all layers (cells parenchymatous, non-lignified or rarely sclerenchymatous), or only one layer is present; 1—differentiated into parenchyma as outermost layer(s) and sclerenchyma beneath (at least in some fruits, if heterocarpic); 2—differentiated into sclerenchyma (or sclerenchymatous parenchyma) as outermost layer(s) and thin-walled parenchyma; 3—differentiated into: (a) outer parenchymatous epidermis; (b)—thin-walled parenchyma (but sometimes reduced); (c)—sclerenchyma present as O-shaped cells (with equally thickened walls) or U-shaped cells (unequally thickened walls) that often contain crystals in the protoplast; (d)—inner epidermis (sometimes obliterated); 4—differentiated into: (a) outer sclereid layers; (b) thin-walled parenchyma intermixed with brachysclereids; (c) crumpled parenchyma; (d) inner epidermis; 5—differentiated into: (a) 1 or several layers with thick walls; (b) thin-walled parenchyma; (c) brachysclereids with walls filled with tannins (fruit is a typical drupe); 6—divided into (a) thick outer epidermis, (b) thin-walled parenchyma, and (c) thick inner epidermis; 7—divided into (a) parenchyma as outermost layer(s), b—sclerenchymatous layer(s), c—parenchyma layer(s); 8—divided into (a) sclerenchymatous parenchyma, (b) thin-walled parenchyma, (c) multilayered fibers. The position 9 (see text) is not shown on the tree due to lacking of the samplings of both Anredera brachystachya and A. scandens. Morphological characters treated as unordered. Ambiguities recoded as polymorphic states.
Fig 13.
MP reconstruction of the evolutionary history of embryo orientation of combined plastid dataset.
Character states: 0—horizontal; 1—both vertical and horizontal within individual (spatial heterospermy); 2—vertical; 3—not applicable due to more than two seeds in the fruit or locule. Morphological characters treated as unordered.