Okavango Delta Management Plan - Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

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OKAVANGO DELTA MANAGEMENT 

PLAN PROJECT 

OKAVANGO DELTA MANAGEMENT 

PLAN 

JANUARY 2008 

Department of Environmental Affairs 

Private Bag 0068 

Gaborone 

Botswana 

Tel: +267 3902050 

Fax: +267 3902051 

E-mail: envirobotswana@gov.bw

Table of Contents 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................. vii 

FOREWORD .................................................................................................................................................. ix 

Preface ............................................................................................................................................................ xi 

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ..................................................................................................... xiii 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................................................................................... xvi 

1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................... 1 

1.1 OKAVANGO DELTA VISION .................................................................................................................... 1 

1.2 OVERALL GOAL OF THE OKAVANGO DELTA MANAGEMENT PLAN....................................................... 1 

1.3 THE NEED FOR A MANAGEMENT PLAN.................................................................................................. 2 

1.4 LEGISLATIVE, POLICY AND PLANNING FRAMEWORK ............................................................................ 2 

1.4.1 NATIONAL FRAMEWORK .............................................................................................................. 2 

1.4.2 REGIONAL FRAMEWORK .............................................................................................................. 4 

1.4.3 INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK..................................................................................................... 5 

1.5 SITE SELECTION...................................................................................................................................... 6 

1.6 PLANNING COORDINATION, APPROACH AND PROCESS.......................................................................... 6 

1.6.1 PLANNING COORDINATION........................................................................................................... 6 

1.6.2 PLANNING APPROACH .................................................................................................................. 7 

1.6.3 PLANNING PROCESS ..................................................................................................................... 7 

2 SITE DESCRIPTION.............................................................................................................................. 11 

2.1 GENERAL .............................................................................................................................................. 11 

2.1.1 REGIONAL SETTING.................................................................................................................... 11 

2.1.2 LOCATION OF THE OKAVANGO DELTA RAMSAR SITE ............................................................... 12 

2.1.3 LEGAL STATUS AND RIGHTS ...................................................................................................... 13 

2.1.4 DEMOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................ 14 

2.1.5 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................... 15 

2.1.6 MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK ..................................................................................................... 16 

2.1.7 FACILITIES AND SERVICES ......................................................................................................... 19 

2.2 PHYSICAL FEATURES ............................................................................................................................ 22 

2.2.1 CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE .............................................................................................. 22 

2.2.2 GEOMORPHOLOGY...................................................................................................................... 22 

2.2.3 SOILS .......................................................................................................................................... 23 

2.2.4 GEOLOGY AND STRUCTURES...................................................................................................... 23 

2.2.5 HYDROGEOLOGY ........................................................................................................................ 24 

2.2.6 HYDROLOGY............................................................................................................................... 25 

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2.3 ECOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL FEATURES .......................................................................................... 30 

2.3.1 HABITAT DIVERSITY .................................................................................................................. 30 

2.3.2 FLORA......................................................................................................................................... 31 

2.3.3 FAUNA ........................................................................................................................................ 36 

2.4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC FEATURES ............................................................................................................... 43 

2.4.1 PAST AND CURRENT LAND USES ............................................................................................... 45 

2.4.2 NATURE CONSERVATION AND COMUNITY BASED NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ........ 47 

2.4.3 WATER USE ................................................................................................................................49 

2.4.4 TOURISM..................................................................................................................................... 51 

2.4.5 HUNTING .................................................................................................................................... 53 

2.4.6 FISHING....................................................................................................................................... 54 

2.4.7 LANDSCAPE, AESTHETIC AND CULTURAL HERITAGE SITES...................................................... 55 

2.4.8 AGRICULTURE ............................................................................................................................ 57 

2.4.9 VEGETATION USE (HARVESTING) .............................................................................................. 58 

2.4.10 WASTE MANAGEMENT............................................................................................................... 58 

2.5 RESEARCH AND DATA MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................. 59 

2.5.1 AVAILABLE INFORMATION AND DATA....................................................................................... 59 

2.5.2 RESEARCH .................................................................................................................................. 59 

2.6 CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES – HIV AND AIDS, GENDER AND POVERTY................................................... 60 

2.6.1 HIV AND AIDS........................................................................................................................... 60 

2.6.2 GENDER ...................................................................................................................................... 61 

2.6.3 POVERTY .................................................................................................................................... 61 

2.7 TOTAL ECONOMIC VALUE.................................................................................................................... 62 

2.7.1 DIRECT USE VALUES.................................................................................................................. 63 

2.7.2 INDIRECT USE VALUES............................................................................................................... 68 

2.7.3 NON USE VALUES....................................................................................................................... 68 

3 EVALUATION OF STATUS AND CONDITION ................................................................................ 71 

3.1 INSTITUTIONAL PLANNING ISSUES ....................................................................................................... 71 

3.1.1 VISION FOR THE DELTA.............................................................................................................. 71 

3.1.2 DEA CAPACITY TO COORDINATE AND MONITOR IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ODMP ............... 71 

3.1.3 CAPACITY OF SECTORS TO IMPLEMENT THE ODMP.................................................................. 72 

3.1.4 POLICY FRAMEWORK ................................................................................................................. 72 

3.2 BIO-PHYSICAL PLANNING ISSUES......................................................................................................... 73 

3.2.1 ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS AND SERVICES................................................................................... 73 

3.2.2 BIODIVERSITY............................................................................................................................. 73 

3.2.3 POTENTIAL THREATS TO OKAVANGO DELTA RAMSAR SITE FUNCTIONING.............................. 74 

3.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC PLANNING ISSUES................................................................................................... 78 

3.3.1 LAND USE................................................................................................................................... 78 

3.3.2 UNSUSTAINABLE USE OF VELD AND RANGE RESOURCES ......................................................... 79 

3.3.3 WATER USE ................................................................................................................................79 

3.3.4 TOURISM..................................................................................................................................... 80 

3.3.5 WILDLIFE USE ............................................................................................................................ 80 

3.3.6 FISHERIES ................................................................................................................................... 81 

3.3.7 LIVESTOCK ................................................................................................................................. 81 

3.3.8 WASTE MANAGEMENT............................................................................................................... 82 

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3.4 EDUCATION AND PUBLIC AWARENESS................................................................................................. 82 

3.5 RESEARCH AND DATA MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................. 83 

3.6 ECONOMIC VALUATION........................................................................................................................ 84 

3.7 CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING MANAGEMENT INTERVENTIONS ........................................................... 86 

3.7.1 MANAGEMENT INTERVENTIONS DURING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLAN ............................ 86 

3.7.2 MANAGEMENT INTERVENTIONS DURING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PLAN ....................... 93 

4 GOALS, OBJECTIVES AND ACTION PLANS ................................................................................. 101 

4.1 DEVELOPMENT OF STRATEGIC GOALS ............................................................................................... 101 

4.2 DEVELOPMENT FF STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................... 102 

4.2.1 STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES FOR THE INSTITUTIONAL SUBSYSTEM .............................................. 103 

4.2.2 STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES FOR THE BIO-PHYSICAL SUBSYSTEM................................................ 103 

4.2.3 STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES FOR THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SUBSYSTEM .......................................... 103 

4.3 STRENGTHS-WEAKNESSES-OPPORTUNITIES-THREATS (SWOT) ANALYSIS...................................... 104 

4.3.1 INSTITUTIONAL SWOT ANALYSIS ........................................................................................... 104 

4.3.2 BIO-PHYSICAL SWOT ANALYSIS............................................................................................. 106 

4.3.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC SWOT ANALYSIS....................................................................................... 108 

4.4 DEVELOPMENT OF OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVES.................................................................................. 109 

4.5 ACTION PLAN...................................................................................................................................... 112 

5 MANAGEMENT PLAN AND IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY................................................... 113 

5.1 IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES.......................................................................................................... 113 

5.1.1 ESTABLISHMENT OF VIABLE MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT 

OF THE OKAVANGO DELTA ECOSYSTEM.................................................................................. 114 

5.1.2 IMPROVEMENT OF THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR ODMP IMPLEMENTATION .............. 115 

5.1.3 RAISING PUBLIC AWARENESS, ENHANCING KNOWLEDGE AND CREATING A PLATFORM FOR 

INFORMATION EXCHANGE AND LEARNING ABOUT THE OKAVANGO DELTA ECOSYSTEM ..... 115 

5.1.4 TO MAINTAIN AND CONSERVE THE BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC STATUS OF THE OKAVANGO DELTA 

AS WELL AS THEIR INTERACTIONS........................................................................................... 117 

5.1.5 MAINTAINANCE AND RESTORATION OF THE OKAVANGO DELTA RAMSAR SITE HABITATS AND 

ECOSYSTEM. ............................................................................................................................. 118 

5.1.6 SUSTAINABLE USE OF THE OKAVANGO DELTA WETLAND RESOURCES FOR THE LONG TERM 

BENEFIT OF STAKEHOLDERS .................................................................................................... 119 

5.1.7 SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES UTILISATION .................................................................... 119 

5.1.8 IMPROVEMENT OF LIVELIHOODS OF THE DELTA STAKEHOLDERS THROUGH IMPROVED SOCIO- 

ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES...................................................................................................... 120 

5.2 MANAGEMENT ZONES AND GUIDELINES............................................................................................ 120 

5.2.1 ODRS PLANNING ZONES.......................................................................................................... 120 

5.2.2 LAND USE ZONING ................................................................................................................... 121 

5.2.3 TOURISM................................................................................................................................... 124 

5.2.4 FISHING..................................................................................................................................... 131 

5.2.5 VEGETATION RESOURCES USE................................................................................................. 131 

5.2.6 QUARRYING AND SAND EXCAVATION ..................................................................................... 132 

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5.2.7 FIRE MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................................. 132 

5.2.8 WATER QUALITY...................................................................................................................... 134 

5.3 BUFFER ZONES.................................................................................................................................... 134 

5.3.1 DEVELOPMENT WITHIN FLOOD PLAINS ................................................................................... 134 

5.3.2 BUFFER AROUND MOREMI GAME RESERVE ............................................................................ 134 

6 MONITORING AND EVALUATION PLAN ..................................................................................... 135 

6.1 PLAN FOR TRACKING IMPLEMENTATION AND PRODUCTION OF OUTPUTS......................................... 135 

6.2 MONITORING FOR CHANGES............................................................................................................... 135 

6.3 ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACTS OF THE PLAN OR SECTORAL PROGRAMMES ...................................... 135 

7 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................... 137 

8 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 139 

Table of Appendices 

APPENDIX I. 1: ACTION PLAN FOR INSTITUTIONAL THEMATIC AREA......................................................... 152 

APPENDIX I. 2: ACTION PLAN FOR THE BIO-PHYSICAL THEMATIC AREA.................................................... 157 

APPENDIX I. 3: ACTION PLAN FOR THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC THEMATIC SUBSYSTEM.................................... 159 

APPENDIX II. 1: PLAN FOR MONITORING IMPLEMENTATION AND OUTPUTS FOR THE INSTITUTIONAL 

THEMATIC AREA ................................................................................................................... 163 

APPENDIX II. 2: PLAN FOR MONITORING IMPLEMENTATION AND OUTPUTS FOR THE BIO-PHYSICAL 

THEMATIC AREA ................................................................................................................... 168 

APPENDIX II. 3: PLAN FOR MONITORING IMPLEMENTATION AND OUTPUTS FOR THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC 

THEMATIC AREA ................................................................................................................... 170 

APPENDIX II. 4: PLAN FOR MONITORING CHANGES IN THE INSTITUTIONAL THEMATIC AREA................... 173 

APPENDIX II. 5: PLAN FOR MONITORING FOR CHANGES IN THE BIO-PHYSICAL THEMATIC AREA ............. 176 

APPENDIX II. 6: PLAN FOR MONITORING FOR CHANGES IN THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC THEMATIC AREA........ 178 

APPENDIX III. 1: ASSESSING IMPACTS OF THE ACTION PLANS, MITIGATION MEASURES OF HOW TO 

ADDRESS THEM AND SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA FOR INSTITUTIONAL THEMATIC AREA .... 181 

APPENDIX III. 2: ASSESSING IMPACTS OF THE ACTION PLANS, MITIGATION MEASURES OF HOW TO 

ADDRESS THEM AND SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA FOR THE BIO-PHYSICAL THEMATIC 

AREA ..................................................................................................................................... 186 

APPENDIX III. 3: ACTION ASSESSING IMPACTS OF THE ACTION PLANS, MITIGATION MEASURES OF 

HOW TO ADDRESS THEM AND SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIAFOR SOCIO-ECONOMIC 

SUBSYSTEM ........................................................................................................................... 188 

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Table of Tables 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY TABLE 1: GOALS, OBJECTIVES AND KEY ISSUES ................................................... XIX 

TABLE 1-1: NATIONAL LEGISLATIVE AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK WITHIN WHICH THE ODMP IS 

BEING DEVELOPED....................................................................................................................... 2 

TABLE 1-2: REGIONAL AGREEMENTS AND PROTOCOLS WHICH HAVE A DIRECT BEARING ON THE 

DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ODMP............................................................... 4 

TABLE 1-3: INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS AND CONVENTIONS WITH DIRECT RELEVANCE TO THE 

ODMP .......................................................................................................................................... 5 

TABLE 2-1: THE MASS BALANCE OF DISSOLVED ELEMENTS ENTERING THE OKAVANGO DELTA 

THROUGH THE INLET (MCCARTHY ET AL., 1986)...................................................................... 29 

TABLE 2-2: NUMBER OF SPECIES IN TAXONOMIC GROUPS OF ORIGINALLY TERRESTRIAL ORIGIN 

OBSERVED IN EACH MAJOR HABITAT IN THE OKAVANGO DELTA (MODIFIED FROM RAMBERG 

ET.AL. 2006). .............................................................................................................................. 30 

TABLE 2-3: SPATIAL COVERAGE (KM 2 ) OF EACH VEGETATION GROUPING FOR THE ENTIRE NGAMILAND 

DISTRICT..................................................................................................................................... 34 

TABLE 2-4: GLOBALLY THREATENED OR NEAR-THREATENED BIRD SPECIES OCCURRING IN THE 

OKAVANGO DELTA. ................................................................................................................... 40 

TABLE 2-5: COMMON SPECIES AND NUMBERS ............................................................................................. 42 

TABLE 2-6: EMPLOYMENT PROFILE BY MAJOR SECTORS IN NGAMILAND DISTRICT ................................... 44 

TABLE 2-7: EXISTING BROAD LAND USE CATEGORIES IN THE ODRS (ODMP INTEGRATED LAND USE 

PLAN 2006)................................................................................................................................. 46 

TABLE 2-8: BASIC INFORMATION ON COMMUNITY TRUSTS IN NGAMILAND, BOTSWANA 

(MBAIWA, 2002)......................................................................................................................... 49 

TABLE 2-9: WATER ABSTRACTION IN THE ODRS (DWA 2004) ................................................................... 50 

TABLE 2-10: TOURISM ENTERPRISE LICENSED FACILITIES AND THEIR LICENSING CATEGORIES IN 

NGAMILAND ............................................................................................................................... 52 

TABLE 2-11: OWNERSHIP OF TOURISM FACILITIES IN NGAMILAND............................................................. 52 

TABLE 2-12: REVENUE BY CATEGORY OF USER (MOREMI GAME RESERVE)............................................... 53 

TABLE 2-13 : FISH PRODUCTION AND REVENUE COLLECTION FIGURES FOR BOITEKO SYNDICATE 

(SAMOCHIMA): 1999-2005 (DWNP, 2005) ................................................................................ 54 

TABLE 2-14: SUMMARY OF THE PRIVATE AND ECONOMIC DIRECT USE VALUES FOR AGRICULTURAL 

ACTIVITIES IN THE RAMSAR SITE AND THE WETLAND (IN PULA, 2005).................................... 64 

TABLE 2-15: SUMMARY OF THE TOTAL DIRECT USE VALUES DERIVED FROM NATURAL RESOURCES 

USE IN THE STUDY AREA (IN PULA, 2005) ................................................................................ 65 

TABLE 2-16: SUMMARY OF THE ANNUAL PRIVATE VALUES ASSOCIATED WITH HOUSEHOLD NATURAL 

RESOURCES USE AND AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES IN THE FIVE ZONES OF THE RAMSAR 

SITE AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE WETLAND ITSELF (IN PULA, 2005)................................ 66 

TABLE 2-17: ESTIMATED VALUE OF ANNUAL GROSS OUTPUT AND GROSS VALUE ADDED IN THE 

OKAVANGO DELTA-BASED TOURISM INDUSTRY USING THREE METHODS, AND AVERAGE 

VALUE USED IN THIS STUDY...................................................................................................... 66 

TABLE 2-18: ESTIMATED DIRECT GROSS OUTPUT, DIRECT CONTRIBUTION TO THE GROSS NATIONAL 

PRODUCT AND THE ECONOMIC NATURAL RESOURCE RENT PRODUCED AS A RESULT OF 

TOURISM ACTIVITIES IN THE RAMSAR SITE (IN 1000 PULA, 2005)............................................ 67 

TABLE 2-19: ESTIMATED DIRECT GROSS OUTPUT, DIRECT CONTRIBUTION TO THE GROSS NATIONAL 

PRODUCT AND THE ECONOMIC NATURAL RESOURCE RENT PRODUCED AS A RESULT OF 

TOURISM ACTIVITIES IN THE WETLAND (IN 1000 PULA, 2005) ................................................. 67 

TABLE 2-20: SUMMARY OF ESTIMATED INDIRECT USE VALUES FOR THE RAMSAR SITE AND THE 

WETLAND (IN PULA, 2005)......................................................................................................... 68 

TABLE 3-1: SUMMARY OF PRIORITISED ISSUES AND INTERVENTIONS DURING THE DEVELOPMENT OF 

THE ODMP ................................................................................................................................. 87 

TABLE 3-2: PRIORITY ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED DURING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PLAN ................. 94 

TABLE 3-3: CLUSTERING OF ISSUES FOR INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT PLANNING PURPOSE ....................... 95 

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TABLE 3-4: CRITERIA FOR FUTURE PRIORITY SETTING................................................................................. 96 

TABLE 3-5: MATRIX FOR EVALUATING AND RANKING LAND USE OPTIONS/ACTIVITIES IN THE FUTURE ... 97 

TABLE 3-6: PILOT PROJECTS TO TEST MANAGEMENT OPTIONS.................................................................... 98 

TABLE 4-1: INSTITUTIONAL SUBSYSTEM SWOT ANALYSIS ....................................................................... 105 

TABLE 4-2: BIO-PHYSICAL SYSTEM SWOT ANALYSIS............................................................................... 107 

TABLE 4-3: SOCIO-ECONOMIC SUBSYSTEM SWOT ANALYSIS ................................................................... 108 

TABLE 4-4: OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVES TO ADDRESS KEY ISSUES ............................................................. 110 

TABLE 5-1: PLANNING ZONES WITHIN THE RAMSAR SITE.......................................................................... 121 

TABLE 5-2: CHARACTERIZATION OF CONDITIONS IN THE CATEGORIES OF STATUS OF THE LAND............. 126 

Table of Figures 

FIGURE 2-1: LOCATION OF OKAVANGO AND NEIGHBOURING RIVER BASINS ............................................... 11 

FIGURE 2-2: MAP OF THE OKAVANGO RAMSAR SITE ................................................................................... 12 

FIGURE 2-3: THE OKAVANGO DELTA RAMSAR SITE LAND TENURE............................................................ 14 

FIGURE 2-4: SETTLEMENTS AND ROAD NETWORK IN THE RAMSAR SITE ...................................................... 19 

FIGURE 2-5: GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE ODRS .............................................................................................. 24 

FIGURE 2-6: INFLOW AT MOHEMBO (1997–2002) ........................................................................................ 25 

FIGURE 2-7: OKAVANGO DELTA RIVER CHANNELS ...................................................................................... 26 

FIGURE 2-8: OUTFLOW AT BORO JUNCTION (1997–2002)............................................................................ 27 

FIGURE 2-9: VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION MAP OF THE ODRS .................................................................. 34 

FIGURE 2-10: DISTRIBUTION MAP OF RARE AND ENDANGERED PLANT SPECIES IN THE ODRS..................... 36 

FIGURE 2-11: SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN RAMSAR SITE (SOURCE: NDSS 2004) 44 

FIGURE 2-12: LAND USE MAP OF THE ORDS ................................................................................................ 46 

FIGURE 2-13: MAP SHOWING LANDSCAPES, CULTURAL AND AESTHETIC SITES ........................................... 55 

FIGURE 2-14: VEGETATION RESOURCES USE BY VILLAGE (ADAPTED FROM SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL SURVEY 

REPORT, EVERY RIVER HAS ITS PEOPLE PROJECT, 2001) ....................................................... 58 

FIGURE 2-15: ECONOMIC VALUATION ZONES ................................................................................................ 62 

FIGURE 3-1: MAP OF PILOT PROJECTS/DEMONSTRATION SITES IN THE ODRS........................................... 100 

FIGURE 4-1: ECOSYSTEM SUBSYSTEMS........................................................................................................ 102 

FIGURE 5-1: MAP OF PLANNING ZONES....................................................................................................... 121 

FIGURE 5-2: PROPOSED LIMIT OF ACCEPTABLE AND OPPORTUNITY CLASSES ........................................... 125 

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

The ODMP project has been an exciting yet challenging endeavor which trialed and tested, 

on the ground, key environmental management principles. These included the ecosystem 

approach, participatory planning, integrated management, database management, 

hydrological modeling, economic valuation, scenario planning, feedback mechanisms, 

piloting and joint planning, to mention a few. It was indeed a planning adventure which 

challenged the institutional set-up and the individual planners’ mental disposition to 

operate and think beyond the box. 

The Department of Environmental Affairs could not have achieved this milestone without 

the support and participation of a number of stakeholders and partners. Some of the 

notable ones being the departments of Water Affairs, Wildlife and National Parks, Tourism, 

Forestry and Range Resources, Animal Health and Production, Town and Regional 

<strong>Plan</strong>ning, and authorities in the district, namely, North West District Council, District 

Administration, Tribal Administration and Tawana Land Board. On the same note 

acknowledgements go to the NGOs and CBOs in the district as well as other national bodies 

for their tremendous support. 

The University of Botswana Harry Oppenheimer <strong>Okavango</strong> Research Centre played a pivotal 

role throughout the ODMP process, first during the design of the project, through to the 

development of the plan where its staff was assigned to various components and activities 

to technically guide the process. The HOORC has committed itself to give technical 

guidance during the implementation of the plan. 

MEWT would also want to extend their appreciation to the enthusiasm and level of 

participation by the tourism private sector in shaping the plan and making specific 

commitments to support the monitoring and research activities during the implementation 

of the ODMP. Dikgosi (Chiefs) of all settlements within the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site deserve special 

recognition for the high level of support in encouraging and ensuring that their merafe 

contribute in all ways possible during the preparation of the plan. There is no doubt that 

what is contained in the plan is a reflection of societal needs and aspirations. 

To the upstream riparian states of Angola and Namibia, the Government of Botswana 

wishes to extend her sincere gratitude for the endorsement of the ODMP process through 

the Permanent <strong>Okavango</strong> River Basin Commission (OKACOM). This was a demonstration 

that within the region joint management of shared resources is possible and achievable. 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is enjoying international protection through the <strong>Convention</strong> on 

Wetlands of International Importance commonly known as the <strong>Ramsar</strong> <strong>Convention</strong>. It was 

the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Secretariat which provided seed funding for the design of the ODMP. 

MEWT would like to acknowledge the financial and technical support it received from the 

Governments of the Kingdom of Denmark through the Danish Development Agency 

(DANIDA), Germany through the German Development Service (DED), the Kingdom of 

Sweden through the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) and The World 

Conservation Union (IUCN). Without their support the project would not have been as 

successful as it was. 

Lastly the Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism would like to thank all those who 

contributed, but may have been inadvertently not mentioned. 

Thank you

Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism 

Government of the Republic of Botswana 

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FOREWORD 

In a water deficient country like Botswana a wetland of any form and size and location 

attracts interest and is viewed as important to enhance the bio-physical and socioeconomic 

wellbeing in that respective locality. While wetland management has come to be 

recognized as an embodiment of maintenance of the integrity of freshwater bodies it should 

be understood that for Botswana, management of such sources as well as surrounding 

resources has traditionally been standard practice. It may not have been known as wetland 

management in contemporary expressions, but it constituted an approach to sustainably 

use the resources. 

Recognition of internationally renowned systems such as the <strong>Okavango</strong> puts into 

perspective the value that wetlands hold and the management attention it deserves. The 

Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism in collaboration with the rest of government, 

local authorities and organizations outside government joined efforts in formulating an 

initiative which evolved into a programme which culminated in the development of a 

<strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> for the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. We recognize support from international 

partners during this endearing exercise. 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is a magnificent piece of creation which is sometimes referred to as the 

“jewel of the Kalahari”. It is indeed an oasis in the deep expanse of the Kalahari Desert. The 

river creates a unique feature which empties its water into the thirsty Kalahari sands 

forming a great inland fan of channels and swampland - the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. Geologically 

the system is referred to as “endorheic”. The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> forms the core of one of the 

largest declared <strong>Ramsar</strong> sites or Wetlands of International Importance. The site, which also 

includes the Kwando / Linyati river system, is located entirely within Ngamiland District of 

Botswana. Many people derive their livelihoods from the area and it is also economically 

valuable as it serves both as a source of revenue from tourism and source of water for the 

region. 

Developing a management plan for such a system was both challenging and indeed a 

demanding task. The Government of Botswana is proud to have finalized the development 

of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> (ODMP). The ODMP will provide a contextual 

framework within which all other sector plans should operate within the North West 

District. The ODMP strives for sustainable utilisation of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>’s natural 

resources. It is an initiative which was provided for in the National Vision 2016. The 2006 

national celebrations to mark the ten years into Vision 2016, saw the Ministry of 

Environment, Wildlife and Tourism through the Department of Environmental Affairs 

observing its accomplishment in the completion of the ODMP. 

Through the ODMP the Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism demonstrated the 

possibility for integrated natural resource management and actual testing of the principles 

of ecosystem management of a key wetland system. The participatory planning and 

consultation principles embraced during the development of the ODMP have brought the 

broad environmental planning into some appreciable level and has enhanced cross-sectoral 

planning. The implementation of the ODMP should in this respect be a premise for more 

focused district development planning in future. We take pride in the Ministry of 

Environment, Wildlife and Tourism in a successful imitative which is also endorsed within 

the wider <strong>Okavango</strong> basin as a proactive gesture towards what could be considered as 

Botswana’s contribution to an anticipated integrated management plan of the entire 

<strong>Okavango</strong> river system by Angola, Botswana and Namibia.

It stands to reason that the ODMP should and will be implemented as intended and that 

future review processes will indicate notable and positive impact on the bio-physical and 

socio-economic health of various aspects of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> site, as well as 

improved institutional coordination and strengthening at all levels of operation. The level of 

expectation and commitment on the ODMP so far displayed gives some level of assurance 

for action. The Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism is bound to live up to these 

expectations. 

I present to you the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> 

Honourable Onkokame Kitso Mokaila 

Minister of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism. 

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PREFACE 

This document constitutes a <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> for the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. It is largely based 

on the Government of Botswana planning system and complemented by elements from the 

New Guidelines for <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ning for <strong>Ramsar</strong> Sites and the Ecosystem Approach. 

The format is described below. 

Chapter 1 - Introduction 

This chapter sets out the goal of the <strong>Plan</strong> and the policy framework within which the <strong>Plan</strong> 

has been developed at local, regional and international levels. It also describes the need for 

the plan, why the site was selected and the planning approach. 

Chapter 2 - Site Description 

This chapter describes the ecological character and the institutional, and socio-economic 

characteristics of the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site. It is fundamentally a collation and synthesis of existing 

data and information about the site and identifies any shortfall of relevant data and 

information. The site description needs to be regularly reviewed and updated as new data 

and information becomes available. This section is further developed into a comprehensive 

and detailed inventory in a separate volume of the ODMP series of documents. 

Chapter 3 – Evaluation of status and condition 

The purpose of this chapter is to evaluate the status and condition of the features described 

in chapter 2 in order to determine the management interventions and objectives. The 

process of evaluation involves developing a set of evaluation criteria and applying this to 

each key feature. The evaluation focusses on the ecological character; the ecological 

components and processes as well as the ecosystem goods and services provided by the 

wetland to support livelihoods. The evaluation also draws from the stakeholder analysis 

and issues report. 

Chapter 4 – Goals, Objectives and Action <strong>Plan</strong>s 

The purpose of this chapter is to set out management objectives determined from the type 

of management intervention identified during the evaluation process of the site 

characteristics and the necessary management interventions in the form of action plans. An 

objective defines what needs to be achieved through management of the site. Four levels of 

objectives have been used in this document, these are: the Overall Goal of the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>, the long term Strategic Goals of the three <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

Ecosystem thematic areas or subsystems, the strategic objectives, which have been 

developed in order to reach the three strategic goals, ,and the operational objectives, which 

are derived from the strategic objectives. A tabular presentation of the objectives and action 

plan is adopted which conforms to the standard Botswana Government planning format. 

The action plan describes the implementation of management interventions in terms of 

operationalising the management objectives through various actions. It describes in detail 

activities, outputs and resources needed. At this level the integration elements are apparent 

with respect to the objectives and institutional responsibilities. 

Chapter 5 <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation Strategy

This chapter describes the strategies as well as necessary instutional, and financial 

arrangements which would be required to implement the ODMP. The chapter also sets out 

the parameters or framework within which future management interventions should 

operate. It further presents the planning horizon as well as the procedures for reviewing 

the implementation of the plan. 

Chapter 6 – Montoring and Evaluation <strong>Plan</strong> (M&E) 

This chapter describes how the implementation of the plan will be monitored and 

evaluated against the operational objectives. M&E is the regular collection and analysis of 

information to track the implementation and measure the performance of any project 

against its expected results. It provides important information about how the project is 

performing, which helps decision makers and other stakeholders. It is therefore a powerful 

management tool that provides project managers with information to track implementation 

and achievements, so that they can identify whatever obstacles are impeding the project's 

success as early as possible. M&E is a source of information for justifying changes in 

management strategy, budgets, etc. through adaptive management responses. 

Chapter 7 Conclusions 

This chapter describes briefly the processes and principles used in the development plan 

and the expectations arising from its implementation. 

xii

xiii 

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 

ALDEP Arable Land Development Programme 

BAIS Botswana AIDS Impact Survey 

BTDP Botswana Tourism Development Programme 

BWMA Botswana Wildlife <strong>Management</strong> Association 

CBD <strong>Convention</strong> on Biological Diversity 

CBNRM Community Based Natural Resource <strong>Management</strong> 

CBO Community Based Organisation 

CBPP Contagious Bovine Pluero Pneumonia 

CC Conservation Committee 

CEDA Citizen Entrepreneurial Development Agency 

CHA Controlled Hunting Area 

CI Conservation International 

CITES <strong>Convention</strong> on International Trade in Endangered Species 

CoR Certificate of Rights 

CSO Central Statistics Office 

CT Community Trust 

DAHP Department of Animal Health and Production 

DANIDA Danish International Development Agency 

DDC District Development Committee 

DDP District Development <strong>Plan</strong> 

DEA Department of Environmental Affairs 

Dept. Department 

DFRR Department of Forestry and Range Resources 

DLGSD Department of Local Government Service and Development 

DLUPU District Land Use <strong>Plan</strong>ning Unit 

DoT Department of Tourism 

DTRP Department of Town and Regional <strong>Plan</strong>ning 

DWA Department of Water Affairs 

DWNP Department of Wildlife and National Parks 

EA Ecosystem Approach 

EHD Environmental Health Department 

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment 

ERP Every River has its People Project 

FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation 

FAP Financial Assistance Policy 

FC Farmers Committee 

FMD Foot and Mouth Disease 

FMP Final <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> 

FPSG Fixed Period State Grant

xiv 

FRAMP Framework <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> 

GIS Geographical Information System 

GoB Government of Botswana 

HATAB Hospitality and Tourism Association of Botswana 

HEC Human – Elephant Conflict 

HIV Human Immuno Virus 

HOORC Harry Oppenheimer <strong>Okavango</strong> Research Centre 

IAS Invasive Alien Species 

ID Identity Number 

IMP Integrated <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> 

IUCN The World Conservation Union 

IWRM Integrated Water Resources <strong>Management</strong> 

KCS Kalahari Conservation Society 

LAC Limits of Acceptable Change 

M&E Monitoring and Evaluation 

MCM Million Cubic Metres 

MEA Multilateral Environmental Agreements 

MEWT Ministry of Environment, Wildlife & Tourism 

MFDP Ministry of Finance and Development <strong>Plan</strong>ning 

MGDP Maun Groundwater Development Programme 

MMEWR Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources 

MoA Ministry of Agriculture 

MOMS <strong>Management</strong> Orientated Monitoring System 

MWSSRUP Maun Water Supply and Sanitation Rehabilitation and Upgrade Project 

NACT National Council on Tourism 

NCSA National Conservation Strategy (Co-ordinating) Agency 

NDDP Ngamiland District Development <strong>Plan</strong> 

NDP National Development <strong>Plan</strong> 

NDSS Ngamiland District Settlement Strategy 

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation 

NMMAG National Museum, Monuments and Art Gallery 

NWDC North West District Council 

OCT <strong>Okavango</strong> Community Trust 

ODIS <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> Information System 

ODMP <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> 

ODRS <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site 

OFMC <strong>Okavango</strong> Fishery <strong>Management</strong> Committee 

OKACOM Permanent <strong>Okavango</strong> River Basin Commission 

ORB <strong>Okavango</strong> River Basin 

OWBC <strong>Okavango</strong> Wetland Biodiiversity Conservation 

OWMC <strong>Okavango</strong> Wetland <strong>Management</strong> Committee 

PA Protected Area

xv 

PAN Trust People and Nature Trust 

PLA Participatory Learning and Action 

PMG Project <strong>Management</strong> Group 

PP Participatory <strong>Plan</strong>ner 

PPADB Public Procurement and Asset Disposal Board 

PPU Physical <strong>Plan</strong>ning Unit 

SADC Southern African Development Community 

SAP Strategic Action <strong>Plan</strong> 

SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment 

SIDA Swedish International Development Agency 

SLAAC State Land Allocation Advisory Committee 

SWOT Strenghts, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats 

TLB Tawana Land Board 

UB University of Botswana 

UNCCD United Nations <strong>Convention</strong> on Combatting Desertification 

UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 

UNCLOS United Nationa <strong>Convention</strong> on the Law of the Sea 

UNDP United Nations Development Programme 

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme 

UNFCCC United Nations Framework <strong>Convention</strong> on Climate Change 

VDC Village Development Committee 

VTC Village Trust Committee 

WANI Water and Nature Initiative (IUCN) 

WERRD Water and Ecosystem in Regional Development 

WHC World Heritage <strong>Convention</strong> 

WMA Wildlife <strong>Management</strong> Area 

WSB Water Surveys Botswana 

WTP Willingness To Pay

OKAVANGO DELTA VISION 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

The common and shared vision for the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is: 

“A carefully managed, well functioning ecosystem that equitably and sustainably provides 

benefits for local, national and international stakeholders”. 

OVERALL GOAL OF THE OKAVANGO DELTA MANAGEMENT PLAN 

The Overall Goal of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> (ODMP) is: 

“to integrate resource management for the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> that will ensure its long-term 

conservation and that will provide benefits for the present and future well-being of the people, 

through sustainable use of its natural resources” 

The Overall Goal further translates to three Strategic Goals, each with several Strategic 

Objectives, for the ODMP (see section 4 for an explanation of the development of these): 

Strategic Goal 1. To establish viable institutional arrangements to support integrated 

resource management in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>; 

Strategic objective 1.1: To establish viable management institutions for the 

sustainable management of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>; 

Strategic objective 1.2: To improve the planning and regulatory framework for 


Strategic objective 1.3: To raise public awareness, enhance knowledge and create a 

platform for information exchange and learning about the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 

Strategic Goal 2. To ensure the long-term conservation of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and the 

provision of existing ecosystem services; 

Strategic objective 2.1: To conserve the ecological character (biotic and abiotic 

functions) of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, and the interactions between them; 

Strategic objective 2.2: To maintain or restore the wetland habitats and ecosystems of 

the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 

Strategic Goal 3. To sustainably use the natural resources of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> in an 

equitable way and support the livelihoods of all stakeholders; 

Strategic objective 3.1: To sustainably use the wetland resources of the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> for the long-term benefit of all stakeholders; 

Strategic objective 3.2: To develop socio-economic opportunities to improve livelihoods 

of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> stakeholders. 

POLICY FRAMEWORK 

The context of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> is defined within the framework of a 

national vision, legislation, policies, plans and strategies, regional protocols and 

xvi

international conventions. The most noteworthy instruments with provisions for the 

development of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> are the National Vision 2016 (with 

attendant environmental policies and plan), the Southern African Development Community 

(SADC) Protocol on Shared Water Courses, and the wetland management and planning 

guidance prepared by the <strong>Ramsar</strong> <strong>Convention</strong>. 

NEED FOR THE PLAN 

The existing diverse and complex nature of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> in terms of its natural 

resources, its wide range of users and uses, its multiple managers (both in and outside 

government and including communities), and an array of national laws, policies and 

guidelines, as well as regional and international conventions, agreements and protocols, are 

all factors that dictate the need and determine the context for an integrated management 

planning process for the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 

PLANNING APPROACH 

The ODMP planning process borrowed from the <strong>Ramsar</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ning Guidelines (<strong>Ramsar</strong> 

Secretariat 2006) and the Ecosystem Approach to wetlands management. The ODMP is 

anchored on the main principle of strengthening ownership through accountability and the 

active participation of all stakeholders both during development and implementation of the 

plan. The ownership of the ODMP process is premised on participatory mechanisms, 

association with international stakeholders, building partnerships at all levels and adopting 

an integrated and dynamic approach which recognises gender, HIV and AIDS and 

livelihoods elements. 

SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> has approximately 1300 plant, 701 fish, 30 amphibian, 65 reptile, 445 

bird and 120 mammal identified species. 

In the <strong>Delta</strong>, there are large variations in habitat patterns over small distances, although 

the <strong>Delta</strong> is very flat and is made up of homogeneous sand. Small differences in altitude of 

1-2 m represent large differences in the frequency and duration of flooding, which creates 

gradients from permanent rivers and lagoons, to permanent swamps with reeds and 

papyrus, to seasonally flooded grasslands, occasionally flooded grasslands, riverine 

woodlands, and dry woodlands. Each of these ecosystems has a distinct species 

composition not only of plants, but also of reptiles, birds and mammals. 

In a biodiversity comparison (Junk et al. 2006) of seven globally important wetlands, of 

which six are located in tropics and sub-tropics, the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> had a low number of 

fish species, but the second highest number of plants and mammals, third highest number 

of amphibians, and highest number of reptiles and birds. In particular the number of large 

mammal species and their high abundance are outstanding in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 

MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES AND ACTION PLANS 

The ecosystem approach provided guidance in categorising management interventions into 

three thematic areas or subsystems. This enables an integrated resource management 

planning approach in implementing management interventions. 

The three subsystems are the institutional, bio-physical and socio-economic subsystems. 

The institutional subsystem entails the management infrastructure and associated tools; 

the bio-physical includes the biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem; and the 

socioeconomic comprises different uses that humans make of the components of the bio- 

xvii

physical subsystem. These are often referred to as the ecosystem services (sensu 

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2003). The overall goal of the plan, the strategic goals 

and the respective strategic objectives for the thematic areas are given Table 1-1. In 

addition the table presents the key issues from which the operational objectives are 

derived. The strategic objectives were subjected to a strength, weakness, opportunities and 

threats (SWOT) analysis to determine operational objectives which are specific, measurable, 

achievable, realistic and timebound (SMART). These were in turn translated into action 

plans which are given in Appendix I. 

xviii

Table 1-1: Goals, Objectives and Key issues 

Overall goal of the ODMP is to integrate resource management for the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> that will ensure its long-term conservation and that will 

provide benefits for the present and future well being of the people, through sustainable use of its natural resources 

THEMATIC AREA: INSTITUTIONAL 

Strategic Goal Stategic Objective Key Issue ID Key issues Operational Objectives 

To establish viable 

institutional 

arrangements to support 

integrated resource 

management in the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> at local, 

district, national and 

international (River 

Basin) levels 

xix 


management 

institutions for the 

sustainable 

management of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

To improve the 

planning and 

regulatory framework 

for 

sustainable 



I.1.1 There is need to establish 

a regional DEA office in 

ODRS and strengthen its 

capacity to coordinate and 

monitor the 

implementation of the 

ODMP. 

I.1.2 There is need to build the 

capacity of communities 

for managing and ensuring 

the sustainable use of 

natural resources 

I.1.3 Manpower capacity of the 

fisheries division needs to 

be addressed 

I.1.4 The solid waste collection 

services within the ODRS 

need to be improved. 

I.1.5 The solid and liquid waste 

infrastructure in the ODRS 

needs to be improved. 

I.1.6 The institutional capacity 

of the district waste 

management needs to be 

improved 

I.2.1 There is need to harmonize 

legislation and policies 

applicable to the ODRS. 

I.2.2 There is need to ensure 

that plans, programmes 

and development activities 

in the ODRS are guided by 

a common and shared 

vision for the ODRS. 

I.2.3 There is need to facilitate 

the approval of the Draft 

National Wetlands Policy 

and Strategy by 

Parliament. 

I.2.4 Difficulties in obtaining, 

updating and accessing 

existing information for 

resource planning and 

management in the ODRS. 

I.2.5 Research in the ODRS 

needs to be coordinated. 

I.2.6 The long standing problem 

of fisheries conflicts need 

to be resolved. 

DEA to strengthen the capacity of the 

ODRS DEA office to coordinate and 

monitor implementation of the ODMP by 

March 2008 

NWDC to strengthen the capacity of the 

communities in management and 

sustainable use of the natural resources 

by 

DWNP to improve the manpower capacity 

in the Fisheries Division to sustainably 

manage the fish resources by 2012 

NWDC to improve solid waste collection 

within the ODRS by 2012 

NWDC to improve the solid and liquid 

waste infrastructures in the ODRS 2012 

NWDC to improve the institutional 

capacity of the district waste 

management. 

DEA to facilitate the process of 

harmonizing legislation and policies 

applicable to ODRS by 2012 

DEA to ensure that the common and 

shared vision of the ODRS guides the 

planning and programmes in the ODRS 

during the ODMP implementation 

DEA to facilitate approval of the Draft 

National Wetlands Policy and Strategy by 

2012 

HOORC to improve accessibility and 

updating of data and information for 

resources planning and management by 

2012 

HOORC to implement the 

recommendations of the Research 

Strategy by 2012 

DWNP to put in place fishery conflict 

resolution mechanisms










Basin) levels 

THEMATIC AREA: BIO-PHYSICAL 

To ensure the long-term 

conservation of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and the 

provision of existing 

ecosystem services for 

the benefit of all 

organisms dependant on 

it 

xx 

To raise public 

awareness, enhance 

knowledge and create 

a platform for 

information exchange 

and learning about 

the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

To conserve the biotic 

and abiotic functions 

of the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong>, and the 

interactions between 

them 

To maintain or restore 

the wetland habitats 

and ecosystems of 


I.2.7 Haphazard and delays 

in land allocations as 

well as poor record 

keeping need to be 

reduced. 

I.3.1 There is need to 

establish effective 

communication amongst 

ODMP stakeholders at 

all levels during plan 

implementation. 

I.3.2 Uncertainties about 

stakeholders continuing 

to meaningfully 

participate in the 


ODMP. 

I.3.3 Continued engagement 

of Namibia and Angola 

in the sustainable use of 

the <strong>Okavango</strong> River 

Basin. 

I.3.4 Limited awareness of 

the ecological impacts of 

tourism activities in the 

ODRS. 

B.1.1 Water quality and 

sedimentation 

monitoring. 

B.1.2 Understand habitat 

requirements of 

keystone species. 

B.1.3 Lake Ngami needs to be 

declared a bird 

sanctuary 

B.1.4 The existing and 

potential breeding sites 

for slaty egret need to 

be protected. 

B.1.5 Inadequacy of base line 

data on fish stocks in 

the ODRS. 

B.2.1 Reduce the impact and 

frequency of 

uncontrolled veld fires. 

B.2.2 Limited knowledge on 

the impact of large 

herbivores on sensitive 

habitats 

B.2.3 Overgrazing by 

livestock 

B.2.4 The risk of Tsetse reinfestation 

needs to be 

reduced. 

TLB to allocate land in an orderly and 

timely manner through the use of a land 

management database by 2012 

DEA to promote effective communication 

amongst stakeholders by implementing 

the communication strategy by 2012 

HOORC to provide participatory services to 

the ODMP implementing institutions 

through the provisions of the MoU 

between UB and MEWT by 2012 and longterm 

incorporation of these services into 

the HOORC functions 

DEA to facilitate engagement of Angola 

and Namibia through the targeted 

OKACOM activities. 

DWNP to organise an awareness raising 

campaign to reduce the negative 

ecological impacts of tourism activities in 

the ODRS by 2012. 

DWA to improve the water quality and 

sedimentation monitoring 

DWNP to carry out baseline surveys on 

keystone species 

DWNP to facilitate the designation of Lake 

Ngami as a bird sanctuary 

DWNP to protect existing and potential 

breeding sites for the slaty egret 

DWNP to develop and implement fish 

stock monitoring programme 

DFRR to implement the guidelines on 

appropriate fire management practices as 

contained in the Fire <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> 

DWNP to assess and mitigate the impact 

of large herbivores on sensitive habitats 

DAHP to develop and implement range 

carrying capacity guidelines 

DAHP to reduce the risk of Tsetse reinfestation 

by promoting dialogue with 

Angola, Namibia and Zambia to create a 

tsetse free zone.

THEMATIC AREA: SOCIO-ECONOMIC 


To sustainably use the 

natural resources of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> in an 

equitable way and 

support the livelihoods 

of all stakeholders 

xxi 

To sustainably use 

the wetland resources 

of the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> for the longterm 

benefit of all 

stakeholders 

To develop socioeconomic 

opportunities to 

improve livelihoods of 


stakeholders. 

IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY 

S.1.1 Establish the non-use 

economic values for the 

ODRS 

S.1.2 6.1 Possible impacts of 

tourism activities on the 

ODRS ecosystem. 

S.1.3 8.4 Sustainable use of 

vegetation resources. 

S.2.1 2.2 Cross-cutting issues 

such as HIV/AIDS, 

Gender and Poverty 

need to be 

mainstreamed into the 

ODMP process 

S.2.2 4.1 The need to manage 

channel blockages to 

sustain communities 

access to livelihood 

activities 

S.2.3 5.1 The human/wildlife 

conflicts. 

S.2.4 6.2 The level of citizen 

participation in the 

tourism sector. 

S.2.5 6.3 The tourism 

products need to be 

diversified from being 

wildlife based to other 

areas. 

S.2.6 10.2 Traditional access 

rights to natural 

resources in concession 

areas need to be 

upheld. 

S.2.7 12.2 The 

livestock/wildlife 

interactions need to be 

reduced. 

DEA to undertake an estimation of nonuse 

economic values for the ODRS 

DoT to monitor and mitigate the impact of 

tourism in the ODRS 

DFRR to develop regulations for 

sustainable use of vegetation resources 

DEA to prepare and implement guidelines 

for sectors to streamline HIV/AIDS, 

Gender and Poverty during ODMP 

implementation 

DWA to manage small channel blocks 

primarily for communities access to 

livelihood activities. 

DWNP to assess and mitigate the 

human/wildlife conflicts 

DoT to develop and implement strategies 

to enhance citizen participation in the 

tourism sector 


for tourism product diversification 

TLB to ensure that traditional access 

rights to natural resources for subsistence 

in concession areas are respected 

DAH to develop programmes for the 

reduction of livestock/wildlife conflicts. 

The implementation strategy is guided by the common and shared vision of the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site. The vision is designed to provide guidance to policy development and 

execution of the various programmes that support the sustainable management of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> site, to help inform the Government and its partners of the 

stakeholder priorities for future action and to provide a common focus and direction for the 

diverse stakeholders utilising and managing the natural resources within the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site 

(ODMP – <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site Common Vision for 2016, 2006). 

Furthermore the implementation strategy sets out parameters which provide the context for 

future actions in the wise use and management of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> site. These 

are largely premised on the values which support the common shared vision. The 

parameters are in the form of management strategies, zoning, prescriptions and action plan 

(projects). 

The implementation of the ODMP will be coordinated by the Department of Environmental 

Affairs (DEA) through an integrated approach in order to optimize the use and management 

of resources. The ODMP recognizes the current sectoral mandates and while it seeks to

maintain them it accords prominence to the seemingly subdued elements of integration 

which are fundamental to the overall objective of the ODMP. It is proposed that University 

of Botswana HOORC provides DEA with the required technical support. 

In order to strengthen its capacity to effectively coordinate the implementation of the ODMP 

and further service the Ngamiland District in terms of its broad management functions, 

DEA will have a presence in Maun. This will further be strengthened by HOORC through 

technical support to DEA. 

With respect to the sectoral responsibilities outlined in the action plans, the current 

institutional arrangements still hold. The ODMP recognizes the institutional inadequacies 

which may hinder implementation and appropriate objectives are formulated to address 

these. 

It is proposed that implementation of the plan be guided by the <strong>Okavango</strong> Wetland 

<strong>Management</strong> Committee (OWMC) which is a district multi-sectoral structure set up during 

the development of the plan. The establishment of the OWMC is provided for in the Draft 

National Wetlands Policy of 2000. This committee like any other committee in the district 

should be accountable to the District Development Committee (DDC). 

The ODMP recognizes the existing financial arrangements and processes in government 

and this sets the premise for the financial and budgetary requirements for its 


In order to secure financial resources for implementation, government departments and 

institutions should follow the normal budgeting procedures. This entails that activities to 

be undertaken during the implementation of the plan be mainstreamed into other existing 

or on-going programmes as planned under the current District Development <strong>Plan</strong> 6 (DDP6) 

and National Development <strong>Plan</strong> 9 (NDP9) as well as the subsequent plans. 

The ODMP is aligned with national and district planning processes and in this respect, its 

planning horizon will coincide with those of the DDPs and NDPs which span a period of six 

years. The ODMP action plan has been incorporated into the District Strategic <strong>Plan</strong> which 

ends in March 2009. 

Institutions will make budget provisions through the normal funding mechanisms. The 

ODMP action plan will overlap with the other planned sectoral projects funded through the 

same government funding systems within the context of DDPs and NDPs. The reviews and 

audits of the ODMP should be aligned to a normal planning process. 

MONITORING AND EVALUATION PLAN 

A Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) plan has been developed to track the implementation of 

the ODMP. The monitoring will be carried out at two levels. The first entails monitoring of 

implementation of outputs during the ODMP planning, and the second monitors changes at 

operational objective level during implementation of the plan. Within the context of 

government planning structure the M&E will be equivalent to the performance 

measurement tool which usually accompanies strategic plans. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> (ODMP) project reached its official completion 

target. Four milestones (inception, framework management plan, draft management plan 

and final management plan) were programmed for the delivery of the project through 

xxii

collaborative efforts of twelve sectoral components anchored within ten organizations both 

at central and local government as well as the University of Botswana. 

The ODMP process was largely issue-driven. Stakeholder consultations were held at 

community, departmental, private sector, NGO/CBO and policy making level. Their diverse 

interests and expectations on the ODMP were recorded, analysed and to the extent possible 

incorporated into management options and action plans contained in the draft 

management plan. 

The approach of the ODMP was also premised on the <strong>Ramsar</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ning Guidelines as well 

as to a large extent informed by the policy framework in Government. A learning-by-doing 

course of action was pursued in order to adapt methods which support the overall objective 

and principles of the ODMP as well as the sectoral functions of participating organizations. 

It was therefore not plausible for the process to follow to the letter the methodology outlined 

in the <strong>Ramsar</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ning tool. Some of its elements, can only be implied. 

The focus of the ODMP was on integrated resource management. There is evidence of 

success attained through improved cross-sectoral planning even outside the ODMP 

programme itself. Sectors apply themselves in a more focused way and can readily identify 

the synergies and complementary support which they can source from other sectors in a 

more coorperative manner and without necessarily shifting burdens or pointing fingers. 

Integration is a process. ODMP has demonstrated that it is possible to integrate; its 

maturity will be realised through change of mind-set as well as indicators for success in 

achieving the plan objectives over time. 

Technical objectives often take supremacy in planning and it is becoming evident that 

management issues that have recurred over time cannot only be solved by applying science 

and academic methods. The ODMP participatory methods, which take account of societal 

needs, create room for improved understanding and ownership of the decisions which are 

ultimately made. A deliberate effort was made to engage all stakeholders through the 

services of a full-scale communications team and a participatory planner. Such 

arrangements will continue during implementation to keep the level of interest high and 

strengthen opportunities for stakeholder involvement in decision making. 

The sustainability of the ODMP process in the long-term continues to be raised during all 

deliberations and ODMP platforms. The coordinating role which the DEA possesses is now 

visible within the district. The DEA’s permanent location in Maun will enhance 

opportunities for more focused environmental planning. Through incorporation into the 

District Strategic <strong>Plan</strong> the ODMP has found its place in the District and National 

Development <strong>Plan</strong>ning frameworks. At a more technical level, the existence of the Harry 

Oppenheimer <strong>Okavango</strong> Research Centre in Maun creates an opportunity for direct links 

with the ODMP implementation in order to guide the sectoral activities within the agreed 

research strategy. 

Data gathering, updating, storage and processing for more informed decisions is key to the 

implementation of the ODMP. As new information is acquired through focused research 

which should benefit communities in the ODRS, action plans should be adjusted 

accordingly. The ODMP should remain adaptable and flexible for it to be acceptable and 

effective. Annual sectoral reviews should be institutionalized to keep the plan relevant. 

Capacity building at institutional and community levels is crucial to enhance 

understanding, dispel misconceptions, and to create opportunities for sustainable use and 

management of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> resources. The ODMP project had allocated funds for 

xxiii

this, but sectors should continue to budget annually for training and capacity building 

programmes which are relevant for the advancement of their ODMP implementation 

programme. 

Regional or basin-wide collaboration is inevitable. Persuasion and constructive negotiations 

should be pursued through existing mechanisms such as the OKACOM. Botswana stands 

to strengthen its negotiation power if its positions are based on information that is 

emperical. Mechanisms for continued updating at the regional platforms such as the ODMP 

Communication Strategy are encouraged. Partnership building with and participation in 

regional programmes and projects should be encouraged to push the basin-wide interests 

of the ODMP forward and therefore solicit buy-in from basin-states. 

Recommendations from key ODMP studies should be tabled for consideration at 

appropriate levels and implemented. Through the ODMP monitoring and evaluation tool the 

impact of the implemented results should be noted and negative ones avoided while positive 

ones should be adopted and replicated in other parts of the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

Implementation of pilot projects, identification of best practices, infusion of traditional 

knowledge and enhancement of livelihood are key elements that can enrich the impact of 

the plan. These elements will constitute a substantial part of the workplan under the 

communication component. Lessons derived from these processes will inform management 

options and practices and can be shared locally, regionally (within the basin) and 

internationally. 

Resource allocation commitments for integrated wetland management planning should 

consider the dynamism of the processes adopted to service the needs which may be 

adequately articulated in project documents but assume a highly varied form when actually 

implemented. The finances, institutional arrangements, ecosystem dynamics, and sociopolitical 

contexts within an integrated planning framework present a complex situation 

where adjustments should happen as implementation evolves. 

xxiv

1.1 OKAVANGO DELTA VISION 

1 

1 INTRODUCTION 

The common and shared vision for the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is: 

“A carefully managed, well functioning ecosystem that equitably and sustainably provides 

benefits for local, national and international stakeholders”. 

1.2 OVERALL GOAL OF THE OKAVANGO DELTA MANAGEMENT 

PLAN 

The Overall Goal of the delta management plan (ODMP) is: 

“to integrate resource management for the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> that will ensure its long-term 

conservation and that will provide benefits for the present and future well-being of the people, 

through sustainable use of its natural resources” 

The Overall Goal further translates to three Strategic Goals, each with several Strategic 

Objectives, for the ODMP (see section 4 for an explanation of the development of these): 

Strategic Goal 1. To establish viable institutional arrangements to support integrated 

resource management in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>; 

Strategic objective 1.1: To establish viable management institutions for the 


Strategic objective 1.2: To improve the planning and regulatory framework for 


Strategic objective 1.3: To raise public awareness, enhance knowledge and create a 

platform for information exchange and learning about the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 

Strategic Goal 2. To ensure the long-term conservation of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and the 

provision of existing ecosystem services; 

Strategic objective 2.1: To conserve the biotic and abiotic functions of the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong>, and the interactions between them; 

Strategic objective 2.2: To maintain or restore the wetland habitats and ecosystems of 


Strategic Goal 3. To sustainably use the natural resources of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> in an 

equitable way and support the livelihoods of all stakeholders; 

Strategic objective 3.1: to sustainably use the wetland resources of the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> for the long-term benefit of all stakeholders; 

Strategic objective 3.2: to develop socio-economic opportunities to improve livelihoods 

of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> stakeholders.

1.3 THE NEED FOR A MANAGEMENT PLAN 

The existing diverse and complex nature of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> in terms of its natural 

resources, its wide range of users and uses, its multiple managers (both in and outside 

government and including communities) and an array of national laws, policies and 

guidelines as well as regional and international conventions, agreements and protocols are 

all factors that dictate the need for an integrated management planning process for the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 

While the ultimate goal of the plan is sustainable use of the <strong>Delta</strong> natural resources, it 

should at the same time be aligned with the expectations of the national development goals 

articulated through the District Development <strong>Plan</strong>s and National Development <strong>Plan</strong>s as well 

as Vision 2016. The plan, once adopted, should thus align sector policies, legislation 

strategies, etc., in such a way that the long-term ecological functioning of the <strong>Delta</strong> is 

ensured. 

1.4 LEGISLATIVE, POLICY AND PLANNING FRAMEWORK 

The context of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> is defined within the framework of 

national vision, legislations, policies, plans and strategies; regional protocols and 

international conventions. The most noteworthy instruments which have provisions for the 

development of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> are described in Table 1-1 to Table 

1-3. 

1.4.1 NATIONAL FRAMEWORK 

Table 1-1: National legislative and regulatory framework within which the ODMP is being 

developed 

Instrument Year Objective Relevance 

“National Vision 2016: 

Towards Prosperity for 

All”. 

Legislative instruments 

Environmental Impact 

Assessment Act 

Wildlife Conservation 

and National Parks Act 

Forest Act 

Fish Protection Act 

Tourism Act 

Water Act 

2 

1997 This document sets out the 

Government of Botswana's long-term 

vision of the achievement of kagisano, 

or social harmony. 

2005 The Act provides for environmentally 

sound policies, programmes and 

projects 

1992 The Act provides for the conservation 

and management of the wildlife of 

Botswana 

1976 The Act provides for the regulation 

and protection of forests and forest 

products in Botswana 

1975 This Act provides for the effective 

regulation, control, protection and 

improvement of fish and fishing in 

Botswana 

1992 The Act makes provision for regulating 

of the tourism industry with regard to 

promoting its development and well 

being 

1968 The Act regulates the management 

and use of water resources within 

Botswana 

The national vision has recognised the urgent need for 

the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> Environmental Master <strong>Plan</strong>, 

realising the complex and fragile nature of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> ecosystem. 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is a complex and sensitive 

ecosystem hence environmental impacts of any policy, 

plan, programme or development project should be 

assessed to ensure that there minimal disturbance to 

the system 

Several sites (in the Moremi Game Reserve and a 

number of Wildlife <strong>Management</strong> Areas in the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site) are protected under this 

act. 

The ODRS is blessed with high abundance of 

vegetation resources in this case the forest resources. 

Fisheries is a very important sector within the ODRS. 

Fish resources are key in the subsistence, sport or 

angling fishery and commercial sectors. The sector is 

riddled with resource use conflicts. 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is a major tourism destination in 

Botswana with the majority of leisure tourists coming 

to Botswana to see and experience the <strong>Delta</strong>. Tourism 

is a major economic activity within the ODRS 

The major driver of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> ecosystem is 

water. The use and management of water has great 

influence on the maintenance and sustenance of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>.


Herbage Preservation 

Act 

Agricultural Resources 

Conservation Act 

National Policies and plans 

Draft National Wetlands 

Policy and Strategy, 

National Policy on 

Natural Resources 

Conservation and 

Development, 

National Biodiversity 

Strategy and Action <strong>Plan</strong> 

Tourism Policy 


Policy 

National Water 

Conservation Policy and 

Strategy Framework 

National Settlement 

Policy 

3 

1977 It is the legal framework administering 

the management of fire in Botswana 

1976 The general aim of this Act is to 

control and conserve agricultural 

resources in Botswana. 

2000 The Draft Policy provides the 

contextual and institutional framework 

for appropriate and effective 

management, conservation and 

sustainable use of Botswana’s 

wetlands resources 

1990 This Policy focuses on key 

environmental issues and solution 

packages such as the National 

Conservation Strategy Action <strong>Plan</strong> and 

the establishment of the National 

Conservation Strategy Coordinating 

Agency. 

2004 The goal of the strategy and action 

plan is long-term health of Botswana’s 

ecosystems and related species, and 

to encourage sustainable and wise use 

of resources through the provision of a 

framework of specific activities 

designed to improve the way 

biodiversity is perceived, utilised and 

conserved 

1990 The policy provides guidelines for 

planning, developing and managing 

tourism in Botswana. It is designed to 

ensure that tourism activities are 

carried out on an ecologically 

sustainable basis 

1986 The Policy provides strategies for 

development of a viable and 

commercial wildlife sector through 

practice of sustainable resource 

utilization and conservation in Wildlife 

<strong>Management</strong> Areas (WMA) and in the 

process addresses issues of 

community livelihoods through citizen 

participation in the wildlife industry 

2002 The Water Policy has amongst its 

objectives, the protection, 

conservation, and efficient use, 

management of water resources, and 

protection and restoration of the 

environment. The Policy seeks to use 

water conservation to promote 

environmental sustainability, economic 

efficiency and social equity. 

1998 The Settlement Policy provides for the 

creation of settlements and the resettlement 

of people as part of a 

developmental process. 

Fire is a critical factor in the functioning of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> ecosystem. The Act provides a well 

structured set of rules for a potential integrated fire 

management system in Botswana including the ODRS. 

Agricultural resources are broadly defined to include 

animals, birds, plants, water, soils, vegetation and 

vegetation products, fish and insects. <strong>Management</strong> of 

these resources are key in the ODRS 

The provisions of this policy facilitated for the 

development of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> 

with the goal to integrate resource managemt of the 

<strong>Delta</strong> for the long-term conservation and sustainable 

use of <strong>Delta</strong> resources 

The policy fully captures the importance of the 

conservation and development vis-à-vis the natural 

resources of the country. The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is a key 

national asset and the provisions of this policy 

contribute immensely to the conservation of the <strong>Delta</strong> 

through strategic and coordinated actions. 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is a major biodiversity hotspot 

nationally. The mosaic and variety of habitats found 

within the ODRS is home to a large number of fauna 

and flora. The relevance of the strategy to the <strong>Delta</strong> 

cannot be over-emphasised. 

The policy provides local communities with direct and 

indirect benefits from tourism activities as well as 

encouraging communities to appreciate the value of 

wildlife and its conservation. It avails opportunities for 

the rural areas to participate in wildlife-based activities 

including tourism. This policy is highly relevant to the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> given that it is the country’s tourism 

hub 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is well endowed with wildlife 

resources the management of which is critical. The 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> as a tourism product is dependent on 

the conservation and proper management of wildlife 

resources. 

Botswana has a huge water deficit and the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> is viewed by some stakeholders as an alternative 

source of water. The relevance of this policy is critical 

in that through promotion of water conservation 

measures it helps to divert attention from the <strong>Delta</strong> as 

alternative water source. 

Several settlements are dotted all over the ODRS most 

of which are ungazzeted and demand to be recognised 

by government. Some of these settlements are located 

in very sensitive areas with no services provided which 

presents a challenge to the conservation of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>.


The Revised National 

Policy on Rural 

Development 

Development <strong>Plan</strong>s and Strategies 

National Development 

<strong>Plan</strong> 9 (NDP 9) 

Ngamiland District 

Development <strong>Plan</strong> 6 

(NDDP 6) 

Botswana Tourism 

Master <strong>Plan</strong> 

National Water Master 

<strong>Plan</strong> 


Settlement Strategy 

1.4.2 REGIONAL FRAMEWORK 

4 

1997 The Revised National Policy on Rural 

Development is a framework policy to 

link and facilitate coordination of the 

various sectoral policies, and to 

engender a common vision and unity 

in pursuit of rural development 

2003 - 2009 NDP 9 calls for appropriate use of 

natural resources and consideration of 

environmental costs in planning for 

development 

2003 - 2009 One of the NDDP 6 key planning 

issues is Environmental Conservation. 

The associated development goal is 

"to retain the ecological and 

environmental integrity of the district 

through improved conservation 

measures 

2000 The master plan serves as a basic 

guideline for development of tourism, 

enabling the decision makers to agree 

on the principles for the direction of 

tourism development for the next 

decade 

1991 The NWMP provides development and 

management strategies for water 

resources in the country 

2003 - 2027 The overall intention of the strategy is 

to ensure orderly development and 

growth of settlements within the 


The ODRS is predominantly rural with huge challenges 

for development. There is a need to balance 

development with environmental conservation 

Within the Government’s development goals and 

objectives, sustainability is seen as a strategic concept 

that links population, the economy and natural 

resources together in the context of socio-economic 

development. The integrated management plan for the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> takes these issues into consideration 

The objectives are to integrate environmental planning 

issues into all district development sector plans 

throughout the planning period, develop a district 

environmental strategy and promote sustainable 

natural resource use across all commercial activities in 

the district, hence ODMP 

The Tourism and Community Based Natural Resources 

<strong>Management</strong> (CBNRM) Master <strong>Plan</strong>s developed under 

the ODMP are a further elaboration of the National 

Tourism Master <strong>Plan</strong>. 

Water is an economic, social and environmental 

resource that provides the inter-sectoral linkages. The 

Government is therefore adopting an integrated 

approach to water resource development. The 

Government of Botswana is currently reviewing the 

National Water Master <strong>Plan</strong> (NWMP) that was 

completed in 1991 

One of the goals of the strategy is to protect and 

preserve the environment generally in the district, and 

sustainably utilise its natural resources 

Table 1-2: Regional agreements and protocols which have a direct bearing on the development 

and implementation of the ODMP 

Regional Protocols 

Permanent <strong>Okavango</strong> 

River Basin Agreement 

Southern African 

Community (SADC) 

Shared Watercourse 

Systems Protocol 

SADC Protocol on 

Fisheries 

1994 The Permanent <strong>Okavango</strong> River Basin 

Commission (OKACOM) is a political 

agreement which commits the river 

basin states to work toward joint 

management of the <strong>Okavango</strong> River 

System. 

Signed in 1995 

and came into 

effect in 2001 

Singed in 2001 

and effected in 

2003 

The protocol calls for equitable 

utilization of shared water courses and 

monitoring of the implementation of 

integrated water resources plans in 

shared water courses by Member 

States 

This Protocol applies, amongst others, 

to living aquatic resources and aquatic 

ecosystems within the SADC states; 

living aquatic resources of SADC states 

that extend outside the areas of their 

jurisdiction; and fishing by nationals of 

SADC states and activities directly 

related to fishing 

Under the OKACOM Agreement, the riparian countries 

of Angola, Botswana and Namibia are working toward 

the implementation of an Integrated <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> 

(IMP) for the basin on the basis of an Environmental 

Assessment (EA). OKACOM is important in that the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is part of a shared river basin, the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> River Basin. The ODMP is expected to 

contribute to the river basin management plan. 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> River Basin, which the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

is part of, is a transboundary river basin and it is 

important that its management be a joint effort 

amongst the three riparian states which are all SADC 

member states 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is a wetland system which 

supports about 71 identified fish species. The fish 

resources found in the delta provides livelihoods to the 

local communities within the ODRS. The fishery 

industry has to comply with the framework of the 

protocol at regional level (SADC).

Regional Protocols 


Development of Tourism 



and Law Enforcement 

5 

Signed in 1998 

and effected in 

2002 

The objectives of the protocol are to 

use tourism as a vehicle to achieve 

sustainable social and economic 

development, and to ensure equitable, 

balanced and complementary 

development of the tourism industry 

region-wide 

2003 Its principal objective is to establish 

common approaches to the 

conservation and sustainable use of 

wildlife resources and to assist with 

the effective enforcement of laws 

governing those resources 

1.4.3 INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is one of the iconic tourism 

products within the SADC region. Within Botswana the 

<strong>Delta</strong> is a major tourism destination which supports 

the economy of the ODRS. The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> also 

forms part of the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier 

Conservation Area. The intention is to offer the area as 

a regional tourism product, hence the relevance of the 

provisions of the protocol 

Some of its aims are to assist in building national and 

regional capacity for wildlife management, 

conservation and enforcement of wildlife laws; to 

promote the conservation of shared wildlife resources 

through the establishment of trans-frontier 

conservation areas; to facilitate community-based 

natural resources management practices for 

management of wildlife resources. The <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> is rich in wildlife resources and hosts a significant 

number of community based organisations who benefit 

from wildlife resources 

Table 1-3: International agreements and conventions with direct relevance to the ODMP 

International <strong>Convention</strong>s 

The <strong>Convention</strong> on 

Wetlands of 

International Importance 

(<strong>Ramsar</strong> <strong>Convention</strong>) 

United Nations 

<strong>Convention</strong> on Biological 

Diversity 

<strong>Convention</strong> on 

International Trade in 

Endangered Species of 

Wild Fauna and Flora 

(CITES) 


<strong>Convention</strong> on 

Combating 

Desertification (UNCCD) 


Framework for 

<strong>Convention</strong> on Climate 

Change (UNFCCC) 


<strong>Convention</strong> on the Law 

of Non-navigational use 

of International 

Watercourses 

Botswana ratified 

the convention in 

1997 



1997 


the <strong>Convention</strong> 

in 1978 



1996 



1993 

The convention advocates for the wise 

use of wetlands and their sustainable 

utilisation for the benefit of mankind in 

a way compatible with the 

maintenance of the natural properties 

of the ecosystem 

The objectives of the <strong>Convention</strong> are 

to conserve biological diversity, 

promote the sustainable use of 

biodiversity components, and the fair 

and equitable sharing of the benefits 

arising out of the utilization of genetic 

resources 

The aim of the convention is to 

prevent extinction of endangered 

species by controlling international 

trade in the endangered species and 

their by-products 

The objective of this <strong>Convention</strong> is to 

combat desertification and mitigate the 

effects of drought in countries 

experiencing serious drought and/or 

desertification, particularly in Africa. It 

flags effective action at all levels; 

international cooperation and 

partnership. 

The <strong>Convention</strong> on Climate Change 

sets an overall framework for 

intergovernmental efforts to tackle the 

challenge posed by climate change. 

It obliges riparian states to take into 

account the effects of the use or uses 

of the watercourses between riparian 

states and encourages harmonisation 

of use 

The Government of Botswana ratified the <strong>Ramsar</strong> 

<strong>Convention</strong> and became a contracting party as of the 

4th April 1997 and listed the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> as a 

<strong>Ramsar</strong> Site. The obligations under this convention 

coupled with national interest necessitated the 

preparation of this management plan. 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is rich in biodiversity and genetic 

resources, the use and conservation of which is within 

the framework of this convention. 

CITES deals with the trade in a number of wetland 

flora and fauna species, including elephants, and 

therefore is relevant to the management of the 


The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is located within the Kalahari 

Desert which is susceptible to droughts and 

degradation. The utilisation of the vegetation 

resources if not controlled properly may contribute to 

desertification. The convention provides a framework 

to facilitate action to combat desertification. 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is an ecosystem which is highly 

susceptible to the impacts of climatic change. The 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is critical in that it acts as carbon sink 

through carbon sequestration 

It provides the legal foundation for regulating the 

shared <strong>Okavango</strong> River Basin of which the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> is a key ecosystem

Relavant conventions which Botswana is not party to 

<strong>Convention</strong> on migratory 

species 

1.5 SITE SELECTION 

6 

1979 The <strong>Convention</strong> on the Conservation of 

Migratory Species of Wild Animals 

(also known as CMS or Bonn 

<strong>Convention</strong>) aims to conserve 

terrestrial, marine and avian migratory 

species throughout their range. It is an 

intergovernmental treaty, concluded 

under the aegis of the United Nations 

Environment Programme, concerned 

with the conservation of wildlife and 

habitats on a global scale 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> provides habitat for a number of 

migratory species especially avi-fauna. The maintance 

of the <strong>Delta</strong> is crucial for the conservation of these 

species. Some of the species have the potential to 

transmit diseases hence this convention is critical. 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> was selected as a wetland of international importance in accordance 

with the <strong>Ramsar</strong> <strong>Convention</strong> which identifies a wetland of international importance in 

terms of ecology, botany, zoology and limnology or hydrology. 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is an inland drainage system which is important for approximately 

1300 plant species, 71 fish species, 33 amphibians, 64 reptiles, 444 birds and 122 

mammals. 

The <strong>Delta</strong> also contains high densities of large mammal species particularly elephant. It is 

the habitat of one of the largest remaining populations of the African wild dog (Lycaon 

pictus) and is a stronghold for the Sitatunga antelope (Tragelaphus spekii) and the Nile 

crocodile (Crocodilus niloticus). One endemic reptile species, the Tsodilo Gecko 

(Pachydactylus tsodiloensis), has been identified. Two resident bird species, the Wattled 

Crane (Burgeranus carunculatus) and the Slaty Egret (Egretta vinaceiqula), are globally 

threatened. 

The currently known flora of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> comprises about 1300 taxa on the species 

and lower levels, of which 1260 taxa are on the species level. They belong to 530 genera 

and 134 families. One near endemic has been identified, the ground orchid (Habenaria 

pasmithii). 

1.6 PLANNING COORDINATION, APPROACH AND PROCESS 

1.6.1 PLANNING COORDINATION 

The custodian of the ODMP is the Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism (MEWT). 

The development of the ODMP was guided by the Department of Environmental Affairs 

(DEA) through a Project Secretariat in Maun. 

The ODMP spans the functions relating to policy direction, communication, research, data 

management, participatory planning, water resources, wildlife management, vegetation 

resources, sustainable tourism, community based natural resources management 

(CBNRM), fisheries management, settlement planning, land management, waste 

management and livestock management. The ODMP planning was primarily driven by the 

desire to address the identified management issues. These issues, which were identified 

through stakeholder consultation, provided the basis for the key ODMP components which 

are tabulated in Table 1-4.

Table 1-4: Project Components 

Component Responsible Institution 

Policy, planning and strategy – including project 

management, co-ordination, integration and technical 

assistance. 

Communication DEA 

7 

DEA and IUCN 

Research, data management and participatory planning: Harry Oppenheimer <strong>Okavango</strong> Research Centre (HOORC). 

Hydrology and water resources: Department of Water Affairs (DWA). 

Sustainable wildlife management: Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP). 

Sustainable tourism and CBNRM: Department of Tourism (DoT) and North West District Council 

(NWDC). 

Sustainable fisheries management DWNP, Division of Fisheries 

Sustainable vegetation resources management Department of Forestry and Range Resources. 

Physical planning NWDC, Physical <strong>Plan</strong>ning Unit (PPU). 

Land use planning and land management Tawana Land Board (TLB) in association with DLUPU 

Waste management NWDC, Environmental Health Department (EHD). 

Sustainable livestock management Department of Animal Health and Production (DAHP). 

1.6.2 PLANNING APPROACH 

The approach adopted under the ODMP is largely based on the Government of Botswana 

planning system and complemented by elements from the New Guidelines for <strong>Management</strong> 

<strong>Plan</strong>ning for <strong>Ramsar</strong> Sites and the Ecosystem Approach. In its demonstration of the key 

ecosystem management principles contained in these planning tools, the ODMP was guided 

by the need to address key management issues experienced over the years by diverse 

stakeholders. This therefore was one of the key drivers of the process. 

Though issue driven, the ODMP assumes a strategic framework position in the Ngamiland 

District planning context. In this respect, specific and detailed management proposals and 

interventions still remain the responsibility of the sectors. ODMP in this regard outlines the 

key strategic interventions to address the management issues. To this effect all the 12 

components have sectoral management plans and strategies, which are products of 

specialised studies commissioned during the ODMP planning phase and some of these are 

District Tourism and CBNRM Master <strong>Plan</strong>, Fire <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>, Research Strategy, etc. 

The ODMP is anchored on the main principle of strengthening ownership through 

accountability and the active participation of all stakeholders both during development and 

implementation of the plan. Ownership in this context is premised on participatory 

mechanisms, partnership building at all levels and adopting an integrated and dynamic 

principle which recognises gender, HIV and AIDS, and livelihoods elements. 

1.6.3 PLANNING PROCESS 

The ODMP planning was highly participatory. The participatory approach in this respect 

entailed engagement of various stakeholder groups during the five phases of the project 

which were concluded with critical milestones. These were the project design, inception, 

framework, draft management and final management phases. These phases were 

sequential building blocks, that is, each phase led to the subsequent one.

1.6.3.1 Project Design Phase 

Following Botswana’s accession to the <strong>Ramsar</strong> <strong>Convention</strong> in 1997, the Department of 

Environmental Affairs (DEA) (formerly National Conservation Strategy Coordinating Agency, 

(NCSA) through the support of the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Bureau commissioned a design mission, which 

detailed a proposal for the development of a management plan for the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> in 

2001 (HOORC, et al, 2001). A parallel exercise to formulate the National Wetlands Policy 

and Strategy was also initiated. 

The proposal identified the key management issues, formulated objectives, outlined project 

activities and funding requirements. This was followed by a situational analysis which 

entailed information gathering, review of existing literature and stakeholder consultations. 

200 issues were identified, clustered into thematic areas and developed into major project 

components (HOORC, et. al, 2001). This process was followed by an appraisal mission in 

2001 to determine the adequacy of the proposal, confirm management issues and 

recommended a “hot spots approach” to deal with priority issues to be addressed under the 

ODMP planning (Appraisal Mission Debriefing Notes, 2001). 

1.6.3.2 Inception Phase 

Stakeholder buy-in was key at the initial planning stages of the ODMP. The process made a 

deliberate effort to consult and allow for feedback to confirm and prioritise issues identified 

during the design phase.(ODMP – Inception Report, 2005). 

The various stakeholders were engaged as individual groups through the different fora 

which, culminated in a multi-stakeholder workshop which was held in November, 2004 and 

a report on the proceedings was produced (ODMP – Inception Report Workshop 

Proceedings, 2004). Drawing from the stakeholder analysis that was carried out during the 

ODMP planning, the stakeholder consultation took an approach which engaged different 

stakeholder groupings as outlined below. 

Community engagement 

The community stakeholders were engaged through a series of kgotla meetings and 

workshops. In November and December 2003 and February and March 2004, 33 kgotla 

meetings were held in most of the major villages in and around the <strong>Delta</strong>. Detailed reports 

on the issues and their prioritization as well as analysis of the consultative processes were 

produced to guide the planning process in determining the areas which need management 

interventions (ODMP – Community Consultation and Feedback Report, 2004, ODMP – 

Analysis of the Participatory Process of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>, 2004). 

Private sector engagement 

In January 2004, a special meeting dedicated to representatives of the private tourism 

sector was organised and held in Maun. From the 120 invitations sent out, approximately 

60 different companies comprised of 81 representatives attended reflecting the high level of 

interest from the tourism sector in the project. The meeting was structured in a similar way 

to the kgotla meetings although in this instance members of the Project Secretariat made 

presentations not only on the project as a whole but also on each individual component. 

There was again an extensive question and answer session and representatives were given 

an opportunity to raise issues and concerns and make suggestions. These were captured in 

a report (ODMP – Private Sector Workshop Proceedings, 2004). 

Institutional engagement 

Direct consultations were undertaken by the Project Secretariat with local NGOs, 

government offices and many other institutions in the district, including both those directly 

8

involved in implementing ODMP components and those not so. Regular briefings have also 

been provided to various district authorities and officers including the District 

Commissioner, the Council Secretary, Tribal Administration, District Development 

Committee, the District CBNRM Forum, the Full District Council and the Tawana Land 

Board. 

1.6.3.3 Framework <strong>Plan</strong> Phase 

The phase covered the period from December 2004 to November 2005. It entailed further 

prioritization of issues raised during the inception phase and development of broader 

management intervention objectives. This was achieved through three major focussed 

workshops targeting different tiers and community consultations. 

Community engagement 

A workshop for the community leaders (Chiefs/headmen, VDC, CBOs, ODMP Contact 

Persons) was held in Shakawe in February 2005 and its proceedings were documented. The 

workshop led to an agreement on priority issues which require management intervention 

(ODMP – Shakawe Community Leaders Workshop, 2005). A series of kgotla meetings were 

thereafter held in 43 villages. Community Contact Persons Officers workshops were held in 

October 2005 (ODMP – Community Contact Persons Workshop Proceedings, 2005). 

Technical engagement 

Another technical planning workshop was held in August 2005 with the ODMP project 

components institutions during which issues from the various stakeholders were 

discussed, prioritized and the approach in dealing with them was agreed upon (ODMP – 

Technical Backstopping Mission Report, 2005). This workshop resulted in the development 

of prioritisation criteria, strategic goals; and operational objectives for issues which were 

prioritised as requiring management interventions. 

District authorities 

Subsequent to the technical workshop, several workshops were held to discuss and get 

feedback on the priority areas as well as the broad management objectives. Two workshops 

were held for the North West District Councillors and Tawana Land Board in November and 

December 2005. The outcomes of the councillors’ workshop are contained in ODMP – North 

West District Councillors Workshop Proceedings (2005). The Framework <strong>Plan</strong> was 

presented to the Members of Parliament whose constituencies fall within the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site in 

November 2005. 

The Framework <strong>Plan</strong> phase culminated with a multi-stakeholder workshop in December 

2005 where the plan was presented and discussed (ODMP – Framework <strong>Plan</strong> Workshop 

Proceedings, 2005). 

1.6.3.4 Draft <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> Phase 

The phase covered the period from December 2005 to July 2006. It focussed on the 

development of operational objectives, the action plan as well as the monitoring and 

evaluation tool. The participatory process leading to the preparation of the Draft 

<strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> was largely anchored on one-on-one meetings with all the ODMP 

component institutions. The results of these meetings are reflected in what is contained in 

the action plan (<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> Draft <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>, 2006). This also culminated with 

a multi-stakeholder workshop in September, 2006 (ODMP – Draft <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> 

Workshop Proceedings, 2006). 

9

1.6.3.5 Final <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> Phase 

Subsequent to the production of the Draft <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> document, a series of kgotla 

meetings covering the whole of the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site were held as well as stakeholder-targeted 

workshops and one-on-one meetings with the component institutions to present and get 

feedback on the contents of the Draft <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>. 

A total of 43 kgotla meetings were held in the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site between September and October 

2006, Community Leaders and Private Sector Workshops were conducted in August 2006, 

the Tawana Land Board Workshop in September 2006, Presentation of the Draft 

<strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> to the Parliament Select Committee on Agriculture and Environment and 

a special meeting of the North West District Council in October 2006. 

The Final <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> was subjected to a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) 

in accordance with the provisions of the Environmental Impact Assessment Act of 2005. 

10

2.1 GENERAL 

2.1.1 REGIONAL SETTING 

11 

2 SITE DESCRIPTION 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> is an endorheic basin (that is, an internal drainage basin) in central 

southern Africa. The basin includes parts of three countries: Angola, Botswana and 

Namibia (Figure 2-2). 

Kunene 

Congo 

<strong>Okavango</strong> 

Orange 

Zambezi 

Limpopo 

Figure 2-1: Location of <strong>Okavango</strong> and neighbouring river basins 

The main source of runoff is the highlands of Angola where the Cubango and Cuito rivers 

rise at an altitude of around 1,600m. The climate is tropical with summer rainfall (mostly 

from November to March). It varies from relatively humid in the north of the basin, to semiarid 

in the south. Annual rainfall averages in the range 1,100 to 1,200mm in the Angolan 

highlands, gradually declining southwards to 480 mm over the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

Approximately 95% of the basin’s runoff is generated by the headwaters from catchments in 

Angola. The river flows along the border between Angola and Namibia, and then crosses 

the Caprivi Strip into Botswana where it fans out to form the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. The two 

main contributing rivers in Angola, the Cubango in the west and the Cuito to the east, have 

different hydrological responses to rainfall. The Cubango reacts rapidly to rainfall, with an 

earlier and higher peak, and also has a low base flow. Flow in the Cuito is attenuated in 

extensive floodplains and swamps; the peak arrives later at the confluence and is lower, but 

the river sustains a higher base flow. Downstream of the confluence, the main <strong>Okavango</strong> 

River tends to produce two major peaks, in February and in April, reflecting the different 

contributions of these two tributaries; the lowest flow tends to occur in mid-endOctober.

Part of the catchment in Namibia contains streams flowing north west to join the lower 

reaches of the Cubango and directly into the <strong>Delta</strong>. These streams are highly ephemeral 

with any surface water being exploited locally, and no runoff reaches the mainstream. 

The distribution of soils reflects the major differences in geology between the upper western 

and eastern sides of the basin. The eastern and lower parts of the basin are dominated by 

Kalahari sands, while the upper western region is dominated by sandstones and 

mudstones. 

2.1.2 LOCATION OF THE OKAVANGO DELTA RAMSAR SITE 

2.1.2.1 Location 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site (ODRS) is situated in the north western part of Botswana 

in the Ngamiland District (Figure 2-2). It encompasses the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, Tsodilo Hills, 

the Kwando-Linyanti River system and Lake Ngami. 

Figure 2-2: Map of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site 

The district is bordered to the north and west by Namibia, to the south by Ghanzi district 

and to the east by the Chobe sub-district and Central District. The main population centres 

in the site are Maun, Gumare and Shakawe. 

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2.1.2.2 Size and boundary 

The boundary of the ODRS (Figure 2-2)were rationalised in 2004 based on ecological, 

hydrological and land use features (ODMP – <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site Revision Report, 

2004). The size of the ODRS is 55 374km2 which places it amongst the larger <strong>Ramsar</strong> sites 

globally. The area of permanent swamp covers approximately 6000 km2, while the seasonal 

swamp varies between about 4000 and 10,000 km2 in size, depending on the size of the 

flood each year (ODMP – Integrated Hydrological Modelling Report, 2006). 

2.1.3 LEGAL STATUS AND RIGHTS 

2.1.3.1 Ownership 

Ownership of the land within which the ODRS falls is defined by the land tenure systems in 

Botswana (Figure 2-3). There are three land tenure systems, namely, Tribal (Communal) 

Land; State Land (includes most of the Protected Areas (PAs) and Forest Reserves) and 

Freehold Land. It is important to note that the only state land in the ODRS is NG 41 within 

which Mababe settlement is located (Figure 2-3). 95.4% of the land falls under the Tribal 

Land Tenure system, while the remaining 4.6% constitutes State Land (NDSS, 2003). There 

is no Freehold Land in the ODRS. 

2.1.3.2 Legal Rights 

Tribal land which is communally owned is held in trust for communities by the Tawana 

Land Board (TLB), which performs land management functions in accordance with the 

provisions of the Tribal Land Act of 1968. 

Usage rights to land under the Tribal Land Tenure systems are either granted communally 

or to individuals. Land under tribal ownership is never sold and as such land transactions 

are only for the sake of improvements or development on land. Allocations of tribal land in 

the project area are made by TLB on customary law grant or common law grant basis. 

Under customary law grant, land allocations are made only to citizens of Botswana for 

residential, arable and borehole purposes. Though allotees cannot assume perpetual rights 

to such land, most often, they assume such rights, and pass on their titles to their 

children. Residential plots are issued a lease period of 99 years. Common law grants on the 

other hand, can be made to citizens and non-citizens alike, for commercial, tourism and 

industrial developments on a 50 year lease basis. 

With regards to State Land, the Department of Lands holds and administers the land on 

behalf of the Government. State land allocation is on Fixed Period State Grant (FPSG) and 

Certificate of Rights (CoR) basis. FPSG is granted on a lease basis with the period of grant 

varying according to the land use, with industrial and commercial land being leased for a 

period of 50 years, while residential land use is leased for 99 years. 

2.1.3.3 Site Status 

Following Botswana's accession to the <strong>Ramsar</strong> <strong>Convention</strong>, the <strong>Okavango</strong> was listed and 

designated as a <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site in 1997. Within the ODRS are the Tsodilo Hills which are a 

World Heritage Site. 

The site comprises the Moremi Game Reserve and Wildlife <strong>Management</strong> Areas (WMA) and 

Communal Areas. The communal areas are further subdivided into smaller and more 

specific categories that include settlements, arable lands and grazing areas. 

13

Figure 2-3: The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site Land Tenure 

2.1.4 DEMOGRAPHY 

The population of Ngamiland District has grown significantly over the last decades. 

Between 1981 and 1991 the population grew from 68 063 to 94 534 while between 1991 

and 2001 it increased from 94 534 to 124 712, reflecting an increase of 39% and 32% 

respectively. The Ngamiland District population constitutes about 8% of the National 

population. This shows that the population is increasing at a declining rate. This is 

attributed to declining fertility rate and consequently a decrease in birth rate (Ngamiland 

District Settlement Strategy, 2004). These figures show an annual population growth of 

about 2.8%. Table 2-1 shows the characteristics of the Ngamiland District population. 

Table 2-1: Summary of Ngamiland District Population Profile – 2001 

Total population 124 712 

Proportion of National Population 8 per cent 

Population Density (per km 

14 

2 ) 1.1 

Annual Population Growth Rate (1991-2001) 2.8 per cent 

Male Population 59 661 (47,8 per cent) 

Female Population 65 051 (52,2 percent) 

Number of Households 26 313 

Average Household Size 4,7 persons 

Number of Female Headed Households 13 710 (52,1 percent) 

Number of Male Headed Households 12 603 (47,9 percent) 

Percentage of Employed Population 36 percent 

Percentage of Unemployed Population 64 percent 

Illiteracy Rate 36 percent 

Source: CSO, 2001 Census of Poppulation and Housing

Using the 1936 and 1946 population census figures about 12 different ethnic groups in 

Ngamiland were identified (Tlou, 1983). Cultural and ethnic diversity is evident in the 

numerous languages spoken in Ngamiland District. The following people are often cited as 

inhabitants of Ngamiland: San groups (Basarwa), Bayei, Bambukushu, Baherero, 

Batawana, Bakgalagadi and Basubiya. 

2.1.5 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS 

The ODMP stakeholders incorporate a very broad range and a very large number of people. 

Stakeholders can thus be divided into primary, secondary and tertiary, with primary 

stakeholders more closely and intimately involved with the <strong>Delta</strong> and its resources than 

secondary and tertiary stakeholders. 

2.1.5.1 Primary Stakeholders 

These are groups or individuals directly dependent on, and who derive immediate benefit 

from the natural or other (e.g. cultural) resources of the <strong>Delta</strong>, whether at a subsistence or 

small-scale commercial level. These people could be severely or permanently affected 

should such resources be damaged or destroyed; they would usually be without obvious or 

immediate alternatives in such an event. 

Primary stakeholders of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> are thus the more than 120,000 residents of 

the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and their various groupings include Community Based Organisations 

(CBOs), Village Development Committees (VDCs), Conservation Committees (CCs), Farmers 

Committees (FCs), Community Trusts (CTs) and Village Trust Committees (VTCs). 

2.1.5.2 Secondary stakeholders 

These are groups or individuals indirectly dependent on, and who derive benefit from, the 

natural or other (e.g. cultural) resources of the <strong>Delta</strong> at an, often large-scale, commercial 

level. This category also includes individuals and institutions with some degree of influence 

on management and decision-making in the <strong>Delta</strong>. Secondary stakeholders would have 

their well-being undoubtedly affected, sometimes severely, should resources be damaged or 

destroyed, though they would often have recourse of action or the resources to develop 

alternative strategies in such an event. 

The major group of secondary stakeholders for the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is contained within the 

Government of Botswana as an economic entity, government institutions directly involved 

in the manangement of the <strong>Delta</strong>, the private sector tour operators (both fixed and mobile) 

operating in the <strong>Delta</strong> and local research institutions. Secondary stakeholders also include 

organisations that work to represent primary stakeholders, e.g. NGOs such as Tocadi, 

People and Nature (PAN) Trust, Conservation International (CI) and Kalahari Conservation 

Society (KCS), particularly through the Every River Has Its People project (ERP) as well as 

the organisations that represent secondary stakeholders themselves, e.g. Hospitality and 

Tourism Association of Botswana (HATAB) and the Botswana Wildlife <strong>Management</strong> 

Association (BWMA). 

In a shared river basin like the <strong>Okavango</strong>, upstream communities who are not directly 

dependent on the resources of the <strong>Delta</strong> but are part of the wider ecosystem and whose 

actions can affect such resources would also be classified as secondary stakeholders, as 

would river basin organisations such as OKACOM and other projects (and their associated 

organisations) running either in the <strong>Delta</strong> or in the <strong>Okavango</strong> River Basin. 

15

2.1.5.3 Tertiary stakeholders 

These are groups and individuals with an interest in or influence over the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

but not directly or indirectly dependent on it for their well-being and with other interests 

and responsibilities not related to the <strong>Delta</strong> itself. 

Tertiary stakeholders for the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> thus include other Government of Botswana 

institutions not directly involved in the ODMP, international and national donor agencies, 

government departments in Namibia and Angola (other than those directly involved in 

OKACOM), certain other NGOs, international interests (such as the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Secretariat and 

the United Nations (UN)) and interested individuals, such as tourists. 

2.1.6 MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK 

The management of the ODRS and its resources is multi-sectoral and involves central 

government departments, district authorities and private sector. For the implementation of 

the ODMP, direct responsibilities lie within six ministries with specific functions within the 

following departments. 

2.1.6.1 Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism 

Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) 

The DEA is responsible for overall coordination of environmental activities in Botswana. It 

also coordinates environmental research, undertakes environmental education and ensures 

implementation of environmental impact assessments, amongst other duties. 

DEA is the government institution responsible for the implementation of the <strong>Ramsar</strong> 

<strong>Convention</strong> in Botswana and thus is the authority to coordinate wetlands management 

processes in the ODRS (in collaboration with District Authorities). 

Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP), 

The DWNP is primarily responsible for wildlife (including fisheries) conservation and 

utilisation. Given the diverse wildlife resources within the ODRS, the role of DWNP in the 

management of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is inevitable. 

Department of Forestry and Range Resources (DFRR) 

The DFRR has direct management authority over the utilisation of vegetation resources. 

The department is responsible for fire management activities. It also carries out extension 

on forestry management and range resources. 

The Department of Tourism (DoT) 

The department is established with a mandate to regulate tourism enterprises, set out 

procedures with respect of applications, undertake inspections and conduct appeals. It also 

serves as secretariat to the National Council on Tourism (NACT) and Tourism Licensing 

Board. The Department also work in close collaboration with the recently (in 2005) 

established Botswana Tourism Board which is charged with the responsibility to market 

the tourism plan of Botswana. 

2.1.6.2 Ministry of Lands and Housing 

Tawana Land Board 

The Tawana Land Board administers the entire <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> site in the Batawana 

Tribal Territory. The Land Board which receives policy guidance through the Department of 

16

Lands, is statutorily charged with the responsibility of administering, coordinating, 

allocating and managing tribal land (residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural and 

tourism) and furthermore with the responsibility of determining and defining land use 

zones within its jurisdiction. 

The District Land Use <strong>Plan</strong>ning Unit (DLUPU) serves as an advisory organ to the Land 

Board in matters relating to land use planning and land management. DLUPU is a Sub 

Committee of the District Development Committee (DDC) and is made up of different 

officers from Ministries and Departments with a stake in land use and related matters. 

2.1.6.3 Ministry of Agriculture 

Department of Animal Health and Production (DAHP) 

The department is responsible for veterinary services which support its animal health and 

production mandate. This includes erection and maintenance of veterinary fences, disease 

control, artificial insemination and tsetse fly control. 

Department of Crop Production 

The Department is responsible for arable agriculture and for increased crop production in 

the district through technical expertise, extension, support services and specific 

programmes. 

2.1.6.4 Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources 

Department of Water Affairs 

The DWA is responsible for the water resources in the whole country. The DWA has the 

responsibility for supervision and control over ground and surface water utilisation, flow 

monitoring and control of aquatic weeds in the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

2.1.6.5 Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs 

National Museum, Monuments and Art Gallery (NMMAG) 

NMMAG is the legal authority in planning and regulating the utilisation of national 

monuments such as the Tsodilo Hills which is a World Heritage Site and part of the ORDS. 

2.1.6.6 Ministry of Local Government 

District Administration 

The District Administration coordinates the activities of central government departments in 

the district and oversees the implementation of government policies. 

North West District Council 

North West District Council provides a wide variety of services to communities in the 

District within the ODRS. Additionally, the Council provides a political forum for district 

development issues affecting communities through their representative Councillors. 

Tribal Administration 

The Tribal Administration is responsible for tribal matters in the district. This includes 

administration of tribal justice through the traditional courts (Kgotla) system as well as 

providing advice on tribal issues. All traditional chiefs are under the Tribal Administration. 

17

2.1.6.7. Harry Oppenheimer <strong>Okavango</strong> Research Centre (HOORC-UB) 

The Harry Oppenheimer <strong>Okavango</strong> Research Centre of the University of Botswana was set 

up in 1994 in Maun to work on the conservation of the natural systems in Northern 

Botswana particularly the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. Research at HOORC is aimed at enhancing the 

understanding of the natural system of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> (and indeed the Basin) and its 

relationship between human activities as well as its functioning. The centre specialises in 

hydrology and water resources management, ecology, social aspects of natural resource 

management, and tourism. HOORC was instrumental during the development of the 

ODMP through the provision of available information about the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and its 

resources. The centre also has a variety of expertise which was tapped to support various 

components of the plan, mainly for quality assurance and technical input. 

2.1.6.8 Private Sector 

Hospitality and Tourism Association of Botswana (HATAB) 

HATAB is an association representing the interests of a number of companies in the hotel, 

tourism and related services sector (like air transport companies). HATAB takes active part 

in the CBNRM District Forum and sends representatives to almost all workshops and 

reference groups that deal with the management of the natural resources of the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong>. 

Botswana Wildlife <strong>Management</strong> Association 

The Botswana Wildlife <strong>Management</strong> Association is an organisation whose members are 

drawn largely from companies or safari operators involved in consumptive use of wildlife 

resources. 

2.1.6.9 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) 

Kalahari Conservation Society (KCS) 

KCS is a Botswana-based NGO whose objectives are to promote the knowledge of 

Botswana's rich wildlife resources and its environment through education and publicity; to 

encourage and in some cases finance research into issues affecting these resources and 

their conservation; and to promote and support policies of conservation towards wildlife 

and its habitat. 

KCS is currently coordinating a trans-boundary natural resource management project, 

known as Every River Has Its People, between Botswana, Angola and Namibia. 

Trust for the <strong>Okavango</strong> Cultural and Development Initiatives (TOCaDI) 

TOCADI is the Ngamiland branch of Kuru Development Trust which is based in Shakawe. It 

supports remote area communities in land use planning, strengthening of CBOs and 

identifying and setting up income generating projects (thatching grass harvesting and 

marketing, fishing, community tourist enterprises) and in starting a communal savingsand 

reinvestment system. 

2.1.6.10 Community Based Organisations (CBOs) 

There are 21 CBOs in the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site managing the different resources. The CBOs in the 

Ngamiland District have an established structure, CBNRM Forum, where they engage with 

their Joint Venture Partners, the private sector and government on matters related to 

management of resources in their conscession areas. The CBOs have a 15 year lease 

agreement with the Tawana Land Board for the use of resources. 

18

2.1.7 FACILITIES AND SERVICES 

2.1.7.1. Settlement Hierarchy 

There are 65 gazetted settlements in Ngamiland District and many other un-gazetted 

settlements comprising cattle posts and arable lands areas. Settlements are classified in 

terms of size and functional relationships. These are (number of centres in brackets) 

Primary (1), Secondary (1) and Tertiary Centres with the latter being divided into Tertiary I 

(1), II (10), III (17) and IV (45). Figure 2-4 shows the settlement patterns for the district. 

Figure 2-4: Settlements and road network in the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site 

2.1.7.2 Road Network in the District 

The roads department of the central government and the North West District Council are 

responsible for the roads in the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site. National roads includes the following: 

A3 Ghanzi – Maun – Nata road - tarred 

A35 Sehitwa – Mohembo road- tarred 

B334 - Maun – Shorobe road- tarred 

Mohembo-Gudigwa (recently transferred from council)- 

19

The District Council is responsible for all other roads (paved, gravel or sand) in the <strong>Ramsar</strong> 

site. . 

2.1.7.3 Public Transport 

Public transport is provided by private operators. There are three main modes of transportbuses, 

aeroplanes and boats. The boats and aeroplanes are generally used by tourists 

whilst buses run along the bitumen standard roads. Buses run between the district centre 

Maun and Shakawe/Mohembo. On the eastern side of the river there is no public 

transport due to the poor state of the roads. 

Maun has an international airport. There are also some smaller airfields in some of the 

villages and camp sites. Airfields in the campsites are owned by the operators and those in 

the villages are operated by the Department of Civil Aviation. The most common mode of 

transport for short journeys is horse riding, donkey carts and canoe. 

2.1.7.4 Postal Services 

Postal services are provided through a network of post offices and postal agencies. 

Currently, there are six (6) post offices and nine (9) postal agencies in the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site 

(NDSS, 2004). Post offices are located in Maun, which has two, Sehithwa, Gumare, Etsha 6 

and Shakawe. Postal agencies are located in Maun, Shorobe, Komana, Toteng, Nokaneng, 

Sepopa, Nxamasere, Ngarange and Seronga. Maun Post Office is the headquarters for 

postal services in North West and Ghanzi Districts. 

2.1.7.5 Energy Supply 

Some villages in the district are supplied by power from the Namibian Grid, while the rest 

are connected to the Botswana Grid. Villages supplied from the Namibian Grid are 

Nokaneng and those further west. 

The following villages have power reticulation: Maun, Shorobe, Toteng, Sehithwa, Tsau, 

Nokaneng, Gumare, Sepopa, Shakawe and Mhembo West. Most of these villages benefited 

from the recent Government programme of extending electricity to rural villages. 

Most settlements are not connected with electricity power supply, so the main alternative 

sources of energy are firewood, gas, paraffin and candles. The area has good trees for 

firewood; over-harvesting is being discouraged in order to reduce the impact on the trees. 

Alternative sources of energy and affordability need to be explored in order to ensure the 

sustainable use of wood resources. The supply of electricity to more villages should be 

considered as one of the priority areas of concern. 

2.1.7.6 Telecommunications 

Most of the main centres and villages have telephone facilities while cellular phones are 

increasingly used. Telecomuunciation services are provided by both Mascom and Orange. 

Internet facilities are available in Maun, but limited elsewhere. 

2.1.7.7 Education 

There are 55 primary schools in the Ngamiland District with 30 in the Ngami Sub-District 

and 25 in the <strong>Okavango</strong> Sub-District. There are ten (10) Community Junior Secondary 

20

Schools (CJSSs) and one Senior Secondary School. The illiteracy level in Ngamiland is one 

of the highest in Botswana ranging from 30% to 50% in some areas (NDSS 2004). 

Tertiary education facilities include the Maun Technical College and three Brigades 

Development Trusts. In addition, rehabilitative training programmes for specific groups of 

people are available in Maun at the Thuso Rehabilitation Centre and Tshidilong Stimulation 

Centre. The University of Botswana has a centre in Maun, the Harry Oppenheimer 

<strong>Okavango</strong> Research Centre, which engages mainly in research. 

Library services are provided and managed by the Botswana National Library Services 

through the establishment of public library branches, village reading rooms, and mobile 

visits. However, due to shortage of resources, a library branch has been provided only in 

Maun. In other settlements such as Sehithwa, Gumare and Shakawe, the communities 

utilise village reading rooms. The library also provides a ‘book box service’ to primary 

schools in the district since, unlike secondary schools, primary schools do not have their 

own libraries. Notably HOORC has a functional library facility which is linked to the main 

University of Botswana library. Other library facilities are located in secondary schools and 

are only available to students. Government printers have been established where 

government publications can be accessed. 

2.1.7.8 Health Facilities in the District 

The health services provided in the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site include mobile health stops, health posts, 

and clinics with or without maternity wings, one primary hospital and a district hospital. 

HIV and AIDS is the biggest health threat in the district. Although Botswana had achieved 

some success in providing health services this has been eroded by the advent and spread 

of HIV and AIDS. Having realized that HIV and AIDS, unlike other diseases, is more than a 

health problem, a multi-sectoral approach to solving the problems of AIDS has been 

established. It had been established that factors that lead to the spread of HIV and AIDS in 

Ngamiland are socio-economic in nature. Poverty and unemployment, gender inequalities, 

communication barriers between youth and elders on issues relating to sexuality as well as 

drug and alcohol abuse are the basic determinants. This therefore poses a challenge for the 

entire population in the district. 

However, the response strategies have not adequately addressed these factors; instead they 

comprised an education campaign about HIV and AIDS, community mobilization, 

awareness raising, and various counselling efforts and medical treatment (Ngamiland 

District HIV and AIDS Comprehensive <strong>Plan</strong>, 1999) The specific programmes implemented 

included:- 

• Information, Education and Campaign through workshops, seminars, commemorations, 

kgotla meeting, and condom distribution, counselling etc. 

• Home based and orphan care programmes 

• Mother to Child Transmission treatment, Anti Retroviral treatment etc. 

As a starting point the Ngamiland District Multisectoral Aids Committee (DMSAC), has 

developed a proposal for capacity building during DDP6, which focuses on empowering the 

local communities and extension agents in different capacity building activities. This goes a 

long way in addressing the basic factors that foster the spread of HIV and AIDS. 

In implementing the ODMP, DEA works with the existing structures such as DMSAC, Every 

River Has Its People project (ERP) and other relevant stakeholders in mainstreaming HIV 

and AIDS in the planning process. 

21

The district is also affected by a number of other diseases. These include malaria, anaemia, 

tuberculosis, diarrhoea and sexually transmitted diseases. 

2.1.7.9 Safety 

The Botswana Police has stations in Maun, Gumare, Seronga, Sehithwa and Shakawe. 

Maun hosts the district police headquarters. There is also a Botswana Defence Force camp 

in Maun. The Botswana Local Police under Tribal Administration has a wider presence in 

the ODRS. The Department of Prisons and Rehabilitation is also present in Maun. In 

addition to government safety institutions, there are several privately owned security 

companies. 

2.1.7.10 Places of Worship 

There are many churches in all settlements in the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site. Some of the well 

established churches include the Roman Catholic, Seventh Day Adventist, United 

Congregational Church of Southern Africa (UCCSA), Assemblies of God, Lutheran, Spiritual 

Healing, New Apostolic Church and Zion Christian Church. 

2.2 PHYSICAL FEATURES 

2.2.1 CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE 

The climate within the ODRS is semi-arid with rainfall (in Maun) ranging from 195 to 940 

mm per annum. Rainfall occurs in the summer months (November to March), with a mean 

annual amount of 455 in Maun and 480 mm over the <strong>Delta</strong>. Characteristic of a semi-arid 

environment, the rainfall is highly variable, with a coefficient of variation of annual rainfall 

of 35%. The monthly mean temperature ranges from 16 to 26 ˚C in June and October 

respectively. The winds are generally light easterlies. Annual potential evapotranspiration, 

(class A pan with appropriate, seasonally varying pan coefficient), is high at nearly 1850 

mm. 

2.2.2 GEOMORPHOLOGY 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> alluvial fan is situated among dune sediments within the down faulted MOZ 

(Makgadikgadi-<strong>Okavango</strong>-Zambezi) basin of north-west Botswana. The <strong>Okavango</strong> fan has 

developed on flat terrain within a south-western extension of the East African rift (EAR) 

which was re-activated approximately 2.4-5.0 million years ago along a NE-SW direction 

(Kampunzu et al., 1998; Tercillin and Lezzar, 2002). The surface of the down-faulted area 

comprises washed longitudinal dunes, with current and relict alluvial fan deposits and salt 

pans which overlie up to 300 m of predominantly sandy sediment. Catchment 

headstreams include the <strong>Okavango</strong> River which flows through Namibia to the Panhandle. 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is in reality the wetter part of an alluvial fan that is slightly conical 

and which disburses south of the Panhandle after flowing over 1000 km through Angola, 

Namibia and Botswana. 

In terms of gross fluvial sub-environments, the quasi-level <strong>Okavango</strong> alluvial fan comprises 

a mosaic of meandering watercourses, floodplains and islands, and is subject to low 

velocity flooding (ca. 2-3 cm/s) with significant lateral groundwater discharge under the 

islands and shoreline. The present <strong>Delta</strong> consists of seven active (slowly diffusing) and 

intermittently active distributary floodplain systems with a total east-west extent of c. 140 

km. The distribution of flow through the 1-500 m wide floodplains varies with decadal or 

biannual frequency (Wolski and Savenjie, 2006). 

22

Recent geomorphologic work has shown that the <strong>Delta</strong> (possibly as slowly diffusing multiple 

streams) was much more widespread 200 000 years ago and flowed extensively southwards 

to around Deception Valley in the northern Kalahari (Ringrose et al., 2005). Re-activation 

of the faults to the north (around Gumare) and south (the Thamalakane and Kunyere) led 

to the confinement of the present fan, likely around 40 000 years ago. More movement 

along the faults may be anticipated in this earthquake-prone rift zone. 

2.2.3 SOILS 

The soils of the <strong>Delta</strong> have been investigated by Staring (1978). They are mainly sand-based 

(arenosols) as a result of the sediment infill into the east African Rift basin (see 

geomorphology section). However, the local geomorphology and the effects of weathering, 

change the nature of the surface condition of the sands such that the original arenosols are 

modified. A major characteristic of the sands is the lack of diagnostic horizons other than a 

surface layer rich in organic material, which may extend from 30-100 cm. 

Typically the arenosols have very low water-holding capacities because the sand in the soil 

is not graded so that sands of varying coarseness are constantly mixed throughout the soil. 

As most sands are highly siliceous and are also extremely low in essential nutrients, 

especially phosphorus, most are acidic and therefore difficult to farm. In addition the low 

and erratic rainfall experienced within the ODRS tends to lower productivity of the soil. 

Dryland farming takes place on haplic arenosols while the more productive flood-recession 

agriculture takes place on gleyic arenosols. In areas where intermittent clay has been 

deposited as a result of former water ponding or vegetation induced surface processes (e.g. 

under tall mopane) some clay-like structures are found in the soil leading to the 

development of luvic arenosols. Some ferralic arenosols occur in the dune areas, peripheral 

to the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

2.2.4 GEOLOGY AND STRUCTURES 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> overlies solid basement bedrock, which occurs under 20-300m of 

Kalahari sediments. The older basement rocks are referred to as: 

1. Palaeoproterozoic (approx 2.05 thousand million years old) comprising gneiss, granites 

and amphibolites exposed in the Qangwa area and granulites exposed in the Gweta area 

2. Mesoproterozoic (approx 1.2-1.1 thousand million years old) gabbros, granites and 

meta-rhyolites and meta-basalts which are exposed in the Kgwebe and Ngwanalekau 

Hills. 

3. Karoo supergroup comprises (approx 180 million years old) silica rich sedimentary rocks 

with mafic lava and dolerites which are less exposed close to Tsodilo Hills and around 

areas east of Ngamiland. 

These are covered by the Kalahari Group sediments comprising silica rich sands and 

carbonates such as calcretes and occasionally silcretes. 

The geological map of the ODRS is given in Figure 2-5. As the older rocks may be emplaced 

by mineral rich ores (such as kimberlite pipes) the possibility of mining occurring in the 

<strong>Ramsar</strong> site over the longer term should not be discounted. The older rocks are aligned on 

two trends, an older NW-SE trend and a younger NE-SW trend. Re-newed movement along 

this latter trend has caused the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> to form in a down faulted depression 

23

which is itself an extension of the East African Rift system. The significance of the rift lies 

in the fact that this fault system is presently active and may well lead to renewed 

earthquake activity in the foreseeable future. The most noteworthy faults are Gumare, 

Kunyere and Thamalakane. 

The overlying Kalahari Group sediments contain some calcretes and silicretes which occur 

as a result of strong evaporation following past or present hydrological processes. Calcretes 

and silcretes (duricrusts) are used along with crushed bedrock throughout the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site 

for road construction and maintenance. 

2.2.5 HYDROGEOLOGY 

Three major aquifer formations exist in the ODRS. These are the Basement rocks, Karoo 

and Kalahari Group sediments. Karoo and Basement rocks, where they occur at shallow 

depth, also form locally important aquifers. The Kalahari Group sediments comprise the 

most important known aquifers. These aquifers are at shallow depth, typically less than 

100 m. Although at places several distinct aquifers can be distinguished within the 

Kalahari Group profile, they are usually hydraulically connected. The groundwater table is 

present at 5-30 m below ground in non-floodable areas, and is shallower (typically 0-10 m) 

within contemporary and recently flooded floodplains. 

Figure 2-5: Geological map of the ODRS 

24

2.2.6 HYDROLOGY 

The flood wave which results from upstream rainfall lasts from January to July, with its 

peak in late April or the beginning of May. A five year record from 1997 to 2002 is shown in 

. The seasonal flow range is from to 80 to 700m 3/s, and the average annual flow at 

Mohembo during this period was 7,500MCM yr -1 while the long term mean annual flow is 9 

500MCM yr -1. 

2.2.6.1 Panhandle 

Popa Falls on the river in Namibia marks the upstream boundary of the Panhandle. The 

river is laterally confined by geological faults and sand ridges to a flood plain up to 15km 

wide. The river channel meanders across the flood plain, varying in width from around 50 

to 100m wide, and 5 to 6m deep. The length of the Panhandle valley is around 100 km, 

while the length of the meandering river is around 200km. The gradient of the valley is 

from around 1,000m (above mean sea level) to 980m. 

At the downstream limit of the Panhandle, which is not clearly defined, between the villages 

of Sepopa on the western and Seronga on the eastern margins of the <strong>Delta</strong>, the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

River starts to break out into its primary distributaries, marking the start of the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

Discharge (m3/s) 

Figure 2-6: Inflow at Mohembo (1997–2002) 

2.2.6.2 River systems 

The <strong>Delta</strong> is conventionally divided into four water and land categories: the Panhandle, 

upstream permanent swamps, downstream seasonal flood plains, and large islands and 

sandveld tongues. The upstream <strong>Delta</strong> is characterised by the main <strong>Okavango</strong> River 

flowing through extensive papyrus swamps, bifurcating into distributary channels which 

convey the flow on to extensive perennial flood plains. 

The primary distributaries are shown in Figure 2-7. The boundaries between the 

distributaries are not well defined, apart from the Chief’s Island clearly separating the 

25 

800 

700 

600 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

0 

Oct 97 Apr 98 Oct 98 Apr 99 Oct 99 Apr 00 Oct 00 Apr 01 Oct 01 Apr 02 Oct 02

eastern from the central and western part of the system. The most western distributiary is 

the Thaoge. The central distributary, the Jao/Boro is often the only path for surface water 

outflow from the <strong>Delta</strong>. The Kunyere/Xudum/Matsibe system is essentially a branch of the 

Jao, ultimately leading water to Lake Ngami. To the east of the <strong>Delta</strong> there is the 

Maunachira distributary splitting into the Khwai and Mboroga, which further splits into 

Gomoti and Santantadibe. 

Figure 2-7: <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> river channels 

There are some changes observed in distribution of water between the distributaries. 

Santantadibe and Gomoti are perceived to be drier than in the past, while the Khwai 

appears to be gaining in importance. To the west, the Thaoge is known to have been 

reduced considerably in the early 20 th century. Recently, further reductions have been 

observed, with water redirected to the Kunyere/Xudum/Matsibe, and consequently causing 

considerable flooding of Lake Ngami in 2004; the last flood having occurred in 1989. 

26

Of the three main distributaries, the Thaoge River in the west terminates in a series of 

lagoons and permanently inundated plains near its upstream end, choked by 

sedimentation and vegetation. The Jao/Boro comprises pemanent swamp in its upstream 

end. The middle part (essentially the Boro and Kunyere/Xudum/Matsibe) is a system of 

seasonally inundated floodplains. In the downstream end it is flowing in confined channels, 

discharging to the Thamalakane and to Lake Ngami. The Maunachira and Khwai, as well as 

the Santantadibe in the east, have permanently inundated plains along the entire length, 

with only narrow bands of seasonal floodplains. The Gomoti floods only in higher rainfall 

years. The Khwai, Santantadibe and Gomoti end in single channels. The two latter ones 

used to connect to the Thamalakane, which, however, has not been observed since 1989. 

The Khwai usually dries out within its channel, but in the past it was probably a major 

provider of water to the Mababe depression; travellers around 1850 described the 

depression as a lake. 

2.2.6.3 Outflow 

The course of the Thamalakane River follows the Thamalakane Fault line which runs 

perpendicular to the main axis of the <strong>Delta</strong> and demarcates its downstream limit. The river 

flows south west, and functions as a collection drain for the distributaries from upstream. 

In low flood years, however, flow in the distributaries succumbs to evaporation and 

infiltration before reaching the Thamalakane River. 

In high flood years, flow in the lower Boro discharges to the Thamalakane, and upstream 

bifurcates into the Kunyere/Xudum/Matsibe to discharge into Lake Ngami, from which 

there is no outflow. Flow in the eastern Maunachira bifurcates into the Mboroga River and 

may also reach the Thamalakane River. In contrast to the inflow to the <strong>Delta</strong> of 

7,500Mm 3/annum, the average outflow in recent years has been 20Mm 3/annum (Figure 

2-8Figure 2-8: Outflow at Boro Junction (1997–2002)). About 98% of the entire inflow is 

lost to evapotranspiration and infiltration to ground water. 

Discharge (m3/s) 

Figure 2-8: Outflow at Boro Junction (1997–2002) 

27 

6.0 

5.0 

4.0 

3.0 

2.0 

1.0 

0.0 

Oct 97 Apr 98 Oct 98 Apr 99 Oct 99 Apr 00 Oct 00 Apr 01 Oct 01 Apr 02 Oct 02

Subsequently, flow from the Thamalakane passes through a break in the fault downstream 

of Maun into the Boteti River. There is a potential drainage route downstream to the 

Makgadikgadi Pans, and into the Nhabe River and downstream to Lake Ngami, though this 

has not been observed since 1989. Since 2000, the Boteti has at best reached Chanoga, 

which is approximately 60 km downstream. The Boteti River downstream and its eventual 

outfall to the Makgadikgadi Pans are excluded from the area of the river basin, and from 

the <strong>Ramsar</strong> wetland area. 

2.2.6.4 Flooding pattern 

Sediment deposition, and swamp vegetation with associated peat aggradation raise the 

channels above the flood plains. The transfer of flow between the river and flood plains is 

highly dynamic depending on the period of the flood from upstream, antecedent ground 

water conditions and the rainfall over the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

This causes extreme spatial and temporal variations in the flooding pattern, which change 

over at least four time scales. The longest is over geological periods of 10 000 to 1 000 000 

years and at times the <strong>Delta</strong> has probably been a completely dry desert with sand dunes, 

while at other times it has been completely flooded. Since around 1850 the flooding pattern 

has moved from a very westerly to a central and now a very easterly distribution (McCarthy 

and Ellery, 1998), with some recent evidence of a return to a westerly trend. There are dry 

and wet periods as well with about 8 and 18 years interval (Tyson et al., 2002), which 

causes the seasonally flooded areas to withdraw and expand. Finally the flooding pattern 

can change from year to year caused by local factors such as vegetation blockages in the 

streams causing damming and overflow of riverbanks. This large variation in flooding 

pattern is one of the important and unique features of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 

2.2.6.5 Infiltration 

The calculation of the water balance within the <strong>Delta</strong> reveals that the infiltration to 

groundwater is very large. In one floodplain system it amounted to 90% of the total inflow. 

Groundwater levels that were 3–5 meters below ground rose with arrival of the water within 

a few days up to the surface. As far away as 600 meters from the floodplain groundwater 

levels rose 1.5 month after arrival of the flood. This was caused by lateral groundwater flow, 

which became the dominant infiltration process after the first days and transferred at least 

80% of the total infiltration to the surroundings. The impact area was calculated to be 3–6 

times larger than the floodplain itself. This surrounding area of riverine woodland is a 

dominant element of the vegetation throughout the <strong>Delta</strong>. It is probably strongly dependent 

on this mechanism of flooding – infiltration – lateral flow. The lateral flow itself is in all 

likelihood driven by transpiration from the riverine woodland. Early hydrological models 

(Gieske, 1997, Dincer et al., 1987) neglected the groundwater-surface water interaction. 

The new generation of models (Bauer et al., 2006, ODMP Mike SHE model) take this 

process into account. It is a dominant hydrological process, which has large implications 

for the understanding of the <strong>Delta</strong> ecology. For instance the proposed water development 

projects like clearing of channels in the <strong>Delta</strong> of vegetation, upstream water diversions and 

building of dams, are all actions that will reduce the duration of the seasonal flooding and 

its spatial extent. The impacts will not be restricted to the floodplains but affect large areas 

of woodland as well. 

2.2.6.6 Island growth and salinity 

In the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> about 94% of inflowing solutes are retained within the <strong>Delta</strong> (Table 

2-1). This could lead to an entirely saline environment, but that is not the case: the surface 

waters have very low salinity with a freshwater biota. It has been deduced that the 

28

numerous islands in the <strong>Delta</strong> have been formed through evapotransporative concentration 

in groundwater of infiltrating solutes followed by precipitation and volume increase. 

Evidence of this is the large amount of calcrete in island soils. These islands of 3-10 m 

thickness with clayey soils are under-laid by fine Kalahari sand to a depth of 200-300 m, 

which also indicates that they are formed through surface processes. 

The infiltration rate of surface water from floodplains and streams into islands is very high 

and predominantly a lateral process that is unidirectional. This flow is driven by 

evapotranspiration in the riparian woodland zone and causes the ground-waters in the 

central area of islands to have very high salinities as evidenced by halophyte species. By 

use of chloride as a conservative element, the concentration factor between the channel and 

the central island groundwater/surface water is calculated to be 500 – 1000. This 

groundwater is completely depleted of calcium and magnesium supporting the early 

deductions that they have precipitated as calcrete. There is however an even larger 

depletion of silicate which probably has precipitated as well forming the clayey soils typical 

of the islands. The central island groundwater is dominated by sodium, bicarbonate and 

dissolved organic matter. The gradual increase of salinity in this central island groundwater 

is causing it to become much heavier than the under-laying deep groundwater with lower 

salinity and periodically some of this high-saline water is let off through a fingering process 

to the deeper layers. Island growth through precipitation of solutes and salinity-density 

fingering to deep groundwater are the two major sink processes of inflowing solutes and 

explains how the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> can be a freshwater system. 

Table 2-1: The mass balance of dissolved elements entering the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> through the 

inlet (McCarthy et al., 1986). 

Tonnes per year 

29 

Total solute load in inlet 381 000 

Loss through outlet 21 000 

Remains in <strong>Delta</strong> 360 000 

Precipitation in islands 60% 216 000 

Sink to deep groundwater 40% 144 000 

The biogeochemical growth of islands is a unique process first described for the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> by McCarthy et al., 1991b, 1993; McCarthy and Ellery 1994. It has recently been 

discovered that the islands in another wetland of global importance, the Everglades in 

Florida, USA, are formed through the same process. In contrast, the density-driven salt 

transport process into deep groundwater (fingering) that is functioning as a permanent sink 

of solutes has probably not been described for any other wetland system. 

2.2.6.7 Retention of nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon 

About 90% oO the total nitrogen, phosporus and dissolved carbon coming into the <strong>Delta</strong> 

through the inlet has disappeared before the water reaches the outlet. For nitrogen it is 

probably due to de-nitrification in the infiltration zone formed by the floodplains/islands 

where the groundwater has high numbers of bacteria and also a considerable methane 

emission. About half of the phosphorus is probably precipitated as complexes in island 

soils but a similar amount of dissolved phosphorus is deposited in deep groundwater 

caused by the density fingering process. By this process about 20% of dissolved organic 

carbon is also permanently deposited, while the rest probably is processed by bacteria and 

returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and methane. The importance of these 

elimination and retention processes the establishment of low concetrations of nutrients in 

the surface waters that in turn may contribute to the crystal clear waters in the <strong>Delta</strong>. The

capacity of these processes to eliminate nutrients from the inflow may be a decisive factor 

in determining how much additional nutrient loading (eutrophication) the <strong>Delta</strong> can 

sustain. 

2.3 ECOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL FEATURES 

The ODRS is a habitat for about 1300 idenitifed plant species, 71 fish, 33 amphibians, 64 

reptiles, 444 birds and 122 mammals. 

In the <strong>Delta</strong> there are large variations in habitat patterns over small distances, although the 

<strong>Delta</strong> is very flat and is made up of homogeneous sand. Small differences in altitude of 1-2 

m result in large differences in the frequency and duration of flooding, which creates 

habitat gradients from permanent rivers and lagoons, to permanent swamps with reeds and 

papyrus, seasonally flooded grasslands, occasionally flooded grasslands, and riverine 

woodlands and dry woodlands. Each of these habitats has a distinct species composition 

not only of plants but also of reptiles, birds and mammals (Table 2-2). 

Table 2-2: Number of species in taxonomic groups of originally terrestrial origin observed in 

each major habitat in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> (Modified from Ramberg et.al. 2006). 

Taxonomic 

group 

30 

Total Number 

of species 

Percent habitat 

overlap 

Aquatic/ 

Perennial swamp 

Wetland/ 

Seasonal swamp 

Dryland/ 

Terrestrial 

<strong>Plan</strong>ts 1061 35% 205 519 704 1428 

Reptiles 64 0% 7 5 52 64 

Birds 444 0% 112 57 275 444 

Mammals 122 10% 3 21 110 134 

Sum of species 

observed in each 

habitat 

In a worldwide biodiversity comparison (Junk et al. 2006) of seven globally important 

wetlands, of which six are located in tropics and sub-tropics, the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> had a low 

number of fish species, but the second highest number of plants and mammals, third 

highest number of amphibians, and highest number of reptiles and birds. In particular the 

number of large mammal species and their high abundance are outstanding in the 


2.3.1 HABITAT DIVERSITY 

On a finer scale, <strong>Delta</strong> habitats have been classified based on a combination of plant life- 

form characteristics and dominant species. In total 46 habitats were identified. In the <strong>Delta</strong> 

study area, the specific habitat size is fairly small, 0.05 km 2. The number of different 

habitat types in 9 km 2 areas varies between 1 and a maximum of 31. These areas with 

exceptionally high vegetation variability are mostly located along the perimeter of the wet 

<strong>Delta</strong>, along the Panhandle, and along the major flow channels to the east and west. The 

highest habitat diversity is found in the fringe areas of the <strong>Delta</strong> and it is highly likely that 

the total species diversity is highest here. The implications for the management of 

biodiversity in the <strong>Delta</strong> are immense since conservation efforts should not concentrate on 

preserving a core area but the entire habitat pattern, including the fringes. This is 

complicated even more by the fact that these fringe areas with high biodiversity are under 

pressure from human exploitation.

2.3.2 FLORA 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is located in the Zambesian Phytochoria which is one of 16 such areas 

in Africa defined as having more than 50% endemic plant species and more than 1000 such 

species in total. This area predominantly includes the <strong>Okavango</strong> and Zambezi river basins. 

2.3.2.1 <strong>Plan</strong>t species number and composition 

The currently known flora of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> comprises about 1300 taxa at the species 

and lower levels, of which 1260 taxa are on the species level. They belong to 530 genera 

and 134 families. The most diverse families are the Poaceae (grasses), Cyperaceae (sedges), 

followed by the Asteraceae and Fabaceae, each of which have more than 20 genera and 50 

taxa of species and lower ranks. Most genera (73%) are represented by one or two species 

only, whereas a small number of genera (7%) are represented by 10 or more taxa of species 

and lower ranks. 

Ellery and Tacheba (2003) list 1259 species for the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> for an area of 25 000 

km 2, while the more commonly reffered to figure is 1061 species for the 16 000 km 2 area of 

the active <strong>Delta</strong>. Calculations of species density following Rosenzweig (1995) shows that the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> has a species density of 210 species per km 2, similar to the dryer and 

colder southern and western biomes in Southern Africa, while the species densities are 

more than twice as high for the better watered and warmer grasslands and savannas in the 

eastern and northern parts of the sub-continent (Ramberg et al., 2006). 

Of the total number of taxa present in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, a significant proportion of about 

60% occur in dryland settings on islands or sandveld tongues. However, despite their 

terrestrial character many of these taxa are absent in the surrounding savanna habitats as 

they require a different air humidity or soil moisture regime or higher ground water table. 

Thus they are intimately associated with the wetland environments of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

(Ellery and Tacheba 2003). 

A large number of species occur in the permanent swamps (about 220 taxa), and many are 

connected to the flooded grasslands (about 90 taxa) or to the combination of flooded 

grasslands and dryland settings (80 taxa). A small number of species are parasitic (18) or 

insectivorous (12). 

Of the 147 plants classified as aquatic and semi-aquatic only 10 are woody of which only 

three are trees. The palm Phoenix reclinata and Syzygium guineense are fully grown trees 

that occur in patches fringing islands or termitaria, while the shrubby Ficus verruculosa 

lines the lower reaches of river channels in the perennial swamp (op. cit.). 

There are no known endemic plant species in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and the species 

composition has similarities with the large wetlands in the middle and upper Zambezi river 

basin such as Kafue and Barotse (Liuwa). Due to very small topographic gradients in this 

whole area it is likely that these wetlands during wet periods have been united into one 

huge complex of several 100 000 km 2 (Ramberg et al. 2006). 

2.3.2.2 Vegetation communities 

A classification of plant communities based on quantitative data covering a considerable 

part of the <strong>Delta</strong> habitats was done by Sliva et. al. (2004). This clearly shows that on each 

level of division the hydrological conditions are decisive. 

Nine meaningful ecological vegetation groups were identified: (1) Vegetation of open water; 

(2) Cyperus-dominated channel fringe and backswamp communities; (3) Phragmites- 

31

dominated channel fringe and backswamp communities; (4) Miscanthus-Ficus permanently 

flooded backswamp communities; (5) Schoenoplectus corymbosus-Cyperus articulatus 

communities of shallow backswamps and frequently inundated floodplains; (6) 

communities of seasonal floodplains; (7) island fringe communities; (8) island interior 

grassland communities; (9a) pan communities – upper level; and (9b) pan communities – 

bottom level. 

These nine major communities arrange neatly along hydrological gradients, the first being 

the depth and duration of flooding; the second being their location upstream – down stream 

with low annual water level variations in the upper parts of the <strong>Delta</strong> (0.5 m) and much 

higher variations in the lower parts (2 m); and the third the difference between stagnant 

and flowing waters. 

Recognising the different seasons, scale and focus of all the vegetation studies done in the 

<strong>Delta</strong> about 26 meaningful ecological plant communities can be classified within the 

vegetation of permanent swamps, floodplains and islands (Ramberg et.al, 2006). The 

drylands remain unconsidered, which are the never flooded vegetation of large sandveld 

tongues and large islands representing the Acacia and Mopane woodlands and shrubland, 

as well as the non-inundated grassland types. 

Communities associated with permanent water (No. 1-14) are relatively species poor, 

harbouring about 50 to 70 species per community group. Cyperus papyrus as well as 

Phragmites species tend to develop large and dense monospecific stands, supported by the 

relatively higher nutrient loadings in the upper reaches of the <strong>Delta</strong>, making the 

establishment of other less competitive species difficult. The species diversity increases on 

the open boundaries, for instance along the channel and lake fringes. In open water areas 

(ledibas, oxbow lakes) the diversity raises with the shallowness of the water. The species 

composition and abundance in these communities remains similar through the whole year 

independent of the flood pulse. 

Compared with permanent aquatic communities, the number of plant species rises up to 

twofold on seasonal floodplains (No. 15-20). On regularly inundated floodplains the water 

fluctuation causes periodical changes between terrestrial and aquatic phases of the sites. 

The aquatic-terrestrial-transition-zone, “ATTZ” (Junk, 2003) is a dynamic system of steadily 

changing water and nutrient status, of establishment and dying off of species. This 

dynamic littoral zone provides good living conditions for both terrestrial and semi-terrestrial 

short-lived plant species during the low water period as well as for aquatic species during 

the inundation, as long as these species are able to survive the unfavourable period or to 

colonise and occupy the new habitats rapidly enough. The availability of various temporary 

habitats which are densely packed within relatively small areas is responsible for the high 

species diversity. If one compares the low and high water season, the alteration of species 

and their abundances within the floodplain communities is also expressed by the 

significantly lower similarity indices. 

However, the highest species diversity is exhibited in the riparian woodlands along the 

island margins (No. 21-22). During the field campaign in February 2003 between 20 and 83 

species were recorded per 70 m 2 plot, and altogether more than 150 species (e.g. more than 

one eighth of the whole <strong>Okavango</strong> flora) were identified within only five plots (Sliva et al. 

2004). Island margins provide optimal habitat for a large number of woody species (shrubs 

and trees), which increase the species diversity considerably. Apart from the woody species, 

vegetation composition here have distinctive seasonal variations. 

32

The origin and the unique ecological functions of islands and associated woodlands has 

been subject of several in-depth studies (McCarthy et al., 1991; McCarthy et al., 1993; 

Ellery at al., 1993; Ellery and Tacheba, 2003, Ramberg and Wolski, 2007). In this 

environment the classification of the riparian plants as dry land species is ambiguous as 

the riparian zones are fed by shallow horizontal groundwater infiltration from adjacent 

rivers and floodplains (Ramberg et al., 2006). The majority of woody species (trees, shrubs 

and lianas) which occur within these riparian bands in the island fringes of the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> are probably able to tap this groundwater resource (Ringrose, 2003). Even though 

these are not strictly wetland habitats, they are central for the present structure and 

functioning of the whole <strong>Delta</strong> ecosystem (Ellery and Ellery, 1996; Ellery and Tacheba, 

2003; Ramberg and Wolski, 2007), and the fact that we find the highest species diversity in 

these island fringe communities underpins their high ecological value. 

Next to the hydrological factor complex, the salinity of the island soils influences the 

diversity of species within small areas. There is a gradient of increasing solute 

concentration in the ground water from the edge of the islands towards the centre 

(McCarthy at al., 1991; Ellery at al.; 1993) which is reflected by a typical zonation of 

vegetation and the establishment of characteristic communities (No. 23-24). On sites with 

high solute concentrations species diversity declines considerably since only few species are 

adapted to those harsh living conditions. Although the communities of saline soils seem to 

be the species poorest among all other communities in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> (with only about 

20 species), they contribute to the overall species diversity because of the occurrence of the 

specialized halophytes. 

Small ephemeral water bodies (pans) occur during the rainy season in drier habitats and 

carry the next specific plant communities (No. 25-26) with a distinct zonation according to 

the water depth and duration. 

It is obvious that the main reason for the high plant species diversity of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

as well as for the exceptionality of this ecosystem from a nature conservation point of view, 

lies in the interaction of periodical natural phenomena – the annual flood in the dry season 

and the distinct rainy season in time of low water level – with the shifts in flooding pattern 

over short and long periods. Succession processes at different phases of development are 

therefore ongoing in all plant communities in the <strong>Delta</strong>. These processes are the main 

driving forces for the species and habitat diversities in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and must be 

conserved in order to maintain the uniqueness of this system. 

2.3.2.3 Vegetation spatial coverage 

According to a preliminary vegetation classification map produced by the Harry 

Oppenheimer <strong>Okavango</strong> Research Centre, ten different vegetation units can be 

distinguished within the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site. The map is given in Figure 2-9. 

Table 2-3 below shows the spatial coverage for each of the ten classes throughout 

Ngamiland District with a total land coverage of 107,906 km2 including the Linyanti 

floodplain. 

It can be seen that a large proportion of the District is covered by tracts of Colophospermum 

mopane and tree shrubland dominated by Acacia species especially Acacia erioloba and 

Acacia mellifera. The latter class is found mainly in areas used for livestock farming along 

the southern and western edges of the <strong>Delta</strong>. This might suggest signs of bush 

encroachment due to overgrazing and over exploitation of resources as these areas are 

heavily populated. The third largest vegetation grouping consists of open shrubbed 

33

grasslands which overlaps with the tree shrubland described above. This class also occurs 

on areas that appear to have been overgrazed and showing significant levels of erosion. 

Figure 2-9:Vegetation classification map of the ODRS 

Table 2-3: Spatial coverage (km 2 ) of each vegetation grouping for the entire Ngamiland 

District 

Zone Description Area(km2) 

1 Grassed Shrubland in Dune Valleys with Terminalia & Baphia 10419 

2 Shrubbed Woodland with mixed Mophane 20063 

3 Treed Shrubland with Acacia 22959 

4 Treed Grassland on former Floodplain 8460 

5 Shrubbed Grassland on former Floodplain 3258 

6 Shrubbed Woodland of Riparian zones 1816 

7 Dry Floodplains and Island Interiors 2857 

8 Swamp vegetation with fringing emergents 8531 

9 Shrubbed towards Dune Crests with Burkea avourab and Baikiae plurijuga 10519 

10 Shrubbed Grassland with Sagebrush 17186 

11 Cloud and Shadow/Unclassified 1838 

34

35 

Total: Ngamiland (Includes Linyanti) 107906 

Source: HOORC Vegetation Map – 2004. 

2.3.2.4 Alien and Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>t Species 

The most common alien invasive species in the ODRS is the free floating water fern 

Salvania molesta (Mochimbamo). It occurs mainly in the eastern parts of the <strong>Delta</strong> and is 

kept under control by the introduced weevil Cyrtobagus salvianae. The control is not 

completely successful probably due to the cold winters that tend to kill most of the weevil 

population, originally coming from tropical Brazil. As long as the waters are low in 

nutrients the density of Salvinia will remain low but with eutrophication it could very well 

turn into a serious pest. 

At the moment there is limited information on the distribution of other alien plant species 

that can be potentially invasive in the project area, though there have been complaints by 

various stakeholders on the introduction of such species in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> especially 

for ornamental purposes and through various tree planting activities. However attempts are 

being made to computerize the species lists distributed as part of National Tree <strong>Plan</strong>ting 

Activities since 1999 to date in order to input this data in the planning process. 

In relation to the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site, there have been reports of occurrence of the alien grass 

Cenchrus biflorus already common in parts of the Kalahari, which is harmful due to its 

spiny seeds that tend to attach to the mouth and eye region of grazing livestock. These 

occur mainly in <strong>Okavango</strong> Sub-District but the extent of their distribution has never been 

mapped. 

2.3.2.5 Rare and Endangered <strong>Plan</strong>t Species 

A total of 20 plant species occurring within the ODRS have been selected for Red Data List 

status using recognized IUCN Red Data List criteria (ODMP – Assessment of occurrence and 

distribution of threatened and endangered plant species in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, 2006). 

Their distribution is given in Figure 2-10. Of these 20 species, 7 are listed as 

THREATENED, i.e. at very to extremely high risk of going extinct in the wild (at local level). 

• Zeuxine africana is considered CRITICALLY ENDANGERED. 

• Eulophia angolensis and Habenaria pasmithii are thought to be ENDANGERED 

• Acacia hebeclada subsp. Chobiensis, Aldrovanda vesiculosa, Eragrostis subglandulosa 

and Erlangea remifolia qualify for VULNERABLE status, 

• Ansellia Africana, Eulophia latilabris and Harpagophytum zeyheri subsp. Sublobatum are 

thought to be NEAR THREATENED. 

• Aristida stipitata subsp. Spicata, Boscia matabelensis, Harpagophytum procumbens 

subsp. Procumbens, Harpagophytum zeyheri subsp. Sublobatum, Orbea knobelii, 

Oryzidium barnardii and Panicum gilvum are thought to be of LEAST CONCERN. 

• The grass Eragrostis leptotricha is still DATA DEFICIENT, but potentially and 

ENDANGERED species.

Figure 2-10: Distribution map of rare and endangered plant species in the ODRS 

2.3.3 FAUNA 

2.3.3.1 Invertebrates 

The data on invertebrate species in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is far from comprehensive and 

many taxonomic groups are too difficult to collect, or nobody has tried to sample them, 

while some are taxonomically not well known, or there are no taxonomists able to identify 

them. The picture will, therefore, be patchy and will probably remain so for a long time. 

Dragonflies (Odonata) 

Comparatively good information exists for Odonata. Pinhey, (1967; 1976) collected samples 

in the <strong>Okavango</strong> area during a number of expeditions until 1976 and Kipping, (2003) 

repeated these studies. A total of 94 species were found, 33 Damselflies (Zygoptera) and 61 

Dragonflies (Anisoptera). Many of these have a Central African distribution and reach their 

southern most distribution in the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

Kipping found one new species for the area and one new for science. He could however only 

find 70 out of the 92 species found by Pinhey. The reason for the absence of species could 

be the gradual decline in flooding of the <strong>Delta</strong> since the mid-seventies which could have 

resulted in a loss of suitable aquatic habitats for the larvae or in a loss of suitable flying 

prey for hunting adults. Another factor is the aerial spraying against tsetse flies in the <strong>Delta</strong> 

which took place during the eighties and then again 2001-02. During the first period fairly 

36

potent insecticides such as dieldrin were used, but over smaller areas in each year. In the 

recent spraying, however, the entire <strong>Delta</strong> south of the Panhandle was sprayed, the 

northern part in 2001 and the southern part in 2002. <strong>Delta</strong>methrin was used which has 

some good properties such as short half-life in nature and its specificity for invertebrates. 

Adult Odonata experienced high mortality during the spraying of <strong>Delta</strong>methrine and the 

same results were recorded for larvae of the families living on the sediment surface or on 

vegetation (Perkins and Ramberg, 2004). 

Butterflies (Lepidoptera) 

A preliminary checklist of butterflies of Botswana, including the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, was 

published by Pinhey (1968; 1971; 1974; 1976). 115 species were recorded from this area.. 

Very little other information has been published since 1976. 

The Nymphalidae and Lycaenidae are the most diverse families in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

(Table 7), despite the abundance and conspicuousness of the Pierids (Pinhey, op.cit.). The 

vast majority of butterflies encountered in the <strong>Delta</strong> belong to this first family, and are 

restricted mainly to two very abundant migratory species – Belenois aurota (Brown-veined 

White) and Catopsilia florella (African Migrant). Large numbers of these two butterfly 

species migrate in a north-easterly direction throughout the region, including the 

<strong>Okavango</strong>, in mid-summer. The Lycaenids by contrast are small, inconspicuous species, 

which nevertheless contribute to over 30% of the observed diversity. 

Analysis of Pinhey’s Checklist of Butterflies of Botswana shows that the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is 

a focus of butterfly diversity in Botswana. This is not unexpected since this is a wetland 

area surrounded by arid Kalahari semi-desert – a wide variety of habitats exist with a wide 

range of larval food plants, and angiosperms which provide nectar for the adult butterflies. 

Some species such as Danaus chrysippus and Vanessa cardui are cosmopolitan, while 

others are characteristic of wetlands such as: Hyalites rahira, Precis ceryne, Myrina silenus, 

Borbo micans, Parnara monasi and Gegenes hottentota. 

There are no documented ENDANGERED or VULNERABLE butterfly species in the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> (Henning and Henning, 1989). The following species are RARE: Anthene minima, 

Colotis doubledayi angolanus, Pseudonympha swanepoeli and Tuxentius malaena. 

Mollusca 

The occurrence of aquatic snails has been fairly well documented in several studies 

compiled by Murray, (1997). Most of the aquatic snails found in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> are 

widespread in the Afrotropical region. The most southerly localities known in Africa for 

populations of Pila and Gabbiella (op.cit.) are found here and only one species out of 16 

may have some affinity with temperate climates. There are no endemic snail species and 

many of them occupy seasonal waters scattered over huge areas of the African savanna. 

Zooplankton 

In total 37 microcrustaceans have been recorded in the <strong>Delta</strong> by Lindholm (2006). There 

are 16 species of copepods within six genera, with Microcyclops and Tropodiaptomus being 

dominant and 45 cladoceran species. Most are minute, reflecting the strong predation 

pressure from visually feeding fish fry. 

Three different zooplankton habitats may be distinguished in the <strong>Delta</strong>: permanent lakes, 

seasonal floodplains and isolated temporary rain pools. Among these, seasonal floodplains 

offer the most diverse zooplankton fauna. During high water periods, the production of 

ostracods, copepods and cladocerans can be extremely high temporarily. Nearly 90 g DW l -1 

37

zooplankton biomass has been recorded, making zooplankton on seasonal floodplains a 

crucial link in the aquatic food web (Høberg et. al., 2002). 

Effects of aerial spraying against tsetse flies 

The aerial spraying of the entire <strong>Delta</strong> (except the Panhandle) against tsetse flies 2001 and 

2002 using <strong>Delta</strong>methrin (0.26-0.30 g/ha) was repeated five times during the cold season 

May – August and environmental monitoring was done by HOORC (Perkins and Ramberg, 

2004). 

No effects of the spraying could be documented for fish and birds and <strong>Delta</strong>methrine in the 

low doses used is known for its small effects on vertebrates. Similarly no negative effects on 

humans or on the tourism industry were reported. After spraying, aquatic invertebrate 

families showed a 25-46% reduced total abundance Out of a total 65 taxa 23 were 

common, and of these, six taxa with several species in each, declined drastically during the 

spraying campaign and had disappeared by the fifth spraying cycle. It is likely that at least 

the same proportion of the less common taxa was eliminated as well. 

Terrestrial invertebrate abundance declined by up to 68%. The most affected group was 

beetles. The composition of species changed through the cycles. Around 30% of the species 

were only collected before the spraying or in the first spraying cycle, whilst a lower 

proportion appeared in later cycles for the first time. 

During year 2003 many of the affected families returned to pre-spraying abundances and 

the composition of aquatic invertebrates in the sampled habitats returned approximately to 

their pre-spraying patterns. 

2.3.3.2 Fish 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> system has been connected to the Upper Zambezi drainage basin and its fish 

fauna can be considered as being part of the Zambezi system, which has some 134 species 

of fish (Skelton 2001; Ramberg et al. 2006). Of these 86 are found in the <strong>Okavango</strong> basin 

and 71 within the <strong>Okavango</strong> River and <strong>Delta</strong> below the Popa Rapids of the East Caprivi 

Strip in Namibia. The Zambezi fauna includes 23 (17%) endemic species, most of which are 

restricted to the upper Zambezi (Skelton, 2001). There are, however, no endemic species 

restricted to the <strong>Okavango</strong> River and <strong>Delta</strong> below the Popa Rapids. So far no alien 

introductions or translocated fish have been found in the <strong>Okavango</strong> River and <strong>Delta</strong>. This is 

an almost unique situation in Southern Africa where a large number of alien species occur 

in most river basins 

Fish stock assessment 

Locally, the seasonal floodplains have a much larger density of fish than the permanent 

swamp and streams (Hogberg et al., 2002). Occasionally very high densities occur before 

and during spawning, as well as in drying-up pools that have been isolated from the 

streams. Here fish eating birds aggregate in large numbers. 

Compared with a large number of African lakes and rivers the number of fishermen per 

square km is extremely low in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> (Mosepele, 2000). Locally household 

fishing may be important, but large areas of the swamp are not accessible by boat due to 

vegetation blockages and the risk of Hippopotamus attacks. The total yield of the fishery is 

low, and the catch per unit effort (CPUE) very low (0.4 kg/Lundgren gillnet set) compared 

with ten other aquatic systems in Africa which had a range of 1.4 – 4.2 kg/set (op.cit.). This 

does indicate an overall low fish biomass in the <strong>Delta</strong> and reflects its low nutrient status. 

38

2.3.3.3 Reptiles and Amphibians 

In total 33 amphibians and 64 reptiles have been recorded in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> (Murray, 

1997). All amphibians are dependent on water at least for reproduction and/or deposition 

and hatching of the eggs. Most of the 33 amphibian species occur close to water and only 

3-5 species are more terrestrial. On the other hand only two amphibian species (Xenopus 

laevis and X. muelleri) are fully aquatic. Most other species select habitats close to water 

and some have adopted strategies of hibernation or aestivation to survive temporal and 

seasonal desiccation of habitats. 

Out of the 33 species in Botswana twelve (36%) have a distribution restricted to the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> and the Chobe and eight (24%) are confined to the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> only. These 

species are tropical and the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is commonly the southern end of their 

distribution. 

Out of 64 reptile species recorded from the <strong>Delta</strong> the four terrapins (Pelomedusidae), 

Varanus niloticus, the Nile Crocodile and one snake (Crotaphopeltis barotseensis) are 

confined to water, while the python and four snake species in Colubridae mainly occur in 

swamp habitats. Most reptiles, 52 in all, are thus terrestrial. Most of these have a wide 

distribution in southern and central Africa. There are on the other hand 10 species whose 

distribution in Botswana is restricted to the <strong>Okavango</strong> and the Chobe. Seven of them are 

aquatic or swamp species and have a northern – tropical distribution. Two species are 

terrapins and the other five are snakes. 

2.3.3.4 Birds 

The number and variety of birds in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is well documented, due largely to 

the efforts of amateur birdwatchers who contributed substantial data to the Bird Atlas of 

Botswana between 1980 and 1990. This database, where birds have been recorded in a 

standardized way for the whole country, has subsequently been kept updated by the 

Records Sub-committee of BirdLife Botswana. 

Number of species 

There are 444 confirmed bird species occurring in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. This makes the 

<strong>Delta</strong> together with the Chobe River, the most species-rich area in Botswana. Most are 

widely distributed species belonging to 74 families of which the most important in terms of 

number of species are the following: 

Accipitridae (eagles, hawks, buzzards, kites): 38 species. 

This family includes the African Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vocifer and African Marsh 

Harrier Circus ranivorus as two typical wetland species. 

Sylviidae (warblers, apalises, cisticolas etc.) : 31 species. 

One of the warblers (Greater Swamp-Warbler A. rufescens) and three cisticolas (Redfaced 

Cisticola C. erythrops, Luapula Cisticola C. galactotes, Chirping Cisticola C. 

pipiens) are wetland species with their ranges in Botswana largely confined to the 


Ploceidae (sparrows, weavers, bishops, widows, queleas): 25 species. 

Eight members of this family are wetland species, with substantial populations in the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, as follows: Thick-billed Weaver Amblyospiza albifrons, Spectacled 

Weaver Ploceus ocularis, Village Weaver P. cucullatus, Golden Weaver P. xanthops, 

Southern Brown-throated Weaver P. xanthopterus, Southern Red Bishop Euplectes 

orix, Yellow-crowned Bishop E. afer, and Fan-tailed Widowbird E. avourable. 

Ardeidae (herons, egrets, bitterns): 18 species. 

39

40 

All of the ardeids are primarily wetland species, with the exception of the Blackheaded 

Heron Ardea melanocephala and Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis which are widely 

distributed throughout Botswana (although both breed extensively in the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong>). 

The Slaty Egret Egretta vinaceigula is the <strong>Okavango</strong>’s only near-endemic bird species. 

It has the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> as the centre of its distribution, and it is estimated that 

85% of the global population of this species occurs here. 

Geographic and habitat distribution of <strong>Okavango</strong> birds 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> falls within the Afrotropical region. However, all around the <strong>Delta</strong> to 

the west, east and south there is an abrupt change from tropical vegetation to Kalahari 

woodland or dry savannah. Consequently, the distributions of many bird species, 

particularly waterbirds, closely mirror the extent of the <strong>Okavango</strong>. The following three 

categories may be defined: 

Aquatic species (112 spp.) – those that feed by diving, swimming or wading, or feed on 

shores or mudflats in the vicinity of water. These are all non-passerines with the exception 

of the coucals and some of the kingfishers, which are near-passerines. 

Non-aquatic species (57 spp.) inhabiting wetland habitats such as floodplain forests, palm 

swamps, marshes and reed beds. The majority of these are passerines. 

Terrestrial species not restricted to wetlands (275 spp.). These are mostly near-passerines 

and passerines, and members of the family Accipitridae (non-passerines). 

Conservation status of Okavanga birds 

There are eight globally threatened and near-threatened bird species which occur in the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> (Table 2-4). 

Table 2-4: Globally threatened or near-threatened bird species occurring in the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong>. (BirdLife Botswana Red Data List) 

Conservation Status Common name Scientific name Status 

Vulnerable 

Slaty Egret 

Lesser Kestrel 

Cape Vulture 

Wattled Crane 

Corn Crake 

Lappet-faced Vulture 

Near threatened African Skimmer 

Data deficient 

Black-winged 

Pratincole 

Egretta vinaceigula 

Falco naumanni 

Gyps coprotheres 

Grus carunculatus 

Crex crex 

Torgos tracheliotus 

Rhynchops flavirostrisi 

Resident 

Palaearctic migrant 

Vagrant 

Resident 

Palaearctic migrant 

Resident 

Resident 

Glareola nordmanni Palaearctic migrant 

The <strong>Delta</strong> is also very important for the Wattled Crane – it currently supports the largest, 

single population of this species and over 15% of the global population. The other globally 

threatened species are occasional visitors to the <strong>Delta</strong> or avourable migrants.

Seventeen range-restricted or biome-restricted species occur in the <strong>Okavango</strong>. One of these, 

the Chirping Cisticola is aquatic, and in Botswana is confined to the <strong>Okavango</strong>. The others 

are more widespread, and most are common in their respective habitats. 

Following the criteria laid down by BirdLife International, the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is also of 

conservation importance for a substantial number of congregatory waterbirds; it supports 

over 1% of the global populations of 20 species, and 0,5% of the global populations of 

another 12 species. 

The vast majority of the birds found in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> are breeding residents, 339 or 

76%. There is, however, a significant number of avourable migrants all of which are 

waders (29 %), that visit the <strong>Okavango</strong> specifically because of its wetland habitats. 

2.3.3.5 Mammals 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> has a wide variety of large mammals occurring locally in high 

numbers, and which are the main attractions in the growing tourism industry (Mbaiwa, 

2003). However, most mammals in the <strong>Delta</strong> are fairly small and often overlooked. The 

overall mammal biodiversity of this entire community is determined by such factors as 

habitat diversity, connectivity to species pools in the Southern African region and the 

environmental history of the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

Number of species 

Some 122 mammal species of 12 orders and 34 families live in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> (Table 

15). All the larger species are wide spread across the African Savanna region. The 

distributional ranges of some of the larger mammals are marginally within the <strong>Delta</strong> but 

occur in the larger <strong>Ramsar</strong> site. One of these, the Sable Antelope (Hippotragus niger), is 

common in the broad-leaved woodlands and the grasslands close to the <strong>Delta</strong> (Skinner & 

Smithers 1990). Similarly, the Eland (Taurotragus oryx) and the Gemsbock (Oryx avoura) 

prefer drier landscapes and rarely spend time in the <strong>Delta</strong> (Skinner and Smithers 1990). 

The Black Rhino (Diceros bicornis) and the White Rhino (Ceratotherium simum) were driven 

to extinction in the <strong>Delta</strong> and Linyanti by poachers 20-30 years ago. The latter species has 

recently been re-introduced. 

Species composition and size distribution 

Almost half of the mammal species are bats or rodents (n=57). Most of these are small and 

weigh less than 100 g. A third of the mammals (n=40 species) are heavier than 10 kg and 

11 of these are carnivores. At least 18 species weigh more than 100 kg. These include the 

large African antelopes, the Burchell’s Zebra (Equus burchelli) and the African Lion 

(Panthera leo). The four species that are heavier than 1000 kg include the White 

Rhinoceros, the Hippopotamus, the Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), and the African 

elephant. 

The two most common of these megaherbivores (Owen-Smith, 1988) significantly affect the 

physical environment. Elephants that feed on a large variety of plants, including trees and 

shrubs, modify the terrestrial habitats of other species in the <strong>Delta</strong> (e.g. Gilson and 

Lindsay, 2003), for instance by changing woodlands to grasslands. Hippopotami on the 

other hand, change both the aquatic and floodplain habitats for species living in the <strong>Delta</strong> 

(McCarthy et. Al. 1998) by opening up channels and facilitating flooding. 

Common species and total biomass 

The Impala is the most common large mammal in the <strong>Delta</strong> (Table 2-5), followed by the 

Buffalo and the Red Lechwe (Bonyongo, 2004). Elephants are also very abundant. This 

species has increased in numbers from 2300 (1975/76), to 5700 (1984/85) (SMEC, 1989), 

41

15000 in 1988 and 35000 in 2002 (Bonyongo, 2004). Similarly, the numbers of two other 

large herbivores, Hippopotamus and Buffalo, have increased remarkably during the last 

fifteen years, while most small and medium sized herbivores have declined (op. cit.). The 

abundance of elephants is now so high that they may constitute a threat to woodlands, 

especially when considering that about 25% of the <strong>Delta</strong> is permanently wet and not used 

by elephants. The Hippopotamus numbers given at about 2500 are likely to be a minimum, 

due to the problems in aerial counting of these often submerged animals. For similar 

reasons the numbers based on aerial counts given in Table 2-5 for Sitatunga and Kudu, are 

likely to be under-estimated. 

The total mammal biomass for the Moremi Game Reserve (7000 km 2) in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

has been estimated as being 12 000 kg/km 2 (Bonyongo, 2004), which is much higher than 

for most wildlife areas in southern Africa and comparable with the rich savannas in the 

East African Rift valley. The regression models between rainfall (Coe, Cumming and 

Phillipson, 1976) and rainfall + nutrient level (East, 1984) estimates the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

mammalian biomass to be 4-8 times lower than what direct calculations generated for a 

system like the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. The high biomass densities of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

compared to the rich savannas is attributed to high numbers of elephants and buffalo who 

jointly contribute 73% of the total mammalian biomass in <strong>Delta</strong> (Bonyongo 2004). The two 

moisture regimes, from the annual rainfall and the annual seasonal flooding results in two 

distinct growing seasons. This results to high productivity of foraging resources enabling 

the <strong>Delta</strong> to support high numbers of mammalian herbivores. 

Table 2-5: Common species and numbers 

Species Total number 

Elephant, Loxodonta africana 35 000 

Zebra, Equus burchelli 14 000 

Warthog, Phacochoerus aethiopicus 2 000 

Hippopotamus, Hippopotamus amphibius 2 500 

Giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis 5000 

Wildebeest, Connochaetes taurinus 8 000 

Tsessebe, Damaliscus lunatus 3 000 

Impala, Aepyceros melampus 140 000 

Buffalo, Syncerus caffer 60 000 

Kudu, Tragelaphus strepsiceros 300 

Sitatunga, Tragelaphus spekei 500 

Red Lechwe, Kobus leche 60 000 

Number of common large mammals in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> in 2002, calculated for an area of 20 000 km 2 , based on 10 aerial counts done 

1988 – 2002 by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Government of Botswana (from Bonyongo, 2004). For Impala the numbers 

have been corrected based on ground counts 

The extended productive period caused by the annual flood is certainly one of the causes 

for this. On the other hand the generally low nutrient levels in the <strong>Delta</strong> should limit 

biological production (op. cit), but the dynamic vegetation successions caused by flooding 

with periodically and locally high mobilization of nutrients may cause high nutrient levels 

for forbs and hence favourable production conditions for grazing mammals. 

Habitat assemblages 

All the common species mentioned above, except the Buffalo, depend on more than one 

habitat. For instance, the Impala inhabits floodplains and grasslands adjacent to riparian 

42

woodlands, while the Red Lechwe prefers the seasonal floodplains close to deeper waters of 

the <strong>Delta</strong> (Skinner and Smithers, 1990). The Hippopotamus grazes at night often several 

kilometres from the rivers and lakes which it uses during the day (Skinner and Smithers, 

1990). Elephants are also water dependent. They are mixed feeders and use most of the 

habitats in the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

There are some clear differences in species composition along the wet-dry habitat gradient 

in the <strong>Delta</strong>. The Hippopotamus, the Sitatunga, the Cape Clawless Otter (Aonyx capensis) 

and the Spotted-necked Otter (Lutra maculicollis) live in the deeper, usually permanent 

waters of the rivers, lagoons and lakes (Skinner and Smithers, 1990). The Reedbuck 

(Redunca arundinum) occurs in the seasonally flooded areas with lower Cyperaceae species, 

while the Red Lechwe frequents the floodplain grasslands in large numbers (Skinner and 

Smithers, 1990). These wet habitats support 3 and 21 species each, and are different in 

species composition from each other and from the drier habitats. They have a high 

proportion of grazers while insectivores (mainly bats) are absent. 

The drier habitats across the <strong>Delta</strong> (riverine forests, riverine woodlands, savanna 

woodlands, dry woodlands and dry scrub), on the other hand, support similar groups of 

species. These habitats are more species-rich with a total of 110 species and with a typical 

mammal composition of the East – South African savannas. These include the big cats 

(Lion, Leopard (Panthera pardus) and Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) which are common as 

well as the Spotted Hyaena (Crocuta crocuta); and the endangered African Wild Dog (Lycaon 

pictus) has a stronghold here. The large number of species is due to the species-rich groups 

of bats and rodents which predominantly occur here. The most common herbivores are 

listed in Table above . 

Reproduction 

In the Southern African region at least 75% of the species living in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> give 

birth during the summer months (Smithers 1971; 1983), while six species breed during 

winter only. These same species breed during winter in the <strong>Delta</strong> as well. However, another 

12 species are winter breeders which are summer breeders in the region and an additional 

27 species are winter breeders which breed year round in the region. This might indicate 

that the prolonged breeding is a response to the relative predictability in abundance of 

resources during the flooding and is likely to be a specific genetic modification. 

Protected Game Animals 

The following species have been listed as protected under the Wildlife Conservation and 

National Parks Act, 1992. They cannot be hunted or captured without authority. 

Night ape, Pangolin, Aardwolf, Brown hyena, Cheetah, Serval, Blackfootedcat, Wilddog, 

Otter, Honey badger, Civet, Antbear, Rock dassie, Yellow spotted dassie, Rhinoceros, 

Hippopotamus, Giraffe, Klipspringer, Oribi, Sharpe’s steenbok, Mountain reedbuck, Water 

buck, Puku, Roan antelope, Vaal rhebok, Pelicans, Egrets, Bitterns, Hammerkop, Storks, 

Ibises, Spoonbill, Flamingos, Secretary bird, Vultures, Falcons, Kites, Eagles, Buzzards, 

Sparrow hawks, Goshawks, Harriers, Cranes, Kori bustard, Stanley bustard, Jacanas, 

Fishing owl, Narina trogon, python. 

2.4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC FEATURES 

The distribution of the various socio-economic activities in the ODRS is shown in Figure 

2-11. The main activities include tourism, livestock farming, arable agriculture, fishing, 

gathering of veld products, crafts and provision of various other services. 

43

Figure 2-11: Spatial Distribution of Economic Activities in <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site (source: NDSS 2004) 

The employment profile of the various sectors in Ngamiland District within which the ODRS 

falls is given in Table 2-7 Agricultural, hunting and forestry, which are direct uses of the 

<strong>Delta</strong> natural resources, account for 13.5% of employment in the district. These are 

followed by the service providers in the form of transport and communications, and 

hospitality sector at 7.5 and 7%, respectively. 

Table 2-6: Employment profile by major sectors in Ngamiland District 

Sector Employment % of Grand Total 

Agriculture, Hunting and Forestry 3373 13.48 

Fishing 135 0.54 

Mining and quarrying 61 0.24 

Hotels and restaurants 1733 6.92 

Construction 2840 11.35 

Manufacturing 1878 7.5 

44

Sector Employment % of Grand Total 

Electricity, Gas and Water Supply 130 0.52 

Wholesale and Retail Trade 3441 13.75 

Financial services 188 0.75 

Real Estate 663 2.65 

Public Administration 4462 17.83 

Transport and communication 1895 7.57 

Education 1896 7.58 

Health and social work 814 3.25 

Other community, social and personal services activities 752 3 

Private households with employed persons 580 2.32 

Foreign Missions, International Organisations 9 0.04 

Unclassified 177 0.71 

Total 25027 100 

Compiled and Computed CSO, 2001 Census 

2.4.1 2.4.1 PAST AND CURRENT LAND USES 

2.4.1.1 Past Land Use 

Households of Ngamiland have diverse livelihood activities which are natural resource and 

non-natural resource-based. Natural resource-based activities include livestock rearing, 

arable farming, collection of veld products (such as reeds, thacthcing grass, wild fruits, 

medicinal plants etc.), basket-making, fishing and community-based tourism. Non-natural 

resource-based activities include formal employment, remittances, rural trade and social 

protection programmes. Livelihood activities are strongly associated with ethnicity in 

Ngamiland. The WaYei and HaMbukushu are particularly known for their involvement in 

fishing. For their part, the Baherero and Batawana are associated with pastoral farming. 

Traditionally, Batawana are known to engage in both pastoral and arable farming. Dryland 

arable farming is also common among the communities of the Etsha settlements who are 

mainly the HaMbukushu, whereas molapo farming is more associated with the WaYei 

(Kgathi et al, 2004). The San communities are also generally known for their hunting, 

gathering, and fishing. The different sources of livelihoods have significant implications to 

the development options available to the district’s population. 

2.4.1.2 Current Land Use 

Existing land uses and land use activities in the ODRS are largely a reflection of the area’s 

natural endowment which gravitates around the attributes of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. The 

soils, vegetation, the general climatic conditions and the existence of vector-borne diseases 

associated with Tsetse-Fly, largely contribute to the distribution of the human population 

and related activities within the ODRS. 

The land uses within the ODRS are discussed in terms of broad land use zones. These 

zones comprise Communal areas, Game Reserves and National Parks and Wildlife 

<strong>Management</strong> Areas (Tawana Land Board, 2005). The zones are given in Figure 2-12. 

45

Figure 2-12: Land use map of the ORDS 

These broad categories, particularly communal areas are further subdivided into smaller 

and more specific categories which include settlements, arable lands and grazing areas. 

Table 2-7 shows the land use up-take for the broad land use categories. 

Table 2-7 Existing Broad Land Use Categories in the ODRS (ODMP Integrated Land Use <strong>Plan</strong> 

2006) 

Land Use Category Area (km 2 ) 

46 

Communal Areas 

Settlements, Arable and Pastoral Agriculture 

29 950 

Game Reserves and National Parks 5000 

Wildlife <strong>Management</strong> Areas 13 000 

Wetlands (outside protected area) 7424

2.4.1.3 Settlements, Arable and Pastoral Agriculture 

The dominant land uses in communal areas include arable agriculture, pastoral agriculture 

and settlements. 

(a) Arable agriculture is widely practiced by communities living within the ODRS. Dryland 

farming and molapo farming are the dominant arable agricultural practices in the ODRS. 

Settlements around Etsha villages and those on both sides of the Panhandle are well 

known for dryland farming. Molapo farming is associated with communities around the 

southern parts of the <strong>Delta</strong> where both maize and sorghum are cultivated. 

(b) Pastoral agriculture is widely practiced in the area and cattle herds are found at various 

cattle posts interspersed with villages and arable fields. Apart from those interspersed with 

villages and land areas, some of the cattle posts, are also found in the sandy areas to the 

northwestern areas towards Tobera, and the north-western boundary of Botswana and the 

Caprivi Strip in Namibia. 

For communities in the western and southern parts of the <strong>Delta</strong>, cattle posts are located 

further west in an area that stretches from Gani in the north to as far down south as 

Botlhatlogo. The development of the pastoral agriculture is greatly limited by availability of 

water in areas lying far from the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

(c) Settlements are small and dotted along the edges of the <strong>Delta</strong> and the main arterial road 

that services both the eastern and western parts of the <strong>Delta</strong>. Thus, in the case of the 

eastern side of the <strong>Delta</strong> for example, the area stretching from Mohembo East to Gudigwa 

has about thirty-five settlements- villages, cattle posts and lands areas interspersed at 

distances of less than 5km on average. 

2.4.1.4 Game Reserves and National Parks 

Moremi Game Reserve constitutes the only reserve within the ODRS and covers a total area 

of 4871km2 which translates to about 7% of the ODRS. Maun Educational Park and a small 

portion of the Chobe National Park fall within the ODRS. These areas are total conservation 

areas. 

2.4.1.5 Wildlife <strong>Management</strong> Areas 

WMAs constitute 22% of the total area of the ODRS and these are subdivided into 

Controlled Hunting Areas (CHAs – administrative units used throughout the country to 

facilitate wildlife management). 

2.4.1.6 Wetlands 

There are a series of water bodies within the ODRS which are used for a variety of purposes 

including fishing, transport, harvesting of veld products and tourism outside protected 

areas. 

2.4.2 2.4.2 NATURE CONSERVATION AND COMUNITY BASED NATURAL 

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 

2.4.2.1 Game Reserves and Wildlife <strong>Management</strong> Areas 

The nature conservation initiatives within the ODRS include designating parts of the site as 

a game reserve, namely Moremi Game Reserve, and Wildlife <strong>Management</strong> Areas (WMAs). 

47

Parks and Game Reserves provide for total preservation and protection of wildlife resources 

while sustainable utilization of wildlife resources is encouraged in WMAs. 

The activities within the Moremi Game reserve are non-consumptive, i.e. do not involve 

natural resources off-take but include photography, education, game viewing and 

accommodation. 

WMAs are located on the margins of National Parks and Game Reserves where they serve 

as buffer zones between incompatible land uses particularly livestock and wildlife and in 

some cases, they also serve as migratory corridors for wildlife. Within these land parcels, 

both consumptive (trophy hunting) and non-consumptive (photographic) based commercial 

wildlife operations are executed and these are classified as tourism land use. Figure 2-12 

illustrates the different land use parcels. 

The WMAs are divided into Controlled Hunting Areas (CHAs). Of the fifty-two CHAs within 

the Ngamiland District, thirty-seven are located within the ODRS. Tawana Land Board has 

leased out these units to either Community Trusts or individual concessionaires at a 

nominal land rental paid annually. 

Each Controlled Hunting Area (CHA) has been zoned according to the prevailing factors, 

such as ecology, soils and natural resource endowments in the area. WMAs in the ODRS 

are located in wildlife rich areas which offer some of the most conducive environment for 

sustainable utilization of wildlife resources under the Community Based Natural Resource 

<strong>Management</strong> (CBNRM) system 

2.4.2.2 Community Based Natural Resources <strong>Management</strong> (CBNRM) 

One of the programmes put in place in the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site for natural resources is the 

Community Based Natural Resource <strong>Management</strong> (CBNRM). The programme is a joint 

approach towards rural development and natural resources conservation. It is based on the 

need for the promotion and empowerment of the local communities, by linking economic 

and social development to natural resource management. CBNRM is founded on the 

premise that all members of the community share an interest in improving their livelihoods 

whilst at the same time managing and using natural resources in a sustainable way. 

The CBNRM programme in the ODRS is undertaken within the CHAs. The programme is 

run through community trusts. There are 12 registered trusts in Ngamiland. Their activities 

include sub-leasing their concessions to safari companies, managing cultural tourism, 

marketing baskets and crafts, photographic tourism, and marketing reeds and grasses. 

Table 2-8 shows the community trusts and their associated activities. 

These tourism activities within the WMAs are given a lease period of 15 years (Tourism 

Lease) renewable every 5 years as a measure of monitoring whether what is enshrined in 

the respective management plans is adhered to. Those that fall outside the WMAs are given 

a lease period of 50 years (Common Law Lease). 

48

Table 2-8: Basic Information on Community Trusts in Ngamiland, Botswana (Mbaiwa, 2002) 

Name of Community 

Trust 

CGAECGAE 

TLHABOLOLO TRUST 

KHWAI DEVELOPMENT 

TRUST 

OKAVANGO 

COMMUNITY TRUST 

OKAVANGO JAKOTSHA 


NGWAO BOSWA 

WOMENS 

COOPERATIVE 

OKAVANGO KOPANO 

MOKORO COMMUNITY 

TRUST 

BOKAMOSO WOMENS 

COOPERATIVE 

BUKAKHWE CULTURAL 

CONSERVATION TRUST 

SANKUYO 

TSHWARAGANO 

MANAGEMENT TRUST 

MABABE ZOKOTSAMA 

DEVELOPMENT 


OKAVANGO POLERS 

TRUST 

49 

Date of 

Registration 

Villages 

Covered 

CHAs Used Types of Activities (2001) Revenue 

Generated 

(2001)(P) 

1997 XaiXai NG 4, NG5 Sale of quota, Subsistence 

hunting, Cultural tourism, 

Craft marketing, Village 

shop 

2000 Khwai NG 18, 

NG19 

1995 Beetsha, 

Eretsha, 

Gudigwa, 

Seronga, 

Gunitsoga 

2000 Etsha 1 – 13, 

Ikoga, Jao 

Flats 

1996 Gumare, 

Danega, 

Nokaneng 

1997 Ditshiping, 

Quxau, 

Daonara, Boro 

– Associated 

settlements 

NG22 

NG23 

Marketing hunts, 

Subsistence hunting, Grass 

and crafts 

215,000 30 

600,000 3 

Sale of quota, Land rental 1,500,000 130 

NG24 Photographic tourism, 

Development of camp site 

None Marketing of baskets, 

Domestication of palm, 

Woodcarving 

NG32 Sale of quota, Marketing of 

campsite, Mokoro, grass, 

reeds, and fish 

No. of 

People 

Employed 

(2001) 

Not stated Not stated 

Not stated Not stated 

1,200,000 100 

Not stated Shorobe None Basket marketing Not stated Not stated 

2000 Gudigwa Part of 

NG12 

1995 Sankuyo NG34 Sale of quota, Thatching 

grass, Subsistence hunting, 

Campsite 

1998 Mababe Ng41 Sale of quota, Subsistence 

hunting, Land rental 

1999 Seronga and 

Gunitsoga 

TEEMASHANE TRUST 1999 Kaputura, 

Ngarange, 

Ncoagom, 

Sekondomboro 

2.4.3 2.4.3 WATER USE 

Eco-cultural tourism Not stated Not stated 

NG12 Tourism viewing, Sale of 

crafts, Restaurant 

NG11 Cultural Tourism, 

Thatching grass, 

Development of CBNRM 

project, Proposal for NG13 

595,460 53 

750,000 49 

750,000 100 

The mean annual flow of the <strong>Okavango</strong> River at the point where it enters Botswana is 

approximately 10 000 million cubic metres (MCM) per year and ranges between 7 000 and 

15 000MCM. 

There are already a number of developments throughout the river basin with actual or 

potential effects on water quantity and thus potentially on the ecological functioning of the 


278

2.4.3.1 Angola 

Quantities of water being abstracted in Angola are not well recorded but are thought to be 

very small. Now at peace and with strong development needs and ambitions, there are 

currently still no plans to build dams or major abstraction infrastructure on the river; there 

are also currently no existing structures. This situation is, however, bound to change as 

Angola develops and its population resettles in the Cubango/Quito river basins. Angola’s 

demand for abstracted water is going to rise and the possibility of other developments, such 

as hydroelectric schemes etc., is also bound to increase. 

2.4.3.2 Namibia 

Namibia has a number of existing and proposed water abstraction points for new irrigated 

agricultural schemes along the river between Nkurenkuru and Mohembo. 

Another Namibian proposal to abstract 17 MCM per annum from the river at Rundu and to 

connect this to the country’s Eastern National Water Carrier at Grootfontein has been 

mothballed for the present but remains a possibility. The total currently abstracted amount 

is equivalent to 0.134% of mean annual flow and this would rise to 0.154% if the Rundu – 

Grootfontein pipeline were constructed (ODMP – Inception Report, 2005). 

From these figures it is apparent that the total combined quantity of water currently being 

abstracted by all three countries from the river system, and indeed proposed increases in 

these amounts, is still very small in relation to the mean annual flow of the river. 

2.4.3.3 Botswana 

Botswana currently abstracts water at several points throughout the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

system and is preparing infrastructure to abstract more. The current locations and volumes 

of existing and proposed abstractions in the ODRS are shown in Table 2-9. 

Under the proposed Maun Groundwater Development Project (MGDP) and Maun Water 

Supply and Sanitation Rehabilitation and Upgrade Project (MWSSRUP) the amount of water 

supplied to the village will be increased (DWA, 2004). The existing abstraction site would be 

decommissioned. 

Table 2-9: Water abstraction in the ODRS (DWA 2004) 

Scheme Villages Amount abstracted (MCM per annum) 

Maun Water Supply Maun 2.69 

Private licensed abastractions from the 

river 

50 

Within the <strong>Delta</strong> Data not available 

Gumare Water Supply Gumare, Etsha, Nokaneng, Habu, Tsau 

and their localities 

Sepopa/Ikoga Integrated Rural Village 

Water Supply 

(Kauxwi/Xakao Integrated Rural Village 

Water Supply Project 

0.62 

Sepopa, Mowana and Ikoga 0.12 

Kauxwi, Xakao, Mohembo-east, Goa, 

Jejedoa, Sekondomboro and Sechenje 

Shakawe Water Supply Shakawe 0.24 

TOTAL 3.84 

0.17

The total quantity of water currently abstracted by DWA Botswana in the <strong>Delta</strong> is therefore 

circa 3.84MCM per annum (0.04% mean annual flow) although this is predicted to rise to 

circa 11.04MCM per annum (0.1% mean annual inflow) by 2020-25. 

2.4.4 2.4.4 TOURISM 

2.4.4.1 Tourist Types in the ODRS 

Different tourist-types visiting Ngamiland District have been identified (Lillywhite and 

Lillywhite, 1991), and are differentiated by the prices that they pay for their holidays. 

High Cost 

These are tourists who stay at a permanent camp (normally operated by a private camp 

operator). The high cost tourists usually pay an expensive package in advance and are 

generally confined to more luxurious Safari operators and they are mostly from Europe, 

America, New Zealand and Australia. 

Mobile Safari 

They are the second most important category after the ‘High Cost` tourists for Ngamiland 

District. They stay in private, public or HATAB (Hospitality and Tourism Association of 

Botswana) campsites. 

Independent Low Cost 

The independent travellers (low cost tourists) are basically dependent on their resources 

when they are touring, and do not normally form part of an organized tour group. These 

independent travellers, usually, do not pay a package price before entering Botswana, and 

generally, they use public facilities e.g. campsites run by DWNP in protected areas. They 

are termed ‘low cost’ because normally they incur low expenditure while touring the 

District. Such tourists mostly come from the neighbouring countries of South Africa, 

Zimbabwe and Namibia. 

Day Visitors 

A tourist who does not spend the night in a collective or private accommodation in the 

place visited is termed a ‘day visitor’. Their overall expenditure is very low compared to 

previously discussed categories. 

2.4.4.2 Tourism Facilities in Ngamiland 

The Department of Tourism licensing list shows a number of 201 operators (camps, lodges, 

hotels, Mobile operators, and travel agencies) in Ngamiland District. These are shown in 

Table 2-10. 

51

Table 2-10: Tourism Enterprise Licensed Facilities and their licensing categories in Ngamiland 

Type of Operators Licensing Category Description of activities Numbers 

Hotels, motels, guest 

houses and apartments 

52 

A Operations that offer facilities on-site only 

(accommodation). These are mostly based in Maun 

Camps and lodges B Operations that offer facilities on and off site (e.g. 

accommodation and game drives, boat trips etc). 

These are mostly based in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and its 

environs 

Mobile Safaris C Operations that offer facilities off site only, such as 

safari or tour operators, and any enterprise that 

receives and transports travelers and guests, providing 

them with sleeping accommodation and food & 

beverages in equipment that is not geographically 

fixed. 

Travel Agencies D Operations that act as agents only. These operators 

are mainly based in Maun. 

Source: DoT, (2005) 

2.4.4.3 Ownership of tourism operations in Ngamiland 

Table 2-11 gives ownership of facilities as per the Department of Tourism Licensing list. 

Table 2-11: Ownership of tourism facilities in Ngamiland 

Ownership Numbers Percentage 

Citizen 62 30.8% 

Jointly 59 29.4% 

Non-Citizen 80 39.8% 

Total 201 100% 

Source: DoT, (2005) 

Note: Information reflected in Table 2-12 excludes citizen turnover proportions since the data is not available. 

2.4.4.4 Tourism Activities 

The tourism activities in the ODRS comprises game viewing, bird watching, mekoro trails, 

recreational fishing, hunting and mobile safaris. 

Game viewing 

The ODRS is endowed with wildlife resources. The wildlife populations include elephants, 

buffalo, lion, leopard, hippos, giraffe, red lechwe, crocodiles and in some areas sitatunga, 

antelopes, etc. This activity is normally undertaken by walking, 4 wheel drive vehicles and 

boats. 

Bird Watching 

Lagoons, lush waterways, floodplains, fast and slow moving waters provide a haven for bird 

species. Bird life is at its peak during spring and summer months (from October to 

March)(TLB, 2005). The bird species which normally attract tourists include white backed 

Night Heron, Bat Hawk, Wood Owl, Afican Skimmer and Bee Eater, Swamp Boubou, black 

breasted snake eagle, pygmy goose, wattle cranes, slaty egret, rufousbellied heroen, 

amongst others. 

12 

107 

71 

11

Recreational fishing 

There are a number of fishing camps in the <strong>Delta</strong> in addition to some safari camps and 

lodges which offer fishing as part of the tourist packages. The most popular recreational 

fishing species is the tiger fish which is the world’s largest fresh water fighting fish and the 

tilapia. 

Hunting Safaris 

There are some Controlled Hunting Areas which offer hunting. The Department of Wildlife 

and National Parks (DWNP) issues off-take quotas annually for each of these CHAs. 

Mekoro trails 

This activity is offered by most camps which are located in the central parts and margins of 

the <strong>Delta</strong>. These are CBOs which conduct mekoro trails such as <strong>Okavango</strong> Polers Trust and 

<strong>Okavango</strong> Kopano Mokoro Community Trust. 

Mobile Safaris 

They normally drive or fly from Maun in the morning into various parts of the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> during the day, and come back in the evening. The activity includes game viewing, 

bird watching etc. 

2.4.4.5 Revenue Generated By Tourism 

Revenue collected by category user 

Table 2-12 depicts the revenue generated by the different tourism users of Moremi Game 

Reserve, where adequate data is available. As compared to 2003 whereby a total of P17 021 

578.50 was collected. Twenty seven percent (27%) of the money is from private visitors, 

28% Mobile, 40% Fixed camps/lodges and 5% (Parks and Reserves Reservation Office, 

(PARRO)). 

Table 2-12: Revenue by Category Of User (Moremi Game Reserve) 

Category Moremi Game Reserve (BWP) 

Private 2 202 995.50 

Mobile 1 644 850 

Fixed Accommodation 2 470 496 

Parks Revenue and Reservation Office (PARRO) 504 495 

Total 6 822 836.50 

Source: PARRO, 2004 

2.4.5 2.4.5 HUNTING 

Hunting activities include safari and citizen hunting. The hunting safari entails trophy 

hunting for species such as elephant, lion and leopard; plains game hunting; bird shooting; 

and specialised hunting by professional hunters through licenses issued by DNWP. 

Hunting Safaris is a major source of revenue earner for the Government in Ngamiland 

District. Revenues collected in this sector between 1999 and 2003 have progressively been 

on the increase, with P4, 514,573.40 collected in 2003. Sale of ivory and trophies fetched 

P14, 555,000.70 in 1999. Adherence to CITES has limited the culling of elephants and 

consequently the sale of ivory. 

53

2.4.6 2.4.6 FISHING 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> fishery consists of three categories of fisheries, viz; subsistence, 

commercial and Sport/Recreational fisheries (Tweddle, D. et al, 2003). 

2.4.6.1 Subsistence fishing 

This activity involves fishing at subsistence level. However, where excess fish is caught it 

may be sold. This activity is characterized by seasonality, involvement of large numbers of 

women and children, low investment levels and simple fishing technology such as 

traditional fishing gear (spears, traps, baskets). 

2.4.6.2 Commercial fishing 

The commercial fishery is characterized by the use of modern fishing gear such as powered 

boats, gill-nets, refrigeration facilities and also the catching of fish mainly for sale. The 

freezer facilities led to the establishment of centrally located marketing centres easily 

accessible for buyers of fish. The origins of the sector can be ascribed to the introduction of 

Financial Assistance Schemes in the 1980s that gave generous fishing grants to fishers. 

Fish catch composition in the gill-net commercial fishery is mainly dominated by Cichlid 

species (Tilapia/Bream), Clariid species (Catfishes), Hydrocynus (Tigerfish) and Schilbe 

(Silver catfish). Cichlids are the most preferred species at the market, hence fishers always 

target them. The commercial fishers target mainly the large bream species that have high 

economic value and also are the most preferred at the market. 

Table 2-13 gives indicative figures of revenue generated from fish production at 

Samochima. Despite the fact that fish is an important resource, it has not attracted 

adequate level of investment in terms of the development of the sector at both national and 

district level. According to DDP 5, the sector was allocated P200 000.00 between 1997 and 

2003 for the development in Ngamiland. This is 0.1% of the total budget for the agriculture 

in the district. Therefore such low level of investment inhibits the fish resources to 

contribute meaningfully to the economy of the district. Indications from recent studies 

(Mosepele 2000 and Tweedle et al., 2003) are that the current off-take levels are within the 

sustainable use levels, however thorough analysis through the ODMP fish stock 

assessments will confirm these findings. 

Table 2-13 : Fish production and revenue collection figures for Boiteko syndicate 

(Samochima): 1999-2005 (DWNP, 2005) 

YEAR WEIGHT (KG) AMOUNT (PULA) LEVY 

1999 15 324.7 121 935.40 P6 141.95 

2000 16 339.8 179 737.80 P7 829.40 

2001 10 221.6 112 437.6 P5 133.43 

2002 9 648.9 106 137.90 P4 035.43 

2003 9 420.7 97 111.70 P4 855.60 

2004 8 750.3 93 474.40 P4 673.70 

2005 7 651.8 91 821.60 P4 244.95 

TOTAL 77 357.8 802 656.4 36 914.46 

54

2.4.6.3 Recreational/sport fishing 

In the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> angling is mainly carried out by fishing camps established in the 

<strong>Delta</strong>. It is characterized by the use of a fishing rod for catching fish. The anglers target 

the largest fish especially bream and tigerfish species. In most cases sport fishers exercise 

a “catch and release” technique whereby small fish are released alive into the river (Tweddle 

et al, 2003). 

Sport fishing has a great potential in bringing considerable income into the country and 

also in providing employment to communities in the vicinity of the fishing camps. 

2.4.7 2.4.7 LANDSCAPE, AESTHETIC AND CULTURAL HERITAGE SITES 

Some significant tourist attraction sites in the ODRS include <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, Tsodilo Hills, 

Moremi Game Reserve, Gchwihaba caves, Aha Hills and Maun Village (see figure 2-13). 

These are described in detail in NDSS (2004). 

Figure 2-13: Map showing landscapes, cultural and aesthetic sites 

2.4.7.1 <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

55 

Map Name: 

Ngamiland Basemap 

Description: 

Created On: 

04-Jan-2008 14:17:09 

Created By: 

Constance Masalila 

LEGEND: 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> is one of the world’s leading tourism attractions with its unique biodiversity 

and scenic attributes. The <strong>Delta</strong>’s ecological and social functions are dependent on floods 

that are characterized by large variations resulting in permanent, seasonal and 

intermittently flooded areas.

2.4.7.2 Tsodilo Hills World Heritage Site (TH-WHS) 

The Tsodilo hills are found some 50km west of Sepopa Village in the District. They rise up 

to a height of 410m above the Kalahari sand plains. The site was nominated on the world 

heritage list in 2001 as a cultural site, under criterion i, iii and iv. 

At present, the Tsodilo Hills site is inhabited by two communities, namely the 

Hambukushu (Bantu) and the !Kung (San), both of which are either descendants or 

relatives of the people who were using the Hills approximately more than 150 years back 

(Campbell et al. 1994). The hills are of significant spiritual and cultural value to the San 

and Hambukushu, but more so for the latter whose ancestors are believed to have executed 

the paintings found on the rocks today. Both the Hambukushu and the !Kung San, have 

traditional beliefs associated with the site. The hills are sacred and are considered the 

resting place for the spirits of the dead and the home of their various gods. Archaeological 

studies have revealed that this area has been occupied by humans for the past 100, 000 

years. 

The most spectacular feature of the Tsodilo site is its rock art, concentrated in the site’s 

three main inselbergs. A date of 1.5 million years has been attributed to the rocks (Brooks 

et. al. 1992). The rock paintings are unique from other sites in southern Africa in the style 

of their paintings in that they appear in minimally sheltered overhangs as opposed to 

sheltered paintings in Matopo (Zimbabwe) and Drankensburg (South Africa). There are red 

and white paintings. The red paintings mainly depict wild animals and are associated to the 

San while the white mainly depicts domestic animals and are associated with the early 

farmers. Archaeological evidence indicates that the hunter-gatherer life appears to be 

continuous through time rather than abruptly changed (Robbins 1990; Campbell et. al 

1994) 

As a tourist attraction site, the four inselbergs are the only outstanding features in the 

almost flat topography of the desert. The access road to the site has been upgraded and 

facilities such as interpretation centre, camping sites, ablution blocks, and availability tour 

guides from members of the community have improved the condition of the site (Keitumetse 

2005). The Tsodilo management plan that was produced in 1994 has been revised and a 

recent one, 2005, adopted. The plan outlines a monitoring programme that spells out 

targets and Limits for Acceptable Change (pg 56) for the site. The Tsodilo <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> 

has been adopted as part of the ODMP. It also spells out an implementation plan which can 

be assessed against the ODMP implementation strategy. In addition, as a world heritage 

site Tsodilo is protected under the 1972 UNESCO <strong>Convention</strong> for the Protection of the World 

Cultural and Natural Heritage. 

2.4.7.3 Moremi Game Reserve 

Approximately 20% of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> area lies within the Moremi Game Reserve and is 

protected under the 1992 National Parks Act. The Moremi Game Reserve covers 4, 871 km2 and forms part of the eastern corner/section of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, and is often described 

as one of the most beautiful wildlife reserves in Africa. A mixture of mopane woodland and 

Acacia forests, floodplains and lagoons characterize the Reserve. The high diversity of plant 

and animal life of the Moremi Game Reserve is typical of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 

2.4.7.4 Gchwihaba Caves 

This is certainly one of the wildest and remotest of all tourist destinations in Botswana. 

Gchwihaba Caves are situated some 50km south east of Aha Hills on undulating Kalahari 

sand dunes. Inside the caves are linked passages and caverns that exist on two levels; one 

56

aised several meters above the other, with spectacular rock formations, flowstones, 

stalactites, inlets, hallways apertures and fossil (frozen) waterfalls. The caves are home to a 

large bat population. 

2.4.7.5 Maun Village 

Maun Village, established in 1915 as the tribal capital of the Batawana people, is currently 

considered the tourism capital of Botswana. Most tourists entering Ngamiland District do 

so through Maun Village, which is the gateway to the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and Moremi Game 

Reserve. Maun is also headquarters of countless safari and air-charter operations whose 

presence in the district enhances tourism facilities. Maun hosts a population of 43 

776inhabitants, and is spread out along the wide banks of the Thamalakane River, where 

wildlife species can still be seen grazing along side domestic livestock (donkeys, goats and 

cattle). 

One major attraction, which is particularly given little attention by many researchers, is the 

culture and traditions of the Batawana. Foreign tourists are fascinated by the Batswana 

traditions in general. The traditional architecture (e.g. mud and reed huts) is an attraction 

on its own. 

2.4.7.6 Maun Educational Park 

Maun Educational Park is yet another area of interest found in Maun and managed by the 

Department of Wildlife and National Parks, covering an area of 198.5 hectares of woodland 

along the Thamalakane River bank. It is located on the eastern bank of the Thamalakane 

River and provides school pupils with an appreciation of wildlife and flora. There are four 

walking trails and game hides within the centre, where wildlife species such as wildebeest, 

impala, giraffe, zebra, and warthog can be watched or viewed. 

2.4.7.7 Nhabe Museum 

The museum outlines the natural history and culture of the diverse north west of 

Botswana, and is housed in a historic building built by the British military in 1939, and 

used during World War II as a surveillance post against the German presence in Namibia. It 

presents wildlife exhibits and cultural artefacts from around northwestern Botswana. The 

North West District Council and other stakeholders are in the process of initiating the 

establishment of a cultural village, which will be centred on a craft market. 

2.4.8 2.4.8 AGRICULTURE 

2.4.8.1 Livestock <strong>Management</strong> 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> site contains at least 193 997 cattle, 98 975 goats, 16 000 sheep, 7 

276 horses and 12 179 donkeys (DAHP livestock census, 2005). All the above species 

subsist largely from the forage supplied by the <strong>Delta</strong> since the type of production system 

practiced is wholly extensive. Distribution of livestock is dependent on water and Mogau 

(Dichapetulum cymosum). The sector experienced a reduction livestock population in 1996 

when all cattle were slaughtered during the outbreak of Contagious Bovine Pleuro 

Pneumonia (CBPP). However, re-stocking was effected in 1997. 

57

2.4.8.2 Arable Farming 

Arable farming is an important source of livelihood for communities in the ODRS (Scott 

Wilson, 2001). There are two distinct arable farming practices in the ODRS. These are 

molapo (flood recession) and dryland farming. The dryland farming system is practised 

inland and is highly dependent on rainfall while molapo is carried out along river beds and 

is dependent on flood waters. 

The predominant crop in the molapo farming system in Ngamiland West is maize while 

sorghum and millet is grown in the dryland. In Ngamiland East, maize is grown in the 

western part while sorghum is predominant in the eastern part. Crop yields per hactare are 

higher in the molapo system than in the dryland because of the fertile soils in the river 

beds and flood plains and have high moisture content due to floods. 

Dryland farming is common with the Hambukushu tribe while molapo farming is practiced 

by the Bayei. 

2.4.9 2.4.9 VEGETATION USE (HARVESTING) 

According to the socio-economic survey of the Every River Has its People Project of 2001 in 

20 villages within the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site, ten vegetation resources form the basis for rural 

household livelihoods viz palm shoots for basket weaving, grass, reeds, water lilies, 

assorted wild fruits, veld products, trees for woodcarving, trees for building and fencing, 

trees for firewood and lastly edible papyrus shoots. These activities are reflected in Figure 

2-14. 

In terms of the wild fruits important tree species are Berchemia discolor (Motsentsela), 

Strychnos cocculoides (Mogorogorwana), Ximenia spp (Moretologa), Diospyros mespiliformis 

(Mokutshumo), Phoenix reclinata (Tsaro) and Garcinia livingstonei (Motsaudi). 

58 

No. of Villages 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Grass Carving 

Trees 

Reeds Basketry Veld 

Prdts 

Vegetation Resource 

Lilies Poles Firewood Wild 

Fruits 

Papyrus 

Figure 2-14: Vegetation resources use by village (Adapted from socio-ecological survey report, 

Every River has Its People Project, 2001) 

2.4.10 2.4.10 WASTE MANAGEMENT 

The main generators of solid and liquid waste are households, tourism operations, 

institutions and commercial enterprises. It is estimated that the solid waste generation rate 

for the entire ODRS is 0.39kg/capita/day with the majority of it (72%) coming from 

households. There are a variety of primary storage containers currently in use including 

backyards pits, refuse bags, galvanised metal bins with lid, pole mounted bins and

predator proof bins. Secondary storage is provided through skips in major settlements and 

transfer stations in small villages. 

Most households do not use waterborne sanitation systems. The majority of waste water 

comes from institutions, commercial enterprises and tourism operations, and is collected 

and treated through septic tanks and soak away system. 

2.5 RESEARCH AND DATA MANAGEMENT 

2.5.1 AVAILABLE INFORMATION AND DATA 

The available data categories include boundaries, climate, culture, demographics, ecology, 

environmental hazards, flora, fauna, soils, transportation, hydrology, land use, geology, 

landforms and geodetic features. These have been included into the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

Information System (ODIS). 

Information about the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and other planning processes (models from other 

wetland areas) available in the HOORC library include consultants’ reports, news and 

media reports, government documents and records, journal articles, web sites of 

institutions, online bibliographic databases and clearinghouses, aerial photographs, books, 

herbarium, archival sources such as records in the Peter Smith collection and an online 

catalogue of the UB library. 

The HOORC Library has a weblog service which is updated on a daily basis about new 

documents acquired and catalogued. 

2.5.2 RESEARCH 

Limited research has been undertaken under the three broad categories at both <strong>Delta</strong> wide 

and local scales (ODMP Research Strategy 2006) and these are physical and chemical 

(hydrological) processes and features; ecological processes linking habitats to populations 

of specific organisms; and social and economic processes that exploit or derive benefits 

from the ecosystem. The following is an extract from the ODMP Research Strategy 2006 

which contextualises the role of research within the context of management of the 


In the past, many studies were carried out on social, economic, ecological and management 

topics related to the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. These studies extended the collective understanding 

of the structure, functioning, and composition of the ecosystem components in the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, and broadened knowledge of the ways in which local communities rely on 

the system for livelihoods. However, the understanding of the different ways in which the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> system responds to changes in the external driving forces (principally 

related to climatic and hydrological features) and patterns of natural resource exploitation 

(driven mainly by ecological and social processes) remains incomplete. This is due to the 

fact that earlier studies followed individual research agendas, rather than forming part of a 

comprehensive and carefully co-ordinated research programme. This has obvious 

implications for the way that research is conducted in future, and presents a challenge to 

the Government of Botswana who must manage the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and maintain the 

ecological integrity of its ecosystems. 

Effective implementation of the ODMP will need information from two interdependent kinds 

of research. Neither type of research is very useful to managers when considered alone, nor 

59

can the correct management questions be asked without the deeper understanding 

providedby more basic research. The two types of research are: 

• First, a thorough understanding is needed of the full range of physical, chemical, 

ecological, socio-economic, and political factors that influence the interactions within 

and between society and ecosystem components. This requires basic research in many 

different fields such as: hydrology, climatology, ecosystem functioning, agriculture, and 

social dependency patterns, supported by knowledge of issues such as: culture, ethics, 

economics, governance and livelihood strategies. 

• Secondly, effective implementation of the ODMP requires directed, management 

orientated research that answers focused ‘cause and effect’ questions. These questions 

address issues such as: interactions between external driving forces in the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

catchment; the distribution and abundance of natural resources in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>; 

the patterns of resource use; the requirements of society; and the ecological and 

economic implications of different resource use patterns. 

While both types of research are necessary for the ODMP, it is very important to ensure 

that the ‘mix’ of research types is properly balanced to suit management needs. Often, the 

relevance of long-term research studies within the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is not immediately 

apparent. But, when the managers pose questions that require specific answers for 

decision-making, these answers will need to be based on a sound fundamental or 

‘academic’ understanding. Typically, these types of ‘academic’ or ‘background’ studies are 

undertaken by university scholars, such as those at HOORC. However, all academic 

researchers have a wider responsibility to demonstrate that their work can guide and 

inform more directly applied research that must answer the types of questions posed by the 

ODMP. 

The research will only be truly useful for its intended purpose if the research results 

(outputs) are converted into appropriate management outcomes. In essence, these are: 

better informed and better targeted management of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site, which 

will enhance the livelihoods of all stakeholders while simultaneously conserving the natural 

resources of the system in perpetuity. 

While research seeks to understand the characteristics of a particular situation and identify 

the key factor(s) involved, management must follow up with the desired action. However, it 

is also important to track the success or failure of the implementation process once a 

decision has been taken to implement a management action. In simple terms, management 

has three fundamental objectives: (i) focussed action; (ii) monitoring and evaluation of that 

action; and then (iii) adaptive change if the action does not produce the desired result 

(adaptive management” cycle). 

2.6 CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES – HIV AND AIDS, GENDER AND 

POVERTY 

Fundamental to the ODMP is the incorporation of elements of Gender, Poverty, HIV and 

AIDS. 

2.6.1 HIV AND AIDS 

According to the recent Botswana AIDS Impact Survey (BAIS II) (Central Statistics Office, 

2004), the national HIV prevalence rate is 17% with disaggregated data indicating that 

different districts experience different prevalence rates. The HIV and AIDS prevalence in 

Ngamiland district is about 15%. 

60

According to 2001 census, the population of Ngamiland was approximately 124 712 (see 

Table 2-1) of which seventy six percent (91 978) was based in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> area, 

(Meyer et. al., 2006). During the inter-censal decades, 1981 – 1991, 1991 – 2001, the 

population of Ngamiland increased by 3.3 % and 2.8 % respectively. The reduction of the 

population growth rate from 3.3% to 2.8% is partly attributed to HIV and AIDS (Majelantle, 

2003). 

According to the Botswana AIDS Impact Survey of 2004, the HIV prevalence rate amongst 

pregnant women in Ngamiland was; 35.3 %, 40.7% and 40.9% for the years of 2001, 2002 

and 2003 respectively. The disaggregated prevalence rate (year ??) by age was as follows: 

15-19 yrs = 26.0 % 

20-24 yrs =37.2 % 

25-29 yrs =48.7% 

30-34 yrs = 40.4 % 

35-39 yrs = 41.4 % 

2.6.2 GENDER 

According to the 2001 Botswana Population and Housing Census, Botswana’s population is 

about 1.7 million. Within the Ngamiland district, the population is 121 924 and out of this 

there are 58 199 males and 63 725 females, of which 36 833 are rural women (57.8 %). 

Livelihood activities for females are arable farming , fishing and gathering of veld products, 

formal and informal employment whereas males are into pastoral farming, fishing and 

employment (formal and informal) as means of livelihood. The responsibilities for livelihood 

are traditionally determined. This has resulted in women being over-represented among the 

poor. Most people in rural areas depend on natural resources for livelihood and the 

majority are women. 

2.6.3 POVERTY 

Ngamiland is the poorest district in the country and largely rural (C.S.O., 2003). The 

district presents a multi-ethnic setting with a diversity of cultures and ethnic groups that 

pursue different livelihoods and use resources differently. 

Large parts of the district’s population still depend directly on the utilisation of natural 

resources of the <strong>Delta</strong> for subsistence. Fishing, hunting, livestock grazing, floodplain 

cultivation and collection of veld products and raw materials for building, fuel, and the 

production of handicrafts are important elements of the local economy. 

Arable agriculture is practised in Ngamiland mainly at a subsistence level, as soils and 

climate are generally not well suited for crop production. At the fringes of the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> small-scale flood recession farming (molapo) is practiced locally. The grazing 

resources are generally good in the dry land areas. However, the availability of water and 

the occurrence of tsetse fly close to the <strong>Delta</strong> has, in the past, restricted the development of 

the livestock. 

In the period 93/94, poverty rates in rural Ngamiland were about 17 %, (Ellis 2000). In 

1995, there was an outbreak of cattle lung disease. This disease eroded the economic base 

of most farmers in the ODRS and increased poverty rates from 17 % in the period 93/94 to 

43 % in the period 2002/03 (CSO 2003). 

61

2.7 TOTAL ECONOMIC VALUE 

Total Economic Value (TEV) of the <strong>Delta</strong> was considered in terms of the values generated by 

direct use of the delta’s resources (direct use values), the values generated offsite and 

indirectly as a result of the delta’s economical services (indirect use values), and the values 

associated with preservation of the delta’s resources (non-use values). Direct use value was 

analysed in most detail and was measured in several ways. These included gross output, 

the contribution to national product (= gross value added) and the economic resource rent 

generated by each use (ODMP - Economic Valuation Report, 2006). The direct use values 

were calculated from both secondary sources and field surveys The direct use values were 

estimated for both the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site as a whole as well as specifically for the wetland 

system. 

In deriving the values of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> goods and services, the ODRS was divided into 

zones based on consideration of settlement patterns, land use and natural resource 

characteristics. The five zones are the Panhandle, the west, the southwest, the southeast 

and the central parts of the ORDS (Figure 2-15). 

The Panhandle zone is characterised by the lack of floodplain area, the high numbers of 

settlements along the river, and the relatively high density and accessibility of fish and 

aquatic plant resources. There is little opportunity for recession agriculture (molapo 

farming). The west zone lies to the west of the <strong>Delta</strong> proper, and people living here have 

access to wetland and floodplain resources, including molapo farming areas. 

# 

# 

# 

Figure 2-15: Economic valuation zones 

The southwest zone is relatively arid and sparsely populated. Its settlements follow what 

was formerly the outer margin of the <strong>Delta</strong>, but these are now far from the wetland and 

floodplain areas. The southeast area covers Maun and is relatively far from the main 

wetland areas, but does have reasonable access to some of the distributaries and floodplain 

areas. 

62 

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Central 

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The central zone is largely delineated on the basis of the buffalo fence and has wildlife as 

the main land use. This zone encompasses most of the wetland area, and there is very little 

upland area. While dominated by the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, it also includes the Linyanti-Chobe 

wetland areas on the north eastern border of the study area. There are very few people 

living in this zone, in a few scattered villages as well as in association with some of the 

larger tourist camps. 

2.7.1 DIRECT USE VALUES 

In the <strong>Delta</strong>, direct use values are generated through crop production, livestock grazing, 

fishing, wild plant use and hunting. They are also generated through consumptive 

(hunting) and non-consumptive (wildlife viewing) tourism. Rather than separating 

consumptive and non-consumptive value, as conventionally done within the total economic 

value framework, household use (largely consumptive) and tourism use (both consumptive 

and non-consumptive) have been separated for ease of analysis. All values are in Pula for 

2005 (in that year 1 Pula was worth 0,19 US$) 

2.7.1.1 Household use of natural resources 

In the <strong>Delta</strong>, direct use values are generated through crop production, livestock grazing, 

fishing, wild plant use and hunting. They are also generated through consumptive 

(hunting) and non-consumptive (wildlife viewing) tourism. Rather than separating 

consumptive and non-consumptive value, as conventionally done within the total economic 

value framework, household use (largely consumptive) and tourism use (both consumptive 

and non-consumptive) have been separated for ease of analysis. The values for direct use 

activities were estimated in private and economic terms (see below). These activities, 

resulting from the use of the delta’s and the wetland’s resources, contribute directly to the 

national product of Botswana. They also impact on the broader national product indirectly 

through the multiplier effect. These multipliers and the indirect impact were also calculated 

separately using the social accounting matrix (SAM) model for Botswana. Selected direct 

use values provided in tables below, do not include the broader direct impacts. All values 

are in Pula for 2005 (in that year 1 Pula was worth 0,19 US$) 

2.7.1.1 Household use of natural resources 

Households in the study area traditionally derive their livelihoods from a variety of sources 

(Rashem,1988): 

• gathering, hunting and fishing, 

• livestock 

• arable farming 

• crafts, and 

• the formal sector. 

This multi-sectoral livelihood system allows households to spread risk, so that there is 

something to fall back on in years of crop failure or livestock death. The livestock sector is 

by far the most important contributor to rural subsistence and cash income, although there 

is some concern that it cannot maintain this status due to population growth and 

degradation of pasture lands (Rashem 1988). 

Table 2-14 shows the direct private and economic values associated with household 

agricultural activities in the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site and the wetland. In the table, gross private value 

refers to the annual aggregate gross value of sales and own consumption for the activity, 

measured in market prices. Net private value refers to the annual aggregate profits for the 

63

household investors after deduction of production costs from the gross private value, also 

measured in market prices. This is the primary financial value sought. Cash income refers 

to that proportion of the net private value which is made up of cash (from sales). Gross 

output is the annual incremental contribution of the activity to the national gross output, 

measured in economic prices. Gross value added refers to the annual incremental 

contribution made by the household activity to the gross national product in terms of gross 

value added. This is the primary economic value sought. As stated, the economic values do 

not include any indirect impacts on the broader economy, due to the multiplier effect. 

Net private values amounting to P68 million are generated from the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site but only 

P2.1 million of these are attributable to the wetland itself. Most of the values generated are 

from livestock. The contribution of agricultural activities in the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site to the gross 

national product amounts to P43 million. P1.5 million of these are derived from the 

wetland. 

Table 2-14: Summary of the private and economic direct use values for agricultural activities 

in the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site and the wetland (in Pula, 2005) 

<strong>Ramsar</strong> Site 

64 

Gross 

private value 

Net private 

value 

Cash 

iincome 

Gross output Gross value 

added 

Crops – Molapo 2, 633 828 2, 191 651 225 542 2,765,519 1,368,763 

Crops – Dryland 5, 996,164 4,197,849 835,751 6,265,469 1,399,770 

Livestock – cattle 

posts 

Total crops 8, 29,992 6,389,500 1,061,293 9,030,989 2,768,533 

71,055,101 54,543,748 40,818,484 74,555,356 34,365,764 

Livestock – village 8,241,681 6,622,083 2,788,007 8,653,765 5,391,954 

Livestock total 79,246,782 61,165,831 43,606,492 83,209,121 39,757,628 

Total <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site 87,876,774 67,555,331 44,667,784 92,240,110 42,526,161 

Wetland 

Crops – Molapo 1,132,546 942,410 96,983 1,189,173 588,568 

Crops – Dryland - - - - - 

Livestock - Cattle 

posts 

Total Crops 1,132,546 942,410 96,983 1,189,173 588,568 

- - - - - 

Livestock – Village 1,604,947 1,205,482 391,050 1,685,195 869,980 

Livestock total 1,604,947 1,205,482 391,050 1,685,195 869,980 

Total Wetland 2,737,493 2,147,892 488,033 2,874,368 1,458,548 

Source: ODMP – Economic Valuation Report (2006) 

The direct private and direct economic use values derived from use of natural resources in the 

<strong>Ramsar</strong> site are summarized in 

Table 2-15. In total, households derive a net private value of about P27 million from natural 

resources harvesting and processing in the study area. These activities contribute P28 

million in gross value added to the gross national product.

Table 2-15: Summary of the total direct use values derived from natural resources use in the 

study area (in Pula, 2005) 

Aggregate values 

(Pula) 

65 

Gross private 

value 

Net private value Cash Income Gross economic 

output 

Gross value 

added 

Clay posts 151 416 149 492 - 158 987 157 833 

Upland grass 1 636 657 1 600 496 45 406 1 718 489 1 702 171 

Wetland grass 1 541 534 1 487 264 119 193 1 618 611 1 593 054 

Grass brooms 118 952 117 064 86 380 124 900 124 333 

Reeds 2 346 010 2 252 361 433 723 2 463 311 2 326 969 

Reed mats 6 999 6 776 3 181 7 349 7 290 

Reed fish gear 18 703 3 300 - 19 638 4 235 

Papyrus 24 851 16 6581 - 26 094 22 407 

Papyrus mats 106 154 105 531 46 626 111 461 111 297 

Palm leaves 1 792 090 1 787 837 5 331 1 881 695 1 878 505 

Palm products 1 513 400 1 508 336 1 345 705 1 589 070 1 587 731 

Wetland veg 43 579 43 579 12 756 45 758 45 758 

Wetland fruits 55 628 55 628 1 466 58 409 58 409 

Upland veg 1 084 129 1 084 129 117 700 1 138 335 1 138 335 

Upland fruits 221 755 221 755 77 372 232 842 232 842 

Fruits-based drinks 2 406 624 2 406 624 2 225 709 2 526 955 2 526 955 

Medicinal plants 281 882 277 730 55 322 295 976 291 616 

Firewood 8 822 904 8 581 022 787 548 9 264 049 8 911 897 

Poles and withies 1 794 388 1 681 222 21 329 1 884 108 1 727 193 

Timber 572 008 568 697 174 545 600 608 596 230 

Wood products 277 822 190 569 267 715 291 713 223 981 

Traditional fishing 726 079 657 883 70 661 762 382 759 349 

Modern fishing 2 315 803 2 007 637 1 310 092 2 431 593 2 399 054 

Honey 1 264 1 031 - 1 327 1 083 

Wild animals 357 843 125 494 - 375 735 -305 469 

Upland birds 707 014 481 706 23 602 742 364 66 441 

Wetland birds 168 763 -51 601 58 685 177 201 -483 890 

Total Upland 18 434 658 17 487 031 3 882 628 19 356 388 17 395 441 

Total Wetland 10 659 593 9 881 189 3 407 419 11 192 572 10 310 168 

TOTAL 29 094 247 27 368 220 7 290 048 30 548 960 27 705 608 


Table 2-16 summarizes the net private values associated with all household activities in the 

different zones of the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site, and it also shows the proportion of these values derived 

from the wetland. Overall, the <strong>Delta</strong> contributes 31% of the value gained from agriculture 

and natural resource use. It should be noted that there are also costs associated with the 

<strong>Delta</strong> that have not been quantified explicitly, but which are accounted for in the above 

values. These include the transmission of disease and predation on livestock, and the loss 

of crops to wild animals (Barnes, 2006).

Table 2-16: Summary of the annual private values associated with household natural 

resources use and agricultural activities in the five zones of the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site and the 

contribution of the wetland itself (in Pula, 2005) 

66 

Pan-handle West South West South East Central TOTAL 

Upland resources 4 455 802 2 647 276 1 603 807 7 818 836 1 439 804 17 965 525 

Livestock 9 507 254 17 071 621 9 407 181 25 142 602 37 173 61 165 831 

Upland crops 1 797 892 332 514 319 151 1 733 447 - 4 183 004 

Molapo crops 43 375 1 350 992 129 373 644 534 23 377 2 191 651 

Wetland plants 2 727 891 1 554 821 91 199 2 834 808 63 856 7 272 574 

Fish 2 253 711 20 766 10 639 263 441 116 963 2 665 520 

Wetland birds 8 860 18 073 -9 558 -68 976 - -51 601 

Total <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site 20 794 735 22 996 062 11 551 793 38 368 692 1 681 173 95 392 505 

Total from wetland 5 009 113 14 978 302 147 910 9 592 073 190 871 29 918 270 


2.7.1.2 Tourism economic value 

Three methods were used to estimate turnover in the tourist industry attributable to the 

<strong>Delta</strong> and the average value was used. The first two were based on the estimated relative 

size of each enterprise, and the third was based on estimated occupancy rates. 

Tourism in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site is estimated to generate direct output of P1 

115 million, and directly contributes some P401 million to the GDP (Table 2-17). These 

results represent the gross output (turnover) and the gross value added (GDP contribution) 

resulting from turnover generated by tourism in the study area. They represent the direct 

first-round expenditures of tourists on tourism facilities, as well as associated linkages (see 

below).They do not include any indirect impacts, which also result in the broader economy, 

from these tourism expenditures due to the multiplier effect. 

Table 2-17: Estimated value of annual gross output and gross value added in the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong>-based tourism industry using three methods, and average value used in this study 

(in P million, 2005) 

Method 1 

Gross output / Gross Value added 

Method 2 

Gross output / Gross 

value added 

Method 3 

Gross output / 

Gross value added 

Average 

Gross output / 

Gross value added 

Non-consumptive tourism 910.8 320.7 853.0 340.8 935.3 270.4 899.7 310.6 

Hunting tourism 151.5 58.1 170.9 77.9 195.2 65.5 172.5 67.2 

CBNRM tourism 20.9 12.7 46.1 20.0 53.3 17.7 40.1 16.8 

TOTAL 1 093.6 403.5 1 070.0 442.9 1 183.8 356.5 1 115.8 401.0 


Table 2-18 and Table 2-19 show average values of the gross output, gross value added 

(gross national product contribution) and economic resource rent produced in <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong>-based tourism broken down by type of product. The products are the different 

services that tourists visiting the <strong>Delta</strong> spend money on, and include accommodation and 

various linked services. The tables show values for the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site as a whole as well as for 

the wetland part of the site only. It can be seen that the wetland produced some 90% of the 

GNP contribution of the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site as a whole.

Table 2-18: Estimated direct gross output, direct contribution to the gross national product 

and the economic natural resource rent produced as a result of tourism activities in the 

<strong>Ramsar</strong> site (in 1000 Pula, 2005) 

RAMSAR SITE Direct use values 

Tourism accommodation 

67 

Direct 

gross output 

Direct GNP 

Contribution 

Natural 

Resource rent 

Lodges/Camps (non-consumptive) 445 580 209 460 102 480 

Camps (trophy hunting) 103 190 56 890 29 930 

Mobile & self-drive safaris 93 290 43 230 18 660 

Guest houses, B&Bs, motels 19 660 12 240 4 520 

Hotels 13 640 6 170 2 860 

Tourism linked activities 

Restaurants/bars (independent) 110 180 15 930 7 710 

Transport (air charter, airline, road) 105 480 17 980 8 440 

Travel agents, guiding services 47 220 9 470 4 250 

Shopping 166 590 24 270 11 660 

Additional CBNRM income 10 980 5 330 1 100 

TOTAL RAMSAR SITE TOURISM 1 115 810 400 970 191 610 


Table 2-19: Estimated direct gross output, direct contribution to the gross national product 

and the economic natural resource rent produced as a result of tourism activities in the 

wetland (in 1000 Pula, 2005) 

WETLAND Direct use values Direct gross output 

Tourism accommodation 

Direct GNP 

Contribution Natural Resource rent 

Lodges/Camps (non-consumptive) 422 340 198 520 97 140 

Camps (trophy hunting) 73 200 40 290 21 230 

Mobile & self-drive safaris 88 340 40 940 17 670 

Guest houses, B&Bs, motels 18 180 11 330 4 180 

Hotels 12 320 5 510 2 590 

Tourism linked activities 

Restaurants/bars (independent) 99 470 14 390 6 960 

Transport (air charter, airline, road) 95 170 16 230 7 610 

Travel agents, guiding services 43 730 9 090 3 940 

Shopping 150 460 21 940 10 530 

Additional CBNRM income 9 330 4 530 930 

TOTAL FOR WETLAND TOURISM 1 012 530 362 760 172 780 

Source: ODMP – Economic Valuation Report (2006)

2.7.2 INDIRECT USE VALUES 

In this study, the indirect use values are based on the regeneration function (breeding and 

biodiversity), absorption function (water purification, waste assimilation and CO2 

sequestration) and information function (ecosystem as an indicator of environmental 

change as well as role for scientific research and education) (ODMP – Economic Valuation 

Report, 2006). 

The most important indirect use values in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> are groundwater recharge, 

wildlife nursery/breeding, carbon sequestration, water purification and research and 

education. 

The results of the estimated indirect use values are given in Table 2-20. Given the large 

number of assumptions that had to be made, the estimated figures are indicative. The 

indirect use value of the wetland is estimated to be P199 million, compared to P230 million 

for the entire <strong>Ramsar</strong> site. Carbon sequestration accounts for the largest component of the 

indirect use value followed by wildlife refuge, scientific and educational value, groundwater 

recharge and water purification. The wetland is critical to the indirect use value, as can be 

seen from the much higher indirect use value: the average IUV per ha is about P69 for the 

wetland and P41 for the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site as a whole. 

Table 2-20: Summary of estimated indirect use values for the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site and the wetland (in 

Pula, 2005) 

Service Wetland 

68 

Rest of <strong>Ramsar</strong> site Whole <strong>Ramsar</strong> site 

Groundwater recharge 16 million 0 16 million 

Carbon sequestration 86 million 72 million 158 million 

Wildlife refuge 77 million 0 77 million 

Water purification 2.2 million 0 2.2 million 

Scientific and educational value 18 million 6 million 24 million 

Total 199.2 million 78 million 230.2 million 

Area 28 782 km2 26 765 km2 55 547 km2 

Average per ha /year 69 29 41 


The results show that carbon sequestration and wildlife refuge are the most valuable 

indirect uses accounting together for over eighty percent of the indirect use value of the 

wetland and <strong>Ramsar</strong> site. The scientific and educational value is significant, and exceeds 

that of groundwater recharge and water purification. The wetland and <strong>Ramsar</strong> site is a 

major focal point for research, documentaries and education. 

2.7.3 NON USE VALUES 

Non-use values can be separated into option value, bequest value and existence value. 

Option value is the ‘future use value” that could be derived from the area, but which as yet 

has to be realised. Maintaining biodiversity is believed to retain the option to generate yet 

unknown values in future. These values could be, for example, from the exploitation of 

hitherto unexploited species, the discovery of important genetic material of use in the 

pharmaceutical industry, or the future tourism or development potential of the area. It is 

not possible to measure option value, since no-one can predict the future, but it is 

important to bear this in mind as a potential opportunity cost of degradation.

Existence value is the appreciation people derive from the knowledge that something exists, 

while bequest value is the value derived from knowing that one’s children will be able to 

enjoy something in the future. 

The growing popularity of the environmental movement indicates the substantial worth of 

biodiversity, particularly verified by people’s willingness to donate to help protect species 

and ecosystems they have never, and will never, directly interact with. The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

contains noteworthy biodiversity, although it is not particularly well endowed with 

endemicity. Perhaps the greatest attribute of the <strong>Delta</strong> in this regard is its extent and 

intactness as a wilderness area. Anything that impinges on this pristineness is likely to 

affect the utility derived by people from this area. 

Value may also be placed on the intactness of traditional peoples and practices. Much of 

the traditional culture persists and is a source of pride. Degradation of the wetland and its 

resources might ultimately lead to an element of cultural decay. This decay may result 

from the loss of traditional plants for food and medicine, for example. Other more abstract 

impacts may result from the breakdown of gender roles without re-enforcement of such 

activities as hunting and collecting or a widening rich-poor disparity. 

Estimating the existence value (including bequest value) of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> would 

require a substantial undertaking, involving the use of contingent valuation, a survey based 

method (Arrow et al. 1993). It would involve eliciting a willingness to pay from all those 

who derive such utility from the area. Since the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is of world renown, this 

should ideally be a global study. It is probable that the existence value among the 

international community far exceeds that of Botswana nationals’ existence value of the 

<strong>Delta</strong>, or their ‘willingness to pay’ for its continued existence. 

The measurement of existence value was beyond the scope of this study. However, at least 

two studies have considered this problem at some level. Barnes (1996) surveyed visitors to 

Botswana and ascertained the amount they were willing to pay towards a conservation fund 

for Botswana’s wildlife. Tourists were willing to pay P125 on average, suggesting a total 

aggregate willingness to pay (WTP) among users alone of some P8 million (equivalent to 

about $4 million at the time). 

Mmopelwa (2005) and Natalie Mladenov (2002) conducted a contingent valuation survey in 

the <strong>Delta</strong> area in which both resident households and visitors were asked what they would 

be willing to pay to a conservation fund to ensure conservation of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 

Households were allowed to express this in terms of livestock or produce. 70% of 

households and 33.3% of tourists had a positive WTP. Households had a mean WTP of just 

under P50, amounting to a total of about P53 000. Tourists had a mean WTP of about 

P1050, amounting to an estimated total of P13 million. Note that in both of these studies 

this is a once-off payment, and not an annual value. 

These estimates greatly underestimate the existence value of the <strong>Delta</strong>, however, as they 

only reveal the WTP of those people that happened to be visiting the <strong>Delta</strong> in a particular 

year. In this regard, one could assume that similar WTP prevails for each new visitor to the 

<strong>Delta</strong>, and given that most visits are once-off, that the values could be assumed to be 

annual as a minimum estimate. However, this still only considers visitors to the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

There is a great deal more people, including many who cannot afford to visit the area, who 

would express a willingness to pay for conservation of this area. This would include both 

Botswana nationals and the global community. For example, the existence value of South 

African biodiversity is estimated to be at least $263 million per year to South Africans alone 

(Turpie 2003). Indeed, many studies have found that existence value far exceeds the direct 

69

use value of ecosystems (refs). Thus there is a strong case for conducting a proper study of 

the existence value of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> that takes the non-user community into account. 

70

71 

3 EVALUATION OF STATUS AND CONDITION 

Evaluation is a means of identifying the institutional, ecological, socio-economic and other 

characteristics that need management interventions. The evaluation is conducted at two 

levels. The first level raises natural resource management planning issues observed and 

compiled through the consultation processes in the district both during ODMP project 

design and the development phases (ODMP – Project Proposal, 2002; ODMP – Community 

and Feedback Report; 2004, ODMP - ). The second assesses the potential to effectively 

deliver the management interventions on the basis of strengths, weakness, opportunities 

and threats analysis and is presented in Chapter 4. 

3.1 INSTITUTIONAL PLANNING ISSUES 

3.1.1 VISION FOR THE DELTA 

Any management planning process must have broad stakeholder “buy-in” in order for it to 

be successful. It was realised during the ODMP project design that for this to happen in the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site, it was essential to develop a clear, common vision (ODMP – 

Project Proposal, 2002). The vision shared by all stakeholders should outline the views, 

aspirations, and values of managing the ODRS now and in the future. 

A common and shared vision was developed during the development of the management 

plan through a participatory process. This entailed engagement of national stakeholders, 

private sector and communities (ODMP – <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site Shared and 

Common Vision for 2016, 2006). 

The challenge during the implementation of the plan is to ensure that the management of 

the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site is guided by the vision. 

DEA as the coordinating institution for the implementation would have to ensure that 

sectoral and district management plans and strategies are aligned with the vision. 

3.1.2 DEA CAPACITY TO COORDINATE AND MONITOR IMPLEMENTATION OF 

THE ODMP 

The absence of the DEA office in Maun as an overall authority to coordinate environmental 

management activities in the Ngamiland district was a cause for concern in terms of the 

sustainability of the implementation of the ODMP (ODMP – Framework <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>, 

2006). 

The role of DEA through the Project Secretariat was focussed only on the development of 

the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>. The DEA has since positioned itself permanently 

within the ODRS to deliver on its full mandate. This presents a challenge in terms of the 

department’s capacity to coordinate and monitor the implementation of the plan over and 

above coordinating other environmental management activities in the district (ODMP – 

Draft <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> Workshop Proceedings, 2006). 

There is a need to strengthen the capacity of the DEA to deliver on its coordination role and 

monitor the implementation of the plan in addition to its various mandates. This would 

require a collaborative approach through developing formal linkages with the existing 

structures such as the <strong>Okavango</strong> Wetland <strong>Management</strong> Committee (OWMC) and the 

proposed District State of the Environment Reporting to augment the required capacity.

HOORC-UB has developed into a resourceful institution in Maun during the last 10 years. 

They have capacity to assist in implementation of the ODRS in areas like research, 

environmental monitoring, auditing of project progress, data base management (ODIS) and 

training. For this to be effective suitable institutional arrangements need to be arranged 

between the Government and the University. 

3.1.3 CAPACITY OF SECTORS TO IMPLEMENT THE ODMP 

The ODMP project has highlighted institutional weaknesses with regard to those 

institutions envisaged to assume responsibility for implementation of the ODMP 

components (ODMP – Inception Report, 2005). 

Capacity issues include physical lack of manpower resources and limited skills base. 

Capacity weaknesses, attributed to the government moratorium of zero growth in the public 

sector and government staff turn-over policies, remain a major challenge to implementing 

the plan. 

Financial resources for out-sourcing are also a major constraint due to competing 

development and social needs e.g. the HIV and AIDS scourge is consuming a major part of 

the country’s financial resources. This limits the opportunities for outsourcing to augment 

required capacity, as well as for procurement of necessary resources such as transport and 

equipment to enable institutions to deliver on their mandates. 

Institutions may have to review the deployment of their existing manpower and where 

possible rationalise their manpower resources. The other option is to outsource some of the 

activities to augment the required capacities if financial resources permit. 

3.1.4 POLICY FRAMEWORK 

The ODMP will operate within the existing national policy and legal framework. The 

National Biodiversity Strategy and Action <strong>Plan</strong> (NCSA, 2004) and ODMP – Policy Review 

Report (2006) highlight specific gaps and conflicts within the legal system for the protection 

of ecosystems and species, and the need for updating of Acts, ensuring policy 

harmonisation containing incentives for sustainable ecosystems management and the 

removal of disincentives, e.g. some of the current agricultural subsidies. 

It is also recognised that future policy formulation should be based on the principles of 

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) in accordance with the EIA Act of 2005. 

The ODMP cannot change laws or policies in itself, but outlining the obvious gaps and 

other shortcomings and making the findings available to the relevant institutions (line 

ministries responsible for various Acts and the DEA) will help to instigate the necessary 

changes. 

Limited law enforcement and adherence to policy is another key issue affecting the ODRS. 

Related to this is the issue of limited monitoring of adherence to conditions of resource 

allocation and permits for resource use (hunting and harvesting of veld products). 

Inadequate monitoring and resource allocation of protected veld products in accordance 

with the Agricultural Resources Act need to be addressed. The allocation of hunting quotas 

is another issue which is under constant discussionas well as the related poaching of 

wildlife. 

72

3.2 BIO-PHYSICAL PLANNING ISSUES 

Development planning in most human societies strives towards stability and predictability, 

which in the case of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is in direct conflict with its inherently unstable 

nature. This is a major challenge for the management of ODRS. 

3.2.1 ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS AND SERVICES 

Gumbricht and McCarthy, 2002, have succinctly summarised the functioning of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> system by equating it to a physiological system. They have described it as 

follows; 

“The <strong>Okavango</strong> is a good example of a complex middle number geo-physiological system, which has many 

similarities with physiological systems. The <strong>Okavango</strong> Wetland with its distributary channels is like the 

bloodstream and lymphatic system, with fast turnover and transporting nutrients and other dissolved substances. 

The Islands Mosaic is like the internal organs, processing the nutrients and energy, keeping the balance of the 

“blood”. The Fan is the skeleton and the skin, the bodily envelope and backbone keeping the organs in place. 

What comes in via the Panhandle is like the food intake. The superswell and the climate it fosters is the general 

environment.” 

The seasonal flooding is recharging the groundwater aquifers which also causes a high 

biological production of wildlife and livestock as well as of veld products and fish. 

The shifts in flooding patterns, the duration and extent creates a <strong>Delta</strong> that is much larger 

than the annual flooded area; it provides fresh water to communities surrounding the <strong>Delta</strong> 

and facilitates molapo farming. 

Islands are important ecological function of the <strong>Delta</strong>, they create habitat mosaic which is 

responsible for the high biodiversity that is found in the <strong>Delta</strong>. The resultat high habitat 

diversity results in the internal ecological resilience of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> syste. Many 

islands form as a result of the subsurface precipitation of calciste and armophous silica 

which produces vertical expansion creating a topographic relief which is mainly due to 

transpiration from trees in riparian fringes (McCarthy et al., 1993). This process has 

resulted in the creation and growth of islands whereby salts are permanently removed from 

water. This process does also concentrate the remaining salts to centrums of islands where 

it sinks permanently to deep groundwater. These processes maintain the <strong>Delta</strong> as a fresh 

water system. The <strong>Delta</strong> does permanently remove organic matter and nutrients from the 

water and by that it is producing crystal clear waters of high quality. 

3.2.2 BIODIVERSITY 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> features as one of the world’s important biodiversity areas. In 

particular the numbers of plants, mammals, reptiles and birds are high (see Ch 2…..). This 

is firstly because of the flood pulse without which the seasonal floodplains with its entire 

flora and fauna would disappear, and the biological productivity would dramatically be 

reduced. The second process is the shift in flood distribution and size over different time 

scales. This creates a dynamic patch system of different nutrient levels and at different 

stages of biological succession. 

The major factor organizing the <strong>Delta</strong> habitats is the depth and duration of flooding. There 

is a typical gradient from permanent waters (streams and lagoons) and swamps, seasonal 

floodplains, occasional floodplains, riparian woodlands and dry woodlands. This pattern is 

repeated across the <strong>Delta</strong> resulting in a mosaic landscape. 

The habitat diversity is high and the habitat patches small causing a large edge effect 

which favours species dependent on more than one habitat. The largest habitat diversity is 

73

found in the fringes of the <strong>Delta</strong> where the hydrological gradients are steepest. It is very 

likely that the total biodiversity is highest here as well. 

The biomass of large mammals in the <strong>Delta</strong> is 4-8 times higher than in surrounding 

drylands. This is caused by a much longer growth period of vegetation with a rainy season 

during summer and a flooding period during winter, and a higher nutrient status due to 

nutrient accumulation during wet periods and release during dry periods. 

The most numerous large mammals are Impala with 140 000 individuals, Buffalo and Red 

Lechwe with 60 000 individuals each and elephants with 35 000 individuals. 

The crystal clear waters favour fish-eating species hunting by the aid of eyesight such as 

otters and cormorants. There are more than 40 species of that kind in the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

There are no known endemic species in the <strong>Delta</strong>. This is probably because the <strong>Delta</strong> 

during wetter periods was directly connected to the large wetlands in the upper Zambezi. 

There are many similarities in biodiversity between all these wetlands. 

There is however a significant number of winter breeding mammal species (39) in the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

This is probably a genetic trait as an adaptation to the winter flooding of the <strong>Delta</strong> as 

opposed to other ecosystems that flood during the wet season offering favourable 

conditions. A number of genetically distinct mammal species may thus occur in the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

The identified keystone species in the <strong>Delta</strong> that have a decisive impact on the environment 

and on other species are elephants, hippopotamuses, termites and papyrus. Elephants 

modify in particular the woody vegetation and open up the landscape. Hippopotamuses 

open up water courses and/or change water flow and flooding patterns. Termites construct 

mounds during dry phases that during wet phases become growth points for islands. 

Papyrus confine water in channels, build up peat that store nutrients, filter and purify 

water, and create vegetation blockages and flood switching. 

The elephant population has increased over the past 30 years from 2 300 to 35 000. Their 

impact on the <strong>Delta</strong> environment is debated. 

There are eight globally threatened or near-threatened bird species which occur in the 

<strong>Delta</strong>. An estimated 85% of the global population of the Slaty egret (Egretta vinaciegula) is 

restricted to the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and thus near endemic. 

Globally threatened mammals found in <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> are the White Rhino (Ceratotherium 

simum), the Wild Dog (Lycaon pictus) (Spriggs, 2001), and the Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus). 

In addition there are about six large mammals species classified as rare. 

The <strong>Delta</strong> is also an important habitat for the Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) which is 

of international importance. 

3.2.3 POTENTIAL THREATS TO OKAVANGO DELTA RAMSAR SITE 

FUNCTIONING 

Processes driving the functions and biodiversity of the <strong>Delta</strong> are water inflow, 

sedimentation and nutrients. These in turn are affected by both natural and anthropogenic 

factors. The natural impacts include climate change, tectonic activities and large scale 

changes in the flooding of the <strong>Delta</strong>. The anthropogenic factors mainly entail large scale 

water abstractions and obstructions and eutrophication. 

74

3.2.3.1 Climate change 

The issue of the potential impact of climate change on the ecosystem has regularly been 

raised in meetings and was captured during the ODMP project design phase (ODMP – 

Project Proposal, 2002). In order to address this issue, an integrated hydrological model 

was developed during the ODMP planning phase to assess the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> hydrological 

response to various natural and anthropogenic scenarios (ODMP – Integrated Hydrological 

Model, 2006). 

The scenario simulations showed that projected climatic change has potentially the greatest 

impact on the basin and the <strong>Delta</strong> reducing both inflows from upstream and rainfall over 

the <strong>Delta</strong>, and increasing temperature and the rate of evapotranspiration. The lower 

envelope of flooding is reduced by 68%, from 2,770km 2 to 900km2 (ODMP – Analysis of 

Water Resources Scenarios, 2006). It is believed that climatic change in Southern Africa 

will result in decrease in rainfall and temperature increase in the longer term, leading to 

reduced flows and high evaporation rates (ODMP – Water Resources Scenarios, 2006). 

It is important that the sectors such as tourism, agriculture, susbsistance and commercial 

use of vegetation resources, water and fisheries which are likely to be affected by the 

impact of climate change initiate the development of coping strategies. 

3.2.3.2 Seismic Activities 

The <strong>Delta</strong> area is tectonically active and the last major earthquake in Maun 1954 had a 

magnitude of 6.4 on the Richter scale. At that time most buildings were low, made of mud, 

reeds and grass so the damage was probably limited (NDSS, 2004). Now an earthquake of 

the same magnitude could cause major damage to the modern building structures. 

The impact of such seismic activities may also accelerate the river channels and flood 

distribution in the <strong>Delta</strong> which otherwise are moving over time scales of decades and 

decennia. Gumbricht and McCarthy (2002) attribute the present sediment accumulation in 

the Panhandle, the Xho flats, and the secular water distribution changes on the fan surface 

from Jao-Boro towards Xudum to small scale tectonic activities. Areas that now are dry 

with developments and buildings on them may again come under water. Developments like 

tourist lodges that are located close to scenic water ways may find that the river suddenly 

has taken another route. 

Although geotechnical investigations indicate a 100 year maximum probability of such an 

earthquake event happening (Patridge, Maude Associates, 1998), there is need to introduce 

building codes which would specify special requirements for foundations and structural 

designs in the district. 

In as far as the impacts on the tourism business are concerned, a precautionary principle 

should be applied in the sector’s business and management plans. 

Sesmic events have a potential to have profound impacts on the functioning and dynamics 

of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. Small sesmic activities will possibly afecte the flooding partterns 

while large ones will have far reaching consequences. It is crucial that predictive models are 

developed that can be used to inform responsive actions. 

3.2.3.3 Fires 

Fire plays a major part in the ecological functioning and processes of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 

The fires that occur in the <strong>Delta</strong> are a result of two causal agents, anthropogenic and 

75

natural factors. There are two major types of natural fires, namely surface fires which are 

caused by lightening and peat fires which are caused by combustion of peat. 

Frequency of burning 

The floodplains in the Seasonal Swamps in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> are more frequently burnt 

than the dryland areas because of greater grass fuel loads due to their higher production 

potential and lower grazing pressure caused by the occurrence of less palatable grasses. 

The mean fire return period for these floodplains during the 14 year period between 1989 - 

2003 was 6.6 years and for the drylands 22.2 years. The highest fire frequency occurred in 

the floodplains that are inundated approximately every second year resulting in a mean fire 

return period of 5 years. Generally the dryland areas rarely burn however the frequency of 

burning varied greatly in the different habitat types in the drylands with some areas being 

burnt more frequently than biennially particularly with fires spreading into the drylands 

from adjacent more frequently burnt floodplains (Heinl 2005) 

Type and intensity of fires 

Little information is available in the scientific literature on the types and intensities of fires 

occurring in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site. There is some information of ground fires 

burning accumulations of organic peat material (peat fires) in areas where the channels 

have dried out as part of the normal dynamic variations in the water flow through the fan of 

the <strong>Delta</strong> (ODMP Fire <strong>Management</strong> Strategy 2006). A general description of the formation 

and accumulation of organic peat material in wetlands like the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is provided 

by Roggeri (1995). 

The plant photosynthesis processes consume CO2 which is partly transformed into organic 

carbon and accumulated in plant tissue. Under certain conditions (increased acidity, lack 

of oxygen, lack of nutrients or low temperatures) the organic matter is only partially 

decomposed and accumulates in the soil. The peat formed in this way forms a reservoir of 

organic carbon. Once stored in this form, carbon can only be returned to the atmosphere 

by oxidation or by combustion of the peat. Swamps, and in particular peat swamps, thus 

trap large amounts of carbon. 

Therefore burning of peat soils lead to the destruction of natural carbon reservoirs that could 

have moderated the increase in atmospheric CO2 contributing to the greenhouse effect and 

global warming. This, if confirmed could give a special significance to this function performed 

by some wetlands. 

It is estimated that the blockage of the Thaoge River has gradually occurred since the 

1870’s and the drying of the peat deposits flanking the channel has resulted in the 

occurrence of peat fires, which have destroyed the original plant communities and peat 

deposits (Ellery et al 1989). This has resulted in the release of nutrients into the soil which 

improves forage quality. In addition more recently there has been the cultivation of crops 

such as tropical fruit and sugar cane in this area because of the elevated soil fertility 

associated with the former burning of the peat deposits in this area 

Thus a conflicting set of circumstances exists regarding the occurrence of peat fires in the 

<strong>Ramsar</strong> Site. On the one hand these fires are releasing CO2 into the atmosphere thereby 

contributing to the greenhouse effect and global warming. On the other hand the peat fires 

have and are raising the nutrient levels of highly infertile soils resulting in the production of 

grass forage with significantly improved quality for grazing animals. Therefore these fires 

are playing a significant role in the normal nutrient cycle occurring in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

ecosystem (ODMP Fire <strong>Management</strong> Strategy 2006). It should also be considered that these 

fires are probably not a recent occurrence but have been occurring since time immemorial 

76

and are therefore a part of the normal cycle of the release and absorption of CO2 into and 

from the atmosphere associated with fires in African ecosystems. 

It is important therefore that there is improved research on the role and effects of fire in the 

functioning of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> ecosystem. 

3.2.3.4 Large scale water development 

These impacts are discussed in detail in ODMP – Analysis of Water Resources Scenarios 

(2006) and these are summarised below. 

The basin and <strong>Delta</strong> are presently in a near natural state. To date, land use changes and 

abstractions from the basin upstream and the <strong>Delta</strong> have a minimal impact on the <strong>Delta</strong> as 

whole, though local impacts may be significant. 

Upstream irrigation plans in Namibia and especially Angola are predicted to have a 

significant impact. The lower envelope of flooding, i.e. the area that remains flooded 

throughout, is reduced by 40% in dry years. 

Present and future local surface and ground water abstractions from the <strong>Delta</strong> are 

minimally significant, amounting to 0.3% and 0.5% of the inflow respectively. Under future 

conditions, the upper envelope of flooding, i.e. the area that may be flooded at some time is 

decreased by around 70 km 2, or 0.6%. 

The combined water resources developments with climate change have the most severe 

impact on the <strong>Delta</strong>. In years with normal inflows, the range of flooded area declines from a 

maximum of 12,825km 2 

to 4,695km 2 

, and from a minimum of 2,944km 2 

to 158km 2 

. 

3.2.3.5 Eutrophication 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> River Basin is still in a relatively undisturbed state, also when it comes to 

pollution. The entire population of the Basin is in the order of 600,000 people. There are 

no major industrial sources of pollution in the basin. 

The only urban centres are Menongue and Cuito Carnevale in Angola with an estimated 

population of 30,000 and 20,000 respectively, Rundu in Namibia with a population of 

42,000 and Maun in Botswana with a population of around 44,000. Locally these urban 

areas may cause pollution that would affect the water quality, but when considering the 

effect on the entire basin the effects on water quality are negligible (ODMP – Analysis of 

Water Resources Scenarios, 2006). 

Agriculture is another potential source of pollution in the <strong>Okavango</strong> River Basin that may 

discharge nutrients, mainly nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as toxic substances such as 

pesticides and herbicides into the river and <strong>Delta</strong> system. The use of fertilisers, herbicides 

and pesticides is still very limited in the Basin. The nutrient levels in the <strong>Okavango</strong> River 

are very low, and the <strong>Delta</strong> system can be characterised as oligotrophic, except in isolated 

pools. 

Another pollution issue is the presence of a relatively large number of camps and lodges 

that cater for tourists visiting the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. The Government of Botswana has 

adopted a low volume, high cost tourism policy that has so far limited the number of 

tourists visiting the <strong>Delta</strong>. In addition, to obtain a license a lodge has to adopt 

environmentally friendly management, including proper handling of solid and liquid wastes. 

77

However, there are indications that the authorities responsible for issuing licenses and 

monitoring adherence to the agreed environmental practices suffer from lack of resources to 

carry out the required inspections. 

3.2.3.6 Pesticides 

A major pollution issue is the spraying of tsetse flies. These flies occur widely in tropical 

Africa from where they extend to their most southerly limits in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. The 

biting flies transmit blood parasites called Trypanosoma, which affect cattle and people 

(sleeping sickness). A variety of control methods has been used, including the killing of 

wildlife hosts, clearing of bush, and ground and aerial spraying with DDT and 

endosulphan. The application of insecticides from the air was first stopped in 1992, partly 

in response to concerns that the chemicals caused considerable environmental damage, 

including the loss of biodiversity and fish in the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

In recent years an integrated Tsetse eradication programme was initiated. This includes 

aerial spraying of almost the entire <strong>Delta</strong> and the use of sterile male flies, which has 

eliminated the problem to the great satisfaction of people living in and around the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

During and after these sprayings research and monitoring of the effects on the biodiversity 

have been carried out. Results show a marked reduction in insects, invertebrates, etc 

immediately after spraying, but also indicate that re-colonisation of sprayed areas takes 

place rather efficiently afterwards. 

The possible negative side effects of this control measure have led to controversy among 

environmentalists, tourism operators, the local population and Government Institutions. 

Disease control programmes with broad ecological, social and political implications need to 

be considered in long term planning. 

3.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC PLANNING ISSUES 

It is quite evident that the <strong>Delta</strong>’s goods and services provide an important source of 

livelihood. However there are conflicts emanating from use of the resources. This section 

describes the prominent conflicts and benefits from resource use that have been identified 

through stakeholder consultation process and literature review (ODMP – Design Mission 

Report, 2001, ODMP – Community Consultation and Feedback Report, 2004 and ODMP – 

Inception Report, 2005). 

3.3.1 LAND USE 

The continued benefits accruing in terms of land use is dependent on assured sustainable 

access to land. Every citizen has a right to own land which is easily accessible for different 

uses as contained in the land board regulations or integrated land use plans. However 

there are serious land use conflicts within the ODRS. Some of the significant ones are 

outlined in the consultation reports. 

Inconsistencies, delays in and haphazard land allocation coupled with the observed 

incidents of double land allocation and poor record keeping by the Tawana Land Board are 

overwhelming in the ODRS. This is exacerbated by lack of an integrated land use plan and 

the absence of surveyed detailed layout plans, resulting in wasteful and inefficient use of 

land. 

There is no clear separation of land uses particularly between settlements, grazing areas 

and arable fields. This manifests itself in the seemingly mushrooming and growing of nongazetted 

settlements. 

78

It is increasingly emerging that the traditional access rights to resources within concessions 

for subsistence use are not observed. 

3.3.2 UNSUSTAINABLE USE OF VELD AND RANGE RESOURCES 

There is general concern that the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> natural resources may be depleted or 

become scarce in the long run due to unsustainable practices. Scarcity in resources is 

being observed with respect to mokola palm for basket weaving, thatching grass and river 

reeds (Kgathi, et al., 2002). It is also emerging that pre-mature harvesting of the same 

resources is increasingly becoming a problem and this is further compounded by lack of 

harvesting permits (ODMP – Community Consultation and Feedback Report, 2004). 

Veld fires can be used as a management tool. However, if not used properly they cause 

extensive damage in terms of exposing the land to erosion, altering the ecological balance 

and loss of plant species in the fragile environment of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> (ODMP – 

Inception Report, 2005). 

An important aspect in the management of vegetation resources is the impact of wildlife 

and livestock especially cattle on rangelands. There is generally a problem of overstocking 

of rangelands especially in the Gumare area. This could be attributed to the high density of 

the boreholes in the area (ODMP – Inception Report, 2005). 

Another important issue that needs closer scrutiny is the donkey population which has 

slowly been building up in the District due to Arable Lands Development Programme 

(ALDEP) (ODMP – Inception Report, 2005). 

3.3.3 WATER USE 

Upstream water obstruction and abstraction may lead to reduced flows, smaller peak flows 

and lower sediment transport (see section 3.2.3.4). This will reduce the flooded area in the 

<strong>Delta</strong>, water will less frequently reach its distal parts, and flooding patterns will change less 

frequently. 

The water flow and growth of aquatic vegetation in the <strong>Delta</strong> are dynamic processes leading 

to the realignment of river channels and larger scale flow patterns. In the past as well as 

currently, attempts are made to clear channels. This is done or proposed for different 

purposes. On the local scale small channels are kept open for access to tourist lodges, 

villages, fisheries and other natural resources of the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

Tourist operators as well as the Government are keeping streams or sections thereof free 

from vegetation for long distance boat traffic. Attempts have been made in the past, such as 

clearing of the Thaoge, as well as recently (Gomoti), to create and keep permanent streams 

to villages (Shorobe) that in the past have had better water supply. While these large scale 

channel clearings of vegetation in the past have been largely ineffective, the proposed use of 

modern machinery – if successful - may be damaging for the ecological functioning of the 

<strong>Delta</strong> in that it will reduce the flooded area and flood switches. The environmental effects of 

opening small channels are probably insignificant. 

Intensive agricultural activities and urbanisation in the upstream catchment may cause 

eutrophication, with resultant stronger growth and re-distribution of key stone species 

such as Cyperus papyrus, which play an important role in channel switching and habitat 

self renewal. Higher nutrient content in the water will promote the growth of Salvania 

79

molesta as well as of planktonic and attached algae. The water will become turbid and the 

whole guild of fish-eating birds, mammals and reptiles will be negatively impacted. 

There is a need for reliable supplies of domestic water to the larger villages around the 

<strong>Delta</strong> and above all for Maun itself, which has a very high growth rate. The groundwater 

aquifers in the Thamalakane and Kunyere faults are large but difficult to use. The 

substrate is often very fine grained so pumping and flow rates are slow. Deeper 

groundwater is often salty and sometimes with high levels of organic material and high 

levels of arsenic content. The changes of river flow patterns and flooding means that the 

recharge is not predictable. Flexible systems are needed that are designed for adaptive 

management. 

The integrated hydrological model of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> indicates that whilst the present 

surface and groundwater abstractions are minimally significant amounting to only 0.25% of 

the inflows, the potential for upstream developments are likely to reduce the permanently 

flooded areas by 38% (ODMP – Analysis of Water Resources Scenarios, 2006). 

3.3.4 TOURISM 

There is no doubt that tourism as an industry makes very substantial contributions to 

virtually all spheres of Ngamiland District economic prosperity, since it is the main driver of 

the district’s economy. However, there are problems in terms of sustainable tourism in the 

district and these are articulated below. 

There has been minimal or no sustained research on tourism carrying capacities and as 

such the level of impacts caused by tourism activities in the <strong>Delta</strong> is not known. 

There is little done to monitor tourism activities despite the perception that illegal 

consumptive use of resources and unacceptable waste management practices may be 

taking place in the <strong>Delta</strong>. Moreover, lack of capacity within the NWDC and DoT to carry out 

regular inspections to ensure that operators comply with provisions of the lease agreements 

and regulations is evident. 

DoT does not have an appropriate database and information system to capture tourism 

related information, such as ownership status and tourism statistics. 

It is evident that Batswana are not meaningfully participating, in terms of ownership, 

management levels, skills and requisite capital to invest in the tourism industry, hence not 

appreciating the benefits thereof. 

The current tourism activities are largely wildlife based. There are serious concerns that 

this poses a major risk to the tourism industry as it is dependent on a single product. 

3.3.5 WILDLIFE USE 

The issues with regard to wildlife use include human-elephant conflict, wildlife-livestock 

conflicts, declining population of certain species, and lack of baseline information on 

certain species. 

Human-Elephant Conflicts in the form of crop damage are common and wide spread within 

the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. Crop damage by elephants is widely reported in the Panhandle area. It 

is clear that compensation does not solve the problem; rather, effective mitigation measures 

could reduce the Human-Elephant Conflict. 

80

The buffalo fence has generated a lot of controversy in terms of proximity to grazing areas, 

its inefficiency in separating buffaloes from cattle and poor fence maintenance by DAHP. 

Another contentious issue within the ODRS is livestock predation by wildlife such as lions, 

leopard, cheetah and other carnivores. The main concern is with regard to the issue of the 

perceived low compensation and a moratorium on the killing of lions after predation. 

Lake Ngami is a habitat for a variety of bird species. There has been uncontrolled hunting 

in the area which has resulted in a moratorium imposed on hunting of birds pending the 

declaration of Lake Ngami as a bird sanctuary. 

Whilst illegal hunting has been contained to a larger extent, it continues to be a problem. 

DWNP need to find ways of derterming the extent to which illegal hunting may be taking 

place. 

The hunting quota are normally determined by the DWNP and there is a concern that it 

may not be based on scientific data and does not seem to be transparent. 

3.3.6 FISHERIES 

There is limited information on the <strong>Okavango</strong> fish stocks and this has resulted in 

uncertainties in the management of fish resources. 

The overlap of commercial fishing and angling/ recreational activities on the same fishing 

grounds have often resulted in conflicts. 

The only piece of fisheries legislation that exists is the Fish Protection Act of 1975, which is 

very outdated. The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> fishery is still an open-access fishery with no 

regulatory mechanisms in place. 

3.3.7 LIVESTOCK 

Despite the contribution and potential shown by the livestock sub-sector, a number of 

concerns and challenges relating to its long-term viability have emerged over the years. The 

major concerns and challenges include, but are not limited to, the following: 

Recurring droughts have had a negative impact on the livestock sub-sector by reducing 

water and grazing availability and thereby negatively impacting on livestock condition and 

numbers. 

As a result of competition between livestock and wildlife for grazing pastures and open 

water sources, there is evidence of overgrazing, trampling and consequent depletion of the 

resource around the periphery of the <strong>Delta</strong>. These problems are also exacerbated by the 

occurrence of Dichapertatalum simosum (mogau) in the sandveld areas which tend to 

confine livestock in smaller areas of the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

Ngamiland district is prone to livestock diseases outbreaks which are predominantly 

introduced through the interaction between livestock and wildlife. In particular, Foot and 

Mouth Disease (FMD), Nagana in cattle (Trypanosomiasis) and Contagious Bovine Pleuro 

Pneumonia (CBPP). With respect to nagana the control of tsetse fly (Glossina morsitans 

centralis) has attracted controversy around the environmental impacts of the measures 

81

employed. Cross-border re-invasion from Namibia or Angola where healthy Tsetse 

populations still exist could negate all Tsetse fly eradication efforts. 

The fences provide boundaries for three disease control zones in Ngamiland but 

controversies surround the utility and effectiveness of these fences. Major issues of concern 

relate to both environmental and social issues. Related to this there is the potential for 

increased predation as wildlife are forced to concentrate in certain areas and exacerbation 

of water shortages during drought years. 

3.3.8 WASTE MANAGEMENT 

The resource limitations and capacity constraints within NWDC make it difficult to 

adequately service all recognised villages in the ODRS. In addition to these, there are 478 

unrecognised settlements which do not qualify for such services and are also generating 

waste. 

Mechanisms employed for management of waste generated in the <strong>Delta</strong>, e.g. at tourism 

businesses such as lodges and campsites, is determined by the lease agreement signed 

between concessionaires and the Tawana Land Board. There are inadequate monitoring 

mechanisms in place to determine if such agreements are being honoured and how waste is 

actually being disposed. 

Although a North West District Waste <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> was completed in 2002, it did not 

address the unique and complex issues of waste management in the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

Litter is a serious concern in the ODRS, and the major difficulty is to change attitudes of 

people to refrain from this bad habit. 

There is a serious worry about sewage and grey water disposal from houseboats. 

3.4 EDUCATION AND PUBLIC AWARENESS 

The ODMP requires that the aspirations of each stakeholder should be known to each other 

and the exchange of information organised systematically. Negotiations will need to start 

and trade-offs must be made. These processes require an extensive communication 

programme for the implementation of the ODMP. 

Information gathering and communication methods traditionally used tend to be ineffective 

and often fall short of expectations in terms of their inability to accurately target desired 

groups; difficulties in adequately conveying the intended message; presenting different 

messages about the same issue by different institutions; the time taken for the message to 

reach the target groups; inaccuracies and inconsistencies in the intended or actual content; 

the inappropriateness of the communication and information exchange methods used; and 

difficulties in ensuring and achieving information flow from “bottom to top”. 

The vast nature of the ODRS, let alone of the whole <strong>Okavango</strong> River Basin (ORB) that is 

equally the target of the ODMP communication strategy, and the unique problems these 

areas experience in terms of difficulties in physical and remote (radio, telephone, email, 

internet etc.) access, present enormous problems in maintaining effective dialogue and 

implementing the communication strategy. This is compounded by the huge diversity of 

views and opinions among stakeholders, which range from local communities to 

international governments and include the tourism private sector operators and tourists 

82

about appropriate action. Such factors also make effective and efficient communication and 

information exchange, and especially reaching consensus, a very difficult task. 

3.5 RESEARCH AND DATA MANAGEMENT 

Information on the <strong>Delta</strong> is widely scattered, formats are not standardised and many data 

are not easily accessible. There is a lack of updated information on present land use, socio 

economic, hydrological and ecological conditions of the <strong>Delta</strong> for planning purposes and 

some of the available data are of poor quality. 

In addition, uncoordinated research activities and limited use of local knowledge for 

resource management might lead to research results that are less useful for planning. 

There are uncertainties around data updating and expectations during the implementation 

of the ODMP. 

There is need for continuous training of stakeholders on how to use the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

Information System (ODIS) given the staff turn-over and the availability of a GIS technician 

at HOORC. 

The ODMP research strategy proposed research activities which are designed to reflect the 

closely interlocking nature of the three components, namely hydrology, ecology and socioeconomics, 

with several cross-cutting themes and a common need for multidisciplinary and 

interdisciplinary approaches (ODMP – Research Strategy, 2006). 

At present the long-term basic hydrological and water quality monitoring system are in a 

relatively poor state both within the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and worse in the upstream especially 

in Angola. Monitoring in Angola has not been properly undertaken for the last 30 years 

because of the civil war. The spatial and temporal coverage of the basic monitoring data is 

relatively poor. 

There is no systematic <strong>Delta</strong>-wide long term ecological monitoring carried out in the <strong>Delta</strong> 

despite the extraordinary scenic beauty of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and its component 

ecosystems except for annual aerial surveys of larger herbivores by DWNP, small 

monitoring studies on rare and endangered species and limited bird surveys by Birdlife 

Botswana. DWA has carried out limited monitoring on the occurrence of channel blockages. 

Despite the fact that Botswana has a comparatively progressive and well-resourced 

programme to combat HIV and AIDS, monitoring of the pandemic is still inadequate. The 

most reliable data comes from testing pregnant women at ante-natal clinics. There is some 

degree of monitoring the impacts of the pandemic through the provision of food baskets to 

orphans and Home-based Care programmes but this does not extent to the broader 

livelihood impacts such as households coping strategy. 

There is very little research focused on poverty status and livelihoods trends in the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site despite the presence of the country’s Poverty Reduction 

Strategy. The measure and prevalence can only be indirectly deduced from recent research 

on livelihoods in the area. 

There has been considerable research on governance issues at international and regional 

level; however there seems to have been less governance research done at the national and 

local level with regard to <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> (ODMP - Research Strategy, 2006). An example is 

the perpetual tension between national and local interests in the ownership, governance 

83

and use of the area’s resources, or the functions and performance of district-level 

development and resources management institutions such as the Tawana Land Board and 

District Development Committee. 

3.6 ECONOMIC VALUATION 

Evaluation of the status and condition of the <strong>Delta</strong> and its resources must incorporate 

consideration of the economic characteristics of the <strong>Delta</strong> and its development. The 

economic valuation of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site as a whole was undertaken 

based on the concept of total economic value (see Ch. 2.7) which includes direct use 

values, indirect use values and non-use values (ODMP – Economic Valuation Report, 2006). 

Non-use values (option, existence and bequest values) have not been included in this 

analysis for budgetary and time reasons. The values are calculated with the intention that 

they should be, as far as possible, compatible with the national accounts of Botswana and 

the natural resource accounting procedures being practiced by the Department of 

Environmental Affairs. 

Values have also been calculated for the whole <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site, which includes some 

surrounding drylands as well as the <strong>Delta</strong> wetlands, as well as for just the wetlands 

component of the Site (i.e. the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> wetlands system). Values were estimated for 

2005 in Pula, which at the time was worth US$0.19. Direct use values associated with the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site include those generated by non-consumptive tourism, hunting 

tourism, household livestock production, household crop production, and household 

harvesting and processing of natural resource products. The values are overwhelmingly 

dominated by those generated by tourism, which takes place in the central zone of the 

<strong>Delta</strong>, and which contributes P401 million annually to the gross national product (see Table 

2-18). Eighty percent of the tourism direct value is from non-consumptive activities. Ninety 

percent of tourism value is attributable to the actual wetland within the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site. 

Agricultural pursuits take place mainly in the northern, western and southern zones of the 

<strong>Ramsar</strong> Site, and contribute P43 million annually to the gross national product (see Table 

2-14). Ninety three percent of this is from livestock, and only 3% of it is derived from the 

wetland itself. Household harvesting and processing of natural resources also takes place 

in the north west and south of the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site, and contributes P28 million annually to 

gross national product (see Table 2-15). Fifty three percent of this is derived from the 

wetland. 

Indirect use values in the form of carbon sequestration, groundwater recharge, water 

purification, wildlife refuge functions and provision of scientific and educational value, are 

provided by the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site. These were estimated to amount to some P230 million per 

year, dominated by the carbon sequestration and wildlife refuge functions (see Table 2-20) . 

The indirect use value specific to the wetland system within the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site is estimated to 

be P199 million. Estimates for these values are, however difficult to make and are thus 

fairly uncertain. 

As stated earlier, non-use values were excluded from the study. Given the high profile of 

the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, these values are expected to be very high internationally. These values 

require specific study. Once they have been better established and estimated, and with the 

development of appropriate market mechanisms, they could be captured to contribute 

significantly to Botswana’s income. Thus, increased capture of donations or marketing of 

easements internationally can be transferrred to Botswana, and invested in conservation of 

the <strong>Delta</strong>’s resources, via for example local Community-based Natural Resource 

<strong>Management</strong> (CBNRM) programmes. <strong>Plan</strong>ning for the <strong>Delta</strong> needs to ensure that these 

values are preserved. 

84

The direct use values generated by the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site also have a wider impact on Botswana’s 

economy through the multiplier effect. Thus, for example, tourist accommodation facilities 

in the <strong>Delta</strong> spend money on food and supplies from the agricultural and manufacturing 

sectors elsewhere in Botswana, and these second-round backward-linked expenditures 

contribute further gross value added to the national economy. A modified social accounting 

matrix (SAM) model of the Botswana economy was used (ODMP – Economic Valuation 

Report, 2006) to determine that for every P1.00 that direct uses contribute to the gross 

national product, another P1.50 in gross national product contribution is generated in the 

wider economy through demand created in backward linkages. Thus, the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site has a 

total annual (direct and indirect) impact on the gross national product amounting to P1.2 

billion, or 2.6% of the total national gross national product. Eighty one percent of this total 

impact is contributed by the wetland. 

The multiplier effect is higher for the formal tourism sector activities than for household 

agriculture and natural resource use. However, policies aimed at reducing the fairly high 

import component of tourism linkages, might increase the multiplier effects further. 

The <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site contributes to livelihoods of its people through profits (both cash and inkind) 

from agricultural and natural resource use, through wages and salaries in the 

tourism sector and from rentals and royalties in the tourism sector. Poor households in the 

study area benefit from profits amounting to P99 million, from wages and salaries 

amounting to P102 million, and from rentals and royalties amounting to an estimated P25 

million (ODMP – Economic Valuation Report, 2006). The wetland contributes less than 3% 

of profits, but nearly all the wages and royalty benefits. Of the direct contribution made to 

the gross national product by the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site (P472 million per annum), 31% accrues to 

low income elements of society. In the total (both direct and indirect) contribution made to 

the gross national product by the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site, this figure is lower, being some 18%. 

Botswana has a natural resource accounting programme and in this framework, the 

<strong>Ramsar</strong> Site and the wetland were treated as natural assets within land or ecosystem 

accounts. The direct use values measured in this study represent the production or flow 

accounts. The asset or stock value of the <strong>Delta</strong>, measured as the present value in 2005 

prices, of the expected future flow of resource rents from the <strong>Delta</strong>, was estimated at P3.9 

billion for the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site and P3.4 billion for the wetland. 

In a preliminary qualitative analysis, the economic valuation study examined the likely 

effects of three future land use options on the direct use values. These involved the 

currently proposed land use plan (ODMP – Land Use and <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>, 2005), a 

second option where the emphasis was put on the expansion of agricultural lands, and a 

third option where the emphasis was put on protection of the natural assets of the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

In this preliminary scenario analysis, the currently proposed land use plan, which gives 

emphasis to complementary land use and wise use of the resources, emerged as the most 

economically efficient, contributing the greatest amount of national product. The plan thus 

appears optimal for the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site. The likely effects of external factors, involving water 

extraction plans and climate change predictions were tested in two further scenarios. These 

factors, particularly climate change, will reduce the value of the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site. Therefore 

attention should be given in planning to any possible ways of ameliorating these effects. 

85

3.7 CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING MANAGEMENT 

INTERVENTIONS 

3.7.1 MANAGEMENT INTERVENTIONS DURING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 

PLAN 

3.7.1.1 Criteria for prioritising management interventions 

The issues discussed in the previous sections were identified during the project design 

phase and confirmed during the inception phase (ODMP – Design Mission Report 2001), 

ODMP – Community Consultation and Feedback Report, 2004) and ODMP – Inception 

Report, 2005). In order to ensure buy-in and create ownership of the plan by the 

stakeholders a hot spot approach was used where a few issues were identified and 

addressed during the development of the plan. Prioritisation of issues was undertaken by 

stakeholders, that is the communities, the private sector and the implementing 

institutions. 

Issues were ranked according to prioritisation of criteria adopted by both communities and 

the private sector. The criteria were based on ranking the issues according to the frequency 

at which they were raised by the stakeholders. Table 3.1 below presents the selected 

priority issues and the interventions that were undertaken during the development of the 

plan. 

86

Table 3-1: Summary of prioritised issues and interventions during the development of the ODMP 

No. <strong>Management</strong> Area Key issues Key Activities Status and documentation Recommendations 

1 Policy, planning Lack of an overall management plan Development of an An integrated management plan has been developed. DEA to coordinate the implementation of the 

and strategy to address the interaction and integrated 

plan 

relationships between the various management plan 

sectors in the <strong>Delta</strong> in such a way, 

that the functioning of the <strong>Delta</strong> in 

the longer term can be conserved. 

Review <strong>Ramsar</strong> site 

boundary 

The boundary has been reviewed and the incorporated into 

the <strong>Ramsar</strong> information sheet (ODMP – <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

<strong>Ramsar</strong> Site Boundary Revision Report, 2004) 

DEA to submit the revised <strong>Ramsar</strong> Information 

sheet and updated map to the <strong>Ramsar</strong> 

Secretariat. 

DEA to erect signs at the main entry points of 

the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> site 

2 Dialogue, 

communication and 

networking 

87 

Conflicting plans, policies, laws, 

strategies on the use of resources of 

the <strong>Delta</strong> occur. 

Stakeholders have expressed a wish 

for pro-active guidance on issues 

concerning the use of the <strong>Delta</strong> and 

its resources. 

Limited knowledge of economic and 

ecological values. 

The need for an appropriate 

communication programme where 

key stakeholders including those that 

represent the upstream interests in 

the river basin, will share the 

knowledge about the functioning of 

the <strong>Okavango</strong> ecosystem and its 

importance for the different resource 

users 

To review all policies 

Develop a shared 

vision 

Economic valuation of 


<strong>Ramsar</strong> Site values 

and functions 

Develop 

communications 

strategy in order to 

ensure shared 

knowledge about 

ecosystem functioning 

and importance; and 

mutual understanding 

strategic choices for 

conservation and 

sustainable use 

The policies have been reviewed and recommendations 

made for future policy harmonization and policy formulation 

(ODMP – Policy Review Report, 2006) 

A common and shared vision has been developed (ODMP – 

A Common and Shared Vision Report, 2006) 

An economic valuation has been undertaken, however only 

the use values were estimated (ODMP – Economic Valuation 

Report, 2006). 

A communication strategy has been developed (ODMP – 

Communication Strategy, 2006). 

DEA to spearhead the process of policy 

harmonization. 

Policy formulation should be based on the 

strategic environmental assessment framework 

and some selected policies need to be 

subjected to SEA 

The vision should guide the implementation of 

ODMP as well as other plans and programmes 

DEA to carry out a study to determine the nonuse 

values of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> site 

(ODRS). 

The wise use scenario to be adopted for future 

economic development in the ODRS 

The communication strategy to be used to 

guide the communication programme


3 Research, data 

management and 

participatory 

planning 

4 Hydrology & water 

resources 

88 

Information on the <strong>Delta</strong> is 

scattered, formats are not 

standardized and many data are not 

easily accessible. 

In addition, uncoordinated research 

activities and limited use of 

indigenous data for planning will 

lead to research results that are 

unsystematic and less useful for 

planning. 

Limited participation of local 

communities in the planning and 

implementation of rural development 

interventions leaves room for 

improvement and would require 

specific attention in a project of such 

magnitude as the ODMP. 

Limited understanding of current 

hydrological and future impacts of 

hydrological changes 

Development of a 

comprehensive and 

user friendly data and 

information 

management system 

for development and 

implementation of 

ODMP. 

Improvement of a 

library service 

Development of the 

ODRS research 

strategy 

Engagement of 

stakeholders through 

participatory process 

Develop hydrological 

model. 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> Information system (ODIS) was 

developed and is operational (ODMP – Data 

<strong>Management</strong> Report, 2006, ODMP – ODIS Technical 

Report, ODMP – ODIS Evaluation Report) 

Books, publications and literature on the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site were acquired. 

The HOORC library was upgraded to accommodate 

these additional materials on the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

<strong>Ramsar</strong> Site. 

Additional library staff was recruited by the University 

of Botswana. 

A research strategy detailing with the research gaps 

and priority areas for research was developed. (ODMP 

– Research Strategy, 2006) 

Series of kgotla meetings and workshops were held to 

engage communities and the private sector as well as 

district and national authorities (ODMP – Proceedings 

of the Kgotla Meetings, 2004, ODMP – Community 

Consultation and Feedback Report, 2004, Proceedings 

of the Shakawe Workshop, 2005, Proceedings of the 

Gumare Workshop, ODMP – Proceedings of the 

Inception Workshop, 2004, Proceedings of the 

Framework Workshop, 2005, Proceedings of the Draft 

<strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> Workshop, 2006)). 

An integrated hydrological model has been developed 

and was used to analyse water resources scenarios 

(ODMP – Integrated Hydrological Model, 2006, ODMP 

– Analysis of Water Resources Scenarios, 2006) 

The database should be updated regularly 

through periodic data input from the users. 

There is need to have data quality controls in 

place. Most of the existing data have a lot of 

quality issues. 

ODIS training or refresher sessions need to be 

a carried out continually to encourage/motivate 

the users to use the application effectively. 

The ODIS accessibility to be improved through 

internet access 

HOORC library should be a repository for all 

documents on the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

Development of an action plan to operationalise 

the research strategy 

Establishment of an ODRS Research Advisory 

Group 

Undertake research in priority areas. 

Participatory process should be continued 

during the implementation of the plan and 

HOORC to provide the services at a cost 

recovery on a need basis. 

The impacts of water development on the <strong>Delta</strong> 

should be communicated to concerned parties 

from local communities through government 

organizations to OKACOM representatives in 

order to jointly come up measures to mitigate 

adverse impacts.


89 

Improve hydrological 

monitoring 

Improve water quality 


Control of invasive 

aquatic weeds 

Understand nature 

and effects of channel 

blockages 

In total, four climate stations have been proposed in addition to the three 

presently operated by the Department of Meteorological Services (DMS), 13 

automatic rain gauges and 26 automatic water level stations. 24 

groundwater (ODMP – Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic 

Monitoring, 2004) 

The requirement for improvement of the water quality monitoring has been 

undertaken and recommendations are being implemented (ODMP – 

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring, 2004, ODMP – 

Analysis of Water Resources Scenarios, 2006). 

The programme is ongoing. How much has been removed and the area 

covered. 

Channel clearing in the <strong>Delta</strong> were simulated with the integrated <strong>Delta</strong> 

model (ODMP – Analysis of Water Resources Scenario, 2006). 

The main impact of clearing blockages is the increase of the flow through 

the channels, thus reducing the water level in the channel and surrounding 

swamp area upstream, and increasing the water level downstream. 

Nqoga-Maunachira-Khwai-Santantadibe subsystem water balance showed 

3 

the increased outflows from the <strong>Delta</strong>. from 70Mm /annum under Baseline 

3 

conditions, to 150Mm /annum with the blockages cleared. 

At least monthly discharge is recommended at 

all discharge stations in the <strong>Delta</strong> but the 

seasonal flow shall be monitored with a higher 

intensity in flood periods. 

The daily discharge measurements at 

Mohembo should be carried out every second 

day using the cableway 

All measured and recorded data in hardcopy 

(cross section, velocity, etc) shall be entered in 

a database. Quality checks on the raw data be 

done in Maun, and prompt remedial action as 

required 

A fairly simple water quality monitoring 

programme should fit into the hydro-climatic 


Water quality sampling should carried out at 

Mohembo, at the Boro River (Junction) near 

Maun and Khwai River at North Gate with a 

frequency of twice a month for analysis of basic 

parameters, anions/ cations and nutrients 

In-situ measurements of conductivity, pH and 

temperature at all stations where discharge is 

measured on a regular basis. 

The DWA has rationalised its staff to undertake 

water quality monitoring. 

An appropriate approach to a finer resolution of 

the grid is to set up a model of an area of 

particular interest within the <strong>Delta</strong>. The present 

<strong>Delta</strong> model would provide the boundary 

conditions at the perimeter of the “nested” 

model. This will be carried out for the 

Maunachira-Mboroga system to study in 

particular the clearance of channel blockages.


5 Wildlife 

management 

90 

Unsustainable 


wildlife populations in 

relation to the wellbeing 

of communities 

and interactions with 

the livestock sector 

and tourism industry: 

Conduct baseline 

surveys of the 

buffalos 


survey of the Cheetah 

and Leopard 


survey of slaty egret 


survey of African 

skimmer, Sitatunga 

Human-elephant 

interactions 

Baseline survey of buffalos was undertaken (ODMP – The Numbers and 

Distribution of the African Buffalo in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, 2004). 

A total of 14 575 animals (minimum) were counted during the survey. The 

estimate based on a 20% correction of the observed total was 17 430 

animals. 

Baseline survey was conducted ( ODMP - Leopard and cheetah baseline 

inventory in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> particularly in relation to areas of 

Human Wildlife Conflict, 2006) 

Leopard density was highest in the Moremi sampling area with an estimate 

of 3.2 individuals/100km2. The Kwando area had less than half this density 

with only 1.5 individuals/100km This equates to a density of 

approximately 1.3 leopards per 100/km2. 

The cheetah population for the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site is estimated at 247 individuals 

(208 excluding swamp areas) representing 9% of the total estimated 

National population. Cheetah density for the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site is estimated at 0.7 

cheetah per 100/km2. 

A helicopter should be used for photography as 

it provides stable platform for this purpose. In 

addition, observers are also afforded a much 

better opportunity to give more accurate 

estimates. A dry season count when buffalo are 

confined to a smaller area due to the restricted 

water availability would be more preferable in 

future. 

It is recommended that the ODMP integrate 

cheetah and leopard population monitoring 

activities into a larger Predator Monitoring 

Framework. 

Leopard and cheetah population surveys should 

be conducted twice annually to identify 

seasonal variation. Area surveyed and transect 

lengths should not be overwhelming but of a 

size which will facilitate completion twice a year 

realistically identifying the multitude of 

responsibilities that DWNP officers have. 

Consistent long-term data sets are more 

valuable than once off mass data collection 

exercises. 

The survey has been completed (ODMP - Baseline Survey, 2006). Existing and potential breeding sites should be 

protected. 

The survey had to be deferred due to lack of funds 

The study is still ongoing 

Further research is needed to locate all nesting 

sites, and then these sites should be protected 

against factors that impact on them i.e. fire, 

reed-cutting and human disturbance. 

It is crucial to maintain the seasonal floodplains 

that form the Slaty Egrets’ major feeding 

habitat.


6 Sustainable tourism 

and CBNRM 

7 Sustainable 

fisheries tilization 

& management 

91 

To create enabling environment 

for conservation, sustainable 

utilization and management: 

Ensure sustainable use of OD’s 

fish resources: 

Predators-livestock interactions The baseline study on cheetah and leopard 

predation has been completed ( ODMP – Leopard 

and cheetah baseline inventory in the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> particularly in relation to areas of 

Human Wildlife Conflict, 2006). 

Assess carrying capacity and limits 

of acceptable change for tourism 

business 

Diversify tourism and CBNRM 

Citizen engagement 

District tourism development plan 

Tourism monitoring and 

information system 

Revise and implement draft 

fisheries regulations. 

Undertake fish stock assessment 

and fish frame survey 

Improve stakeholder participation 

conflict resolution through the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> Fisherman <strong>Management</strong> 

Committee. 

Leopard and cheetah conflict with community 

occurs, as in other localities, predominately along 

the interface between wildlife habitat and 

communal land areas. 

Number of livestock deaths due to leopard and 

cheetah predation was statistically insignificant in 

terms of total herd size for Ngamiland District. 

However, households experience conflict from a 

wide spectrum of wildlife species such that the 

household impact of conflict is cumulative and 

compounded 

The compensation rates were comparable with 

prices of donkeys and were well under selling 

parity prices for calves, cows and goats. 

Study ongoing and due for completion in March 

2007 


2007 


2007 


2007 


2007 

The regulations have been revised and 

stakeholder consultations have been completed. 

Fish stock assessment is still underway as well as 

analysis of fish frame survey. 

The revival of the <strong>Okavango</strong> Fishermen 

<strong>Management</strong> Committee is awaiting the results of 

the fish stock assessment and fish frame survey. 

<strong>Management</strong> effort should be directed at 

participatory development of conflict 

mitigation policy and strategy and the 

strengthening of resource value and 

ownership at the community level. 

DWNP Research portfolio should be 

focused on strengthening monitoring 

activities and focusing the research 

agenda to outcomes based approach in 

predator management.


8 Vegetation 

resources 

management 

9 Settlement 

development 

planning 

10 Sustainable landuse 

11 Waste 

management 

12 

92 

Sustainable 

livestock 

management 

Ensure sustainable management 

of vegetation resources and 

resolution of conflicts: 

Settlement development plan 

for the village of Shakawe, as 

pilot for other settlement and 

infrastructure plans across the 

unique environment of the 


Lack of an integrated land use 

plan 

Develop a solid and liquid waste 

management system for the OD 

<strong>Ramsar</strong> Site. 

Ensure sustainable management 

of livestock and the concomitant 

conservation of wildlife: 

Undertake biomass assessment The bio-mass assessment has been undertaken, 

the report is still being compiled 

Undertake a vegetation profiling 

survey 

Undertake baseline survey of rare 

and endangered plant species 

The vegetation profiling survey has been 

undertaken and the report is still being compiled 

The study has been completed and an action plan 

developed for the protection of the species 

(ODMP – Assessment of occurrence and 

distribution of threatened and endangered plant 

species in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site, 2006) 

Undertake baseline survey of alien 

and invasive plant species 

Study to be undertaken. 

Develop a vegetation management To be consolidated after completion of bio-mass 

plan 

assessment, vegetation profiling and study on 

alien and invasive plant species. 

Develop a fire management plan The plan has been drawn 

Prepare Shakawe settlement plan 

Develop an integrated land use 

management plan of the entire 

<strong>Ramsar</strong> site. 

Develop a waste management 

strategy for the district. 

Mount public education on disease 

control strategies 

Assess the buffalo fence 

maintenance programme 

Assess feasibility of providing 

livestock watering points away 

from <strong>Delta</strong> to reduce livestock 

wildlife interactions. 

The plan has been drawn and is awaiting input 

from the Tourism component (ODMP – Land Use 

and Land <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>, 2005). 

Implementation of the Action <strong>Plan</strong> to 

conserve the species has been 

recommended.

3.7.2 MANAGEMENT INTERVENTIONS DURING THE 

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PLAN 

3.7.2.1 Criteria for prioritising management interventions 

A prioritisation exercise was done during the Framework <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ning 

Phase to select a maximum of three key issues per sector. Operational objectives to 

address these key issues are translated further into activities which constitute the 

ODMP action plan. 

The prioritization criteria used were based on elements which relate to the survival 

of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and the information required for management of the <strong>Delta</strong> 

respectively (ODMP – Framework <strong>Plan</strong> Backstopping Mission Report, 2005). 

Survival of the <strong>Delta</strong> 

The issues under this criterion are critical to the maintenance of the ecosystem, for 

example, determination of carrying capacities for both range and tourism, 

reduction of certain animal species, human-wildlfie conflicts, eutrophication and 

reduction in inflows due to potential abstructions and daming upstream. 

Information required for ODRS management decisions 

There is evidence of baseline information gaps which should inform management 

decisions. The deficiencies in information include lack of reliable data, insight into 

the functioning of the <strong>Delta</strong>’s ecosystem and its interaction with human wellbeing. 

Table 3.2 presents the selected priority issues and the interventions that will be 

undertaken during the implementation of the plan 

93

Table 3-2: Priority issues to be addressed during the implementation of the plan 

No. Component Key issues 

1 Policy, planning and 

strategy 

2 Dialogue, 

communication and 

networking 

3 

Research, data 


participatory planning 

4 Hydrology & water 

resources 

5 Wildlife management 

6 Sustainable tourism 

and CBNRM 

1.1 There is need to establish a DEA office in Ngamiland and strengthen its capacity to coordinate and 

monitor the implementation of the ODMP. 

1.2 There is need to harmonize legislation and policies applicable to the ODRS. 

1.3 There is need to ensure that plans, programmes and development activities in the ODRS are guided 

by a common and shared vision for the ODRS. 

1.4 There is need to facilitate the approval of Draft National Wetlands Policy and Strategy by Parliament. 

1.5 There is need to establish the non-use economic values for the ODRS 

2.1 There is need to establish effective communication amongst stakeholders at all levels. 

2.2 Cross-cutting issues such as HIV/AIDS, Gender and Poverty need to be mainstreamed into the 

ODMP process 

3.1 Difficulties in obtaining, updating and accessing existing information for resource planning and 

management in the ODRS need to be addressed. 

3.2 Uncertainties about stakeholders continuing to meaningfully participate in the implementation of the 

ODMP need to be addressed. 

3.3 Research in the ODRS needs to be coordinated. 

4.1 The need to manage channel blockages to sustain communities access to livelihood activities 

4.2 Water quality and sedimentation monitoring needs to be improved 

4.3 There is need to continue to engage Namibia and Angola in the sustainable use of the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

River Basin. 

5.1 The human/wildlife conflicts continue to be a problem and need to be addressed. 

5.2 There is need to carry out baseline surveys on keystone species. 

5.3 The limited awareness of the ecological impacts of tourism activities in the ODRS need to be 

addressed. 

5.4 Lake Ngami needs to be declared a bird sanctuary 

5.5 The existing and potential breeding sites for slate egret need to be protected. 

6.1 There is need to address the possible impacts of tourism activities on the ODRS ecosystem. 

6.2 The level of citizen participation in the tourism sector needs to be improved. 

6.3 The tourism products need to be diversified from being wildlife based to other areas. 

6.4 There is need to build the capacity of communities for delivering management and sustainable use 

of natural resources 

No. Component Key issues 

7 Sustainable fisheries 7.1 Manpower capacity of the fisheries division needs to be addressed 

utilization & 7.2 The inadequacy of base line data on fish stocks in the ODRS needs to be addressed. 

management 7.3 The long standing problem of fisheries conflicts need to be resolved. 

8 Vegetation resources 8.1 There is need to reduce the impact and frequency of uncontrolled veld fires. 

management 

8.2 Vegetation degradation by wildlife needs to be assessed 

8.3 Overgrazing by livestock needs to be addressed 

8.4 Sustainable use of veld products need to be addressed 

9 Settlement 

development 

planning 

9.1 Capacity to monitor infrastructural developments needs to be improved. 

10 Sustainable land-use 10.1 Haphazard and delays in land allocations as well as poor record keeping need to be reduced. 

10.2 Traditional access rights to natural resources in concession areas need to be upheld. 

10.3 The level of inspections to ensure adherence to lease conditions need to be improved 

11 Waste management 11.1 The solid waste collection services within the ODRS need to be improved. 

11.2 The solid and liquid waste infrastructure in the district needs to be improved. 

11.3 The institutional capacity of the district waste management needs to be improved 

12 Livestock 

12.1 The livestock/wildlife interactions need to be reduced. 

<strong>Management</strong> 12.2The risk of Tsetse re-infestation needs to be reduced. 

3.7.2.2 Development of thematic areas for integrated management planning 

In order to move away from sectoral planning to integrated management planning, 

the analysis in this section demonstrates the inherent need for inter-sectoral 

interventions to address the priority issues during the <strong>Plan</strong> implementation. 

To facilitate this process, a further analysis was carried out on the issues with 

regards to the type of management interventions required. The analysis revealed 

that the issues fell into three broad areas. These areas were management, natural 

resources base and natural resources use and these required institutional, biophysical 

and socio-economic approaches in their intervention respectively. For 

94

expediency in planning, it is worth noting that the three agreed thematic areas are 

not distinct but rather they overlap. 

The management interventions were clustered into three thematic areas and seven 

sub-thematic areas in order to ensure a collaborative approach and integrated 

management planning. The process of clustering is described in the ODMP – 

Framework <strong>Plan</strong> Backstopping Mission Report (2005). The clustering is given in 

Table 3-3. 

Table 3-3: Clustering of issues for integrated management planning purpose 

Thematic 

Areas 

Institutional 

Bio - 

Physical 

Socioeconomic 

95 

Sub-thematic area Key issues 


strengthening 

Regulatory and 

planning framework 

Regulatory and 


Communication, 

Education and Public 

Awaress 


Conservation 

Restoration of 

ecosystem 

Sustainable Use of 


Livelihoods 

Improvement 

1.1 There is need to establish a regional DEA office in Ngamiland and strengthen its capacity to 

coordinate and monitor the implementation of the ODMP. 

6.4 There is need to build the capacity of communities for delivering management and 

sustainable use of natural resources 

7.1 Manpower capacity of the fisheries division needs to be addressed 

9.1 Capacity to monitor infrastructural developments needs to be improved. 

11.1 The solid waste collection services within the ODRS need to be improved. 

11.2 The solid and liquid waste infrastructure in the district needs to be improved. 

11.3 The institutional capacity of the district waste management needs to be improved 

1.2 There is need to harmonise legislation and policies applicable to the ODRS. 

1.3 There is need to ensure that plans, programmes and development activities in the ODRS are 

guided by a common and shared vision for the ODRS. 

1.4 There is need to facilitate the approval of Draft National Wetlands Policy and Strategy not by 

Parliament. 

3.1 Difficulties in obtaining, updating and accessing existing information for resource planning 

and management in the ODRS need to be addressed. 

3.3 Research in the ODRS needs to be coordinated. 

7.3 The long standing problem of fisheries conflicts need to be resolved. 

10.1 Haphazard and delays in land allocations as well as poor record keeping need to be 

reduced. 

2.1 There is need to establish effective communication amongst ODMP stakeholders at all levels 

during plan implementation. 

3.2 Uncertainties about stakeholders continuing to meaningfully participate in the 

implementation of the ODMP need to be addressed. 

4.3 There is need to continue to engage Namibia and Angola in the sustainable use of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> River Basin. 

5.3 The limited awareness of the ecological impacts of tourism activities in the ODRS need to be 

addressed. 

4.2 Water quality and sedimentation monitoring needs to be improved 

5.2 There is need to carry out baseline surveys on keystone species. 

5.4 Lake Ngami needs to be declared a bird sanctuary 

5.5he existing and potential breeding sites for slate egret need to be protected. 

7.2 The inadequacy of base line data on fish stocks in the ODRS needs to be addressed. 

8.1 There is need to reduce the impact and frequency of uncontrolled veld fires. 

8.2 Vegetation degradation by wildlife needs to be assessed 

8.3 Overgrazing by livestock needs to be addressed 

12.3 The risk of Tsetse re-infestation needs to be reduced. 

1.5 There is need to establish the non-use economic values for the ODRS 

6.1 There is need to address the possible impacts of tourism activities on the ODRS ecosystem. 

7.3 The long standing problem of fisheries conflicts need to be resolved. 

8.4 Sustainable use of veld products need to be addressed 

2.2 Cross-cutting issues such as HIV/AIDS, Gender and Poverty need to be mainstreamed into 

the ODMP process 

4.1 The need to manage channel blockages to sustain communities access to livelihood activities 

5.1 The human/wildlife conflicts continue to be a problem and need to be addressed. 

6.2 The level of citizen participation in the tourism sector needs to be improved. 

6.3 The tourism products need to be diversified from being wildlife based to other areas. 

10.2 Traditional access rights to natural resources in concession areas need to be upheld. 

12.2 The livestock/wildlife interactions need to be reduced.

3.7.2.3 Proposed criteria for future priority setting 

One of the guiding principles of the ODMP is that the plan should be dynamic and 

adaptive to address emerging issues during implementation or recommendations 

from studies undertaken during its development phase. In order to guide future 

priority setting of issues, the recommended criteria, in order of importance is given 

in Table 3-4. 

Table 3-4: Criteria for future priority setting 

Priority Criteria Notes 

I Survival of the <strong>Delta</strong> with collaborative (inter- This relates to an issue critical to the survival of the <strong>Delta</strong> being 

sectoral) approach 

addressed by more than one sector. 

II Livelihoods improvement with collaborative This relates to issues targeting economic upliftment of people in 

approach 

the <strong>Delta</strong> 

III Survival of the <strong>Delta</strong> with sectoral approach Issue critical to the health of the <strong>Delta</strong> addressed by one secto.r 

IV Livelihoods improvement with sectoral 

Generation of immediate benefits to the targeted groups in the 

approach 

<strong>Delta</strong> 

V Improvement of knowledge through inter- Encourages learning and broadens planning capacity across 

disciplinary approach 

disciplines 

VI Sectoral improvement of knowledge Improved efficiency on targeted sectoral programmes 

3.7.2.4 Proposed tool for evaluating and ranking land use optins/activities 

The current land use activites and options in the delta have hitherto been largely 

compatible with the principles of wise-use and sustainability. It is recognised 

however that the situation may change in the future. In order to make optimum 

use of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and its resources there is a need to develop a 

mechanism to evaluate and rank these activities in a more transparent and 

objective manner. Table 3-5 presents a matrix to evaluate and rank future activites 

that should take place in the ODRS. This provides a way of analysing the impact of 

a particular programme/land use activitiy on the environment, social issues and 

economic returns of such an activity. This tool should be used in conjunction with 

the criteria outlined in section 3.7.2.3 above. 

96

Table 3-5: Matrix for evaluating and ranking land use options/activities in the future 

LAND USE 

ACTIVITY/OPTION 

FISHING 

IRRIGATION 

ARABLE FARMING 

MOLAPO FARMING 

VELDT PRODUCT 

HARVESTING 

LIVESTOCK 

FARMING 

GAME 

RESERVES/WILDLIFE 

MANAGEMENT 

AREAS 

WATER 

DEVELOPMENT 

PROJECTS 

TOURISM 

HUNTING 

97 

SCALE OF 

USE/ 

OPERATION 

Subsistance 

Commercial 

Recreational/ 

sport 

Small scale 

Large scale 

Subsistance 

Commercial 

Subsistance 

Commercial 

Subsistance 

Commercial 

Hydropower 

Large scale 

abstraction 

Large scale 

obstruction 

Low volume 

High volume 

Safari 

Subsistance 

SUSTAINABILITY 

CRITERIA – 

ENVIRONMENTAL 

IMPACT 

WEIGH 

TED 

SCORE 

SOCIAL 

BENEFITS 

ECONOMIC 

BENEFITS 

AGGREGATE 

SCORE 

The key that should be used is as follows: 

Environmental sustainability 

1 = Low negative impact on the sustainability of the <strong>Delta</strong> in the medium to 

long term (negligible) 

2 = Moderate negative impact on the sustainability of the <strong>Delta</strong> in the medium 

to long term (Low mitigation measures) 

3 = High negative impact on the sustainability in the medium to long term 

(intense mitigation would be reqired) 

4 = Severe negative impact on the sustainability of the <strong>Delta</strong> in the medium to 

long term (irreversible damage) 

Social Benefits 

It is important when using this criterion to define what is meant by social benefits 

(e.g distribution, equity and access to benefits, etc.) 

1 = High social benefits

2 = Moderate social benefits 

3 = Low social benefits 

Economic and financial returns 

1 = High economic/financial returns 

2 = Moderate economic returns 

3 = Low economic returns 

Projects which score higher should be discouraged and it is also recommended that 

the three criterion be weighted to enhance decision making process. Projects which 

would contribute to the maintenance of the wetland ecosystem should carry a 

higher weight. 

3.7.2.5 Demonstrations/Pilot activities 

The hotspots approach is a method used to identify ideas which canbe tested in 

pilot projects that address some of the key issues. The approach in this respect 

took into consideration the following key elements: devolvement of management 

responsibilities to communities, capacity building, enhanced level of understanding 

of the ecosystem dynamics, potential for sustainability, enhanced livelihood status, 

potential for resolving conflicts, opportunities for learning and replication. Table 

3-6 and Figure 3-1 describe and illustrate the ten chosen interventions and their 

locations respectively. 

Table 3-6: Pilot projects to test management options 

Theme Key Issues Proposed Pilot Sites 

Improved Fisheries 

<strong>Management</strong> 

98 

Conflict emanating from uncoordinated use of common fishing grounds 

by both commercial and angling lodges as well as the perceptions on 

the status of the <strong>Okavango</strong> fish stocks. An improved fisheries 

management system will be developed and tested which will include 

conflict resolution and monitoring of fish stocks. 

Veld Resources <strong>Management</strong> Veld product harvesting for both commercial and subsistence use in 

concession and communal areas is highly unregulated and as a result 

creates conflict among users. The conflict leads to over-harvesting of 

resources and hence impacts negatively on biodiversity. 

Riparian Woodland Monitoring 

(Intervention by OWBC 

project 

Monitoring of the tourism 

impacts 

There is a concern that riparian woodlands are being affected by 

anthropogenic factors, herbivory and other natural processes such as 

climate change. A pilot project to establish baseline, monitoring indices 

and carry out monitoring of riparian woodlands (recruitment rates, 

structure, composition, crown cover, etc.) will be developed to address 

this concern. Monitoring is to be carried out by the tourism 

establishments and local communities. 

The Governement of Botswana (through the ODMP) will provide funds 

to develop a comprehensive District Tourism Strategy that 

encompasses tourism guidelines, and Limits to Acceptable Change 

(LAC) criteria. GEF funded BIOKAVANGO project will complement the 

tourism private sector and GOB resources to strengthen capacity of the 

tour operators to incorporate biodiversity considerations in systematic 

monitoring of impacts and adapt management practices at the CHA 

and district level. This will include identification of biodiversity indices 

and training of tour operator personnel in monitoring. In community 

concession areas monitoring is already being carried by DWNP through 

<strong>Management</strong> Oriented Monitoring Systems (MOMS) which are being 

piloted in community managed CHAs. 

Panhandle up to 

Samochima 

1. Tubu/area NG 25 

2. Shorobe/area NG 32 

1. along the Boro River 

2. Chitabe/Santawane area 

(Gomoti/Santantadibe 

channels) 

Sites to be agreed upon 

with the tourism operations

Theme Key Issues Proposed Pilot Sites 

Solid and liquid waste 

Manual Control of Salvinia 

molesta 

Clearing of small access 

channels 

Active Use and <strong>Management</strong> 

of Fire by Resource users 

Human/Elephant Conflict 

99 

Solid and liquid waste management systems in tourism facilities and 

villages in and around the <strong>Delta</strong> are of concern. Some tourism 

establishments are deep in the <strong>Delta</strong> and the terrain and structure 

makes it difficult to access waste collection facilities. The waste 

management costs are therefore high and in some cases discourage 

waste management efforts of such establishments. Waste collection 

services are not widely provided to all settlements especially the ungazetted 

ones. 

a) A sewage effluent polishing system which utilises locally available 

wetland resources will be designed and tested in some tourism 

establishments. This system should be ecologically sound, affordable 

and easy to implement in tourism facilities. 

b) A pilot project surrounding solid waste management in one or more 

ungazetted settlements in the eastern panhandle. 

People have observed that the biological control alone is not effective 

and suggested a combination of physical and biological control. Manual 

control of Salvinia molesta could improve access to wetlands goods 

and services thereby increasing income generation opportunities for 

local communities to alleviate poverty. 

There is a growing concern from local resource users that access 

channels are being blocked. A pilot project to unblock small access 

channels to certain areas or resources that communities are dependent 

on will be developed. This intervention would enhance livelihoods 

opportunities in several sectors such as fishing, veld products 

harvesting, tourism (poling), etc. This project will bring together 

different sectors (water, vegetation, tourism, etc) and therefore 

addresses the integration aspect which is one of the key principles of 

the project. This intervention will improve accessibility for the collection 

of raw material of craft production mainly used by women 

According to the Herbage Preservation Act, it is illegal and punishable 

by law to set the veld on fire on land that one does not have legal 

rights over. However local resource users (communities and tourism 

operators) see and use fire as a traditional management tool and this 

leads to uncontrolled burning in terms of area affected and timing. 

Many different sectors have expressed an interest in the use of fire to 

manage resources, e.g. fishermen, photographic and hunting tourism, 

reed harvesters, etc. In a pilot project responsibility could be given to 

communities and safari operators to manage fire and monitor its 

impact. The multi-sectoral approach will be applied as a resource 

management strategy. 

The increasing human-elephant interaction is one of the key issues 

raised by local communities throughout the consultative process. Novel 

ways to reduce human-elephant conflict are being tried elsewhere 

(Caprivi Strip) but such interventions should be tried specifically in the 

Ngamiland context. Local knowledge should be used to identify various 

factors influencing elephant migration and map migration routes to 

guide land allocation processes and inform alignment of fences and 

other regional planning decisions in a way that reduces incidents of 

human/elephant conflict. 

Tourism and CBNRM Tourism and CBNRM was considered to be another area which requires 

intervention by a pilot project. The current eco-tourism activities within 

the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site are predominantly wildlife based. The communities 

have expressed the need to venture into tourism while on the other 

hand there are concerns that wildlife tourism might be over subscribed. 

It is from the foregoing that Department of Tourism is encouraging the 

diversification of the tourism product into other areas such as cultural 

tourism. 

<strong>Okavango</strong> Polers Trust – 

Seronga and Thuso 

Rehabilitation Centre. 

Eastern Panhandle 

South Eastern <strong>Delta</strong> 

Western <strong>Delta</strong> fringes 

NG 11 - The Tovera area is 

unique in that it is affected 

by cross-border fires from 

Namibia and the 

communities in this area 

use it for harvesting 

thatching grass 

Alternative - Concession 

area in the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

Eastern Panhandle 

1. Tsodilo 

2. Eastern Panhandle 

The project could only fund three pilot projects. The lessons drawn from these 

projects will guide future management options. The projects are: 

• Tsodilo community cultural tourism,

• clearing of small access channels to improve livelihoods within the zone NG24 

for Jakotsha Community Trust and 

• liquid waste vegetation based polishing system at Thuso Lutheran 

Rehabilation Centre in Maun. 

The mobilisation and full implantation of the three projects was concluded in 

December 2006. Positive results are being obtained from the implementation of 

these projects. The projects are intended to be sustainable in the long-term. 

Figure 3-1: Map of Pilot Projects/Demonstration Sites in the ODRS 

100

101 

4 GOALS, OBJECTIVES AND ACTION PLANS 

The process of developing objectives has involved identifying the long-term 

objectives or principal/ideal objectives, which for purpose of alignment with 

Botswana government planning guidelines and nomenclature have been called 

strategic goals. The development of these goals is based on the evaluation of the 

status of the ecosystem resources as described in Chapter 3. 

The strategic goals represent what needs to be achieved and set a broad, balanced 

framework from which to design and develop strategic and operational objectives 

as well as management action plans. This presents a hierarchy in descending order 

through which the evaluation process and emerging issues can now be addressed. 

This process will lead to specific and distinct management interventions directed at 

addressing identified hotspots or management issues, both in the immediate future 

and the long term. 

The attainment of these goals requires close partnership and collaboration between 

all stakeholders, enhanced awareness of the long-term benefits, supporting 

legislation and an enforcement framework as well as a strengthened institutional 

base. 

The strategic goals are supported by strategic objectives. The potential to achieve 

these objectives is weighed against a set of constraints or limitations. These 

limitations do not change the objectives but they do change the way in which they 

are achieved and this is defined by operational objectives. These operational 

objectives form the basis for individual management activities. 

4.1 DEVELOPMENT OF STRATEGIC GOALS 

The ODMP sets out to practically demonstrate the application of the ecosystem 

approach in wetland management. The principles of this approach are in 

agreement with the national wetlands management framework as contained in the 

Draft National Wetland Policy and Strategy. 

Under the ecosystem approach, the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site is treated as an 

ecosystem comprising three subsystems, the institutional, bio-physical and socioeconomic 

subsystems. These are depicted as an overlap of three circles where each 

circle represents one of the three subsystems (Figure 4-1). It illustrates not only the 

interdependence of these subsystems as shown by the overlapping parts, it also 

underlines the fact that ecosystem management is not about the natural system 

alone, but about the entire complex of nature, people and their management 

systems. 

The institutional subsystem describes the institutions and the management tools 

(e.g. legislative instruments), employed at the different levels (from the local level 

up to the international level). 

The bio-physical subsystem is composed of the abiotic and biotic components and 

their interactions that constitute what often is referred to as the natural system. 

The socio-economic subsystem includes the different uses that man makes of the 

components of the bio-physical subsystem. These are often referred to as the 

ecosystem products and services, which man is dependant upon.

The overall goal of the ODMP sets the basis for integrated management planning 

within which the three subsystems are subsumed. 

The overall goal of the management plan of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site is “to 

integrate resource management for the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> that will ensure its long-term 

conservation and that will provide benefits for the present and future well being of 

the people, through sustainable use of its natural resources". 

The following strategic goals have been developed for each subsystem: 

The strategic goal for the institutional subsystem is “to establish viable institutional 

arrangements to support integrated resource management in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> at 

local, district, national and international (River Basin) levels”. 

The strategic goal for the bio-physical subsystem is “to ensure the long-term 

conservation of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and the provision of existing ecosystem services 

for the benefit of all the organisms depending on it”. 

The strategic goal for the socio-economic subsystem is “to sustainably use the 

natural resources of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> in an equitable way and support the 

livelihoods of all stakeholders”. 

Bio-physical Subsystem 

- abiotic and 

biotic components 

and their 

interactions -natural 

System. 

Figure 4-1: Ecosystem subsystems 

4.2 DEVELOPMENT OF STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES 

Strategic objectives provide a framework for achieving strategic goals and at the 

same time integrating sectoral operational objectives. Their development involves a 

102 

Ecosystem – <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

Bio -physical Institutional 

Socio-economic 

Socio-economic sub-system- 

human uses of the components of 

the bio-physical subsystem 


Sub-system - 

institutions and 

their tools that 

manage the 

system at the 

different levels

process of analysing the strategic goals to determine how they can be attained and 

at another level how sectoral operational objectives can be packaged to reach the 

strategic objectives. The strategic objectives for the three subsystems are presented 

below. 

4.2.1 STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES FOR THE INSTITUTIONAL SUBSYSTEM 

The strategic goal for institutional subsystem has three elements; the management 

infrastructure (institutions, related manpower and financial resources), 

management tools (policies, laws, regulations) and communication. 

Strategic Goal: 

• To establish viable institutional arrangements to support integrated resource 

management in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> at local, district, national and international 

(River Basin) levels. 

Strategic Objectives: 

• To establish viable management institutions for the sustainable management of 


• To improve the planning and regulatory framework for sustainable management 

of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 

• To raise public awareness, enhance knowledge and create a platform for 

information exchange and learning about the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 

4.2.2 STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES FOR THE BIO-PHYSICAL SUBSYSTEM 

The strategic goal for the subsystem has elements of maintenance and 

conservation of biodiversity, monitoring of biodiversity as well as restoration and 

rehabilitation of wetland habitat and ecosystem that characterize the <strong>Okavango</strong> 


Strategic Goal: 

• To ensure the long-term conservation of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and the provision 

of existing ecosystem services for the benefit of all organisms dependent on it”. 

Strategic Objectives 

• To conserve the biotic and abiotic functions of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, and the 

interactions between them. 

• To maintain or restore the wetland habitats and ecosystems of the <strong>Okavango</strong> 


4.2.3 STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES FOR THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC 

SUBSYSTEM 

The strategic goal for this subsystem relates to the sustainable use of the <strong>Delta</strong> 

resources as well as derivation of benefits from the use of the resources and these 

are given in table 

Strategic Goal 

• To sustainably use the natural resources of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> in an equitable 

way and support the livelihoods of all stakeholders. 

103

Strategic Objectives 

• To sustainably use the wetland resources of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> for the longterm 

benefit of all stakeholders. 

• to develop socio-economic opportunities to improve livelihoods of the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> stakeholders. 

4.3 STRENGTHS-WEAKNESSES-OPPORTUNITIES-THREATS 

(SWOT) ANALYSIS 

The SWOT analysis involves close examination of factors that are likely to 

constrain or limit achievement of the strategic objectives through a Strengths, 

Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) analysis. SWOT is a simple 

framework for generating realistic and achievable sets of operational objectives and 

associated management actions from a situational analysis. This approach to 

evaluation focuses on internal and external environments. 

The internal analysis is a comprehensive evaluation of the internal environment’s 

potential strengths and weakness, whilst external evaluation provides the external 

environment opportunities and threats. 

When developing the operational objectives and the associated actions, the 

interaction between the four columns of the SWOT profile become important. The 

strengths can be leveraged to pursue opportunities and reduce threats, and at the 

same time planners and managers can be alerted to the weaknesses that may need 

to be overcome in order to successfully pursue the opportunities. 

The weaknesses in general form the basis for the development of operational 

objectives and actions using the available strengths and opportunities. The threats 

become the risks or assumptions. 

4.3.1 INSTITUTIONAL SWOT ANALYSIS 

The SWOT analysis is given in Figure 4-1. The environmental profiling for the 

institutional subsystem indicates that institutions with clear mandates are in 

place. These institutions enjoy government support and some, such as government 

departments and certain NGOs, have a relatively good financial base and access to 

external funding. The major threat to the institutional strengthening is the zero 

growth moratorium, which government has put on the public sector and competing 

needs for financial support such as HIV and AIDS. However, with the advent of 

privatisation policy, strong private sector, NGOs and Community Based Orga 

nisations (CBOs), the manpower capacity could be augmented by taking advantage 

of these opportunities and strengths. 

Botswana being a stable country with a record of good governance and prudent 

fiscal management as well as high credit rating, can benefit from opportunities for 

external funding. These opportunities are to a large extent negated by the middle 

income status of Botswana accorded by the international community. 

104

Table 4-1: Institutional Subsystem SWOT Analysis 

Strategic Goal: To establish viable institutional arrangements to support integrated resource management in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> at 

local, district, national and international (River Basin) levels. 

Strategic Objective 1.1: To establish viable management institutions for the sustainable management of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats 

Well established institutions 

(govt., NGO, CBO, private) 

105 

Manpower capacity 

limitation 

Clear mandates Poor institutional 

collaboration and 

communication as well as 

uncoordinated planning 

Good financial support for 

govt. institutions 

Organized community 

governance structures 

(Village Development 

Committees (VDC), Bogosi 

(chieftainship), Councillors, 

etc) 

High level of interest from 

institutions (private sector, 

communities, etc.) 

Inadequate financial 

resources 

Conflicts amongst and 

within community 

structures such as CBOs 

and VDCs 

Conflict amongst 


stakeholders emanating 

from resource utilization 

and management 

Political support Zero growth moratorium 

Good governance Staff turnover due to 

transfers and resignation, 

furthering education 

Access to external funding Financial ceilings and 

competing needs for funds 

Structured national and district 


Regional governance structures in 

place (OKACOM) 

Inadequate transport Collaboration with other initiatives 

Strong private sector base 

Possibility of outsourcing through 

private policy 

Limited external supp ort due 

to Botswana’s development 

status as middle income 

Strategic Obective 1.2: To improve the planning and regulatory framework for sustainable management of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 


Good coverage of laws, 

policies, plans and 

strategies 

Legislative and policy 

formulation participatory 

Capacity to formulate 

policies and acts 

Gaps, conflicts in regulatory 

framework 

Long lead time for policy 

formulation and enactment 

Unclear institutional roles in 

enforcement 

Inadequacy of legislative 

framework in punitive 

measures 

Legislative framework not 

subjected to SEA 

Manpower and financial 

constraints to implement 

and monitor legislative 

instruments 

Support from the international 

community by being signatory to 

several conventions 

Willingness by govt. to 

harmonize regulatory 

framework 

SEA is provided for in the EIA Act Limited manpower capacity to 

undertake SEA 

Democratically elected legislative 

body 

Provisions of certain 

conventions not in line with 

the country’s development 

objectives (e.g. “elephant 

problem”) 

Independent judicial system Regional disharmony of 

regulatory framework 

National vision as a blue print for 

sustainable development 

Uncertainty of the future of 

OKACOM.

Strategic Object 1.3: To raise public awareness, enhance knowledge and create a platform for information exchange and learning 

about the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 


Access to public/private 

media 

Some level of outreach 

programmes in place 

ODMP Communication 

strategy in place 

Funds available to support 


communication strategy for 

two years. 

106 

Limited coverage by radio, 

electronic and print media 

Inadequate coverage of 

communications 

infrastructure 

Limitation of certain 

communication tools (e.g 

kgotla) 

Accessibility to certain parts 

of the area 

Inadequate skilled 

communication personnel 

Presence of Public Relations officers 

in government departments 

Presence of NGOs and CBOs to 

facilitate communication 

High national and international 

profile of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

Trans-boundary river basin forms the 

basis for engaging with other riparian 

states 

Mistrust 

Low literacy level 

HIV and AIDS 

Sustainability of funds for 

communication 

Lack of buy-in of the 

communication strategy by 

riparian states 

A major strength with the regulatory framework is that there is a good coverage of 

legislative instruments such as multi-lateral environmental agreements, acts, 

policies, plans and strategies. The major weakness is that some of these have gaps 

in terms of addressing environmental issues, whilst others are conflicting as well 

as limited enforcement. The greatest challenge is that of getting commitment from 

government institutions to harmonise these legislative instruments. 

In terms of raising public awareness on the importance of wise use of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> ecosystem, some institutions have outreach programmes and in 

addition a two year fully funded communication strategy is in place. There are 

opportunities for collaboration with other riparian states through the OKACOM 

process. Though the OKACOM agreement is in place, the challenge is the buy-in of 

the riparian states as well as uncertainties about of OKACOM. Another challenge is 

the sustainability of the continued engagement of stakeholders at all levels in 

terms of availability of manpower and financial resources in the long term. 

4.3.2 BIO-PHYSICAL SWOT ANALYSIS 

The analysis is given in Table 4-2. In summary, the environmental profile for the 

bio-physical sub-system reflects that the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is almost in a pristine 

state. The conservation status of the <strong>Delta</strong> can be enhanced through enforcement 

of existing legislative instruments especially in non-protected areas, and the 

opportunities provided by existing multi-lateral environmental agreements as well 

as building upon traditional conservation knowledge within communities in the 

<strong>Delta</strong>. There is also the need to ensure that environmental management plans are 

developed and implemented through the provisions of the EIA Act of 2005. 

A major gap in the conservation and rehabilitation of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> natural 

resources is the understanding of the dynamics of the ecosystem. There is a need 

to enhance the capacity of those institutions dedicated to management of specific 

abiotic and biotic features to collect baseline information as well as implement the 

existing <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> research strategy.

Table 4-2: Bio-physical System SWOT Analysis 

Strategic Goal 2: To ensure the long-term conservation of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and the provision of existing ecosystem services 

Objective 2.1: To conserve the biotic and abiotic functions of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, and the interactions between them 


High biodiversity Fragility (adapted to low 

nutrient) 

107 

Conservation guided by CBD, 

<strong>Ramsar</strong>, CITES, WHC, etc. 

Relatively pristine System not well understood Presence of HOORC and other 

national and international research 

institutions 

High resilience (flow 

dynamics, variety of 

habitats) 

Presence of high profile and 

indicator species 

Certain national 

departments dedicated to 

management of specific 

biotic and abiotic aspects of 

the system 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> Research 

strategy in place 

Limited financial and human 

resources to implement and 

monitor conservation 

measures 

Presence of globally 

Threatened and 

endangered species 

Unsustainable and illegal 

water abstraction 

Limited baseline information 

on the components of 

ecosystem (physical and 

biological and their 

interactions) 

Govt commitment to synergise 

related conventions 

Negative impacts of upstream 

developments 

Climate change 

International trade in endangered species 

Incompatible trans-boundary activities 

(fires, land use) 

High poverty levels 

Potential changes in land use (e.g. mining, 

irrigation agriculture) 

Endemic species Increasing and unregulated tourism 

Availability of traditional 

knowledge on conservation 

Availability of legislative 

instruments (herbage 

preservation act etc) 

Large parts of the system 

fall under protected areas 

Strategic objective 2.2: To maintain or restore the wetland habitats and ecosystems of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

Availability of legislative 

instruments (herbage 

preservation act, waste 

management, EIA, etc) 

Presence of threatened and 

endangered species 

Willingness of communities to 

participate in management (e.g. 

trusts) 

Eradication of Tsetse – its presence was 

barrier to human encroachment and 

removal of tsetse from the ecosystem. 

Increasing self-drives – vehicle traffic 

Relatively pristine High elephant population Inadequate monitoring of implementation 

of environmental management plans.f for 

development projects 

Certain departments 

dedicated to restorative 

interventions (e.g. DWA – 

Aquatic weed control) 

Buffalo fence prevents 

human/livestock 

encroachment 

Current land use practices 

compatible with 

conservation 

Inappropriate waste 

handling and disposal 

practices 

Topography of the <strong>Delta</strong> 

(very flat) makes impacts of 

minor disturbance huge 

(construction of bridges, 

road network 

Introduction of invasive species 

Outbreak of diseases

4.3.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC SWOT ANALYSIS 

The analysis is given in Table 4-3. The environmental profiling derived from the 

above table indicates that the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> has a very good natural resource 

base. Most natural resources are used within their generative capacities. 

Table 4-3: Socio-economic Subsystem SWOT Analysis 

Strategic Goal 3: To sustainably use the natural resources of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> in an equitable way and support the livelihoods of all 

stakeholders 

Strategic Objective 3.1 To sustainably use the wetland resources of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> for the long-term benefit of all stakeholders 


Good natural resources 

base 

Structures such as 

conservation committees in 

place 

Existence of CBNRM 

Programme 

Most of the natural 

resources are still within 

their regenerative capacity. 

High level of indigenous 

traditional knowledge on 

the use of the natural 

resources 

108 

Limited use regulations Diversification of CBNRM 

offerings 

Limited understanding of 

wise-use concept 

Disempowerment of traditional 

leaders in regulating resource 

use. 

Over-harvesting of some 

resources resulting in reduced 

regenerative capacity. 

Multi-lateral environmental 

agreements which facilitate wise 

use. 

Conservation legislative 

instruments in place 

Eradication of Tsetse fly has 

resulted in increased access to 

resources 

Largely open access natural 

resources management regime 

Lack of CBNRM Policy 

Recurrent droughts 

Increasing human population 

Outbreak of diseases 

Cross border off-take of resources 

High poverty levels 

Re-invasion of tsetse. 

Strategic Objective 3.2: To develop socio-economic opportunities to improve livelihoods of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> stakeholders 

Existence of CBNRM 

Programme 

Good tourism base Lack of business, marketing 

and management skills 

Good natural resources 

base 

Economic value of the <strong>Delta</strong> 

goods and services 

relatively well known 

Presence of NGOs and 

CBOs to facilitate use of 

resource for improving 

livelihoods 

Skewed benefit sharing Govt recognition of tourism for 

economic diversification 

Denial of traditional access 

rights 

Mistrust between tour 

operators and communities 

Sensitivity of the tourism 

industry to market forces 

Lack of capacity to determine 

the level of payable royalties 

Lack of compliance in 

maintaining the books of 

accounts within the country 

Availability of financial and skill 

enhancement programmes 

(CEDA, Enterprise Botswana, 

etc) 

Govt. commitment through 

policies on Rural Development 

as well as other investment 

policies (i.e. Direct Foreign 

Investment) in place 

Existence of Multi-lateral 

agreements and commitments 

such as UN Millennium 

Development Goals, World 

Summit on Sustainable 

Development 

Leakage of tourism benefits 

Lack of markets 

Globalization – resulting in 

competition 

Regional instability may negatively 

impact on tourism 

Increase in HIV and AIDS infections 

High level of illiteracy rate 

High poverty levels


109 

Limited knowledge on other 

livelihoods opportunities (high 

dependence on livestock and 

arable farming) 

Tendency of citizens to depend 

on government assistance. 

Gender bias towards males and 

lack of youth involvement. 

Outbreak of diseases 

High tourism capital investment 

These resources are spread over the four management regimes: open access, 

common property, state property and private property, but the dominant one is 

open access. Therefore the resources are available for both subsistence and 

commercial purposes. The opportunities availed by open access are negated by 

limited regulation in the use of some of these resources resulting in unsustainable 

off take. 

There are, to some extent, investment policies in place which stakeholders can take 

advantage of to use the natural resources to improve their livelihoods; however, 

this is counteracted by lack of entrepreneurial skills and low literacy levels. This 

has resulted in continued dependence on government assistance (drought relief 

programme, food baskets, etc) as well as traditional livelihood activities such as 

livestock and arable farming which are highly susceptible to drought and outbreak 

of diseases. 

The <strong>Delta</strong> has provided a good tourism base due to endowment of natural 

resources. Tourism is contributing to enhancement of livelihoods, however it faces 

a threat of being dependent on almost a single product line, which is wildlife. There 

is a need to counteract by taking advantage of the existing natural resource base. 

The other threat is that the sector is highly capital intensive resulting in low citizen 

participation. This has resulted in conflicts and mistrust due to inequitable benefit 

sharing from the utilization of the <strong>Delta</strong> resources. 

Communities are using the CBNRM programme to improve their livelihoods; the 

major hurdle is that there is no policy to support it. In addition to this the 

performance leaves much to be desired due to lack of business management and 

marketing skills as well as inequitable benefit sharing. 

4.4 DEVELOPMENT OF OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVES 

Operational objectives set the framework for converting the strategic objectives into 

a series of practical management measures within the context of the strengths, 

weaknesses, opportunities and threats reflected in Table 4.1 to 4.3. 

The development of operational objectives was linked to the strategic objectives and 

key issues given in Table 3.3. Therefore they were categorised according to 

strategic goals of the thematic areas and strategic objectives of the respective subthematic 

areas (Table 4-4).

Table 4-4: Operational Objectives to address key issues 

THEMATIC AREA: INSTITUTIONAL 







<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> s at 

local, district, national 

and international (River 

Basin) levels 

110 


management institutions 

for the sustainable 



To improve the planning 

and regulatory 

framework for 

sustainable 




establish a regional DEA 

office in ODRS and 

strengthen its capacity 

to coordinate and 



ODMP. 

I.1.2 There is need to build 

the capacity of 

communities for 

delivering management 

and sustainable use of 


I.1.3 Manpower capacity of 

the fisheries division 

needs to be addressed 

I.1.4 The solid waste 

collection services within 

the ODRS need to be 

improved. 

I.1.5 The solid and liquid 

waste infrastructure in 

the ODRS needs to be 

improved. 

I.1.6 The institutional capacity 

of the district waste 

management needs to 

be improved 

I.2.1 There is a need to 

harmonize legislation 

and policies applicable 

to the ODRS. 


ensure that plans, 

programmes and 

development activities in 

the ODRS are guided by 




facilitate the approval of 

the Draft National 

Wetlands Policy and 

Strategy by Parliament. 






ODRS. 



I.2.6 The long standing 

problem of fisheries 

conflicts needs to be 

resolved. 

I.2.7 Haphazard and delays in 

land allocations as well 

as poor record keeping 

need to be reduced. 

DEA to strengthen the capacity of the 

ODRS DEA office to coordinate and 

monitor implementation of the ODMP by 

March 2008 

NWDC to strengthen the capacity of the 

communities in the management and 

sustainable use of the natural resources 

by 2012 

DWNP to improve the manpower capacity 

in the Fisheries Division to sustainably 

manage the fish resources by 2012 

NWDC to improve solid waste collection 

within the ODRS 

NWDC to improve the solid and liquid 

waste infrastructure in the ODRS 

NWDC to improve the institutional 

capacity of the district waste 

management. 

DEA to facilitate the process of 

harmonizing legislation and policies 

applicable to the ODRS 

DEA to ensure that the common and 

shared vision of the ODRS guides the 

planning and programmes in the ODRS 

during the ODMP implementation 

DEA to facilitate approval of the Draft 

National Wetlands Policy and Strategy 

HOORC to improve accessibility and 

updating of data and information for 

resources planning and management 


recommendations of the Research 

Strategy 

DWNP to put in place fishery conflict 

resolution mechanisms 

TLB to allocate land in an orderly and 

timely manner through the use of a land 

management database.










Basin) levels 

THEMATIC AREA: BIO-PHYSICAL 

To ensure the long-term 

conservation of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and the 

provision of existing 

ecosystem services for 

the benefit of all 

organisms dependant on 

it 

111 

To raise public 

awareness, enhance 

knowledge and create a 

platform for information 

exchange and learning 

about the <strong>Okavango</strong> 


To conserve the biotic 

and abiotic functions of 

the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, and 

the interactions between 

them 

To maintain or restore 

the wetland habitats and 

ecosystems of the 



establish effective 


ODMP stakeholders at 

all levels during plan 



stakeholders continuing 

to meaningfully 

participate in the 


ODMP. 


continue to engage 

Namibia and Angola in 

the sustainable use of 

the <strong>Okavango</strong> River 

Basin. 

I.3.4 Limited awareness of 



ODRS. 



monitoring needs to be 

improved 

B.1.2 There is need to carry 

out baseline surveys on 




sanctuary 



for the slaty egret need 

to be protected. 

B.1.5 Inadequacy of base line 

data on fish stocks in 

the ODRS. 

B.2.1 Impact and frequency of 


B.2.2 Limited knowledge on 

the impact of large 


habitats 

DEA to promote effective communication 

amongst stakeholders. 

HOORC to provide participatory services to 

the ODMP implementing institutions. 

DEA to facilitate engagement of Angola 

and Namibia through the OKACOM 

process. 

DWNP to put in place an awareness 

raising campaign to reduce the negative 

ecological impacts of tourism activities in 

the ODRS 

DWA to improve the water quality and 

sedimentation monitoring 

DWNP to carry out baseline surveys on 


DWNP to facilitate the designation of Lake 

Ngami as a bird sanctuary 

DWNP to protect existing and potential 

breeding sites for the slaty egret 

DWNP to develop and implement fish 

stock monitoring programme 

DFRR to implement the guidelines relevant 

on appropriate fire management practices 

as contained in the Fire <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> 

DWNP to assess and mitigate the impact 

of large herbivores on sensitive habitats 

B.2.3 Overgrazing by livestock DAHP to reduce overgrazing developing 

and implementing range carrying capacity 

guidelines 

B.2.4 The risk of Tsetse reinfestation 

needs to be 

reduced. 

DAHP to reduce the risk of Tsetse reinfestation 

by promoting dialogue with 

Angola, Namibia and Zambia to create a 

tsetse free zone.

THEMATIC AREA: SOCIO-ECONOMIC 


T To sustainably use the 

natural resources of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> in an 

equitable way and 

support the livelihoods 

of all stakeholders 

112 

To sustainably use the 

wetland resources of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> for the 

long-term benefit of all 

stakeholders 

To develop socioeconomic 

opportunities 

to improve livelihoods of 


stakeholders 

4.5 ACTION PLAN 

S.1.1 There is a need to 

establish the non-use 


ODRS 

S.1.2 There is need to address 

the possible impacts of 

tourism activities on the 

ODRS ecosystem. 

S.1.3 Sustainable use of 

vegetation resources 

S.2.1 Cross-cutting issues 



need to be 

mainstreamed into the 

ODMP process 

S.2.2 <strong>Management</strong> of channel 

blockages to sustain 

communities access to 

livelihood activities 

S.2.3 The human/wildlife 

conflicts continue to be 

a problem. 

S.2.4 The level of citizen 


tourism sector needs to 

be improved. 

S.2.5 The tourism products 

need to be diversified 

from being wildlife 

based to other areas. 

S.2.6 Traditional access rights 

to natural resources in 

concession areas need 

to be upheld. 

S.2.7 The livestock/wildlife 

interactions need to be 

reduced. 

DEA to undertaken estimation of non-use 

economic values for the ODRS 

DoT to monitor and mitigate the impact of 


DFRR to develop regulations for 

sustainable use of vegetation resources 

DEA to prepare and implement guidelines 

for sectors to streamline HIV/AIDS, 

Gender and Poverty during ODMP 


DWA to manage small channel blocks 

primarily for communities access to 


DWNP to assess and mitigate the 

human/wildlife conflicts 


to enhance citizen participation in the 



for tourism product diversification 

TLB to ensure that traditional access 

rights to natural resources for subsistence 

in concession areas are respected 

DAH to develop programmes for the 

reduction of livestock/wildlife conflicts. 

The Action <strong>Plan</strong> is given in Appendix I. For the purposes of future reference in the 

action plan, these issues are given identity numbers (ID). The first letter represents 

the thematic area in which the issues are classified (I - Institutional, B – Biophysical, 

S – Socio-economic), the first number after letter is the sub-thematic 

area, the last number reflects the key issue. For example I.1.1 refers to the 

institutional issue under the sub-thematic area institutional strengthening on the 

need to establish a regional DEA office and strengthening its capacity

113 

5 MANAGEMENT PLAN AND IMPLEMENTATION 

STRATEGY 

The implementation strategy is guided by the common and shared vision of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site. The vision is designed to provide guidance to policy 

development and execution of the various sector programmes that bring 

sustainability to the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> site. Moreover, it is designed to help 

inform the Government and its partners of the stakeholder priorities for future 

action and provide a common focus and direction for the diverse stakeholders 

utilising and managing the natural resources within the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site (ODMP – 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site 

Common Vision for 2016, 

2006). 

A set of parameters has been 

developed to provide the 

context for future actions in 

the wise use and management 

of the ODRS. These are largely 

premised on the values shown 

in Box 1 which support the 

common and shared vision. 

The parameters are in the form 

of management strategies, 

zoning, prescriptions and 

action plans (projects). 

5.1 IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES 

Box 1: Vision and values of the ODRS 

These implementation strategies provide the framework for achieving the seven 

strategic objectives linked to the realization of the vision (ODMP – <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

<strong>Ramsar</strong> Site Common Vision for 2016, 2006) and discussed also in Section 4.2. The 

objectives are given in Box 2. 

Strategic objectives 

To establish viable management institutions for the sustainable management of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

To improve the planning and regulatory framework for sustainable management of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 

To raise public awareness, enhance knowledge and create a platform for information exchange and learning about the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 

To conserve the biotic and abiotic functions of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, and the interactions between them. 

To maintain or restore the wetland habitats and ecosystems of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 

To sustainably use the wetland resources of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> for the long-term benefit of all stakeholders 

To develop socio-economic opportunities to improve livelihoods of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> stakeholders. 

Box 2: Strategic objectives 

VISION: 

A carefully managed, well functioning ecosystem that equitably and sustainably 

provides benefits for local, national and international stakeholders” 

VALUES 

Maintained as a clean and beautiful place to all local and national people, and 

visitors 

Maintained as a wilderness area of national and international importance for its 

biodiversity, geological, social and cultural significance 

Developed and managed as a flagship tourism asset, shaped and stewarded by 

sustainable tourism that provides active engagement of native citizen entrepreneurs, 

rewarding employment to local people and sustained revenue to the treasury. 

An area with dynamic, responsible and vibrant communities whose members have 

secure and sustainable livelihoods, and enjoy a high quality of life. 

Valued and understood by all those who live in, work in, or visit, so that they 

contribute positively to the shaping of the future. 

A wisely used area, where there is fair access to natural resources, equitable 

distribution and sharing of benefits derived from the <strong>Delta</strong> from livelihoods of current 

and future generations.

5.1.1 ESTABLISHMENT OF VIABLE MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS FOR 

SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF THE OKAVANGO DELTA 

ECOSYSTEM 

The strategies for the establishment of management institutions should focus on 

strengthening management structures in order to ensure sustainability of the 

ODMP process during its implementation. The sustainability issue continues to be 

a concern which has been raised during all the deliberations and ODMP platforms. 

This requires strong implementation of management structures with clear 

mandates, adequate manpower and financial resources. 

5.1.1.1 Coordination and monitoring of the implementation of the plan 

The implementation of the ODMP will be coordinated and monitored by the 

Department of Environmental Affairs. The DEA efforts need to be strengthened 

through the proposed structures in the Draft Strategic Framework for 

District/Urban State of the Environment Reporting (DU/SOER 2006) and the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> Wetland <strong>Management</strong> Committee (OWMC). 

The D/USOE proposes that at district level, the mandate structure, roles, 

responsibility and composition of the District Land Use <strong>Plan</strong>ning Unit (DLUPU) will 

incorporate D/USOER as a District Development <strong>Plan</strong>ning requirement. 

The OWMC is a district multi-sectoral structure set up during the development of 

<strong>Plan</strong>. The establishment of the OWMC is provided for in the Draft National 

Wetlands Policy of 2000. This committee like any other committee in the district 

should be answerable to the District Development Committee (DDC). 

Coordination of the implementation of the ODMP is being strengthened through 

enhanced collaboration between DEA and HOORC-UB to provide the required 

technical support. 

5.1.1.2 Implementation of Action plans 

The ODMP recognises the sectoral mandates of the institutions which were involved 

in the development of the plan with respect to the sectoral responsibilities outlined 

in the action plans. While the current institutional arrangements still hold, intersectoral 

collaboration needs to be strengthened. It is critical that the institutional 

inadequacies in terms of manpower capacity, financial and other resources which 

may hinder implementation be addressed during the implementation of the plan 

5.1.1.3 Financial Resources 

The ODMP recognizes the standing financial arrangements and processes in 

government and this sets the premise for the financial and budgetary requirements 

for ODMP implementation. 

In order to secure financial resources for implementation, government departments 

and institutions follow the normal budgeting procedures. This entails that activities 

undertaken during the implementation of the plan be mainstreamed into other 

existing or on-going programmes as planned under the current DDP6 and NDP9 as 

well as the subsequent plans. 

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5.1.2 IMPROVEMENT OF THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR ODMP 

IMPLEMENTATION 

In pursuit of its objective of sustainable use and management of the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> ecosystem resources, it is desirable for the ODMP to be guided by a sound 

and consistent planning and policy framework. The strategy aligns the ODMP with 

overarching planning processes and addresses issues of policy harmonisation and 

appropriate formulation mechanisms. 

5.1.2.1 Alignment of the ODMP with national and district planning processes 

The ODMP is aligned to national and district planning processes. In this respect, its 

planning horizon coincides with those of the District Development <strong>Plan</strong>s (DDP) and 

National Development <strong>Plan</strong>s (NDP), which span a period of six years. This requires 

therefore that the ODMP action plan be incorporated into the District Strategic 

<strong>Plan</strong>, and to the subsequent District Development <strong>Plan</strong> 7 and National 

Development <strong>Plan</strong> 10. 

5.1.2.2 ODMP Review and Audit 

The planning horizon of the ODMP is aligned with the normal planning 

requirements so that its review and audit coincides with those of overarching plans. 

A major review and audit will be undertaken during the mid-term review of DDP 7 

and NDP10 in 2012. This will also ensure that projects under the ODMP are 

subjected to annual reviews. Projects conceived under the ODMP will be absorbed 

as part of the normal project management framework. 

Policy harmonisation 

It is crucial that efforts geared toward policy harmonisation embrace the ecosystem 

approach directed at the following: 

• Reducing adverse effects on natural resource base 

• Upholding the principles of wise use 

• Uplifting of livelihoods 

• Devolving of management responsibilities at all critical levels 

• Promoting a balance amongst social, economic and ecological aspects of 

development 

• Appreciating local values/ knowledge 

• Sound legislative backing. 

5.1.2.3 Future Policy Formulation 

Future policy formulation should be based on the principles of Strategic 

Environmental Assessment (SEA) in accordance with the EIA Act of 2005. The SEA 

provides for integrating sustainability into the implementation of existing 

legislation, policies and programmes. 

5.1.3 RAISING PUBLIC AWARENESS, ENHANCING KNOWLEDGE AND 

CREATING A PLATFORM FOR INFORMATION EXCHANGE AND 

LEARNING ABOUT THE OKAVANGO DELTA ECOSYSTEM 

The ODMP addresses the needs and interests of a large number of local, national, 

regional and indeed international stakeholders. A number of these needs and 

interests are of a potentially conflicting nature (e.g. tourism and irrigated 

agriculture, wildlife and cattle production etc.). This obviously applies at the local 

and national level within the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> itself but it is equally true of the 

115

upstream – downstream interactions in the whole river basin and thus also at both 

the regional and international scale. 

Both Angola and Namibia have, among other aims, legitimate water resources 

needs and interests and the potential and/or actual effects of realizing such needs 

will have to be balanced with the sustainable conservation and use of the resources 

in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> within Botswana. 

Therefore it is within this context that ODMP communication strategy should be 

fully implemented. 

5.1.3.1 Empowerment of local and national stakeholders to implement ODMP 

Empowerment of communities to take decisions on issues that affect them require 

that they are fully able to understand the issues affecting their environment. This 

understanding will be achieved through access to relevant information, 

communication, dialoguing and networking among themselves and with other 

stakeholder groups in addition to undertaking environmental programmes 

themselves. 

For the local stakeholders to participate in the implementation of the ODMP the 

strategy would require that effective information exchange and communication 

products should be used. It is important that the stakeholders should be fully 

engaged to support the implementation. Moreover, it is crucial that capacitating 

line ministries, government departments and officers effectively communicate with 

stakeholders. 

Platforms for information exchange, shared learning and best practices within and 

among institutions and communities within the ODRS should be created. 

5.1.3.2 Active engagement of basin wide, regional and international 

stakeholders 

Engagement of basin and regional stakeholders such as OKACOM, SADC 

Directorates, other river basin authorities and commissions, line ministries in 

Angola and Namibia is paramount in supporting the implementation of the ODMP 

and balancing the needs of the riparian states. Focus should be given to the 

establishment of platforms for communication and information exchange as well as 

sharing of lessons from the <strong>Okavango</strong> basin wide initiatives. Bi-lateral 

arrangements for sectoral exchange across the boundaries need to be strengthened. 

The Government of Botswana through OKACOM intends to be proactive in 

facilitating the principle of co-ownership of the entire basin with Riparian states. 

This could be realised through the use of agreed benefit sharing mechanisms. In 

addition the Government of Botswana should assist the other riparian states in 

securing the support of international development partners to invest in sustainable 

development programmes in the upstream reaches so as to reduce upstream 

development which could negatively impacts on the survival of the <strong>Delta</strong> 

downstream. Through existing and appropriate OKACOM structures 

transboundary collaboration initiatives are being conceived through the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

Basin Steering Committee (OBSC), technical task forces (hydrology and 

biodiversity) and the Basin Wide Forum (BWF) for community level interventions. 

Initiation of joint management projects such as hydrological monitoring, policy 

116

harmonisation, enforcement of legislation, data management systems, basin wide 

strategic environmental assessment and institutional capacity building. 

5.1.4 TO MAINTAIN AND CONSERVE THE BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC STATUS 

OF THE OKAVANGO DELTA AS WELL AS THEIR INTERACTIONS. 

The strategy for achieving this objective should focus on increasing knowledge 

about the different components of the physical and biological diversity of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> ecosystem, the operational limits of the ecosystem functioning and 

development and implementation of monitoring protocols. The use and 

management (to include updating) of the established information system should be 

maintained. The ODMP research strategy and sectoral monitoring programmes 

should be fully implemented. 

5.1.4.1 Increasing knowledge on physical and biological diversity of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> site 

The research strategy for the ODMP has identified priority research areas (ODMP – 

Research Strategy, 2006). The highest hydrological priority topics include sediment 

transport, water quality, factors affecting flood distribution and frequency. In terms 

of the ecology, the following topics were identified: detailed knowledge of elephant 

ecology, impacts of fire, resource exploitation, aquatic invertebrates, important 

vertebrates’ species and biodiversity indicators. 

In addition to these, the inflow stream requirement studies have been identified as 

a highest priority area which links hydrology to ecology. These studies include 

specific water and sediment flows required at key points in the <strong>Delta</strong>, seasonal 

patterns of aquatic habitat availability as well as distribution and abundance of key 

species of aquatic invertebrates and vertebrates keys areas in the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

Therefore the strategy for increasing knowledge for effective management and 

conservation of the bio-physical component of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> site 

should focus on the priority areas discussed above. 

5.1.4.2 Bio-physical Monitoring 

It is critical that a monitoring programme with clear protocols be put in place in 

order to ensure that the bio-physical system is functioning within its operational 

limits. It is even more important that these limits are set. Therefore the monitoring 

strategies should include setting operational limits as well developing and 

implementing monitoring protocols and programmes. 

5.1.4.3 Water Quality Guidelines for the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

The water quality standard for the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> should be defined in terms of 

the goals for the utilization of the water. The standard would then be referred to 

when issuing and renewing permits for old and new projects. This should be aimed 

at ensuring that water use in the delta is consistent with the standard, so that the 

water resources are protected. In order to come up with a standard, the current 

and future uses of the water should be taken into consideration. These could 

include: water supply (domestic, agricultural and industrial), fishing, wildlife 

habitat (both plants and animals), commerce and navigation (hunting, 

117

photography, birding, sightseeing etc) and aesthetics. The standard should also 

protect the <strong>Delta</strong>’s functions (e.g. groundwater recharge) and values. 

In developing any standards, a committee of experts and stakeholders is usually 

set up by the appropriate authority. It is recommended that the same process be 

followed for the water standard of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, because all the issues 

raised above will have to be taken into account, including natural fluctuations in 

the <strong>Delta</strong>’s water quality and quantity due to seasons and flooding. 

It is also necessary to determine which water quality parameters need to be 

incorporated into the standard. The priority for the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is the collection 

of spatial and temporal baseline data once the parameters have been identified. 

5.1.5 MAINTAINANCE AND RESTORATION OF THE OKAVANGO DELTA 

RAMSAR SITE HABITATS AND ECOSYSTEM. 

The strategy for the maintenance and restoration of the ODRS focuses on factors 

which are detrimental to the health and existence of the site’s habitats and 

ecosystem. These may be natural or anthropogenic. 

The natural factors include climatic change and natural fires. In order to deal with 

these factors, coping strategies should be put in place. The anthropogenic factors 

include eutrophication, decreased inflows by water abstraction and veld fires, just 

to name a few. Sectoral manangement plans and regulatory frameworks should be 

implemented and enforcement improved. 

5.1.5.1 Eutrophication 

The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is a nutrient poor system. Therefore an increase in nutrient 

levels will lead to eutrophication, which in turn may result in large-scale vegetation 

changes. For example eutrophication may lead to the disappearance of the papyrus 

which is a keystone species regulating the hydrological functioning of the nutrient 

poor <strong>Okavango</strong> system with the resultant invasion of opportunistic species such as 

water hyacinth (Gumbricht and McCarthy, 2002). 

Eutrophication may be induced by pollution from waste and raw sewerage being 

discharged into the system as well as the use of fertilizers within the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

<strong>Delta</strong> system. Therefore such activities should be discouraged and preferably 

prohibited through implementation of, among others, waste management 

strategies, and arable and livestock management programmes. 

5.1.5.2 Decrease water and sediment inflows 

The hydrological modelling has shown the basin and the <strong>Delta</strong> are in near natural 

state in the sense that present land use changes and abstractions from the basin 

upstream and locally in the <strong>Delta</strong> have a minimal impact on the <strong>Delta</strong> as a whole 

though local impacts may be significant (ODMP – Analysis of Water Resources 

Scenarios, 2006). However the modelling further indicates that upstream irrigation 

in Namibia and especially in Angola has a significant potential impact which would 

manifests itself in a 40% reduction of the permanently flooded area of the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

This would also result in the reduction of sediment flow into the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

118

As the <strong>Okavango</strong> is a transboundary river basin, the strategy to counteract these 

impacts should focus on effective engagement of the two upstream riparian states 

of Namibia and Angola in the joint management of the basin and identification of 

areas for possible trade offs. 

5.1.6 SUSTAINABLE USE OF THE OKAVANGO DELTA WETLAND 

RESOURCES FOR THE LONG TERM BENEFIT OF STAKEHOLDERS 

The economic valuation exercise has demonstrated that people living in the ODRS 

derive roughly equal benefits from natural resources and from tourism, the latter 

being slightly higher (ODMP – Economic Valuation Report, 2006). The study goes 

further to differentiate the form that these benefits take. Natural resources provide 

subsistence value which contributes to peoples’ livelihoods, as well as some cash 

income. Perhaps more importantly, they have the capacity to provide a safety-net 

for households that suffer shocks and provide a risk spreading mechanism for poor 

households that are vulnerable to the vagaries of environmental variability. 

Tourism, on the other hand, generates hard, reliable cash income to households, 

providing the type of income that most households aspire to having. Thus both 

aspects are important. Tourism also makes a substantial contribution to 

Botswana’s GNP, which in turn provides more revenue and social security to 

households all over the country. 

Therefore the strategy should ensure the sustainability of current resource use by 

households so that they can continue to provide the livelihood and other social 

benefits into the future, and enhance the value of the <strong>Delta</strong> for low impact – high 

value tourism through maintaining the extent and integrity of the conserved area. 

Unsustainable use of natural resources poses a major threat to the integrity of the 

<strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Ramsar</strong> site ecosystem. These include over-harvesting of the veld 

products, overgrazing and unsustainable levels of hunting. 

It is important that the strategy addressing aspects of unsustainable use of natural 

resources should focus on regulating their use through setting of thresholds, 

permit system and harvesting seasons as well as establishing monitoring systems. 

5.1.7 SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES UTILISATION 

The utilisation of the waters of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> is a very delicate and sensitive 

issue. The significance of water to the system cannot be over-emphasised. Water is 

the main driver of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> ecosystem. High species diversity and 

habitat diversity is a result of the variability in flooding regimes, which lead to 

different temporal saturation states of the system, i.e. flood extent, duration and 

timing of flooding. This variability makes it difficult to be definitive on how much 

water could be removed from the system without negatively affecting the 

functioning of the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

Water resources use and management in the <strong>Delta</strong> manifest itself in a variety of 

ways such as dredging, channel clearing, obstruction (daming) and abstraction. 

The magnitude of implementation of these water management scenarios has huge 

implications on the survival and function of the <strong>Delta</strong> as a national resource and 

international icon. The modelling studies under the ODMP have predicted future 

scenarios that may occur under a variety of water development options. 

119

The maintance of this delicate balance against other socio-economic pressures that 

are in most cases driven by short-term benefits, is crucial. The economic valuation 

study has shown that the current use options and levels where tourism is the main 

economic activity are the economically efficient and sustainable use options. The 

strategy is for Botswana to be conscious of potential impacts of any water 

resources management intervention that may be implemented either nationally 

within the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> or by upstream riparian states. The strategy should be 

based on the precautionary principle of ecosystem management. 

5.1.8 IMPROVEMENT OF LIVELIHOODS OF THE DELTA 

STAKEHOLDERS THROUGH IMPROVED SOCIO-ECONOMIC 

OPPORTUNITIES 

The strategy for addressing improvement of livelihoods should focus on the 

economic opportunities and incentives, traditional access rights, equitable benefit 

sharing and mainstreaming livelihood issues such as HIV/AIDS, gender and 

poverty reduction. Demonstration projects or activities, the result of which could 

inform livelihood enhancement strategies and provide lessons on best management 

practices, should be encouraged. 

5.2 MANAGEMENT ZONES AND GUIDELINES 

The area delineated by the site boundaries will be treated as a single unit for the 

implementation of the ODMP. However, the impacts from the areas in the vicinity of 

the ODRS should also be taken into account during the implementation of the 

ODMP. 

There are several management zones in the ODRS. The zones are delineated 

according to the management objectives and strategies. They allow for the 

development, introduction and enforcement of regulations to avoid conflicting uses. 

These include planning zones, land use, controlled hunting areas, tourism, 

livestock and fire ecological zones. 

5.2.1 ODRS PLANNING ZONES 

The planning zones in the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site are shown in Figure 5-1 and are described 

in Table 5.1 (NDDP6, 2003-2009). According to NDDP6, the planning zones have 

been useful in prioritizing areas for development and defining areas for land use 

and resources assessment studies. 

120

Table 5-1: <strong>Plan</strong>ning zones within the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site 

<strong>Plan</strong>ning 

Zone No. 

1 <strong>Okavango</strong> River 

Panhandle 

121 

<strong>Plan</strong>ning Zone Name Description and General Resource Endowment Major Settlements 

Permanent water source, pockets of fertile soils, 

timber trees, veld products, wildlife 

Shakawe, Sepopa, 

Seronga 

2 Ngami West Fertile Soils and potential for dryland farming Gumare, Etsha 6, 

Nokaneng 

3 Ngami Are there no available resources here? Sehithwa, Tsau, 

Toteng, 

4 Maun Good alluvial soils, some natural sources of 

permanent water. Has potential for irrigation and 

dryland farming 

5 Hainaveld Cattle Ranching Area Somela 

Maun, Shorobe, 

Makalamabedi, 

Matlapana 

6 Western Communal Cattle Ranching, wildlife and veld products Nxauxau, Xai Xai, 

Qangwa 

7 Stateland Wildlife Phuduhudu 

8 <strong>Delta</strong> Abundance of wildlife Sankoyo, Khwai 

Mababe 

Source: Ngamiland District Settlement Strategy, 2003. 

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Nxaunxau 

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Western Communal 

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Gumare 

Nokaneng # 

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Sehithwa 

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Maun 

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Stateland 

100 0 100 200 Kilometers 

Figure 5-1: Map of <strong>Plan</strong>ning Zones 

5.2.2 LAND USE ZONING 

# 

Legend 

# Major_villag e_n gamiland _p oint.shp 

<strong>Okavango</strong>_delta_outline.shp 

<strong>Ramsar</strong>_site_area.shp 

<strong>Plan</strong>_zone_area_ngamiland.shp 


Hainaveld 

Maun 

Ngami 

Ngami W est 


Stateland 

Western Com mun al 

The Tawana Land Board has prepared an Integrated Land Use <strong>Plan</strong> (ILUP) for the 

ODRS. The integrated land use and land management plan calls for the adoption 

and modification of some recent and site-specific land use and management plans. 

W 

N 

S 

E

It also provides for their integration into the overall land use and land management 

plan for the ODRS. In this regard, the following plans have been integrated into 

this plan including their zonations: 

• <strong>Okavango</strong> River Panhandle <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> 

• Revised Moremi Game Reserve <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> (August 2005) 

• <strong>Management</strong> and Development <strong>Plan</strong> For Community Multi-purpose Controlled 

Hunting Areas (CHA )NG 41 (February 2005) 

• Tsodilo <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> (Draft 2005) 

The other areas’ specific land use plans have been reviewed and the findings of the 

review have informed the preparation of the ILUP. 

The land use plan developed under the ODMP addresses issues of land use 

compatibility, resolution of land use conflicts, promotion of conservation and 

sustainable utilisation of natural resources, safeguards livelihood strategies of 

communities and stakeholders, and is sensitive to ecological and environmental 

concerns. In view of all the foregoing (Figure 5.1), the implementation of the plan 

should be within the context of the guidelines (ODMP – Land Use and <strong>Management</strong> 

<strong>Plan</strong>, 2005). The following guidelines and regulations for land utilisation and 

development are recommended to be applicable in the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site as a whole. 

i. For all major developments in the ODRS to proceed, an acceptable Environmental Impact 

Assessment shall be a requirement. 

ii. For the orderly growth and development of settlements in the ODRS, settlement development plans 

shall be prepared for all settlements in fulfilment of the requirements and provisions of the TCPA, 

which states that development plans shall be prepared for settlements not later than 2 years after the 

declaration of an area as a <strong>Plan</strong>ning Area. Though this might be difficult to achieve, given the 

vastness of the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site and funding and manpower constraints, attempts should be made at 

prioritisation of settlements. For small rural communities, simple land use layout plans should be 

initiated by the VDCs and assisted by Council and Land Board officials for their preparations. All 

land utilisation and developments in villages will therefore be guided by such simple land use 

layout plans. 

iii. Due to the presence of fault lines in the ODRS and the probabilities of seismic activities, 

foundations for buildings should be reinforced, with building plans duly approved by Council 

Engineering Department. 

With regard to plot sizes, the following is recommended 

i. Residential plots – 900m 2 - 1000m 2. : The calls for residential plot sizes of 1600m 2 are not 

sustainable, considering that land is a scarce resource. Moreover, smaller plot sizes will mean that 

more plots would be made available to satisfy the ever growing demand for residential plots, and 

also the provision of infrastructure services to plots would be more cost-efficient. 

ii. Commercial plots: Commercial plots sizes shall range from 400m 2 (10x40) to 5000m 2 (50x100m) to 

accommodate small retail outlets to chain stores. This should be applicable to the centres of Maun 

and Gumare. For rural communities the range shall be between 400m 2 – 500m 2 . 

iii. Industrial plots: Large scale industrial plots should be above 20,000m 2 ; medium scale industrial 

plots should be between 5000m 2 and 20000m 2 ; and small scale industrial plots should range from 

800m 2 to 5000m 2 . These should be applicable only to Maun and Gumare. For rural communities 

industrial plots sizes should range between 800m 2 and 5000m 2 . 

122

iv. For civic and community facilities, factor ratios based on population thresholds, as provided by the 

Urban Development Standards shall be applied in the allocation of civic and community plots in the 

ODRS. 

To address the issue of delays in land allocation by TLB, the following guidelines in 

allocation procedures for different types of land uses under various types of grants, 

together with time frames, are recommended: 

i. Citizen application for Customary Law land grant for residential use, traditional grazing, rainfed or 

molapo farming 

When a citizen applies for a land right for residential use, traditional grazing, rainfed farming 

or molapo farming, his/her application shall be submitted to the respective Subordinate Land 

Board. Final decision on such applications should be made known to the applicant not later 

than two months after the application was made. 

ii. Citizen application for Customary Law land grant for borehole/well 

When a citizen applies for a land right for a borehole/well point, his/her application shall be 

submitted to the respective Subordinate Land Board, which will then make recommendations 

to the Main Land Board. Final decision on such applications should be communicated to the 

applicant not later than three months after the application was filed. 

iii. Citizen application for Common Law land right for all other uses 

When a citizen applies for a Common Law land right for any other use than mentioned above, 

his/her application shall be submitted to the respective Subordinate Land Board to be 

recommended to Tawana Land Board. This type of application should be accompanied by a 

project memorandum which addresses such elements as skills, production system, and 

availability of capital, market survey, cash flow projections, and environmental impacts. 

Time frame for the decision should be four months. 

iv. Non-citizen application for Common Law land right for residential use 

When a non-citizen applies for the above mentioned land right, the appropriate form should be 

filled in and submitted to the respective Subordinate Land Board to be recommended to 

Tawana Land Board. Time frame for a decision should be six months. 

v. Non-citizen applications for Common Law land right for all other uses 

All other applications for the Common Law land rights by a non-citizen should be submitted 

to the respective Subordinate Land Board to be recommended to Tawana Land Board. This 

type of application should be accompanied by a project memorandum as indicated earlier. 

Time frame for a decision should be four months. 

The economic valuation has confirmed that the above land use plan, which places 

emphasis on complementary land use and wise use of the resources, is the most 

economically efficient and should be used as framework for economic development 

(ODMP – Economic Valuation Report, 2006). However, the following factors should 

be considered before any economic activity is undertaken: 

a) Emphasis should be put on sustainable resource use, such that utilization is 

within the regeneration capacity of resources and does not alter the ecological 

balance of the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

b) Land uses in ecologically vulnerable areas, such as Molapo farming and 

resource harvesting, should be subjected to more intensive management, 

monitoring and enforcement. 

123

c) Existing lodges would continue, but new ones should only be allowed if this is 

within the carrying capacity of the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

d) Non consumptive activities should be carried out in the buffer zone around 

Moremi. 

e) The need to balance protection and tourism use should be carefully examined in 

order to avoid disruption of livelihood strategies. 

5.2.3 TOURISM 

The Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) process has been designed to be used as a 

management tool to monitor for unacceptable changes to key systems and 

processes within the tourism related operations of the ODRS. It should be noted 

that LACs do not lead to the determination of fixed ‘carrying capacities’ for tourism 

development activities. It is a dynamic process that will merely indicate when the 

‘limits of use’ have been exceeded, leading to adverse conditions in the environment 

or with the visitor experience. It is therefore in essence more responsive than 

proactive. Should such demands place unacceptable loads on the ODRS; the LACs 

will indicate such excesses – leading to responsive management action. Figure 5-2 

gives the LAC categories and tourism opportunity classes. 

These conditions and set of categories for ‘status of the land’ are Pristine, Semipristine, 

Modified, Development Node or Area and Sanctuary. The proposed 

conditions for each of these categories are given in Table 5-2. 

124

Figure 5-2: Proposed Limit of Acceptable and Opportunity Classes 

125

Table 5-2: Characterization of conditions in the categories of status of the land 

Category Natural / Bio-physical Tourism: Visitor activities and experience Community / subsistence <strong>Management</strong> 

Pristine Characteristics 

126 

Extensive areas of wild or natural 

landscape that might include a number 

of different ecosystems or habitats 

No or minimal signs of lasting human 

presence, activities, impacts, structures 

ie. Buildings, roads or tracks, 

markings, signage etc. except 

significant historical or cultural items 

ie. graves, rock-art, ceremonial sites 

Relative absence of exotic species 

The natural character of the 

environment, biodiversity, associated 

natural and cultural resources, biophysical 

systems and processes as well 

as the provision of environmental 

goods and services prevails. 

Biodiversity continues to be 

maintained. 

Contains sites of special importance ie. 

habitat or breeding areas for rare or 

endangered species. 

Absence of activities that can lead to 

degradation of the environment. 

Activities allow for easy recovery of 

environment, e.g. walking trails. 

Visitor activities / operator support 

Professional armed guides accompany visitors 

Required to leave the site/area as it was in its natural condition i.e. 

“pack-it-in & pack-it-out” principle (condition) 

Access and roads 

Limited amount of motorised vehicles or traffic, some boats . 

No unaccompanied access 

Visitor experience 

Limits to the number of people using the area through limitations 

on number, type and capacity of lodges, camps and 

accommodation. 

No encounters with other users – except those with own group 

members. 

Numbers of groups and numbers per group of hikers controlled by 

market forces and self-imposed industry standards (max. 6 per 

group with 1 professional guide). 

Outstanding opportunities for solitude, isolation, quietness, 

communication with nature, exclusiveness. 

Significant exposure to risk from dangerous wild animals 

Facilities 

No permanent structures – only existing structures of cultural 

significance. 

No facilities except portable tents ie. Tents carried in, on foot, 

personally by the visitor or by a tour operator staff (pack-it-in, 

pack-it-out principle). 

No audible equipment and communication structures. 

No permanent or temporary settlements, 

villages or camps. 

Limited access for use of natural resources. 

Very limited opportunities for the 

employment of neighbouring local 

communities. 

Very low managerial presence 

Emphasis on off-site management 

Minimal use of signs 

Minimal invasive research 

Few public awareness campaigns


Semi Pristine 

127 

Characteristics 

Extensive area of wild or natural 


of different ecosystems or habitats 

The natural character of the 

environment, biodiversity, associated 

natural and cultural resources, biophysical 

systems and processes as well 

as the provision of environmental 

goods and services prevails. 

Biodiversity continues to be 

maintained. 

Contains sites of special importance ie. 

habitat or breeding areas for rare or 

endangered species. 

Relative absence of exotic species – 

although some outbreaks exist in 

specific areas. 

Limited impacts of human activity or 

use may be visible or evident within 

the area ie. roads, tracks, buildings 

and infrastructure. 


Accompanied walking trails, overnight camping in fly camps, game 

drives in tourism operator safari vehicles, night driving, limited 

sport licensed fishing (catch and release). 

Sustainable harvest of specified natural resources under controlled 

or permitted conditions, i.e. professional hunting of wild animals, 

cutting of thatching grass and reeds is taking place. 


Limited motorised vehicles allowed ie. no. of vehicles per 

lodge/camp; y no. of boats per lodge/camp 

No self drive or unsupervised access except in Moremi Game 

Reserve or designated areas 


Provides a "wilderness-based" experience, but evidence of human 

activities or use from outside the zone may be visible or audible 

from certain vantage points. 

Minimal encounters with other users – except those with other 

parties in same camp or lodge. 

Numbers of groups and numbers per group to be set or controlled 

through limits on beds available in camps. 

Excellent opportunities for solitude, quietness, and communication 

with nature. 

Exposure to risk from dangerous wild animals 

Facilities 

Limited permanent and semi-permanent structures – ie. bricked 

lodges; tented camps with minimal permanent, supporting 

infrastructure, according to stipulated carrying capacity limits per 

site ie. number of beds per site (indicated in lease and 

management plans). 

Limited, temporary accommodation for camp or lodge support staff 

allowed under agreed, controlled conditions, laid out in facility 

management plans 

Facilities serve adjacent pristine areas. 

Stringent environmental and waste disposal regulations exist and 

No permanent settlements. 

Extremely limited access for use of natural 

resources or area, based on permits and 

monitoring. Some use for religious purposes 

may be allowed, according to agreed 

conditions and circumstances. 

Limited opportunities for the employment of 

a moderate number of members of 

immediately local communities. 

Emphasis on on-site management 

No signs or structures unless to 

protect resources 

Significant participation of local 

community in the tourism activities 

Implementation of the available 

policies, rules and regulations


Modified Characteristics 

128 

Areas of natural to semi-natural 


of different ecosystems or habitats, but 

where portions have been significantly 

modified through human activities ie. 

areas cleared for agriculture, or where 

cattle are kept. 

Sites of significant biodiversity, 

conservation, important ecological or 

bio-physical systems exist in specific 

areas. 

Developed, maintained trails and roads 

exist alongside tracks and paths. 

Recreational and livelihood impacts 

persist from year to year. 

Villages and settlements of varying 

sizes exist 

are enforced. 

Audible equipment and communication structures: Some exist 

under controlled conditions. 


Some uncontrolled recreational use is apparent, with associated 

impacts ie. camping, sport fishing, touring, hiking, boating, 

canoeing, riding in mokoros etc. 


No controls or exclusions except those stated in lease agreements 

issued by the Tawana Land Board or in tourism licences. 


Limited, localised opportunity for solitude and isolation. 

Medium to high probability of contact with other visitors, residents 

or groups. 

Opportunity for moderate to high degree of interaction. 

Facilities 

Few limitations on types of tourism accommodation provided – 

except those stated in lease agreements. 

No limitations on carrying capacities unless stated in lease 

agreements issued by the Tawana Land Board 

Opportunity for community tourism projects. 

Stringent environmental and waste disposal regulations applied to 

tourism facilities. 

Some permanent settlements or villages. 

No limitations on access for use of natural 

resources or area, except use of wildlife 

which is regulated and to a degree 

enforced. 

Opportunities for the employment of a 

moderate numbers of members of local 

communities. 

Minimal to no environmental and waste 

disposal regulations 

Limited to local and traditional 

governance structures. 

Minimal signage and structures for 

resource protection 

Monitoring and controls limited 

except those linked to local 

government requirements, or 

individual national departmental 

Acts and Regulations ie, DWNP.


Developed Characteristics 

129 

Urbanised areas with extensive 

evidence of man-made structures, 

infrastructure and modification to 

natural habitat – little natural area 

evident. 

Human activities such as development 

and construction, impacts persist from 

year to year 


Some uncontrolled recreational use is apparent, with associated 

impacts ie. quad-biking, 4x4 trail driving, sport fishing etc. 


No controls or exclusions except those stated in lease agreements 

issued by the Tawana Land Board or in tourism licence. 


Little or no opportunity for solitude and isolation 

Extremely high probability of contact with other visitors or residents 

Opportunity for extensive degree of interaction with other tourists 

or residents 

Facilities 

EIA necessary before any tourism development in this area 

Regulations to maintain the area, where development takes place 

No limitations on types of tourism accommodation provided 

No limitations on carrying capacities unless stated in lease 

agreements issued by the Tawana Land Board 

Opportunity for community tourism projects 

Stringent environmental and waste disposal regulations 

Built up urban and peri-urban areas, with 

residential and commercial buildings and 

constructions. 

Limited access for use of natural resources, 

based on permits and monitoring. 

Significant access to use and development 

of area based upon permits and local 

government regulations. 

Opportunities for the employment of a very 

significant number of members of 

immediately local communities. 

High managerial presence and on 

site regulation ie. by NWDC staff 

and monitoring 

Some strategies for visitor 

education and resource protection 

ie. Educational Game Reserve in 

Maun. 

Privatisation of some services (e.g. 

cleaning)


Sensitive areas ie. 

areas that deserve 

sanctuary status 

130 

Characteristics 

Primarily natural areas of varying sizes 

with specific characteristics attractive 

or necessary to species to complete 

phases of their life cycle ie. bird 

roosting sites, bird breeding sites, fish 

spawning sites, crocodile egg laying 

areas etc. 

Sites have species specific 

requirements relating to disturbance 

and human activity 

Sites designated by regulations and by 

laws. 


Game viewing and observation related activities ie. bird-watching 

taking place with some level of regulation (in Moremi GR) and some 

self imposed ‘regulations’ set by the tourism industry ie. distances 

boats are permitted to be to heronries etc.. 

Sport fishing – predominantly in the Panhandle area, and based out 

of fishing camps. 


Limited access allowed at this point in time. 

Access often linked to presence of professional guides, but 

exceptions exist in many cases where individuals use their own 

boats to approach heronries. 

Sport-fishermen at stages (during some fishing competitions) 

disturb crocodile and African skimmer breeding sites on sandbanks 

in the Panhandle area. 


Seeking for ‘life-experience’ feelings due to special nature of activity 

and privilege to be in a special area 

Inner-satisfaction of viewing vulnerable, rare and endangered 

species 

Some level of seeking solitude and isolation 

Little probability of contact with other visitors or residents. 

No permanent settlements. 

No access for use of natural resources. 

Limited opportunities for the employment of 

a few members of immediately local 

communities ie. mukoro polers. 

Little formal management or 

frequent management presence. 

Few if any signs and structures for 

resource protection, safety and 

visitor convenience

5.2.4 FISHING 

The Fishing Regulations have been drafted and stakeholders have been consulted 

for their inputs. These Draft Fish Protection Regulations (2006) aim to discourage 

unacceptable fishing practices and recommend issuance of fishing licenses at a fee 

for commercial fishermen and no fee for subsistence fishermen, the use of proper 

fishing net sizes and the introduction of a closed fishing season. Some highlights 

include: 

i. No person shall engage in commercial fishing without a commercial fishing licence. 

ii. No person shall catch fish with gillnets exceeding a total of 150 metres. 

iii. The period of time during which fish may be caught shall be the period beginning on 1 st January 

and ending on the 31 st October every year. 

iv. No person may catch fish in Botswana for recreation without a recreational fishing licence 

v. No person shall catch and keep more than ten fish in one day for recreational purpose 

vi. No person shall enter upon any land for the purpose of catching fish without the written consent 

of the owner or occupier or duly appointed representative of such owner or occupier. 

vii. No person shall catch fish at night except by the use of gill nets which have been set and left 

stationary in the water before or after the night. 

viii. No person shall interfere or tamper with gillnets at night. 

ix. No person shall catch fish by setting nets across a lagoon entrance or river channel, drive fishing, 

seining or using mosquito nets. 

x. No person shall, without a permit from the Director, move fish from one water body to another 

water body. 

5.2.5 VEGETATION RESOURCES USE 

The following proposed guidelines for the management and utilisation of vegetation 

resources are strongly guided and informed by the Agricultural Resources Board 

Act of 1974, the Agricultural Resources Board Policy of 1975 and the Agricultural 

Resources Conservation Regulations of 2004 as the statutory tools. Therefore, 

these proposed guidelines and regulations are to be statutory if adopted, and their 

overall goal is to ensure sustainable utilisation of vegetation resources. The 

recommendations are as follows: 

i. Where possible, access rights should be reserved, i.e. each settlement or a group of settlements 

should be allocated areas within which they will exclusively harvest; 

ii. All veld products should only be harvested when they are fully matured; 

iii. To harvest scarce vegetation resources and highly exploited vegetation resources such as river 

reed, thatching grasses, and in some cases fuel wood, permits must be obtained from the relevant 

authorities; 

iv. Persons harvesting for commercial purposes should obtain a special license, for which a fee 

should be paid; 

v. Sanctions and fines should be imposed on people who contravene regulations for harvesting 

vegetation resources, in line with provisions of Agricultural Resources Conservation Regulations, 

2004; 

131

vi. Where vegetation resources are scarce or getting scarce, a rotational system of harvesting should 

be practiced, i.e. the same areas should not be exploited continuously without a break; 

vii. An assessment of the harvesting areas should be conducted every year before the harvesting 

season starts; 

viii. All villages within the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site should have a Village Natural Resource <strong>Management</strong> 

Committee (VNRMC) as per the provisions of the Agricultural Resources Board Policy of 1975; 

5.2.6 QUARRYING AND SAND EXCAVATION 

The <strong>Ramsar</strong> site has experienced rapid growth over the last 15 years. During this 

period, several facilities ranging from roads, schools, shopping centres, hospitals 

and residential houses were constructed, resulting in high demands for 

construction aggregates, gravel and sand. As a result, extensive excavations have 

taken place, resulting in a number of un-rehabilitated sites within the project area. 

There are rules, regulations and procedures in place dealing with the excavation of 

construction aggregates from burrow pits, and the mining of sand from river beds. 

The procedures involve the Department of Mines, which issues the excavation 

permits, the Land Board, which allocates land for excavations and the Physical 

<strong>Plan</strong>ning Unit under the Council, which helps the Land Board to identify suitable 

excavation sites. An excavation permit is issued only after the applicant has 

conducted an EIA and submitted a rehabilitation plan. Despite the existence of 

these excavation regulations and procedures, illegal excavations and unrehabilitated 

sites are common in the <strong>Ramsar</strong> Site. In order to address the 

situation, the following is recommended (ODMP – Land Use and <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>, 

2005): 

i. The Land Board should identify areas suitable for excavation in accordance with the guidelines of 

this plan and lease them off to excavating companies. 

ii. The money generated from these lease agreements should be used by the Land Board to rehabilitate 

excavated sites. 

iii. The Land Board, Department of Mines and the Physical <strong>Plan</strong>ning Unit should be more vigilant to 

ensure that excavators rehabilitate excavated sites as per the requirements of their permits. 

5.2.7 FIRE MANAGEMENT 

Fire has been used in the ODRS as a management tool. The reasons for burning, 

identified during the development of the ODRS Fire <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>, were that 

the vegetation was burnt for the removal of moribund and/or unacceptable grass or 

other plant material like reeds as a means of rejuvenating the plant community. 

Another purpose was to control the encroachment of undesirable plants e.g. 

controlling bush encroachment (ODMP – Fire <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>, 2006). The <strong>Plan</strong> 

has provided fire management guidelines which are given below. 

5.2.7.1 Permissible fire regime for controlled burning 

The following fire regime in terms of type and intensity of fire and the season and 

frequency of burning is recommended for the ODRS. 

i. Fires burning with the wind either as surface head fires in grassland or a combination of surface 

head fires and crown fires in tree and shrub vegetation must be used in controlled burning. This is 

132

ecause surface head fires cause least damage to the grass sward and crown fires can cause 

maximum damage to woody vegetation when fire is used to control bush encroachment; 

ii. When burning to remove moribund and/or unacceptable grass material a cool fire of 2 000 kJ/s/m is necessary. This can be achieved when the grass fuel load is >4 000 kg/ha, 

the air temperature is >25°C and the relative humidity 13 mm. When burning to control the 

encroachment of undesirable plants like bush encroachment, a high intensity fire is required and it is 

recommended that this be applied before the first spring rains in August/September when it is 

extremely hot and dry. 

iv. In the case of burning in the Seasonal Swamps where the growth of the vegetation is generally 

influenced by the annual flood waters entering the <strong>Delta</strong> the ideal burning window for removing 

moribund and/or unpalatable grass material is during the period May to July, applying the fires 

when the grass sward is dormant before the flood waters start rising. 

v. If it should be necessary to reduce the growth of trees and shrubs in the Seasonal Swamps then 

burning must be applied later in the winter during August/September when it is extremely hot and 

dry thereby ensuring high intensity fires necessary to control encroaching trees and shrubs. 

vi. When burning to remove moribund and/or unacceptable grass material the frequency of burning 

will depend upon the accumulation rate of excess grass litter. Field experience indicates that 

burning is necessary for this reason when the grass fuel load exceeds 4 000 kg/ha and therefore the 

frequency of burning of areas in the Seasonal Swamps and the Acacia, Burkea and Mopane 

Woodlands can be determined using this criterion. 

vii. In order to prevent overgrazing it is important to ensure that the burnt area exceeds the short term 

forage requirements of the grazing animals that are attracted to the highly palatable and nutritious 

re-growth that develops after a burn i.e. burn relatively large areas at any one time. Another 

effective strategy is to apply a series of patch burns at regular intervals throughout the duration of 

the burning window during the dormant season. This has the effect of attracting the grazing animals 

to the newly burnt areas after the different fires thereby spreading the impact of grazing over the 

entire burnt area and avoiding the detrimental effects of heavy continuous grazing after the burns. 

5.2.7.2 Practical Application of Controlled Burning 

In the practical application, a controlled burning program should be guided by the 

following factors (ODMP – Fire <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>, 2006): 

a) The weather conditions as described and assessed using the recommended Fire 

Danger Rating System should be appropriate for burning. 

b) Appropriate burning procedures for the application of the controlled burn 

should be used i.e. applying a block burn or a patch mosaic burn 

c) Adequate and appropriate firebreaks for the area being burnt should be 

provided or be in place. 

133

d) There should be adequate equipment for both initiating and controlling the fire 

e) The field staff should be equipped with suitable protective clothing and 

footwear. 

f) Appropriate forms of communication must be available to enable effective 

communication during the burning operation. 

5.2.8 WATER QUALITY 

The quality of the waters of the <strong>Delta</strong> play a very important role in the way the 

system functions. Deterioration in the quality of water has the potential to upset 

the functioning of the ecological processes that sustain the <strong>Delta</strong>. The water quality 

guidelines as set out by the Botswana Bureau of Standards need to be 

implemented effectively and met whereever practicable, and adjusted with good 

reason only. The capacity of the Water Apportioment Board needs to be improved in 

order for it to effectively deliver its mandate as defined by the Water Act with regard 

to the <strong>Delta</strong>. The Board issues permits with regard to amount and quality status of 

the effluent that can be discharged to river systems. What remains to be done in 

the future is to determine specific effluent levels taking cogniscence of the perculiar 

requirements for the environmental sustainability of the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

5.3 BUFFER ZONES 

5.3.1 DEVELOPMENT WITHIN FLOOD PLAINS 

The Department of Town and <strong>Plan</strong>ning has developed planning guidelines which 

prohibit any development within 200m from a flood plain for the whole country. 

The limit for the Panhandle part of the <strong>Delta</strong> was 500m.However the ODMP – Land 

Use and Land <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> (2005), has since reduced it to 200m in line with 

the rest of the whole of the <strong>Ramsar</strong> site. 

5.3.2 BUFFER AROUND MOREMI GAME RESERVE 

In so far as ecological considerations inform land use zoning decisions, it is noted 

that parts of zones NG 25 and 26 have the highest concentration of slaty egrets 

(ODMP – Land Use and <strong>Management</strong>, 2006). On this score, it is proposed that 

marginal parts of these NGs presently zoned for commercial wildlife utilisation, and 

bordering MGR be zoned as commercial photographic areas. This will further serve 

as a buffer for the MGR. In the same vein, the identified nesting areas for birds in 

the Panhandle have been zoned as no-wake areas for engine boats. The zonation of 

a strip merging NG 19 and NG 21, which cut into portions of NG 20 and 18 

marginally as community and commercial photographic areas respectively is also 

proposed. This will also serve as buffer for Moremi Game Reserve, thus preventing 

hunting/poaching in the MGR. 

134

135 

6 MONITORING AND EVALUATION PLAN 

A Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) plan has been developed to track the 

implementation of the ODMP. The monitoring will be carried out at two levels. The 

first entails monitoring of implementation of outputs, and the second monitors 

changes at operational objective level. Within the context of government planning 

structure the M&E will equate to a performance measurement tool which usually 

accompanies strategic plans. 

M&E is the regular collection and analysis of information to track the 

implementation and measure the performance of any project against its expected 

results. It provides important information about how the project is performing, 

which helps decision makers and other stakeholders. It is therefore a powerful 

management tool that provides project managers with information to track 

implementation and achievements, so that they can identify whatever obstacles are 

impeding the project’s success as early as possible. M&E is a source of information 

for justifying changes in management strategy, budgets, etc., otherwise known as 

adaptive management. 

Used well, M&E helps to identify successful interventions early which could be 

replicated. It provides information for evaluation and learning. It is also a tool for 

motivating the stakeholders, by generating a shared understanding of the project 

and its context. The information that it provides can promote accountability, 

credibility and public confidence in the project. 

6.1 PLAN FOR TRACKING IMPLEMENTATION AND 

PRODUCTION OF OUTPUTS 

A plan for tracking implementation and production of outputs has been developed 

for the three thematic areas, namely institutional, bio-physical and socio-economic 

subsystems. A set of criteria has also been developed to judge the quality of the 

outputs, time of delivery, target groups and an explanation for deviations. These 

plans are given in Appendix II 

6.2 MONITORING FOR CHANGES 

In addition to tracking project implementation and production of outputs, the M&E 

plan will monitor the changes in capacity and performance at operational level 

within the three subsystems. It will also monitor any improvements that occur in 

the state of resources. Ecosystem indicators have been formulated to monitor this 

level of results and an action plan for monitoring them has been outlined. This 

action plan details the information that will be collected on each indicator, 

identifies the party responsible for collecting the information, the frequency of 

collection, the baseline required and the tools of data collection. These plans are 

given in Appendix II 

6.3 ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACTS OF THE PLAN OR 

SECTORAL PROGRAMMES 

The potential impacts resulting from the implementation of the plan and mitigation 

measures, sustainability criteria and any further action to be taken by

implementers are presented in Appendix III. It is important to identify the potential 

impacts of the plan upfront so that appropriate measures could be put in place to 

counteract the negative impacts and to enhance the positive ones, this has been 

achieved through subjecting the ODMP to SEA. 

136

7 CONCLUSIONS 

1. The <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> (ODMP) project has reached its official 

completion target. Four milestones (inception, framework management plan, draft 

management plan and final management plan) were programmed for the delivery of 

the project through collaborative efforts of twelve sectoral components anchored 

within ten organizations both at central and local government levels as well as the 

University of Botswana. 

2. The ODMP process was largely issue-driven. Stakeholder consultations were held 

at community, departmental, private sector, NGO/CBO and policy making level. 

Their diverse interests and expectations on the ODMP were recorded, analysed 

and, to the extent possible, incorporated into management options and action 

plans contained in the draft management plan. 

3. The approach of the ODMP was also premised on the <strong>Ramsar</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ning Guidelines 

as well as to a large extent informed by the policy framework in Government. A 

learning-by-doing course of action was pursued in order to adapt methods 

appropriate for the overall objective and principles of the ODMP as well as the 

sectoral functions of participating organizations. It was therefore not plausible for 

the process to follow to the letter, for example, the methodology outlined in the 

<strong>Ramsar</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ning tool. Some of its elements can only be implied. 

4. The focus of the ODMP was on integrated resource management. There is 

evidence of success attained through improved cross-sectoral planning even 

outside the ODMP programme itself. Sectors express themselves in a more focused 

way and can readily identify the synergies and complementary support which they 

can source from other sectors in a more cordial manner and without necessarily 

shifting burdens or pointing fingers. Integration is a process. ODMP has only 

demonstrated that it is possible to integrate and its maturity will be realised 

through change of mind-set as well as indicators for success in achieving plan 

objectives over time. 

5. Technical objectives often take supremacy in planning and it is becoming evident 

that management issues that have recurred over time cannot only be solved by 

applying science and through academic methods. Through the ODMP participatory 

methods which advance the societal needs create room for improved understanding 

and ownership of the decisions which are ultimately made. A deliberate effort was 

made to engage all stakeholders through the services of a full-scale 

communications team and a participatory planner. Such arrangements will 

continue during implementation to keep the level of interest high and strengthen 

opportunities for stakeholder involvement in decision making. 

6. The sustainability of the ODMP process in the long-term continues to be raised 

during all deliberations and ODMP platforms. The coordinating role which the DEA 

possesses is now visible within the district. The DEA’s permanent location in Maun 

will enhance opportunities for more focused environmental planning. Through 

incorporation into the District Strategic <strong>Plan</strong> the ODMP has found its place in the 

137

138 

District and National Development <strong>Plan</strong>ning frameworks. From a more technical 

standpoint, the existence of the Harry Oppenheimer <strong>Okavango</strong> Research Centre in 

Maun creates an opportunity for direct links with the ODMP implementation in 

order to guide the sectoral activities within the agreed research strategy. 

7. Data gathering, updating, storage and processing for more informed decisions is 

key to the implementation of the ODMP. As new information is acquired through 

focused research, which should benefit communities in the ODRS, action plans 

should be adjusted accordingly. The ODMP should remain adaptable and flexible. 

Annual sectoral reviews should be institutionalized to keep the plan relevant. 

8. Capacity building at institutional and community levels is crucial to enhance 

understanding, dispel misconceptions and create opportunities for sustainable use 

and management of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> resources. The ODMP project had 

allocated funds for this but sectors should continue to budget annually for training 

and capacity building programmes, which are relevant for the advancement of their 

ODMP implementation programme. 

9. Regional or basin-wide collaboration is inevitable. Persuasion and constructive 

negotiations should be pursued through set mechanisms such as the OKACOM. 

Botswana stands to strengthen its negotiation power if its positions are based on 

information that is empirical. Mechanisms for continued updating at the regional 

platforms such as the ODMP Communication Strategy are encouraged. Partnership 

building with and participation in regional programmes and projects should be 

encouraged to push the basin-wide interests of the ODMP forward and therefore 

solicit buy-in from basin-states. 

10. Recommendations from key ODMP studies should be tabled for consideration at 

appropriate levels and implemented. Through the ODMP monitoring and evaluation 

tool the impact of the implemented results should be noted and negative ones 

avoided while positive ones should be enhanced and replicated in other similar 

parts of the <strong>Delta</strong>. 

11. Implementation of pilot projects, identification of best practices, infusion of 

traditional knowledge and enhancement of livelihoods are key elements that can 

enrich the impact of the plan. These elements will constitute a substantial part of 

the workplan under the communication component. Lessons derived from this 

process will inform management options and practices and can be shared locally, 

regionally (within the basin) and internationally. 

12. Commitments of resources for integrated wetlands management planning should 

consider the dynamism of the processes adopted to service the needs which may be 

adequately articulated in project documents but assume a highly varied form when 

actual implementation happens. The finances, institutional arrangements, 

ecosystem dynamics, socio-political contexts within an integrated planning 

framework present a complex situation where adjustments should happen as 

implementation evolves.

139 

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151 

APPENDIX I -ACTION PLAN

Appendix I. 1: Action <strong>Plan</strong> for Institutional Thematic Area 

Strategic Goal 1: 

To establish viable institutional arrangements to support integrated resource management in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> at local, district level, national level and international (River Basin) level 

Strategic Objective 1.1 


ID Key issues Operational Objective Critical Activities Output / 

Outcome 

I.1.1 There is need to DEA to strengthen the capacity DEA to complete the Full staff 

establish a regional of the ODRS DEA office to recruitment of the compliment 

DEA office in ODRS coordinate and monitor 

regional office staff. 

and strengthen its 

capacity to 

coordinate and 



the ODMP. 

implementation of the ODMP. 

DEA to prepare and 

sign a memorandum of 

agreement with HOORC 

for HOORC to provide 

technical support 

during ODMP 


Operational 

Memorandum 

of Agreement 

I.1.2 There is need to NWDC to strengthen the Assess the capacity of Capacity needs 

build the capacity capacity of the communities in communities to manage assessment 

of communities for the management and 

CBNRM programmes report 

delivering 

sustainable use of the natural 

management and resources. Develop and implement Capacity 

sustainable use of 

capacity building building 


programmes 

programmes 

implemented 

I.1.3 Manpower capacity DWNP to improve the 

Rationalization of Additional 

of the fisheries manpower capacity in the DWNP positions to personnel (2 at 

division needs to Fisheries Division to sustainably increase capacity of the degree level 

be addressed manage the fish resources by Fisheries Division. (C1), 2 

2012 

technical 

officers (C2), 6 

technical 

assistants (B4)) 

Train existing 

rationalized staff 

Trained staff 

152 

Leading Supporting Delivery period Resource needed 

Institution Institution 

(Manpower and budget) 

DEA March 2007 3 new positions required 

Recurrent/development 

DEA HOORC April 2007 DEA to prepare annual 

budget for engagement 

of HOORC 

NWDC 

DWNP 

DoT, DFRR, 

DWNP, DEA, 

TLB, Tribal 

Admin 

March 2007 

April 2008-March 

2013 

March 2007 

March 2011 

Consultants 

Included in the P2 700 

000 on going 

consultancy 

To be determined by 

March 2007 

Inhouse 

Recurrent( 

Budget (700 000)





ID Key issues Operational Objective Critical Activities Output / 

Outcome 

I.1.4 The solid and NWDC to improve solid Engage private sector Operational 

liquid waste and liquid waste collection to collect and dispose contracts / 

collection within the ODRS 

solid and liquid waste in Compliance 

services within 

settlements 

the ODRS need 

Ensure tour operators Compliance 

to be improved. 

comply with provisions 

of waste management 

as contained in the 

lease agreement 

I.1.5 

Operationalise Maun Operational 

landfill site through 

procurement and 

installation of 

outstanding equipment 

Sanitary landfill 

To construct a landfill Operational 

site in Gumare 

sanitary landfill 

153 

To increase temporary 

storage facilities in all 

settlements 

I.1.6 Increase operational 

technician staff 

compliment from 6 to 8 

by rationalising existing 

positions. 

Additional 

storage 

facilities 


technical staff 

Leading Supporting 

Institution Institution 

NWDC TLB, DoT, 

DWNP, Private 

Sector, 

Communities 

and associated 

structures. 

NWDC Tour operators 

Delivery period Resource needed 

(Manpower and budget) 

March 2009 Private Sector 

engagement, existing 

NWDC staff. 

June 2007 

March 2011 

March 2007-March 

2012 

NWDC DLGSM March 2008 

Recurrent Budget 

P4 Million for equipment 

P20 million 

P135 000 for 2007/2008 

P500 000 for March 

2008-2013 

Recurrent budget



Strategic Objective 1.2: 

To improve the planning and regulatory framework for sustainable management of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

ID Key Issues Operational 

Objectives 


DEA to facilitate the 

harmonize legislation and process of 

policies applicable to the harmonizing 

ODRS. 


applicable to ODRS 








the approval of Draft 


and Strategy not by 

Parliament. 

154 

DEA to ensure that 

the common and 

shared vision of the 

ODRS guides the 

planning and 

programmes in the 

ODRS during the 

ODMP implementation 

DEA to facilitate 

approval of the Draft 

National Wetlands 

Policy and Strategy 

Critical Activities Output / 

Outcome 

Carry out high level Implementation 

consultations with the Strategy to 

affected government achieve 

ministries on how to harmonised 

implement policy 

harmonisation 

recommendations 

policies. 

Facilitate implementation Harmonised 

of policy harmonisation 

strategy 

policies 

Fully integrate the vision 

during the implementation 

of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

<strong>Management</strong> plan and 

related planning and 

management processes 

Prepare a cabinet memo 

for Policy approval 

Vision integrated 

into the ODMP 

and other 

planning and 

management 

process 

Approved 

National 

Wetlands and 

Strategy Policy 

Leading 

Institution 

DEA 

Supporting 

Institutions 

All government 

departments and 

ministries 

DEA All govt. depts. and 

stakeholders 

Delivery date Resource needed 

July 2007 

March 2013 

April 2007- 

March 2013 

In-house, ESP 

Recurrent/developme 

nt 

P100 000 

P100 000 

In-house 

DEA March 2008 In-house 

P30 000





ID Key Issues Operational Objectives Critical Activities Output / Leading Supporting 

Delivery date Resource 

Outcome t Institution Institutions 

needed 

I.2.4 Difficulties in obtaining, updating 

and accessing existing 

information for resource 

planning and management in 

the ODRS need to be addressed. 

I.2.5 Research in the ODRS needs to 

be coordinated. 

I.2.6 The long standing problem of 

fisheries conflicts need to be 

resolved. 

I.2.7 Haphazard and delays in land 

allocations as well as poor 

record keeping need to be 

reduced. 

155 

HOORC to improve 

accessibility and updating of 

data and information for 

resources planning and 

Improve internet 

connectivity in all govt. 

depts. 

management Create information and 

data (ODIS/Library) 

accessibility through 

the web 


recommendations of the 

Research Strategy 

DWNP to put in place fishery 

conflict resolution 

mechanisms 

TLB to allocate land in an 

orderly and timely manner 

through the use of a land 

management database. 

To establish the 

Research Advisory 

Group 

To develop and 

implement research 

strategy action plan 

Finalise and 

operationalise fisheries 

regulations 

Revive Ngamiland 

Fishermen Association 

Implement guidelines 

for land allocation as 

contained in the 

Integrated Land Use 

and <strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> 

of 2005 

Develop land 

management database 

Operational DEA All govt depts. March 2007 Contractor 

internet/e- 

and, stakeholders 

P43 200 

mails 

(SIDA 

Funds) 

Websites HOORC 

March 2009 Consultant 

required to 

develop 

website 

P200 000. 

RAG 

DEA 

HOORC 

March 2007 In-house 

P10 000 

Coordinated 

research 

Fisheries 


Functional 

Ngamiland 

Fishermen 

Association 

Speedy and 

orderly 

allocations 

Functional 

database 

HOORC 

DEA and All 


March 2007 Consultants 

P300 000 

for Action 

plan 

DWNP Fishery sector, March 2007 In-house 

Tour operators, 

Communities, TLB, 

P20 000 

DoT, NWDC June 2007 

TLB Communities, 

private sector, 

NWDC, All 

Government 

Departments 

Nov 2006-March 

2013 

In-house 

P200 000 

March 2009 P300 000



Strategic Object 1.3: To raise public awareness, enhance knowledge and create a platform for information exchange and learning about the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

ID Key Issues Operational Objectives Critical Activities Output / 

Leading Supporting Delivery date Resource needed 

Outcome 

Institution Institutions 


effective communication 

amongst ODMP 

stakeholders at all levels 

during plan 



stakeholders continued 

meaningful participation in 

the implementation of the 

ODMP 

I.3.3 There is need to continue 

to engage Namibia and 

Angola in the sustainable 

use of the <strong>Okavango</strong> River 

Basin. 

I.3.4 The limited awareness of 



ODRS need to be 

addressed. 

156 

DEA to promote effective 


stakeholders. 

HOORC to provide 

participatory services to 

the ODMP implementing 



engagement of Angola and 

Namibia through the 

OKACOM process. 

DWNP to mount awareness 

campaign to reduce the 

negative ecological 

impacts of tourism 

activities in the ODRS 

Finalise and 

operationalise 

Communication 

strategy 

Engage stakeholders 

on a continuous basis 

through participatory 

methods 

Engage Namibia and 

Angola on the 

sustainable use of the 


through the OKACOM 

platform 

Develop and 

disseminate tourist 

educational 

information and 

publicity materials 



strategy 

Stakeholders 

participation 

Participation of 

Angola and 

Namibia in the 

joint 

management of 

the <strong>Okavango</strong> 

basin 

Educational 

programme and 

publicity 

materials 

DEA All government 

ministries and 

departments, 

private sector 

and communities 

HOORC All government 

ministries and 

departments, 


and communities 

DEA DWA, 

International 

Waters Unit, 

Namibia, Angola 

March 2007 Existing Staff and 

SIDA 

P1.5 million 


2013 


2013 

In-house 

P100 000 

In-house 

P150 000 

DWNP DoT, TLB, NWDC March 2009 In-house 

P100 000

Appendix I. 2: Action <strong>Plan</strong> for the Bio-physical Thematic Area 


To ensure the long-term conservation of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> and the provision of existing ecosystem services for the benefit of all the organisms depending on it 


To conserve the biotic and abiotic functions of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, and the interactions between them 

ID Key Issues Operational Objectives Critical Activities Output / 

Leading Supporting Institution Delivery 

Outcome 


date 




improved 






sanctuary 




be protected. 

B.1.5 The inadequacy of base 

line data on fish stocks 

in the ODRS needs to be 

addressed. 

157 

DWA to improve the water 

quality and sedimentation 


DWNP to carry out 

baseline surveys on 


DWNP to facilitate the 

designation of Lake Ngami 

as a bird sanctuary 

DWNP to protect existing 

and potential breeding 

sites for the slaty egret 

DWNP to develop and 

implement fish stock 

monitoring programme 

Increase the frequency and 

monitoring sites. 

Improve baseline information on 

the Leopard, Cheetah and Slaty 

egret 

Carryout baseline surveys on 

the African Skimmer, Sitatunga, 

small mammals, amphibians, 

Hippos, reptiles and 

Invertebrates 

Engage with communities to 

build consensus to designate 

Lake Ngami as a non-hunting 

area 

Engage with policy makers to 

put in place the necessary legal 

instruments 

Protect existing breeding sites 

and those which will be 

identified during ODMP 


Undertake regular fish 

monitoring surveys and collect 

catch data from fishers 

Improved 


programme 

DWA, HOORC March 

2007 

Inventories DWNP HOORC, Birdlife April 

Inventories 

Lake Ngami 

designated as a 

non-hunting area 

Protected 

breeding sites 

Base-line fish 

stock data on 


Botswana, 

Researchers, Private 

sector 

DWNP DEA, Birdlife, 

Communities 

DWNP DoT, Birdlife 

Botswana, DFRR, 

Tourism sector, 

Communities 

DWNP HOORC, Fishing 

communities, Ministry 

of Fisheries and 

Marine Resources, 

Namibia 

2007- 

March 

2013 

March 

2009 

April 

2007- 

March 

2013 

Nov 

2006- 

March 

2013 

Resources 

needed 

Existing staff 

P1.6 million 


In-house 

P50 000 

In-house 

P500 000 

In-house 

P500 000




To maintain or restore the wetland habitats and ecosystems of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 


Critical Activities Output / Leading Institution Supporting 


Objectives 

Outcome 


B.2.1 There is need to 

reduce the impact 

and frequency of 

uncontrolled veld 

fires. 

B.2.2 Limited knowledge 

on the impact of 

large herbivores on 

sensitive habitats 


livestock needs to 

be addressed 

B.2.4 The risk of Tsetse 

re-infestation needs 

to be reduced. 

158 

DFRR to reduce the 

impact and frequency 

of uncontrolled veld 

fires. 

DWNP to assess and 

mitigate the impact of 



DAHP to reduce 

overgrazing in the 

ODRS 

DAHP to reduce the 

risk of Tsetse reinfestation 

by 

promoting dialogue 

with Angola, Namibia 

and Zambia to create 

a tsetse free zone. 

Implement the 

guidelines relevant on 

appropriate fire 

management practices 

as contained in the Fire 

<strong>Management</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> 

Assess the extent of the 

impact of large 


habitats 

Develop limits of 

acceptable change for 

sensitive habitats in the 

Moremi Game Reserve 

Monitor defined 

parameters to ensure 

limits are not exceeded 

and institute corrective 

measures 

Carry out biomass 

assessment 

Develop and implement 

the range carrying 

capacities 

Undertake dialogue with 

Angola, Namibia and 

zambia to create tsetse 

free zone 

Reduction in 

uncontrolled 

veld fires 


impacts 


overgrazing 

Tsetse free 

zone 

DFRR HOORC, DWNP, 

DoT, Tourism 

sector, NWDC 

DWNP HOORC, DFRR, 

Independent 

researchers 

DFRR TLB, NWDC, DEA, 

DWNP, DAHP 

DFRR DEA, Angola, 

Namibia, Zambia 

March 2009 In-house with 

Conservation 

Committees 

P300 000 

April 2007- 

March 2013 

Part of the 


Moremi 



P500 000 


P200 000

Appendix I. 3: Action <strong>Plan</strong> for the Socio-economic Thematic Subsystem 

Strategic Goal 3: To sustainably use the natural resources of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> in an equitable way and support the livelihoods of all stakeholders. 




Critical Activities Output / Leading Institution Supporting 

Objectives 

Outcome 


S.1.1 There is need to 

establish the nonuse 

economic 

values for the 

ODRS 


address the 

possible impacts of 

tourism activities 

on the ODRS 

ecosystem. 


vegetation 

resources need to 

be addressed 

159 

DEA to undertaken 

estimation of non-use 

economic values for 

the ODRS 

DoT to monitor and 



DFRR to develop 

regulations for 



Carryout assessment of 

non-use values 

Carryout further 

assessment on direct 

and indirect values 

Determine the carrying 

capacity and limit of 


the tourism activities in 


Carry out an assessment 

of vegetation use and 

users as well level of 

use. 

Determine levels of 

levies in consultation 

with the communities. 

Carry out a pilot project 

to test this management 

option 

Revised 

Economic 

Valuation 

Report 

Information on 

ecological 

impacts of 

tourism 

activities 

Vegetation 

resources 

levies 

DEA DoT, DWNP, DAHP, 

DWA, DFRR, 

NWDC, DFCP,TLB 

DoT NWDC, DFRR, 

DWNP, DEA 





need to be 

mainstreamed into 


S.2.2 The need to 

manage channel 

blockages to 

sustain 

communities access 

to livelihood 

activities 


implement guidelines 

for sectors to 

streamline HIV/AIDS, 


during ODMP 

Prepare mainstreaming 

tools 

Hold stakeholder 

workshop for sectors on 

utilisation of the tools 

implementation Monitor the 


guidelines 

DWA to manage small 

channel blocks 

primarily for 



Undertake EIA on areas 

of channels blockages 

Mainstreaming 

tools 

Workshop 

proceedings 

Cross cutting 

issues 

mainstreamed 

EIA report on 

blocked 

channels 

DFRR DoT, NWDC, 

DWNP, TLB, Private 

sector, CBOs, 

communities 

DEA All Government 

departments 

DWA DEA, Government 

departments, 

Communities, 



March 2009 Consultants 

P600,000 

March 2009 

In-house 


Feb 2007 

Preparation 

Feb 2007 

Feb 2007- 

March 2013 

Covered under 

SIDA/ODMP 

contribution 

In-house 

P100 000 

April 2007 Consultancy 

P450 000


Strategic Objective 3.2: To develop socio-economic opportunities to improve livelihoods of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> stakeholders. 


Objectives 

S.2.3 The human/wildlife DWNP to assess and 

conflicts continue mitigate the 

to be a problem human/wildlife 

and need to be 

addressed. 

conflicts 




needs to be 

improved. 

S.2.5 The tourism 

products need to 

be diversified from 

being wildlife based 

to other areas. 

160 

DoT to develop and 

implement strategies 

to enhance citizen 




implement strategies 

for tourism product 

diversification 

Critical Activities Output / 

Outcome 

Identify hotspots for Report on 

human elephant 

reduction of 



Determine and 

implement mitigation 

measures 

Develop the 

comprehensive 

framework for 

monitoring of predators 

Undertake spoor survey 

Determine and 

implement mitigation 

measures 

Develop problem animal 

control policy (National 

Wildlife Conflict and 

Strategy) 

Determine strategies for 

citizen empowerment in 

the tourism sector 

Review CBNRM 

programme with the 

view of enhancing 

citizen participation 

Implement the citizen 

empowerment strategies 

and improved CBNRM 

programme. 


tourism diversification 

Implement strategies for 


Strategies for 

citizen 

empowerment 

Diversified 

strategies for 


Leading Institution Supporting 


DWNP DAHP, DFRR, TLB, 

DoT, NWDC, DEA, 

Communities, 

Private sector 

DoT, NWDC DFRR, TLB, DEA, 

DWNP, Private 

Sector, CBOs, 

Communities. 

DoT, NWDC DFRR, TLB, DEA, 

DWNP, Private 

Sector, CBOs, 

Communities. 


April 2007- 

March 2013 

April 2007- 

March 2013 

April 2007- 

March 2013 

March 2007 

April 2007 – 

March 2013 

March 2007 

April 2007 – 

March 2013 

To be implemented 

as part of the 

Elephant 



Predation to be 

dealt with under 

Predation 


Strategy 

P50 000 for 

predator 


P100 000 for spoor 

survey 

To be covered GEF 

funding 



(Included in the 

overall tourism 

consultancy budget 

of P2 700 000) 


(Included in the 

overall tourism 

consultancy budget 

of P2 700 000) 

To be advised in 

March 2007



S.2.6 Traditional access 


resources in 

concession areas 

need to be upheld. 

S.2.7 The 


interactions need to 

be reduced. 

161 

TLB to ensure that 

traditional access 


resources for 

subsistence in 

concession areas are 

respected 

DAH to develop 

programmes for the 




Carry out inspections to 

ensure that traditional 

access rights contained 

in the lease agreements 

are respected 

Improve maintenance of 

veterinary fences 

Mount public awareness 

on livestock disease 


Assess feasibility of 

providing livestock 

watering points in sand 

veld areas. 

Traditional 

access rights 

respected 

Maintenance 

programmes 

Public 

awareness 

programmes 

Feasibility 

Report 

TLB DoT, DWNP, DFRR, 

NWDC, Tourism 

sector, 

communities 

DAHP DWNP, 

Communities 

April 2007 – 

March 2013 

April 2007 – 

March 2013 

April 2007 – 

March 2013 

In-house 

P500 000 

In-house 

To be advised 

In-house 

P500 000 

May 2007 P300 000

162 

APPENDIX II – MONITORING AND 

EVALUATION PLANS

Appendix II. 1: <strong>Plan</strong> for Monitoring Implementation and Outputs for the Institutional Thematic Area 




ID Operational 

Objective 

I.1.1 DEA to strengthen 

the capacity of the 

ODRS DEA office to 

coordinate and 

monitor 


the ODMP. 

I.1.2 NWDC to strengthen 

the capacity of the 

communities in the 



the natural 

resources. 

I.1.3 DWNP to improve 

the manpower 

capacity in the 

Fisheries Division to 

sustainably manage 

the fish resources by 

2012 

163 

Output Criteria for 

quality 

Full staff 

compliment 


Technical 

Support 

Memorandum of 

Agreement 

between DEA 

and HOORC 

Capacity needs 

assessment 

report 

Capacity 

building 

programmes 


personnel (2 at 

degree level 

(C1), 2 technical 

officers (C2), 6 

technical 

assistants (B4) 

Well resourced 

office with 

personnel and 

equipment 

Implementable 

Agreement 

Widely agreed, 

relevant, clear, 

implementable 

Trained and 

qualified 

personnel 

Main target 

group 

Ngamiland 

District 

All ODMP 


Ngamiland 

District 

communities 

Expected date of 

delivery 

March 2007 

April 2007 

March 2007 

April 2008 – March 

2013 

DWNP March 2007 

Is the output 

delivered in time 

within budget and set 

quality 

Deviations from 

delivery time, 

budget and 

quality. 

Corrective 

measures 

Comments by 

DEA





Objective 

I.1.4 NWDC to improve 

solid and liquid 

waste collection 

within the ODRS 


the solid and liquid 

waste infrastructures 

in the ODRS 


the institutional 

capacity of the 

district waste 

management. 

164 


quality 


contracts 

Compliance with 

provisions of 

waste 

management in 

the lease 

agreement 



in Maun 



in Maun 


storage facilities 

provided 


technical staff 

Implementable 

contract 

Improved solid 

and liquid 

waste 

collection 

Disposal 

according to 

health 

standard 

Trained and 

qualified 


Main target 

group 

Ngamiland 

District 

stakeholders, 

waste 

management 

contractors 

NWDC and all 

district 

stakeholders 

NWDC, DoT, TLB 

and Tourism 

sector 


delivery 

March 2009 

June 2007 

March 2011 

March 2012 

March 2008 

Is the output 



quality 



budget and 

quality. 

Corrective 

measures 

Comments by 

DEA






Objectives 

I.2.1 DEA to facilitate the 

process of 

harmonizing 

legislation and 

policies applicable to 

ODRS 

I.2.2 DEA to ensure that 




planning and 



ODMP 


I.2.3 DEA to facilitate 




I.2.4 HOORC to improve 

accessibility and 

updating of data and 

information for 

resources planning 


165 


quality 

Strategy to 

achieve 

harmonised 

policies. 

Harmonised 

policies 

Vision integrated 

into the ODMP 

and other 

planning and 

management 

process 

Approved 

National 

Wetlands and 

Strategy Policy 


website 

Implementable 

Approved by 

government 

SEA compliant 

Shared and 

agreed 

SEA compliant 

SEA compliant 

Approved by 

government 

User friendly 

and easily 

accessible 

Main target 

group 

DEA and All 

government 

departments 


stakeholders 

All govt. 


district 

stakeholders 

All planning 

stakeholders 


delivery 

March 2009 

March 2013 

April 2007 –March 

2013 

March 2008 

March 2007 

Is the output 



quality 



budget and 

quality. 

Corrective 

measures 

Comments by 

DEA


To establish viable institutional arrangements to support integrated resource management in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> at local, district level, national level and international (River Basin) 

level 




Objectives 

I.2.5 Research in the 

ODRS needs to 

be coordinated. 

I.2.6 DWNP to put in 

place fishery 

conflict resolution 

mechanism 

I.2.7 TLB to allocate 

land in an orderly 

and timely 

manner through 

the use of a land 

management 

database. 

166 


quality 


Research 

Advisory Group 

Research 

strategy action 

plan 

Fishery 


Ngamiland 

Fishermen’s 


Speedy and 

orderly 


Land 


Database 

Well represented 

group made up 

of all experts in 

different fields. 

Approved by 

Steering 

Committee 

Agreed by fishery 

stakeholders and 

approved by 

Government 

Legally 

constituted and 

functional 

Main target 

group 

Govt depts, 

Research 

stakeholders 


delivery 

March 2007 

March 2007 

Fishery sector March 2007 

June 2007 

No delays Communities, Nov 2006-March 

private sector, 

NWDC, All 

2013 

Functional, user Government March 2009 

friendly, 

accessible and 

updated 

Departments 

Is the output 


within budget 

and set quality 



budget and 

quality. 

Corrective 

measures 

Comments by 

DEA


To establish viable institutional arrangements to support integrated resource management in the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> at local, district level, national level and international (River Basin) 

level 

Strategic Object 1.3: To raise public awareness, enhance knowledge and create a platform for information exchange and learning about the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 


Objectives 

I.3.1 DEA to promote 

effective 


amongst 

stakeholders. 

I.3.2 HOORC to 

provide 

participatory 

services to the 

ODMP 

implementing 



engagement of 

Angola and 

Namibia through 

the OKACOM 

process. 

I.3.4 DWNP to mount 

awareness 

campaign to 

reduce the 

negative 

ecological 

impacts of 


in the ODRS 

167 


quality 



strategy 

Stakeholders 

participation in 

plan 




Angola and 

Namibia in the 

joint 

management of 


basin 

Educational 

programme and 

publicity 

materials 

Implementable, 

relevant, 

targeted, 

appropriate 


tools, widely 

agreed 

Buy in by 

stakeholders 

Regional 

agreements 

minimum 

upstream 

developments 

Easily 

understood 

campaigns in a 

native language, 

clear, concise, 

user-friendly 

Main target 

group 

DEA, national 

and international 

stakeholders 

HOORC, District 

Stakeholders 

DEA, OKACOM, 

<strong>Okavango</strong> Basinwide 

Forum 


national and 

district 

stakeholders 


delivery 

March 2008 

April 2007 – 

March 2013 


2013 

March 2009 

Is the output 


within budget 




budget and 

quality. 

Corrective 

measures 

Comments by 

DEA

Appendix II. 2: <strong>Plan</strong> for Monitoring Implementation and Outputs for the Bio-physical Thematic Area 



Strategic Objective 2.1: To conserve the biotic and abiotic functions of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>, and the interactions between them. 


Objectives 

B.1.1 DWA to improve 

the water quality 

and 



B.1.2 DWNP to carry 

out baseline 

surveys on 


B.1.3 DWNP to 

facilitate the 

designation of 

Lake Ngami as a 

bird sanctuary 

B.1.4 DWNP to protect 

existing and 

potential 

breeding sites for 

the slaty egret 

B.1.5 DWNP to develop 

and implement 

fish stock 


programme 

168 


quality 

Flow monitoring 

reports 

Improved 


programme 

Inventory and 

Survey Reports 

Lake Ngami 

designated as a 

non hunting 

area. 

Protected 

breeding sites 

Base-line fish 

stock data on the 


Improved 

coverage (in 

terms of spatial, 

temporal and 

parameters ) 

Based on sound 

scientific survey 

and analysis 

methods 

Reduced illegal 

hunting incidents 

Protection 

enforced 

Sites less 

accessible 


survey and 

analysis methods 

Main target 

group 

DWA, 

Government 

departments, 

OKACOM, other 

ORB projects 

DWNP, HOORC, 

District 

stakeholders 

DWNP, 

Communities, 

Tourism sector 

DoT, Birdlife 

Botswana, DFRR, 


Communities 

DWNP, Fishers 

communities, 

Tour operators, 

HOORC 


delivery 

Sept 2007 

April 2007 – 

March 2013 

March 2009 


2013 

Nov 2006 – 

March 2013 

Is the output 


within budget 




budget and 

quality. 

Corrective 

measures 

Comments by 

DEA






Objectives 

B.2.1 DFRR to reduce 

the impact and 

frequency of 


fires. 

B.2.2 DWNP to assess 

and mitigate the 

impact of large 

herbivores on 


B.2.3 DAHP to reduce 

overgrazing in 

the ODRS 

B.2.4 To reduce the 

risk of reinfestation 

by 

promoting tsetse 

free zones in 

neighbouring 

countries 

169 


quality 



fires 


impacts 


overgrazing 

Tsetse free zones 


programme 

Accurate, 

reliable, Based 

on sound 


and analysis 

methods 



and analysis 

methods 


survey and 




and analysis 

methods 

Main target 

group 

DFRR, 

Communities, 

Tourism sector 

DWNP, MoA, 

district 

stakeholders 

DWNP, DAHP, 

District 

Stakeholders 

DAHP, Namibia, 

Angola, Zambia 


delivery 

March 2009 

April 2007 – 

March 2013 

March 2007 

March 2009 

Is the output 


within budget 




budget and 

quality. 

Corrective 

measures 

Comments by 

DEA

Appendix II. 3: <strong>Plan</strong> for Monitoring Implementation and Outputs for the Socio-economic Thematic Area 

Strategic Goal 3: To sustainably use the natural resources of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> in an equitable way and support the livelihoods of all stakeholders 

Strategic Objective 3.1: To sustainably use the wetland resources of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> for the long-term benefit of all stakeholders. 


Objectives 

S.1.1 DEA to undertake 

estimation of 

non-use 

economic values 

for the ODRS 

S.1.2 DoT to monitor 


impact of tourism 

in the ODRS 

S.1.3 DFRR to develop 



of vegetation 

resources 

170 


quality 

Revised 


Valuation Report 

Information on 

ecological 

impacts of 



resources levies 


survey and 


Accurate, 

reliable, based 

on sound survey 

and analysis 

methods 

Should include 

active 

involvement of 




agreed upon by 

the same 

Main target 

group 

DEA, DoT, 

DWNP, DAHP, 

DWA, DFRR, 

NWDC, DFCP,TLB 

NWDC, DFRR, 

DWNP, DEA 

DFRR, 

Communities 


delivery 

March 2009 

March 2009 

March 2008 

Is the output 


within budget 




budget and 

quality. 

Corrective 

measures 

Comments by 

DEA





Objectives 

S.2.1 DEA to prepare 

and implement 

guidelines for 

sectors to 

streamline 

HIV/AIDS, 

Gender and 

Poverty during 

ODMP 


S.2.2 DWA to manage 

small channel 

blocks primarily 

for communities 

access to 

livelihood 

activities. 

S.2.3 DWNP to assess 


human/wildlife 


S.2.4 DoT to develop 

and implement 

strategies to 

enhance citizen 


the tourism 

sector 

171 


quality 

Mainstreaming 

tools 

Cross cutting 

issues 

mainstreamed 

Cleared and 

accessible 

channels 

Report on 



Improved citizen 

empowerment 

Targeted, user 

friendly, based 

on sound 

methods 

Accessibility to 

livelihood 

activities 


survey and 


Be based on an 

inventory and 

gap analysis of 

the current range 

of tourism 

offerings and 

their seasonality 

Main target 

group 

All govt. 


district 

stakeholders 

DEA, 

Government 

departments, 

Communities, 


DAHP, DFRR, 

TLB, DoT, 

NWDC, DEA, 

Communities, 


DoT, NWDC, 

DWNP, TLB, 

District 

stakeholders 



delivery 

Feb 2007-March 

2013 

May 2007-March 

2013 


2013 

March 2012 

Is the output 


within budget 




budget and 

quality. 

Corrective 

measures 

Comments by 

DEA





Objectives 

S.2.5 DoT to develop 

and implement 


tourism product 


S.2.6 TLB to ensure 

that traditional 

access rights to 


for subsistence in 


are respected 

S.2.7 DAH to develop 

programmes for 

the reduction of 



172 


quality 

Diversified 


Traditional 

access rights 

respected 

Veterinary fences 

Maintenance 

programmes 


survey and 


Resources 

accessible 

Should include 

active 

involvement of 




agreed upon by 

the same 

Main target 

group 


delivery 

DoT, NWDC Jan 2007 

DoT, DWNP, 

DFRR, NWDC, 


communities 

DWNP, Tourism 

sector, District 

Stakeholders 

April 2007 – 

March 2013 

March 2009 

Is the output 


within budget 




budget and 

quality. 

Corrective 

measures 

Comments by 

DEA

Appendix II. 4: <strong>Plan</strong> for Monitoring Changes in the Institutional Thematic Area 




ID Operational Objective Indicator Means of verification Sources of 


I.1.1 DEA to strengthen the 

capacity of the ODRS DEA 

office to coordinate and 

monitor implementation of 

the ODMP. 

I.1.2 NWDC to strengthen the 

capacity of the communities 

in the management and 


resources. 

I.1.3 DWNP to improve the 

manpower capacity in the 


sustainably manage the fish 

resources 

I.1.4 NWDC to improve solid and 

liquid waste collection within 

the ODRS 

I.1.5 NWDC to improve the solid 

and liquid waste 

infrastructures in the ODRS 

I.1.6 NWDC to improve the 

institutional capacity of the 

district waste management. 

173 

Fully operational 

and well 

supported DEA 

office 

Improved 

capacity of the 

communities in 


and 

management of 

the natural 

resources 

Increase in 

manpower 

capacity by 3 

proffessional 

staff 


involved in solid 


collection and 

disposal 

Functional waste 

management 


Increase 

manpower 

capacity to 

effect quarterly 

audits with two 

professional 

staff 

No. of personnel, 

equipment and 

transport and 

technical support 

programmes 

No of successful 

CBNRM programmes 

No of training and 

capacity building 

programmes held 

No of trained 


No of additional 


Signed and contracts 

operational 

No of functional 

waste management 


No of additional staff 

No of quarterly audit 

reports 

DEA establishment 

register 

Annual Reports 

NWDC, DWNP 

Annual reports 

DWNP 

establishment 

register 

NWDC Annual 

reports 

NWDC Annual 

reports 

NWDC 

establishment 

register 

Inspection reports 

Who will 

collect 

Frequency Baseline Tools for collecting 


DEA Annual Current 

manpower 

estimates 

NWDC, 

DWNP, NGO 

facilitating 

CBNRM 

programmes 

Annual Current 

performance of 

CBNRM 

programmes 

DWNP Annual Current 

manpower 

establishment 

NWDC Annual Current level of 

engagement of 

the private sector 

NWDC Annual Waste 

management 

records 

NWDC Annual Manpower 

estimates 

Current no of 

audit inspections 

Review Manpower 

estimates 

Review annual reports 

Review of the 

performance of the 


Review establishment 

register 

Review of annual reports 

Review of the records 

Review of manpower 

estimates 

Review of inspection 

report





ID Operational Objectives Indicator Means of verification Sources of 


I.2.1 DEA to facilitate the 

process of harmonizing 



I.2.2 DEA to ensure that the 

common and shared vision 

of the ODRS guides the 

planning and programmes 

in the ODRS during the 


I.2.3 DEA to facilitate approval 

of the Draft National 

Wetlands Policy and 

Strategy 

I.2.4 HOORC to improve 

accessibility and updating 

of data and information for 

resources planning and 

management 



174 

Reduced policy 

conflicts and gaps 

Vision incorporated 

in to the 

management of 


<strong>Delta</strong> ecosystem 

Enacted National 

Wetlands Policy 

and Strategy 


internet/e-mails 


Research Advisory 

Group 


research strategy 

action plan 

No of conflicting 

polocies 

Vision statement 

appears in the 

management 

planning documents 

Approval by 

government 

Wetland Committees 

operational; 

Data records and 

amount of 

information in ODIS 

No of researches 

done in partnership 

with HOORC with the 

approval of RAG 

Who will 

collect 



Policy documents DEAs Annual Policies Review of policy 

documents 

<strong>Management</strong> and 

Project 

Implementation 

<strong>Plan</strong>s 

DEA Annual Report 

Hansard 

ODIS HOORC 

All govt. 


Bibliography of 

research in the 


DEA Annual Documents 

containing vision 

statement 

DEA, Annual District 

committees 

Annual Records on data 

and information 

HOORC Annual Research 

documents 

Review of the 


project implementation 

documents. 


Review of records in 

ODIS 

Review of the 

bibliography on research







I.2.6 DWNP to put in place 

fishery conflict resolution 

mechanisms 

I.2.7 TLB to allocate land in an 




175 

Reduced conflicts 

between 

commercial fishers 

and tour operators 


delays and 

increased 


Number of conflicts 

Who will 

collect 



Annual reports DWNP Annually Conflicts incidents Review of annual reports 

No of allocations Allocation records TLB Annually Allocations Review of records 

Strategic Object 1.3: 

To raise public awareness, enhance knowledge and create a platform for information exchange and learning about the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong>. 

I.3.1 DEA to promote effective 


stakeholders. 

I.3.2 HOORC to provide 








I.3.4 DWNP to mount awareness 





Level of awareness 

about the ODMP 

Stakeholder 


plan 



Regional 

agreements to 

minimize upstream 

developments 

Reduced negative 

ecological impacts 

No of Stakeholders 

aware of the ODMP 

No of stakeholders 

involved in the 


ODMP. 


Angola and Namibia 

in the joint 


<strong>Okavango</strong> basin 

Baseline information 

on impacts 

ODMP Progress 

reports 

ODMP Progress 

reports 

Monitoring reports 

compiled by DWA 

DWNP Annual 

Reports 

DEA Annually No of 

Stakeholders 

aware of the 

ODMP 

DEA Annually No of stakeholders 

involved in the 


the ODMP. 

Review progress reports 

Review progress reports 

DEA & DWA Annual Hydrological data Review of annual reports 

DWNP Annual Impacts Review of annual reports

Appendix II. 5: <strong>Plan</strong> for Monitoring for Changes in the Bio-physical Thematic Area 







B.1.1 DWA to improve the water 



B.1.2 DWNP to carry out baseline 

surveys on keystone 

species 

B.1.3 DWNP to facilitate the 



B.1.4 DWNP to protect existing 


B.1.5 





176 

Increased 

coverage and 

frequency of water 

quality and 

sediment 


Improved baseline 

information on 


Gazzettement of 

Lake Ngami as a 

non-hunting area 

Number of additional 

measuring sites 

Monitoring data 

Number of baseline 

studies 

Hydrological Year 

Book 

Hydrological 

database 


Research reports 

Journal articles 

Survey reports 

Gazette document Government 

gazette 


Who will 

collect 



DWA Annual Monitoring data Review of records in the 

databsae 

DWNP and 

HOORC 

Annual Data on the 

species 

Literature review and 

reports 

DWNP One-off Hunting incidents Review of reports 

Protected sites No of protected sites DWNP Reports DWNP Annual Protected sites Review of reports 

Improved fish 

stock data 

Fish stock data Database on fish 

stocks 

DWNP Reports 

DWNP Annual Protected sites Review of reports







B.2.1 DFRR to reduce the impact 



B.2.2 DWNP to assess and 




B.2.3 DAHP to reduce 

overgrazing in the ODRS 

B.2.4 To reduce the risk of reinfestation 

by promoting 

tsetse free zones in 

neighbouring countries 

177 


impacts and 

frequency of un 

controlled veld 

fires 


impacts caused by 

fire and large 

herbivores 


overgrazing 

Level of impact of 

uncontrolled fires 

Frequency of 

uncontrolled veld fires 

Level of impact of 


Range resources 

condition 

Tsetse free zone Area of tsetse 

eradication 

Who will 

collect 



Annual reports DFRR Annual Number of 


Area burned each 

year 

Monitoring reports DWNP, 

DFRR 

DFRR Range 

Resources reports 

Annual Tsetse 

Monitoring Reports 

Review of reports and 

remote sensing imagery 

Annual Impacts Review of monitoring 

reports 

DFRR Annual Range conditions Review of reports 

DAHP Annual Tsetse status Review of reports

Appendix II. 6: <strong>Plan</strong> for Monitoring for Changes in the Socio-economic Thematic Area 

Strategic Goal 3: To sustainably use the natural resources of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> in an equitable way and support the livelihoods of all stakeholders 


To sustainably use the wetland resources of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> for the long-term benefit of all stakeholders. 



S.1.1 DEA to undertake 



ODRS 

S.1.2 DoT to monitor and 



S.1.3 DFRR to develop 

regulations for sustainable 

use of vegetation 

resources 

178 

Improved 

Economic value of 



negative impacts 

of tourism 


resources permits 

and levies 

developed and 

operational 

Comprehensively 

reflects direct and 

indirect use values 

Level of impacts 


Valuation report 


Tourism 



Who will 

collect 

DEA Periodic 

review of the 

ODMP 



DoT Annual Level of impact 

Publicity materials 

Permits and levies Annual reports DFRR Annually Records of 

permits and levies 

Strategic Objective 3.2: To develop socio-economic opportunities to improve livelihoods of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> stakeholders. 

S.2.1 DEA to prepare and 

implement guidelines for 

sectors to streamline 

HIV/AIDS, Gender and 

Poverty during ODMP 


S.2.2 DWA to manage small 

channel blocks primarily for 



S.2.3 DWNP to assess and 

mitigate the human/wildlife 


S.2.4 DoT to develop and 

implement strategies to 


participation in the tourism 

HIV/AIDS, Gender 

and Poverty issues 

incorporated 

Improved access 

to means of 

livelihoods 

Reduced incidents 

of human/wildlife 

conflicts by 30 

percent 

Improved citizen 



No of plans and 

programmes 

incorporating 


and Poverty 

Extent of areas easily 

accessible 

Number of incidents 

reported and verified 

by DWNP 

Level of citizen 


tourism enterprises 

ODMP 

Departmental 

Reports 

DWA annual 

reports 

DEA Annually Status on 


and Poverty 

DWA and 

DEA 

Economic values Review of economic 

valuation reports 



Annual Blocked channels Review of annual reports 

Annual reports DWNP Annual Conflict incidents Review of annual reports 

Licences, annual 

reports 

DoT, NWDC Annual Citizens 

participation 

Review of licences and 

reports

179 

sector 

S.2.5 DoT to develop and 

implement strategies for 



S.2.6 TLB to ensure that 

traditional access rights to 

natural resources for 

S.2.7 

subsistence in concession 

areas are respected 




livestock/wildlife conflicts. 

Diversified tourism 

products 

Traditional access 

to natural 

resources 

improved 



Number of tourism 

product lines 

Level of tradition 

access 

Annual reports DOT and 

NWDC 

Lease inspection 

reports 

Annual Product lines Review of annual reports 

TLB Quarterly Traditional access 

rights 

Review of lease 

inspection reports 

No of conflicts Annual Reports DAHP Annually conflicts Review of annual reports

180 

APPENDIX III: ASSESSING IMPACTS 

OF THE ACTION PLANS, 

MITIGATION MEASURES OF HOW 

TO ADDRESS THEM AND 

SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA

Appendix III. 1: Assessing Impacts of the Action <strong>Plan</strong>s, Mitigation Measures of how to address them and Sustainability 

Criteria for Institutional Thematic Area 




To establish viable management institutions for sustainable management of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> ecosystem 

ID Key issues Operational Objective Critical Activities Potential impact Mitigation measure Sustainable criteria 


establish a regional 

DEA office in ODRS 

and strengthen its 

capacity to coordinate 

and monitor the 


ODMP. 

I.1.2 There is need to build 

the capacity of 

communities for 

delivering 




181 

DEA to strengthen the 

capacity of the ODRS DEA 

office to coordinate and 

monitor implementation of 

the ODMP. 

NWDC to strengthen the 

capacity of the communities 

in the management and 


DEA to complete the 

recruitment of the regional 

office staff. 

DEA to prepare and sign a 

memorandum of 

agreement with HOORC for 


technical support during 

ODMP implementation. 

Assess the capacity of 

communities to manage 


resources. Develop and implement 


programmes 

• Improved coodination 

by DEA in the 


ODMP 

• Influence of DEA may 

not be felt in outlying 

areas of ODRS and 


• Staff turn-over will 

hamper 


plan 

Technical sound 


ODMP 

of the 

Improvement and 

understanding of 

sustainable management 

practices in the <strong>Delta</strong> 

• Differential 



programme may 

make some 

communities to feel 

left out, 

• Poor turn out in 

programmes may 

hamper 


• Programme may 

conflict with existing 

commuinities 

activities to sustain 

• DEA presence to be 

expanded to subdistrict 

level 

• <strong>Plan</strong> to address 

staff turn-over 

needs to be put 

inplace 

Financila resources 

needs to be availed by 

MEWT to ensure the 

agreement is 

implemented 

• Clear strategy for 

identifying 

beneficiaries and 

clear programme 

for implementation 

has to be 

developed 

• The programme 

has to be clearly 

communicated to 

the communities 

• Mobilisation 

strategies have to 

be developed and 

tested before 

implemetation 

• DEA staff to be trained in 

critical relevant skills to the 

management of the ODMP 

such as ecosystem approach, 

economic valuation and 

strategic environmental 

assessment 

• Staff conditions should be 

guided by strategic goals and 

objecives set out by the 

repective department with 

regard to retaining staff 

Use of the best available expertise 

and knowledge required for the 

management of the ODRS 

• Communities trained are well 

represented in terms of 

gender, age, ethnic diversity 

and social responsibilities 

• Aspects for capacity building 

should be focused on critical 

areas such as basic 

environmental management 

systems and financial 

accounting 

• The capacity building 

programmes should have a 

provsion of r long-term 

mentoring

I.1.3 Manpower capacity of 

the fisheries division 

needs to be 

addressed 

I.1.4 The solid waste 

collection services 

within the ODRS need 

to be improved. 

I.1.5 The solid and liquid 

waste infrastructure 

in the ODRS needs to 

be improved. 

I.1.6 The institutional 

capacity of the district 

waste management 

needs to be improved 

182 

DWNP to improve the 

manpower capacity in the 


sustainably manage the fish 

resources by 2012 

NWDC to improve solid and 

liquid waste collection within 

the ODRS 

NWDC to improve the solid 


infrastructures in the ODRS 

NWDC to improve the 

institutional capacity of the 

district waste management. 

Rationalization of DWNP 

positions to increase 

capacity of the Fisheries 

Division. 

Train existing rationalized 

staff 

Engage private sector to 

collect and dispose solid 

and liquid waste in 

settlements 

Ensure tour operators 

comply with provisions of 

waste management as 

contained in the lease 

agreement 

Operationalise Maun landfill 

site through procurement 

and installation of 

outstanding equipment 

To construct a landfill site in 

Gumare 

To increase temporary 

storage facilities in all 

settlements 

Increase operational 

technician staff compliment 

from 6 to 8 by rationalising 

existing positions. 

livelihoods 

Improved management of 

the fisheries resources 

Staff turn-over may 

hamper implementation of 

the programmes 

• Improved waste 

management system 

• Poor supervision and 

payment of 

contractors may 

result accumulation 

of waste 

Lack of monitoring may 

not significantly improve 

status 

Impacts related to 

operation of landfill such 

as leachate, gas 

emmissions, smell and air 

polllution 


construction and operation 

of land fill 

Additional storage facilities 

• Improved waste 

management 

• Increased financial 

obligations 

<strong>Plan</strong> for reainig staff 

should be put in place 

• Adequate financial 

resources should 

be made available 

for waste 

management 

• Before outsourcing 

NWDC should 

assess those waste 

management 

aspects they are 

able to adequately 

provide to reduce 

the financial 

burden 

EIA to be used to 

manage impacts 

• Qualified and 

skilled personnel to 

be recuited in to 

those posts 

• Proper incentives to 

retain staff 

Staffing conditions should be 

guided by strategic goals and 

objectives set out by respective 

department with regard to 

retaining staff 

Guidelines developed for the 

management should be used at all 

times 

Waste management practices 

should be in accordance with 

waste management and sanitation 

master plan 

A clear timetable for monitoring 

should be developed to ensure 

tour comply with provisions 

Landfill to operate in accordance 

with the EIA Act, Waste 

<strong>Management</strong> Act and Waste and 

Sanitation Master <strong>Plan</strong>. 

Well trained and equiped staff


Objectives 

I.2.1 There is need to DEA to facilitate the 

harmonize legislation and process of 

policies applicable to the harmonizing 

ODRS. 










the approval of Draft 


and Strategy not by 

Parliament. 

183 

DEA to ensure that 




planning and 








Critical Activities Potential impact Mitigation measure Sustainable criteria 

Carry out high level 

consultations with the 

affected government 

ministries on how to 

implement 


recommendations 

policy 

Facilitate implementation 

of policy harmonisation 

strategy 

Fully integrate the vision 

during the implementation 

of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 

<strong>Management</strong> plan and 

related planning and 

management processes 

Prepare a cabinet memo 

for Policy approval 

Efficient management 

of the ODRS 

Lack of political will to 

undertake 


Sustainable 


ODRS resources 

Lack of clarity on how 

to integrate vision, goal 

into plans and 

programmes 

Sustainable 


ODRS system 

Relavant politicians have 

to be lobbied to enable 

speedy review of 

existing legislation 

All plans and 

programmes being 

implemented in the 

ODRS should be guided 

by the ODMP vision and 

goals 

Policy and legislation review 

should achieve the following: 

• Reducing adverse effects 

on natural resource base 

• Upholding the pricipless of 

wise use 

• Upliftment of livelihoods 

• Develeopment of 

management 

responsibiliites at all critical 

levels 

• Promotes a balance 

amongst social, economical 

and ecological aspects of 

development 

• Appreciation of local 

values/knowledge 

• Sound legislative backing 

Vsion and SEA should be used 

to guide plans and programmes 

implemented in the <strong>Delta</strong>




To improve the planning and regulatory frame work for sustainable management of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> ecosystem 

ID Key Issues Operational Objectives Critical Activities Potential impact Mitigation measure Sustainable criteria 





management in the ODRS 

need to be addressed. 

I.2.5 Research in the ODRS needs 

to be coordinated. 

I.2.6 The long standing problem 

of fisheries conflicts need to 

be resolved. 

I.2.7 Haphazard and delays in 

land allocations as well as 

poor record keeping need to 

be reduced. 

184 

HOORC to improve 

accessibility and updating 

of data and information 

for resources planning 



recommendations of the 

Research Strategy 

DWNP to put in place 

fishery conflict resolution 

mechanisms 

TLB to allocate land in an 




Improve internet 

connectivity in all 

govt. depts. 

Create information 

and data 

(ODIS/Library) 

accessibility 

the web 

through 


Research 

Group 

Advisory 

To develop and 

implement research 

strategy action plan 

Finalise 


and 

fisheries regulations 

Revive 

Fishermen 

Ngamiland 


Implement guidelines 

for land allocation as 

contained in the 

Integrated Land Use 

and <strong>Management</strong> 

<strong>Plan</strong> of 2005 

Develop 

management 

database 

land 

Improved information 

availability on the ODRS 

Lack of financial 

resources might delay 


programme 

Gaps in data reduces 

effectiveness 

availbale data 

of 

Improved 

in research 

coordination 

Bias in research can 

marginalise some issues 

An implementable ODMP 

research strategy 

Aspects of fisheries 

management might not 

be addressed by the 


Lack of information 

amongst stakeholderson 

the guidelines 

Lack of information 

among stakeholders on 

the guidelines 

Lsck of standard format 

result in different data 

sets being collected 

Financila resources need to 

be made available to allow 


programme 

Data gaps need to be 

highlighted and incentives 

offered to collect missing 

data 

Research Advisory Group 

needs to be multi-sectoral 

and multi-disciplinary 

Action plan needs to be 

widely communicated 

Ensure wide consultations on 

the regulations 

Ensure uidelines are 

communicated adequately to 

stakeholders 

Standardise data collection 

and storage format 

An easily accessible, affordable 

and internet based system 

A standardised data and 


A representative Advisory 

Reasrch Group capable of 

advising on different research 

needs 

Reliable information generated 

through research made 

available to managers 

Regulations should incorporate 

sustainable 

management practices 

fisheries 

Sustainable land use 

management guidelines which 

are adequately communicated 

to stakeholders 

Standardised data sets for land 

managment



effective communication 

amongst ODMP 

stakeholders at all levels 

during plan 



stakeholders continued 

meaningful participation in 

the implementation of the 

ODMP 

I.3.3 There is need to continue 

to engage Namibia and 

Angola in the sustainable 

use of the <strong>Okavango</strong> River 

Basin. 

I.3.4 The limited awareness of 



ODRS need to be 

addressed. 

185 

DEA to promote effective 


stakeholders. 









DWNP to mount awareness 





Finalise and 



strategy 

Engage stakeholders 

on a continuous basis 

through participatory 

methods 

Engage Namibia and 

Angola on the 

sustainable use of the 


through the OKACOM 

platform 

Develop and 

disseminate 

educational 

tourist 

information and 

publicity materials 

Existence of 

communication strategy 

will improve awareness 

of the ODRS issues 

Possible emergence of 

lobby groups and special 

interest groups who 

might delay 

implementation of ODMP 

Possible ommission of 

peripheral groups during 

consultations 

Improved regional 

cooorperation on ODRS 

issues 

Raising country specific 

issues might derail 


Improved knowledge of 

tourism impacts 

Possible emergence of 

lobby groups and special 

interest groups who 

might delay 


The strategy should be well 

resourced for it to be 

implemented 

Adequate consultations need 

to be carried out to address 

ermerging issues 

Engaging regional neighbours 

has to be undertaken as early 

as possible in the 


Adequate consultations need 

to be carried out to address 

emerging issues 

Communication strategy should 

be comprehensive 

The strategy should 

stakeholders and all media for 

communicating to different 

stakeholders and adequate 

consultations should be carried 

on the same 

Stakeholders meetings have to 

be inclusive and representative 

Communication strategy should 

identify need to consult regional 

players and levels of 

consultation to be carried out. 

Stakeholders meetings have to 

be inclusive and representative

Appendix III. 2: Assessing Impacts of the Action <strong>Plan</strong>s, Mitigation Measures of how to address them and Sustainability 

Criteria for the Bio-Physical Thematic Area 









improved 






sanctuary 




186 

DWA to improve the water 



DWNP to carry out 

baseline surveys on 


DWNP to facilitate the 



DWNP to protect existing 



Increase the frequency and 

monitoring sites. 

Improve baseline information on 

the Leopard, Cheetah and Slaty 

egret 

Carryout baseline surveys on 

the African Skimmer, Sitatunga, 

small mammals, amphibians, 

Hippos, reptiles and 

Invertebrates 

Engage with communities to 

build consensus to designate 

Lake Ngami as a non-hunting 

area 

Engage with policy makers to 

put in place the necessary legal 

instruments 

Protect existing breeding sites 

and those which will be 

identified during ODMP 

Improved monitoring 

improves knowledge 

on the trends on 

water quality 

• Improved 

knowledge on 

the said species 

• The baseline 

survey might 

require 

mobilisation of 

huge resources 

• Improved 

knowledge on 

the said species 

• The baseline 

survey might 

require 

mobilisation of 

huge resources 

Increased touris 

arrivals to watch birds 

Improved 

conservation 

species at the lake 

of 


increased tourists 

Increased numbers 

and performance of 

the Slaty egret 

Develop partnerships to 

overcome deficiencies in 

resources 

• Develop 

partnerships to 

overcome 

deficiencies in 

resources 

• Proactive 

engagement of 

independent 

researchers 

• Implementation of 

the Research 

Strategy and 

Monitoring Action 

<strong>Plan</strong> 

Emphasis should 

continue to be put on 

high value low volume 

tourism 

Adequate consultation 

and communication 

regarding this activitiy 

In addition to monitoring 

presented in the ODMP, 

consideration should be given to 

monitoring criteria proposed in 

the Draft Environmental 

Guidelines, especially 

developing a reporting structure 

and feedback mechanism to 

enhance implementation of 

mitigation measures 

Sound scientific criteria for 

survey to be developed to 

ensure 

results/samples 

representative 

The lake should be managed in 

accordance with natioanal parks 

requirements and BirdLife 

International’s Important Bird 

Area guidelines 

Follow regioanl and 

international guidelines for 

development of a sanctuary 

The sites need to be 

incorporated into the Integrated 

Land Use <strong>Plan</strong> for the ODRS

187 

be protected. implementation Enhancement of 

ecological 

the ODRS 

status of 


increased number of 

tourists 

B.1.5 The inadequacy of base 

line data on fish stocks 

in the ODRS needs to be 

addressed. 




Undertake regular fish 

monitoring surveys and collect 

catch data from fishers 

Improved knowledge 

on the fish stocks opf 

the ODRS 

should be developed 

Data collected should be 

periodically made 

available to natural 

resource managers to 

improve knowledge and 

initiate review of 

management systems 




To maintain or restore the wetland habitats and ecosystems of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> 



Objectives 

B.2.1 There is need to 

reduce the impact 



fires. 

B.2.2 Limited knowledge 

on the impact of 




livestock needs to 

be addressed 

DFRR to reduce the 

impact and frequency 

of uncontrolled veld 

fires. 

DWNP to assess and 




DAHP to reduce 

overgrazing in the 

ODRS 

Implement the guidelines relevant 

on appropriate fire management 

practices as contained in the Fire 


Assess the extent of the impact of 

large herbivores on sensitive 

habitats 

Develop limits of acceptable 

change for sensitive habitats in 

the Moremi Game Reserve 

Monitor defined parameters to 

ensure limits are not exceeded 

and institute corrective measures 

Carry out biomass assessment 

Develop and implement the range 

carrying capacities 

Reduction in the negative 

impacts of uncontrolled fires 

in the ecosystem 

Some sections of the society 

may not be aware of the 

existing guidelines of use of 

fire 

Improved knowledge on the 

impacts of herbivores on 

sensitive environments 

Improved rangeland 

management 

Resistance from farmers on 

proposed strategies 

Implement the ODRS 

Fire <strong>Management</strong> 

Strategy 

Wide consultation and 

communication of the 

strategy 

Implementation of 

elements of the 

Research Strategy and 

Monitoring Action <strong>Plan</strong> 

Adequate 

communication with 

farmers before 

implementing rangeland 

carrying capacities 

Develop alternative 

livelihoods systems 

Mechanisms which 

Develop feedback mechanisms 

to improve guidelines/fire 

management strategy 

Sound scientific methods for 

conducting research to have 

reliable results 

Implementation of carrying 

capacities should be guided by 

the provision of alternative 

livelihood systems which are 

sustainable 

The programme should be 

guided by the objective of 

reducing poverty levels

B.2.4 The risk of Tsetse 

re-infestation needs 

to be reduced. 

188 

DAHP to reduce the 

risk of Tsetse reinfestation 

by 

promoting dialogue 

with Angola, Namibia 

and Zambia to create 

a tsetse free zone. 

Undertake dialogue with Angola, 

Namibia and zambia to create 

tsetse free zone 

Reduced re-infestation by 

Tsetse fly 

Reduced impact of tsetse fly 

on livestock sector and 

human health 

enable farmers to easily 

dispose off their 

livestock at the market 

rates should be put in 

place 

Continuos monitoring of 

the areas where tsetse 

fly has been eradicated 

Expansion of the tsetse 

fly free zones into the 

neighbouring countries 

Any eradication programmes 

should be preceded by an EIA 

study and recovery monitoring 

programme should be budgeted 

as part of the operation 

Appendix III. 3: Action Assessing Impacts of the Action <strong>Plan</strong>s, Mitigation Measures of how to address them and 

Sustainability Criteriafor Socio-Economic Subsystem 






Objectives 


establish the nonuse 

economic 

values for the 

ODRS 


address the 

possible impacts of 


on the ODRS 

ecosystem. 


vegetation 

resources need to 

be addressed 

DEA to undertaken 


economic values for 

the ODRS 

DoT to monitor and 



DFRR to develop 




Carryout assessment of 

non-use values 

Carryout further 

assessment on direct 

and indirect values 

Determine the carrying 

capacity and limit of 


the tourism activities in 


Carry out an assessment 

of vegetation use and 

users as well level of 

use. 

Determine levels of 

levies in consultation 

with the communities. 

Carry out a pilot project 

to test this management 

option 

Improved knowledge on economic 

value of natural resources 

Knowledge on thresholds on 

carrying capacity enhanced 

Possible information on carrying 

capacities might dissuade investors 

in the tourism sector 

Encourage sustainable 

management of vegetation 

resources 

Valuation should include 

comparison of different 

possible scenarios which 

might affect the management 

of natural resources in the 


Information on thresholds 

should be complemented by 

relevant 

legislation 

policies and 

Stakeholders should be 

adequately consulted on any 

policy 

regard 

formulated in this 

Develop alternative to 


Methodology should allow for 

ranking of resources including 

possible scenarios 

Policies for sustainable tourism 

management should be guided 

by survival of the <strong>Delta</strong>, as well 

as mantaining sustainable 

livelihoods in the <strong>Delta</strong> 

Sustainable monitoring 

mechanisms should be followed 

as outlined and also develop 

feedback mechanisms

Strategic Objective 3.2: To improve livelihoods of the <strong>Delta</strong> stakeholders through improved socio-economic opportunities 




need to be 

mainstreamed into 


S.2.2 The need to 

manage channel 

blockages to 

sustain 

communities access 

to livelihood 

activities 

189 


implement guidelines 

for sectors to 

streamline HIV/AIDS, 


during ODMP 


DWA to manage small 

channel blocks 

primarily for 



Prepare mainstreaming 

tools 

Hold stakeholder 

workshop for sectors on 

utilisation of the tools 

Monitor the 


guidelines 

Undertake EIA on areas 

of channels blockages 

Potential impact Mitigation measure Sustainable criteria 

Improved awareness on crosscutting 

issues of gender, poverty, 

HIV and AIDS 

Programmes initiated could reduce 

poverty, HIV and AIDS and 

address gender issues 

Some sections of the communities 

might be left out 

Sustainable management of 

blockages 

Restoration of threatened 

livelihoods 

Implement economic projects 

to address issues 

Implement gender, poverty 

and HIV and AIDS 

mainstreaming tools 

Programmes should aim at 

providing sustainable livelihoods 

to affected and infected groups 

Develop sustainable indicators 

EIA Act

Strategic Goal 3: To sustainably use the <strong>Delta</strong> resources for improvement of livelihoods of all stakeholders that are directly and indirectly dependent on the ecosystem products and services 

of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> (and associated dry lands) in an equitable way. 



Objectives 

S.2.3 The human/wildlife DWNP to assess 

conflicts continue and mitigate the 

to be a problem human/wildlife 

and need to be conflicts 

addressed. 




needs to be 

improved. 

S.2.5 The tourism 

products need to 

be diversified from 

being wildlife based 

to other areas. 

190 


implement 

strategies to 





implement 




Identify hotspots for 

human elephant conflicts 

Determine and implement 


Develop the 

comprehensive framework 

for monitoring of predators 

Undertake spoor survey 

Determine and implement 


Develop problem animal 

control policy (National 

Wildlife 

Strategy) 

Conflict and 


citizen empowerment in 

the tourism sector 

Review CBNRM programme 

with the view of enhancing 

citizen participation 

Implement the citizen 

empowerment strategies 

and improved CBNRM 

programme. 



diversification Implement strategies for 


• Human/elephant conflict 

phenomena better 

understood 

• Loss of livelihood sources 

through buffering of some 

areas to separate wildlife and 

human activities 

• Problem animal control can 

upset can upset family 

structure of animals which is 

not well understood 

• PAC could be done at 

unsustainable levels 

• Citezens benefit more from 

utilisation of natural 

resources 

• Possible disinvestment from 

tourism industry by 

international players who feel 

threatened 

• Increased need for training of 

citizen entrepeneurs 

• Proliferation of impacts from 

different activities being 

implemented in the <strong>Delta</strong> 

• People might be forced to 

engage in peripheral activities 

in the name of diversification 

• Develop alternative 

livelihood sources for 

communities in the <strong>Delta</strong> 

seriously affected by 

wildlife incursions 

• Compensation mechanism 

need to be developed for 

any loss of access to 


• PAC should only be used 

as a last resort. Other 

mechanisms for chasing 

animals need to be 

explored 

• International investors 

need to be assured of the 

security of their investment 

• Responsive programmes 

for ciotezen entrepeneurs 

need to be developed and 

implemented 

• SEA needs to be 

undertaken for those 

programmes and activities 

identified for 

implementation followed 

by project specific EIAs 

• Techniques such as cost 

benefit analysis should be 

used to evaluate potential 

projects for 


• Trade-offs to be 

developed on long-term 

survial of the <strong>Delta</strong> 

against sustainable 

livelihoods of <strong>Delta</strong> 

communities 

• Monitoring should have 

• PAC should be informed 

by population data on 

other predators and 

other wildlife 

• Citezen empowerment 

should be guided by 

transparency and 

fairness and the need 

for equitable distribution 

of resources 

• Programmes developed 

should equip 

entrepeneur with 

relevant skills that 

emphasisze sustainable 

programmes in the <strong>Delta</strong> 

Projects to be implemented 

need to be evaluated aginst 

environmental, technical and 

financial feasibility and should 

be critical in addressing 

gender concerns, HIV and 

AIDS and reduce poverty

Strategic Goal 3: To sustainably use the <strong>Delta</strong> resources for improvement of livelihoods of all stakeholders that are directly and indirectly dependent on the ecosystem products and services 

of the <strong>Okavango</strong> <strong>Delta</strong> (and associated dry lands) in an equitable way. 


S.2.6 Traditional access 


resources in 


need to be upheld. 

S.2.7 The 


interactions need to 

be reduced. 

191 

TLB to ensure that 

traditional access 


resources for 

subsistence in 

concession areas are 

respected 






Carry out inspections to 

ensure that traditional 

access rights contained 

in the lease agreements 

are respected 

Improve maintenance of 

veterinary fences 

Mount public awareness 

on livestock disease 


Assess feasibility of 

providing livestock 

watering points in sand 

veld areas. 

Potential impact Mitigation measure Sustainable criteria 

• Improved access by 

communites to natural 

resource utilisation 

• Lack of awareness by some 

communities of their 

traditional access rights 

• Poor communities can be 

bought out by rich individuals 

forfeiting their rights 

• Fragmentation of ecological 

habitiats 

• Cutting animals to traditional 

watering places and 

migratory routes 

• Community awareness 

programmes should be 

implemented to ensure 

communities are not 

denied their access rights 

• Review relevant sections of 

the lease agreement to 

address loopholes 

• Large areas or buffers 

should be mainained 

where possible and new 

fences should be only be 

preceded by a full EIA 

study 

• Promote the undertaking 

of appropriate activities in 

such areas such as CBNRM 

Traditional rights should 

maintain fair and equitable 

access by all those conerned 

Fencing and other livestock 

production programmes 

should respect the integrity of 

ecosystems

Okavango Delta Management Plan - Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

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