A Ecological Baseline Surveys Of: - Lake Bisina - Nature Uganda

Photo: Women fishing on Lake Bisina 

ECOLOGICAL BASELINE SURVEYS OF: 

LAKE BISINA - OPETA WETLANDS SYSTEM 

LAKE MBURO - NAKIVALI WETLANDS SYSTEM 

2009 

Ecological Baseline Surveys of Lake Bisina, Lake Opeta, Lake Mburo and Nakivali Wetlands Systems A

B 

Ecological Baseline Surveys of Lake Bisina, Lake Opeta, Lake Mburo and Nakivali Wetlands Systems

ECOLOGICAL BASELINE SURVEYS OF: 

LAKE BISINA - OPETA WETLANDS SYSTEM 

LAKE MBURO - NAKIVALI WETLANDS SYSTEM 

© 2009 NatureUganda 

The East Africa Natural History Society 

Plot 83 Tufnel Drive, Kamwokya - Kampala. 

P. O. Box 27034, Kampala - Uganda. 

Compiled by: Michael Opige Odull and Achilles Byaruhanga 

Cover photo: By. Achilles Byaruhanga ‘Women fishing in Lake Bisina’ 

Contribution from: Dianah Nalwanga - Wabwire, Lydia Tushabe (NatureUganda), Deo Muhumuza (Bird Uganda Safaris), Richard 

Ssemanda, Perpetra Akite, Andrew Olanya (Makerere University, Faculty of Science, Department of Zoology) Olivia Maganyi, Ireene 

Mwolobi (Makerere University, Faculty of Science; Botany Department - Harbarium) Dr. Aventino Kasangaki (Institute of Tropical Forest 

Conservation, Mbarara University of Science and Technology) Dr Robert Kityo (Makerere University, Faculty of Science; Department of 

Zoology.) Dr. Dismas Mbabazi, (PhD) (Senior Research Officer, National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO) - National Fisheries 

Resources Research Institute (NaFIRRI), Jinja.) 

Ecological Baseline Surveys of Lake Bisina, Lake Opeta, Lake Mburo and Nakivali Wetlands Systems 1

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Table of Contents 

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 

Overview of The Baseline Survey 5 

CHAPTER 2: BIRDS 

Inventory Report on The Birds of The Mburo - Nakivale and 

Opeta - Bisina Wetland Systems 7 

CHAPTER 3: INSECTS 

Butterfly Fauna of Lake Bisina - Opeta and Lake Mburo - 

Nakivali Wetland Systems 41 

CHAPTER 4: PLANTS 

Rapid Assessment of Lake Mburo - Nakivali and Lake Bisina - 

Opeta Wetland Systems Vegetation 53 

CHAPTER 4: FISH 

Rapid Assessment of The Fish Biodiversity of The Mburo - 

Nakivali and Opeta - Bisina Wetland Systems, Uganda 75 

CHAPTER 6: MAMMALS 

Information on Mammal Diversity for The Opeta – Bisina and Mburo – 

Nakivale Wetland Systems Eastern and Western Uganda 85 

CHAPTER 7: WATER QUALITY 

Water Quality Assessments in The Opeta - Bisina and Mburo - 

Nakivale Wetland Systems 99 


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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 

OVERVIEW OF THE BASELINE SURVEY 

Michael Opige Odull 

Achilles Byaruhanga 

NatureUganda, The East Africa Natural History Society 

1.0 Overview of the COBWEB project 

Wetlands cover about 30,000 km 2 

of Uganda’s land area and are considered to be important 

ecosystems, which contribute considerably to the national economy and rural livelihoods. However, 

these important ecosystems are currently under increasing pressure due to factors such as 

population growth, economic reforms, climate change and the desire for increase in per capita 

income and other pressures of the development process. Threats include among others uncontrolled 

conversion of the wetlands into agricultural areas and unplanned developments and wetland uses 

which may have adverse effects on the capacity of the wetlands to perform natural functions. In 

order to address these threats, there is need to promote wise use of the wetland ecosystem. This 

can be done using existing guidelines or by developing other guidelines that will assist the various 

districts in developing ordinances and bye-laws to regulate the use of wetlands in their areas of 

jurisdiction. 

The International Union for Conservation of nature (IUCN) in collaboration with the Wetlands 

Management Department (WMD), Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE), NatureUganda (NU) 

and Uganda Wildlife Society (UWS), are implementing a four-year project titled “Extending wetland 

protected areas through community conservation initiatives” in eastern and western Uganda 

(COBWEB). 

The project aims at strengthening the Ugandan Protected Area (PA) network by expanding the 

coverage of the PA network to include the country’s biologically important wetland ecosystems. 

The project will develop, pilot and adopt suitable PA management models in two respective wetland 

systems adjacent to two terrestrial PA networks in Eastern and Western Uganda. Management 

will be geared to the specific needs of wetlands and will allow for development of protection 

and sustainable management strategies that shall be implemented by rural communities and be 

adoptable to others. 

1.1 Introduction to ecological baseline surveys 

In order to effectively fulfil the objectives of the project, there is a need to undertake the socioeconomic, 

knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) and ecological surveys. The surveys are aimed 

at identifying and documenting the resources, their use values and how to protect the richness and 

diversity of the wetland in perpetuity. Specifically the ecological study will determine the physical, 

chemical parameters and the biodiversity of the two wetland systems of the Bisina – Opeta and Mburo 

– Nakivali. The ecological surveys therefore will form part of the project output aimed at documenting 

the baseline information of targeted wetlands that are adjacent to the Protected Area systems. The 

baseline surveys shall be done on the specific selected physical, chemical parameters of Lake Mburo 

– Nakivale wetland system and Bisina – Opeta wetland system and their flora and fauna. 

1.2 Overall objectives of the surveys 

The overall objective of the survey is to assess and document baseline ecological characteristics 

of the wetland systems of Mburo - Nakivale and Bisina -Opeta such that the information generated 

can inform the subsequent delivery of project objectives. The specific objectives of the survey are: 


• Establish baseline information on water physical, chemical parameters and the fauna and 

flora diversity or the species richness and map out surveyed areas. 

• Identify indicator species that can be used for biodiversity status monitoring in Mburo – 

Nakivali wetland system and Bisina – Opeta wetland system. 

• Establish a standard method and system that will be used for biodiversity monitoring in the 

two wetland systems. 

• Explore relevant documentation on the flora and fauna of the two wetland system and produce 

a comprehensive report for the two wetland systems. 

1.3 Parameters surveyed 

1.3.1 Bird baseline surveys 

Birds have been used as indicator taxa many times. This is because they are widespread, they are 

diverse, they are easy to survey and they are better known than other organisms. For some sites, 

there is some considerable amount of data that exists and this will be used. This included data from 

African Waterbird censuses where total counts of all waterbirds in an area are counted. There is also 

data from the surveys done during the IBA and Ramsar Sites qualification exercises. 

1.3.2 Insect baseline surveys 

Butterflies respond quickly to environmental changes and there is now considerable data on 

how particular species contend with alterations in land-use, and thus may play a valuable role in 

ecological monitoring (Daily and Ehrlich, 1995). There is some data on the species of Bisina – Opeta 

system which may be useful for comparison purposes. 

1.3.3 Wetland Plant surveys 

Plants offer potential advantages over other taxa as biodiversity indicators because they are 

the primary producers. Their abundance and diversity is likely to influence the species richness 

belonging to higher trophic levels (Kent et al. 1996). An inventory of all plants therefore is needed to 

establish the plant diversity. However a rapid assessment of plant community may be preferred to 

generate the needed checklist. 

1.3.4 Physical – chemical parameters 

The parameters include dissolved oxygen, surface water temperature, electrical conductivity, pH, 

total dissolved solids (TDS) and turbidity/water colour. Water depth may be measured at sites where 

is possible. On each sampling day, water quality parameters, will be measured to establish the 

relationship between these parameters and other biodiversity. In the Papyrus wetlands, openings 

accessible will be points where the water Temperature, pH, conductivity meter and BOD readings 

will be taken. 

1.3.5 Mammals (large mammals) baseline information 

There are available information from IBA qualification exercises and Ramsar designation processes. 

Earlier mammal surveys generated lots of information. The data obtained from these two earlier 

surveys and any other major surveys will be collated and a report will be produced. 

1.3.6 Fish diversity baseline information 

Information on fish will be obtained from earlier exercises and a report on baseline biodiversity of 

fish shall be produced. 

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CHAPTER 2: BIRDS 

INVENTORY REPORT ON THE BIRDS OF THE 

MBURO-NAKIVALE WETLAND SYSTEMS AND 

OPETA-BISINA WETLAND SYSTEMS 

Dianah Nalwanga-Wabwire 

Achilles Byaruhanga, Lydia Tushabe 

Deo Muhumuza, Richard Ssemanda 

NatureUganda 

Plot 83 tufnel drive Kamwokya. 

P.O. Box 27034 Kampala 

2.1 INTRODUCTION 

Community-based Wetland Biodiversity Conservation (COBWEB) project is a collaborative project 

involving NatureUganda and other partners in natural resource conservation. The overall objective 

for the project is “To establish and strengthen Community-based regulations and sustainable 

wetlands resource use within wetlands with important biodiversity”. With most Protected areas 

(PAs) concentrated within terrestrial habitat, more effort is required to address conservation within 

wetland areas. The project therefore will serve to protect biodiversity within wetlands, encourage 

wise use of wetlands without compromising the resources therein and integrate communities in this 

wise use. 


2.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE SURVEY 

The Birdlife working group of NatureUganda conducted baseline surveys for two wetland systems 

of Mburo-Nakivale and Opeta-Bisina in western and eastern Uganda respectively. The survey was 

done to assess the avifauna in these areas basing on the specific objectives which were to: 

• Produce guiding methods for birds to be used during surveys and follow up exercises. 

• Establish baseline information on bird richness and diversity. 

• Identify indicator species that can be used for biodiversity monitoring. 

• Take appropriate GPS coordinates of surveyed areas (including for secondary data). 

• Make field observations and descriptions as supportive information to the report. 

• Explore existing surveys report and use as supporting data where appropriate. 

• Produce a comprehensive report on the birds’ diversity for the two wetland systems. 

Previous works on birds in these areas include the bi-annual waterfowl counts done on Lake Mburo, 

Lake Bisina and Lake Opeta and Ramsar surveys done in the whole area. In addition, Lake. Mburo 

National Park also conducts monitoring by rangers/guides in the park. The common birds monitoring 

Scheme (a new scheme for monitoring common birds in Uganda) was introduced in L. Mburo this 

year while the Opeta-Bisina region is yet to be added to the scheme. 

2.3 ASSESSMENT METHODS 

The avifauna in the project area was surveyed using Timed Species Counts (TSCs). This method 

involves moving around the study area and recording the bird species you see and the time at which 

they are seen at ten minute intervals for a period of 60 minutes. This method assumes that the birds 

seen first are more abundant than those seen last. In that case, the birds seen during the first ten 

minutes get a score of 6. Those in the 10-20 minutes get a score of 5, while those seen in the last 

50-60minutes get a score of 1. Counts were done in the morning and in the evening. GPS locations 

were taken for the starting points of each TSC transect. This was attributed to the birds seen on 

that transect. Opportunistic observations were included on the species lists. Notes were made on 

any breeding records observed and the different habitat types along the transects. The relative 

abundance of the species was calculated as the average of the TSC codes from all the counts. 

2.3.1 Species identification 

In the field, 8 x 42-field binoculars and field guides were used. Birds in the sites were identified 

using standard field guide reference books: A Field guide to the Birds of East Africa by Stevenson 

& Fanshawe (2002); The Uganda Bird Atlas by Carswell et al. (2005). 

2.3.2 Bird classifications 

Bird species recorded were grouped into different categories based on different criteria. 

2.3.2.1 Habitat classifications 

Birds recorded were classified into ecological categories where possible basing on the standard 

habitat classification by Bennun et al (1996). In this classification, we have; 

• FF Forest specialists – these are true forest species most characteristic of the interior 

of undisturbed forest. Breeding also occurs in the forest. 

• F Forest generalists – typical birds of forest edges and gaps. 

• f Species – forest visitors where breeding is outside the forest. 

• G Species – grassland species 

• W Water birds normally found near water, in wetlands or open water. 

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2.3.2.2 Migratory classifications 

Bird species with migratory tendency were also considered as derived from the Uganda Bird atlas 

(Carswell et al. 2005). There were two categories of migrant species considered below. 

• A Afro-tropical migrants 

• P Palearctic migrants 

However some species can be both Afro-tropical and Palearctic migrants. 

2.3.2.3 Conservation status 

Birds were further classified according to their conservation status i.e. Whether they are species 

of conservation concern (C) as from (Collar & Stuart 1985, Bennun & Njoroge 1996) described as 

species of Global (G-) or Regional (R-) importance in the categories of; 

• CR Critical (Globally (G-CR) or Regionally (R-CR)) 

• EN Endangered VU Vulnerable 

• NT Near-threatened RR Regional Responsibility 

2.4 MBURO-NAKIVALI WETLAND SYSTEM 

2.4.1 SITE DESCRIPTIONS 

The Mburo-Nakivali wetland is located in western Uganda in the districts of Isingiro, Kiruhura and 

Mbarara. Designated in 2006 as a Ramsar site, this wetland system covers an area of 26,834ha, 

part of which is in Lake Mburo National Park. The area is a system of open and wooded savanna, 

seasonal and permanent wetlands, and five lakes of which Lake Mburo is the largest. The areas 

are covered by extensive papyrus wetlands surrounding the lake and further areas constituting of 

Acacia woodland and agricultural land. The system is a unique habitat lying at the convergence of 

two biological zones and thus has high biodiversity. 

This wetland system supports globally threatened bird species like the Papyrus Yellow Warbler 

Chloropeta gracilirostris and the Shoebill Balaeniceps rex and provides refuge to Palearctic and 

Afro-tropical migrating bird species (WMD/NU 2008). Other uses of this wetland system include 

water for domestic use, livestock and wildlife, pasture for the local livestock during drought, fish and 

materials for thatching and crafts. Hunting, habitat destruction (e.g. herbal medicine for both human 

and livestock) and over fishing are the main threats to the site. Livestock are common occurrences 

in these areas especially in the afternoon during watering but some livestock farms extend to the 

fringes of the lake. These threats are all placing the wetland system in great danger. 

Lake Mburo is an Important Bird Area (IBA) and a small National Park covering 370km 2 

. Despite 

its size, the mosaic of habitats in this park including dry hillsides, rocky outcrops, bushy thickets, 

open and wooded savannas, forests, lakes and swamps,and are home to a diversity of plants and 

animals (UNP 1994). 


Fig. 1 Birds survey sites in Mburo – Nakivali wetland system 

These areas have been reported to have high bird diversity most notably the Grey Crowned Crane 

(Balearica regulorum) which is IUCN listed as Near-threatened (Bird life, 2000). Other species of 

conservation concern that have been reported in these areas include the Papyrus Gonolek (Laniarius 

mufumbiri) - Near-threatened, Grauer’s Rush Warbler (Bradypterus graueri) – Endangered, and the 

Papyrus Yellow Warbler (Chloptera gracilirostris) - Vulnerable (Birdlife, 2000, Byaruhanga et al 2001). 

As one of the surrogates of biodiversity, birds especially those with special niche requirements 

in fragile habitats such as wetlands are regarded as biodiversity indicators as they provide good 

evidence of habitat modification, change or total loss through change in numbers or total extinctions. 

During our initiation tour of this wetland complex, only two of the above species (Papyrus Gonolek 

Laniarius mufumbiri and Grey Crowned Crane Balearica regulorum) were recorded and notably with 

less than five individuals for each. 

2.4.2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

The inventory concentrated more on the areas around Lake Nakivale. The Lake Mburo wetlands 

have been continuously monitored by various research groups in the past including NatureUganda, 

Wetlands Management Division, Uganda Wildlife Authority and National Environment Management 

Authority and other research institutions among others. Nevertheless, there are a few sites like 

Rubanga forest, the wetlands between L. Bwala and L. Kazuma and Kabwojo Island that are not 

easily accessible and thus have not been regularly surveyed. The wetlands of the Lake Nakivale 

area however have received less attention. That is why this survey team chose to make the counts 

in this area of the wetland system. The L. Mburo checklist of birds compiled during this survey has 

319 species (Appendix 3) and is an improvement from the official list which had about 310 species 

(UNP 1994). 

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A total of 194 species of birds were recorded during the 14 counts conducted within the Mburo- 

Nakivale wetland system. These included 30 migratory species and 22 species of conservation 

concern. Three forest specialists and 27 forest generalists were recorded (Table 1). Although the 

majority of species recorded were wetland species and forest visitors, three forest specialists 

Grey-Headed Sunbird (Deleornis axillaries), Olive Sunbird (Cyanomitra olivacea) and Black Cuckoo 

(Cuculus clamosus) were also recorded (Table 1). 

Table 1: Species recorded in the different habitat and migratory classes 

in the Mburo-Nakivale wetland system 

Habitat Number of species 

FF 3 

F 27 

f 46 

W 62 

G 16 

Migration 

A 11 

P 19 

The migratory species included 11 Afro-tropical and 19 Palearctic migrants. Among the species of 

conservation concern, we had one globally and regionally vulnerable species the Shoebill (Balaeniceps 

rex), one globally vulnerable and regionally near-threatened species the Grey Crowned Crane 

(Balearica regulorum), one globally and regionally near-threatened species African White-backed 

Vulture (Gyps africanus), three globally near-threatened species the Papyrus Gonolek (Laniarius 

mufumbiri), Bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus) and Sooty Falcon (Falco concolor), one regionally 

vulnerable species the Great White Egret (Casmerodius alba), five regionally near-threatened species 

the Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea), Woolly-Necked Stork (Ciconia episcopus), Rufous-Bellied Heron 

(Ardeola rufiventris), African Marsh Harrier (Circus ranivorus) and Brown Snake-Eagle (Circaetus 

cinereus) and ten species with regional responsibility (Table 2). 

The most abundant species were the Blue-Cheeked Bee-Eater Merops persicus, Grey-Headed 

Sunbird Deleornis axillaries, Klaas’ Cuckoo Chrysococcyx klaas, Yellow-Fronted Tinkerbird 

Pogoniulus chrysoconus, Cardinal Woodpecker Dendropicos fuscescens and Red-Billed Firefinch 

Lagonosticta senegala each with a relative abundance of six (Appendix 1). 

The results show that a significant number of species was recorded in the sensitive species classes 

which include the migrants, species of conservation concern and forest specialists. These species 

are usually regarded as the indicator species for habitat environmental health. The presence of these 

sensitive species in the area indicates that this wetland is very important in the conservation of the 

birds in the country and the world as a whole due to the presence of migrants. The conservation 

plan of this area should put into consideration the habitats of these species and ensure that they 

are conserved for the survival of the regional as well as the global populations. 


Table 2: Threatened species recorded in the Mburo-Nakivale wetland 

system 

Atlas 

No. 

SPECIES NAME Scientific Name Threat 

88 BATELEUR Terathopius ecaudatus G-NT 

135 SOOTY FALCON Falco concolor G-NT 

842 PAPYRUS GONOLEK Laniarius mufumbiri G-NT 

81 AFRICAN WHITE-BACKED VULTURE Gyps africanus G-NT, R-NT 

185 GREY CROWNED CRANE Balearica regulorum G-VU, R-NT 

37 SHOEBILL Balaeniceps rex G-VU, R-VU 

16 RUFOUS-BELLIED HERON Ardeola rufiventris R-NT 

25 GREY HERON Ardea cinerea R-NT 

33 WOOLLY-NECKED STORK Ciconia episcopus R-NT 

86 BROWN SNAKE-EAGLE Circaetus cinereus R-NT 

93 AFRICAN MARSH HARRIER Circus ranivorus R-NT 

303 BARE-FACED GO-AWAY-BIRD Corythaixoides personata R-RR 

437 SPOT-FLANKED BARBET Tricholaema lachrymose R-RR 

498 WHITE-HEADED SAW-WING Psalidoprocne albiceps R-RR 

648 CARRUTHERS’S CISTICOLA Cisticola carruthersi R-RR 

701 GREY-CAPPED WARBLER Eminia lepida R-RR 

764 BLACK-LORED BABBLER Turdoides sharpei R-RR 

803 RED-CHESTED SUNBIRD Cinnyris erythrocerca R-RR 

902 NORTHERN BROWN-THROATED WEAVER Ploceus castanops R-RR 

911 GOLDEN-BACKED WEAVER Ploceus jacksoni R-RR 

943 WHITE-COLLARED OLIVEBACK Nesocharis ansorgei R-RR 

23 GREAT WHITE EGRET Casmerodius alba R-VU 

Discussions with the chief park warden and the research warden in Lake Mburo revealed that the 

wetland has been greatly affected by water flow with the reduction in the amount of water in the 

system. They further reported that the water level in Lake Nakivali has receded by about 100m in 

the last 10 years and this has greatly affected the amount of biodiversity in the area especially the 

fish. The diversion of R. Ruizi (that feeds L. Mburo) to irrigate farms has been a significant driver for 

the low water level in the system. 

Tree cutting for farmland around the L. Nakivali wetlands has impacted negatively on the system 

by exposing the lake to siltation, which highly affects biodiversity in the lake. Over fishing due to 

inadequate monitoring and law enforcement has led to very low fish populations in the Mburo- 

Nakivali system, which has in turn affected the biodiversity that depend on them especially the 

fish-eating birds including the Shoebill. 

The communities around L. Mburo national park are allowed to graze their livestock inside the 

park boundaries during rain shortages when the grass outside is depleted. This is facilitated by 

the provision of cattle corridors. This system is very important in the sustaining of livestock during 

droughts. This arrangement has greatly improved the park-community relationships and gives a 

good example of community resource management. It was also reported that the majority of people 

in this area do not eat bush meat and this improves their relationship with the park as the incidences 

of poaching is low. 

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Nakivali area is a refugee settlement area with camps in various parts of the area. This poses a big 

challenge to the conservation activities as the increased settlements continue to create the threats 

of deforestation and cultivation of the river banks. The high population causes pressure to the 

limited lake resources in the region. 

2.4.3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

As indicated in the results, this area is of high biodiversity value with not only birds, but also a variety 

of other ecological factors on which they depend. The presence of the large numbers of migrants 

and threatened species puts these wetland systems in urgent need for conservation action to 

protect the various species and their habitat. 

Tree planting programmes in the area should be strengthened and new initiatives supported to 

curve down the rate of deforestation in the area. Communities in these wetland systems need to 

be sensitized on how to sustainably use resources in this area while conserving them. For example 

the river banks should be reforested to reduce runoff and silting of the river and Lakes. These trees 

can in the long run act as sources of firewood and food for the communities. Farming in the buffer 

zones of the wetland system should be discouraged and laws regarding this enforced to conserve 

the wetlands and its biodiversity. 

Future researches should concentrate on the gaps in the present research which are mainly the 

Rubanga forest, wetlands between L. Bwala and L. Kazuma and Kabwojo Island and the L. Nakivali 

wetlands in the Mburo-Nakivali system. If these areas are covered and their biodiversity state 

assessed, this will give a firm basis for the conservation actions to be implemented in the two 

wetland systems. 

At the moment NatureUganda is the only organization doing research on birds in this area. This is 

mainly through its waterfowl counts, vulture census and Ramsar surveys. Other organizations are 

encouraged to come in and support the avian research work in this region. 

2.5 OPETA - BISINA WETLAND SYSTEM 

2.5.1 SITE DESCRIPTIONS 

Located in Eastern Uganda, this system is a combination of the Lake Opeta Ramsar site and Lake 

Bisina Ramsar site both designated as Ramsar sites in 2006. They are both Important Bird Areas 

(IBAs). Together, this wetland system covers an area of 123,141ha and is shared by the districts 

of Kumi, Katakwi, Soroti, Bukedea, Nakapiripiriti and Sironko. This system consists of one of the 

remaining most important and intact wetland marshes in Uganda (WMD/NU 2008). It is predominantly 

an extensive swamp of Hippo grass (Vossia cuspidata) graduating into dry Hyparrhenia grassland 

savannas. The wetland is very important for the conservation of dry land bird species especially the 

Fox’s Weaver Ploceus spekeoides, Uganda’s only endemic bird that breeds in this wetland. Part of 

the system covers the Pian-Upe Wildlife Reserve that provides a refuge for the local animals during 

the dry season. Pian-Upe constitutes the drier parts of the Karamoja region and hence is richer in 

the drier-terrestrial biodiversity. It is adjoined to the Bisina - Opeta wetland system by a series of 

marshes and papyrus swamps. 


Fig. 2 Birds survey sites in Opeta – Bisina wetland system 

Lake Bisina is a shallow lake covering an area of 192km 2 with a flood plain of 30km long and 6.5km 

wide. The wetland system is also home to Uganda’s endemic Fox’s Weaver P spekeoides for which 

47 nests were counted in the area in early August 1996 (Byaruhanga et al, 2001). Other species of 

conservation concern with previous records in the area include seven Lake Victoria Biome species; 

Papyrus Gonolek Laniarius mufumbiri, Norther Brown-throated Weaver P.castanops, White-winged 

Warbler Bradypterus carpalis, Carruthers’ Cisticola Cisticola carruthersi, Papyrus Canary Serinus 

koliensis among others. However, none of these were recorded during our TSC counts. 

Lake Opeta and its marshes are the only significant wetland in Karamoja area. Like L. Bisina, it is 

home to at least five L. Victoria Biome species but the Shoebill Baleaniceps rex and the Papyrus 

Gonolek L. Mufumbiri are outstanding as Near-threatened species of bird in this wetland system. 

Fox’s Weaver P.spekeoides has also been recorded to breed here (Byaruhanga et al, 2001). 

Several human activities with negative impacts in the catchment including rice growing, livestock 

grazing, papyrus harvesting and fishing among others take place within this area. However, the 

wetlands are also home to migratory birds and other species of conservation concern such as the 

Shoebill (B. rex). The lakes are very important for the surrounding communities in terms of fishing, 

transport and supply of water for domestic use and livestock. A rhizome of the Nymphea genus also 

acts as a source of food during the dry season. 

With the changing seasons and extreme weather patterns as a result of climate change, the dry 

seasons in this region pose potential challenges for wildlife, livestock and farming systems. Most of 

the wetland fringes have been converted into rice schemes while other areas are being continuously 

degraded through over use by livestock. Data used in this report was derived from counts conducted 

in 2001 and 2009 making a total of 58 counts in the districts of Kumi, Katakwi, Soroti, Nakapiripiriti 

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and Sironko. The species list for this wetland system has about 234 species (Appendix 4) is a 

combination of our survey, the Ramsar survey and the waterfowl count records. 

2.5.2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

A total of 194 species of birds were recorded during the survey conducted in this area (Appendix 2). 

These included 41 migratory species and 26 species of conservation concern (Threatened species). 

The migratory species included nine Afro-tropical migrants, 31 Palearctic migrants and one species 

which is both an Afro-tropical and Palearctic migrant (Table 3). The majority of species recorded in 

this area are Wetland species or species associated with the wetland habitat. However one forest 

specialist and eight forest generalists were also recorded in this area. 

Table 3: Species recorded in the different habitat and migratory classes 

in the Opeta-Bisina wetland system 

Habitat Species 

F 8 

f 22 

FF 1 

G 19 

W 79 

Migration 

A 9 

P 31 

PA 1 

Among the threatened species recorded are six species of global concern and 20 species of 

regional concern (Table 4). The species of global concern include three globally and regionally 

vulnerable species Shoebill (Balaeniceps rex), White-headed Vulture (Trigonoceps occipitalis) and 

Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni), two globally and regionally near threatened species Fox’s Weaver 

(Ploceus spekeoides) and Pallid Harrier (Circus macrourusi) and one globally near threatened species 

Bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus). 

The most abundant species in this area included the Woolly-necked Stork (Ciconia episcopus), 

African Pied Wagtail (Motacilla aguimp), Hadada (Bostrychia hagedash), Red-knobbed Coot (Fulica 

cristata), Spotted Flycatcher (Muscicapa striata), Chubb’s Cisticola (Cisticola chubbi), Yellowrumped 

Tinkerbird (Pogoniulus bilineatus), Yellow-throated Leaflove (Chlorocichla flavicollis) and 

African Black Swift (Apus barbatus), all with abundances of 6 (Appendix 2). 

The presence of these sensitive species in the area, which include migrants, species of conservation 

concern and forest specialist, indicates that this wetland is very important in the conservation of the 

birds in the country and the world as a whole due to the presence of a noticeably high number of 

migrants. These species are usually considered as the indicator species for environmental health. 

The conservation plan of this area should therefore put into consideration the habitats of these 

species and ensure that they are conserved for the sustainability of their global populations. 

The Fox’s Weaver P spekeoides, Uganda’s only endemic was recorded breeding in this area during 

the counts done in 2001, but new records of this species have been very rare in recent visits. Further 

efforts are needed to ascertain the population size of this species and ensure that its conservation 

is prioritized. 


Table 4: Threatened species recorded in the Opeta-Bisina wetland 

system 

Atlas SPECIES NAME Scientific Name Threat 

16 

1 COMMON OSTRICH Struthio camelus R-VU 

23 GREAT WHITE EGRET Casmerodius alba R-VU 

24 PURPLE HERON Ardea purpurea R-NT 

25 GREY HERON Ardea cinerea R-NT 

27 GOLIATH HERON Ardea goliath R-NT 

33 WOOLLY-NECKED STORK Ciconia episcopus R-NT 

35 SADDLE-BILLED STORK Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis R-VU 

37 SHOEBILL Balaeniceps rex G-VU, R-VU 

49 WHITE-BACKED DUCK Thalassornis leuconotus R-VU 

84 WHITE-HEADED VULTURE Trigonoceps occipitalis G-VU, R-VU 


88 BATELEUR Terathopius ecaudatus G-NT 

91 PALLID HARRIER Circus macrourus G-NT, R-NT 

92 MONTAGU’S HARRIER Circus pygargus R-NT 

93 AFRICAN MARSH HARRIER Circus ranivorus R-NT 

128 LESSER KESTREL Falco naumanni G-VU, R-VU 

133 RED-NECKED FALCON Falco chicquera R-NT 

194 LESSER JACANA Microparra capensis R-NT 


498 WHITE-HEADED SAW-WING Psalidoprocne albiceps R-RR 

648 CARRUTHERS’S CISTICOLA Cisticola carruthersi R-RR 

803 RED-CHESTED SUNBIRD Cinnyris erythrocerca R-RR 

902 NORTHERN BROWN-THROATED WEAVER Ploceus castanops R-RR 

906 FOX’S WEAVER Ploceus spekeoides G-NT/RR, R-NT/RR 

936 HARTLAUB’S MARSH WIDOWBIRD Euplectes hartlaubi R-VU 

992 PAPYRUS CANARY Serinus koliensis R-RR 

Reports from the environmental officer and residents of Sironko indicate that the river Sironko that 

usually supplies the seasonal wetlands has been un-sustainably drained to irrigate mainly rice fields 

in the area. This poses a threat of droughts as a number of sections of the river have now dried out 

in some areas and so can not continue to serve as a constant source of water especially during the 

droughts. 


2.5.3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

This area is still a high biodiversity area in the country with unique bird species especially in the 

Karamoja region that is not often covered by most research organizations mainly due to the past 

instability in the region. The presence of the large numbers of migrants and threatened species 

puts this wetland system in urgent need for conservation action to protect the species and their 

habitat. 

Communities in these wetland systems need to be sensitized on how to sustainably use resources 

in this area while conserving them. For example the Sironko rice growers seemed not to like the 

idea of researchers going in the wetlands because they think they researchers could be planning to 

chase them away from this wetland. They therefore need to be made aware that the wetland is for 

them to use in a proper way through inter-district interventions. 

Future research should concentrate on the gaps in the present research which are mainly the eastern 

part of the Opeta-Bisina system in Karamoja region. If these areas are covered and their biodiversity 

state assessed, this will give a firm basis for the conservation actions to be implemented in the 

wetland systems including trans boundary management options. 


REFERENCES 

Bennun, L. & Njoroge, P. 1996. Birds to Watch in East Africa: A Preliminary Red Data List. Centre 

for Biodiversity Research Reports. National Museums of Kenya: Ornithology 23:1–16. 

Bennun, L, Dranzoa, C and Pomeroy, D E. 1996. The forest birds of Kenya and Uganda. Journal 

of East African Natural History, 85: 23-48. 

Byaruhanga, A., Kasoma, P. & Pomeroy, D. (2001) Important Bird Areas of Uganda. East African 

Natural History Society, Kampala, Uganda. 

Carswell M., Pomeroy D., Reynolds J. & Tushabe H. (2005). The Bird Atlas of Uganda. British 

Ornithologists’ club and British Ornithologists’ Union. University of Oxford. 

Collar N.J. & Stuart S.N. (1985) Threatened Birds of Africa and related Islands. The ICBP/IUCN 

Red Data book, part 1. ICBP/IUCN, Cambridge, UK. 

Stevenson, T & Fanshawe, J. (2001). A Field Guide to birds in East Africa. T & AD Poyser, 

London, UK. 

Uganda National Parks (UNP)/ African Wildlife Foundation. (1994). Lake Mburo National Park 

Guidebook. African Wildlife Foundation 

WMD/NU. (2008). Implementing the Ramsar Convention in Uganda - A guide to the management 

of Ramsar sites in Uganda. WMD, Kampala-Uganda and NatureUganda. 

18 


APENDICES 

Appendix 1: Relative abundances of the bird species recorded in the 

Mburo - Nakivale wetland system 

Atlas 

No. 

SPECIES NAME Scientific Name 

Relative 

Abundance 

Habitat 

Threat 

14 COMMON SQUACCO HERON Ardeola ralloides 0.00 W 0 

16 RUFOUS-BELLIED HERON Ardeola rufiventris 0.00 W R-NT 

17 CATTLE EGRET Bubulcus ibis 0.00 G 0 

23 GREAT [=WHITE] EGRET Casmerodius alba 0.00 W R-VU 

25 GREY HERON Ardea cinerea 0.00 W R-NT 

26 BLACK-HEADED HERON Ardea melanocephala 3.50 w 0 

28 HAMERKOP Scopus umbretta 2.20 w 0 

29 YELLOW-BILLED STORK Mycteria ibis 0.00 W 0 

30 AFRICAN OPEN-BILLED STORK Anastomus 

lamelligerus 

3.00 AwG 0 

32 ABDIM’S STORK Ciconia abdimii 3.00 AG 0 

33 WOOLLY-NECKED STORK Ciconia episcopus 0.00 W R-NT 

36 MARABOU STORK Leptoptilos crumeniferus 0.00 w 0 

37 SHOEBILL Balaeniceps rex 0.00 W G-VU, R-VU 

39 HADADA Bostrychia hagedash 3.60 w 0 

42 SACRED IBIS Threskiornis aethiopica 0.00 W 0 

48 WHITE-FACED WHISTLING DUCK Dendrocygna 

viduata 

0.00 W 0 

50 EGYPTIAN GOOSE Alopochen aegyptiacus 0.00 WG 0 

51 SPUR-WINGED GOOSE Plectopterus gambensis 0.00 W 0 

57 YELLOW-BILLED DUCK Anas undulata 0.00 W 0 

60 RED-BILLED TEAL Anas erythrorhyncha 0.00 W 0 

71 EUROPEAN HONEY-BUZZARD Pernis apivorus 4.00 PF 0 

76 AFRICAN FISH EAGLE Haliaeetus vocifer 3.00 W 0 

77 PALM-NUT VULTURE Gypohierax angolensis 0.00 0 0 

81 AFRICAN WHITE-BACKED VULTURE Gyps africanus 0.00 G G-NT, R-NT 

86 BROWN SNAKE-EAGLE Circaetus cinereus 4.00 0 R-NT 

88 BATELEUR Terathopius ecaudatus 0.00 G G-NT 

90 AFRICAN HARRIER-HAWK Polyboroides typus 5.33 f 0 

93 AFRICAN MARSH HARRIER Circus ranivorus 0.00 W R-NT 

94 EURASIAN MARSH HARRIER Circus aeruginosus 1.00 Pw 0 

112 LONG-LEGGED BUZZARD Buteo rufinus 0.00 P 0 

120 BOOTED EAGLE Hieraaetus pennatus 5.00 P 0 

135 SOOTY FALCON Falco concolor 4.00 A G-NT 

137 AFRICAN HOBBY Falco cuvieri 5.00 F 0 

142 HELMETED GUINEAFOWL Numida meleagris 0.00 G 0 

154 CRESTED FRANCOLIN Francolinus sephaena 3.00 0 0 

161 RED-NECKED SPURFOWL Francolinus afer 4.60 0 0 

185 GREY CROWNED CRANE Balearica regulorum 3.75 WG G-VU, R-NT 


193 JACANA Actophilornis africana 0.00 W 0 

201 WATER THICK-KNEE Burhinus vermiculatus 0.00 W 0 

221 AFRICAN WATTLED LAPWING [=PLOVER] Vanellus 

senegallus 

0.00 W 0 

226 CROWNED LAPWING [=PLOVER] Vanellus coronatus 0.00 G 0 

227 LONG-TOED LAPWING [=PLOVER] Vanellus 

crassirostris 

3.00 W 0 

245 MARSH SANDPIPER Tringa stagnatilis 0.00 PW 0 

247 GREEN SANDPIPER Tringa ochropus 0.00 PW 0 

248 WOOD SANDPIPER Tringa glareola 0.00 PW 0 

Atlas 

No. 


Relative 

Abundance 

Habitat Threat 

250 COMMON SANDPIPER Actitis hypoleucos 0.00 PW 0 

268 AFRICAN GREEN-PIGEON Treron calva 2.25 F 0 

270 TAMBOURINE DOVE Turtur tympanistria 3.83 F 0 

271 BLUE-SPOTTED WOOD-DOVE Turtur afer 3.75 F 0 

273 EMERALD-SPOTTED WOOD-DOVE Turtur chalcospilos 5.40 F 0 

283 RED-EYED DOVE Streptopelia semitorquata 5.67 f 0 

284 AFRICAN MOURNING DOVE Streptopelia decipiens 3.67 0 0 

286 RING-NECKED DOVE Streptopelia capicola 5.80 f 0 

289 LAUGHING DOVE Streptopelia senegalensis 5.00 0 0 

292 BROWN PARROT Poicephalus meyeri 5.40 0 0 

302 ROSS’S TURACO Musophaga rossae 3.00 F 0 

303 BARE-FACED GO-AWAY-BIRD Corythaixoides 

personata 

4.83 0 R-RR 

305 EASTERN GREY PLANTAIN-EATER Crinifer zonurus 4.75 0 0 

307 LEVAILLANT’S CUCKOO Oxylophus levaillantii 4.00 Af 0 

309 RED-CHESTED CUCKOO Cuculus solitarius 5.22 AF 0 

310 BLACK CUCKOO Cuculus clamosus 3.00 AFF 0 

312 AFRICAN CUCKOO Cuculus gularis 0.00 A 0 

319 KLAAS’ CUCKOO Chrysococcyx klaas 6.00 f 0 

320 DIEDERIK [=DIDRIC] CUCKOO Chrysococcyx caprius 4.50 0 0 

323 WHITE-BROWED COUCAL Centropus superciliosus 3.17 0 0 

326 BLUE-HEADED COUCAL Centropus monachus 4.38 W 0 

363 WHITE-RUMPED SWIFT Apus caffer 5.00 0 0 

365 LITTLE SWIFT Apus affinis 0.00 0 0 

368 BLUE-NAPED MOUSEBIRD Urocolius macrourus 4.20 0 0 

369 SPECKLED MOUSEBIRD Colius striatus 5.50 0 0 

375 WOODLAND KINGFISHER Halcyon senegalensis 5.44 A 0 

376 STRIPED KINGFISHER Halcyon chelicuti 0.00 0 0 

378 AFRICAN PYGMY KINGFISHER Ceyx picta 2.00 fw 0 

383 PIED KINGFISHER Ceryle rudis 4.00 W 0 

385 LITTLE BEE-EATER Merops pusillus 3.67 G 0 

392 BLUE-CHEEKED BEE-EATER Merops persicus 6.00 P 0 

399 LILAC-BREASTED ROLLER Coracias caudata 4.75 0 0 

401 BROAD-BILLED ROLLER Eurystomus glaucurus 4.50 Afw 0 

404 GREEN WOOD-HOOPOE Phoeniculus purpureus 2.50 0 0 

20 


405 COMMON SCIMITARBILL Rhinopmastus cyanomelas 0.00 0 0 

406 BLACK SCIMITARBILL [=BLACK WOOD HOOPOE] 

Rhinopmastus aterrimus 

5.00 0 0 

408 HOOPOE Upupa epops 0.00 p 0 

418 AFRICAN PIED HORNBILL Tockus fasciatus 2.00 F 0 

419 CROWNED HORNBILL Tockus alboterminatus 4.25 f 0 

420 AFRICAN GREY HORNBILL Tockus nasutus 4.00 0 0 

426 SPECKLED TINKERBIRD Pogoniulus scolopaceus 3.00 F 0 

431 YELLOW-RUMPED TINKERBIRD Pogoniulus bilineatus 5.40 F 0 

433 YELLOW-FRONTED TINKERBIRD Pogoniulus 

chrysoconus 

6.00 f 0 

437 SPOT-FLANKED BARBET Tricholaema lachrymose 4.17 0 R-RR 

443 DOUBLE-TOOTHED BARBET Lybius bidentatus 5.50 f 0 

455 GREATER [=BLACK-THROATED] HONEYGUIDE 

Indicator indicator 

1.00 f 0 

465 NUBIAN WOODPECKER Campethera nubica 4.33 0 0 

471 SPECKLE-BREASTED [=UGANDA SPOTTED] 

WOODPECKER Dendropicos poecilolaemus 

3.33 0 0 

Atlas 

No. 


Relative 

Abundance 


473 CARDINAL WOODPECKER Dendropicos fuscescens 6.00 0 0 

477 GREY WOODPECKER Dendropicos goertae 4.00 f 0 

489 FLAPPET LARK Mirafra rufocinnamomea 1.00 G 0 

498 WHITE-HEADED SAW-WING [=ROUGHWING] 

Psalidoprocne albiceps 

3.75 f R-RR 

504 MOSQUE SWALLOW Hirundo senegalensis 0.00 0 0 

505 LESSER STRIPED SWALLOW Hirundo abyssinica 4.00 0 0 

506 RED-RUMPED SWALLOW Hirundo daurica 4.50 0 0 

512 ANGOLA SWALLOW Hirundo angolensis 2.00 w 0 

513 BARN [=EURASIAN] SWALLOW Hirundo rustica 5.17 Pw 0 

515 YELLOW WAGTAIL Motacilla flava 0.00 PwG 0 

520 AFRICAN PIED WAGTAIL Motacilla aguimp 1.00 w 0 

529 YELLOW-THROATED LONGCLAW Macronyx croceus 3.20 G 0 

538 LITTLE GREENBUL Andropadus virens 5.00 F 0 

542 YELLOW-WHISKERED GREENBUL Andropadus 

latirostris 

3.67 F 0 

547 YELLOW-THROATED GREENBUL [=LEAFLOVE] 

Chlorocichla flavicollis 

4.60 f 0 

549 LEAF-LOVE Pyrrhurus scandens 3.00 F 0 

562 COMMON BULBUL Pycnonotus barbatus 5.58 f 0 

576 WHITE-BROWED ROBIN-CHAT Cossypha heuglini 5.20 f 0 

578 SNOWY-HEADED ROBIN-CHAT Cossypha niveicapilla 4.00 Fw 0 

588 BROWN-BACKED SCRUB-ROBIN Cercotrichas 

hartlaubi 

4.83 f 0 

589 WHITE-BROWED SCRUB-ROBIN Cercotrichas 

leucophrys 

3.33 0 0 

593 WHINCHAT Saxicola rubetra 1.00 P 0 

612 AFRICAN THRUSH Turdus pelios 4.00 f 0 


615 WHITE-WINGED WARBLER Bradypterus carpalis 3.00 W 0 

630 GREATER SWAMP WARBLER Acrocephalus rufescens 3.00 W 0 

632 DARK-CAPPED YELLOW WARBLER Chloropeta 

natalensis 

5.00 w 0 

638 RED-FACED CISTICOLA Cisticola erythrops 4.71 w 0 

641 TRILLING CISTICOLA Cisticola woosnami 2.00 0 0 

642 CHUBB’S CISTICOLA Cisticola chubbi 4.33 Fw 0 

647 WINDING CISTICOLA Cisticola galactotes 4.83 w 0 

648 CARRUTHERS’S CISTICOLA Cisticola carruthersi 4.50 W R-RR 

658 TAWNY-FLANKED PRINIA Prinia subflava 5.33 fw 0 

662 WHITE-CHINNED PRINIA Prinia leucopogon 4.40 F 0 

664 BUFF-BELLIED WARBLER Phyllolais pulchella 2.00 f 0 

677 GREY-BACKED CAMAROPTERA Camaroptera 

brachyura 

5.58 f 0 

690 NORTHERN CROMBEC Sylvietta brachyura 2.00 0 0 

695 WILLOW WARBLER Phylloscopus trochilus 4.50 Pf 0 

701 GREY-CAPPED WARBLER Eminia lepida 5.80 fw R-RR 

703 GARDEN WARBLER Sylvia borin 1.00 Pf 0 

713 NORTHERN BLACK FLYCATCHER Melaenornis 

edoliodides 

4.33 0 0 

719 ASHY FLYCATCHER Muscicapa caerulescens 3.50 F 0 

720 SWAMP FLYCATCHER Muscicapa aquatica 4.50 W 0 

723 AFRICAN DUSKY FLYCATCHER Muscicapa adusta 5.00 F 0 

725 DUSKY-BLUE FLYCATCHER Muscicapa comitata 3.00 F 0 

739 AFRICAN PARADISE-FLYCATCHER Terpsiphone viridis 3.00 f 0 

746 BROWN-THROATED WATTLE-EYE Platysteira cyanea 2.83 f 0 

761 BROWN BABBLER Turdoides plebejus 2.00 0 0 

764 BLACK-LORED BABBLER Turdoides sharpei 4.44 0 R-RR 

Atlas 

No. 


Relative 

Abundance 


780 GREY-HEADED SUNBIRD Deleornis axillaries 6.00 FF 0 

781 GREEN-HEADED SUNBIRD Cyanomitra verticalis 3.50 F 0 

784 OLIVE SUNBIRD Cyanomitra olivacea 0.00 FF 0 

787 SCARLET-CHESTED SUNBIRD Chalcomitra 

senegalensis 

5.50 f 0 

790 BRONZE SUNBIRD Nectarinia kilimensis 4.50 f 0 

794 COLLARED SUNBIRD Hedydipna collaris 3.00 F 0 

796 OLIVE-BELLIED SUNBIRD Cinnyris chloropygia 4.00 F 0 

802 MARICO [=MARIQUA] SUNBIRD Cinnyris mariquensis 3.67 0 0 

803 RED-CHESTED SUNBIRD Cinnyris erythrocerca 5.40 W R-RR 

808 VARIABLE SUNBIRD Cinnyris venusta 5.75 f 0 

810 COPPER SUNBIRD Cinnyris cuprea 4.40 fw 0 

811 YELLOW WHITE-EYE Zosterops senegalensis 4.00 f 0 

812 COMMON FISCAL Lanius collaris 1.00 G 0 

814 MACKINNON’S FISCAL [=SHRIKE] Lanius mackinnoni 0.00 f 0 

815 GREY-BACKED FISCAL Lanius excubitoroides 4.67 Afw 0 

818 RED-BACKED SHRIKE Lanius collurio 1.50 P 0 

22 


831 BROWN-CROWNED [=HEADED] TCHAGRA Tchagra 

australi 

3.00 0 0 

833 BLACK-HEADED TCHAGRA Tchagra senegala 5.00 0 0 

836 NORTHERN PUFFBACK Dryoscopus gambensis 3.00 F 0 

841 TROPICAL BOUBOU Laniarius aethiopicus 5.50 f 0 

842 PAPYRUS GONOLEK Laniarius mufumbiri 3.40 w G-NT 

843 BLACK-HEADED GONOLEK Laniarius erythrogaster 5.43 f 0 

850 AFRICAN BLACK-HEADED ORIOLE Oriolus larvatus 4.00 f 0 

853 FORK-TAILED DRONGO Dicrurus adsimilis 5.33 f 0 

855 PIED CROW Corvus albus 0.00 0 0 

871 SPLENDID [=GLOSSY] STARLING Lamprotornis 

splendidus 

4.88 F 0 

872 RÜPPELL’S LONG-TAILED [=GLOSSY] 

STARLINGLamprotornispurpuropterus 

5.50 0 0 

881 GREY-HEADED SPARROW Passer griseus 3.50 0 0 

893 BAGLAFECHT WEAVER Ploceus baglafecht 2.50 f 0 

894 SLENDER-BILLED WEAVER Ploceus pelzelni 3.67 fW 0 

896 BLACK-NECKED WEAVER Ploceus nigricollis 4.67 f 0 

897 SPECTACLED WEAVER Ploceus ocularis 3.67 f 0 

900 HOLUB’S GOLDEN WEAVER Ploceus xanthops 3.33 w 0 

902 NORTHERN BROWN-THROATED WEAVER Ploceus 

castanops 

2.50 fW R-RR 

908 BLACK-HEADED WEAVER Ploceus cucullatus 5.17 0 0 

911 GOLDEN-BACKED WEAVER Ploceus jacksoni 3.00 w R-RR 

915 COMPACT WEAVER Ploceus superciliosus 1.00 fw 0 

925 RED-BILLED QUELEA Quelea quelea 1.00 A 0 

932 FAN-TAILED WIDOWBIRD Euplectes axillaris 3.67 w 0 

937 GROSBEAK WEAVER Amblyospiza albifrons 2.00 fW 0 

939 GREY-HEADED NEGROFINCH Nigrita canicapilla 5.00 F 0 

943 WHITE-COLLARED OLIVEBACK Nesocharis ansorgei 4.00 fw R-RR 

947 RED-WINGED PYTILIA Pytilia phoenicoptera 1.00 0 0 

959 RED-BILLED FIREFINCH Lagonosticta senegala 6.00 0 0 

963 AFRICAN FIREFINCH Lagonosticta rubricata 3.00 0 0 

966 FAWN-BREASTED WAXBILL Estrilda paludicola 4.50 0 0 

967 CRIMSON-RUMPED WAXBILL Estrilda rhodopyga 2.50 0 0 

969 COMMON WAXBILL Estrilda astrild 2.83 wG 0 

Atlas 

No. 


Relative 

Abundance 


970 BLACK-CROWNED WAXBILL Estrilda nonnula 2.50 f 0 

980 BRONZE MANNIKIN Lonchura cucullata 3.33 0 0 

985 PIN-TAILED WHYDAH Vidua macroura 4.00 G 0 

991 AFRICAN CITRIL Serinus citrinelloides 1.00 f 0 

995 YELLOW-FRONTED CANARY Serinus mozambicus 5.20 0 0 


Appendix 2: Relative abundances of the bird species recorded in the 

Opeta-Bisina wetland system 

Atlas 

No. 


Relative 

Abundance 


1 COMMON OSTRICH Struthio camelus 1.00 G R-VU 

5 GREATER CORMORANT Phalacrocorax carbo 

LONG-TAILED CORMORANT Phalacrocorax 

1.00 W 0 

6 africanus 3.83 W 0 

9 PINK-BACKED PELICAN Pelecanus rufescens 3.43 W 0 

11 DWARF BITTERN Ixobrychus sturmii 0.00 Aw 0 

14 COMMON SQUACCO HERON Ardeola ralloides 3.53 W 0 

17 CATTLE EGRET Bubulcus ibis 4.43 G 0 

21 LITTLE EGRET Egretta garzetta 

INTERMEDIATE [=YELLOW-BILLED] EGRET 

2.75 W 0 

22 Mesophoyx intermedia 2.67 W 0 

23 GREAT [=WHITE] EGRET Casmerodius alba 3.00 W R-VU 

24 PURPLE HERON Ardea purpurea 3.27 W R-NT 

25 GREY HERON Ardea cinerea 2.60 W R-NT 

26 BLACK-HEADED HERON Ardea melanocephala 4.00 w 0 

27 GOLIATH HERON Ardea goliath 4.00 W R-NT 

28 HAMERKOP Scopus umbretta 

AFRICAN OPEN-BILLED STORK Anastomus 

4.00 w 0 

30 lamelligerus 4.25 AwG 0 

33 WOOLLY-NECKED STORK Ciconia episcopus 6.00 W R-NT 

34 WHITE STORK Ciconia ciconia 

SADDLE-BILLED STORK Ephippiorhynchus 

2.00 P 0 

35 senegalensis 2.67 W R-VU 

G-VU, 

37 SHOEBILL Balaeniceps rex 2.33 W R-VU 

39 HADADA Bostrychia hagedash 6.00 w 0 

42 SACRED IBIS Threskiornis aethiopica 0.00 W 0 

47 FULVOUS WHISTLING DUCK Dendrocygna bicolor 

WHITE-FACED WHISTLING DUCK Dendrocygna 

0.00 W 0 

48 viduata 3.50 W 0 

49 WHITE-BACKED DUCK Thalassornis leuconotus 3.29 W R-VU 

53 KNOB-BILLED DUCK Sarkidiornis melanotos 0.00 W 0 

54 AFRICAN PYGMY GOOSE Nettapus auritus 2.00 W 0 

69 OSPREY Pandion haliaetus 2.50 PW 0 

73 BLACK-SHOULDERED KITE Elanus caeruleus 3.22 G 0 

75 BLACK KITE Milvus migrans 3.43 pA 0 

76 AFRICAN FISH EAGLE Haliaeetus vocifer 1.50 W 0 

G-VU, 

84 WHITE-HEADED VULTURE Trigonoceps occipitalis 2.00 0 R-VU 

85 SHORT-TOED SNAKE-EAGLE Circaetus gallicus 1.00 0 0 

86 BROWN SNAKE-EAGLE Circaetus cinereus 2.50 0 R-NT 

88 BATELEUR Terathopius ecaudatus 1.00 G G-NT 

90 AFRICAN HARRIER-HAWK Polyboroides typus 1.00 f 0 

G-NT, 

91 PALLID HARRIER Circus macrourus 2.00 PG R-NT 

24 


92 MONTAGU’S HARRIER Circus pygargus 1.00 P R-NT 

93 AFRICAN MARSH HARRIER Circus ranivorus 3.08 W R-NT 

94 EURASIAN MARSH HARRIER Circus aeruginosus 

TAWNY EAGLE (including STEPPE EAGLE) Aquila 

3.54 Pw 0 

116 rapax 3.00 PG 0 

120 BOOTED EAGLE Hieraaetus pennatus 5.00 P 0 

122 LONG-CRESTED EAGLE Lophaetus occipitalis 2.67 F 0 

G-VU, 

128 LESSER KESTREL Falco naumanni 1.00 P R-VU 

129 COMMON KESTREL Falco tinnunculus 1.00 P 0 

131 FOX KESTREL Falco alopex 1.00 0 0 

133 RED-NECKED FALCON Falco chicquera 1.00 0 R-NT 

136 EURASIAN HOBBY Falco subbuteo 4.00 P 0 

Atlas 

No. 


Relative 

Abundance 


138 LANNER FALCON Falco biarmicus 4.00 0 0 

178 BLACK CRAKE Amaurornis flavirostris 

PURPLE SWAMPHEN [=PURPLE GALLINULE] 

3.23 W 0 

180 Porphyrio porphyrio 0.00 W 0 

181 COMMON MOORHEN Gallinula chloropus 4.67 W 0 

183 RED-KNOBBED COOT Fulica cristata 6.00 W 0 

191 BLACK-BELLIED BUSTARD Eupodotis melanogaster 2.25 0 0 

193 JACANA Actophilornis africana 3.95 W 0 

194 LESSER JACANA Microparra capensis 4.09 W R-NT 

211 COMMON RINGED PLOVER Charadrius hiaticula 

AFRICAN WATTLED LAPWING [=PLOVER] Vanellus 

4.00 PW 0 

221 senegallus 

LONG-TOED LAPWING [=PLOVER] Vanellus 

3.25 W 0 

227 crassirostris 2.67 W 0 

230 TEMMINCK’S STINT Calidris temminckii 5.00 PW 0 

236 COMMON SNIPE Gallinago gallinago 3.00 PW 0 

247 GREEN SANDPIPER Tringa ochropus 4.00 PW 0 

248 WOOD SANDPIPER Tringa glareola 3.74 PW 0 

259 GULL-BILLED TERN Sterna nilotica 3.53 PW 0 

263 WHISKERED TERN Chlidonias hybridus 

WHITE-WINGED [=BLACK] TERN Chlidonias 

4.10 W 0 

264 leucopterus 4.12 PW 0 

268 AFRICAN GREEN-PIGEON Treron calva 2.60 F 0 

271 BLUE-SPOTTED WOOD-DOVE Turtur afer 4.33 F 0 

274 NAMAQUA DOVE Oena capensis 2.40 0 0 

281 SPECKLED PIGEON Columba guinea 4.00 0 0 

283 RED-EYED DOVE Streptopelia semitorquata 3.67 f 0 

284 AFRICAN MOURNING DOVE Streptopelia decipiens 3.00 0 0 

285 VINACEOUS DOVE Streptopelia vinacea 2.67 0 0 

286 RING-NECKED DOVE Streptopelia capicola 3.75 f 0 

289 LAUGHING DOVE Streptopelia senegalensis 2.25 0 0 

305 EASTERN GREY PLANTAIN-EATER Crinifer zonurus 5.00 0 0 

309 RED-CHESTED CUCKOO Cuculus solitarius 5.00 AF 0 

310 BLACK CUCKOO Cuculus clamosus 2.00 A/FF 0 

311 COMMON [=EURASIAN] CUCKOO Cuculus canorus 3.00 P 0 

323 WHITE-BROWED COUCAL Centropus superciliosus 3.86 0 0 


Atlas 

No. 

325 SENEGAL COUCAL Centropus senegalensis 3.33 f 0 

326 BLUE-HEADED COUCAL Centropus monachus 3.75 W 0 

331 SPOTTED EAGLE-OWL Bubo africanus 

SWAMP [=WHITE-TAILED] NIGHTJAR Caprimulgus 

5.00 0 0 

341 natalensis 3.33 Wg 0 

358 AFRICAN PALM SWIFT Cypsiurus parvus 3.25 0 0 

359 AFRICAN BLACK SWIFT Apus barbatus 6.00 0 0 

362 EURASIAN SWIFT Apus apus 3.25 P 0 

363 WHITE-RUMPED SWIFT Apus caffer 3.00 0 0 

365 LITTLE SWIFT Apus affinis 3.00 0 0 

368 BLUE-NAPED MOUSEBIRD Urocolius macrourus 4.00 0 0 

369 SPECKLED MOUSEBIRD Colius striatus 3.43 0 0 

373 GREY-HEADED KINGFISHER Halcyon leucocepha 3.50 Afw 0 

375 WOODLAND KINGFISHER Halcyon senegalensis 4.00 A 0 

376 STRIPED KINGFISHER Halcyon chelicuti 3.60 0 0 

380 MALACHITE KINGFISHER Alcedo cristata 3.67 W 0 

383 PIED KINGFISHER Ceryle rudis 3.41 W 0 

392 BLUE-CHEEKED BEE-EATER Merops persicus 2.82 P 0 

404 GREEN WOOD-HOOPOE Phoeniculus purpureus 1.00 0 0 

26 


Relative 

Abundance 

Ecological Baseline Surveys of Lake Bisina, Lake Opeta, Lake Mburo and Nakivali Wetlands Systems 


431 

YELLOW-RUMPED TINKERBIRD Pogoniulus 

bilineatus 

YELLOW-FRONTED TINKERBIRD Pogoniulus 

6.00 F 0 

433 chrysoconus 5.00 f 0 

437 SPOT-FLANKED BARBET Tricholaema lachrymose 3.83 0 R-RR 

439 WHITE-HEADED BARBET Lybius leucocephalus 1.00 0 0 

441 BLACK-BILLED BARBET Lybius guifsobalito 3.42 0 0 

443 DOUBLE-TOOTHED BARBET Lybius bidentatus 3.00 f 0 

473 CARDINAL WOODPECKER Dendropicos fuscescens 5.00 0 0 

487 RUFOUS-NAPED LARK Mirafra africana 3.00 0 0 

489 FLAPPET LARK Mirafra rufocinnamomea 

WHITE-HEADED SAW-WING [=ROUGHWING] 

4.00 G 0 

498 Psalidoprocne albiceps 2.00 f R-RR 

500 SAND MARTIN Riparia riparia 4.05 PW 0 

501 BANDED MARTIN Riparia cincta 

GREY-RUMPED SWALLOW Pseudhirundo 

2.50 AG 0 

502 griseopyga 2.00 G 0 

503 RUFOUS-CHESTED SWALLOW Hirundo semirufa 0.00 0 0 

505 LESSER STRIPED SWALLOW Hirundo abyssinica 4.17 0 0 

509 WIRE-TAILED SWALLOW Hirundo smithii 3.00 w 0 

512 ANGOLA SWALLOW Hirundo angolensis 4.50 w 0 

513 BARN [=EURASIAN] SWALLOW Hirundo rustica 3.57 Pw 0 

515 YELLOW WAGTAIL Motacilla flava 3.60 PwG 0 

520 AFRICAN PIED WAGTAIL Motacilla aguimp 

YELLOW-THROATED LONGCLAW Macronyx 

6.00 w 0 

529 croceus 

YELLOW-THROATED GREENBUL [=LEAFLOVE] 

3.75 G 0 

547 Chlorocichla flavicollis 6.00 f 0 

562 COMMON BULBUL Pycnonotus barbatus 4.40 f 0 

576 WHITE-BROWED ROBIN-CHAT Cossypha heuglini 4.71 f 0

593 WHINCHAT Saxicola rubetra 3.00 P 0 

594 NORTHERN WHEATEAR Oenanthe oenanthe 0.33 P 0 

612 AFRICAN THRUSH Turdus pelios 3.00 f 0 

615 WHITE-WINGED WARBLER Bradypterus carpalis 

AFRICAN MOUSTACHED WARBLER Melocichla 

3.75 W 0 

621 mentalis 

BROAD [=FAN] -TAILED WARBLER Schoenicola 

3.00 0 0 

622 brevirostris 3.00 fw 0 

624 SEDGE WARBLER Acrocephalus schoenobaenus 

GREATER SWAMP WARBLER Acrocephalus 

2.00 Pw 0 

630 rufescens 

LESSER SWAMP WARBLER Acrocephalus 

3.27 W 0 

631 gracilirostris 3.00 w 0 

635 OLIVACEOUS WARBLER Hippolais pallida 3.00 P 0 

638 RED-FACED CISTICOLA Cisticola erythrops 4.00 w 0 

640 WHISTLING CISTICOLA Cisticola lateralis 2.33 0 0 

641 TRILLING CISTICOLA Cisticola woosnami 3.33 0 0 

642 CHUBB’S CISTICOLA Cisticola chubbi 6.00 Fw 0 

647 WINDING CISTICOLA Cisticola galactotes 3.71 w 0 

648 CARRUTHERS’S CISTICOLA Cisticola carruthersi 2.00 W R-RR 

650 CROAKING CISTICOLA Cisticola natalensis 3.33 G 0 

655 ZITTING CISTICOLA Cisticola juncidis 3.00 wG 0 

658 TAWNY-FLANKED PRINIA Prinia subflava 

GREY-BACKED CAMAROPTERA Camaroptera 

3.80 fw 0 

677 brachyura 4.17 f 0 

691 RED-FACED CROMBEC Sylvietta whytii 0.00 F 0 

695 WILLOW WARBLER Phylloscopus trochilus 3.88 Pf 0 

716 SILVERBIRD Empidornis semipartitus 1.00 0 0 

717 SPOTTED FLYCATCHER Muscicapa striata 6.00 P 0 

720 SWAMP FLYCATCHER Muscicapa aquatica 

AFRICAN PARADISE-FLYCATCHER Terpsiphone 

3.66 W 0 

739 viridis 5.50 f 0 

Atlas 

No. 


Relative 

Abundance 


751 BLACK-HEADED BATIS Batis minor 3.50 f 0 

781 GREEN-HEADED SUNBIRD Cyanomitra verticalis 

SCARLET-CHESTED SUNBIRD Chalcomitra 

2.00 F 0 

787 senegalensis 1.50 f 0 

790 BRONZE SUNBIRD Nectarinia kilimensis 

MARICO [=MARIQUA] SUNBIRD Cinnyris 

3.00 f 0 

802 mariquensis 3.75 0 0 

803 RED-CHESTED SUNBIRD Cinnyris erythrocerca 3.17 W R-RR 

810 COPPER SUNBIRD Cinnyris cuprea 3.00 fw 0 

811 YELLOW WHITE-EYE Zosterops senegalensis 1.00 f 0 

812 COMMON FISCAL Lanius collaris 5.00 G 0 

815 GREY-BACKED FISCAL Lanius excubitoroides 

ISABELLINE [=RED-TAILED] SHRIKE Lanius 

3.25 Afw 0 

817 isabellinus 4.00 P 0 

820 WOODCHAT SHRIKE Lanius senator 3.36 P 0 

830 MARSH TCHAGRA Tchagra minutus 

BROWN-CROWNED [=HEADED] TCHAGRA Tchagra 

5.00 w 0 

831 australi 0.00 0 0 


833 BLACK-HEADED TCHAGRA Tchagra senegala 3.33 0 0 

843 BLACK-HEADED GONOLEK Laniarius erythrogaster 4.67 f 0 

853 FORK-TAILED DRONGO Dicrurus adsimilis 3.00 f 0 

855 PIED CROW Corvus albus 5.00 0 0 

858 PIAPIAC Ptilostomus afer 

GREATER BLUE-EARED GLOSSY STARLING 

1.00 0 0 

869 Lamprotornis chalybaeus 

RÜPPELL’S LONG-TAILED 

4.00 0 0 

872 STARLINGLamprotornispurpuropterus 3.50 0 0 

873 SUPERB STARLING Lamprotornis superbus 1.00 0 0 

881 GREY-HEADED SPARROW Passer griseus 

WHITE-BROWED SPARROW-WEAVER Plocepasser 

5.00 0 0 

890 mahali 1.00 0 0 

894 SLENDER-BILLED WEAVER Ploceus pelzelni 

NORTHERN BROWN-THROATED WEAVER Ploceus 

3.83 fW 0 

902 castanops 3.20 fW R-RR 

904 VITELLINE MASKED WEAVER Ploceus velatus 5.00 0 0 

G-NT/R- 

906 FOX’S WEAVER Ploceus spekeoides 0.00 w NT 

907 VIEILLOT’S BLACK WEAVER Ploceus nigerrimus 1.00 f 0 

908 BLACK-HEADED WEAVER Ploceus cucullatus 2.00 0 0 

910 YELLOW-BACKED WEAVER Ploceus melanocephalus 3.38 W 0 

925 RED-BILLED QUELEA Quelea quelea 3.00 A 0 

930 NORTHERN RED BISHOP Euplectes franciscanus 5.00 G 0 

932 FAN-TAILED WIDOWBIRD Euplectes axillaris 

HARTLAUB’S MARSH WIDOWBIRD Euplectes 

2.40 w 0 

936 hartlaubi 4.00 w R-VU 

959 RED-BILLED FIREFINCH Lagonosticta senegala 5.00 0 0 

966 FAWN-BREASTED WAXBILL Estrilda paludicola 0.00 0 0 

969 COMMON WAXBILL Estrilda astrild 

RED-CHEEKED CORDON-BLEU Uraeginthus 

1.50 wG 0 

974 bengalus 0.33 0 0 

980 BRONZE MANNIKIN Lonchura cucullata 0.50 0 0 

985 PIN-TAILED WHYDAH Vidua macroura 2.33 G 0 

991 AFRICAN CITRIL Serinus citrinelloides 4.00 f 0 

992 PAPYRUS CANARY Serinus koliensis 3.33 W R-RR 

995 YELLOW-FRONTED CANARY Serinus mozambicus 4.00 0 0 

266a BLACK-FACED SANDGROUSE Pterocles decoratus 1.00 0 0 

787a HUNTER’S SUNBIRD Chalcomitra hunteri 2.00 0 0 

28 


Appendix 3: Bird species list for the Mburo-Nakivale wetland system 

Atlas 

No 

SPECIES NAME Scientific Name Habitat Threat 

2 LITTLE GREBE Tachybaptus ruficollis W 

5 GREATER CORMORANT Phalacrocorax carbo W 

6 LONG-TAILED CORMORANT Phalacrocorax africanus W 

7 AFRICAN DARTER Anhinga melanogaster W R-VU 

8 WHITE PELICAN Pelecanus onocrotalus W R-RR 

9 PINK-BACKED PELICAN Pelecanus rufescens W 

10 LITTLE BITTERN Ixobrychus minutus pW 

11 DWARF BITTERN Ixobrychus sturmii Aw 

12 WHITE-BACKED NIGHT HERON Gorsachius leuconotus W R-NT 

13 BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERON Nycticorax nycticorax pW 

14 COMMON SQUACCO HERON Ardeola ralloides W 

16 RUFOUS-BELLIED HERON Ardeola rufiventris W R-NT 

17 CATTLE EGRET Bubulcus ibis G 

18 STRIATED [=GREEN-BACKED] HERON Butorides striatus W R-NT 

21 LITTLE EGRET Egretta garzetta W 

22 INTERMEDIATE 

intermedia 

[=YELLOW-BILLED] EGRET Mesophoyx W 

23 GREAT [=WHITE] EGRET Casmerodius alba W R-VU 

24 PURPLE HERON Ardea purpurea W R-NT 

25 GREY HERON Ardea cinerea W R-NT 

26 BLACK-HEADED HERON Ardea melanocephala w 

27 GOLIATH HERON Ardea goliath W R-NT 

28 HAMERKOP Scopus umbretta w 

29 YELLOW-BILLED STORK Mycteria ibis W 

30 AFRICAN OPEN-BILLED STORK Anastomus lamelligerus AwG 

32 ABDIM’S STORK Ciconia abdimii AG 

33 WOOLLY-NECKED STORK Ciconia episcopus W R-NT 

35 SADDLE-BILLED STORK Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis W R-VU 

36 MARABOU STORK Leptoptilos crumeniferus w 

37 SHOEBILL Balaeniceps rex W G-VU, R-VU 

39 HADADA Bostrychia hagedash w 

42 SACRED IBIS Threskiornis aethiopica W 

50 EGYPTIAN GOOSE Alopochen aegyptiacus WG 

51 SPUR-WINGED GOOSE Plectopterus gambensis W 

57 KNOB-BILLED DUCK Sarkidiornis melanotos W 

57 YELLOW-BILLED DUCK Anas undulata W 

69 OSPREY Pandion haliaetus PW 

71 EUROPEAN HONEY-BUZZARD Pernis apivorus PF 

72 BAT HAWK Machaerhamphus alcinus F R-NT 

73 BLACK-SHOULDERED KITE Elanus caeruleus G 

75 BLACK KITE Milvus migrans pA 

76 AFRICAN FISH EAGLE Haliaeetus vocifer W 

80 HOODED VULTURE Necrosyrtes monachus f 

81 AFRICAN WHITE-BACKED VULTURE Gyps africanus G G-NT, R-NT 

82 RÜPPELL’S VULTURE Gyps rueppellii G G-NT, R-NT 

83 LAPPET-FACED VULTURE Torgos tracheliotus G-VU, R-NT 

84 WHITE-HEADED VULTURE Trigonoceps occipitalis G-VU, R-VU 


85 SHORT-TOED SNAKE-EAGLE Circaetus gallicus 


87 WESTERN BANDED SNAKE-EAGLE Circaetus cinerascens F R-VU 

88 BATELEUR Terathopius ecaudatus G G-NT 

90 AFRICAN HARRIER-HAWK Polyboroides typus f 

93 AFRICAN MARSH HARRIER Circus ranivorus W R-NT 

94 EURASIAN MARSH HARRIER Circus aeruginosus Pw 

95 GABAR GOSHAWK Micronisus gabar 

96 DARK CHANTING-GOSHAWK Melierax metabates 

98 AFRICAN GOSHAWK Accipiter tachiro F 

Atlas 


No 

100 SHIKRA Accipiter badius F 

109 LIZARD BUZZARD Kaupifalco monogrammicus F 

110 COMMON BUZZARD Buteo buteo P 

114 AUGUR BUZZARD Buteo augur 

115 LESSER SPOTTED EAGLE Aquila pomarina P 

116 TAWNY EAGLE (including STEPPE EAGLE) Aquila rapax PG 

117 WAHLBERG’S EAGLE Aquila wahlbergi Af 

119 AFRICAN HAWK-EAGLE Hieraaetus spilogaster 

122 LONG-CRESTED EAGLE Lophaetus occipitalis F 

125 MARTIAL EAGLE Polemaetus bellicosus G-NT, R-EN 

129 COMMON KESTREL Falco tinnunculus P 

130 GREATER [=WHITE-EYED] KESTREL Falco rupicoloides A R-NT 

132 GREY KESTREL Falco ardosiaceus 

136 EURASIAN HOBBY Falco subbuteo P 

136 EURASIAN HOBBY Falco subbuteo P 

139 PEREGRINE FALCON Falco peregrinus 

142 HELMETED GUINEAFOWL Numida meleagris G 

143 COMMON QUAIL Coturnix coturnix P 

145 HARLEQUIN QUAIL Coturnix delegorguei G 

148 COQUI FRANCOLIN Francolinus coqui 

149 RING-NECKED FRANCOLIN Francolinus streptophorus G-NT, R-VU 

154 CRESTED FRANCOLIN Francolinus sephaena 

155 SCALY FRANCOLIN Francolinus squamatus F 

161 RED-NECKED SPURFOWL Francolinus afer 

164 BUTTON QUAIL Turnix sylvatica G 

165 BLACK-RUMPED BUTTON QUAIL Turnix hottentota R-EN 

169 BUFF-SPOTTED FLUFFTAIL [=PYGMY CRAKE] Sarothrura FF 

30 

elegans 

173 AFRICAN WATER RAIL Rallus caerulescens W 

178 BLACK CRAKE Amaurornis flavirostris W 

181 COMMON MOORHEN Gallinula chloropus W 

182 LESSER MOORHEN Gallinula angulata AW 

185 GREY CROWNED CRANE Balearica regulorum WG G-VU, R-NT 

186 AFRICAN FINFOOT Podica senegalensis W R-VU 

191 BLACK-BELLIED BUSTARD Eupodotis melanogaster 

193 JACANA Actophilornis africana W 

195 PAINTED SNIPE Rostratula benghalensis W 

197 BLACK-WINGED STILT Himantopus himantopus pW 


204 TEMMINCK’S COURSER Cursorius temminckii AG 

206 VIOLET-TIPPED COURSER Cursorius chalcopterus A 

213 THREE-BANDED PLOVER Charadrius tricollaris W 

221 AFRICAN WATTLED LAPWING [=PLOVER] Vanellus senegallus W 

224 BROWN-CHESTED LAPWING [=WATTLED PLOVER] Vanellus Aw R-NT 

superciliosus 

225 SENEGAL LAPWING [=PLOVER] Vanellus lugubris AG 

226 CROWNED LAPWING [=PLOVER] Vanellus coronatus G 

227 LONG-TOED LAPWING [=PLOVER] Vanellus crassirostris W 

236 COMMON SNIPE Gallinago gallinago PW 

238 GREAT SNIPE Gallinago media PW G-NT, R-NT 

243 SPOTTED REDSHANK Tringa erythropus PW 

246 COMMON GREENSHANK Tringa nebularia PW 

247 GREEN SANDPIPER Tringa ochropus PW 

248 WOOD SANDPIPER Tringa glareola PW 

250 COMMON SANDPIPER Actitis hypoleucos PW 

264 WHITE-WINGED [=BLACK] TERN Chlidonias leucopterus PW 

268 AFRICAN GREEN-PIGEON Treron calva F 

270 TAMBOURINE DOVE Turtur tympanistria F 

273 EMERALD-SPOTTED WOOD-DOVE Turtur chalcospilos F 

281 SPECKLED PIGEON Columba guinea 

283 RED-EYED DOVE Streptopelia semitorquata f 

Atlas 


No 

286 RING-NECKED DOVE Streptopelia capicola f 

289 LAUGHING DOVE Streptopelia senegalensis 

292 BROWN PARROT Poicephalus meyeri 

293 RED-HEADED LOVEBIRD Agapornis pullaria F 

302 ROSS’S TURACO Musophaga rossae F 

303 BARE-FACED GO-AWAY-BIRD Corythaixoides personata R-RR 

305 EASTERN GREY PLANTAIN-EATER Crinifer zonurus 

306 BLACK-AND-WHITE CUCKOO Oxylophus jacobinus A 

307 LEVAILLANT’S CUCKOO Oxylophus levaillantii Af 

309 RED-CHESTED CUCKOO Cuculus solitarius AF 

310 BLACK CUCKOO Cuculus clamosus Af/FF 

311 COMMON [=EURASIAN] CUCKOO Cuculus canorus P 

312 AFRICAN CUCKOO Cuculus gularis A 

317 AFRICAN EMERALD CUCKOO Chrysococcyx cupreus F 

319 KLAAS’ CUCKOO Chrysococcyx klaas f 

320 DIEDERIK [=DIDRIC] CUCKOO Chrysococcyx caprius 

321 YELLOWBILL Ceuthmochares aereus F 

323 WHITE-BROWED COUCAL Centropus superciliosus 

326 BLUE-HEADED COUCAL Centropus monachus W 

329 SCOPS OWL Otus scops P 

331 SPOTTED EAGLE-OWL Bubo africanus 

333 VERREAUX’S EAGLE-OWL Bubo lacteus 

335 PEARL-SPOTTED OWLET Glaucidium perlatum 

341 SWAMP [=WHITE-TAILED] NIGHTJAR Caprimulgus natalensis Wg 

349 FRECKLED NIGHTJAR Caprimulgus tristigma 


353 PENNANT-WINGED NIGHTJAR Macrodipteryx vexillaria A 

358 AFRICAN PALM SWIFT Cypsiurus parvus 

362 EURASIAN SWIFT Apus apus P 

363 WHITE-RUMPED SWIFT Apus caffer 

365 LITTLE SWIFT Apus affinis 

368 BLUE-NAPED MOUSEBIRD Urocolius macrourus 

369 SPECKLED MOUSEBIRD Colius striatus 

371 NARINA [=’S] TROGON Apaloderma narina F 

373 GREY-HEADED [=CHESTNUT-BELLIED] KINGFISHER Halcyon Afw 

32 

leucocepha 

374 BLUE-BREASTED KINGFISHER Halcyon malimbica Fw 

375 WOODLAND KINGFISHER Halcyon senegalensis A 

376 STRIPED KINGFISHER Halcyon chelicuti 

377 AFRICAN DWARF KINGFISHER Ceyx lecontei FF 

378 AFRICAN PYGMY KINGFISHER Ceyx picta fw 

380 MALACHITE KINGFISHER Alcedo cristata W 

382 GIANT KINGFISHER Megaceryle maxima W R-NT 

383 PIED KINGFISHER Ceryle rudis W 

385 LITTLE BEE-EATER Merops pusillus G 

390 WHITE-THROATED BEE-EATER Merops albicollis Af 

392 BLUE-CHEEKED BEE-EATER Merops persicus P 

393 MADAGASCAR BEE-EATER Merops superciliosus A 

394 EUROPIAN [=EURASIAN] BEE-EATER Merops apiaster Pf 

397 ABYSSINIAN ROLLER Coracias abyssinica A 

399 LILAC-BREASTED ROLLER Coracias caudata 

401 BROAD-BILLED ROLLER Eurystomus glaucurus Afw 

404 GREEN WOOD-HOOPOE Phoeniculus purpureus 

405 COMMON SCIMITARBILL Rhinopmastus cyanomelas 

408 HOOPOE Upupa epops p 

409 ABYSSINIAN GROUND-HORNBILL Bucorvus abyssinicus 

410 SOUTHERN GROUND-HORNBILL Bucorvus leadbeateri 

419 CROWNED HORNBILL Tockus alboterminatus f 

420 AFRICAN GREY HORNBILL Tockus nasutus 

431 YELLOW-RUMPED TINKERBIRD Pogoniulus bilineatus F 

Atlas 


No 

433 YELLOW-FRONTED TINKERBIRD Pogoniulus chrysoconus f 

436 RED-FRONTED BARBET Tricholaema diademata 


438 BLACK-THROATED BARBET Tricholaema melanocephala 

439 WHITE-HEADED BARBET Lybius leucocephalus 

440 RED-FACED BARBET Lybius rubrifacies F G-NT, R-NT 

443 DOUBLE-TOOTHED BARBET Lybius bidentatus f 

446 CRESTED [=LEVAILLANT’S] BARBET Trachyphonus vaillantii f 

455 GREATER [=BLACK-THROATED] HONEYGUIDE Indicator 

indicator 

f 

456 LESSER HONEYGUIDE Indicator minor f 

465 NUBIAN WOODPECKER Campethera nubica 

467 GREEN-BACKED 

Campethera cailliautii 

[=LITTLE SPOTTED] WOODPECKER f 


469 BUFF-SPOTTED WOODPECKER Campethera nivosa FF 

473 CARDINAL WOODPECKER Dendropicos fuscescens 

474 BEARDED WOODPECKER Dendropicos namaquus f 

477 GREY WOODPECKER Dendropicos goertae f 

481 RUFOUS [=RED] -SIDED BROADBILL Smithornis rufolateralis FF 

487 RUFOUS-NAPED LARK Mirafra africana 

489 FLAPPET LARK Mirafra rufocinnamomea G 

493 RED-CAPPED LARK Calandrella cinerea G 

498 WHITE-HEADED SAW-WING [=ROUGHWING] Psalidoprocne f R-RR 

albiceps 

500 SAND MARTIN Riparia riparia PW 

501 BANDED MARTIN Riparia cincta AG 

503 RUFOUS-CHESTED SWALLOW Hirundo semirufa 

504 MOSQUE SWALLOW Hirundo senegalensis 

505 LESSER STRIPED SWALLOW Hirundo abyssinica 

507 [=AFRICAN] ROCK MARTIN Hirundo fuligula 

512 ANGOLA SWALLOW Hirundo angolensis w 

513 BARN [=EURASIAN] SWALLOW Hirundo rustica Pw 

515 YELLOW WAGTAIL Motacilla flava PwG 

520 AFRICAN PIED WAGTAIL Motacilla aguimp w 

522 GRASSLAND [= RICHARD’S] PIPIT Anthus cinnamomeus G 

525 PLAIN-BACKED PIPIT Anthus leucophrys G 

529 YELLOW-THROATED LONGCLAW Macronyx croceus G 

530 RED-SHOULDERED CUCKOO-SHRIKE Campephaga phoenicea 

531 BLACK CUCKOO-SHRIKE Campephaga flava Af 

538 LITTLE GREENBUL Andropadus virens F 

541 SLENDER-BILLED GREENBUL Andropadus gracilirostris FF 

547 YELLOW-THROATED GREENBUL [=LEAFLOVE] Chlorocichla f 

flavicollis 

562 COMMON BULBUL Pycnonotus barbatus f 

574 GREY-WINGED GROUND-ROBIN Cossypha polioptera FF R-VU 

576 WHITE-BROWED ROBIN-CHAT Cossypha heuglini f 

577 RED-CAPPED ROBIN-CHAT Cossypha natalensis F 

578 SNOWY-HEADED ROBIN-CHAT Cossypha niveicapilla Fw 

588 BROWN-BACKED SCRUB-ROBIN Cercotrichas hartlaubi f 

593 WHINCHAT Saxicola rubetra P 

594 NORTHERN WHEATEAR Oenanthe oenanthe P 

601 SOOTY CHAT Myrmecocichla nigra 

612 AFRICAN THRUSH Turdus pelios f 

621 AFRICAN MOUSTACHED WARBLER Melocichla mentalis 

624 SEDGE WARBLER Acrocephalus schoenobaenus Pw 

626 AFRICAN REED WARBLER Acrocephalus baeticatus w R-NT 

630 GREATER SWAMP WARBLER Acrocephalus rufescens W 

631 LESSER SWAMP WARBLER Acrocephalus gracilirostris w 

634 PAPYRUS YELLOW WARBLER Chloropeta gracilirostris W G-VU, R-VU 

638 RED-FACED CISTICOLA Cisticola erythrops w 

647 WINDING CISTICOLA Cisticola galactotes w 

648 CARRUTHERS’S CISTICOLA Cisticola carruthersi W R-RR 


Atlas 

No 


649 STOUT CISTICOLA Cisticola robustus 

650 CROAKING CISTICOLA Cisticola natalensis G 

652 SIFFLING CISTICOLA Cisticola brachypterus 

654 LONG-TAILED CISTICOLA Cisticola angusticaudus 

655 ZITTING CISTICOLA Cisticola juncidis wG 

658 TAWNY-FLANKED PRINIA Prinia subflava fw 

662 WHITE-CHINNED PRINIA Prinia leucopogon F 

667 YELLOW-BREASTED APALIS Apalis flavida f 

673 BUFF-THROATED APALIS Apalis rufogularis FF 

677 GREY-BACKED CAMAROPTERA Camaroptera brachyura f 

679 OLIVE-GREEN CAMAROPTERA Camaroptera chloronota FF 

687 GREEN-CAPPED EREMOMELA Eremomela scotops F 

691 RED-FACED CROMBEC Sylvietta whytii F 

695 WILLOW WARBLER Phylloscopus trochilus Pf 

701 GREY-CAPPED WARBLER Eminia lepida fw R-RR 

703 GARDEN WARBLER Sylvia borin Pf 

709 GREEN HYLIA Hylia prasina F 

713 NORTHERN BLACK FLYCATCHER Melaenornis edoliodides 

714 PALE FLYCATCHER Melaenornis pallidus 

717 SPOTTED FLYCATCHER Muscicapa striata P 

719 ASHY FLYCATCHER Muscicapa caerulescens F 

720 SWAMP FLYCATCHER Muscicapa aquatica W 

723 AFRICAN DUSKY FLYCATCHER Muscicapa adusta F 

728 LEAD-COLOURED FLYCATCHER Myioparus plumbeus F 

739 AFRICAN PARADISE-FLYCATCHER Terpsiphone viridis f 

746 BROWN-THROATED WATTLE-EYE Platysteira cyanea f 

749 CHIN-SPOT BATIS Batis molitor f 

761 BROWN BABBLER Turdoides plebejus 

762 ARROW-MARKED BABBLER Turdoides jardineii 

764 BLACK-LORED BABBLER Turdoides sharpei R-RR 

771 BLACK TIT Parus leucomelas f 

773 AFRICAN PENDULINE TIT Anthoscopus caroli f 

781 GREEN-HEADED SUNBIRD Cyanomitra verticalis F 

784 OLIVE SUNBIRD Cyanomitra olivacea FF 

787 SCARLET-CHESTED SUNBIRD Chalcomitra senegalensis f 

794 COLLARED SUNBIRD Hedydipna collaris F 

796 OLIVE-BELLIED SUNBIRD Cinnyris chloropygia F 

802 MARICO [=MARIQUA] SUNBIRD Cinnyris mariquensis 

803 RED-CHESTED SUNBIRD Cinnyris erythrocerca W R-RR 

808 VARIABLE SUNBIRD Cinnyris venusta f 

810 COPPER SUNBIRD Cinnyris cuprea fw 

811 YELLOW WHITE-EYE Zosterops senegalensis f 

812 COMMON FISCAL Lanius collaris G 

815 GREY-BACKED FISCAL Lanius excubitoroides Afw 

818 RED-BACKED SHRIKE Lanius collurio P 

828 SULPHUR-BREASTED 

sulfureopectus 

BUSH-SHRIKE Malaconotus f 

831 BROWN-CROWNED [=HEADED] TCHAGRA Tchagra australi 

34 


833 BLACK-HEADED TCHAGRA Tchagra senegala 

836 NORTHERN PUFFBACK Dryoscopus gambensis F 

841 TROPICAL BOUBOU Laniarius aethiopicus f 

842 PAPYRUS GONOLEK Laniarius mufumbiri w G-NT 

843 BLACK-HEADED GONOLEK Laniarius erythrogaster f 

844 BRUBRU Nilaus afer 

845 WHITE-CRESTED HELMET-SHRIKE Prionops plumatus f 

850 AFRICAN BLACK-HEADED ORIOLE Oriolus larvatus f 

853 FORK-TAILED DRONGO Dicrurus adsimilis f/F 

855 PIED CROW Corvus albus 

Atlas 


No 

870 LESSER BLUE-EARED [=GLOSSY] STARLINGLamprotornis 

chloropterus 

871 SPLENDID [=GLOSSY] STARLING Lamprotornis splendidus F 

872 RÜPPELL’S LONG-TAILED [=GLOSSY] 


876 VIOLET-BACKED STARLING Cinnyricinclus leucogaster Af 

877 WATTLED STARLING Creatophora cinerea 

878 YELLOW-BILLED OXPECKER Buphagus africanus R-VU 

881 GREY-HEADED SPARROW Passer griseus 

889 SPECKLED-FRONTED WEAVER Sporopipes frontalis 

890 WHITE-BROWED SPARROW-WEAVER Plocepasser mahali 

893 BAGLAFECHT WEAVER Ploceus baglafecht f 

894 SLENDER-BILLED WEAVER Ploceus pelzelni fW 

895 LITTLE WEAVER Ploceus luteolus 

896 BLACK-NECKED WEAVER Ploceus nigricollis f 

897 SPECTACLED WEAVER Ploceus ocularis f 

900 HOLUB’S GOLDEN WEAVER Ploceus xanthops w 

902 NORTHERN BROWN-THROATED WEAVER Ploceus castanops fW R-RR 

908 BLACK-HEADED WEAVER Ploceus cucullatus 

910 YELLOW-BACKED WEAVER Ploceus melanocephalus W 

911 GOLDEN-BACKED WEAVER Ploceus jacksoni w R-RR 

922 RED-HEADED WEAVER Anaplectes rubriceps 

923 CARDINAL QUELEA Quelea cardinalis A R-RR 

925 RED-BILLED QUELEA Quelea quelea A 

929 SOUTHERN RED BISHOP Euplectes orix G 

932 FAN-TAILED WIDOWBIRD Euplectes axillaris w 

934 WHITE-WINGED WIDOWBIRD Euplectes albonotatus G 

935 RED-COLLARED [=NAPED] WIDOWBIRD Euplectes ardens 

937 GROSBEAK WEAVER Amblyospiza albifrons fW 

969 COMMON WAXBILL Estrilda astrild wG 

976 ZEBRA WAXBILL Amandava subflava 

984 VILLAGE [=RED-BILLED FIREFINCH] INDIGOBIRD Vidua 

chalybeata 

985 PIN-TAILED WHYDAH Vidua macroura G 

902a [NORTHERN MASKED WEAVER Ploceus taeniopterus] 


Appendix 4: Bird species list for the Opeta-Bisina wetland system 

Atlas 

No. 


1 COMMON OSTRICH Struthio camelus G R-VU 

2 LITTLE GREBE Tachybaptus ruficollis W 

5 GREATER CORMORANT Phalacrocorax carbo W 0 

6 LONG-TAILED CORMORANT Phalacrocorax africanus W 0 

8 WHITE PELICAN Pelecanus onocrotalus W R-RR 

9 PINK-BACKED PELICAN Pelecanus rufescens W 0 

10 LITTLE BITTERN Ixobrychus minutus pW 

11 DWARF BITTERN Ixobrychus sturmii Aw 0 

14 COMMON SQUACCO HERON Ardeola ralloides W 0 

15 MADAGASCAR SQUACCO HERON Ardeola idae AW G-EN, R-VU 

16 RUFOUS-BELLIED HERON Ardeola rufiventris W R-NT 

17 CATTLE EGRET Bubulcus ibis G 0 

18 STRIATED [=GREEN-BACKED] HERON Butorides striatus W R-NT 

21 LITTLE EGRET Egretta garzetta W 0 

22 

INTERMEDIATE [=YELLOW-BILLED] EGRET Mesophoyx 

intermedia 

W 0 

22 

INTERMEDIATE [=YELLOW-BILLED] EGRET Mesophoyx 

intermedia 

W 

23 GREAT [=WHITE] EGRET Casmerodius alba W R-VU 

24 PURPLE HERON Ardea purpurea W R-NT 

25 GREY HERON Ardea cinerea W R-NT 

26 BLACK-HEADED HERON Ardea melanocephala w 0 

27 GOLIATH HERON Ardea goliath W R-NT 

28 HAMERKOP Scopus umbretta w 0 

29 YELLOW-BILLED STORK Mycteria ibis W 

30 AFRICAN OPEN-BILLED STORK Anastomus lamelligerus AwG 0 

33 WOOLLY-NECKED STORK Ciconia episcopus W R-NT 

34 WHITE STORK Ciconia ciconia P 0 

35 SADDLE-BILLED STORK Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis W R-VU 

37 SHOEBILL Balaeniceps rex W G-VU, R-VU 

38 GLOSSY IBIS Plegadis falcinellus pW 

39 HADADA Bostrychia hagedash w 0 

42 SACRED IBIS Threskiornis aethiopica W 0 

44 AFRICAN SPOONBILL Platalea alba W 

47 FULVOUS WHISTLING DUCK Dendrocygna bicolor W 0 

48 WHITE-FACED WHISTLING DUCK Dendrocygna viduata W 0 

49 WHITE-BACKED DUCK Thalassornis leuconotus W R-VU 

50 EGYPTIAN GOOSE Alopochen aegyptiacus WG 

51 SPUR-WINGED GOOSE Plectopterus gambensis W 

53 KNOB-BILLED DUCK Sarkidiornis melanotos W 0 

54 AFRICAN PYGMY GOOSE Nettapus auritus W 0 

57 YELLOW-BILLED DUCK Anas undulata W 

61 HOTTENTOT TEAL Anas hottentota W 

64 SOUTHERN POCHARD Netta erythrophthalma AW 

69 OSPREY Pandion haliaetus PW 0 

73 BLACK-SHOULDERED KITE Elanus caeruleus G 0 

75 BLACK KITE Milvus migrans pA 0 

76 AFRICAN FISH EAGLE Haliaeetus vocifer W 0 

36 


84 WHITE-HEADED VULTURE Trigonoceps occipitalis 0 G-VU, R-VU 

85 SHORT-TOED SNAKE-EAGLE Circaetus gallicus 0 0 

86 BROWN SNAKE-EAGLE Circaetus cinereus 0 R-NT 

88 BATELEUR Terathopius ecaudatus G G-NT 

90 AFRICAN HARRIER-HAWK Polyboroides typus f 0 

91 PALLID HARRIER Circus macrourus PG G-NT, R-NT 

92 MONTAGU’S HARRIER Circus pygargus P R-NT 

93 AFRICAN MARSH HARRIER Circus ranivorus W R-NT 

94 EURASIAN MARSH HARRIER Circus aeruginosus Pw 0 

Atlas No. SPECIES NAME Scientific Name Habitat Threat 

116 TAWNY EAGLE (including STEPPE EAGLE) Aquila rapax PG 0 

120 BOOTED EAGLE Hieraaetus pennatus P 0 

122 LONG-CRESTED EAGLE Lophaetus occipitalis F 0 

128 LESSER KESTREL Falco naumanni P G-VU, R-VU 

129 COMMON KESTREL Falco tinnunculus P 0 

131 FOX KESTREL Falco alopex 0 0 

133 RED-NECKED FALCON Falco chicquera 0 R-NT 

136 EURASIAN HOBBY Falco subbuteo P 0 

138 LANNER FALCON Falco biarmicus 0 0 

173 AFRICAN WATER RAIL Rallus caerulescens W 

177 STRIPED CRAKE Aenigmatolimnas marginalis AW R-NT 

178 BLACK CRAKE Amaurornis flavirostris W 0 

179 ALLEN’S GALLINULE Porphyrio alleni W 

180 

PURPLE SWAMPHEN [=PURPLE GALLINULE] Porphyrio 

W 0 

porphyrio 

181 COMMON MOORHEN Gallinula chloropus W 0 

182 LESSER MOORHEN Gallinula angulata AW 

183 RED-KNOBBED COOT Fulica cristata W 0 

185 GREY CROWNED CRANE Balearica regulorum WG G-VU, R-NT 

191 BLACK-BELLIED BUSTARD Eupodotis melanogaster 0 0 

193 JACANA Actophilornis africana W 0 

194 LESSER JACANA Microparra capensis W R-NT 

195 PAINTED SNIPE Rostratula benghalensis W 

197 BLACK-WINGED STILT Himantopus himantopus pW 

201 WATER THICK-KNEE Burhinus vermiculatus W 

207 COLLARED [=COMMON] PRATINCOLE Glareola pratincola W 

211 COMMON RINGED PLOVER Charadrius hiaticula PW 0 

212 KITTLITZ’S SANDPLOVER Charadrius pecuarius W 

213 THREE-BANDED PLOVER Charadrius tricollaris W 

221 

AFRICAN WATTLED LAPWING [=PLOVER] Vanellus 

senegallus 

W 0 

221 

AFRICAN WATTLED 

senegallus 

LAPWING [=PLOVER] Vanellus 

W 

223 SPUR-WINGED LAPWING [=PLOVER] Vanellus spinosus WG 

225 SENEGAL LAPWING [=PLOVER] Vanellus lugubris AG 

227 LONG-TOED LAPWING [=PLOVER] Vanellus crassirostris W 0 

230 TEMMINCK’S STINT Calidris temminckii PW 0 

231 CURLEW SANDPIPER Calidris ferruginea PW 

234 RUFF Philomachus pugnax PW 

236 COMMON SNIPE Gallinago gallinago PW 0 

245 MARSH SANDPIPER Tringa stagnatilis PW 

246 COMMON GREENSHANK Tringa nebularia PW 


247 GREEN SANDPIPER Tringa ochropus PW 0 

248 WOOD SANDPIPER Tringa glareola PW 0 

254 GREY-HEADED GULL Larus cirrocephalus W 

255 COMMON BLACK-HEADED GULL Larus ridibundus PW 

256 SLENDER-BILLED GULL Larus genei PW 

257 LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL Larus fuscus PW 

259 GULL-BILLED TERN Sterna nilotica PW 0 

263 WHISKERED TERN Chlidonias hybridus W 0 

264 WHITE-WINGED [=BLACK] TERN Chlidonias leucopterus PW 0 

268 AFRICAN GREEN-PIGEON Treron calva F 0 

271 BLUE-SPOTTED WOOD-DOVE Turtur afer F 0 

274 NAMAQUA DOVE Oena capensis 0 0 

281 SPECKLED PIGEON Columba guinea 0 0 

283 RED-EYED DOVE Streptopelia semitorquata f 0 

284 AFRICAN MOURNING DOVE Streptopelia decipiens 0 0 

285 VINACEOUS DOVE Streptopelia vinacea 0 0 

286 RING-NECKED DOVE Streptopelia capicola f 0 

289 LAUGHING DOVE Streptopelia senegalensis 0 0 


305 EASTERN GREY PLANTAIN-EATER Crinifer zonurus 0 0 

309 RED-CHESTED CUCKOO Cuculus solitarius AF 0 

310 BLACK CUCKOO Cuculus clamosus A/FF 0 

311 COMMON [=EURASIAN] CUCKOO Cuculus canorus P 0 

323 WHITE-BROWED COUCAL Centropus superciliosus 0 0 

324 BLACK COUCAL Centropus grillii W R-NT 

325 SENEGAL COUCAL Centropus senegalensis f 0 

326 BLUE-HEADED COUCAL Centropus monachus W 0 

331 SPOTTED EAGLE-OWL Bubo africanus 0 0 

341 

SWAMP [=WHITE-TAILED] NIGHTJAR Caprimulgus 

Wg 0 

38 

natalensis 

358 AFRICAN PALM SWIFT Cypsiurus parvus 0 0 

359 AFRICAN BLACK SWIFT Apus barbatus 0 0 

362 EURASIAN SWIFT Apus apus P 0 

363 WHITE-RUMPED SWIFT Apus caffer 0 0 

365 LITTLE SWIFT Apus affinis 0 0 

368 BLUE-NAPED MOUSEBIRD Urocolius macrourus 0 0 

369 SPECKLED MOUSEBIRD Colius striatus 0 0 

373 

GREY-HEADED [=CHESTNUT-BELLIED] KINGFISHER 

Afw 0 

Halcyon leucocepha 

375 WOODLAND KINGFISHER Halcyon senegalensis A 0 

376 STRIPED KINGFISHER Halcyon chelicuti 0 0 

380 MALACHITE KINGFISHER Alcedo cristata W 0 

383 PIED KINGFISHER Ceryle rudis W 0 

392 BLUE-CHEEKED BEE-EATER Merops persicus P 0 

404 GREEN WOOD-HOOPOE Phoeniculus purpureus 0 0 

431 YELLOW-RUMPED TINKERBIRD Pogoniulus bilineatus F 0 

433 YELLOW-FRONTED TINKERBIRD Pogoniulus chrysoconus f 0 

437 SPOT-FLANKED BARBET Tricholaema lachrymose 0 R-RR 

439 WHITE-HEADED BARBET Lybius leucocephalus 0 0 

441 BLACK-BILLED BARBET Lybius guifsobalito 0 0 

443 DOUBLE-TOOTHED BARBET Lybius bidentatus f 0 

473 CARDINAL WOODPECKER Dendropicos fuscescens 0 0 

487 RUFOUS-NAPED LARK Mirafra africana 0 0 

489 FLAPPET LARK Mirafra rufocinnamomea G 0 


498 

WHITE-HEADED SAW-WING [=ROUGHWING] 

Psalidoprocne albiceps 

f R-RR 

500 SAND MARTIN Riparia riparia PW 0 

500 SAND MARTIN Riparia riparia PW 

501 BANDED MARTIN Riparia cincta AG 0 

502 GREY-RUMPED SWALLOW Pseudhirundo griseopyga G 0 

503 RUFOUS-CHESTED SWALLOW Hirundo semirufa 0 0 

505 LESSER STRIPED SWALLOW Hirundo abyssinica 0 0 

509 WIRE-TAILED SWALLOW Hirundo smithii w 0 

512 ANGOLA SWALLOW Hirundo angolensis w 0 

513 BARN [=EURASIAN] SWALLOW Hirundo rustica Pw 0 

515 YELLOW WAGTAIL Motacilla flava PwG 0 

520 AFRICAN PIED WAGTAIL Motacilla aguimp w 0 

529 YELLOW-THROATED LONGCLAW Macronyx croceus G 0 

547 

YELLOW-THROATED GREENBUL [=LEAFLOVE] 

Chlorocichla flavicollis 

f 0 

562 COMMON BULBUL Pycnonotus barbatus f 0 

576 WHITE-BROWED ROBIN-CHAT Cossypha heuglini f 0 

593 WHINCHAT Saxicola rubetra P 0 

594 NORTHERN WHEATEAR Oenanthe oenanthe P 0 

612 AFRICAN THRUSH Turdus pelios f 0 

615 WHITE-WINGED WARBLER Bradypterus carpalis W 0 

621 AFRICAN MOUSTACHED WARBLER Melocichla mentalis 0 0 

622 

BROAD [=FAN] -TAILED WARBLER Schoenicola 

brevirostris 

fw 0 

624 SEDGE WARBLER Acrocephalus schoenobaenus Pw 0 

630 GREATER SWAMP WARBLER Acrocephalus rufescens W 0 


631 LESSER SWAMP WARBLER Acrocephalus gracilirostris w 0 

635 OLIVACEOUS WARBLER Hippolais pallida P 0 

638 RED-FACED CISTICOLA Cisticola erythrops w 0 

640 WHISTLING CISTICOLA Cisticola lateralis 0 0 

641 TRILLING CISTICOLA Cisticola woosnami 0 0 

642 CHUBB’S CISTICOLA Cisticola chubbi Fw 0 

647 WINDING CISTICOLA Cisticola galactotes w 0 

648 CARRUTHERS’S CISTICOLA Cisticola carruthersi W R-RR 

650 CROAKING CISTICOLA Cisticola natalensis G 0 

655 ZITTING CISTICOLA Cisticola juncidis wG 0 

658 TAWNY-FLANKED PRINIA Prinia subflava fw 0 

677 GREY-BACKED CAMAROPTERA Camaroptera brachyura f 0 

691 RED-FACED CROMBEC Sylvietta whytii F 0 

695 WILLOW WARBLER Phylloscopus trochilus Pf 0 

716 SILVERBIRD Empidornis semipartitus 0 0 

717 SPOTTED FLYCATCHER Muscicapa striata P 0 

720 SWAMP FLYCATCHER Muscicapa aquatica W 0 

739 AFRICAN PARADISE-FLYCATCHER Terpsiphone viridis f 0 

751 BLACK-HEADED BATIS Batis minor f 0 

781 GREEN-HEADED SUNBIRD Cyanomitra verticalis F 0 

787 SCARLET-CHESTED SUNBIRD Chalcomitra senegalensis f 0 

790 BRONZE SUNBIRD Nectarinia kilimensis f 0 

802 MARICO [=MARIQUA] SUNBIRD Cinnyris mariquensis 0 0 

803 RED-CHESTED SUNBIRD Cinnyris erythrocerca W R-RR 

810 COPPER SUNBIRD Cinnyris cuprea fw 0 

811 YELLOW WHITE-EYE Zosterops senegalensis f 0 


812 COMMON FISCAL Lanius collaris G 0 

815 GREY-BACKED FISCAL Lanius excubitoroides Afw 0 

817 ISABELLINE [=RED-TAILED] SHRIKE Lanius isabellinus P 0 

820 WOODCHAT SHRIKE Lanius senator P 0 

830 MARSH TCHAGRA Tchagra minutus w 0 

831 BROWN-CROWNED [=HEADED] TCHAGRA Tchagra australi 0 0 

833 BLACK-HEADED TCHAGRA Tchagra senegala 0 0 

842 PAPYRUS GONOLEK Laniarius mufumbiri w G-NT 

843 BLACK-HEADED GONOLEK Laniarius erythrogaster f 0 

853 FORK-TAILED DRONGO Dicrurus adsimilis f 0 

855 PIED CROW Corvus albus 0 0 

858 PIAPIAC Ptilostomus afer 0 0 

869 

GREATER BLUE-EARED GLOSSY STARLING Lamprotornis 

chalybaeus 

0 0 

872 

RÜPPELL’S LONG-TAILED [=GLOSSY] 


0 0 

873 SUPERB STARLING Lamprotornis superbus 0 0 

881 GREY-HEADED SPARROW Passer griseus 0 0 

890 WHITE-BROWED SPARROW-WEAVER Plocepasser mahali 0 0 

894 SLENDER-BILLED WEAVER Ploceus pelzelni fW 0 

902 

NORTHERN BROWN-THROATED WEAVER Ploceus 

castanops 

fW R-RR 

904 VITELLINE MASKED WEAVER Ploceus velatus 0 0 

906 FOX’S WEAVER Ploceus spekeoides w 

G-NT/RR, 

R-NT/RR 

907 VIEILLOT’S BLACK WEAVER Ploceus nigerrimus f 0 

908 BLACK-HEADED WEAVER Ploceus cucullatus 0 0 

910 YELLOW-BACKED WEAVER Ploceus melanocephalus W 0 

925 RED-BILLED QUELEA Quelea quelea A 0 

930 NORTHERN RED BISHOP Euplectes franciscanus G 0 

932 FAN-TAILED WIDOWBIRD Euplectes axillaris w 0 

936 HARTLAUB’S MARSH WIDOWBIRD Euplectes hartlaubi w R-VU 

959 RED-BILLED FIREFINCH Lagonosticta senegala 0 0 

966 FAWN-BREASTED WAXBILL Estrilda paludicola 0 0 

969 COMMON WAXBILL Estrilda astrild wG 0 


974 RED-CHEEKED CORDON-BLEU Uraeginthus bengalus 0 0 

980 BRONZE MANNIKIN Lonchura cucullata 0 0 

985 PIN-TAILED WHYDAH Vidua macroura G 0 

991 AFRICAN CITRIL Serinus citrinelloides f 0 

992 PAPYRUS CANARY Serinus koliensis W R-RR 

995 YELLOW-FRONTED CANARY Serinus mozambicus 0 0 

266a [BLACK-FACED SANDGROUSE Pterocles decoratus] 0 0 

787a [HUNTER’S SUNBIRD Chalcomitra hunteri 0 0 

NB: Hunter’s Sunbird (Chalcomitra hunteri) and Black-faced Sandgrouse (Pterocles decoratus) should be 

further followed. 

40 


CHAPTER 3: Insects 

BUTTERFLY FAUNA OF LAKE BISINA - OPETA 

WETLAND SYSTEMS AND LAKE MBURO - 

NAKIVALI WETLAND SYSTEMS 

Perpetra Akite 

Andrew Olanya 

Makerere University 

Faculty of Science, Department of Zoology 

3 Background 

There has been increased awareness and promotion of wetland conservation in Uganda since 1987. 

Uganda is a signatory to the Ramsar Convention that addresses the issues of wetland degradation 

through designating sites of international importance. Invertebrates serve an extremely important 

role in the community. Studies indicate that insects, as a whole, have a large influence on plant 

diversity and particular species of insect serve keystone functions in the community. Butterflies 

satisfy most selection criteria for use as bioindicators. 


3.1 Why Butterflies? 

Butterflies respond quickly to environmental changes and there is now considerable data on 

how particular species contend with alterations in land-use, and thus may play a valuable 

role in ecological monitoring (Daily and Ehrlich, 1995). The influence of seasonality on the 

presence or absence of adults of certain species, and on their morphology, as well as 

knowledge of species ecology must always be considered. However, the compilation of 

species lists may be used both qualitatively and quantitatively, to comment on a habitat (its 

condition and vegetation) and to identify conservation and monitoring needs. Increasingly, 

therefore, butterflies are being used as tools in ecological monitoring strategies (Pollard and 

Yates, 1993; Sparrow et al., 1994). 

3.2 Why monitor? 

Uganda is one of the countries that has ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity and as such is 

required to inventory and monitor its own biodiversity. This is an onerous task, given that only a small 

fraction of the organisms living within the boundaries of most countries have so far been discovered, 

identified, scientifically named and classified (Groombridge, 1992). 

Regular monitoring of species’ occurrences in a given habitat/site is a necessary component of 

biodiversity monitoring. The database increases in value with each subsequent monitoring event, 

and repeated censusing will ensure that any change in biodiversity can be detected. 

According to Sparrow et al. (1994), no matter how well documented population trends in a single 

taxonomic group such as butterflies are, they are likely to provide only a partial picture of overall 

biological diversity. Long-term monitoring is most effective when they include diverse taxa and 

accompanied by research into abiotic factors such as macro and microclimate and habitat condition. 

A focused, multidisciplinary approach to monitoring offers the best opportunity for obtaining 

biological information that is truly useful in making informed management decisions for example 

gazetting an ecosystem as a result of well noted declines in populations due to certain human 

activities like logging in forests, wetland drainage or unregulated clearing. 

3.3 Study sites and Methods 

3.3.1 Study sites 

Three different sites were the focus of these surveys. These included Lake Bisina Ramsar site, Lake 

Opeta and LakeMburo-Nakivali wetland systems. 

3.3.1.1 Lake Bisina 

The Lake Bisina Ramsar Site is located in eastern Uganda near between Lakes Kyoga and Opeta 

on the south-western margin of the arid grasslands of Karamoja. The system lies in Kumi district, 

15km north from Kumi town and 20km east of Soroti. The lake, which covers an area of 192 km 2 

, 

lies 1,050 m above sea level. The Ramsar site contains Lake Bisina and its wetland margins as well 

as the broad floodplain of the Apedura River which drains the northerly region of Karamoja. The 

floodplain is up to 6.5km wide and contains a number of lesser lakes. Lake Bisina is one of the 30 

Important Bird Areas identified by Nature Uganda. 

42 


3.3.1.2 Lake Opeta 

Lake Opeta and its surrounding swamps are located in eastern Uganda, 25km north-east of Kumi 

town. The Ramsar site stands 1,050 m above sea level and covers an area of 68,913 hectares. The 

wetland system represents the easternmost part of the Lake Kyoga basin. It occupies an extensive 

floodplain between the Lake Bisina Ramsar Site (which it drains towards Lake Kyoga) to the west 

and the base of Mount Elgon, a massive extinct volcanic massif, to the south-east. The Lake 

Opeta wetlands marks the southern limits of the vast, arid region of Karamoja which extends along 

Uganda’s eastern flank between Mount Elgon and the distant Sudan border, nearly 300km to the 

north. The grassland plain area immediately east of the wetland is protected within of the Pian-Upe 

Wildlife Reserve. 

Fig. 3 Insect survey sites in Opeta – Bisina wetland system 

3.3.1.3 Lake Mburo-Nakivali 

The Lake Mburo - Nakivali Ramsar site occupies some 25,500 hectares in south central Uganda, 

60km from the town of Mbarara and some 30km north of the borders with Tanzania and Rwanda. The 

wetland contains several lakes, of which Lakes Nakivali and Mburo are the largest. The catchment 

also contains two additional, larger lakes – Kachera and Kijanebalolo – which lie outside the Ramsar 

site to the east. The system is set in a regional landscape characterized by open savanna and 

acacia woodland at an altitude of 1,280 – 1,520m a.s.l and in which undulating hills enclose broad 

flat valleys. These valleys, which are tributaries of the Kagera River, contain seasonal floodplains 

which drain through papyrus swamps into the various lakes. 


Fig. 4 Insect survey sites in Lake Mburo – Nakivali wetland system 

3.3.2 Methods 

The butterfly fauna of the survey areas was sampled through the systematic use of sweep nets and 

baited traps throughout the study period. Sweep netting was done both along an established 0.5km 

transect line as well as random sweeping within the entire areas (Rapid Biodiversity Assessment) that 

involves combing through the entire area, and catching every species encountered. Opportunistic 

observations were included to help build the species list. 

Fermenting banana was used as bait for the traps. The baited traps were hanged between 1-10m 

above the ground within the study sites. Traps were checked twice every day (in the morning and 

once in the afternoon). The traps were regularly moved to cover most of the study area. Preliminary 

identifications of common and familiar butterfly species were done in the field. A number of standard 

field guides, as well as the extensive collections at the Zoology Museum, Makerere University were 

used for specimen identifications. 

Each of the butterfly species was assigned to one of the ecological categories as described by 

Davenport (1996). The major categories considered in this study are forest dependent species (F), 

forest edge/woodland species (f), open habitat species (O), widespread species (W), migratory 

species (M), and wetland species (S). 

3.4 Results 

A total of 68 species were recorded from the three wetland systems. These included species from 

all the five super families of butterflies. The list included 34 Nymphalids, 14 Pierids, 13 Lycaenids, 6 

Hesperiids and only one Papilionidae. 

44 


3.4.1 Species Richness 

There were at least four forest edge/woodland species recorded from the two Nakivale sites and 

Bisina 2 transects. These were Bicyclus jefferyi, Precis pelarga, Ypthima albida and Ypthimomorpha 

itonia. There was one FL species recorded from Nakivale 2 (B. smithi). There were four swamp/ 

wetland species recorded during this study. These included Acraea rahira (Opeta 1), Mylothris 

rubricosta (Nakivale 2), Borbo micans (Bisina 3) and Metisella midas (Nakivale 2). 

Table 1. Summary of Ecotypes for the three Ramsar sites 

Ecotype Lake Nakivale Lake Bisina Lake Opeta 

FL 1 0 0 

f. 2 1 0 

S 2 1 1 

O 3 11 5 

W 11 16 9 

O/m 2 8 4 

W/m 2 5 4 

U 0 1 0 

Total 23 43 23 

From table 1, it can be noted that the majority of the species recorded at all the three sites fall in the 

widespread and open habitat categories. Lake Bisina registered the highest number of species with 

Lake Nakivale and Lake Opeta with 23 species of butterflies respectively. 

Figure 1. Distribution of butterfly species in the three study sites 

Different butterfly species have varied ecological preferences within the habitats. For the wetland 

systems, the swamp/wetland species (S) is an indicator of the quality of the habitat. From figure 

1, the majority of species recorded were open habitat species and the widespread species. The 

Nakivale area surveyed was dominated by the Acacia woodland and reason enough to justify the 

presence of a forest species. 

In comparison with previous studies (Asasira, 2003), a number of species which were recorded 

then were visibly absent from current study. For Lake Bisina; Asasira (2003) recorded a total of 61 

species compared with 43 species from this study. Like for Lake Opeta, there was a reduction in 

species numbers from 73 species to only 23 species. 


3.4.2 Wetland restricted species 

In total four swamp/wetland species were recorded by this study. These included Acraea rahira, 

Mylothris rubricosta, Borbo micans and Metisella midas. According the Davenport, these species 

have restricted range and therefore very susceptible to habitat loss and degradation. 

Some observations: 

• From this study, there are no species of conservation concern recorded by this study. Most of 

the species are common open country or widespread species. 

• Because of the mixed nature of the habitats along the wetland areas, variable effects may 

be experienced in the different parts. Vegetation cutting/ trampling especially through the 

thicketed areas that are preferred feeding and breeding areas for the butterflies. 

• The thicketed areas are some of the preferred foraging areas for adult nectar feeders and food 

sources for larval stages. Poor quality vegetation supports a lower density of species. Loss of 

vegetation cover reduces the suitability of any habitat to support species peculiar to them. 

3.5 Discussions 

3.5.1 Link to ecosystems and Future monitoring 

Studying butterflies tells us about the habitats on which we all depend. Long term studies on 

temperate-zone butterflies that focused on species’ population dynamics and responses to habitat 

fragmentation have successfully contributed to conservation efforts (Sparrow et al., 1994). 

Declining butterfly numbers or distributions reflect overall loss of biological diversity and strongly 

indicate unsustainable practices (Lewinsohn et al., 2005). All butterfly species are valuable in their 

own right and act as powerful symbols of the state of our environment. Loss or deterioration of 

habitats, like forests, wetlands and savannas has a negative effect on butterflies, biodiversity and 

people. Some human practices (for example agriculture, forestry, fisheries, grazing) change habitats 

and action to conserve butterflies at the habitat level is therefore most effective. 

3.5.2 Future monitoring 

Regular monitoring of species’ occurrences in a given habitat/site is a necessary component of 

biodiversity monitoring. The database increases in value with each subsequent monitoring event, 

and repeated censusing will ensure that any change in biodiversity can be detected. 

Seasonal factors, such as species turnover and changing weather patterns render once weekly 

sampling unrepresentative and susceptible to increased sampling error. This preliminary study 

provided results that can be used as a technical baseline for establishing a butterfly-monitoring 

programme in the wetland systems. 

Sampling frequency should be determined by monitoring needs, logistic constraints and seasonal 

changes in the butterfly fauna. The detection of differences in the abundance of common species 

may be accomplished with a moderate field effort, even when an inventory of all the species is far 

from complete. Concentration of monitoring effort during the season of peak abundance of adult 

butterflies will maximize efficiency in the field and thus permit standardized comparisons of first 

monthly and then yearly shifts in the abundance of butterfly fauna. This is because wetter months 

are known to have highest species turnover. 

As per the sampling methods to be used for future butterfly monitoring, results from this study 

revealed that netting yielded more species than trapping but its success depended heavily on good 

46 


weather conditions. On the other hand, trapping, although yielding fewer species of butterflies 

consistently caught species that were rarely observed in flight, and also trapping was productive 

even under weather conditions that rendered netting ineffective. For the more open sites, trapping 

data was negligible compared to the species turnover from the netting efforts. Therefore for such 

areas, only netting would be productive provided the weather conditions are good. This will also 

help maximize sampling effort. 

In summary, a butterfly-monitoring programme for the wetland areas should constitute 

• Regularly revisiting these sites; 

• Other similar sites including protected areas should be included to enhance comparisons on 

rates of land-use change and how this may be affecting butterfly and other fauna; 

• Sites should be surveyed at least every 3-5 years depending on logistics; 

• Sampling should use a combination of netting and trapping (with at least 20 hours of netting 

at each site. 


References 

Asasira, J. (2003). Butterfly diversity and Conservation in eleven Important Bird Areas of Uganda. 

MSc thesis, MUIENR. 

Daily, G.C. & Ehrlich, P.R (1995). Preservation of biodiversity in small rain forest patches: rapid 

evaluations using butterfly trapping. Biodiversity and Conservation, 4, 35-55. 

Davenport, T.R.B. (1996). The Butterflies of Uganda - An Annotated Checklist. Uganda Forest 

Department, Kampala, Uganda. pp 48. 

Groombridge, B. (1992) Global Biodiversity – Status of the Earth’s Living Resources. IUCN Publishing 

Unit, Cambridge, UK. 

Lewinsohn, T.M., Freitas, A. V. L., and Padro, P. I. (2005). Conservation of Terrestrial Invertebrates 

and Their Habitats in Brazil. Conservation Biology, 19: 640-645. 

Pollard, E., and T. J. Yates. (1993). Monitoring butterflies for ecology and conservation. Chapman 

& Hall, London. 

Sparrow, H., Sisk, T., Ehrlich, P. and Murphy, D. (1994). Techniques and guidelines for monitoring 

Neotropical butterflies. Conservation Biology, 8, 800-809. 

48 


Appendices 

Appendix 1. Species lists of butterfly fauna recorded from the three 

wetland systems and their respective ecological preferences. 

Species 

Nymphalidae 

Nakivali 1 Nakivali 2 

Sites 

Bisina 1 Bisina 2 Bisina 3 Opeta 1 Opeta 2 

Ecological 

type 

Acraea acerata >20 1 W 

Acraea encedon 1 W 

Acraea eponina 3 >10 W 

Acraea neobule 2 2 W 

Acraea rahira 2 S 

Bicyclus jefferyi f 

Bicyclus safitza 1 W 

Bicyclus smithi 1 FL 

Bicyclus vulgaris 1 W 

Byblia ilithyia 1 3 O 

Catacroptera 

cloanthe 

1 1 O 

Charaxes jasius 1 1 O 

Charaxes sp 1 * 

Charaxes varanes 1 1 W 

Danaus chrysippus 1 4 >50 3 >20 7 O/m 

Hypolimnas misippus 3 2 W/m 

Junonia chorimene 1 O 

Junonia hierta 1 O/m 

Junonia oenone 1 W 

Junonia orithya 3 2 2 1 2 O/m 

Junonia sophia 2 W 

Junonia terea 1 W 

Mallika jacksoni 1 2 O 

Melanitis leda 1 W 

Neocoenyra gregorii 2 O 

Neptis saclava 3 W 

Neptis serena 2 2 W 

Pardopsis 

punctatissima 

2 2 3 2 W 

Phalanta phalanta 2 O/m 

Precis octavia 1 W 

Precis pelarga 1 f 

Ypthima albida 2 f 

Ypthima asterope 1 O 

Ypthimomorpha 

itonia 

1 f 


Lycaenidae 

Anthene amarah 3 1 O 

Azanus natalensis 2 2 2 3 W 

Cupidopsis jobates 1 W 

Euchrysops 

malathana 

1 1 O 

Freyeria trochylus 1 1 1 1 W 

Lepidochrysops 

elgonae 

2 O 

Leptotes pirithous 1 4 W/m 

Tarucus theophrastus 1 O 

Tarucus ungemachi 1 O 

Tuxentius cretosus 1 O 

Zizeeria knysna 2 2 2 W 

Zizina antanossa 1 2 4 3 3 3 W 

Zizula hylax 1 1 W 

Pieridae 

Belenois aurota 3 1 3 1 1 O/m 

Belenois creona 1 1 O/m 

Belenois gidica 1 W/m 

Catopsilia florella 2 2 2 O/m 

Colotis antivippe 1 1 O 

Colotis auxo 3 W 

Colotis eucharis 2 1 1 1 W 

Colotis evagore 1 1 1 1 O/m 

Dixeia orbona 1 1 W 

Eronia leda 2 W 

Eurema brigitta 7 4 3 3 3 W/m 

Eurema hecabe 2 2 2 2 W/m 

Eurema regularis 1 W 

Mylothris rubricosta 2 S 

Papilionidae 

Papilio demodocus 1 1 W/m 

Hesperiidae 

Borbo borbonica 1 W/m 

Borbo micans 1 S 

Eretis lugens 3 W 

Gegenes hottentota 2 O 

Metisella midas 2 S 

Spialia spio 1 O 

50 


Appendix 2. Comparison of butterfly fauna of Lake Bisina and Lake Opeta 

with Asasira (2003) 

(+) = Present and (-) = Absent 

Species Bisina 2003 Opeta 2003 Bisina 2009 Opeta 2009 

Hesperiidae 

Borbo borbonica - - - + 

Borbo micans + + + - 

Borbo perobscura + - - - 

Gegenes hottentota + + + - 

Gegenes niso - + - - 

Gomelia elma - + - - 

Kedestes wallengreni + - - - 

Parnara naso + - - - 

Pelopidas mathias - + - - 

Spialia diomus + + - - 

Spialia dromus + + - - 

Spialia spio - - + - 

Lycaenidae 

Actizera lucida + - - - 

Anthene amarah + + - - 

Anthene kersteni - + - - 

Anthene principes + - - - 

Azanus mirza - + - - 

Azanus natalensis + + + - 

Azanus ubaldus + - - - 

Cacyreus lingeus - + - - 

Cupidopsis jobates + - - + 

Eicochrysops hippocrates + + - - 

Euchrysops malathana + - + + 

Euchrysops osiris + + - - 

Freyeria trochylus + + + + 

Lachnonema brimo + - - - 

Lampides boeticus + + - - 

Lepidochrysops elgonae - - + - 

Lepidochrysops neonegus + - - - 

Leptotes pirithous - - - + 

Leptotes sp - + - - 

Pentila pauli - + - - 

Tarucus theophrastus + + + - 

Tarucus ungemachi + - - + 

Tuxentius cretosus + + + - 

Zizeeria knysna + + + + 

Zizina antanossa + + + + 

Zizula hylax + + + + 

Nymphalidae 

Acraea acerata - - + + 

Acraea encedon - - - + 

Acraea eponina + + + + 

Acraea neobule - - - + 

Acraea rahira + - - + 

Bicyclus angulosus + - - - 

Bicyclus jefferyi - + - - 

Bicyclus safitza - + - - 

Bicyclus sp - + - - 


Bicyclus vulgaris - - + - 

Byblia anvatara + - - - 

Byblia ilithya + + - + 

Catacroptera cloanthe + + + + 

Charaxes jahlusa - + - - 

Charaxes jasius - + + - 

Charaxes numenes - + - - 

Charaxes sp - + + - 

Charaxes tiridates - + - - 

Charaxes varanes - + + - 

Charaxes viola - + - - 

Charaxes zoolina + + - - 

Danaus chrysippus + + + + 

Hamanumida daedalus + + - - 

Henotesia phaea - + - - 

Hypolimnas misippus + - + - 

Junonia chorimene - + + - 

Junonia hierta - - + - 

Junonia orithya + + - - 

Mallika jacksoni + + + - 

Melanitis leda - + - - 

Neptis kiriakoffi + - - - 

Neptis morosa + - - - 

Neptis serena + + - - 

Pardopsis punctatissima + + + + 

Phalanta phalanta - - + - 

Precis ceryne + + + - 

Precis pelarga - + - - 

Ypthima sp + - - - 

Ypthimomorpha itonia + + + - 

Papilionidae 

Papilio demodocus + + + - 

Pieridae 

Appias epaphia + + - - 

Belenois aurota + + + + 

Belenois creona + + + - 

Belenois gidica + + - + 

Belenois subeida + + - - 

Catopsilia florella + + + - 

Colotis antevippe + + + + 

Colotis aurigeneus - + - - 

Colotis auxo - + + - 

Colotis danae - + - - 

Colotis eucharis - + + + 

Colotis euippe + + - - 

Colotis evagore + + + + 

Colotis hetaera - + - - 

Colotis vesta + + - - 

Dixeia orbona - - + - 

Dixeia pigea - + - - 

Eronia cleodora - + - - 

Eronia leda - - + - 

Eurema brigitta + + + + 

Eurema hapale - + - - 

Eurema hecabe + + + - 

Eurema regularis + + + - 

Mylothris rubricosta + + - - 

52 


CHAPTER 4: Plants 

RAPID ASSESSMENT OF LAKE MBURO - 

NAKIVALI AND LAKE BISINA - OPETA WETLAND 

SYSTEMS VEGETATION 

Olivia Maganyi 

Ireene Mwolobi 

Makerere University, 

Faculty of Science, Botany Department (Harbarium) 

4.1 Introduction 

4.1.1 Location of Lake Mburo-Nakivali wetland system 

The Lake Mburo-Nakivali wetland system lies between 30º 55’E and 00º 40’S at an altitude of 1280- 

1520 m.a.s.l. It is surrounded by seasonal and permanent swamps. Much of this system lies within 

the 260 km 2 of L. Mburo National Park at the convergence of two biological zones, which provides 

it with a wide range of habitats and a high diversity than might be expected given its relatively 

small size. The Mburo-Nakivali wetland system contains several lakes, of which Lakes Nakivali and 

Mburo are the largest. The study was carried out at Lake Nakivali in Isingiro district. 


Fig. 5 Plants survey Lake Mburo-Nakivali wetland system 

4.1.2 Vegetation 

The system is set in a regional landscape characterised by Acacia woodland and with undulating 

hills covered with grasses which enclose the broad flat valleys. These valleys are tributaries of the 

Kagera River and contain seasonal flood plains which drain through papyrus swamps into the various 

lakes. This wetland system was described by Langdale-Brown (1964) as Echinochloa grassland 

and permanent swamp (Cyperus papyrus swamp). On the ground we found four outstanding 

vegetation types namely; Echinochloa grassland, Cyperus papyrus swamp, Seasonal swamp forest 

and bushes. 

Echinochloa grassland: The Echinochloa grassland is dominated by Echinochloa pyramidalis with 

Cyperus dives, C. latifolius and Leersia hexandra as sub dominant. 

Permanent swamp (Cyperus papyrus swamp): The permanent wetland is dominated by Cyperus 

papyrus and the common associates include Cissampelos mucronata, Dissotis rotundifolia, 

Dryopteris sp., Leersia hexandra and Polygonum salicifolium. The tree layer is dominated by 

Acacia polyacantha. 

Seasonal wetlands: Characterised by Seasonal swamp forest which was found to be colonised 

with some species known to be montane like Podocarpus milanjianus, lowland species include 

Baikiaea insignis and Spondianthus preusii. Also found were bushes of natural thickets on free 

draining sandy loam or sandy clay loams. In Nakivali, Allophylus africana, Pluchea ovalifolia, Croton 

sp., Euphorbia candelabrum, Grewia mollis are the most common. 

54 


4.1.3 Plant diversity 

Plants offer potential advantages over other taxa as biodiversity indicators because they are 

the primary producers. Their abundance and diversity is likely to influence the species richness 

belonging to higher trophic levels (Kent et al. 1996). An inventory of all plant species was carried 

out in the study site. 

4.1.4 Physical and ecological features 

This wetland system is an Acacia-Echinochloa-Cyperus wetland associated with grasses and 

scattered thickets of Allophylus abyssinica and other forest colonisers. It has been highly modified 

by human activities through farming and cutting of the natural vegetation. 

4.1.5 Land tenure and status 

The site lies partly within a gazetted National Park and communal land. The main activities are 

subsistance farming and fishing. 

4.1.6 Study objectives and methods. 

4.1.6.1 The specific objectives of this vegetation survey were to: 

i. Produce guiding methods of wetland vegetation assessment for the two systems. 

ii. Establish baseline information on wetland vegetation richness or diversity. 

iii. Identify indicator species that may be used as eco-system vegetation monitoring. 

iv. Take appropriate GPS coordinates of surveyed areas (including for secondary data) 

v. Make field observations and descriptions as supportive information to the report. 

vi. Explore existing surveys report and use as supporting data where appropriate. 

vii. Produce a comprehensive report on the wetland vegetation diversity (Checklist). 

4.1.6.2 Methods 

The following general approaches were adopted as a basis for assessing the flora. 

Sampling: Sampling points were selected in such a way that a maximum number of strata were 

represented at a given site as a way of minimising time spent on movement to sample different 

strata. Vegetation strata (layers) were identified and for each layer the percentage cover for the 

species was estimated visually and recorded. Opportunistic sampling was also applied especially 

for the micro habitats registered in the study area. 

Layer code: The layer codes were by height not habitat. Tree layers were ranging between 3 - >5 

m high. In this class for example, papyrus which is a sedge, if it was >3m, was recorded here and 

likewise, a tree seedling that was

Quadrats: Nested quadrats of standard sizes (trees 30 x 30 m, shrubs 15 x 15 m and herbs 2 x 2 

m) were laid along these transects at an interval of 20m. Opportunistic sampling (visual estimates 

with out plotting) was applied on micro habitats that lay outside the quadrats in order to capture as 

much data as possible. The checklist generated will be used to set the ecological standards that 

shall be used as the bench mark for future references. 

Percentage cover: Percentage cover estimations were visual characterized under three strata 

(layers) levels (trees, shrubs and herbs). All species encountered were recorded. The unidentified 

species in the field were collected, given a unique reference number and taken to Makerere University 

Herbarium (MHU) for identification. 

4.1.7 Results 

A total of 123 species from 94 genera and 43 families were recorded. Of these, 16 were trees, 21 

shrubs and 86 herbaceous species. Poaceae was the most represented family with 16 species, 

followed by Asteraceae with 14 (Appendix 1). 

4.1.7.1 Species abundance 

Species abundances were visually estimated as percentage cover values per quadrat following the 

scale of 80-100 =5, 60- 79 =4, 40- 59 =3, 20- 39 =2, 1- 19 = 1 and below 1 =+. 

The herbal layer consists mainly of tall Cyperus papyrus, Echinochloa pyramidalis, and several 

woody seedlings constituting to about 80 % of the plant cover while the shrub and tree layers both 

constitute about 10 % and bare ground about 10 %. For all sampled quadrats, species’ average 

cover values were calculated and are presented in Table 1 (Please note that a species may occur in 

more than one stratum or layer). 

Table 1: Species abundance 

Layer Family Species % cover Life form 

Tree 

Anacardiaceae Rhus natalensis 1 P 

Asteraceae Pluchea ovalifolia 5 P 

Asteraceae Vernonia amygdalina 1 P 

Caesalpiniaceae Sesbania sesban 1 P 

Capparaceae Capparis tomentosa 2 P 

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea wightii 1 P 

Cyperaceae Cyperus dives 1 P 

Cyperaceae Cyperus papyrus 5 P 

Ebenaceae Euclea tridens 1 P 

Euphorbiaceae Flueggea virosa 1 P 

Euphorbiaceae Spondianthus preusii 2 P 

Lauraceae Beilschmiedia ugandensis 1 P 

Menispermaceae Cissampelos mucronata 1 P 

Mimosaceae Acacia kirkii 1 P 

Mimosaceae Acacia polyacantha 4 P 

Mimosaceae Acacia sieberiana 2 P 

56 



Myrtaceae Grevelea robusta 2 P 

Palmae Phoenix reclinata 1 P 

Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca dodecandra 1 P 

Poaceae Echinochloa pyramidalis 1 P 

Poaceae Typha latifolia 2 P 

Podocarpaceae Podocarpus milanjianus 1 P 

Rhamnaceae Maesopsis eminii 1 P 

Rutaceae Teclea nobilis 1 P 

Sapindaceae Allophylus Africana 4 P 

Tiliaceae Grewia bicolour 1 P 

Vitaceae Cissus rotundifolia 1 P 

Shrub 

Acanthaceae Asystasia gangetica + P 

Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera 2 P 

Anacardiaceae Rhus natalensis 3 P 

Apocynaceae Carissa edulis 1 P 

Asteraceae Conyza sumatrensis 1 A 

Asteraceae Erlangea cordifolia 1 P 

Asteraceae Gyanura scandens 1 A 

Asteraceae Melanthera scandens 1 P 



Caesalpinaceae Sesbania sesban + P 


Celastraceae Maytenus heterophylla + P 

Convolvulaceae Hewettia sublobata 1 P 

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea acuminata 1 A 

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea cairica 2 P 

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea sp. 1 P 

Cyperaceae Cyperus articulata 1 P 

Cyperaceae Cyperus denudatus 1 A 

Cyperaceae Cyperus distans 1 P 



Ebenaceae Euclea divinorum + P 

Euphorbiaceae Acalypha neptunica 3 P 


Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis 5 A 

Euphorbiaceae Spondianthus preusii 1 P 

Flacourtiaceae Flacourtia indica 1 P 

Lamiaceae Leonotis nepetifolia 4 A 

Malvaceae Abutilon mauritianum 1 P 

Malvaceae Pavonia patens 1 P 

Malvaceae Sida ovata 1 P 


Mimosaceae Acacia polyacantha 1 P 

Mimosaceae Acacia sieberiana 1 P 

Mimosaceae Albizia grandibracteata 1 P 


Papilionaceae Baikiaea insignis 2 P 



Poaceae Brachiaria jubata + P 


Poaceae Pennisetum purpureum 1 P 

Poaceae Typha latifolia 2 P 

Poaceae Zea mays 4 A 

Polygalaceae Polygala sphenoptera 1 A 

Polygonaceae Polygonum pulcherum 3 P 

Sapindaceae Allophylus abyssinica 1 P 

Sapindaceae Allophylus Africana 2 P 

Sapindaceae Blighia unijugata 1 P 

Sapotaceae Manilkara sp. 1 P 

Solanaceae Withania somnifera 1 A 

Tiliaceae Grewia bicolor 1 P 

Ulmaceae Chaetacme aristata 1 P 

Ulmaceae Trema orientalis 1 P 

Urticaceae Urera hypselodendron + P 


Vitaceae Cyphostemma adenocaule 1 P 

Herb 

Acanthaceae Asystasia gangetica 5 P 

Acanthaceae Dicliptera laxata 2 P 

Acanthaceae Dyschoriste radicans 2 P 

Acanthaceae Justicia exigua + A 

Aizoaceae Zaleya pentandra 1 A 


Amaranthaceae Amaranthus (Mbooge) 3 A 

Amaranthaceae Amaranthus hybridus 1 A 

Amaranthaceae Amaranthus spinosa 1 A 

Amaranthaceae Celosia trigyna 1 A 

Anacardiaceae Rhus natalensis + P 

Apocynaceae Carissa edulis 1 P 

Asclepiadaceae Pentarrhinum inspidum 1 P 

Asteraceae Ageratum conyzoides 1 A 

Asteraceae Bidens pilosa + A 

Asteraceae Enydra fluctuans 5 P 

Asteraceae Erlangea cordifolia 5 P 

Asteraceae Galinsoga parviflora 1 A 

Asteraceae Melanthera scandens 1 P 


Asteraceae Siesbeckia orientalis 1 A 

Asteraceae Sphaeranthus sauveolens 2 A 

Asteraceae Spilanthes mauritiana 1 A 

Asteraceae Tagetes minuta 2 A 


Capparaceae Capparis tomentosa + P 

Celastraceae Maytenus heterophylla 1 P 

Commellinaceae Commelina benghalensis 5 P 

Commellinaceae Commelina latifolia 2 P 

Commellinaceae Cyanotis foecunda + P 

Commellinaceae Murdania simplex 1 P 

58 



Convolvulaceae Hewettia sublobata 1 P 

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea acuminata 1 P 

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea cairica 1 P 

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea purpurea 1 P 

Cruciferae Erucastrum arabicum 2 A 

Cucurbitaceae Cucumis aculeatus 1 A 

Cyperaceae Cyperus alba + A 


Cyperaceae Cyperus distans + A 


Cyperaceae Cyperus esculenta 1 P 


Cyperaceae Pycreus mundtii 1 P 

Euphorbiaceae Acalypha neptunica 5 P 


Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus niruri + A 

Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus ovalifolia + P 

Flacourtiaceae Flacourtia indica + P 

Hydrocharitaceae (like Lemna) 4 P 

Lamiaceae Leucas martinicensis 1 A 


Malvaceae Hibiscus diversifolia 1 P 

Malvaceae Sida ovata 1 P 

Malvaceae Urena lobata 1 P 


Mimosaceae Acacia polycantha 4 P 

Onagraceae Jussiaea sp. 1 P 

Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata + A 


Papilionaceae Desmodium salicifolium + P 

Papilionaceae Phaseolus vulgaris 5 A 

Papilionaceae Trifolium usambarense + P 

Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca dodecandra 1 P 

Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylanica 2 P 

Poaceae Brachiaria decumbens 1 P 

Poaceae Brachiaria jubata 1 P 

Poaceae Cynodon dactylon 5 P 

Poaceae Digitaria abyssinica 5 P 

Poaceae Digitaria diagonalis 1 P 

Poaceae Digitaria longiflora 1 A 


Poaceae Eleusine corocana 2 A 

Poaceae Eleusine indica 1 P 

Poaceae Eragrostis tenuifolia + A 

Poaceae Leersia hexandra + P 

Poaceae Setaria homonyma 2 A 

Poaceae Setaria sphacelata + P 

Poaceae Zea mays 4 A 

Polygalaceae Polygala sphenoptera 2 A 

Polygonaceae Polygonum pulchrum 1 P 



Polygonaceae Polygonum salicifolium 5 P 

Polygonaceae Polygonum setolosum 1 P 

Rhamnaceae Maesopsis eminii 1 P 

Sapindaceae Allophylus Africana + P 

Solanaceae Lycopersicon esculenta + A 

Solanaceae Solanum nigrum 1 A 

Solanaceae Solanum sessilistellatum 1 P 

Solanaceae Solanum tuberosum 2 A 

Solanaceae Withania somnifera + A 

Tiliaceae Grewia bicolor 2 P 

Tiliaceae Grewia similis 1 P 

Tiliaceae Triumfetta macrophylla 1 P 

Typhaceae Typha latifolia 1 P 

Ulmaceae Chaetacme aristata + P 


Vitaceae Cyphostemma adenocaule 1 P 

Bare bround 3 

Note: P = Perennial and A = Annual 

4.1.7.2 Ecosystems challenges 

This ecosystem has been highly modified through:-clearing vegetation and reclaiming seasonally 

flooded valleys for farming leading to biodiversity loss and soil erosion starting at the bare patches 

slopes after clearing. This is expected to completely change the species dynamics. The anticipated 

adverse impacts include: Species loss, soil fragility, introduction of invasive species, siltation of the 

wetland and flash flooding. 

4.1.7.3 Environment and vegetation management 

Plant cover is effective in preventing erosion to the extent that it absorbs the kinetic energy of 

raindrops, covers a large proportion of the soil during periods of the year when rainfall is heavy, 

slows down runoff, and keeps the soil surface porous (Zhang et al., 2005). Whatever the slope, 

extent of soil fragility or climatic conditions, complete plant cover ensures a high level of soil and 

water conservation. Plant cover may have a priority in any effort to improve on water management, 

infiltration, biomass production and soil conservation. Some researchers have used plant cover as 

an indicator to assess ecosystem functional status in restoration projects (Maestre et al., 2006). 

Plant cover can be used to compare the abundance (dominance) of species of widely different 

growth forms, because it is not biased by the size and distribution of individuals. Only 3 % of the 

land was found to be bare, without plant cover. However, this is a high percentage that exposes 

the ecosystem to the effects of erosion if not monitored and maintained well. This being a fragile 

ecosystem, much of it should not be exposed. It was observed that diversity of herbs was higher 

than that of shrubs and trees. Fortunately, most of the dominating herbs are perennial species. For 

monitoring purposes, if the annual herbs dominate over the perennial ones, chances of getting 

larger bare patches will increase hence putting the ecosystem at an even greater risk of erosion. 

Dominance of annual species is expected if more land is cleared for agriculture. This being a wetland, 

the indicator species include all those recorded for family Cyperaceae as well as the following 

associated species: Echinochloa pyramidalis, Enydra fluctuans; families Nymphaceae, Typhaceae 

and Alismataceae (see Table 1). Significant changes in the estimated cover for the indicator species 

will directly imply that the negative effects of human disturbance are acting on the ecosystem. 

60 


4.1.7.4 Monitoring indicators and regimes 

The indicators and regimes will be monitored indirectly through, water quality changes, soil erosion 

levels and plant species diversity change. Any environmental changes must be observed and 

reacted upon. 

4.1.8 Discussions 

Lake Nakivali wetland as a representation of Lake Mburo-Nakivali system is highly degraded due 

to human activities. Natural vegetation has been cleared for farming. This might be partly due to 

overpopulation, poverty and lack of enforceable policies and reasonable management measures. 

According to Sisk et al. (1994); McCracken and Abaza (2001); and Reynolds and Smith (2002) 

ecosystem degradation phenomena are a worldwide environmental problem limiting the ecosystems 

sustainability. Seriously damaged lands not only lose control over resources, but also lose the 

capacity for self-repair and are unable to prevent additional degradation. As these degrading 

processes continue, a threshold can be crossed exceeding the ability for the ecosystem to recover 

and desertification results, a dynamic and self-perpetuating process. There is need therefore to 

restore this ecosystem. This restoration will bring back native species and their habitats. Seedlings 

of many species are expected to emerge, survive and establish reproducing populations, and then 

populations are expected to assemble into a community similar to the original system. Species 

composition can reflect the process of vegetation succession and be used as one of the objectives 

of vegetation restoration and improvement. 

4.1.9 Conclusions and recomendations 

The different degradation treatments had significant effects on species composition, plant cover and 

species diversity, and thus affect the ecological function of plant communities. Therefore, decisions 

and regulations related to strategies, such as re-vegetation planning, species selection, seedling 

management should be carefully considered. Reforestation with native dominant plant species 

or natural restoration is a reasonable choice for reforestation. A landscape approach should be 

condidered for community mobilization, awareness programmes and restoration of various zones. 


Bibliography 

Anand M, Laurence S, Rayeield B (2005). Diversity relationships among taxonomic groups in 

recovering and restored forests. Conservation Biology 19: 955-962. 

Archibold, O.W. (1995) Ecology of World Vegetation. Chapman & Hall London 

Burtt-Davy,J. 1938. The classification of tropical woody vegetation. I.F.I. paper 13 Oxford 

Jordan III WR, Gilpin ME, Aber JD (1996). Restoration ecology: a synthetic approach to ecological 

research. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. 

Kent M., & Coker P. (1996) Vegetation description and analysis. A practical Approach. John Wiley 

& Sons LTD, West Sussex, England. 

Langdale-Brown L., Osmaston H.A. & Wilson J.G. (1964). The vegetation of Uganda and its 

bearing on land use 

Maestre FT, Cortina J, Vallejo R (2006). Are Ecosystem Composition, Structure, and Functional 

Status Related to Restoration Success? A Test from Semiarid Mediterranean Steppes. Restor. Ecol. 

14: 258- 266. 

Martin L, Moloney KA, Wilsey BJ (2005). An assessment of grassland restoration success using 

species diversity components. J. Appl. Ecol. 42: 327-336. 

McCracken JR, Abaza H (2001). Environmental valuation: a worldwide compendium of case 

studies. Earthscan, London, UK. 

The National Environment Statute (1995). Statute supplement No.3 Vol. LXXXVIII 

National Environment Management Authority (1997). Guidelines for Environmental Impact 

Assessment in Uganda. 

Reynolds JR, Smith MS (eds) (2002). Global desertification: do humans cause deserts? Vol. DWR 

88 Dahlem Workshop Report, Berlin, Germany. 

Sisk T, Launer AE, Switky KR (1994). Identifying extinction threats: Global analyses of the 

distribution of biodiversity and the expansion of the human enterprise. BioScience. 44: 592–604. 

Sylvia, P., Namaganda, M & Lye, K. (2003). 115 Ugandan Grasses. Dept. of Botany, Makerere 

University, Kampala-Uganda. 

Zhang XM, Yu XX, Wu SH (2005) Effect of forest vegetation on runoff and sediment production in 

sloping lands of Loess area. Frontiers of Forestry in China. 1(3): 336-342. 

62 


Appendix 1; Checklist of plants in Lake Mburo - Nakivali system 

Family Species HABIT 

Acanthaceae Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anders. H 

Acanthaceae Dicliptera laxata C.Blake H 

Acanthaceae Dyschoriste radicans Nees H 

Acanthaceae Justicia exigua H 

Aizoaceae Zaleya pentandra H 

Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera L. H 

Amaranthaceae Amaranthus graecizans L. H 

Amaranthaceae Amaranthus hybridus H 

Amaranthaceae Amaranthus spinosus L. H 

Amaranthaceae Celosia trigyna L H 

Anacardiaceae Rhus natalensis Krauss S 

Apocynaceae Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl S 

Asclepiadaceae Pentarrhinum inspidum L 

Asteraceae Ageratum conyzoides L. H 

Asteraceae Bidens pilosa L. H 

Asteraceae Conyza sumatrensis H.B.K. H 

Asteraceae Enydra fluctuans H 

Asteraceae Erlangea cordifolia (Oliv.) S.Moore H 

Asteraceae Galinsoga parviflora Cav H 

Asteraceae Gyanura scandens O.Hoffm. H 

Asteraceae Melanthera scandens (Schum. & Thonn.) Roberty H 

Asteraceae Pluchea ovalifolia H 

Asteraceae Siesbeckia orientalis L. H 

Asteraceae Sphaeranthus sauveolens H 

Asteraceae Spilanthes mauritiana (Pers.)DC H 

Asteraceae Tagetes minuta L. H 

Asteraceae Vernonia amygdalina Del. S 

Caesalpiniaceae Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. S 

Capparaceae Capparis tomentosa Lam. S 

Celastraceae Maytenus heterophylla S 

Commellinaceae Commelina benghalensis Wall. C 

Commellinaceae Commelina latifolia L. H 

Commellinaceae Cyanotis foecunda H 

Commellinaceae Murdania simplex (Vahl.) Brenan. H 

Convolvulaceae Hewettia sublobata (L.) Kunze L 

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea acuminata (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. H 

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet C 

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth C 

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea wightii (Wall.) Choisy C 

Cruciferae Erucastrum arabicum Fisch. & May. H 



Cucurbitaceae Coccinia barteri (Hook.f.)Keay C 

Cyperaceae Cyperus alba Nees H 

Cyperaceae Cyperus articulatus L. H 

Cyperaceae Cyperus denudatus L.f. H 

Cyperaceae Cyperus distans 

Cyperaceae Cyperus dives 

Cyperaceae Cyperus esculentus L. H 

Cyperaceae Cyperus papyrus L. H 

Cyperaceae Pycreus mundtii 

Ebenaceae Euclea latidens Stapf T 

Ebenaceae Euclea divinorum T 

Euphorbiaceae Acalypha neptunica Müll.Arg. H 

Euphorbiaceae Flueggea virosa (Willd.) Voigt S 

Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus niruri H 

Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus ovalifolius Forssk. H 

Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis L. H 

Euphorbiaceae Spondianthus preusii Engl. T 

Flacourtiaceae Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. S 

Hydrocharitaceae (like Lemna) H 

Lamiaceae Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) Ait. H 

Lamiaceae Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) Ait.f. H 

Lauraceae Beilschmiedia ugandensis T 

Malvaceae Abutilon mauritianum (Jacq.) Sweet H 

Malvaceae Hibiscus diversifolia H 

Malvaceae Pavonia patens H 

Malvaceae Sida ovata Forssk. H 

Malvaceae Urena lobata L. H 

Menispermaceae Cissampelos mucronata A.Rich. C 

Mimosaceae Acacia kirkii 

Mimosaceae Acacia polycantha 

Mimosaceae Acacia sieberiana DC T 

Mimosaceae Albizia grandibracteata Taub. T 

Myrtaceae Grevillea robusta Cunn.ex R.Br. T 

Onagraceae Jussiaea sp. H 

Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata L. H 

Palmae Phoenix reclinata 

Papilionaceae Baikiaea insignis 

Papilionaceae Desmodium salicifolium 

Papilionaceae Phaseolus vulgaris 

Papilionaceae Trifolium usambarense 

Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca dodecandra L’Herit S 

Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. H 

64 



Poaceae Brachiaria decumbens 

Poaceae Brachiaria jubata 

Poaceae Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. H 

Poaceae Digitaria abyssinica (A.Rich.) Stapf H 

Poaceae Digitaria diagonalis (Nees) Stapf H 

Poaceae Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers. H 

Poaceae Echinochloa pyramidalis 

Poaceae Eleusine corocana 

Poaceae Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. H 

Poaceae Eragrostis tenuifolia 

Poaceae Leersia hexandra Sw. H 

Poaceae Pennisetum purpureum 

Poaceae Setaria homonyma (Steud.) Chiov. C 

Poaceae Setaria sphacelata (Schum.)Moss C 

Poaceae Zea mays 

Podocarpaceae Podocarpus milanjianus 

Polygalaceae Polygala sphenoptera Fresen. H 

Polygonaceae Polygonum pulcherum 

Polygonaceae Polygonum salicifolium 

Polygonaceae Polygonum setolosum A.Rich. H 

Rhamnaceae Maesopsis eminii 

Rutaceae Teclea nobilis 

Sapindaceae Allophylus abyssinica 

Sapindaceae Allophylus africana P.Beauv. T 

Sapindaceae Blighia unijugata 

Sapotaceae Manilkara sp. 

Solanaceae Lycopersicon esculentum Miller H 

Solanaceae Solanum nigrum L. H 

Solanaceae Solanum sessilistellatum 

Solanaceae Solanum tuberosum L. H 

Solanaceae Withania somnifera 

Tiliaceae Grewia bicolor Juss. S 

Tiliaceae Grewia similis K.Schum. S 

Tiliaceae Triumfetta macrophylla K.Schum. S 

Typhaceae Typha latifolia L. H 

Ulmaceae Chaetacme aristata Plunch T 

Ulmaceae Trema orientalis (L.) Blume T 

Urticaceae Urera hypselodendron (Hochst.) Wedd. L 

Vitaceae Cissus rotundifolia (Forsk.) Vahl L 

Vitaceae Cyphostemma adenocaule Wild & R.B.Drumm. L 


4.2 Rapid plant survey of Lake Bisina-Opeta wetland sysyems 

4.2.1 Introduction 

Lake Bisina-Opeta wetland system is located in North-Eastern Uganda in the Teso and Karamoja 

regions. The Bisina wetland system lies in the Eastern end of the Lake Kyoga basin and it covers 

an area of 54,229 ha while the Opeta wetland covers an area of 68,913 ha. Lake Bisina is a shallow 

freshwater lake, 32 km long and 6 km wide surrounded by a papyrus swamp. Historically, the 

system has been valuable for flood prevention. However this function is becoming less effective 

with growing settlement on marginal lands and silting within Bisina and the neighbouring Opeta 

wetlands caused by degradation of the Mount Elgon water catchment. 

The Lake Bisina-Opeta wetland system lies between 33°51’- 34° E and 01°35’ - 01°’N, at an elevation 

of 1,050 m a.s.l. in the Eastern end of the Lake Kyoga basin. The dominant open water species 

for both lakes are Nymphea nouchali, Najas pectinata and Ceratophyllum dumersum. The marshy 

margins are fringed by a leafless sedge Cyperus articulatus and Echinochloa pyramidalis, which 

dominate parts of the shorelines. In the deeper waters off the shore, the vegetation is dominated by 

Vossia cuspidata and some patches with Cyperus papyrus. The main vegetation type of this area 

is Acacia - Hyparrhenia - Themeda grass savannah (Langdale-Brown 1964).Plants offer potential 

advantages over other taxa as biodiversity indicators because they are the primary producers. Their 

abundance and diversity is likely to influence the species richness belonging to higher trophic levels 

(Kent et al. 1996). An inventory of all plant species was carried out in the study site. 

Fig. 6 Plant survey of Lake Bisina - Opeta wetland sysyems 

4.2.2 Physical and ecological features 

This wetland system consists of perennial grasses, sedges, Acacias, thickets of Harissonia 

abyssinica in the drier areas, and has been modified by human activities like grazing, fishing and 

farming. In terms of land tenure and status, the sites are designated Ramsar sites and are Important 

Bird Areas. 

66 


4.3.3 Results 

4.3.3.1 Lake Bisina 

A total of 70 species were recorded around Lake Bisina (Table 1) and among these was the localised 

rare Ottelia fischeri. The dominant species in the herbal layer were Echinochloa pyramidalis, Cyperus 

articulatus, Hyparrhenia filipendula and Paspalidium geminatum while the shrub and tree layers 

mainly had Acacia drepanolobium and Harissonia abyssinica. Only five tree species were recorded; 

11 shrub species; the majority being herbs with 54 species (Table 1). 

4.3.3.2 Lake Opeta 

Lake Opeta was richer than L. Bisina with 84 species from 63 genera and 23 families (Table 2). 

The dominant species in the herbal layer were Echinochloa pyramidalis, Cyperus articulatus, and 

Hyparrhenia filipendula while the shrub and tree layers mainly had Acacia spp., Crateva adensonii 

and Harissonia abyssinica. The tree strata had 10 species while the shrub strata had 24 species and 

the majority were herbs with 60 species (Table 2). 

Table 1: Plant species in the different strata recorded at Lake Bisina 


Herb 

Alismataceae Caldesia reniformis 2 P 

Alismataceae Wisneria filifolia + P 

Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera + P 

Asteraceae Conyza sumatrensis + A 

Asteraceae Crassocephalum picridifolia + A 

Cucurbitaceae Coccinea grandis + P 

Cyperaceae Abildgaardia ovata 1 P 

Cyperaceae Cyperus articulatus 3 P 


Cyperaceae Cyperus difformis 1 P 

Cyperaceae Cyperus latifolius 1 P 

Cyperaceae Fimbristylis umbellata 2 P 

Cyperaceae Kyllinga alba + A 

Cyperaceae Pycreus mundtii + P 

Cyperaceae Scleria hirtella 2 P 

Hydrocharitaceae Ottelia fischeri + P 


Malvaceae Hibiscus cannabinus 1 P 

Malvaceae Pavonia sp. + P 

Malvaceae Sida acuta 2 P 


Menispermaceae Stephania abyssinica 2 P 

Najadaceae Najas pectinatus 1 A 

Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea nouchali 3 P 

Onagraceae Jassiaea + A 

Papilionaceae Alysicarpus glumaceous 1 P 

Papilionaceae Alysicarpus setosa 1 P 

Papilionaceae Colutea + P 

Papilionaceae Desmodium salicifolium 2 P 

Papilionaceae Tephrosia pumila 1 P 

Papilionaceae Vigna luteola 1 P 

Papilionaceae Zornia pratensis 1 P 



Papilionaceae Zornia setosa 1 P 

Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zaylenica 1 A 

Poaceae Andropogon canaliculatus 1 P 

Poaceae Bothriochloa insculpta 2 P 

Poaceae Brachiaria jubata 2 P 

Poaceae Cynodon dactylon 2 P 

Poaceae Digitaria abyssinica 1 P 

Poaceae Digitaria diagonalis 2 A 

Poaceae Echinochloa haploclada 2 P 


Poaceae Eragrostis tenuifolia 2 A 

Poaceae Hyparrhenia filipendula 3 P 

Poaceae Hyparrhenia rufa 2 P 

Poaceae Microchloa kunthii 1 P 

Poaceae Panicum (small) + P 

Poaceae Panicum repens 1 P 

Poaceae Paspalidium geminatum 3 P 

Poaceae Setaria sphacelata 2 P 

Poaceae Sporobolus pyramidalis 1 P 

Potamogetonaceae Potamogeton pectinatus 1 P 

Rubiaceae Oldenlandia corymbosa 1 A 

Rubiaceae Pentas sp. + A 

Shrub 

Anacardiaceae Lannea humilis 1 P 

Caesalpiniaceae Cassia bicapsularis 1 P 

Caesalpiniaceae Piliostigma thonningii + P 

Mimosaceae Acacia drepanolobium 3 P 

Mimosaceae Acacia hockii 2 P 

Mimosaceae Albizia coriaria 1 P 

Balanitaceae Balanites aegyptica 1 P 

Rubiaceae Pavetta crassipes + P 

Simaroubaceae Harrisonia abyssinica 2 P 

Tiliaceae Grewia similis 1 P 

Verbenaceae Vitex doniana + P 

Tree 

Anacardiaceae Lannea humilis 1 P 

Balanitaceae Balanites aegyptica 1 P 

Combretaceae Combretum collinum 1 P 

Mimosaceae Acacia seyal 2 P 

Mimosaceae Albizia coriaria 1 P 

Table 2: Plant species in the different strata recorded at Lake Opeta 


Herb 

68 

Alismataceae Caldesia reniformis 2 P 

Alismataceae Limnophytum angolense 1 P 

Alismataceae Wisneria filifolia 1 P 


Amaranthaceae 

Celosia trigyna + A 

Commelinaceae Commelina africana + A 

Cyperaceae Abildgaardia ovata + P 





Cyperaceae Cyperus difformis + A 

Cyperaceae Cyperus latifolius + P 

Cyperaceae Cyperus like articulata + P 

Cyperaceae 

Fimbristylis umbellata 1 P 

Cyperaceae 

Fuirena umbellata 1 P 

Cyperaceae 

Kyllinga alba 1 A 

Cyperaceae 

Pycreus mundtii + P 

Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus niruri + 

A 

Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia hirta + 

A 

Lamiaceae Leucas martinicensis + 

A 

Malvaceae Sida acuta + 

P 

Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea nouchali 2 

P 

Papilionaceae Alysicarpus glumaceous + 

P 

Papilionaceae Crotalaria cephalotes + 

P 

Papilionaceae Desmodium salicifolium + 

P 

Papilionaceae Eriosema psoraleoides 1 

A 

Papilionaceae Indigofera spicata 1 

P 

Papilionaceae 

Tephrosia pumila 1 

P 

Papilionaceae 

Vigna luteola 1 

P 

Papilionaceae 

Zornia pratensis 1 

P 

Papilionaceae 

Zornia setosa 1 

P 

Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zaylenica 1 

A 

Poaceae Andropogon canaliculatus 2 

P 

Poaceae Bothriochloa insculpta 2 

P 

Poaceae Brachiaria jubata 1 

P 

Poaceae Chloris gayana 2 

A 

Poaceae Chloris pychnothrix 1 

A 

Poaceae Ctenium somalense 1 

A 

Poaceae Cynodon dactylon 3 

P 

Poaceae Digitaria abyssinica 1 

P 

Poaceae Digitaria diagonalis + 

A 

Poaceae Echinochloa haploclada + 

P 

Poaceae Echinochloa pyramidalis 3 

P 

Poaceae Eragrostis exasperata 1 

A 

Poaceae Eragrostis olivacea 1 

A 

Poaceae Eragrostis tenuifolia + 

A 

Poaceae Hyparrhenia filipendula 3 

P 

Poaceae 

Hyparrhenia rufa 1 

P 

Poaceae 

Leersia hexandra 4 

P 

Poaceae 

Panicum maximum + 

P 

Poaceae 

Panicum repens 1 

P 

Poaceae 

Paspalidium geminatum 2 

P 

Poaceae 

Paspalum scrobiculatum 1 

P 



Poaceae 

Setaria sphacelata 1 

P 

Poaceae 

Sporobolus festivus + 

P 

Poaceae 

Sporobolus pyramidalis + 

P 

Polygonaceae Polygonum pulcherum + 

A 

Portulacaceae Talinum portulacca + 

P 

Potamogetonaceae Potamogeton pectinatus + 

P 

Proteaceae Protea sp. + 

P 

Rubiaceae Oldenlandia corymbosa + 

A 

Shrub 

Tiliaceae Corchoorus tridens + 

A 

Capparaceae Capparis erythrocarpos 1 P 


Capparaceae Crateva adansonii 2 P 


Euphorbiaceae Flueggea virosa 1 

P 

Euphorbiaceae Clutia sp. + 

P 

Menispermaceae Chasmanthera dependens + 

P 

Mimosaceae Acacia drepanolobium 2 

P 

Mimosaceae Acacia hockii 1 

P 

Mimosaceae Acacia senegalensis 1 

P 

Mimosaceae Acacia seyal 1 

P 

Mimosaceae 

Acacia sieberiana + 

P 

Mimosaceae 

Albizia coriaria 1 

P 

Mimosaceae 

Dicrostachys cinerea + 

P 

Papilionaceae Tamarindus indica 1 

P 

Papilionaceae Tephrosia nana + 

P 


P 

Rhamnaceae Scutia myrtina 2 

P 

Rubiaceae Pavetta crassipes 1 

P 

Simaroubaceae Harrisonia abyssinica 3 

P 

Tiliaceae Grewia similis 2 

P 

Tiliaceae Triumfetta rhomboidea + 

P 

Tiliaceae Grewia mollis + 

P 

Tree 

Vitaceae Cissus rotundifolia 2 

P 

70 

Capparaceae Crateva adansonii 2 P 

Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia candelabrum + 

P 

Mimosaceae Acacia drepanolobium 3 

P 

Mimosaceae Acacia seyal 2 

P 

Mimosaceae 

Acacia sieberiana + 

P 

Mimosaceae 

Albizia coriaria 1 

P 

Papilionaceae Tamarindus indica 1 

P 


P 

Rhamnaceae Scutia myrtina 2 

P 

Tiliaceae Grewia mollis + P 


4.3.4 Ecosystems challenges 

This ecosystem has been modified through:- Over grazing; siltation and poor farming methods and 

fishing. This is expected to change the ecosystem and the anticipated adverse impacts include: 

wetland loss, siltation, floods, species loss, and soil fragility. 

. 

4.3.5 Environmental and vegetation management 

The massive collection of silt affect the seed bank in the soil and most annuals will die. To control 

siltation along the plains, there is need to make contours along the slopes to reduce on the amount 

of silt from the slopes that drain into the plains. Plant cover may have a priority in any effort to 

improve on water management, infiltration, biomass production and soil conservation. Many herbs 

tend to be annuals and this means that during the unfavourable or dry seasons, many species will 

die leaving a lot of exposed patches which at the beginning of the dry season suffer a lot of erosion. 

Also due to trampling by animals grazing and access to watering points, too much exposure to 

the scorching sun of the dry season, the exposed soil may degrade in quality through too much 

water loss and hardening. This could affect the soil seed bank, leaving these exposed patches 

permanently bare or with scanty vegetation during the wet season. 

4.3.6 Monitoring indicators and regimes 

The monitoring indicators and regimes will be indirectly through, water quality changes, soil erosion 

levels, plant species diversity change and any environmental changes must be observed and reacted 

upon. The indicator species that should be used include; Cyperus papyrus, C. articulatus, Leersia 

hexandra, Limnophytum angolense, Caldesia reniformis, Wisneria filifolia (these will die with less 

water and silting). If the water levels increase, marsh or seasonally flooded species like Echinochloa 

pyramidalis will die. The seed bank will be washed away into the lake and these will all die. 

4.3.7 Discussion 

Lake Bisina and Lake Opeta have rich diversity of species and with some localised rare plant 

species like Ottellia fischeri and Suddia sagittifolia. The Suddia sagitifolia though not sighted during 

the study is confirmed to be present at the site based on Herbarium material. The Suddia sagitifolia 

was until recently believed to be limited to southern Sudan but it has now been established that this 

plant also occurs in Uganda in the Lake Kyoga Basin. 

The threats here include: over-fishing, poor farming methods like overgrazing, and low levels of 

environmental awareness may all be contributing to the deterioration of the ecological system of 

Lake Bisina-Opeta wetland system. Increased flood risk within the catchment due to erosion from 

the mountains and siltation within the systems has reduced the ability to absorb flood waters. 

This might be partly due to overpopulation, weak enforcement of existing regulations and lack of 

enforceable policies and reasonable management measures. 

4.3.8 Conclusions and recommendations 

The different degradation treatments had significant effects on species composition, plant cover and 

species diversity, and thus affect the ecological function of plant communities. Therefore, decisions 

and strategies such as flood control, re-vegetation planning, species selection and seedling 

management should be carefully considered. Replanting with native dominant plant species or 

natural restoration is a reasonable choice for re-vegetation. Other interventions such as boundary 

marking, wetlands restoration, wise use of resources and promotion of some income generating 

activies (eco-tourism) should be considered for the whole landscape. 


Bibliography 

Kent M., & Coker P. (1996) Vegetation description and analysis. A practical Approach. John Wiley 

& Sons LTD, West Sussex, England. 

Langdale-Brown L., Osmaston H.A. & Wilson J.G. (1964). The vegetation of Uganda and its 

bearing on land use 

The National Environment Statute (1995). Statute supplement No.3 Vol. LXXXVIII 

National Environment Management Authority (1997). Guidelines for Environmental Impact 

Assessment in Uganda. 

Sylvia, P., Namaganda, M & Lye, K. (2003). 115 Ugandan Grasses. Dept. of Botany, Makerere 

University, Kampala-Uganda. 

72 


Appendix 1: Species Checklist 

Family Name Habit 

Alismataceae Caldesia reniformis (D.Don.) Makino H 

Alismataceae Wisneria filifolia Hook.f. H 

Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera H 

Anacardiaceae Lannea humilis T 

Asteraceae Conyza sumatrensis H 

Asteraceae Crassocephalum picrifolia H 

Balanitaceae Balanites aegyptica T 

Caesalpiniaceae Cassia bicapsularis S 

Caesalpiniaceae Piliostigma thonningii S 

Combretaceae Combretum collinum T 

Cucurbitaceae Coccinea grandis H 

Cyperaceae Abildgaardia ovata H 

Cyperaceae Cyperus articulatus H 

Cyperaceae Cyperus denudatus H 

Cyperaceae Cyperus difformis H 

Cyperaceae Cyperus latifolius H 

Cyperaceae Fimbristylis umbellate H 

Cyperaceae Kyllinga alba H 

Cyperaceae Pycreus mundtii H 

Cyperaceae Scleria hirtella H 

Hydrocharitaceae Ottelia fischeri H 

Malvaceae Abutilon mauritianum S 

Malvaceae Hibiscus cannabinus S 

Malvaceae Pavonia sp. S 

Malvaceae Sida acuta H 

Menispermaceae Cissampelos mucronata H 

Menispermaceae Stephania abyssinica H 

Mimosaceae Acacia (red stout hooked short spine) T 

Mimosaceae Acacia drepanolobium S 

Mimosaceae Acacia hockii S 

Mimosaceae Albizia coriaria T 

Najadaceae Najas pectinatus H 

Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea nouchali H 

Onagraceae Jassiaea H 

Papilionaceae Alysicarpus glumaceous H 

Papilionaceae Alysicarpus setosa H 

Papilionaceae Colutea H 

Papilionaceae Desmodium salicifolium H 

Papilionaceae Tephrosia pumila H 


Family Name Habit 

Papilionaceae Vigna luteola H 

Papilionaceae Zornia pratensis H 

Papilionaceae Zornia setosa H 

Papilionaceae Zornia setosa H 

Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zaylenica H 

Poaceae Andropogon canaliculatus H 

Poaceae Bothriochloa insculpta H 

Poaceae Brachiaria jubata H 

Poaceae Cynodon dactylon H 

Poaceae Digitaria abyssinica H 

Poaceae Digitaria diagonalis H 

Poaceae Echinochloa haploclada H 

Poaceae Echinochloa pyramidalis H 

Poaceae Eragrostis exasperata H 

Poaceae Hyparrhenia filipendula H 

Poaceae Hyparrhenia rufa H 

Poaceae Microchloa kunthii H 

Poaceae Panicum (small) H 

Poaceae Panicum repens H 

Poaceae Paspalidium geminatum H 

Poaceae Setaria sphacelata H 

Poaceae Sporobolus pyramidalis H 

Potamogetonaceae Potamogeton pectinatus H 

Rubiaceae Oldenlandia corymbosa H 

Rubiaceae Pavetta crassipes S 

Rubiaceae Pentas sp. H 

Simaroubaceae Harrisonia abyssinica S 

Tiliaceae Grewia similis S 

Verbenaceae Vitex doniana S 

74 


CHAPTER 5: FISH 

RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE FISH BIODIVERSITY 

OF THE MBURO-NAKIVALI WETLAND SYSTEMS AND 

OPETA-BISINA WETLAND SYSTEMS, UGANDA 

By Dr. Dismas Mbabazi, (PhD) 

Senior Research Officer, 

National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO) 

National Fisheries Resources Research Institute (NaFIRRI), Jinja. 


Lakes Bisina and Lake Opeta are “finger lakes”, extensions of Lake Kyoga, surrounded by swamp 

land during rainy seasons. These lakes are shallow, usually reaching a depth of a maximum of 6 

meters and Lake Opeta usually forms a separate lake during dry seasons. 

The lakes have three different environmental zones: the open clear water deeper than 3 m; the water 

less than 3 m, which is covered completely with water lilies and other submerged water plants like 

ceratophylum; and the swamps mainly papyrus, which fringe the shoreline. The lakes have a rich 

biodiversity that include flora and fauna such as Cyperus Papyrus, Hippo Grass (Vossia Cuspidata), 

Cattail (Typha spp.), Water lily (Nymphea spp.), and Water Lettuce (Pistia stratiodes). Large crocodile 

populations and other wild life. 


There are 46 different fish species in the Lake Kyoga basin with some of them endemic. The Nile 

Perch (Lates niloticus) was introduced into the main Lake Kyoga, Nakuwa and Bisina in the late 

1950s to increase the fish production. The Nile Perch profileration in lakes Kyoga and Nakuwa led 

to the almost complete elimination of many native fish species such as Orechromis esculentus and 

variabilis, Mormyrus kanumme, Schilbe mystus and several Haplochromines species. 

Lakes Mburo, Kachera, Nakivali and Kijjanebalora are part of the complex system of lakes separated 

from Lake Victoria by extended swamps known as the Koki lakes, some of the satellite lakes in the 

Lake Victoria basin. The fisheries of these lakes are important as they contribute to government 

efforts of increasing food security, poverty reduction and conservation of natural resource base. 

These lakes are important biodiversity areas because some of these lakes have been found to 

contain the native tilapiine Oreochromis esculentus (Ngege), absent or threatened with extinction 

in the main Lakes Victoria and Kyoga. It’s also important to note that this species is only unique to 

the Victoria and Kyoga lake basins (Graham, 1929, Worthington, 1929). The values of some of these 

lake fisheries are however, threatened by human activities such as over exploitation, introduction 

of exotics especially water hyacinth that is already present in River Rwizi and habitat degradation 

among others. 

The main human activities in the two wetland systems are fishing, cultivation, settlement and 

livestock keeping. There are no industrial enterprises in the area, due to lack of grid or any other 

power connectivity. 

5.2 Why monitor fish diversity? 

Fish diversity, species richness, species pollutant tolerance, disease prevalence and other metrics 

are used to evaluate the aquatic health of water bodies as with reference to generally agreed 

conditions. Fish as an indicator is widely regarded as one of the more reliable methods for assessing 

human-induced ecological impacts. Fish are always captured by a variety of methods but what is 

important is that collection should be representative of all the possible habitat types available in a 

water body. 

5.3 Why use fish in monitoring? 

a) The longer life span (3 to 4 years), exposes fish to years of impacts and provide a good 

assessment of long-term impacts 

b) Fish represent a broad range of trophic levels.They may be strongly influenced by lower trophic 

levels (i.e. algae, macro-invertebrates etc.). Therefore fish assemblage provides an integrated 

view of the entire environmental system. 

c) Fish are relatively easy to catch and identify; the environmental requirements and life history 

of fish are also well documented. 

d) The general public is familiar with fishing for income, food and sport. 

e) Water body aquatic life uses are depicted in terms of fish 

5.4 Objectives 

The overall objective of this assessment was to make an inventory of the fish status to guide 

the future biodiversity monitoring efforts aimed at suitable management. This was achieved 

specifically through: 

a) Making an inventory of the fish species present in the two wetland systems and identify those 

that are endangered 

b) Identifying how human activities threaten fish species diversity in the two wetlands systems 

76 


5.5 Materials and Methods 

5.5.1 Study area 

The assessment focused on two satellite lakes in each of the two wetland systems namely lakes 

Mburo and Kachera in the Mburo-Nakivali system, Lake Victoria basin; Opeta and Bisina in the 

Opeta-Bisina wetland system Lake Kyoga basin. 

The Mburo-Nakivali weland system covers a surface area of about 570 Km 2 

. Lake Kachera is part 

of a complex of lakes (Mburo, Nakivali and Kiijanebalora) and extensive papyrus swamp (Burgis et 

al., 1987) located at 00 0 

35’S; 31 0 

07’ E, with a total surface area of 36.3 km 2 

, and a maximum depth 

of 4.1 m (Worthington, 1932). Lake Kachera has a maximum length of 20.0 km and width of 3.5 

km (Atlas of Uganda, 1967; Welcomme, 1972;). The lake has one river out flow Kibali discharging 

through River Kagera into Lake Victoria. The size and shape of the lake varies from time to time 

due to floating islands. The shoreline vegetation is fringed with papyrus (Cyperus papyrus), reeds 

(Phragmites mauritianus), forest, and scattered banana plantations. Lake Kachera is borderd by 

Rakai district and Lake Mburo National Park and is exposed to very many anthropogenic factors. The 

communities around Lake Kachera have for long depended on fishing as a major economic activity. 

The non fishing communities around the lake are either traditional cattle keepers or cultivators, but 

most of the communities around the lake now practice mixed farming combining both livestock 

management and crop cultivation to varying degrees (Marquardt et al., 1994; Kamugisha et al., 

1997; Namara and Infield, 1998; Emerton, 1999). 

Fig. 7 Fish survey sites in Mburo – Nakivali wetland system 


Lake Mburo is part of a complex of lakes (Mburo, Nakivali and Kiijanebalora) and extensive papyrus 

swamp (Burgis et al., 1987) located at 00 40’S; 30 0 

56’ E in Kiruhura District in an area owned in 

precolonial days by the traditional King, the Omugabe of Nkore (Mugisha, 2003), it has a total surface 

area of 10.4 km 2 

, a maximum length of 6.0 km and width of 3 km (Atlas of Uganda, 1967). However, 

the size and shape vary from time to time due to floating islands. The inhabitants (Bahima) around 

the lake primarily use the riparian land for pastoralism. Until the intervention of colonial government, 

fishing was not an important economic activity in the lake (Mugisha, 2003). In 1983 Lake Mburo 

was gazetted as a national park (Burgis et al., 1987) and therefore fishing was restricted. Following 

the eviction of the last residents in 1997 there is no permanent human settlement in the 260 km 2 

Lake Mburo National Park, apart from approximately 50 Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) staff and 

100 or so workers and fisherfolk who temporarily reside at Lubale Landing site (Emerton, 1999). 

The economic benefits accruing from fisheries activities were valued at Ush 108.1 million in 1997, 

7.6 million of which went to the national park as house maintenance fees, boat fees, and fuel wood 

fees for processors, and the rest to the Department of Fisheries Resources (Emerton, 1997). The 

National Park is characterised by high densities of animals most of which are native and the lake 

harbours large populations of hippopotamuses most of the daylight hours, spending the night out 

of the water. 

Lake Bisina, is another large lake, located 272 km north east of the town of Jinja, in the shadow of 

Mt. Elgon at 01 0 

38 1 

N 33 0 

58 1 

E it has an elevation of 1048 m and has tiny crater lakes high in the 

mountains. Lake Bisina has a surface area of 308 km 2 

(Atlas of Uganda, 1967) and a maximum depth 

of 3.5 m. Districts of Kumi (south) and Katakwi (North) border Lake Bisina. Lake Bisina like the main 

lakes Victoria and Kyoga was stocked with Nile perch and the tilapiines (O. niloticus, O. leucostictus 

and T. zilli) in the early 1970’s. Lake Bisina is known by local inhabitants to have supported a Nile 

perch fishery however; this study did not record any Nile perch throughout the survey. Lake Bisina 

is one of the lakes internationally recognized as a biodiversity cradle, because they still contain 

remnants of native species flocks of cichlids that occurred in lakes Victoria and Kyoga before the 

Nile perch boom and demise of cichlid species (Mbabazi et al., 2004; Schwartz et al., 2006).The 

lake is characterized by a variety of habitat types ranging from submerged aquatic macrophytes 

dominated by Najas horrida and Ceratophyllum spp. some floating water lilies (Nymphaea spp). 

Most of the lake’s shoreline is fringed with hippo grass (Vossia cuspidata) and a very small portion 

of cattail (Typha domingensis). The human populations surrounding the lake are mainly pastoralist 

comunities keeping cattle and goats but they also do some crop cultivation. 

78 


Fig. 8 Mammal survey sites in Opeta – Bisina wetland system 

5.5.2 Data Capture and analysis 

This assessment was based on data based on a single visit trip to one of the lakes Opeta and at a 

three months interval through a PhD study by Mbabazi between 2001 and 2003. 

In all the above situations fish samples were obtained using multifilament experimental gill nets with 

stretch mesh sizes (25.4 to 203.2 mm) in increments of 12.7 mm intervals from 25.4 to 139.7 mm, 

and 25.4 mm intervals for nets ranging in mesh size 52.4 to 203.2 mm in a fleet of 90m long. The 

nets were set at dusk and retrieved the following morning. The fishes were sorted and identified to 

the lowest taxonomic level possible, number and weight of each taxon were recorded. The fishes 

that could not be identified especially haplochromine cichlids were preserved in 10% formaldehyde 

solution. 

In the laboratory, the fishes were sorted into taxonomic groups (genera or species) based on 

morphometric and meritic procedures described by Greenwood (1981). Where a fish specimen was 

not exactly defined, it was assigned a “chieronym” (working name). (e.g. Prognathochromis “shovel 

mouth”). 

Species composition and relative abundance of haplochromines were estimated from percentage 

contribution by number of each species. 


5.5.3 Results 

A total of 36 fish species belonging to 22 genera and 7 families. Of the fish species, 36 were from 

the Opeta-Bisina and 10 Mburo Nakivali wetland systems respectively (Table 1). 

Table 1. The fish fauna of the Mburo-Nakivali and Opeta-Bisina wetland 

systems in Uganda 

80 

Wetland System 

Mburo-Nakivali Opeta-Bisina 

Family Fish species Kachera Mburo Opeta Bisina 

Cichlidae Astatoreochromis sp. 1 1 1 1 

Astatotilapia sp 1 1 4 3 

Haplochromis lividus 1 1 

Haragachromis spp. 1 1 1 3 

Lipochromis spp. 1 4 

Marcusenius spp. 2 

Oreochromis spp. 3 3 3 3 

Pedicel 1 

Prognathochromis spp. 2 3 

Psammochromis spp. 1 1 

Pyxichromis spp. 1 

Tilapia sp. 1 1 1 

Xystichromis sp. 1 1 

Mormyridae Gnathonemus spp. 2 1 

Mormyrus sp 1 

Petrocephalus spp. 1 1 

Ciprynidae Bagrus spp. 2 2 

Characidae Brycinus sp. 1 1 

Claridae Clarias spp. 2 2 2 2 

Lepidosirenidae Protopterus sp. 1 1 1 

Schibeidae Schilbe sp. 1 

Machokidae Synodontis spp. 1 2 

= 8 = 22 = 10 = 9 = 28 = 34 

The species richness was higher in the Opeta-Bisina wetland system (28 and 34) compared to the 

Mburo-Nakivali system (9 and 10). Subsequently, the Opeta-Bisina system had species richness of 

haplochromines (20) than the Mburo-Nakivali system (only 3). In both systems the native tilapiine 

Oreochromis esculentus co-existed with the introduced Oreochromis niloticus while the former was 

eliminated in the main lakes where Nile perch was introduced. 


Table 2. The Mburo-Nakivali and Opeta – Bisina wetland systems and 

their species of biodiversity importance. 

Wetland System Lake Species of Biodiversity importance 

Mburo-Nakivali Nakivali O. esculentus 

Mburo O. esculentus 

Kachera O. esculentus 

Kijanebalola O. esculentus 

Opeta-Bisina Bisina Haplochromines, O. variabilis 

Opeta O. variabilis, Haplochromines 

5.6 Threats to Fish Biodiversity 

The threats to fish species can be grouped into five interacting categories. Over-exploitation; 

introduction or invasion of exotic species; pollution and eutrophication; flow modification; destruction 

or degradation of habitat; and climate change. 

Over exploitation is the result of harvesting or killing animals or plants, for food, materials or medicine, 

over and above the reproductive capacity of the population to replace itself. Overfishing has been the 

dominant threat to fish biodiversity and has devastated many commercial fish stocks. Overfishing 

reduces the size and genetic diversity of affected fish population. This decline has been found to 

reduce reproductive success and increase susceptibility of stocks to disease and environmental 

stresses. The problem of by catch of non-target species and under-sized juveniles of target species 

caught sometimes exceeds the saleable sizes. Overfishing can also lead to complete collapse 

of the target species and an ecosystem as a whole, termed as a trophic cascade. Collection of 

ornamental fish had also threatened fish diversity in Lake Bisina and Nawampasa in the late 1990s. 

Over harvesting of papyrus for art crafts, building and construction is another threat because it 

exposes the lakes to possibility of invasion of species e.g. Nile perch 

Pollution problems arising from land based activities contaminate the lake with heavy metals and 

pesticide residues. Pollution also comes from, agriculture as well as households, either by direct 

disposal of harmful substances into the water bodies or indirect discharges that reach the lakes via 

rivers. Persistent organic pollutants consumed by organisms at the bottom of the food chain get 

concentrated as predators eat contaminated prey. The threat of excessive nutrient enrichment is a 

reality. Despite the growing pollution threat there are currently no targeted efforts to reduce water 

pollution. 

Habitat degradation is brought about by an array of interacting factors. It may involve direct effects 

on the fish habitat such as cultivation up to the Lake margin or indirect impacts which are already 

evident, e.g. the high human population density in the basin leads to accelerated conversion of 

forests to agricultural land. The consequences of these include increased surface runoff and river 

sediment loads that can lead to habitat alterations such as shoreline erosion, smothering of littoral 

habitats, clogging of river bottoms or wetland aggradations besides destruction of refugia. 

Reduction in water levels in water bodies is another threat to fish diversity in the form of habitat 

reduction. For example historical natural water level fluctuations, due to changes of climate and 

river discharge may lead to a reduction of levels. The level on the coastline reduces thus reducing 

fish habitats in the littoral areas and posing potential negative impact on fish diversity. 


Flow modifications are very common in running waters and this is not an exception to the lakes 

in the wetland systems. Regulation of rivers that flow into the lakes could be one of the most 

significant anthropogenic impacts on the biodiversity of the lake e.g. River Ruizi that enters Lake 

Mburo through Kachera, Kijanebalola into Lake Victoria. Changes in the hydrological regimes, 

reducing spring run-off, can lead to increased shoaling of river delta and reduction in the area of 

delta vegetation (reeds, cat-tail, and bushes). This loss of vegetation can result in a loss of aquatic 

fauna especially the migratory and semi-migratory fish species that are deprived of their natural 

spawning grounds. As spring flows are reduced, fish migration upriver for spawning is impeded and 

essential nursery areas are limited. 

Wide spread invasion and deliberate introduction of non-indigenous species adds to the physical and 

chemical impacts of humans to fish species diversity, in part because exotics usually successively 

invade native species already modified or degraded by humans e.g. the introduction of Nile perch 

and four tilapiine species in the basin provides a classic example. Escape of farmed fish into the 

wild is also associated with the floods that are common in these wetland systems. 

Climate change has started manifesting itself recently and its impacts can easily be depicted 

e.g. the current water fluctuation levels in water bodies. Climate change is associated with the 

continuous global increase in temperature and green house gas emissions. The global extent 

of climate change will mean that no ecosystem on earth will be immune from rising air or sea 

temperatures or changing weather patterns. The impact of climate changes on fish diversity in 

the basin is not yet well understood, but a general increase in ultraviolet radiation due to ozone 

depletion harms microscopic, photosynthetic algae and zooplankton at the base of the aquatic food 

web, potentially affecting the food supply of the entire water body community. Climate change may 

not only result in water level rise and severe storm damage but also temperature, salinity and other 

parameters causing a wide range of effects from species mortality, modifying species composition 

and migratory patterns to shifts in the entire aquatic system. However, the impact of climate change 

on biodiversity may be gradual compared to other threats. 

5.7 Discussion 

The first fishery survey of lakes Mburo and Kachira by Worthington (1929) up to early 1950s the 

most important commercial fish species in the lakes were Clarias spp, the lung fish Protopterus 

eathiopicus and haplochromines (Worthington, 1932). In lakes Opeta and Bisina like in the other 

Kyoga lakes the most important commercial species in order of importance were native tilapiines 

(O. esculentus and variabilis), the lung fish and catfishes Bagrus docmak, C. gariepinus, Schilbe 

intermedius, Barbus spp, Haplochromines and momyrids. The present surveys indicate that the fish 

communities of most of the assessed lakes in the wetland systems are composed of native species 

however in the Mburo-Nakivali systems new species were recorded namely O. esculentus and 

O. niloticus and these species were introduced in these lakes and dams in the early 1950s when 

the general introductions took place. Among the tilapiines cichlids, significant populations of the 

two native tilapiines remain in these lakes although they have been displaced from the main lakes 

Victoria, Kyoga, Nabugabo and Nakuwa where Nile perch has established (Ogutu-Ohwayo, 1990; 

Mbabazi et al., 2004; Chapman et al., 2008). The native tilapiines, which have disappeared from the 

main lakes, survive as both native and introduced populations in satellite lakes within the Victoria 

82 


and Kyoga lake basins. The lakes in the two wetland systems still house remnants of the native 

species especially haplochromines which were thought to be eliminated in the main lakes Victoria 

and Kyoga. Because of their structural heterogeneity of macrophyte cover separating these lakes 

from the main lakes that make it difficult for the predatory Nile perch to access the lakes (Chapman 

et al., 1999; Mbabazi et al., 2004). 

5.8 Conclusions 

a) The native tilapiines, which have disappeared from the main lakes, survive as both native and 

introduced populations in satellite lakes in wetland systems within the Victoria and Kyoga lake 

basins. 

b) The native haplochromine that existed in Lake Victoria and Kyoga prior to the Nile perch 

boom are still present in the Opeta-Bisina wetland system. 

c) The two wetland systems therefore contribute to conservation of fish species diversity 

threatened by introduction of exotics and other anthropogenic factors in the Victoria and 

Kyoga basin lakes. 

5.9 Recommendations 

a) It is therefore recommended that some of the Lakes in the wetland systems around Lakes 

Victoria and Kyoga be designated as conservation areas of haplochromines and other species 

threatened by introductions of exotics in the main Lakes. 

b) There is need to prevent clearing of vetetation that separate these lakes from the main Lakes 

to avoid colonization by the Nile perch 

c) Discourage harvesting of ornamental fish from these Lakes and instead introduce them in 

aquaculture. 

d) There is need to initiate the development of management plans that will guide the implimentation 

of all conservation interventions. 


References 

Atlas of Uganda, 1967. 2 nd Edition, Uganda Government. The Department of Lands and 

Surveys. 29 p. 

Burgis, M.J., K.M. Mavuti, J. Moreau & I. Moreau, 1987. The Central Plateau, p.359-388; In: 

African Wetlands and Shallow Water bodies (Zones humides et lacs peu profouds d’Afrique). 

Directory (Répertoire). Burgis M.J. & J>J. Symoens (Eds) ORSTOM, Coll. Travaux et Documents 

No. 211, Paris 1987. 650p. 

Chapman L.J., Chapman C.A., Kaufman L., Witte F. and Balirwa J., 2008. Biodiversity conservation 

in African inland waters: Lessons of the Lake Victoria region, Verh. Internat. Verein Limnol. (30), Part 

1: 16-34. Lenary lecture, 33pp 

Emerton, L., 1997. Economic Assessment of Sechelles Biodiversity. Conservation and national 

Parks Section, Division of Environment, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Planning and ebvironment, 

Republic of sechelles, Mahé. 

Emerton, L., 1999. Balancing the opportunity costs of wild life conservation for communities around 

Lake Mburo National park, Uganda pp27, ISBN 1843690047. 

Kamugisha, J., Z. Ogutu & M. Ståhl, 1997. Parks and People: Conservation and livelihoods at the 

Crossroads, Regional Soil Conservation Unit/SIDA, Nairobi. 

Marquardt, M. M. Infield, & A. Namara., 1994. Socio-Economic Survey of Communities in the 

Buffer Zone of Lake Mburo National Park, Lake Mburo Community Consrvation Project, Kampala. 

Mbabazi D., R. Ogutu-Ohwayo, S.B. Wandera & Y. Kiziito, 2004. Fish species and trophic 

diversity of haplochromine cichlids in the Kyoga satellite lakes (Uganda). African Journal of 

ecology 42: 59-68. 

Mugisha, A.R., 2003. Fisheries in National Parks. A Case study of Lake Mburo National Park, 

Uganda.pp. 430-443. In T.L. Crisman, L.J. Chapman, C.A. Chapman and L.S. Kaufman (eds). 

Conservation, Ecology, and Management of African Fresh Waters. University Press of Florida 

Ogutu-Ohwayo, R. 1990. The decline in the native fishes of Lakes Victoria and Kyoga (East Africa) 

and the impact of the introduced species, especially Nile 

perch, Lates niloticus and the Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Environmental Biology of Fishes. 

27: 81-96. 

Welcomme R.L., 1979. The inland fisheries of Africa. FAO Committee for inland Fisheries of Africa 

Occurrence paper 7, 69p. 

Schwartz J.D.M., Pallin M.J., Michener, R.E., Mbabazi D. & Kaufman L. (2006) effects of Nile 

perch, Lates niloticus, on functional and specific fish diversity in Uganda’s Lake Kyoga system. 

African journal of Ecology, 44: 145-156. 

84 


CHAPTER 6: MAMMALS 

INFORMATION ON MAMMAL DIVERSITY FOR THE 

OPETA – BISINA AND MBURO – NAKIVALE WETLAND 

SYSTEMS, EASTERN AND WESTERN UGANDA 

By Dr Robert Kityo, 

Makerere University, 

Faculty of Science, 

Department of Zoology. 

6.1 Background 

Mammals represent a usually quite conspicuous component of the biota of many places especially 

when they comprise of larger more conspicuous species such as antelopes, elephants, hippos and 

diurnal primates. Although the larger species usually form the major basis of attractions to tourist 

areas, in many biomes the larger proportion of the mammalian biodiversity is comprised of the 

medium to small sized mammals. 


The Ugandan mammalian diversity of 340 species for example, is comprised of only 30% larger 

mammals while the rest are all medium to small sized mammals. In human impacted habitats, the 

large mammals are lost out quicker than the medium to small sized species. The latter are capable of 

surviving in even small fragments of natural habitats while the larger species may not be able to. 

6.1.1 Bisina system 

The Bisina Wetland system located in Kumi district is described by Byaruhanga et al (2001) as 

having a water body occupying an area of 192 km 2 with a thin strip of fringing papyrus swamp. The 

general area in which the Bisina system is located was mapped by Langdale-Brown et al. (1964) as 

sitting in surrounding vegetation characterized by grass savanna mostly dominated by Hyparrhenia 

grass savannas, Acacia-Albzia-Dichrostachys bushland and communities on sites with impeded 

drainage. Together the said vegetation communities would have provided suitable habitats for 

ranging of open environment mammals. 

6.1.2 Opeta system 

The Opeta system on the other hand was described by Byaruhanga et al (2001) as one of the few 

remaining intact marshes in Uganda. The main land use pattern they recorded at the time was 

grazing of livestock by mainly two communities of the Karamajong people. Langdale-Brown et al 

(1964) mapped the general area in which Lake Opeta sits to be dominated by communities on sites 

with impeded drainage mainly dominated by Combretum-Acacia-Hyparrhenia savanna but also 

with stands of Acacia-Setaria savanna. 

Byaruhanga et al (2001) however described the area of Lake Opeta as an extensive swamp of 

Miscanthus merging into dry Hyparrhenia grass with Lake Opeta as a small lake in the middle of 

the swamp. The Opeta system would have been an important ranging area not only for livestock 

as mentioned already but also as a dry season watering area for wildlife. This supposition is 

strengthened by its close proximity to Pian-Upe wildlife reserve. 

86 


Fig. 9 Mammal survey sites in Opeta – Bisina wetland system 

6.1.3 Lake Mburo-Nakivali wetland system 

The Mburo-Nakivali system is continuous with the Lake Mburo National Park. The general area was 

mapped by Langdale-Brown et al (1964) to comprise of a rather extensive Cyperus papyrus swamp 

mixed with Echinocloa grassland on sites with impeded drainage. These two vegetation formations 

form the central section of this system. Elsewhere on the other hand the system is largely a dry 

Acacia savannah dominated by Acacia-Cymbopogon/Themeda complex with a scattering of other 

dry type communities including dry Hyparrhenia and Themeda-Luodetia grass savannas. 

Occurring in the same ecosystem as the Lake Mburo National Park, this system would also have been 

an important range area for several species of mammals that are unique to this area in Uganda. 

The Mburo-Nakivali system lies within the general area of the cattle corridor, implying that it is liable 

to facing heavy pressures from livestock. Byaruhanga et al (2001) pointed out that the Lake Mburo 

National Park which is a key future of this area receives erratic and unreliable rainfall that causes 

shortage of pastures and affecting the behavior of the animal life in the area. Since Lake Mburo, 

Nakivali and the other associated water bodies would carry water throughout the year, they should 

provide the only sources of water in the dry seasons. 


Fig. 10 Mammal survey area Lake Mburo-Nakivali wetland system 

6.2 Methods 

The information for producing this report is strictly based on a search and collation of the available 

literature. In most cases the direct mammal information for the target areas was only anecdotal. In 

some instances such as those sourced from Kingdon (1971, 1974, 1977, 1979, 1982a and 1982b) 

and Kityo et al (2009) the information represents actual point records of occurrence in the vicinity 

of the wetland systems. 

6.3 Results 

As mentioned elsewhere in this report, the list of mammals presented here represents species that 

are at this point assumed to range or occur in the two wetland systems. Field verification exercises 

will need to be conducted to show which if any of the listed mammals still survive in the two 

systems. 

There is every possibility that the larger species will have been locally extirpated from these areas 

but there are also small chances that some larger species may still occur at very low abundances. 

The total number of mammals that we consider might occur or previously occurred in the Lake 

Mburo –Nakivale and Opeta – Bisina wetland systems number to 138 species (Appendix 1). We 

reiterate however, that outside the protected areas including Lake Mburo NP and Pian Upe wildlife 

reserve in the vicinity of the wetland systems in question the larger species may well have been 

extirpated out. 

88 


6.3.1 Lake Mburo-Nakivali wetland system 

Table 1 summarizes the mammalian diversity in the Lake Mburo – Nakivali wetland systems. 

Altogether these comprise of 110 species in 13 orders the largest of which are the Artiodactyla, 

Carnivora and Rodentia. 

Table 1 Summary of possible mammalian diversity in the Lake Mburo- 

Nakivali wetland system 

Order Family Total 

Artiodactyla Bovidae 13 

Hippopotamidae 1 

Suidae 3 

Artiodactyla Total 17 

Carnivora Canidae 1 

Felidae 5 

Herpestidae 8 

Hyaenidae 1 

Mustelidae 6 

Viverridae 7 

Carnivora Total 28 

Hyracoidea Procaviidae 2 

Hyracoidea Total 2 

Insectivora Chrysochloridae 1 

Erinaceidae 1 

Soricidae 4 

Insectivora Total 6 

Lagomorpha Leporidae 3 

Lagomorpha Total 3 

Macroscelidea Macroscelididae 2 

Macroscelidea Total 2 

Megachiroptera Pteropodidae 8 

Megachiroptera Total 8 

Microchiroptera Emballonuridae 1 

Nycteridae 2 

Rhinolophidae 1 

Vespertilionidae 3 

Megadermatidae 1 

Molosidae 1 

Microchiroptera Total 9 

Perisodactyla Equidae 1 

Perisodactyla Total 1 



Pholidota Manidae 3 

Pholidota Total 3 

Primates Cercopithecidae 2 

90 

Galagonidae 3 

Loridae 1 

Primates Total 6 

Rodentia Cricetidae 2 

Hystricidae 2 

Muridae 12 

Myoxidae 1 

Sciuridae 4 

Thryonomyidae 2 

Anomaluridae 1 

Rodentia Total 24 

Tubulidentata Orycteropodidae 1 

Tubulidentata Total 1 

Grand Total 110 

Of the mammal species compiled for the Nakivali wetland system, it is likely that several species of 

the orders Artiodactyla, the larger Carnivora, Perisodactyla and Primates are locally extirpated or if 

they still exist, that they occur at very low densities. Species such as the Lions will certainly already 

be locally extinct in areas outside the protected areas. These would reduce the diversity by up to 30 

species, therefore leaving a still fairly rich mammalian biota of 80 species of small to medium sized 

species. Because no specific mammalian studies have been conducted in the area, there may well 

be many more species of small sized mammals that range into this area but that are not recorded 

yet. 

6.3.2 Bisina and Opeta wetland systems 

Table 2 summarizes the possible mammalian diversity in the Bisina-Opeta wetland systems. 

Altogether these comprise of 100 species in 13 orders the largest of which like is the case for the 

Nakivali system are the Artiodactyla, Carnivora and Rodentia. 

Table 2: Summary of possible mammalian diversity in the Bisina-Opeta 

wetland system 


Artiodactyla total 20 

Bovidae 17 

Hippopotamidae 1 

Suidae 2 

Carnivora total 29 

Canidae 4 


Felidae 5 

Herpestidae 6 

Herpestidae 2 

Hyaenidae 3 

Mustelidae 5 

Viverridae 4 

Hyracoidea total 3 

Procaviidae 3 

Insectivora total 4 

Erinaceidae 1 

Soricidae 3 

Largomorpha total 3 

Leporidae 3 

Macroscelidea total 2 

Macroscelididae 2 

Megachiroptera total 6 6 

Pteropodidae 6 

Microchiroptera total 7 

Nycteridae 2 

Rhinolophidae 1 

Vespertilionidae 4 

Perissodactyla total 1 

Equidae 1 

Pholidota total 3 

Manidae 3 

Primates total 5 

Cercopithecidae 3 

Galagonidae 1 

Loridae 1 

Rodentia total 16 

Hystricidae 2 

Muridae 8 

Rhizomyidae 1 

Scuiridae 3 

Thryonomyidae 2 

Tubulidentata total 1 

Orycteropodidae 1 

Grand Total 100 

In this system too it is quite likely that the larger species in the orders Artiodactyla, the larger 

Carnivora, Perisodactyla may well be locally hunted or squeezed out accounting for up to 30 

species. Again the small species (rodents, insectivores and bats) may well be underrepresented 

in the list for Bisina-Opeta systems as well because no directed surveys have been conducted in 

these areas for mammals. 


6.4 Indicator species for biodiversity monitoring 

At the moment it may turn out to be a rushed decision to point to any of the species in the list as 

potential indicator species. A more useful list would benefit from actual field surveys to establish the 

condition of the wetland systems, including among other:- 

i. Current nature of the vegetation 

ii. Land use schemes in the areas 

iii. Pressures and their sources onto the wetland systems 

In addition, such a survey would generate actual baseline data on occurrence of species, the 

distribution of the species and relative abundance of some common species. On the basis of these 

surveys, meaningful indicators would then be identified. 

In the meantime a simple monitoring scheme could involve: - 

i. Monitoring activity and diversity of insectivorous bats using a bat detector. This approach 

would quickly and cheaply yield baseline data through a passive monitoring scheme. These 

such data could be used to quickly gain impressions in communities dynamics of insect 

eating bats in the different areas 

ii. Transect runs to document large mammals or their signs to give insight into which species still 

range in the different areas 

iii. Trapping along the transects to document species and their relative abundance of the small 

mammals in the areas. 

These approaches will then help to collect data on the basis of which suitable indicator species can 

be selected. A detailed monitoring protocol would then be developed for these species. At the very 

minimum however the protocols will involve collecting data on among others:- 

i. Species presence or absence 

ii. Community composition trends 

iii. Seasonal variations in i and ii above 

iv. Trends in relative abundance and or dominance 

v. Total populations for such species for which this will be possible 

6.5 Next steps 

To verify the accuracy of the lists presented here, it will be essential to conduct detailed field surveys 

cognizant of the fact that mammal surveys for most of the orders are much slower and more time 

intensive exercises than vegetation and avian surveys. The surveys should target to acquiring 

primary field data but also secondary data from interviews with local communities. 

92 


Appendix 1: Potential list of mammals for the Bisina-Opeta and Mburo- 

Nakivali wetland system 

Order Family Common Name Species Name 

Bisina - 

Opeta 

Nakivali 

Mburo 

Artiodactyla Bovidae Impala Aepyceros melampus √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae Blue Duiker Cephalophus monticola √ √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae Topi Damaliscus lunatus √ √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae Roan Antelope Hippotragus equinus √ √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae (Defassa) 

Waterbuck 

Kobus ellipsiprymnus √ √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae Sitatunga Tragelaphus spekii √ √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae Hartebeest Alcelaphus buselaphus √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae Grant’s Gazelle Gazella granti √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae Uganda Kob Kobus kob √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae Klipspringer Oreotragus oreotragus √ √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae Onbi Ourebia ourebia √ √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae Bohor Reedbuck Redunca redunca √ √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae Common Duiker Sylvicapra grimmia √ √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae African Buffalo Syncerus caffer √ √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae Common Eland Taurotragus oryx √ √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae Lesser Kudu Tragelaphus imberbis √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae Bush Buck Tragelaphus scriptus √ √ 

Artiodactyla Bovidae Yellow-backed 

Duiker 

Cephalophus weynsii √ 

Artiodactyla Hippopotamidae Hippopotamus Hippopotamus 

amphibius 

√ √ 

Artiodactyla Suidae Giant Forest Hog Hylochoerus 

meinertzhageni 

√ 

Artiodactyla Suidae Woodland Warthog Phacochoerus africanus √ √ 

Artiodactyla Suidae Bush Pig Potamochoerus porcus √ √ 

Carnivora Canidae Side-striped Jackal Canis adustus √ √ 

Carnivora Canidae Golden Jackal Canis aureus √ 

Carnivora Canidae Black-Backed 

Jackal 

Canis mesomelas √ 

Carnivora Canidae Bat-eared Fox Otocyon megalotis √ 

Carnivora Felidae Caracal Caracal caracal √ 

Carnivora Felidae Serval Felis serval √ 

Carnivora Felidae African Wild Cat Felis silvestris √ 

Carnivora Felidae Serval Cat Leptailurus serval √ 

Carnivora Felidae Lion Panthera leo √ √ 

Carnivora Felidae Leopard Panthera pardus √ √ 

Carnivora Felidae Golden cat Profelis aurata √ 

Carnivora Herpestidae Marsh Mongoose Atilax paludinosus √ √ 

Carnivora Herpestidae Alexandar’s 

cusimanse 

Crossarchus alexandri √ √ 




Opeta 

Nakivali 

Mburo 

Carnivora Herpestidae Savanna Mongoose Dologale dybowskii √ √ 

Carnivora Herpestidae Dwarf Mongoose Helogale parvula √ √ 

Carnivora Herpestidae Egyptian Mongoose Herpestes ichneumon √ √ 

Carnivora Herpestidae Slender Mongoose Herpestes sanguineus √ 

Carnivora Herpestidae White-tailed 

Mongoose 

Ichneumia albicauda √ √ 

Carnivora Herpestidae Banded Mangoose Mungos mungo √ √ 

Carnivora Herpestidae Jackson’s 

mongoose 

Bdeogale jacksoni √ 

Carnivora Hyaenidae Spotted Hyaena Crocuta crocuta √ √ 

Carnivora Hyaenidae Striped hyaena Hyaena hyaena √ 

Carnivora Hyaenidae Aardwolf Proteles cristatus √ 

Carnivora Mustelidae African Clawless 

Otter 

Aonyx capensis √ √ 

Carnivora Mustelidae Swamp (Congo 

Clawless) Otter 

Aonyx congica √ √ 

Carnivora Mustelidae Zorilla (Striped 

Polecat) 

Ictonyx striatus √ √ 

Carnivora Mustelidae (African) Spotnecked 

Otter 

Lutra maculicollis √ √ 

Carnivora Mustelidae Honey Badger Mellirora capensis √ √ 

Carnivora Mustelidae Striped (Whitenaped) 

Weasel 

Poecilogale albinucha √ √ 

Carnivora Viverridae East African Civet Civettictis civetta √ √ 

Carnivora Viverridae Small-spotted 

Genet 

Genetta genetta √ √ 

Carnivora Viverridae Servaline Genet Genetta servalina √ √ 

Carnivora Viverridae Blotched (Rusty 

Spotted) Genet 

Genetta tigrina √ 

Carnivora Viverridae Servaline Genet Genetta victoriae √ 

Carnivora Viverridae Africam Palm Civet Nandinia binotata √ √ 

Hyracoidea Procaviidae Yellow-spotted rock Heterohyrax brucei 

procaviidae 

√ 

Hyracoidea Procaviidae Rock Hyrax Procavia capensis √ 

Hyracoidea Procaviidae Western Tree hyrax Dendrohyrax dorsalis √ 

Hyracoidea Procaviidae Southern Tree Hyrax Dendrohyrax arboreus √ √ 

Insectivora Chrysochloridae Stuhlmann’s Golden Chrysochloris 

√ 

Mole 

stuhlmanni 

Insectivora Erinaceidae Four-toed 

Hedgehog 

Atelerix albiventris √ √ 

Insectivora Soricidae Mt Elgon musk 

shrew 

Crocidura elgonius √ 

Insectivora Soricidae Dwarf musk shrew Crocidura nanilla √ 

Insectivora Soricidae Lesser Red Musk 

Shrew 

Crocidura hirta √ 

94 




Opeta 

Nakivali 

Mburo 

Insectivora Soricidae Northern Giant 

Musk Shrew 

Crocidura olivieri √ √ 

Insectivora Soricidae Hero shrew Scutisorex somereni √ 

Insectivora Soricidae Climbing Forest 

shrew 

Sylvisorex megalura √ 

Lagomorpha Leporidae Central African 

Grass Rabbit 

Poelogus marjorita √ √ 

Lagomorpha Leporidae Cape (Brown) Hare Lepus capensis √ √ 

Lagomorpha Leporidae Savanna 

(Crawshay’s) Hare 

Lepus victoriae √ √ 

Macroscelidea Macroscelididae Rufous Elephant 

shrew 

Elephantulus rufescens √ √ 

Macroscelidea Macroscelididae Short-snouted Elephantulus 

√ √ 

Elephant shrew brachyrhynchus 

Megachiroptera Pteropodidae Bocage’s Fruit Bat Rousettus angolensis √ 

Megachiroptera Pteropodidae Sraw-colured fruit 

bat 

Eidolon helrum √ √ 

Megachiroptera Pteropodidae Gambian Epauletted Epomophorus 

√ 

Fruit Bat 

gambianus 

Megachiroptera Pteropodidae Little Epaluletted 

fruit Bat 

Epomophorus labiatus √ √ 

Megachiroptera Pteropodidae Franquet’s fruit Bat Epomops franqueti √ 

Megachiroptera Pteropodidae Hammer-headed Hypsignathus 

√ √ 

fruit Bat 

monstrosus 

Megachiroptera Pteropodidae Dwarf epauletted 

Fruit bat 

Micropteropus pusillus √ 

Megachiroptera Pteropodidae Egyptian Fruit Bat Rousettus aegyptiacus √ √ 

Megachiroptera Pteropodidae Pygmy Epauletted 

Fruit Bat 

Epomophorus minimus √ √ 

Microchiroptera Emballonuridae Mauritian Tomb Bat Taphozous mauritianus √ 

Microchiroptera Megadermatidae Yellow-winged Bat Lavia frons √ 

Microchiroptera Molosidae Little-free-tailed Bat Chaenephon pumilus √ 

Microchiroptera Nycteridae Egyptian slit-faced 

bat 

Nycteris thebaica √ 

Microchiroptera Nycteridae Hairy slit-faced bat Nycteris hispida √ √ 

Microchiroptera Nycteridae Large-eared slit 

faced Bat 

Nycteris macrotis √ 

Microchiroptera Rhinolophidae East African 

Horseshoe Bat 

Rhinolophus eloquens √ √ 

Microchiroptera Vespertilionidae Common longfingered 

Bat 

Miniopterus schreibersi √ 

Microchiroptera Vespertilionidae Pipistrellus hesperidus √ 

Microchiroptera Vespertilionidae Banana Bat Pipistrellus nanus √ 

Microchiroptera Vespertilionidae Moleney’s Flatheaded 

Bat 

Mimetillus moloneyi √ 




Opeta 

Nakivali 

Mburo 

Microchiroptera Vespertilionidae African Giant House Scotophilus nigrita 

Bat 

√ √ 

Microchiroptera Vespertilionidae Rufous mouseeared 

bat 

Myotis bacogii √ 

Perisodactyla Equidae Plains (Burchell’s) 

Zebra 

Equus burchelli √ √ 

Pholidota Manidae Ground Pangolin Manis temminki √ √ 

Pholidota Manidae Tree Pangolin Manis tricuspis √ √ 

Pholidota Manidae Giant Pangolin Smutsia gigantea √ √ 

Primates Cercopithecidae Olive Baboon Papio Anubis √ √ 

Primates Cercopithecidae Vervet Monkey Cercopithecus aethiops √ √ 

Primates Cercopithecidae Patas monkey Erythrocebus patas √ 

Primates Galagonidae Thomas Galago Galagoides thomasi √ 

Primates Galagonidae Senegal Galago Galago senegalensis √ √ 

Primates Galagonidae Demidoff’s (Dwarf) 

Galago 

Galago demidovii √ 

Primates Loridae Potto Perodicticus potto √ √ 

Rodentia Anomaluridae Beecroft’s flying 

squirrel 

Anomalurus derbianus √ 

Rodentia Cricetidae Forest Pouched Rat Cricetomys gambianus √ 

Rodentia Cricetidae Tropical Groovetoothed 

Rat 

Otomys tropicalis √ 

Rodentia Hystricidae African Bush-tailed 

porcupine 

Atherurus africanus √ √ 

Rodentia Hystricidae Crested Porcupine Hystrix cristata √ √ 

Rodentia Muridae Acomys cahirinus √ 

Rodentia Muridae Acomys subspinosus √ 

Rodentia Muridae Nothern Bush Rat Aethomy’s hindei √ 

Rodentia Muridae Rusty-nosed Rat Oenomys hypoxanthus √ 

Rodentia Muridae Eastern Brush- Lophuromys 

√ 

furred Rat 

flavopunctatus 

Rodentia Muridae Northern Savanna 

Rat 

Mastomys hildebrandtii √ 

Rodentia Muridae Pygmy Mouse Mus minutoides √ 

Rodentia Muridae Grey-bellied Pygmy 

Mouse 

Mus triton √ 

Rodentia Muridae Common Thicket 

Rat 

Grammomys dolichurus √ 

Rodentia Muridae Kaiser’s Bush Rat Aethomys kaiseri √ 

Rodentia Muridae Common Striped 

Grass Mouse 

Lemniscomys striatus √ 

Rodentia Muridae Nile Grass Rat Arvicanthis niloticus √ √ 

Rodentia Muridae Mill Rat (Three-toed 

Grass Rat) 

Mylomys dybowskyii √ √ 

96 




Opeta 

Nakivali 

Mburo 

Rodentia Muridae Common Brushfurred 

Rat 

Lophuromys sikapusi √ √ 

Rodentia Muridae Shaggy Marsh Rat Dasmys incomtus √ √ 

Rodentia Myoxidae African Common 

Dormouse 

Graphiurus murinus √ 

Rodentia Rhizomyidae Rupell’s mole-rat Tachyoryctes splendes √ 

Rodentia Sciuridae Boehm’s Bush Funisciurus paraxerus 

√ 

Squirrel 

boehmi 

Rodentia Sciuridae Giant forest squirrel Protoxerus strangeri √ 

Rodentia Sciuridae Striped Ground 

Squirrel 

Xerus erythropus √ 

Rodentia Sciuridae Red-legged Sun Heliosciurus 

√ √ 

Squirrel 

rufobrachium 

Rodentia Scuiridae Gambian Sun 

Squirrel 

Helioscuirus gambianus √ 

Rodentia Scuiridae Geoffrey’s Ground 

Squirrel 

Xerus rutilus √ 

Rodentia Thryonomyidae Savannah 

Thryonomys 

√ √ 

(Common) Cane Rat swinderianus 

Rodentia Thryonomyidae Marsh (Lesser) 

Cane Rat 

Thryonomys gregorianus √ √ 

Tubulidentata Orycteropodidae Aardvark (Ant Bear) Orycteropus afer √ √ 


References 

Boitani L, Corsi F, De Blaise A, Carranza I.D., Ravagli M, Reggiani G, Sinibaldi I & Trapanese P 1999, 

A Data bank for the Conservation and Management of the African Mammals 

Byaruhanga A. Kasoma P. and Pomeroy D. 2001 Important Bird Areas in Uganda 

Kingdom J. 1971, 1974, 1977, 1979, 1982a and 1982b, East African Mammals. An Atlas of Evolution 

in Africa (Volumes I, IIB, IIIA, IIIB, IIIC, IIID, ) 

Kityo R, Howell K, Nakibuka M, Ngalason W 2009 East African Bat Atlas 

Langdale-Brown, I., Osmaston H.A. and Wilson J. G. 1964. The Vegetation of Uganda and its 

bearing on landuse. Government printer Entebbe 

Wilson S.E 1995 Bird and Mammal checklists for ten National Parks of Uganda. MUIENR, Kampala 

98 


CHAPTER 7: WATER QUALITY 

WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENTS IN THE OPETA 

- BISINA WETLAND SYSTEMS AND MBURO- 

NAKIVALE WETLAND SYSTEMS 

Dr. Aventino Kasangaki 

Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation, 

Mbarara University of Science and Technology 


Wetlands are among the most important ecosystems on earth. They have been described as the 

kidneys of the landscape because they function as the downstream receivers of water and waste 

from both natural and human sources (Mitsch & Gosselink, 2007). They stabilize water supplies, thus 

ameliorating both floods and drought. They serve as sources, sinks, and transformers of nutrients; 

and they are among the most productive ecosystems on the planet when compared to adjacent 

terrestrial and deep water aquatic systems. A detailed account of wetland functions in Uganda is 

presented in WMD/MWE (2009) and generally in Keddy (2000). 


Factors such as temperature, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen; turbidity and pH interact to 

influence the abundance and distribution of biodiversity in wetland ecosystems. Variation in these 

parameters is influenced by the underlying geology, climatic factors, and land-use practices within 

the landscape. For example conductivity may increase in wetlands draining intensively cultivated 

watersheds and urban areas. An assessment was carried out on the above parameters in order to 

establish their baseline condition and explore possible human impacts on the wetlands. 

7.2 Objectives, study sites and methods 

7.2.1 Objectives 

• Produce guiding methods for each parameter to be used during and after the exercise. 

• Establish baseline information on water physical and chemical parameters identified (PH, 

electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, temperature, turbidity and total dissolved solids) 

• Take appropriate GPS coordinates for points from where sampling was done. 

• Make field observations and descriptions to support observed values in the field. 

• Produce a comprehensive report on the work done. 

7.2.2 Study sites: 

(a) Opeta-Bisina wetland system 

It is located in eastern Uganda. The wetland system is characterized by open water that is clear 

with some emergent vegetation mainly of sedges and floating vegetation dominated by the day 

water lily Nymphaea sp and submerged water weeds. Some patches of Cyperus papyrus exist in 

areas with minimal agricultural encroachment. The main inflow into the Opeta system is through 

River Sironko. 

Five sites were sampled on both Bisina (3) and Opeta (2). The Bisina sites were: 

1. Akide landing site. It is located on the north-eastern end of Lake Bisina and was accessed from 

Kumi town. 2) Kakor village landing site. Most of the shore to this site is grazing land and it is located 

where waterfowl counts are undertaken (starting point) and 3) Site is located towards the southern 

end of Lake Bisina but on the western shore of the Lake overlooking the rocks/hills on Soroti Kumi 

road. The point is located where the waterfowl crew usually rests. The two points on Opeta were 

located, one on the northern end of the lake at Agule village landing site in Opeta Parish. The 

immediate environs of the site are characterized by overgrazing and bush burning seems prevalent 

in the area. The second site on Opeta was located on River Sironko to get an insight into the quality 

of water flowing into the wetland. 

100 


Fig. 11 Water quality survey of Lake Bisina - Opeta wetland sysyems 

(b) Nakivale-Mburo wetland complex 

The wetland complex is located in western Uganda in the districts of Isingiro and Mbarara. The 

main inflow into the wetland system is via River Rwizi that divides up downstream supplying water 

to both Lakes Nakivale and Mburo. The Nakivale water is mainly turbid with a greenish colour 

probably due to high concentrations of algae. Lake Mburo water is relatively less turbid compared 

to the Nakivale water. Shores of Lake Mburo and most of its catchments are relatively in pristine 

condition as opposed to those of Nakivale whose eastern end is mainly agricultural. 

Ten sampling sites were located within the Nakivale-Mburo wetland system both on the open water 

of the lakes and in streams and rivers draining into the wetland system. The sites were 1) River Rwizi 

just above the bridge on Mbarara-Kabale road, characterized by fast flowing water. 2) Kahirimbi 

landing site on Lake Nakivale characterized highly turbid waters. The eastern side of the shore is 

mainly agricultural land settled by refugees while the western end of the site comprises of forested 

hills with a mixture of grazing fields, and a papyrus swamp close to the lake shore. 3) Rukinga 

landing site on Lake Nakivale is similar to Kahirimbi in catchment condition but with the eastern side 

highly impacted by agriculture. 4) Kashojwa landing site directly opposite River Rwizi inflow into 

Lake Nakivale. 5) Kagogo site, located on the arm of the Rwizi River that flows into Lake Nakivale. 

Slow flowing water in a mainly papyrus swamp. 

6) River Rwizi arm flowing into Lake Mburo. This constitutes the main river Rwizi channel that 

is fast flowing; site is located approximately 3km from Lake Mburo. The site is located in a pure 

stand of Cyperus papyrus. 7) Kigaaga river- it appears to be the main inlet into Lake Nakivale and 


is characterized by slow flowing water in a savannah type of vegetation. Most of the watershed of 

this river is composed of pastureland. Emergent sedges and the water lily were some of the aquatic 

plants at the site. 8) A small stream flowing by the roadside approximately a km from Isingiro town 

on the Mbarara road. It is an inlet into Lake Nakivale. This was sampled to gauge the quality of water 

flowing into Lake Nakivale and to assess whether water quality in the catchment has an influence 

on the quality of water in the lake. 9) Lake Mburo at a point where river Rwizi enters the lake. The 

site is characterized by dark waters at the interface of open water and a papyrus swamp. 10) Lake 

Mburo in the middle/ open water site. This was located in the middle of lake in order to determine 

whether the Rwizi waters have an influence on the general water quality of the lake. 

Fig. 12 Water quality survey of Lake Mburo - Nakivali wetland sysyems 

7.2.3 Field sampling 

Various water quality parameters were measured at each site. They were; dissolved oxygen, surface 

water temperature, electrical conductivity, pH, total dissolved solids (TDS) and turbidity/water colour. 

Water depth was measured at sites where it was possible. All sites were geo-referenced with a Global 

Positioning System (GPS, Model GPSmap 60Cx) and altitude was also read from the GPS. 

7.2.3.1 Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) 

Dissolved oxygen is a crucial requirement of all life in water. It is normally saturated in fast flowing 

rivers. It is however expected to drop with a reduction in river discharge and an increase in water 

temperature. Other human impacts such as pollution may alter the concentration of oxygen. 

102 


Dissolved oxygen was measured using an oxygen meter (Model 76390 YSI 95). This was measured 

both at the surface and the bottom where site depth was greater than 50 cm. 

7.2.3.2 Electrical conductivity (µS cm -1 ) 

This is a measure of the ability of water to conduct electricity. It varies with the level of human 

activities in the watershed and the nature of the underlying geology. It also varies with season 

being lower in the wet season and higher during the dry seasons. Conductivity and temperature 

were measured using a conductivity, salinity and temperature meter (Model 76244 YSI 30). Surface 

water temperature is influenced by other covariates such as the time of the day, the time of the year, 

and the air temperature at the time of measurement. Time of the day was therefore recorded 

wherever measurements were made. 

7.2.3.3 pH 

Is a standard measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of the water and is represented using 

a logarithmic scale. pH was measured using a digital pH meter (Model PHEP 5 TESTR) 

7.2.3.4 Turbidity/water colour 

This was assessed mainly based on the colour of the water and on whether it was possible 

to see the bottom of the lake or river. For example a river draining a wetland/papyrus 

swamp would have dark water that is not necessarily turbid whereas brown water would 

result in water bodies draining agricultural or urbanized watersheds. 

7.2.3.5 Total dissolved solids (ppm) 

Total dissolved solids which is a measure of suspended sediment was measured using a 

TDS Testr Low model, Oakton Instruments. 

7.3 Results and discussion 

There was variation in water quality parameters between the two wetland systems. The wetlands 

in the Bisina-Opeta complex were characterized by clearly shallow waters and high surface water 

temperature compared to the Nakivale Mburo system. Temperature ranged from 22.6 to 30.9 o C in 

the Bisina Opeta system while it ranged from 19 to 24.9 o C (see table 1). Temperature tended to be 

lower in sections of the wetlands with flowing water such as in the Sironko river (22.6 o C) draining 

into the Opeta wetland and in the Rwizi River (19 o C) draining into the Mburo-Nakivale system. 

Surface water temperature is influenced by other covariates such as the time of the day and the air 

temperature and accordingly water temperature tended to be lower in the morning than in the late 

afternoons at all sampled sites. 

Electrical conductivity varied from 153.7 to 437.1 µS cm -1 in the Bisina Opeta system, the lowest 

value being recorded in river Sironko that drains into Lake Opeta. Conductivity was much higher in 

the Opeta system compared to Lake Bisina. Conductivity varied highly in the Mburo-Nakivale system 

ranging from 117.1 µS cm -1 in River Rwizi upstream to 1423.5 µS cm -1 at Kigaaga, a major inflow 

into Lake Nakivale. The Lake Nakivale waters were the most saline of all sampled sites. According 

to Beadle (1974), for most ecological purposes, except for very saline waters, conductivity reflects 

sufficiently closely the total concentration of the major ions and thus the salinity. Thus, it appears that 

Lakes Mburo and Nakivale drain catchments that differ in geology and therefore mineral composition 

with the result that Lake Mburo is less saline than Nakivale. Total dissolved solids (TDS) varied in 

a similar pattern as conductivity being highest in saline waters (900 ppm at Kigaaga) and lowest in 


freshwater/riverine sites (lowest, 70ppm in River Rwizi Wetland). The progressive drop in TDS from 

upstream sites as the water flows through papyrus swamps shows that the wetlands are performing 

an important ecological function of sequestering ions from the water. The differences in conductivity 

and TDS between Nakivale and Mburo systems probably shows little or no hydrological connection 

between the two lakes or the dilution effect of the Rwizi waters on Lake Nakivale is negligible. 

Dissolved oxygen was much lower in the Bisina- Opeta compared to the Mburo-Nakivale system. 

It ranged from 3.03 to 7.23 mg/l in the Bisina-Opeta and 6.3 to 9.9 mg/l in the Nakivale - Mburo 

system. The differences in dissolved oxygen might have important implications for the aquatic biota 

found in the two wetland systems. Thus productivity could be lower in the Bisina-Opeta system 

compared to the Nakivale-Mburo system. Casual observations on the fish catches on some landing 

sites of the two wetland systems showed that fish sizes were larger on the Mburo-Nakivale system 

than on the Bisina-Opeta. 

Turbidity was estimated visually from the color of water. Generally waters of the Bisina-Opeta 

system were much clearer than that of Mburo-Nakivale which was mostly turbid ranging from dark 

to greenish colour. The dark colour of the Rwizi water may be attributed to the high concentrations 

of humic acids as a result of decomposition in the papyrus swamps and the fact that the river drains 

an agricultural watershed upstream. The greenish colour of Mburo-Nakivale waters is likely a result 

of high concentration of phytoplankton in the two lakes. 

Cluster analysis (Fig 1) shows a clear separation of sites based on their physicochemical 

characteristics. Three major clusters were evident and they included the Bisina-Opeta complex, 

The Rwizi Mburo system that also clustered with the River Sironko site were characterized by low 

conductivity, low water temperatures and low TDS. The last cluster composed of Lake Nakivale 

sites and its tributary sites characterized by relatively high conductivity. The separation of sites/ 

wetland types based on the measured physicochemical parameters is proof that the variables can 

be used as indicators of wetland condition. That is, by measuring water quality, one is able to gauge 

the conservation status of a wetland as the variables are likely to change with wetland modification 

or degradation. Apart from anthropogenic impacts, the fundamental controls of background water 

quality are climate, geology, soils, topography and biota (Petts & Amoros 1996). 

7.4 Conservation Implications 

The water catchments of the two wetland systems are impacted to different levels by human activities. 

For example, River Sironko that drains into the Opeta system is highly turbid from agricultural 

activities implying that if conservation measures aimed at maintaining or improving water quality 

in the wetlands are to be implemented; these efforts should not be restricted to wetlands systems 

only but should also take into consideration the upstream sources of the water. The Mburo-Nakivale 

system catchment appears to be better conserved than the Bisina-Opeta system as the most of 

the shoreline has been converted to pastureland in the latter. Several fishermen talked to on both 

wetland systems reported receding water levels in the lakes. Thus, a timely intervention to reverse 

or slow down this negative trend is recommended especially with the threat of global warming. 

Further research in the areas of phisiacal and chemical nature of the water in both wetland systems 

is required such that concrete interventions can be sought. 

104 


Turbidity Time Northings Eastings Altitude 

pH Depth 

(cm) 

TDS Cond cond 

temp 

DO 

temp 

Wetland Site name DO 

(mg/l) 

Bisina Akidye 3.84 26.9 175 285.5 26.9 7.1 130 Clear morning 617420 180118 1043 

5.84 27.9 200 316 30 8.1 200 Clear Noon 593886 184770 1041 

Bisina Kakor 

WFC 

Bisina WFC end 7.17 30.7 205 321.13 30.9 - 167.5 Clear afternoon 595908 187729 1040 

Mburo Rwizi- 7.83 19 80 117.1 19 7.8 - Dark morning 237786 9931640 1391 

bridge 

Mburo Kagogo 6.25 19.6 75 149.45 19.5 7.3 78 Dark morning 264621 9923774 1263 

6.80 19.7 70 123.2 19.7 6.7 174 Darkbrown morning 264739 9923837 1261 

Mburo Rwiziswamp 

Mburo lake edge 6.79 22.5 90 140.95 22.9 8.3 - Dark Noon 269182 9923527 1253 

Mburo mid-lake 8.19 22.8 90 144.6 23.05 7.8 - Clear afternoon 270304 9926948 1253 

Nakivale Kahirimbi 7.59 24.4 430 727 23.8 12.2 99 Greenish Noon 261362 9909391 1249 

Nakivale Rukinga 9.9 23.7 420 678.5 24.9 12.5 190 Greenish afternoon 266040 9912949 1245 

Ecological Baseline Surveys of Lake Bisina, Lake Opeta, Lake Mburo and Nakivali Wetlands Systems 105 

Nakivale Kashojwa 9.85 23.7 390 642 23.8 12.6 63 Greenish afternoon 268269 9915900 1249 

Nakivale Kigaaga 9.63 20.8 900 1423.5 20.6 8.2 60 Clear noon 260873 9922806 1266 

Nakivale Stream 8.61 24 360 598 24 7.5 10 Milky afternoon 256051 9913666 1302 

Opeta Agule 3.03 27.02 285 437.1 27.3 - 67.5 Clear morning 626815 184042 1046 

Opeta Sironko 7.23 22.6 90 153.7 22.6 - 60 Brown noon 641104 152134 1063 

Table 1 Mean water quality variables at the sampled sites. A – shows that variable was not measured at a site.

Figure 1 Dendrogram showing clustering of sites based on physicochemical variables. Sites 

that cluster together are similar in variables measured. 

106 


References 

Beadle, L. C (1974) The Inland Waters Tropical Africa. Longman, New York. 

Keddy, P. A (2000) Wetland Ecology: Principles and practices. Cambridge University Press, 

Cambridge. 

Mitsch, W. J & Gosselink J. G.(2007) Wetlands. 4 th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New Jersey, 

USA. 582pp. 

Petts, G. E & Amoros, C Eds. (1996) Fluvial hydrosystems. Chapman & Hall, London. 322pp. 


108 

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A Ecological Baseline Surveys Of: - Lake Bisina - Nature Uganda

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