CNG Manual.indd - Weeds Australia

The advice provided in this publication isintended as a source of information only.Always read the label before using any of theproducts mentioned. This publication may be ofassistance to you but the State of Victoria and itsemployees do not guarantee that the publicationis without flaw of any kind or is whollyappropriate for your particular purposes andtherefore disclaims all liability for any error, lossor other consequence which may arise from yourelying on any information in this publication.Published by the Victorian GovernmentDepartment of Primary Industries, November2007© The State of Victoria, Department of PrimaryIndustries, 2007.This publication is copyright. No part may bereproduced by any process except in accordancewith the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968.Authorised by: Victorian Government, 1 SpringSt, Melbourne, Victoria, 3000 AustraliaISBN 978-1-74199-720-0For further information, visit the DPIWebsite at www.dpi.vic.gov.au or contact theDPI Customer Service Centre on 136 186Editing:Kirsten John/Trish LothianDesign adapted from “Lantana Control Manual”by Web and Publishing Services, Department ofNatural Resources, Mines and Energy 2004).Front cover photographyLarge picture: Chilean needle grass seedshowing pollen (Charles Grech, DPI Victoria).Smaller picture: Chilean needle grass invadingStromlo Forest, ACT (Jenny Conolly, ParksConservation and Lands, ACT).Printing:Adams Print Pty Ltd, Breakwater, Geelong Vic3220 AustraliaThis manual is part of the Chilean needle grassWeeds of National Significance (WoNS) Program,managed by Kelly Snell, National Chilean needlegrass Coordinator, Department of PrimaryIndustries, Victoria.For further information on the WoNS Programvisit the Weeds Australia website www.weeds.org.au/WoNS/Chileanneedlegrass/For copies of this manual contact the NationalChilean needle grass Coordinator, contactdetails can be found on the Weeds Australiawebsite.

National Best PracticeManagement ManualCurrent management and controloptions for Chilean needle grass(Nassella neesiana) in AustraliaWeeds of National SignificanceNovember 2007This manual has been produced byDefeating the Weeds Menace,the Victorian Department ofPrimary Industries,and the National Chilean NeedleGrass Taskforcei

AcknowledgementsPrinciple authorsKelly Snell, National Chilean Needle GrassCoordinator, Department of PrimaryIndustries, VictoriaCharles Grech, Project Manager, Weed Sciences,Department of Primary Industries, VictoriaJamie Davies, Project Officer, Department ofPrimary Industries, VictoriaParticipating authorsAnn Herbert, Bega Valley Shire Council, NewSouth WalesPhil Maher, Biosecurity Queensland, Departmentof Primary Industries and Fisheries, QueenslandDavid McLaren (National Chilean Needle GrassTaskforce) Department of Primary Industries,VictoriaGeoff Price, (National Chilean Needle GrassTaskforce) Parks, Conservation and Lands,Australian Capital TerritoryAndy Raymond, (formerly Bega Valley ShireCouncil, New South Wales)Louise Williams, (formerly Native VegetationManagement Services ® , Victoria)Contributions from National ChileanNeedle Grass Taskforce:Keith Hamilton, Chair (former Victorian Ministerfor Agriculture), VictoriaGraham Hardwick, Biosecurity Queensland,Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries,QueenslandColin Hocking, Victoria University, VictoriaIan Lobban, National Farmers Federation, VictoriaMich Michelmore, Department of PrimaryIndustries, New South WalesFrances Overmars, communityrepresentative, VictoriaAndrew Crane (corresponding member),Department of Primary Industries and Water,TasmaniaContributions (including technical input,review, comments, photos)Nigel Ainsworth, Department of Sustainabilityand Environment, VictoriaNatasha Baldyga, City of Whittlesea, VictoriaGrant Beutel, Department of Primary Industriesand Fisheries, QueenslandJulio Bonilla, Department of Primary Industries,VictoriaJenny Conolly, Parks, Conservation and Lands,Australian Capital TerritoryTony Cook, Department of Primary Industries,New South WalesCatherine Costello, Biosis Research Pty Ltd,VictoriaSteve Curwood, Hume City Council, VictoriaAndrew Dawson, Hume City Council, VictoriaAnne Dennis, Department of Sustainability andEnvironment, VictoriaAaron Dodd, Department of Primary Industries,VictoriaShiv Gaur, Department of Primary Industries,VictoriaChristian Goninon, Department of PrimaryIndustries and Water, TasmaniaSue Hadden, Department of Sustainability andEnvironment, VictoriaLinda Iaconis, Department of Primary Industries,VictoriaLucy Kirjan, Department of Primary Industriesand Fisheries, QueenslandSimon Kneebone, formerly Department ofPrimary Industries, VictoriaMichael Laity, Department of Primary Industries,VictoriaJeff Lowien, Department of Primary Industries,New South WalesPamela Manning, Ullina Landcare Group, VictoriaMichael Moerkerk, Department of PrimaryIndustries, VictoriaGeoff Nevill, Department of Sustainability andEnvironment, VictoriaLois Padgham, Parks, Conservation and Lands,Australian Capital TerritorySarah Sharp, Parks, Conservation and Lands,Australian Capital TerritoryAnthony Sheen, Bendigo Shire Council, VictoriaMike Slay, Homelea Ltd, New ZealandJenny Schabel, Hawkesbury Nepean CatchmentManagement Authority, New South WalesAlexandra Stengl, Wollondilly Shire Council, NewSouth WalesDavid Stewart, Department of Primary Industries,VictoriaAndrew Storrie, Department of PrimaryIndustries, New South WalesBrendan Sullivan, Parks VictoriaBridie Wetzel, Hume City Council, VictoriaMark Winfield, Department of Sustainability andEnvironment, Victoria.Peter Wlodarczyk, Native VegetationManagement Services ® , a division of Greybox andGrasslands Indigenous Nursery Pty. Ltd., VictoriaNichole Zaro, Collie Pty Ltd, Victoriaii

ForewordChilean needle grass is considered one ofAustralia’s worst weeds of native grasslandsand pasture. Since its introduction to Australiain the 1930s, Chilean needle grass has invadedgrasslands, roadsides and farms in Victoria, NSWand the ACT. More recently, it has been found inSouth Australia, Queensland and Tasmania. Thepotential for Chilean needle grass to becomepermanently established in these regions andinvade presently uninfested areas in Australia isof great concern. If allowed to spread unchecked,Chilean needle grass is likely to create hugeenvironmental and economic costs.Chilean needle grass places a huge burden onland managers. It reduces the carrying capacityof pasture, causes injury to stock and seriouslydegrades native grasslands. Its unique survivalmechanisms and the difficulties of identificationmake Chilean needle grass a particularlychallenging weed to control.The Chilean Needle Grass Taskforce recognisesthe need to contain the spread of Chilean needlegrass and to control existing infestations, as wellas the need to provide best practice informationto those attempting to carry out these oftendaunting tasks. The Chilean needle grass bestpractice manual is an important link in that chain.Designed to help provide effective managementsolutions for Chilean needle grass, the Chileanneedle grass best practice manual bringstogether detailed information about the plantitself, as well as best practice information aboutexisting control and management options.I recommend this manual to weed controlauthorities, land managers and all who areresponsible for land that is affected, or at risk ofinvasion, by Chilean needle grass.Finally, I would like to thank all those responsiblefor its production.Keith HamiltonChairChilean Needle Grass Taskforceiii

Using this manualWhere does the informationcome from?The advice in this manual is based on publishedinformation, existing research and theexperiences of individuals and organisationscurrently managing Chilean needle grass inAustralia.Our current understanding of best practice,however, is by no means the final word and, asfurther research unfolds and the experiencesof trial and error by land managers grows,strategies for Chilean needle grass control canbe expected to evolve into the future.This manual contains six sections:Section 1 Biology and threatA description of the biology and ecology ofChilean needle grass, its impact and nationaldistribution, including photographs anddiagrams to help identify Chilean needlegrass and to monitor flower/panicle seeddevelopment.Section 2 Integrated weedmanagementHow to plan integrated Chilean needle grassmanagement, including prioritising infestationsfor control and what to consider at each offour planning steps. Considers which landmanagement practices to follow in differentcircumstances, to minimise the risk of Chileanneedle grass spreading.Section 3 Selecting a controlprogramDescribes different control programs to considerin a range of different circumstances.Section 4 Control methodsDetailed descriptions of control methods – fromcultural to chemical – the circumstances andimplications of their use and examples of theirintegration by land managers.Section 5 Case studiesCase studies of approaches taken by landmanagers, including different control methodsand strategies for managing Chilean needlegrass in different situations.Section 6 Further informationThe declaration status of Chilean needle grass inAustralia, references and further reading, weedcontacts across Australia, a glossary of termsand a list of acronyms used in this manual.Note on referencing:Specific studies or important points arereferenced in the text and listed alphabeticallyin a comprehensive references and furtherreading section beginning on page 75. Keyreferences for some sections (for example,grass identification) are listed under “furtherinformation” at the end of that section.iv

ContentsSection 1 Biology and threat 11.1 Impact of Chilean needle grassin Australia 11.2 Preferred habitat and distributionin Australia 21.3 Description and life cycle 41.4 Identification 8Section 2 Integrated weedmanagement 152.1 Developing an integrated plan 152.2 Prevention of spread 20Section 3 Selecting acontrol program 233.1 Agriculture (introduced species) 283.2 Native grass 333.3 Linear reserves 35Section 4 Control methods 394.1 Cultural control methods 394.2 Grazing 434.3 Chemical control methods 454.4 Competition 544.5 Biological control 56Section 5 Case studies 58An education and awareness program foridentification and hygiene in the ACT. 58Chilean needle grass in Queensland– targeted for eradication from the state 60Integrated management of Chilean needlegrass on a beef production property nearTamworth, NSW. 62Managing heavy infestations ofChilean needle grass with intensivestrategic grazing. 64Rehabilitation of rocky grasslandsat Skeleton Creek, Victoria. 66Local government and landholders joinforces to tackle Chilean needle grassin Bega Valley Shire, NSW 68Roadside management of Chileanneedle grass by Hume City Council 70Section 6 Further information 736.1 Declaration details of Chileanneedle grass in Australia 736.2 Contacts 746.3 References and further reading 756.4 Glossary and acronyms 81v

Chilean needle grass dominating pasture in NSW (Jenny Schabel, Hawkesbury Nepean CMA).Section 1 Biology and threat1.1 Impact of Chilean needle grassin Australia 1Agriculture 1Native Grasslands 2Linear reserves 2Urban situations 21.2 Preferred habitat and distributionin Australia 2Current distribution 2Potential distribution in Australia 3Climate 3Soils 31.3 Description and life cycle 4Taxonomy 4Life cycle 4Seed production 5Seed bank 6Seed spread 61.4 Identification 8Identifying Chilean needle grassin seed 8Identifying Chilean needle grasswhen not in seed 10Features to distinguish Chileanneedle grass from native orother grasses 11vi

Section 1Biology and threat1.1 Impact of Chilean needlegrass in AustraliaChilean needle grass is a highly invasiveweed and has a serious impact onagricultural and native ecosystems.Chilean needle grass is one of Australia’s worstweeds. It invades native grasslands, agriculturalland, roadsides and urban parks, gardens andrecreational reserves.Growing concerns about the seriousness of theproblem, the potential for spread and the likelyeconomic and environmental impacts have led tothe declaration of Chilean needle grass as a Weedof National Significance (Thorp and Lynch 2000).A National Strategy for Chilean needle grasshas been developed (ARMCANZ and ANZECCFM2001): ‘to stop the spread, and reduce theoccurrence and impacts of Chilean needle grassin natural and agricultural ecosystems’.AgricultureChilean needle grass displaces palatablepasture species and can reduce productivity byup to 50 per cent over summer (Gardener 1998;CRC for Australian Weed Management 2003).It is less palatable than pasture grasses andnearly impalatable once in the reproductivestage. It reduces crop yield and contaminatesproduce such as hay, grain and seed. It is alsoa major contaminant on vehicles, machineryand equipment, which all have the potentialto spread Chilean needle grass acrossproperties and over long distances.The panicle seed readily attaches to stock,particularly sheep, and can cause injuryby burrowing into the skin and sometimesmuscle. Its presence in wool reduces qualityand can be a major cause of downgrading.The average annual cost of controllingChilean needle grass has been estimated atbetween $64 and $119 per hectare (McLarenet al 2002).Chilean needle grass panicle seed can downgrade wool (left) and injure stock (right) (DPI Victoria).1

Chilean needle grass is a serious andincreasing problem in native grasslands andgrassy woodlands (DPI Victoria).Chilean needles grass is a weed of parks,gardens, neglected areas and roadsides(DPI Victoria).Native GrasslandsChilean needle grass is the worstenvironmental weed threatening nativegrasslands.Native grasslands are one of Australia’s mostthreatened ecosystems. Less than 1 per centof their original extent remain (Ross 1999)in various stages of degradation throughoutsouth-east Australia and are under threat fromthe capacity of Chilean needle grass to rapidlyinvade disturbed soils and degraded ecosystems.Chilean needle grass will out-compete anddisplace native grass species, interfere with revegetationprograms and, once established, theseed banks are difficult to manage.Chilean needle grass is a particular problemin native grasslands and grassy woodlands insouth-east Australia, which include species suchas kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra) wallabygrasses (Austrodanthonia spp.), spear grasses(Austrostipa spp.), native tussock grasses (forexample, Poa spp.), weeping grass (Microlaenastipoides) and wiregrass (Aristida spp.).Linear reservesRoadsides contain some of the heaviestinfestations of Chilean needle grass in Australiaand provide vectors for its invasion and spreadthrough adjacent agricultural land, nativegrasslands and urban areas.The movement of vehicles and machinerycontaminated with panicle seed along roadsidesand linear reserves, such as rail corridors andpowerline easements, is the greatest sourceof the spread of Chilean needle grass. Routinemaintenance activities such as mowing alonglinear areas during the Chilean needle grassseeding period further enhance spread.Urban situationsIn urban areas, Chilean needle grass can be aweed of neglected land, parks, gardens, reservesand sporting grounds. Some of these areaseither contain or are adjacent to remnant nativegrasslands already under threat from increasingurbanisation. The panicle seed of Chilean needlegrass can cause injury to pets and is easilyspread on their coats or on the socks and shoesof humans.1.2 Preferred habitat anddistribution in AustraliaCurrent distributionChilean needle grass is native to South America,including Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador,southern Brazil and Uruguay.The first record of Chilean needle grassin Australia was in Northcote (a suburb ofMelbourne), Victoria, in 1934 (McLaren et al1998). It was first recorded in New South Wales in1944 (McLaren et al 1998). Chilean needle grassis now widespread and well established in partsof Victoria, NSW and the ACT and has naturalisedin localised areas of South Australia, Queenslandand Tasmania (Figure 1). Chilean needle grass hasnot yet been reported in Western Australia or theNorthern Territory.2

Roadsides are a major source from whichagricultural and natural ecosystems areinvaded (Tony Cook, NSW DPI ).Potential distribution in AustraliaClimatic modelling using CLIMATE ® predicts thatChilean needle grass has the potential to invadeapproximately 40 million hectares in Australia(McLaren et al 1998). Much of that figureincludes prime agricultural production areas,areas of high conservation value and includes alarge proportion of the temperate grasslands orgrassy woodlands from south-east Queenslandto Western Australia (Figure 2).ClimateFigure 1. Current distribution of Chilean needlegrass in Australia (DPI Victoria)The Potential Distribution of N. neesiana Predicted fromAustralian Distributions in 2004.Chilean needle grass has a wide climatic tolerance(Gardener 1998) and is capable of competingvigorously under annual rainfall that rangingfrom 450–1000 mm. It grows in climates rangingfrom warm, wet summers and cold, dry winters,such as the Northern Tablelands of NSW, to theMediterranean-type climates of Victoria and SouthAustralia that experience hot, dry summers andcool, wet winters. Chilean needle grass is tolerantof heavy grazing and, to a lesser extent, drought.SoilsPotential distribution 41 Million ha(Best prediction only)Figure 2. Potential distribution of Chileanneedle grass in Australia(McLaren et al 1998)In Australia, Chilean needle grass hasestablished on fertile soils, including thebasaltic soils of the New England Tablelands,the volcanic plains of Victoria, on rich clay soilsnear Lucindale in South Australia and is foundon black alluvium, red volcanic and sedimentderivedsoils in Queensland. Chilean needlegrass is also found on poorer sedimentary soilsnear Bendigo, Victoria, and grows in low-fertilityhabitats in New Zealand.3

1.3 Description and life cycleTaxonomyChilean needle grass (Nassella neesiana) is in thetribe* Stipeae (commonly referred to as stipoidgrasses) within the grass family* of Poaceae.There are six genera of stipoid grasses in Australia,with Austrostipa the only indigenous genus.Nassella, one of the introduced genera, includesChilean needle grass and species such asserrrated tussock (N. trichotoma), Mexicanfeather grass (N. tenuissima), cane needle grass(N. hyalina), Texas needle grass (N. leucotricha),lobed needle grass (N. charruana) and shortspinedneedle grass (N. megapotamia).Life cycleKEY FEATURES OF THE CHILEAN NEEDLEGRASS LIFE CYCLE• Chilean needle grass is a perennial tussockforminggrass that grows in clumps over1 m tall, and up to 1.5 m when in seed.• Vegetative growth usually occursthroughout the year, except summer.• Three types of seed can be produced –panicle seed on distinctive seed heads inspring/summer, and stems and basal seedthroughout the year.• Seed can remain viable in the soil in excessof three years.• Seed germination is usually in spring orautumn, but can occur at almost any time ofthe year if conditions are suitable.• Panicle seed is dispersed via machineryactivities, animal and water movement butnot by wind.Germination occurs mainly through spring andautumn (Sep–Nov and Mar–Apr) as rainfall andlight are adequate. Although where moisture andtemperature conditions are adequate, Chileanneedle grass can germinate and establish at othertimes of year. Stem and basal seed often germinatefirst during autumn as panicle seed requires timeto soften before germinating. Seedlings generallyestablish better on disturbed sites.Vegetative growth of seedlings andestablished plants occurs mainly in autumn,winter and spring (Apr–Oct).Flowering mainly occurs during spring andsummer (Sep–Dec), and is likely to occur laterin summer if disturbed by management such asgrazing. Flowering can occur at other times ofthe year if temperature and moisture conditionsare suitable (for example a second floweringperiod occurs during autumn in northern NewSouth Wales and Queensland).Panicle, stem and basal seed: see “seedproduction” opposite.* These terms are defined in the glossary onpage 81.Table 1.General growth pattern of Chilean needle grassChilean needle grass lifecycleSPRING SUMMER AUTUMN WINTERSep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul AugGerminationVegetative growthFlowering N N NPanicle seed production N NPanicle seed maturation N NStem and basal seed maturation B B B B B, S S S S S S S S= general pattern of growth; N = additional seeding period in northern New South Wales and Queensland; S = stemseed; B = basal seed.4

Seed productionChilean needle grass is unique in itsbiology as it produces three differenttypes of seed – panicle seed (seed head)and two types of cleistogenes, referredto as stem and basal seeds.Figure 3. The Chilean needle grass plantshowing the sites of seed production.Panicle seeds are at the flowering head,and can be seen over late spring and summer(Oct–Jan). A second seeding period occursduring autumn in northern New South Walesand Queensland. Panicle seed matures aroundone month after seed production begins, overthe late spring and summer period (Nov–Feb). Itis considered viable when in the ‘milky doughstage’, squeezing the seed can determine this.Stem seeds are found along the stems of theplant under the leaf sheath. Stem seed generallymatures from mid-summer to autumn (Jan–Apr)and are spread in “CNG straw” when stemsrupture at the end of flowering.Basal seeds are found at the base of the plant,can start forming very early in development andcan be mature before flowering. For examplewhere a new seedling establishes in autumn,basal seed are produced in the base of the plantand can be mature by flowering in mid-spring.Basal seed can be found any number of stems(from one to all stems) can mature at almost anytime of year from late autumn to late summer,and are released when the plant dies anddecomposes (Figure 3).5

Chilean needle grass can be moved frominfested areas where there is heavy traffic,particularly when it is wet (DPI&F Queensland).Chilean needle grass panicle seed in thefleece of sheep (Charles Grech, DPI VIctoria).Seed bankInput of all three seed types, including largeamounts of panicle seed, can eventually buildup into a large seed bank. Up to 20 000 panicleseeds/m 2 and over 6 000 basal and stemseeds/m 2 have been recorded in good conditionsNew South Wales (Gardener 1998).In one study (Gardener et al 1996a), seed bankswere shown to decline by 57 per cent per annum.To reduce this seedbank by 99 per cent, seedingwould need to be prevented for approximatelyeight years.Seed can survive in the soil in excess of threeyears and declines through germination or seeddecay (Gardener et al 2003b). Therefore theseedbank can be maintained over this period withvery little input, and means Chilean needle grasscan spring back after drought.Figure 4. Spread of Chilean needle grassover time:Seed spreadChilean needle grass panicle seed is largeand heavy and will travel no more than afew metres in wind (Gardener 1998). Thiscauses distinct clumpy patches to formand means dispersal relies on vectorssuch as machinery, animals and water.Masses of Chilean needle grass panicle seedcan be carried on machinery (Charles Grech,DPI Victoria)Year 1 Year 2 Year 3Year 1: Chilean needle grass plant is present. Year 2: The initial infestation (A) increases in size due to localisedpanicle seed spread. Panicle seed is transported by stock to form anew infestation (B).Year 3:Panical seed is transported by vehicle from A and B to form new infestations (C, D). Infestations A and B set panicle seed and onceagain increase in size.6

Chilean needle grass was introduced to this site by the movement of infested soil (DPI&F Queensland).AnimalsPanicle seed is very well adapted to move onanimals. Backwards facing hairs, a sharp callus,strong spines on the corona and a long, twistedawn ensures that they will readily attach toanimal fur.Panicle seed can easily contaminate and bemoved about on the fleece or fur of stock orferal animals, with the fleece of sheep being aparticular problem.Kangaroos and feral animals, rabbits inparticular, have been suspected to move Chileanneedle grass panicle seed.Vehicles and machineryVehicles and machinery are the number onevector for spreading panicle seed. Panicle seedsreadily attach to cars, machinery, tractors, sprayunits, mowers and slashers, and new infestationscan often establish at long distances from theoriginal infestation. For example, slashing duringthe panicle seeding period is a major mechanismfor contamination and seed spread.A major problem in the spread ofChilean needle grass panicle seed is itsunique biology that allows it to attach tojust about anything.WaterRivers, creeks and drainage channels cantransport Chilean needle grass panicle seeddownstream from the original infestation. InFlood waters are believed to have spreadChilean needle grass along the Condamine riverin Queensland (DPI&F Queensland).particular, flood waters are known to movepanicle seed downstream to new locations.Stock feed and croppingChilean needle grass panicle seed can be acontaminant of hay, seed or grain. Movementand use of contaminated produce can lead tothe development of new infestations, often longdistances from the original source. This risk isincreased during drought conditions when lowerquality hay, seed and grain is sold, bought andtransported extensively across the country.SoilAs Chilean needle grass develops a semipersistentseed bank, any movement of soilfrom an infested area is likely to transportpanicle seed and create new infestations.Potential movement of panicle seed can occurvia activities such as road works, landscaping,building or be transported on tractor tyresduring cultivation operations.7

Mike Slay,HomeleaLtd.Panicle seedheads area distinctpurplish colourand have anodding habit(Charles Grech,DPI Victoria).1.4 IdentificationGrasses are amongst the more difficult groupsof plants to identify. Additional references onidentifying grasses are provided at the end ofthis section.Chilean needle grass can be difficult to identify,especially when its distinctive panicle seedheads are not present. It can easily be confusedwith a number of other grass species.Identifying Chilean needle grassin seedThe best time to identify Chilean needle grass isin spring, usually between October and March,when its distinctive purple flowers or panicleseeds are present. Although this timeframe mayvary between localities and seasons, in northernNSW, for example, Chilean needle grass has asecond panicle seeding period during autumn.The panicle seed head is easilyrecognised by the followingcharacteristics:• Glumes are a distinctive purple/violetcolour with long, light green awns(40–85 mm).• When mature, glumes become a darkpurplish colour and the awns dry out.• Can be up to 30 cm long and nodcharacteristically by drooping to one side ofthe stalk.• The panicle seed head is straw colouredwhen dry, and twists and kinks, oftenforming a tangled mass.• The panicle seed itself can be identified bya distinctive ring of hairs that resembles araised crown or ridge of small teeth.• Panicle seed is the best feature to use toidentify Chilean needle grass from otherNassella species (see figure 5).Distinguishing characteristics of Chileanneedle grass panicle seedPhoto:GeoffRobertson8

Figure 5. Features to distinguish Chilean needlegrass from other Nassella speciesa Lobbed needle grass (Nassella charruana)b Chilean needle grass (Nassella neesiana)c Texas needle grass (Nassella leucotricha)d Cane needle grass (Nassella hyalina)e Serrated tussock (Nassella trichotoma)f Mexican feather grass (Nassella tenuissima)a b c d e fOther Nassella species can be differentiated byseed size or the corona around the panicle seed.To distinguish the panicle seed of Chilean needlegrass, compare the illustrations below:a) Lobed needle grass (N. charruana) has a4–6 mm-long whitish, papery corona ratherthan a crown-like corona.b) Chilean needle grass (N. neesiana) has thick,tooth-like hairs (less than 1.5 mm), with panicleseed 6–10 mm and awns 40–85 mm long.Ac) Texas needle grass (N. leucotricha) haslonger thinner hairs (~3 mm) on the corona.d) Cane needle grass (N. hyalina), has shorterawns (35–40 mm) and smaller seed (3.5–6 mm).e) Serrated tussock (N. trichotoma) hasshorter awns (up to 30 mm) and smaller seed(1–2 mm).f) Short-spined needle grass (N.megapotamia) has smaller seed (2–4 mm).DMichael Moerkerk,DPI Victoria.Sarah Partington, DPIVictoriaCEDPI VictoriaAndrew Raymond,Adelaide and MountLofty NRM.9

Chilean needle grass after fire (DPI Victoria).Chilean needle grass plants in agriculturalsituation (DPI Victoria).Identifying Chilean needle grasswhen not in seedDifferentiating Chilean needle grass from othergrass species is challenging, as characteristicssuch as leaf size and colour are not alwaysconsistent, often making it difficult to tell apartwhen not in seed.The following features will help distinguishChilean needle grass when not in flower.Mature, straw-like Chilean needle grass (CharlesGrech, DPI Victoria)Growth habitChilean needle grass forms erect, robusttussocks that can be up to 1 m tall and variablein nature, depending on grazing pressure. As theplant matures, the leaves tend to droop. Underheavy grazing, plants can produce many shoots,resulting in wide, untidy tussocks.ColourChilean needle grass is often described ashaving a distinctive colour, depending on thelocality and conditions. During early growthstages it can be a darker green compared tomost other pasture species and during winter incolder regions it becomes yellow or straw like,unlike native grass species.Leaf CharacteristicsChilean needle grass leaves are between1–5 mm wide, up to 300 mm long and are flatin appearance. The leaves can roll inwards whenunder stress, for example during drought. Theupper leaf surface is strongly ribbed, with abroad, but variable, mid-rib.Hairs can be observed on the upper side ofChilean needle grass leaves and can be felt bysliding fingers up the leaf surface.The leaf surfaceis strongly ribbedwith a broad,variable mid-rib(DPI Victoria)10

Chilean needle grass plant(DPI&F Queensland).Chilean needle grass takes on a “yellowing”appearance towards the end of winteraround the ACT (Jenny Conolly, Parks,Conservation and Lands, ACT).Features to distinguish Chileanneedle grass from native orother grassesWithout its distinctive panicle seed heads,Chilean needle grass can easily be mistakenfor many other grass species, especiallyspear grasses (Austrostipa species),wheatgrass (Elymus scaber), wallaby grasses(Austrodanthonia species) and tall fescue(Festuca arundinacea).Spear grassAustrostipa scabraWeeping grassMicrolaena stipoidesWallaby grassAustrodanthonia sppWheat grassElymus scaberTussock grassPoa labillardiereiKangaroo grassThemeda triandraThese photos sourced from Native Grasses: An identification handbook forTemperate Australia, 3rd Edition, CSIRO 200211

Tall fescue, Festucaarundinacea (Andy Raymond,formerly Bega Valley Shire).Follow these steps to differentiate Chileanneedle grass from other grass species:1.2.3.Feel for shorterect hairs on theupper side of leaf(a): (most nativegrasses are smoothor have much softerhairs).Look for a smalltuft of hair at thejunction of theleaf blade and leafsheath (b), you will probablyneed a hand lens (Note: wallabygrasses are quite similar, butChilean needle grass can bedifferentiated by its muchcoarser and wider leaves).Look for seeds at the baseof the plant (c, d) and inthe leaf sheaths (e) (basaland stem cleistogenes are notpresent in native grasses.Note: Texas needle grass canproduce stem seeds, but notbasal seeds)Jamie Davies, DPi Victoriaabc d eMike Slay, Homelea LtdEnid Mayfield4.5.Mature plantsare not the fpronounced‘clumpy’ typetussocks likethose ofserrated tussock(N. trichotoma)or native Poaspecies (f)Tussock grassThe corona isPoa labillardiereiabsent in seedsof native speargrasses (species of Austrostipa), which areotherwise similar in appearance. (g) (DPIVictoria)Chilean needle grassgCharles Grech, DPI Victoria12

For further information on identifying Chileanneedle grass and other grasses:DPI Victoria. (2007). Weeds of NationalSignificance Management Guide - Chileanneedle grass. Department of Primary Industries,Victoria.Gardener, M. (1999). Landcare Notes: Chileanneedle grass identification. Keith TurnbullResearch Institute, Department of NaturalResources and Environment, Frankston, Victoria.Lamp, C.A., Forbes, S.J. and Cade, J.W. (2001).Grasses of Temperate Australia – a field guide.Bloomings Books, Australia.Mitchell, M. (2002). Native grasses –Identification handbook for temperate Australia,3 rd edition. CSIRO publishing, Collingwood,Victoria.Sharp, D. & Simon, B.K. (2002), AusGrass:Grasses of Australia. CD-ROM, Version1.0, Australian Biological Resources Study,Canberra, and Environmental Protection Agency,Queensland.Slay, M. (2002). Chilean needle grass: A guide tothe identification and management in Hawke’sBay. Hawke’s Bay Regional Council, New Zealand.Walsh, N. (1998) Identification of South Americantussock weeds. Plant Protection Quarterly 13(2),pp. 59-62.13

Section 2 Integrated weedmanagement2.1 Developing an integrated plan 15Step 1: assess the site 16Step 2: develop the plan 17Step 3: implement the plan 18Step 4: monitoring 182.2 Prevention of spread 20General 20Vehicles, machinery, equipment 20Stock 22Cropping, fodder, grain, soil, mulch 2214

Section 2Integrated weedmanagement2.1 Developing anintegrated planAn integrated Chilean needle grass managementprogram has four steps: site assessment,developing a plan, implementing it andmonitoring the outcome. This section outlineswhat to consider at each step.Figure 6. Four steps to planning an integrated management plan1. Assessthe site2. Developa plan4. Monitoring 3. Implementthe planStep 1: Assess the siteA site assessment to identify problem areas is vitalto help plan which sites should be treated first.Map infestationsA large-scale topographic map, an aerialphotograph or a hand-drawn map areall effective ways to record infestations.Consider and document risks or issues, suchas accessibility and assets of agricultural,environmental and cultural value.When looking for Chilean needle grass:• Check for new infestations in high-risk areassuch as:- fencelines bordering infested roadsides,riverbanks, stream flood limits, roadsidedrains, vehicle tracks, vehicle clean-downareas, areas where stock congregate andholding paddocks- areas where hay, grain or soil has beenused that was originally purchased from anarea known to have Chilean needle grass.15

• Survey in spring when the distinctive flowerheads are present.• Learn to identify Chilean needle grass whennot in flower (see page 10).• Take notice when flowering and panicleseed development occurs to effectively timecontrol methods.• Be consistent and conduct monitoring at asimilar time each year, using comparablemethods and recording the sameinformation each time.Estimate densityUse figure 7 below to determine the percentagecover of Chilean needle grass; this will helpprioritise which sites need to be treated first.Figure 7: WoNS Density classes (McNaught et al 2006)Changes in an infestation over time: with integrated management; without management4a. Localised andcommon5a. Widespread andabundant1. Absent 2. eradicate contain>reduce containDO YOU NEED TO MAP CNG OR IMPROVE EXISTING CNG MAPS?Consider using the National core attributes for weed mapping.A Field Manual for Surveying and Mapping Nationally Significant Weeds was published by theAustralian Government (McNaught et al 2006) to improve the consistency of data across a nationalscale. The manual is for land managers, land management agencies and research organisationsand is based on collecting core attributes (as agreed by the Australian Weeds Committee - AWC) asminimum information for monitoring the distribution and spread of WoNS.There are 13 core attributes, which form minimum data that should be collected, includinginformation such as date, place, longitude, latitude and density. Using these core attributes will helpensure all CNG data collected is consistent and applicable from one local area or region to the next,and across the whole country. It will enable a clearer picture of the CNG problem across the Nationand enable more efficient resource direction.The manual explains the data collection in detail and guidelines have also been prepared bythe Cooperative Research Centre for Australian Weed Management to assist communities andlandholders to map weeds and develop local weed management plans. For a copy of the manualvisit the Weeds Australia website: www.weeds.org.au/mapping.htm.16

Step 2: Develop the planWhere large infestations have developed, Chileanneedle grass management can become complex.Successful management relies on a good plan.Where a land manager works alone or whereinfestations are small, a simple recordingsystem is encouraged. A hand-drawn propertyplan is a useful tool to continuously add notesand plan treatments.Where the situation is more complex, or aland manager needs to share the informationwith others, such as staff, family, contractors,neighbours or Noxious Weed Authorities, amore thorough recording and planning systemmay be required.Set objectivesThe following objectives can be applied at anyscale, from one paddock within a property to awhole farm, region or state. Multiple objectivesmay be required if the situation is complex.Prevention: Where no Chilean needle grassexists, prevent it from entering the land.Eradication: Where early stage invasion orsmall isolated infestations exist, high priorityshould be given to eradication.Reduction or containment: Where Chileanneedle grass is established and/or widespread,it is unrealistic to expect to eradicate the weed.Use control to limit the impact of Chilean needlegrass, to gradually decrease the infestation sizeand to keep it from spreading further.Prioritise sitesAs Chilean needle grass infestations areoften widespread and patchy, it can bedifficult to know where to start to control.Consider high priority areas as follows:1. New, small or outlying infestationsshould be eradicated first to stop a seed bankfrom developing and reduce the likelihood ofa large established infestation developing.2. Areas with high risk of spread, such asroadsides, riverbanks and stock routes shouldbe controlled as a high priority, to limitfurther spread and reduce the chance of newinfestations developing.3. High value assets where infestationsare established, including the most productivepasture, the highest value native grasslandsand sites of community orcultural importance.4. Sites where efficiencies are gained fromsimultaneous control of other grassy weedssuch as serrated tussock, African lovegrass orgiant Parramatta grass.Determine control methodsIdentify the most appropriate methods to controlChilean needle grass for your situation (seeSection 3 Selecting a control program, on page23), taking into account available resourcesincluding finances.(Left) High risk areas for spread suchas roadsides should be high priorityto limit Chilean needle grass.(Above) Sites where benefits canbe gained from control of otherweeds included as part of aholistic management plan.17

PLAN TO PREVENT SPREADAny management program must includeprevention of spread through adequate hygienepractices. Include this in your plan to ensurethat any activities carried out will not spread theproblem further.DO YOUR WEED MANAGEMENTPLAN ONLINEThe Queensland Department of Natural Resourcesand Water has developed a Property PestManagement Plan (PPMP) kit. This kit containsguidelines on how to prepare a PPMP andpractical worksheets to help you develop one foryour property. The kit is available online at http://www.nrw.qld.gov.au/oneplan/index.htmlStep 3: Implement the planConsider the effectiveness of control methodsat different times of the year (for example,herbicide control is best conducted in spring,before panicle seed set) and balance this withthe time and resources available.See Section 4 Control methods, on page 39, forfurther information.Once your chosen objectives and plan of actionhas been decided:• allocate responsibility for actions• schedule activities on a calendar• get started.COORDINATE MANAGMENT PROGRAMSTO ACHIEVE GREATER EFFECTIVENESSCoordinate management programs withneighbouring property managers, across thecommunity or with other local, regional or stateauthority programs. This ensures greater costeffectiveness and reduces the likelihood ofspread and invasion from adjoining lands.Local or state authorities often coordinateweed control activities, especially if the weedis new to the area and is a major threat. Theseprograms often assist landholders throughactivities such as training, spraying and revegetation.Examples of this type of governmentcoordination can be found in the Queenslandand Bega Shire case studies on page 60 and68. Contact your local authority for moreinformation (page 74).Step 4: MonitoringHave control works been successful? Isfollow-up action required? What will berequired next year?Monitoring is an essential part of any goodmanagement program to ensure that controlactivities and methods have been successful.Periodically check all sites where controlactivities have been carried out. Where controlhas been unsuccessful or Chilean needle grass isbeginning to re-emerge, follow up with furthercontrol activities.Record the success of control activities and usethis to review your plan. Take notes on whatworks and what doesn’t, record progress in a sitediary, on maps, information sheets, or with photo18

Landholders attending a field day near Clunes, Victoria to get advice and support in managementtechniques. (DPI Victoria).points. Consider recording changes in Chileanneedle grass density or percentage cover.Doing this will allow you to build up a pictureof what is happening on the site over time,identify new issues to plan for next year and, ifnecessary, demonstrate progress to your groupor funding body or authority.BE AWARE OF CHILEAN NEEDLE GRASS INDROUGHT CONDITIONSThe drought tolerance of Chilean needle grassmeans it will remain healthy while manycompeting plants that are not drought tolerantsuffer. Chilean needle grass almost alwaysproduces panicle seeds, is often the last speciesto dry out before summer and the first species togreen up the following season, especially aftersummer rain.This is a particular problem in agriculturalpasture and drought conditions have thepotential to magnify the Chilean needle grassproblem across the country. Chilean needlegrass will be the first to flourish after rains,dominating landscapes and causing large areasof paddocks to become unpalatable as it goesinto seed.Transport of stock feed across the countryduring the drought conditions is anotherconcern that can lead to occurance of newinfestations in areas not previously known tocontain Chilean needle grass. During droughtperiods, take care to monitor infestations andkeep control plans flexible to ensure you cankeep on top of the infestation.Further informationSurveying and mapping:McNaught, I, Thackway, R, Brown, L and Parsons,M (2006). A Field Manual for Surveying andMapping Nationally Significant Weeds. Bureauof Rural Sciences, Canberra (available on www.weeds.org.au/mapping.htm).Integrated Weed Management:CRC for Australian Weed Management (2007).Integrated Weed Management Manual. CRC forAustralian Weed Management, Adelaide, SouthAustralia. (Order on: www.weeds.crc.org.au/publications/iwm_manual_flyer.html).Module 1: Developing and implementing aweed management plan in: CRC for AustralianWeed Management (2004). Introductory weedmanagement manual. Department of theEnvironment and Heritage, Canberra (availableon www.weeds.crc.org.au/publications/education_training_resources.html).19

(Simon Kneebone, DPI Victoria).Remove Chilean needle grass from clothingbefore leaving infested areas (DPI Victoria).2.2 Prevention of spreadLand management practices are thegreatest influence on the spread ofChilean needle grass panicle seed andadequate hygiene measures are essential.Chilean needle grass panicle seed readilyattaches to just about anywhere on vehicles,equipment and machinery, it is a majorcontaminant of stock, particularly sheep, and isalso a contaminant of fodder, stock feed, grain,seed, soil and mulch. Movement of these vectorsacross the country without adequate hygienemeasures means infestations are easily spread.The practices outlined in this section arerecommended for all control programsto prevent or limit the spread of Chileanneedle grass.GeneralIn all situations, minimise movement in and outof infested areas when Chilean needle grass isin seed:• if possible avoid working in infested areasall together until Chilean needle grass iscontrolled• especially directly after wet weather, whenmud and panicle seed will stick to wetmachinery and vehicles.• take care to stick to formed tracksand roads• plan work to occur in clean areas first.Monitor regularly and control emerging Chileanneedle grass:• in holding paddocks, clean-down sites andmachinery storage areas• after movement of materials, such as hay,roadside gravel and soil, onto clean sites.When employing contractors:• do not allow them on site unless they areclean and free from panicle seed• ensure they clean down before leaving thesite (consider the use of a ‘cleandown’ clausein new contracts to ensure this happens)• consider using Weed Hygiene-accreditedcontractors.Ask people working in or visiting infestations tocheck and brush off panicle seed before leavingthe site.Vehicles, machinery, equipmentUndertake an accredited vehicle and machineryhygiene training course.Plan works. For example:• slash before the main flowering period;• time harvest to avoid Chilean needle grasspanicle seeding; hay or grain should not beharvested from areas during this period;• work in clean areas first.20

Chilean needle grass panicle seed can accumulate onslasher decks (Charles Grech, DPI Victoria).Inspect vehicles, machinery and equipment forcontamination and clean down before removingfrom an infested site, including:• on and around wheels, slasher decks andabove bash plates;• air filters, radiators and engine components;• cabin interiors, as they carry a largeamount of mud and gravel.Where necessary, clean down any contaminatedmachinery or equipment. Dustpan and broom,air compressor, high pressure units are allpractical options.Clean down of contaminated machinery is a must(DPI Victoria).Be sure to:• appropriately dispose of any panicle seedcollected• always use the same place to clean down• monitor the clean-down site for emergingChilean needle grass, and control whereneeded.Some Local Councils in Australia haveestablished special clean-down areas alongroadsides, specifically for this purpose.A slasher mounted with blowers reduces contaminationto limit spread in Queensland (DPI Victoria).A cover on a slasher can significantly reducecontamination (DPI Victoria).Chilean needle grass panicle seed can adhere moreeasily in muddy conditions (DPI&F Queensland).21

Sheep are easily contaminated with Chileanneedle grass panicle seed.Clean down areas can reduce the rate of spreadalong roadsides (DPI Victoria).StockExclude stock from infested pasture when panicleseed is present (usually November–March).Limit movement of stock (especially sheep) frominfested to clean areas.Place stock in quarantine/holding paddocks if:• new stock are coming onto a clean site• moving stock from a contaminated paddockto a clean paddock• stock are suspected to be contaminatedwith panicle seed.Always use the same holding paddock, monitorfor germinating Chilean needle grass and controlwhere needed.Be careful when buying or selling stock feed thatmay be contaminated with Chilean needle grasspanicle seed.Cropping, fodder, grain, soil,mulchDo not harvest while Chilean needle grass isin seed.Do not buy or sell fodder, grain, seed, soil ormulch likely to be contaminated with Chileanneedle grass panicle seed.Avoid moving or dispose of spill material, suchas soil, suspected to be contaminated withChilean needle grass seed.Consider the use of Vendor Declarations for bothbuying and selling.VEHICLES CARRY MANY WEEDYHITCHHIKERSMichael Moerkerk of DPI Victoria conductsvehicle and machinery hygiene workshops inVictoria. During the workshops, participantsmanually clean down and collect samplesfrom vehicles and equipment used in landmanagement activities. Germination tests andvisual examinations are then conducted on thesamples to assess the presence of weed seed.On 70 vehicles and 36 items of machinery,Michael has found over 230 contaminantspecies, including 23 Victorian noxious weeds,one of which is Chilean needle grass (Moerkerk,2005 and 2006). The most common locationfor contaminants on vehicles was the cabin andengine bay, but weed seed was also found inmany other locations.Vehicles and equipment used for landmanagement activities are a significant risk fortheir capacity to spread weeds. Chilean needlegrass panicle seed is well known for its abilityto stick to vehicles and equipment. This studyhighlights the importance of practising goodvehicle hygiene and regular cleaning during theseeding period to reduce the risk of spreadingChilean needle grass and other weeds.For further information on preventingspread of Chilean needle grass onvehicles and machinery:Baldyga, N. and Grech, C. (2005). Machineryhygiene guidelines for roadside managers –minimising the spread of Chilean needle grass.Department of Primary Industries, BacchusMarsh, Victoria. (available on: www.weeds.org.au/WoNS/Chileanneedlegrass/).22

Section 3Selecting acontrol programSection 3 Selecting acontrol programChoosing your control program 253.1 Agriculture (introduced species) 28Pasture – all situations 28Pasture – summer rainfall zones 29Pasture – winter rainfall zones 30Cropping – all situations 31Cropping – summer rainfall zones 21Cropping – winter rainfall zones 323.2 Native grass 33Grazed native grasses 33Un-grazed native grasses 333.3 Linear reserves 35Introduced species present 35Native species present 36The unusual seed biology andpersistence of Chilean needle grasscoupled with the necessity to varycontrol methods depending oncircumstances, makes Chilean needlegrass a challenging weed to manage.For a successful integrated managementprogram in all situations:• limit spread by using good vehicle,machinery and stock hygiene practices• always integrate a number of differentcontrol methods• limit panicle seed production and provide orencourage competition of desirable grasses• quickly eradicate new, small or outlyinginfestations before they establish• incorporate Chilean needle grassmanagement into the production orbiodiversity system• regularly monitor and review.No single technique will successfully control orreduce Chilean needle grass. All situations willrequire a different combination of the availablecontrol methods to achieve success. Use Table 2on pages 26-27, to select an integrated controlprogram to suit your situation by following theinstructions on page 25.23

Integrate control methods for best resultsHume City Council,Charles Grech, DPI VictoriaCharles Grech, DPI Victoria24

Charles Grech, DPI VictoriaDPI VictoriaChoosing yourcontrol programStep One: Follow the colouredboxes to select your situationStart at the top boxes and select a categorywhich describes the land to be managed – eitheragricultural land, native grassland or a linearreserve. Sticking to this category, continue tofollow the arrows down to select the best matchfor your specific situation.For example:• If you are a roadside manager, the categoryof land to be managed will be ‘linearreserves’, followed by ‘introduced’ or‘native’, depending on the desirable speciespresent.• Native grassland for conservation will fallunder the ‘native grass’ category, thenungrazed’.• For agricultural activities on arable land,you can specify the rainfall type and currentland use (crop or pasture). Grazed nativepastures and steep or rocky areas will fallunder the ‘native grass’ category.Step Two: Select fromrecommended control methodsOnce you have selected the circumstances whichbest match your situation, the ticks within thetable will indicate suitable control methods.These form an integrated management programtailored to your situation. Detailed informationon these integrated control programs can befound on pages 23-37 and Section 4 Controlmethods, pages 39 to 56.25

Table 2.Selecting an integrated control programSTEP 1 Determine situationAgriculture(introduced species)Current land use Crop Introduced pastureDominanceSummerRainfallWinterRainfallSummerRainfallWinterRainfallSTEP 2 Choose controlmethodsCultural control methodsTimingManual removal/chipping All year Mow/slash 1-3 Cultivate 1-4 Mulch/weedmat* All year Rotational grazing* 1 (also 2-4) Set stock grazing* 1 (also 2-4)Use withwipersystemUse withwipersystemUse withwipersystemUse withwipersystemFire to reduce seeding* 4-6 Chemical control methodsSpot spray flupropanate 1, 7 Spot spray glyphosate 1-3, 7(also 4, 5)Boom spray flupropanate** 1 # # Boom spray glyphosate* 1-3(also 4, 5)DuringcroppingsequenceDuringcroppingsequenceDuringcroppingsequenceDuringpasturerenovationWick wiper^ flupropanate 1, 7 Wick wiper^ glphyphosate 2, 5, 7 CompetitionPlant competition: cropping –plough/direct drill, specialised allterrain equipment, aerial sowingCompetition: spray and hay/broadcast/direct seedN/A 8 * Will not work alone, must be integrated with othermethods for success.** Flupropanate can be very damaging to many native grassspecies.^ Wick wiping has the potential to cause lateral damage tonon-target species.# Better control in autumn.= recommended control methods (currentbest practice integrated control program)= control methods that may be useful, butcan have variable results or require caution= not recommended26

Native GrassLinearReserves2 3Grazed(nativepasture, insteep slopes,rocks)Ungrazed(eg. parks,reserves)ExoticNativeStage 2-3Mike Slay, Homelea Ltd Stage 3 Stage 3** ** ** DuringpasturerenovationStage 4** Stage 5Andrew Storrie, NSW DPITimingCNG growth stages.Other1. Vegetative: while seedlings or established plants are actively growing (before flowering)2. Stem swelling: when stem swelling occurs just before flowering.3. Early flowering: when plants first start to flower.4. Flowering: during flowering.5. Panicle seed emergence: once panicle seed emerges and is visible (caution needs to be taken not tospread seed during this stage).6. Panicle seed fall: after panicle seed has matured and fallen from the plant.7. When native grass is dormant – Winter/June C4 grasses (Themeda), – Summer/December C3 grasses (Austrostipa)8. April to JulyNote: timings in brackets (eg “also 4, 5”) can be used, but are a secondary preference.27

Grazed Chilean needle grass is more palatable to stock (DPI Victoria).3.1 Agriculture(introduced species)Pasture – all situationsEstablished infestations in pasture should bemanaged by applying a combination of controlactivities that will decrease the abundance ofChilean needle grass, increase its palatabilityand limit the production of panicle seed.The combination of grazing, cultivation,chipping, slashing, herbicide and fire selectedwill depend on Chilean needle grass growthpatterns and the necessity to favour the growthof desirable species. Because these techniquesare likely to result in bare ground, re-sowingdesirable perennial pasture species that willcompete with re-emerging Chilean needle grassor other weeds is essential.Good planning and hygiene practices arevital to ensure the problem is not enhanced bypanicle seed spreading on machinery, vehicles orlivestock, see “Prevention of Spread”, pages 20to 22.Small infestations should be manually chippedout immediately or spot sprayed before seeding.Manual removal is the most effective methodand, where possible, preferred, as this willreduce the potential for Chilean needle grass toregenerate from basal seed maturation.To prevent seed production and reduce thedensity of larger infestations, a combinationof grazing and spraying is recommended (seesummer or winter rainfall zones for furtherdetail). If using flupropanate, caution should betaken that treated areas are not grazed or cut forstock food until the withholding period expiry,and that there is a permanent withholding periodfor lactating cattle and goats.All control methods need to be followedup by encouraging perennial competition orre-sowing desirable pasture species, with directdrilling the best option.Monitoring is essential to ensure re-emergingChilean needle grass is followed up. Spotspraying with glyphosate is the best method toquickly reduce these plants.”Keeping Chilean needle grass short and green bygrazing will reduce seed production and increaseits feed value.” (Landholder, near Guyra, NSW)GOOD HYGIENE PRACTICES AREESSENTIALAvoid having stock in paddocks where Chileanneedle grass is in seed and plan any activitiesto occur outside the Chilean needle grasspanicle seeding period. Always inspect andclean down vehicles or machinery used withina Chilean needle grass infestation. Do not buy,sell or transport stock or stock feed that may becontaminated with Chilean needle grass seed.Vendor Declarations are a good way to ensurethere is no Chilean needle grass contamination.For further information see “Prevention ofSpread”, pages 20 to 22.28

Monitor and control Chilean needle grass inquarantine paddocks (DPI Victoria)Pasture – summer rainfall zonesManagement suited specifically to areaswhere summer rainfall is dominant,such as northern New South Wales andsouthern Queensland.Chilean needle grass often produces panicleseed heads twice a year in this area, producingapproximately two-thirds of seed heads in springand about one-third in autumn, making it necessaryto focus on limiting seed production in both seasons.Strategic grazing with cattle is preferable tosheep, as cattle are better suited to grazingrougher Chilean needle grass herbage and poseless risk of becoming contaminated with panicleseed (Grech 2007a).Spot spraying with glyphosate orflupropanate before panicle seed set isrecommended to reduce off-target damage.Caution needs to be taken when spot spraying,as both glyphosate and flupropanate candamage other grass species.Boom spraying with glyphosate can alsobe used and generally provides better controlin autumn.As infestations may need to be sprayed twice,in spring and again in autumn, it is extremelyimportant to rotate herbicide choice to limit thechances of herbicide resistance.Additional methods that can be used tolimit panicle seed set with mixed success areset stock grazing with cattle and fire (whereconditions allow). Caution needs to be takenwith set stock grazing, as it can cause a shiftin pasture composition, away from desirableperennial species and reduce the effectiveness offlupropanate (Grech 2007a).BENEFITS OF STRATEGIC GRAZING INSUMMER RAINFALL ZONESAdopting management practices that encouragecompetitive plant species is an effective way tocontrol weeds in grazing situations.The results of a strategic grazing trial,conducted by the University of New Englandnear Glen Innes on the New South WalesNorthern Tablelands, show that strategic grazingmanagement can encourage desirable perennialgrasses in pasture heavily infested with Chileanneedle grass.Taking advantage of the relatively slow growthrate of Chilean needle grass, the researchers andthe landholder used strategic grazing to heavilygraze the pasture and give the faster-growingperennial grasses an advantage over Chileanneedle grass during the subsequent rest periods.The estimated contribution by dry weightof Chilean needle grass in the spring, fellfrom 55 per cent to about 30 per cent, witha corresponding increase in other perennialgrasses such as cocksfoot, tall fescue andpaspalum.The Chilean needle grass changed from rank,unpalatable plants to a shorter, green and morepalatable grass. The pasture was no longercompletely dominated by Chilean needle grassbut included a higher proportion of palatableintroduced grasses, particularly cocksfoot andtall fescue.29

Chilean needle grass re-emerging after fire should be spot sprayed (DPI Victoria).Pasture – winter rainfall zonesManagement suited specifically to areaswhere winter rainfall is dominant such ascentral and southern New South Wales,Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania.Strategic grazing with sheep or cattle is effectiveand can encourage growth of desirable species.Cattle are the preferred grazers, where possible,as they are at less risk of contamination withChilean needle grass panicle seed.Follow up strategic grazing with spotspray applications of either glyphosate orflupropanate.For widespread heavy infestations, glyphosatecan be boom sprayed. Glyphosate will brown offChilean needle grass plants but they will re-growand require follow-up treatment in 6–12 months.Spot spraying that follows strategic grazing isthe preferred method for flupropanate. Notethat flupropanate can be applied with a boom,although its effectiveness has been found to beshort lived in winter rainfall areas, especially insituations where ground cover has been reducedduring set stocking (Grech 2007a).Fire over spring and summer can be a usefultool and is recommended in winter rainfall zonesto prevent heavy or widespread infestationsfrom seeding. Note that you can expectlarge germinations of Chilean needle grassfollowing fire treatments and these will needto be managed. Set stock grazing is an option,although this can reduce the effectiveness offollow-up herbicide treatments, in particularflupropanate. For more information, refer to thetext box, “Integration with strategic grazing is thekey to effective use of flupropanate”, opposite.INTEGRATION WITH STRATEGICGRAZING IS THE KEY TO EFFECTIVEUSE OF FLUPROPANATELong-term grazing trials in Victoria andNew South Wales have shown that setstock grazing in areas boom sprayed withflupropanate can increase Chilean needlegrass, leading to poor survival of beneficialpasture species. Conversely, strategic grazingpractices combined with boom spraying offlupropanate (Grech 2007a) improved Chileanneedle grass control and enabled bettersurvival of pasture species.In one trial, initial results from set and strategicgrazing showed a reduction in the infestationafter both. However, after almost three years,Chilean needle grass began to increase covertowards original levels in the set stockingtreatment, while in the strategic grazingtreatment it remained at low levels.A possible explanation is that pasture recoveryin the set stocking treatment may have beenreduced by the continual and selective natureof set stock grazing. Conversely, the strategicgrazing approach helped to reduce panicleseed, thus reducing germination vigour andenabling greater competition from pasturespecies. This result highlights the importance ofthinking strategically and combining compatiblecontrol methods as part of an integratedmanagement plan.30

Cropping – all situationsAs with any situation where infestations canbe manually chipped out, do this as a firstpreference. Crop rotation is a useful tool toincrease competition to Chilean needle grass.Sowing crops that will be actively growing inautumn/early winter can minimise germinationand establishment of Chilean needle grassseedlings. Where seedlings establish, preventflowering by integrating herbicide control orstrategic grazing. Alternatively, harvest the cropbefore Chilean needle grass flowers.Where strategic grazing is not possible,implement other control methods such asmowing, slashing, fire or cultivation.Over-reliance on glyphosate may lead toherbicide resistance, so strategies to controlChilean needle grass should incorporateintegrated weed management, for example,changing herbicide groups and applying culturalcontrol activities. Note that flupropanate is notappropriate or registered in crops due to itsresidual properties.Careful planning should be undertaken to ensurecrops are not harvested whilst Chilean needlegrass is in seed. Do not buy or sell grain orfodder that may be contaminated with Chileanneedle grass panicle seed. Always inspect andclean down machinery used within a Chileanneedle grass infestation.Cropping – summer rainfallzonesManagement suited to areas wheresummer rainfall is dominant such asnorthern New South Wales andsouthern Queensland.Crop rotation is an extremely usefulmanagement tool in these areas, as autumn/winter and summer growing crops willplace high pressure on Chilean needle grassinfestations. To reduce existing Chilean needlegrass infestations, and for heavier infestations,control methods should coincide with thecropping sequence.Cultivation as a part of a summer croppingsequence is very useful, as fast-growing summercrops can germinate and establish faster thanthe disturbed Chilean needle grass seed andprovide excellent competition.Boom spraying glyphosate before sowingthe crop usually provides better control inautumn. Where Chilean needle grass seedlingsre-establish, follow up by spot spraying.Use strategic grazing to reduce existing plantcover in heavy infestations and, where this is notpossible, use mowing or slashing.31

Crops can provide heavy competition againstChilean needle grass (DPI Victoria).INTEGRATE CROPPING AND SELECTIVECHEMICAL CONTROL FOR IMPROVEDMANAGEMENT OF CHILEAN NEEDLE GRASSThe heavy competition provided by a healthy crop,such as a legume forage, combined with selectiveherbicide control can provide excellent suppressionof Chilean needle grass and reduce its proportionwithin a paddock. Keep in mind the following:• Consider spraying with glyphosate in theyear(s) before spring sowing to help reducethe panicle seed bank (spray topping can beused in New South Wales under Permit 7852).• Cultivate paddock, allow weed seedlingsto emerge, then apply a non-selectiveherbicide such as glyphosate.• Sow a legume forage crop such as lucerneor red clover. Use options to control Chileanneedle grass pre-emergence.• Monitor Chilean needle grass developmentwithin the crop.• Before panicle seed set and before Chileanneedle grass has reached the late tilleringstage, boom spray with fluazifop-P accordingto label directions, to control seed production.(Fluazifop-P is a selective herbicide thatshould only suppress most perennial grassesand is only available for use in certain States).• Grazing can be carried out in the foragecrop, but remember to comply with thewithholding period on the herbicide label.• Re-apply selective herbicide (fluazifop-P) ifnecessary.• Once the forage crop is finished, cultivatethe paddock, allow weed seedlingsto emerge, then apply a non-selectiveherbicide such as glyphosate.• Re-sow pasture or sow new crop.Cropping – winter rainfall zonesManagement suited to areas wherewinter rainfall is dominant such ascentral and southern New South Wales,Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania.The use of cultivation to encourage germinationof Chilean needle grass panicle seed can be anideal means to reduce large panicle seed bankswhere they have established.Strategic grazing, slashing or mowing are goodoptions to reduce reliance on herbicides.Herbicide applications, such as boom sprayingglyphosate, should be used as part of the croppingsequence or to control re-emerging plants.Once the crop is actively growing, wherepossible, spot spray any emerging Chilean needlegrass before panicle seed set with glyphosate.Caution needs to be taken to ensure crops arenot adversely affected by herbicide use.Further information on managing Chileanneedle grass in agricultural situations:Gardener, M. and Sindel, B. (1998). Thebiology of Nassella and Achnatherum speciesnaturalized in Australia and the implicationsfor management on conservation lands. PlantProtection Quarterly 13(2), pp. 76-79.Grech, C. (2007a). Grazing management forthe long term utilization and control of Chileanneedle grass (Nassella neesiana), PhD thesis,University of New England, New South Wales.Slay, M. (2002). Chilean needle grass: A guide tothe identification and management in Hawke’sBay. Hawke’s Bay Regional Council, New Zealand.Storrie, A.M. and Lowien, J.C. (2003). ChileanNeedle Grass – Agnote DPI 194, NSW Agriculture.32

Selective stock grazing can help to reducethe height of desirable pasture speciesbefore wick wiping (DPI Victoria).Providing competition to Chilean needlegrass is a must.3.2 Native grassGrazed native grassesManagement programs suited to nativepastures, including areas with steepslopes or rocky terrain.Long-term management strategies are requiredthat can prevent spread, reduce panicle seedproduction and seed banks, and encouragecompeting native species. The challenges posedby steep slopes or rocky terrain and the needto ensure that management programs don’tnegatively interfere with native grass species,impose some limitations when compared tomanaging introduced pastures.The most successful way to manage nativepastures is to integrate strategic grazing withsheep and spot spraying (while native grassesare dormant) with glyphosate. Boom sprayingis not generally appropriate because of itspotential for damage to native grasses andterrain limitations.Flupropanate can be used although even as aselective herbicide it can be damaging to somenative species and is not recommended at highrates on steep slopes. Caution should also betaken that treated areas are not grazed or cut forstock food until the withholding period expiryand that there is a permanent withholding periodfor lactating cattle and goats.If using herbicide control, apply the herbicidewhen the native grass you wish to protectis dormant (winter for C4 grasses, such asThemeda, and mid-summer for C3 grasses, suchas Danthonia).Competition needs to be provided whereChilean needle grass plants are killed or removed.Strategic grazing to promote self seeding ofdesirable species (where appropriate) or directdrilling are the best method to replace Chileanneedle grass with native pastures. Othersuccessful replacement methods include sprayand hay, direct and broadcast seeding. Specialisedall-terrain sowing equipment may be required inrocky areas, or aerial sowing can be used.For large infestations, where methods suchas grazing or herbicides are not suitable (forexample, on extremely steep slopes), fire maybe a good alternative to reduce seeding and toprevent further input into the seed bank. Followthis up by providing competition with desirablepasture or native grass species or, in someinstances, trees.Wick wiping may have potential on some siteswhere terrain allows, where a height differentialis achievable (strategic grazing may be useful toachieve this), where enough native grass seed ispresent to produce a monoculture, and where thesite has been previously cultivated. Combine wickwiping with slashing or strategic grazing to ensureChilean needle grass is taller than other grasses.Un-grazed native grassesUn-grazed native grasses incorporate nativegrasslands for conservation purposes andother parks and recreation reserves thatmay contain native grass species.As native grasslands are one of the most threatenedecosystems in Australia, it is vital that controlof Chilean needle grass does not disturb nativespecies. A rule of thumb is to undertake only one33

Restoration of native grasslands is essential tocontrol Chilean needle grass (Sue Hadden, DSEVictoria).Burning is an important component ofmanaging native grasslands for Chilean needlegrass (DPI Victoria).major action per year as major sudden changes tothe past management methods may have adverseconsequences for the plants and animals currentlyocurring on the site (Barlow 1998).A high quality and biodiverse native grassland canresist weed invasion (Hector et al. 2001), thereforethe key to success is to restore biodiversity tothese sites by actively managing the native speciesand regularly monitoring and spot treating Chileanneedle grass before panicle seed set.Time control activities to coincide with the besttime to re-vegetate. For:Small scattered infestations: manual removalby chipping out plants is the most successful andsafest option, as it can be used year round withlimited off-target effects. Careful spot sprayingwith glyphosate can also be used. The use ofmulch or weed mats can be effective on very smallinfestations, to act as a barrier to prevent invasionwhile smothering existing Chilean needle grass.Widespread scattered infestations of lowdensity: spot spraying with glyphosate is mostappropriate, as it helps ensure native grassspecies remain unaffected. Flupropanate is notgenerally recommended because of its residualproperties and the possibility of it damagingsome native species.Heavy infestations and low qualitygrasslands: carefully spot spray as much aspossible with glyphosate and combine this with fireto prevent panicle seed set or burn standing seed.Note that the effects of fire can be unpredictable,both on kill of mature plants (this is not alwaysadequate) and in germination from the seedbank.Monitor the site post-fire and spot sprayre-emerging Chilean needle grass. Slashing mayalso be an option to prevent panicle seed set or toenhance effectiveness of other control methods.Restoring native species to provide competitionto re-emerging plants is essential once Chileanneedle grass has been treated. Natural restorationis the preferable method where this is possible.Otherwise, re-establishment with direct drilling,direct or broadcast seeding are appropriatemethods. Spray and hay (page 56) is a goodintegrated method that can reduce Chilean needlegrass density, restore native species and act as abarrier to limit further spread.FUEL REDUCTION BURNING REDUCESTHE DENSITY OF CHILEAN NEEDLE GRASSChilean needle grass is common in introducedgrasslands in the Plenty Gorge Parklands,north-east of Melbourne, Victoria. As partof Country Fire Association training, fuelreduction burns were carried out for fiveconsecutive years every November in a 1.5 haarea heavily infested with Chilean needlegrass. A senior Parks Victoria Officer, BrendanSullivan, observed that the frequent burningregime modified species dominance and hasreduced the density of Chilean needle grassby approximately 90 per cent. The main grassspecies that replaced Chilean needle grass isphalaris (Phalaris aquatica).Although the effects of fire on grasslandcommunities can be unpredictable, and oftenburning does not provide adequate kill ofmature Chilean needle grass, this observationshows that fire could be an important tool in themanagement of Chilean needle grass.34

Research by Victoria University and VicRoads has demonstrated the potential of wickwipingon roadsides. A roadside infestation of Chilean needle grass was wick wiped in late springapproximately 6 months prior to these photos (left) compared to an untreated control (right); Chileanneedle grass dominated the untreated plot, whereas a mix of species was re-emerging in the wickwipedplot, conspicuous amongst these was native windmill grass (Chloris truncata) (DPI Victoria).Further information on managingnative grasslands:Barlow, T. (1998). Grassy Guidelines: How tomanage native grasslands and grassywoodlands oil your property. Trust for Nature,Melbourne, Victoria.Beames, L., Hocking, C. and Wlodarczyk, P.(2005). Best practice management of Chileanneedle grass (Nassella neesiana) in conservationreserves – the seedbank story. Plant ProtectionQuarterly 20(1), pp. 2-8.Eddy, D. (2002). Managing native grasslands– A guide to management for conservation,production and landscape protection. WWFAustralia (available on: www.wwf.org.au/publications/managing_grasslands.pdf)Hocking, C. (2005). Chilean needle grass (Nassellaneesiana) – potential impacts and control.Proceedings of the Tussock Terminators ResearchForum, Albury, NSW, Australia, pp. 27-31.Mason, B. (1998). Replacement of Chilean needlegrass (Nassella neesiana) by the native kangaroograss (Themeda triandra): managing nativegrasslands in Central Victoria using the ‘sprayand hay’ method. MSc Thesis, Victoria University,Victoria.Mason, B. (2004). Directions for best managementof kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra) reestablishmentin south eastern Australiannative grassland remnants. PhD thesis, VictoriaUniversity, Victoria.Williams, L. (2005). An investigation into bestpractice management of Chilean needle grass(Nassella neesiana) in conservation reserves.Honours Thesis, Victoria University, Victoria.3.3 Linear reservesFor example roadsides, rail corridors,powerline easements.Transportation of panicle seeds by vehicles andmachinery is one of the main reasons roadsides areso vulnerable to infestation. Management programsneed to focus on hygiene, limiting the spread ofChilean needle grass into neighbouring land orwatercourses and reducing existing infestations.Spill material, such as soil, that is suspectedto contain Chilean needle grass panicle seedshould be disposed of appropriately and nottransported to a new site.Introduced species presentSlashing is the most common method usedto maintain linear reserves such as roadsidesand is appropriate if conducted routinely andhygienically. It is essential to plan slashingto occur outside the Chilean needle grasspanicle seeding period to avoid slashers andother equipment becoming contaminated withthousands of Chilean needle grass panicle seeds.Machinery hygiene practices, includinginspection and clean down of machinery andequipment are required. Use of a slasher coveror blower to limit contamination is highlyrecommended.Reducing infestation density with is a mustand will help reduce the effort required tocontrol Chilean needle grass down the track.Successful methods include manual removal,spot or boom spraying with glyphosate orflupropanate and wick wiping is also a promisingnew technique.35

The slasher cover designed by RMIT reducesthe accumulation of weed seed (DPI Victoria).Photo: John LaingWhere control methods kill Chilean needle grassplants, competition needs to be incorporated toreduce re-emergence and germination of Chileanneedle grass; direct drilling is useful method tosow desirable species.Applying mulch or a weed mat can be a goodoption in small infestations, as it smothersexisting Chilean needle grass and acts as abarrier to prevent invasion into adjacent land.Monitoring and follow-up action is essential.Native species presentMany roadsides are also are important refugesfor native vegetation, which, when managedappropriately, can at least hold back invasion, ifnot assist in control. Control of Chilean needlegrass in linear reserves with native grassesrequires a greater sensitivity when undertakingcontrol activities.Where native species are to be restoredmanagement should model the programsoutlined in “Un-grazed native grasses”, page 33.Fire is suitable for linear reserves that containnative species, to prevent seeding and helpnative grasses re-establish and compete.Where only a few Chilean needle grass plantsexist, manual removal is the best option.Providing competition is a must and spray andhay may also be useful (see details page 56).”Chilean needle grass got onto my property fromthe roadside, I didn’t realise early enough andit got away pretty quickly.” (Landholder, nearGreenvale, Victoria)IMPROVED SLASHER DESIGN COMBATSSPREAD OF CHILEAN NEEDLE GRASSSlashing during the panicle seeding period isa major mechanism for Chilean needle grassspread. Panicle seed accumulates on theslasher deck and is dispersed during slashingoperations. The Royal Melbourne Institute ofTechnology (RMIT) is developing modificationsto existing slasher designs in order to minimisepanicle seed collection and reduce dispersal into‘clean’ areas.In RMIT tests, front shields attached to the slasherdeck have reduced panicle seed accumulation byabout half. A new slasher cover design reducedpanicle seed accumulation by almost 99%.Widespread use of such a cover could reducethe spread of many weeds, including Chileanneedle grass, during slashing operations. Waysof delivering the slasher modifications to thecommunity continue to be investigated.AWARENESS HELPS PREVENT SPREAD OFCHILEAN NEEDLE GRASSAn energy company operating in the DarlingDowns region in Queensland has erected signs inpowerline easements to inform their maintenancestaff of the presence of Chilean needle grassinfestations and the need to clean down vehiclesused during maintenance activities to reducethe risk of spread. Both management staff andcontractors have undertaken Chilean needlegrass identification training to raise awarenessof the problem and ensure new infestations areidentified and reported.36

Further information on managing Chilean needlegrass in linear reserves and urban areas:Baldyga, N. and Grech, C. (2005). Machineryhygiene guidelines for roadside managers –minimising the spread of Chilean needle grass.Department of Primary Industries, BacchusMarsh, Victoria. (available on: www.weeds.org.au/WoNS/Chileanneedlegrass/).Williams, N. (2005). Management strategies forpreventing weed invasion in urban grasslands.Plant Protection Quarterly 20(1), pp. 12-15.Managing Chilean needle grass onroadsides can reduce its spread into farmsand native grasslands (DPI&F Queensland).37

Chilean needle grass being slashed during trials (Charles Grech, DPI Victoria).Section 4 Control Methods4.1 Cultural control methods 39Manual removal 39Mowing or slashing 39Cultivation 40Mulching 41Fire 424.2 Grazing 43Grazing considerations 43Choosing the type of grazer– sheep or cattle? 43Choosing the grazingmanagement method 444.3 Chemical control methods 45Registered chemicals 45Chemical selection 47Chemical application 49Spot spraying – general 51Spot spraying – native grasslands 51Boom spraying – groundand aerial application 52Wick wiping 53Spray topping 544.4 Competition 54General 54Natural restoration of native grasslands 55Re-establishing native flora 55Spray and hay 564.5 Biological control 5638

Section 4Control Methods4.1 Cultural control methodsCultural control methods are always favoured overuse of herbicides where possible, and in mostcontrol programs at least one of these methodswill be required before resorting to herbicides.Manual removalManual removal of Chilean needle grassis the most effective removal methodand is best for new or small infestations.It is a good opportunity to eradicateearly infestations.When chipping/removing Chilean needle grassplants, take care to remove any basal or stemseeds that may be present. Smaller plants, rootsand all, are readily pulled out by hand, whilelarger plants will require digging. The plant andsoil should be placed in a hole-proof sack andincinerated or buried before the plants dry out.Care should be taken not to drop any panicleseeds when handling Chilean needle grass stemswith mature seeds.Mowing or slashingMowing or slashing at the right time can preventor reduce panicle seed head production andencourage re-growth that is more palatableto stock. Mowing has also been known toencourage the formation of prostrate Chileanneedle grass swards and may also reduce theproduction of stem seed. Mowing is a goodalternative option for areas where grazing is nota feasible option due to the scale or location ofthe infestation.Slashing Chilean needle grass after the point offlowering is not recommended as the tractor andslasher are highly likely to become contaminatedwith viable panicle seed. This is a known vector forthe spread of Chilean needle grass. Any slashingworks should be coordinated to ensure that:• operators are trained in weed identificationand machinery hygiene• weed infestations are mapped andmonitored• work plans protect ‘clean/non-infested’areas and avoid working in weather whenpanicle seeds will stick to machinery• clean down zones are established andmonitored appropriately.NARROW WINDOW OF TIME FORSLASHING TO BE EFFECTIVEResearch trials undertaken by the Departmentof Primary Industries Victoria (Weed Sciences)showed that, to minimise panicle seed re-growthand the risk of transporting viable seed, Chileanneedle grass needs to be slashed around theflowering stage. Chilean needle grass flowersfor approximately two weeks, so there is a verylimited window of opportunity within whichslashing will be an effective control measure.The timing of flowering varies from year toyear and needs to be closely checked once thepanicle seeds emerge.Further information: AgNote “Chilean needlegrass: Managing seed production by slashing”(Grech 2007b), available at www.dpi.vic.gov.au/notes/39

Tractor-mounted slasher(DPI Victoria).Unslashed Chilean needle grass (left) willproduce more panicle seed than slashedChilean needle grass (right) (DPI Victoria).Cultivation can be an effective tool toreduce the seedbank if combined with othermethods (DPI Victoria).CultivationCultivation can only be an effective toolwhen integrated with othercontrol methods.Cultivation alone can increase the proportion ofChilean needle grass as it stimulates panicle seedfrom the soil seed bank to germinate. This can beuseful technique to reduce the soil seed bank ifcultivation is followed up with another cultivationor a herbicide application to kill the new seedlings.Before cultivating Chilean needle grassinfestations, consider the following:1.Shallow cultivations will encourage moreChilean needle grass seedlings, as most ofthe panicle seed bank is in the top 25 mmof the soil surface.2. Stems and clumps of Chilean needle grasswill attach to ploughs and spread viablepanicle seeds. To avoid this ensure thatplant material build-up does not occur.3. Anywhere that is cultivated needs to have areplacement species sown to compete withany Chilean needle grass that may try andre-infest the area.4. One year of cultivation may not run down theChilean needle grass panicle seed bank enoughto allow a perennial pasture to be re-sown – itmay need several years of annual crops.5. Cultivation is not recommended in nativegrasslands, as soil disturbance can causerapid Chilean needle grass invasion.REGIONAL TRIALS COMBINING HERBICIDEWITH CULTIVATIONRegional best practice management trials havebeen underway at Glen Innes since 2003. Thesetrials are managed by the Victorian and New SouthWales Departments of Primary Industries and lookat different management strategies for differentclimatic zones. The Glen Innes site is considered asummer rainfall zone and had several successfulcropping phases before being re-sown to pasture.Areas intended for pasture re-sowing weresprayed out with glyphosate (1125 g a.i./ha)before Chilean needle grass panicle seed set,and cultivated before re-sowing. Soybeans weresown with trifluralin and fertiliser as a summercrop during December and harvested during thefollowing May – yielding 2t/ha.A fodder oat crop was direct drilled later thatmonth with fertiliser, as a winter crop. Theseoats were grazed off during September and theplots cultivated, ready for another summer cropof soybeans that was sown at the end of spring.The second crop of soybeans was harvested inthe following June (yield 3t/ha), in preparation forpasture re-sowing.These methods, used as part of the croppingsequence, have provided intense competitionand made establishment very difficult forChilean needle grass.40

Soybean crop sown at Glen Innes, New SouthWales (Charles Grech, DPI Victoria).A mulched barrier is used to protect remnantnative grassland from Chilean needle grassinvasion (Jenny Conolly, Parks, Conservationand Lands, ACT).MulchingFor best results, integrate mulching withmanual removal, herbicide applicationand plant competition.The use of mulch for Chilean needle grasscontrol is suitable for very small infestations, inparticular those in urban parks or gardens. Whencombined with other control methods, it cansuppress Chilean needle grass plants or act asa ‘barrier’ to slow the spread of Chilean needlegrass into remnant vegetation and gardens.Be aware that using mulch in large-scaleareas, could lead to a nutrient flux that couldbe detrimental for re-establishment of nativespecies over the long term. Weed mats may alsobe an alternative to mulch.Mulching Tips• Use another control method beforemulching, such as herbicide application ormanual removal.• The mulch layer needs to be thick toeffectively smother emerging weeds; adepth of 10 cm or greater is recommended.• Regular top-ups are recommended, asmulches often settle and decompose.• Regularly monitor and spot spray ormanually remove weeds that will appear inthe mulch.• Establish desirable plants in the mulch toprovide competition with weeds.MULCHED BARRIERS PROTECT REMNANTNATIVE GRASSLANDS IN URBAN AREASKeeping Chilean needle grass out of nativegrasslands/conservation areas has been aconstant battle for Jenny Conolly, Pests andWeeds Officer at Parks, Conservation and Landsin the ACT.The Chilean needle grass is being spreadby mowers, which slash the many urbanroadsides, parks and gardens around thenative grassland areas.Treatment in the past at these sites has been byspot spraying Chilean needle grass in and aroundthe perimeter of the grasslands. But now Jenny isinvestigating a new approach – the use of mulchedbarriers. Jenny believes that placing a ‘barrier’around the perimeter of the grasslands will reducethe heavy urban invasion of Chilean needlegrass into what are some of our last remainingfragments of native grasslands. The barrier ismade by boom spraying a three metre band withglyphosate around native grass areas and then,when the grasses die, putting a thick physicalmulch barrier (for example, recycled mulch fromwillow control programs) on the same 3m band.Jenny hopes that by creating a barrier, mowerswill be kept away from the native grasslands andthe spread of panicle seed into the grasslandswill be reduced. Regular monitoring and spotspraying of the barriers will prevent Chileanneedle grass from creeping in, leaving only theChilean needle grass plants already within thenative grasslands to be controlled.41

Burning can reduce panicle seed set or burn offstanding seed (Charles Grech, DPI Victoria).FireFire is a potentially useful management toolthat can be used as part of an integrated weedweed management strategy. Fire can be usedto prevent seed set, burn off standing seed, orstimulate the growth of panicle seed in the soilseed bank. Fire will not usually provide a usefulkill of mature Chilean needle grass, but canbe particularly useful in native grasslands as ameans of encouraging growth of native species.A fire regime to control Chilean needle grassmust be integrated with other techniques suchas spot spraying and re-establishing desirablespecies post-fire. It must take into account therange of impacts on other species, particularlyon natives.Burning can provide a clearer indication of thelevel and pattern of infestation, and is mosteffective when followed by selective removal.Use fire only with advice from an agronomist orgrasslands ecologist, or where the impact of fireon the environment is known and acceptable.BURNING TO REDUCE PANICLE SEEDPRODUCTIONFire has been used to manage panicle seedproduction in trials completed by the VictorianDepartment of Primary Industries (Weed Sciences)at Greenvale over 2004 and 2005. Plots were burntusing a drip torch at different times of the yearto destroy mature panicle seed and investigatepasture composition in the following seasons.Trial results showed that burning at seedfall (whenpanicle seeds are mature and ready to fall) is auseful way of reducing the amount of viable panicleseed produced. Burning did stimulate many Chileanneedle grass panicle seeds from the soil seed bankto germinate, early in the following season.In the following season, burnt areas had lessChilean needle grass panicle seed than unburntareas although the pasture was not as dense,with a lot of bare soil. Recovery of improvedpasture species (eg Phalaris aquatica) waslimited. Any areas that are burnt for Chileanneedle grass control will need follow-upstrategies to encourage pasture competition.If considering burning, contact your local fire authority and check current firerestrictions and obtain permits if required:New South WalesRural Fire Service02 8741 5555www.rfs.nsw.gov.auQueenslandRural Fire Service07 3247 8130www.ruralfire.qld.gov.auSouth AustraliaYour local councilTasmaniaTasmanian Fire Service03 6230 8600www.fire.tas.gov.auVictoriaCountry Fire Authority03 9262 8444www.cfa.vic.gov.auACTRural Fire Service02 6207 8609www.rfs.act.gov.au42

Fire is a useful management tool to aid recovery of native grasslands (DPI Victoria).Further information: AgNote “Chilean needlegrass: Management by fire” (Grech 2007e), availableat www.dpi.vic.gov.au/notes/4.2 GrazingGrazing considerationsAlthough it is not as nutritious as many otherpasture species, Chilean needle grass canproduce a large amount of reasonable qualityfeed, especially during winter. The main problemwith pastures dominated by Chilean needlegrass is that the stalks are unpalatable in latespring/summer and are avoided by stock.Before grazing Chilean needle grass, considerthe following:1.2.3.4.5.Chilean needle grass feed value is generallyless than that of other improved pasturegrasses (for example, Cocksfoot – Dactylusglomerata).Once the panicle seeds emerge from the stem,Chilean needle grass becomes unpalatableand stock are reluctant to graze it – this canlead to overgrazing of desirable species.Mature panicle seeds will attach to fur andwool, especially sheep, and can spreadChilean needle grass across farms and intoclean paddocks.Grazing needs to occur before full panicleseed head emergence, but not too early toallow seed head re-growth (this occurs overa two-week period). The impact of grazinglessens with later growth stages.Grazing needs to be part of an integratedweed management strategy for the wholefarm, so that panicle seed is not allowed tomature in non-grazed areas.NUTRITIVE CYCLE OF CHILEANNEEDLE GRASSThe feed value and nutritional cycle of Chileanneedle grass has been documented in anAgricultural Note (or ‘Agnote’) produced by theDepartment of Primary Industries Victoria (Grech2007c) titled ‘Chilean needle grass: Maintainingfeed value by mowing and fertiliser application’.This note details the effect of mowing and fertiliserapplication on the feed value over two growingseasons and compares the nutritional value ofChilean needle grass to cocksfoot, an improvedpasture species with modest feed value.Further information: AgNote “Chilean needlegrass: Maintaining Feed Value by mowing andfertiliser application” (Grech 2007c), available atwww.dpi.vic.gov.au/notes/Choosing the type of grazer –sheep or cattle?Both sheep and cattle will graze Chilean needlegrass when it is in its vegetative growth stages.These two species have different grazing habitsand require different amounts of herbage tomaintain condition and grow.Work undertaken by the Department of PrimaryIndustries Victoria (Weed Sciences) has shownthat sheep should not be used to graze Chileanneedle grass infestations once the plants areflowering. The fleece and skin of sheep are likelyto become heavily contaminated by Chilean needlegrass panicle seeds if the sheep are not removedfrom an infested paddock before Chilean needlegrass flowering. To avoid spread, noxious weedlegislation has been enacted (state dependant) thatlimits where the sheep can be transported.43

Cattle are better suited to grazing rougherherbage such as Chilean needle grass and duringtrials generally ate more of the standing Chileanneedle grass panicle seeds. The trial cattleonly carried a few panicle seeds while grazingChilean needle grass during flowering, althoughit has been known for mass infections in thebrisket eyes and gums to occur in cattle grazingmature Chilean needle grass seed heads.Further information: AgNote “Chilean needlegrass: Grazing management and stock class”(Grech 2007d), available at www.dpi.vic.gov.au/notes/Choosing the grazingmanagement methodWhen grazing Chilean needle grass, managersshould ensure that the maximum number ofseed heads are grazed before flowering andpanicle seed set.Rotational or strategic grazing is a method ofgrazing where a given number of stock areconcentrated in one portion of the paddockto ensure that all the pasture plants are eatenevenly. Once that portion is grazed out, thestock are then moved. Slowly grazing theentire paddock in portions ensures that the lesspalatable Chilean needle grass plants can’t beavoided and allowed to go ungrazed, eventuallyproducing panicle seed.This system of grazing has three main benefits:• Grazing the developing Chilean needlegrass seed heads reduces the production ofpanicle seed.• Faster-growing perennial grasses are givenan advantage, as they can compete quiteeffectively during the rest periods.• Eating or trampling encourages morepalatable vegetative growth and increasesthe palatability of Chilean needle grassover summer.When considering a rotation or strategic grazingapproach, remember that Chilean needle grass islikely to develop a panicle seed head which willemerge and flower over a two-week period.Grazing is not recommended after floweringand grazing plans must take this into account.There may not be enough time to rotate stockaround the whole Chilean needle grass infestation.Other management approaches may have to beused in areas where time runs out for grazing.June 2004 September 2004 November 2004March 2005 July 2005Strategic Grazing(seed head comparison)Set Stock GrazingA comparison of strategic grazing and set-stock grazing in best practice management trials conductedby the Victorian Department of Primary Industries at Greenvale, Victoria (Charles Grech, DPI Victoria).44

STRATEGIC GRAZING WITH SHEEPSheep used in field trials conducted by theVictorian Department of Primary Industries(Weed Sciences) from 2003–2006 were reluctantto graze Chilean needle grass once the seedhead emerged from the stem. These sheep werein two grazing groups. Some were strategicallygrazed at 300 DSE/ha for an average of 25 daysover five strategic grazings per year. Othersheep were grazed continuously at 12 DSE/ha ina set stock system.Set stock grazed sheep reduced the desirablegrass cover in the plots, which lead to bareground and further invasion of Chilean needlegrass or broadleaf weeds. In contrast, strategicgrazing plots had less Chilean needle grasspanicle seed at the end of spring and anincreased cover of improved pasture species.If unchecked, however, the strategically grazedsheep would overgraze the desirable species toground level rather than eat the Chilean needlegrass with emerged seed heads.4.3 Chemical control methodsRegistered chemicalsUse of herbicides is one of the best methodsfor control of Chilean needle grass and whenused in combination with other managementtechniques it can be highly successful. It isespecially useful for large infestations whereother techniques can be labour intensive.There is only one herbicide – flupropanate –fully registered for the control of Chilean needlegrass. Glyphosate is also registered, but onlyunder spot spraying for general weed control.There are also a number of minor use permitsavailable for further herbicide use on Chileanneedle grass. The following tables provide currentinformation on registered herbicides and minoruse permits for Chilean needle grass control.Table 3. Herbicides currently registered for use on Chilean needle grass (October 2007)ActiveingredientState orTerritoryApplication methodSituation in which theherbicide is registeredCommentsFlupropanateNSW, ACT,Victoria,Qld, SA,WAGround & aerialapplication and spotspraying.Refer to label fordetails and rates.Urban open space,woodlands, roadsides,nature reserves andpasture.Can be combined withglyphosate products asinstructed on the label.Note: not currentlyregistered in Tasmania.Glyphosate All states Spot spraying Domestic, commercialand agricultural areas.Covered under a generalweed control table eg.Roundup® Biactive label.NOTE: herbicides are not to be used for any purpose or in any manner contrary to the label unlessauthorised under appropriate legislation. Before using a herbicide for the control of Chilean needle grass, orany other weed, read and adhere to the instructions and conditions for use on the label. Always follow thelabel and/or permit directions.45

Table 4: APVMA minor use permits available for Chilean needle grass (October 2007)ActiveingredientState orTerritoryApplication methodSituation in which theherbicide is registeredCommentsGlyphosate SA Boom spray and spotspray.Refer to permit fordetails and rates.Glyphosate NSW Boom sprayRefer to permit fordetails and rates.Fluazifop-P NSW Refer to permit fordetails and rates.Urban open space,woodlands, roadsides,nature reserves andpastures.PasturesFor control of panicleseed production beforehay cutting.Spot spray treatment tokill existing plants.Lucerne/Legume pastureFor the selective panicleseed set suppression beforehay cutting.APVMA permit numberPER7807, expires 30 June2009.APVMA permit numberPER7852, expires 30September 2009.APVMA permit numberPER7853, expires 31 March2009.Fluazifop-P orGlyphosate orFlupropanateSABoom spray and spotspray.Refer to permit fordetails and rates.Urban open space,grassland, naturereserves, amenity areas,woodlands and pastures.APVMA permit numberPER7823, expires 30 June2009.Fluazifop-P orGlyphosate orFlupropanateQldBoom spray and spotspray.Refer to permit fordetails and rates.Urban open space,woodlands, roadsidesnature reserves andpastures.APVMA permit numberPER8421, expires 30September 2009.NOTE: herbicides are not to be used for any purpose or in any manner contrary to the label unless authorised underappropriate legislation. Before using a herbicide for the control of Chilean needle grass, or any other weed, read andadhere to the instructions and conditions for use on the label. Always follow the label and/or permit directions.Be aware of legislation in your state regardingherbicide use. For example, some herbicides arerestricted in certain states or in specific areas ofthe state. For up-to-date registration details andcurrent permits visit the Australian Pesticidesand Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA)website: www.apvma.gov.auHerbicide-use training is highlyrecommended for all herbicide users.Accredited training courses are run byorganisations such as ChemCert, Smartrain andTAFE colleges. Other training courses may beavailable through state agencies, local councilsor non-government organisations.46

Keeping grazing pressure up during the flowering period increases the palatability of Chilean needlegrass (DPI Victoria).Chemical selectionFlupropanateFlupropanate is a slow-acting herbicide. Itcan take between three and 12 months afterapplication for plants to die, depending onweather conditions. In addition, flupropanate hasthe following characteristics:• It has residual properties and killsseedlings that germinate while the herbicideis still active on the soil surface. The lengthof residual control depends on the rateapplied, soil type and rainfall.• Flupropanate behaves differently indifferent textured soils. Lower ratesare recommended on sandy soils and lowrainfall areas, higher rates are recommendedon basalt soils and high rainfall areas (referto label).• It has a degree of selectivity and canaffect off-target species in some situations(spot spraying is recommended in thesesituations, see cautions below).Cautions• For best selective control, use the lowestrate possible needed to kill Chilean needlegrass.• Fescue, cocksfoot and phalaris arereasonably tolerant but phalaris can besensitive to autumn applications..• Desirable species can be affected if exposedto the spray or if seed is planted into treatedsoil (for example, native and perennialimproved grasses, subterranean clover andannual legumes).• Rates used to kill large Chilean needle grassplants will typically kill or severely damagesome desirables, leaving areas bare andexposed for long periods.• Follow-up management is important toencourage desirable species to grow andfill the gaps created by dead Chilean needlegrass plants.• As flupropanate has a long residual life,caution should be taken that treated areasare not grazed or cut for stock food untilthe withholding period expiry and thatthere is a permanent withholding period forlactating cattle and goats.• Absorption is through the plant roots butleaf absorption has also been known tooccur in laboratory conditions.Flupropanate should not be used more thanonce a year.Timing of applicationsAs flupropanate is slow acting, an applicationimmediately before flowering will not alwaysprevent the production of panicle seed.Flupropanate can be mixed with glyphosateto provide a quick knock down and residualcontrol. To prevent Chilean needle grass fromproducing panicle seed, flupropanate shouldbe applied no later than 8–10 weeks beforeflowering is anticipated (dependant on rainfall).Spray native grass while dormant, winter for C4grasses such as Themeda, mid-summer for C3grasses such as Danthonia.47

Visible pollen on Chilean needle grass indicates the last chance to spray glyphosate in time foroptimum results (Charles Grech, DPI Victoria).GlyphosateGlyphosate is a quick-acting herbicide withno residual action, no selectivity and has thefollowing characteristics:• It is absorbed through leaves and greenstems, is systemic (moves throughout theplant) and kills existing plants between oneand four weeks after application.• It is non-selective; it kills both grassesand broad-leafed plants when they areactively growing.• It is not residual; it only kills existing plantsand is inactivated on contact with the soil.• There is currently no withholding period forstock grazing but, for perennial grass weeds,it is not recommended to graze stock ordisturb the treated pasture for seven days.Timing of applicationsTo prevent Chilean needle grass from producingpanicle seed, glyphosate should be appliedbefore flowering (or as flowering begins whilepollen is visible). However, if this is not practical,applications between flowering and “milky doughstage” (where the seed becomes milky ripe) mayreduce panicle seed set. Remember that maturebasal cleistogenes may already be present.Applications of glyphosate in northern NSW(summer rainfall zone) are more effectivein autumn months, compared to springapplications (Storrie 2003), this finding has notbeen observed in southern winter rainfall zonessuch as Victoria.Spray native grass while dormant, winter for C4grasses such as Themeda, mid-summer for C3grasses such as Danthonia.Fluazifop-PFluazifop-P is registered through minor usepermits in New South Wales, South Australiaand Queensland. It is a relatively quick-actingselective herbicide with no residual action andhas the following characteristics:• It is absorbed through leaves and greenstems, is systemic (moves throughoutthe plant) and usually kills existing plantsbetween three and five weeks after.• It is selective; it kills grasses when theyare actively growing, broad-leafed plants areusually not affected.• It is not residual; it only kills existingplants.• There is currently a withholding periodof 21 days for this herbicide (permits7853, 7823). In addition, stock are not to begrazed in treated areas for at least 7 daysbefore slaughter.Timing of applicationsFor best results, spray young plants before latetillering (that is, before the stems extend and thefirst node on the stem becomes visible).48

Charles Grech, DPI Victoria.WEEDS OF NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCECHEMICAL RESEARCHHerbicide trials by the Victorian Department ofPrimary Industries (Weed Sciences) have lookedat the use of both flupropanate and glyphosate.Trials have shown that if rain does not fall aftera mid-spring flupropanate application, it is likelythat plants will set seed and plant death will notbe noticeable until the following autumn.Work has also shown that flupropanate at 2L/ha(in permitted areas) can give a complete kill ofChilean needle grass and prevent re-growth ofold plants. It also prevents establishment of newplants for at least two years after application.The use of flupropanate above 2L/ha ratesdrastically reduces the selectivity of theherbicide, and sites receiving applications above2L/ha are likely to need re-sowing of desirablespecies.Research into glyphosate has shown that boomspray application will kill mature plants andprovide a good quick initial knock down althoughthis is not a long-term control method. Areas thatwere boom sprayed with glyphosate hadre-growing Chilean needle grass plants6–12 months after the application and, withno plant competition, often thicker than beforespraying. Follow-up management, such as pasturerenovation or a cropping sequence, is essential ifareas are to be sprayed with glyphosate.Chemical applicationFor best results, herbicides should be appliedwhen Chilean needle grass is actively growing.Spraying stressed plants can lead to a reduceduptake of herbicide by the plant and may reducethe likelihood of a successful result. Integrationof methods such as grazing, mowing, orcultivation can increase healthy plant growthand improve herbicide effectiveness.For native grasses herbicides, are best appliedwhen the native grass you wish to protect isdormant. This is during winter for grasses, suchas Themeda, and mid-summer for C3 grasses,such as Danthonia.Successful application relies on correctapplication technique, weather conditions,infestation size and density, plant health and size.In all instances, rotate herbicide groups and othercontrol methods to avoid herbicide resistance.49

AVOID HERBICIDE RESISTANCEHerbicide resistance is where a weed developsthe ability to survive a herbicide applicationthat it normally would not. Herbicide-resistantweed populations are becoming more commonthroughout Australia.Herbicides are classified according to theway they kill plants, often called the modeof action grouping. All modern herbicideswill have the mode of action groupingclearly displayed on the label. Repeateduse of herbicides from one mode of actiongrouping increases the likelihood of herbicideresistance occurring.Herbicide resistance has not yet been detectedin Australian populations of Chilean needlegrass, but could threaten the effectivenessof some of the commonly used herbicides.In New Zealand, resistance to the herbicidedalapon (2,2 DPA) has been detected (Hartley1995). Dalapon is a herbicide in the group Jmode of action grouping. It is not registeredfor use on Chilean needle grass in Australia,but it is in the same mode of action groupingas flupropanate. In addition, resistance toflupropanate has been detected in the relatedweed, serrated tussock (Nassella trichotoma)(McLaren et al 2006) and giant Parramattagrass (Sporobolus fertilis) (CRC for AustralianWeed Management 2007) in Australia.Strategies to maintain the effectiveness ofherbicides and prevent resistance developing inChilean needle grass populations include:• use of other control methods as part of anintegrated weed management strategy• limiting the number of herbicideapplications• use of herbicides from different mode ofaction groupings (flupropanate is in groupJ, glyphosate is in group M, fluazifop-P is ingroup A)• maximising the effectiveness of everyapplication by ensuring that target weed,herbicide, climatic and site factors areadequately considered• ensuring competitive use from the pasturespecies by adopting best agronomicpractices (correct nutrition, speciesselection and grazing management).50

Spot spraying with abackpack sprayer (HumeCity Council).Spot spraying – generalSpot spraying is an effective means ofcontrolling small or isolated infestations– especially in high value or sensitiveareas where off-target damage needs tobe minimised.The use of low pressure sprayers and adjustablespray heads allows more selective applicationand reduces the chance of off-target damage.A marker dye mixed with the spray solution isadvisable to ensure that all Chilean needle grassplants are sprayed and to minimise overlap.Spot spraying can be done using glyphosate,flupropanate, or in combination (refer to labelfor herbicide rates). Glyphosate will providea quick knock down of Chilean needle grassplants, although it is not selective and can resultin off-target damage. Flupropanate herbicidesare selective in certain circumstances, yet cankill many native grass species.When glyphosate and flupropanate are used incombination, the effect of flupropanate may notbe seen until the following season, while theglyphosate will provide a rapid brown out of theplant. Flupropanate will stay present in the soil,limiting cleistogene germination.Spot spraying – nativegrasslandsSpot spraying with glyphosate knocks downChilean needle grass and enables competingnative grasses to germinate. Spot spraying ismost appropriate for:• widespread scattered infestations of lowdensity• localised low to moderate densityinfestations.Spot spray on a regular basis to place continualpressure on Chilean needle grass and ensuregerminating native grasses have a chance toflourish.Where heavy patches of Chilean needle grassborder native grasslands, work from the edgesof the infestation towards the middle. Thispushes the invasion backwards and can allowadjacent native vegetation to disperse into thetreated area and compete.It is essential to ensure spray operators havesound skills to identify Chilean needle grasswhen not in flower, to prevent accidental offtargetspraying.It is not advisable that inexperienced operatorsuse flupropanate in native grasslands.For best results, spray when the native grassyou wish to protect is dormant (winter forC4 grasses, mid-summer for C3 grasses) andintegrate with other control techniques such asregeneration.51

Boom spraying before sowing new pasture (DPI Victoria).INTEGRATE SPOT SPRAYING WITHCOMPETITION TO IMPROVE CONTROL OFSMALL INFESTATIONSFollowing spot spraying, bare patches can beperfect sites for the re-establishment of Chileanneedle grass from the seed bank. To crowd outany surviving Chilean needle grass, providesome competition by:• scratching over the bare patches with asteel rake to provide a suitable seedbed• sowing some suitable pasture or nativegrass seed in the prepared patches andapplying fertiliser if necessary.This is most effective when undertaken whilesoil is moist or, where possible, water the seedto give it a head start.Boom spraying – ground andaerial applicationBoom spraying is suitable for largeinfestations and in circumstances whentime, aspect and accuracy constraintslimit the use of spot spraying.Boom spraying with selective herbicide is agood method to use in improved pasturesituations where competitive species still existwithin the infestation.Boom spraying with knock-down herbicides (forexample, glyphosate) should only be used if thearea is to undergo renovation.The use of boom spraying is not usuallyrecommended in native grasslands, as thecurrently registered selective herbicides candamage some native species.Considerations before boom sprayingSelectiveness of the herbicide relies on thecorrect rate of herbicide per hectare beingapplied in an even and consistent manner. Toachieve this, the boom sprayer needs to becalibrated and driven accurately at consistentspeed. It’s important to:1.2.3.4.5.Know the type of paddock you will bedriving and consider what speed will beappropriate for the entire area – choose onespeed and stay constant.Choose appropriate spray nozzles to suitthe ground speed and volume of waterto be applied per hectare (refer to theherbicide label). Avoid spray drift by usinglower pressures and nozzles that producelarge droplets (coarse to very coarseclassification, for example) such as airinduction nozzles.Clean the filters and check the spray patternand output of all spray nozzles on the sprayboom.Use a method of guidance (for example,foam marker, GPS systems) when drivingacross the paddock to ensure that strips arenot missed or double overlapped.See also text box page 30, “Integration withstrategic grazing is the key to effective useof flupropanate”.52

Wick wiping unit attached to the rear of a fourwheel motorbike (DPI Victoria).Selective stock grazing can help to reduce theheight of desirable pasture species before wickwiping (Charles Grech, DPI Victoria).Wick wipingWick wiping is a promising futurecontrol option to prevent rapid increaseof infestations and panicle seedproduction, especially where selectivecontrol with herbicides is difficult.In situations where Chilean needle grass istaller than other grass species wick wipingis ideal, as the application can be selectivelyadjusted to apply herbicide to the tallerChilean needle grass plants. The presence ofspecies such as Danthonia or couch representan ideal situation, as they are generally muchshorter than Chilean needle grass.Wick wiping has shown promising results inturf, pastures and along roadsides with researchcurrently underway in all three areas.Wiping has limitations in the followingsituations:• in undulating or rocky ground where aconstant wiper height cannot be maintained• in native grasslands or pasture dominatedby species that may be taller than Chileanneedle grass, such as spear grasses(Austrostipa spp.), phalaris (Phalarisaquatica) and cocksfoot (Dactylisglomerata).have been known to have an antagonisticeffect when applied as a tank mix at highconcentrations through wick wipers.When applying herbicides through wick wipers,take care to ensure that the wiper is not drippingherbicide onto non-target plants, although thecarpet or rope wicks should be wet at all times.WICK WIPING CAN SELECTIVELY CONTROLCHILEAN NEEDLE GRASS IN TURFAt Clifton Showgrounds on the Darling Downsin Queensland, the Chilean needle grassinfestedpolo playing fields and areas of thehorse racing track have been re-planted withcouch grass (Cynodon dactylon) and kikuyu(Pennisetum clandestinum).Following mowing, Chilean needle grass outcompetesdesirable species, and grows tallerthan these grasses, providing an ideal windowof opportunity to selectively control the Chileanneedle grass with a wick wiper.Indications to date suggest this method is verysuccessful in areas of intensively managed turf(pers comms Phil Maher DPI&F 2007).In situations where Chilean needle grass is lesspalatable than taller species, grazing at lightstock rates can be used to selectively grazedown the palatable species.Several herbicides can be applied using a wickwiper. Glyphosate is used more commonly thanflupropanate. Mixtures of these two herbicides53

Tractor-mounted wick wiper (DPI Victoria).Chilean needle grass that was spray toppedduring a research trial (right), compared tountreated Chilean needle grass (left)(DPI Victoria).APPLYING WICK WIPING IN PASTURESResearch into the efficacy of wick wipingChilean needle grass is currently beingconducted by the Department of PrimaryIndustries Victoria (Weed Sciences).The trials in pastures infested with Chileanneedle grass have been underway over severalseasons at Mickleham, Victoria, using a carpetwick wiper mounted on the linkage of a tractor.The trials have found that:• Areas to be wick wiped need to bereasonably level to maintain a constantwiping height.• Generally, the best time for applications is inspring, when panicle seed heads are activelygrowing, but preferably before flowering.Applications applied later can have goodresults but may not prevent as much panicleseed production.• Vehicles need to have adequate groundclearance – with tall wheels and wide wheelbases essential to avoid squashing downChilean needle grass stems and to reduce theeffect of any ground undulation.• Best results have been achieved with slowspeeds (less than 8 km/h) and by ‘doublepassing’ – wick wiping the pasture twice inopposite directions to apply herbicide toboth sides of the leaf.• Wick wiping when panicle seed is floweringor being shed will lead to panicle seedlodging both in the wiper and the equipmentpulling the wiper. All equipment andmachinery must be cleaned down to avoidtransporting viable panicle seed.Further information: AgNote “Chilean needlegrass: Integrating herbicide wipers” (Grech2007f), available at www.dpi.vic.gov.au/notes/Spray toppingSpray topping is the application ofherbicides to improve feed quality/palatability.It is not currently a registered method for controlof Chilean needle grass. However, Permits 7852and 7853 are available in NSW to prevent Chileanneedle grass panicle seed production (see Table4, page 46).Research by the Department of PrimaryIndustries Victoria to evaluate the effect ofglyphosate spray topping on panicle seedproduction and the feed value of Chilean needlegrass has shown to reduce panicle and stemseed set, although results are not yet conclusive.Possibly a future technique spray toppingrequires further research to gain registration forcontrol of Chilean needle grass.4.4 CompetitionGeneralCompetition is vital to limit Chileanneedle grass and will usually be one ofthe last control activities implementedbefore monitoring and follow-up actionis required.Maintaining a healthy cover of desirablecompeting plants can prevent establishment ofnew Chilean needle grass plants, slow growthof existing plants and help provide long-termmanagement solutions.54

Healthy crops can provide heavy competitionagainst Chilean needle grass (DPI Victoria).An all-terrain disc seeder (RockHoppa byAgReCon) is useful for direct drilling seed inrocky ground (DPI Victoria).Competition is a useful management tool onall land types, although integrating sowing orrestoration with other methods will provide thegreatest effectiveness.Broadcast seed, direct seed and direct drillingare all appropriate ways to provide competition.Strategic grazing is another method that canimprove cover of existing desirable species.To maximise the effect of competition:• Apply with other treatments such asmowing, grazing and herbicide control.• Grow plants well suited to your region (forexample, use species suited to soil types,rainfall patterns, or local indigenous speciesin native grasslands).• Ensure that a range of species are present tomaintain cover throughout the year.• Include species that are drought tolerantto compete with Chilean needle grassduring drought.• Encourage the growth of competingspecies by restoring native grasslands orapplying strategic grazing on agriculturaland native pastures.Natural restoration ofnative grasslandsAllowing native grasslands to re-establishnaturally is the preferable method for restorationfor three main reasons:• Native plants that establish are specificallyadapted to the site and compete well (theseare known as ‘local provenance’ species).• Local biodiversity is conserved.• It is far more cost-effective than othermethods.Natural regeneration will be more successful wherenative vegetation is intact and the Chilean needlegrass infestation is recent. Techniques such asstrategic grazing, spot spraying or burning canpromote substantial regeneration of native species.Monitor regularly and, where necessary,spot spray to limit germinating Chileanneedle grass.Re-establishing native floraWhere a site has limited or no potential for naturalrestoration (for example, where key species aremissing from the seed bank), re-establishment bydirect seeding or planting tube stock should beused, keeping in mind the following:• Use only local indigenous species; thisensures the community you are attemptingto re-establish is appropriate for the habitatyou are working in.• Where possible, propagate using materialsourced from the area to be planted (localprovenance species).• Time weed control activities to coincide withthe best time to re-vegetate (direct seeding,tube stock/cell planting).• Regularly monitor the progress of the siteand spot spray any germinating Chileanneedle grass seedlings.Soil disturbance is likely when reestablishingnative ground flora,especially where using tube stock/cells.This is an opportunity for Chilean needlegrass seedlings to re-establish, makingmonitoring a vital part of the program.55

Kangaroo grassThemeda triandraSpear grassAustrostipa scabraThese photos sourced from Native Grasses: Anidentification handbook for Temperate Australia, 3rdEdition, CSIRO 2002Spray and haySome success has been achieved using the ‘sprayand hay’ technique to rehabilitate native grasslandsdominated by kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra),an important and widespread native Australiangrassland species (Mason 1998, Mason andHocking 2002).The technique involves spraying Chilean needlegrass with glyphosate then covering with kangaroograss seed and mulch. Burning or removing themulch layer in springtime will allow seedlinggermination and establishment of a kangaroo grasssward. Monitoring and follow-up control are essentialto control any re-establishing Chilean needle grass.This method has been successful for serratedtussock N. trichotoma where greater than 98 percent replacement of serrated tussock with kangaroograss was achieved (Philips 2000).The opportunity exists to trial native speargrasses (Austrostipa spp.), which, like Chileanneedle grass, is a ‘C3’ grass. That is, they havethe same growing seasons and would competefor water and nutrients. A mix of spear andkangaroo grass may also be a good option.4.5 Biological controlBiological control is a long-term managementoption that uses a weed’s natural enemies, suchas insects, rusts and pathogens (imported fromthe weed’s country of origin), to slowly reducethe weed’s density over time. A biological controlprogram can take years to become established andwill not eradicate an infestation but may reduce itscompetitiveness and limit its impact, thus makingit easier to replace with desired species.There are currently no biological control agentsfor Chilean needle grass in Australia.POTENTIAL FOR BIOLOGICAL CONTROLOF CHILEAN NEEDLE GRASS INAUSTRALIAChilean needle grass was declared a target forbiological control in late 2005. The Australiangovernment’s Defeating the Weeds MenaceProgram has invested in a detailed hostspecificity program, led by the Department ofPrimary Industries Victoria.The biological control program has begun inArgentina and field surveys for pathogens ofChilean needle grass (and the related grass,serrated tussock) have been conducted, withtests showing three rust fungi as potentialbiological control agents. These include Puccinianassellae, Puccinia graminella and Uromycespencanus, which is the most promising, as it isvery damaging, highly host specific and is veryeasy to mass produce.Rust fungi are diseases that attack many plants,including crops and weeds. They make goodbiological control agents for weeds as they canbe highly damaging and are usually highly hostspecific (that is, they do not attack other plants).Fungi need specific environmental conditions tobe successful and many other fungal pathogenshave been released for other weeds with minorto moderate success.If successful this will lead to the first long-termcontrol for suitable established Chilean needlegrass populations in Australia.Further information: Anderson, F., Diaz, M. andMcLaren, D. (2006). Current status of research onpotential biological control agents for Nassella neesianaand Nassella trichotoma (Poaceae) in Australia.Proceedings of the 15 th Australian Weeds Conference,Adelaide, South Australia, pp. 591-594.56

Section 5Case studiesSection 5 Case studiesAn education and awareness program foridentification and hygiene in the ACT 58Chilean needle grass in Queensland– targeted for eradication from the state 60Integrated management of Chileanneedle grass on a beef productionproperty near Tamworth, NSW 62Managing heavy infestations ofChilean needle grass with intensivestrategic grazing 64Rehabilitation of rocky grasslandsat Skeleton Creek, Victoria 66Local government and landholdersjoin forces to tackle Chilean needlegrass in Bega Valley Shire, NSW 68Roadside management of Chileanneedle grass by Hume City Council 7057

Geoff Price (Parks, Conservation and Lands), Jenny Gonolly (Parks, Conservation and Lands) andGeoff Butler (Conservation Council of the South-East Region and Canberra Inc.) inspecting pottedChilean needle grass plants. These are regularly used for educations and awareness purposes inthe ACT (Lois Padgham, Parks, Conservation and Lands).An education and awarenessprogram for identification andhygiene in the ACTThe problemCurrently, a dominance of Chilean needle grassexists with other grass species in the ACT inonly several small areas of grazing land, totallingno greater than 4 ha. Yet there has been verylittle, if any, feedback from rural landholdersand other land managers about the incidence ofChilean needle grass on their properties.A possible explanation may lie in the difficultiesof identifying the weed. Green for most ofthe year, Chilean needle grass is just anothergrass to many. It’s probable that many peopleinvolved in primary production, natural resourcemanagement or community Landcare-relatedprojects simply do not know what the weedlooks like and do not see it as a problem.This list of people is far from comprehensiveand doesn’t include the hundreds, and possiblythousands, of residents in older suburbs ofCanberra who have Chilean needle grass growingin their front lawn and on nature strips. As aresult, lawn clippings often find their way to areasof public land adjoining residences and roadsides,with the consequence that nearby nature reservesand other public land often become infested.What is the approach?The control of Chilean needle grass, particularlywithin the urban environment, continues to bean extremely difficult and frustrating task.In the ACT, where Chilean needle grass isprevalent in urban areas, as well as nativetemperate grassland and woodland to varyingdegrees, the focus has shifted dramatically awayfrom control to prevention of spread into areasof high conservation value.What has been done?Control programs – spot sprayingAlthough there is general reluctance to useflupropanate products in the ACT becauseof the herbicide’s long-term effects on moredesirable native grass species, spot sprayingChilean needle grass in temperate grasslands,woodlands and other reserve areas withglyphosate has had some degree of success.Most success in the control of Chilean needlegrass, according to a spokesperson from ParksConservation and Lands, ACT, has occurred inareas with small scattered infestations.“Surrounding native grasses have been ableto spread into the small gaps left after spotspraying. Spraying large patches has beenless successful due to the germination ofnumerous Chilean needle grass seedlings,” thespokesperson said.“These infestations are obviously more denseand have required rehabilitation with harvestedThemeda triandra mulch containing ripe seed.The obvious limitation regarding this typeof rehabilitation is the availability of largequantities of the mulch.”Apart from some small infestations withintemperate grasslands reserves, very little, if any,targeted grazing of Chilean needle grass-affectedareas is undertaken in the ACT, where there is a58

Visiting sites such as the fire affected StromloForest enable field day participants to seeChilean needle grass in the field (JennyConolly, Parks Conservation and Lands, ACT).Des Clark (Parks, Conservation and Lands)using a blower-vac to clean down a tractorand grass slasher (Geoff Price, Parks,Conservation and Lands).conscious effort not to graze during the seedingperiod to avoid the risk of panicle seed spreading.Awareness raising programs in the ACT• Chilean Needle Grass IdentificationField DayA Chilean Needle Grass Identification FieldDay held to raise awareness of the problemand how to tackle it proved to be anoutstanding success.More than 120 people attended, includinggovernment agency staff involved in landmanagement and asset maintenance,weed spraying/horticultural maintenancecontractors, rural lessees, Landcare/catchment coordinators and facilitators,volunteer and community groups.Activities on the day included how toidentify Chilean needle grass, how todifferentiate between Chilean needle grassand native stipa and introduced species, aswell as demonstrations of practical controlmethods and rehabilitation techniques.The program was split into two sessionsof approximately three hours, to allowattendees adequate time to identify andbecome familiar with Chilean needle grass,interact with the presenters and otherparticipants.• Education and awareness programsParks Conservation and Lands have alsoconducted a number of weeds informationsessions with community Landcare groupswith a focus on identifying a wide rangeof environmental weeds including Chileanneedle grass.• Vehicle hygiene trainingThe potential for vehicles and machineryto transport contaminants and weedseeds was the focus of vehicle hygienetraining undertaken by about 30agency staff, weed and horticulturalmaintenance contractors in 2005.Everyone who took part was involvedin either contract management andsupervision of works or directlyinvolved in operational weed spraying,mowing, slashing and horticulturalmaintenance activities.Training topics ranged from currentlegislation, programming andsequencing of works, to practicaldemonstrations of techniques todecontaminate and clean different typesof machinery and vehicles.What has been the result?As a result of all three education and awarenessprograms, awareness of Chilean needle grass asa problem weed has increased and identificationskills have improved amongst weed managersand the community.ACT government land management agenciesinvolved in roadside slashing and fire fuelhazard reduction programs now place a fargreater emphasis on the sequencing of worksand clean-down procedures for machineryinvolved in these activities.59

Chilean needle grass at Clifton Showgrounds(DPI&F, Queensland).Chilean needle grass inQueensland – targeted foreradication from the stateThe problemAnecdotal evidence suggests that Chileanneedle grass has been present for approximately30 years at the Clifton Showgrounds insouthern Queensland, from where it appearsto have spread along major roadways to theneighbouring shires of Warwick and Cambooya.Currently, around 100 ha of Queensland is knownto be infested with Chilean needle grass, includinga mixture of urban and public land, roadsides andapproximately 20 mixed farming enterprises.Although Chilean needle grass is not expectedto naturalise in tropical parts of Queensland,it does have the potential to spread into subhumid,cooler parts of southern Queensland,where it could have a severe impact on localecosystems and agricultural industries.What is Queensland’s approach?The Queensland Department of PrimaryIndustries and Fisheries (DPI&F) established alocal Chilean needle grass management groupin 2005 to develop a co-ordinated strategy andmanagement plan for the weed.The Queensland Chilean Needle Grass Strategy2005-2010 has a long-term vision to eradicateChilean needle grass from Queensland with astrategic focus on:• communication• education and awareness• prevention of spread• research and development• eradication• monitoring and evaluation• stakeholders’ roles andresponsibilities• an investment plan.Annual operational plans are developed by thegroup, which is made up of Clifton, Warwick andCambooya shire council officers, as well as theDepartment of Main Roads, Condamine Allianceand DPI&F officers.60Distribution of Chilean needle grass in south-eastQueensland (DPI&F, Queensland).

A slasher modified with blowers is helpingreduce contamination and spread of Chileanneedle grass seed (DPI Victoria).Roadside warning sign on a main road (DPI&F,Queensland).What has been done?In early November 2005 when Chilean needlegrass was flowering, DPI&F initiated a state-wideemergency response to determine the distributionof the weed, create public awareness andundertake treatment of identified infestations.Agency staff from around the state, supportedby local council officers, undertook acomprehensive survey, mapping and controlprogram of the region’s roadsides. This wasfollowed up with prioritised surveys, mappingand control programs on private lands.Public awareness activities included theproduction and distribution of warning brochures,a ‘pestfact’ sheet, warning signage for MainRoads Network and Clifton Showgrounds,awareness workshops for weed and infrastructuremanagement staff, displays at community events,a media campaign and the establishment of a1800 call centre reporting service.Greening Australia was contracted to assist landmanagers develop Property Pest ManagementPlans (PPMPs) for high-risk properties, which themanagement group are helping property ownersto implement.A strong commitment to address the risk ofpanicle seed movement by equipment has seenlocal councils, Main Roads, QRail and Ergon Energymodifiy equipment and work practices of staffoperating in Chilean needle grass areas. Slasherswere modified to prevent rubbish accumulation ondeck, clean-down/quarantine areas were createdand identified, and work patterns changed so thatareas of scattered infestations were worked beforeareas of heavy infestations.What are the plans forthe future?Queensland’s Chilean needle grass eradicationstrategy is ongoing and plans for furtheractivities include:• Chilean needle grass survey and controlprograms• awareness and identification training• performance reviews of Chilean needlegrass plans• research into Chilean needle grassmanagement including:- wick wiping herbicide applicationtechnology- monitoring panicle seed bankcharacteristics- herbicide toxicity on aquatic vertebrates- testing of residual properties offluproponate.• activities to minimise the risk of spread ofChilean needle grass from heavily infestedareas such as Clifton Showgrounds• establishment of a Chilean needle grasstechnical group to advise and support theChilean needle grass management group oneradication practices• continued support to property owners andland managers that have Chilean needle grass.The development of a long-term eradicationstrategy, co-operation between stakeholdersand a pro-active approach to management willensure that land managers in Queensland havethe necessary tools in place to eradicate Chileanneedle grass from the state.61

Integrated management ofChilean needle grass on abeef production property nearTamworth, NSWThe problemChilean needle grass is thought to haveexisted for about 30 years in New South Wales’Tamworth district, where one local landholderis tackling an infestation that he believesoriginated from the roadside approximately 10years ago.“I’ve been managing the property for about fouryears and Chilean needle grass was alreadypresent when I took over,” said the landholder.“At the moment we’ve got a patchy mix of largeand small infestations, which we’ve tried hard toprevent spreading further by getting rid of thesmaller ones, while gradually chipping away atthe larger infestations.”If Chilean needle grass becomes widespreadthroughout his property, the landholder fears thateventually his carrying capacity will be reducedand his enterprise will become less profitable.To complicate matters, Chilean needle grassoften produces panicle seed heads twice a yearin this area. Approximately two thirds panicleseed heads are produced in spring and aboutone third in autumn, according to the landholder’s estimates.What is the landholder’sapproach?“Our major long-term aim is to prevent Chileanneedle grass from producing seed heads on allof the property every year and reduce its spread.That way, the land, the environment and my paypacketall benefit,” said the landholder.To achieve this, the landholder has adopted awell-planned integrated management strategy,incorporating annual management programs,over several years.The key to successful management of Chileanneedle grass on any property lies in awareness ofthe extent of the problem coupled with a strongcommitment to a well-planned, multi-facetedmanagement strategy, believes the landholder.What has been done?“We found the main components when managingChilean needle grass on this property are regularmonitoring, maintaining pasture health toprovide strong competition, strategic grazing,herbicide control and crop rotation,” he said.He conducts regular inspections of hisproperty and undertakes crude mapping. Overtime, he has learned to identify Chilean needlegrass and can now confidently identify patchesof the weed not in flower by the growth habitand foliage colour.“I am continually aware of the locationof Chilean needle grass infestationson the property and can quickly spotnew outbreaks. I simply mark newinfestations with a stake and I can comeback and spray it.”62

A cropping cycle is a useful tool in an integratedweed management program (DPI Victoria).Herbicide control is carried out on aregular basis. The landholder has a sprayerunit and a 200-litre tank mounted on a trailerthat is towed around the property.All known Chilean needle grass infestations arespot sprayed about three or four times a year. Athorough spraying campaign is carried out duringthe main flowering/panicle seed productionperiod in spring, then additional spraying iscarried out during the flowering/seeding periodin autumn. Spraying is carried out on adjacentroadsides and in key areas (for example, in cropsor crash-grazed paddocks) as required.Providing strong competition from desirablespecies is central to the landholder’s approachand, he believes, the cornerstone of any weedmanagement program.“I mainly sow tall fescue and follow up withsubterranean clover and white clover. Then Ifertilise to make sure the pasture on the farmis maintained in good health to provide strongcompetition against the Chilean needle grassand other weeds,” he said.Crop rotation is also an important component ofthe landholder’s management strategy. Cultivationand planting of forage crops, including winterwheat, oats and lucerne, is carried out in some ofthe worst-affected areas. This cropping cycle andthe resulting effects of cultivation breaking up themature plants, strong competition and the ease ofherbicide control has reduced the abundance ofChilean needle grass.Crash grazing is used strategically by thelandholder to prevent Chilean needle grassinfestations in key paddocks from seeding inspring and autumn.“I use a high stock density on a given paddock forthree to seven days. This means all the pasturespecies are eaten or trampled to similar levels. Whenthe stock are removed, all the pasture species havethe same opportunity to grow during the rest period.“The number of cattle required depends on thesize of the paddock and the amount of feedavailable, but you have to have enough grazingpressure so the cattle do not selectively pickout only the highly palatable pasture species.Following crash grazing, I’ll come back soonafter and spot spray any Chilean needle grassthat comes up with the new growth.”What are the plans forthe future?Steady progress is being made and the landholderis confident that believes his approach tomanaging Chilean needle grass has successfullyreduced the spread and size of existinginfestations within his property as a result of thegradual depletion of the panicle seed bank.”I try to be proactive and I’m alwayskeen to apply any new approaches tomanaging Chilean needle grass that mayimprove the overall result,” he said.Such a strong commitment to keep on top ofChilean needle grass now will prevent costlyoutbreaks, whilst leading to significant savingsin both time and money in the future.“I believe the biggest challenge in the future isoutside the boundaries of my property. I thinkthat the movement of Chilean needle grasspanicle seed in flood waters, along roadsidesand on animals will increase, which will remain acontinual threat to the productivity of my place.”63

Managing heavy infestationsof Chilean needle grass withintensive strategic grazingThe problem“Chilean needle grass first became apparent hereduring the early 1990s and we believe it probablymoved up from the south of the property viaslashing along the roadsides,” reports a farmerfrom a family-owned and managed property onthe northern outskirts of Melbourne.“Back then, the problem was isolated to about10 hectares of road boundaries and one hill”.”We also noticed the weed’s spread onthe farm was assisted by seeds stickingto fleece of sheep and later droppingoff in clean pastures. We actually oftenfound new infestations near stumpswhere the sheep would rub.”Currently, the farm’s Chilean needle grassinfestation is over 30 ha. The weed’s ability tocontaminate fleeces and cause abscesses onstock, stick to machinery and livestock, is thefarm’s greatest problem and cause of its spread.What is the approach?Like other producers in Victoria, this particularfarmer has had to change his productionsystem to cope with Chilean needle grassinvasion. In his case, the infestation got to thestage where, combined with sheep production,it was nearly impossible to manage effectively,forcing him to abandon sheep productionentirely and replace it with an intensive bullbeef production system instead.To ensure Chilean needle grass doesn’t spreadright across a property, it needs to be identifiedearly and stringently managed says the farmer.“Once Chilean needle grass is established,it can become very difficult to managedue to its ability to spread and thedevelopment of the seed bank,” he said.What has been done?“During 1996, the low returns from sheep plusthe frustration of not being able to stop thespread of Chilean needle grass without frequentshearings, led to our complete change offarming enterprise to bull beef,” said the farmer.“We now produce Friesians for meat but alsohave Jersey bulls, which are breeding stockagisted to the property from Gippsland. We’vefound the Jersey bulls feed better on the Chileanneedle grass than the Friesians.”To feed the stock, the farmer has both set stockand strategic grazing paddocks – many of whichhave heavy infestations of Chilean needle grass.In these paddocks, the bulls are run through astrategic grazing system with a 120-day rotation.The ‘cells’ within this system are set up in aseries of laneways that are approximately 0.9 hain size.“Depending upon the rate of pasture growth andseed head emergence throughout the season, weusually allocate ten bulls per cell and move themevery second day,” said the farmer.“Over the summer, the majority of bulls are soldand we keep a small mob moving through therotation to clean up any residual seed heads.”64

Strategic grazing increases the palatability andreduces panicle seed production of Chileanneedle grass (DPI Victoria).By controlling the feed on offer, the farmermanages the level of grazing for each cell andresidual standing feed.What has been the result?The farmer believes that strategic grazing ofChilean needle grass with cattle has distinctbenefits, including:• cattle’s greater ability to reduce the amountof viable Chilean needle grass panicle seed• the increase in production of palatablevegetative growth• a better environment for competition fromdesirable pasture species.Better production rates result from strategicgrazing than from set stock paddocks.”In a set stocking system, stock are freeto pick and choose the ‘strawberriesand cream’, but in a cell grazing systemlike ours, stock are forced to eat their’Brussels sprouts’, including Chileanneedle grass,” he said.From the farmer’s experience, Chilean needlegrass on grazing land is best managed by:• undertaking strategic grazing and allowingstock rates to increase• increasing grazing pressure during times ofpanicle seed production• maintaining ground cover to inhibit seedlinggermination• reducing the risk of panicle seed spreadby grazing stock with low seed-carryingpotential (for example, cattle) and cleaningfarm vehicles and equipment before movingoff infested paddocks when Chilean needlegrass is in seed.“By combining the strategic grazing systemwith measures to prevent panicle seed spread,desirable pasture species will have a muchmore competitive chance, while reducing theproportion of Chilean needle grass within thepasture,” he said.Although the cattle system doesn’t have thecomplications of contaminated fleeces, thefarmer still notices Chilean needle grass panicleseeds adhering to the hair on the tails andsurrounding the pizzles of the bulls, not tomention panicle seeds piercing his dogs. Thecattle also often regurgitate indigestible Chileanneedle grass panicle seed and stem.65

Before: Rocky riparian edge of the Skeleton creek site in August 2003; weeds pictured includeChilean needle grass, serrated tussock, brassicas, artichokes and boxthorn.Rehabilitation of rockygrasslands at Skeleton Creek,VictoriaThe problemSkeleton Creek is the third major watercourseafter the Werribee River, in City of Wyndham,Victoria, and its heritage value areas of roughrocky terrain and conservation-significant basaltsalt marsh make it a key environmental asset.By 1999, however, urban expansion, a history ofbad land management and overgrazing had leftSkeleton Creek in a sorry state of neglect, withlimited native vegetation, a significant rabbitpopulation and numerous environmental weedsincluding Chilean needle grass, which was themost persistent and problematic weed identifiedat the site.What is the approach?In an innovative response to managing rockyand weedy terrain, Skeleton Creek becamethe focus of a conservation project, piloted byVicUrban in association with Collie Landscaping.The Skeleton Creek project, carried out by workscontractor, Native Vegetation ManagementServices(NVMS ), sought to demonstrate acost-effective and environmentally positivealternative to mulching and planting out,by instead using incremental weed control,ecological burn processes and broadcasting ofnative grass and forb seed.A sustained management program to reduceinput into the panicle seed bank in thelong term, while increasing and enhancingcompetition from native species, was undertakenfrom 1999–2006.What has been done?NVMS ® operators were thoroughly trained torecognise Chilean needle grass and other weedsat different stages of growth.Selective herbicide control was carried outrepeatedly at the site, in a technique dubbedConsistent Micro Application of SelectiveChemicals (CMASC).Herbicides targeting weeds only, were appliedseveral times a year to ensure that desired plantswere protected and to allow operators to targetmissed and new plants for as long as the projectbudget permitted.Ecological burning was an important part ofthe management program, both to reveal thelandscape and to create conditions that wouldencourage seed germination of both the weedsand the native species.The vigorous regeneration of native grasses andherbs after burning was supplemented with a spotsprayingcampaign to place continual pressure onre-emerging Chilean needle grass population.Native ground flora was re-established by directbroadcast seeding, to fill the gaps and providestrong competition against any re-emerging weeds.Species that were broadcast seeded includeKangaroo-grass (Themeda triandra), speargrasses (species of Austrostipa), wallaby grass(species of Austrodanthonia), red-leg grass(Bothriochloa macra) and windmill grass (Chloristruncata). These species were direct seeded66

After: Approximately the same area in September 2006; the bulk of the weed population has beenreplaced with native grasses, saltbush species and some forbs. Weedy grasses do persist and spotspraying of Chilean needle grass, serrated tussock and phalaris is evident.during spring and autumn, following sitepreparation using burning and spraying.What has been the result?This three-pronged attack on Chileanneedle grass enhanced the effect of naturalregeneration, reduced the panicle seed bankand resulted in a reduced abundance of Chileanneedle grass and other weeds.The sustained management program between1999 and 2006 has seen Skeleton Creek well onthe way to being transformed from the originalweedy jungle to an urban grassland habitat thatwill be appreciated by the local community.Ecological assessment by Biosis Researchhas evaluated the vegetation quality at threesites on the creek using the habit hectaremethod, concluding that management activitieshad contributed to the improving quality ofvegetation within each area.It was found that the direct seeding operationshad succeeded in re-establishing kangaroograss and other indigenous grasses, and a smallnumber of herb species. Although all three areasstill contained a relatively high proportion ofweeds, this seemed to be much reduced fromearlier levels, and the native flora species hadexpanded their cover.A rich diversity of native grasses and herbs areestablishing and survival of direct seeded herbsthrough an intensive drought indicates a longerterm stability. These are able to compete withChilean needle grass and each year, there hasbeen further reduction in the weed population. Asa result, management costs continue to decrease.What are the plans forthe future?The campaign of selective herbicide control,ecological burning and re-establishment ofnative ground flora at Skeleton Creek continueduntil mid-2007 when the low-maintenance sitewas handed over to Wyndham City Council.The experience of managing of Chilean needlegrass as part of a greater project plan at SkeletonCreek and other grasslands continues to helprefine management techniques of the agenciesinvolved. It has also generated ideas that mayimprove understanding of Chilean needle grassmanagement in native grasslands.Wyndham City Council plans to retain Skeletoncreek as a major open space link, whilecontinuing to protect and enhance the creek’snatural environmental conditions.For further information please contact:Peter Wlodarczyk, Director – Native VegetationManagement Services (a division of GAGIN PtyLtd, Greybox and Grassland Indigenous Nursery)peter@gagin.com.au67

Chilean needle grass in seed, growing inperennial pasture at Angledale (Andy Raymond,Bega Valley Shire).Seeding of desirable pasture species by directdrill (Andy Raymond, formerly Bega ValleyShire).Local government andlandholders join forces totackle Chilean needle grass inBega Valley Shire, NSWThe problemIn November, 2004, the first record of Chileanneedle grass in the Bega Valley was identifiedby the District Agronomist, Harry Kemp, ona number of properties in a small area inAngledale, just north of Bega.The sighting triggered a thorough inspectionof the surrounding area to establish the extentand density of Chilean needle grass, includinginspection of other properties in the shire knownto be associated with the infested propertiesthrough stock and machinery movement.Of the 24 properties inspected, Chilean needlegrass was found on six, infesting a total area ofapproximately 12.1 ha, and also on three smallinfestations on council-managed roadsides.The infestation densities ranged from isolatedindividual plants to heavily infested core areas.As investigations continued, some land ownerswith Chilean needle grass on their propertyspeculated that it may have been present ontheir land for at least 20 years.What is the approach?A control and recovery project was undertakenusing a grant of $7000 from NSW Departmentof Primary Industries, an extra $2000 from BegaValley Shire Council to implement inspection andcontrol work, and $3500 from Southern RiversCatchment Management Authority (CMA).The aim of the project was to identify and treatall Chilean needle grass infestations in the areaand to establish desirable pasture species, whereappropriate, to compete with the weed.A public campaign launched through local mediato inform land managers and residents of theinfestations and the council’s planned inspectionand eradication program was well receivedacross the shire.What has been done?Initially, all Chilean needle grass panicle seedheads were cut, bagged and disposed of in landfill,to prevent further inputs into the seed bank.All affected land managers agreed to have theirinfestations of Chilean needle grass sprayed aspart of the control program and in late 2004 andearly 2005 all infestations were spot or boomsprayed at no cost to the land owner.The spraying program achieved good results,with approximately 90 per cent of all Chileanneedle grass plants controlled.Bega Valley Shire Council’s weeds inspectorsthen organised a meeting with all land managersdealing with Chilean needle grass infestationsand the local agronomist from NSW DPI, where itwas agreed that competitive pasture species besown to reduce the likelihood of re-invasion byChilean needle grass.68

Tall fescue emerging in spring (Andy Raymond, formerly Bega Valley Shire).What has been the result?In early September 2005, the previously sprayedareas were boom sprayed to kill any newlyemerging plants. The following day, a quickgrowingperennial pasture mix of tall fescue,clovers and fertiliser was sown by direct drill.Most of these areas were fenced off from stockfor approximately two to three months to allowthe pasture to establish.After good rainfall during spring 2005, the sownseed successfully germinated and a little Chileanneedle grass re-established in the sprayed andre-sown areas. In areas previously untreated,however, there was substantial germination ofChilean needle grass, as well as the discoveryof new infestations. The new infestations weretargeted by spot spraying and manual controlby land managers and Bega Valley Shire Councilweeds staff.A re-inspection program in November 2005targeted properties with known infestations andfound that all had been controlled before panicleseed set. The inspection program was expandedto include neighbouring properties on thenorthern side of the Brogo River and no Chileanneedle grass was found.Unfortunately drought caused failure of much ofthe 2005 pasture rehabilitation work. A further$6000 was allocated bythe Southern RiversCMA for further pasture rehabilitation to ensurevigorous pastures are established to provideeffective competition.Every infested property now has a Chileanneedle grass management plan in place and allknown infestations were re-inspected during the2006–2007 season.What is the plan for the future?Bega Valley Shire Council is committed and wellprepared to control Chilean needle grass throughcommunity education and awareness programs, byidentifying and eradicating new infestations andby managing existing infestations appropriately.Inspection, mapping and control programs areongoing. The declaration of Chilean needle grassas a Class 4 noxious weed under the NoxiousWeeds Act 1993, in Bega Valley Shire in March2006, has made it easier for weeds officers toensure that land managers control its occurrence.Continuing education programs mean thatawareness of the problem is now widespreadthroughout the shire, and land managers andCouncil staff are now experienced at identifyingand controlling Chilean needle grass.69

‘Brushdown point’ sign in Hume City Council,Victoria (Hume City Council).Roadside management ofChilean needle grass by HumeCity CouncilThe problemThe results of a mapping program in 2002highlighted significant spread of needle grassspecies (both Chilean needle grass and Texasneedle grass, N. leucotricha) since previousmapping had occurred in 1997. Its consequentoccurrence was on most slashed roadsidesin Hume. A total of 25 km of needle grassmanagement zones (roadsides with low andpatchy infestations) was recorded, as well asapproximately 16 km of needle grass-free zones(roadsides with no infestations).Residents’ concerns about the problem of needlegrasses, and the advice of the council’s WeedsAdvisory Committee saw Hume City Councilbegin development of the Hume Needle GrassAction Plan in November 2002.What is the approach?The Hume Needle Grass Action Plan plan aimed toreduce the needle grass threat to Hume City andthe surrounding basalt plains and to encourageawareness of needle grasses, in particular:• their serious impact on land productivity andenvironmental values within the municipality• the potential for council roadsidemanagement activities to lead to their spread.The major objectives to achieve this include:• mapping and signposting “ needle grassmanagement zones” (that is, roadsides withlow and patchy infestations) and “needle grassfreezones” (roadsides with no infestations)• protecting these zones from importingfurther Chilean needle grass seed throughcouncil activities, including slashing androad maintenance works• reducing the current cover of needle grasseswithin the needle grass management zonesthrough appropriate herbicide applicationduring spring and autumn• monitoring needle grass spread throughrepeated mapping of needle grassmanagement zones and needle grass-freezones• annual auditing of signs and maps andrepairing/re-mapping when necessary.What has been done?The Action PlanThis consisted largely of an annual program ofmapping and spraying of roadside infestations.The 2002 mapped ‘management’ and ‘free’ zoneswere the focus of management, re-mapping andextension works in the following years.Patches within management zones were sprayedwith a non-selective herbicide in autumn 2003,and later sown with a dry-land turf seed mix.Infestations were mapped again in spring 2003,with zone boundaries revised and marked with a‘wash-down point’ sign. Slashing contractors weredirected to brush down machinery at these signsto minimise spread into needle grass free zones.Adjoining landholders were also informed of theneedle grass threat and management options.The mapped needle grass management zoneswere re-sprayed in 2004.70

Spot spraying Chilean needle grass along aroadside (Hume City Council).During spring 2005:• Current Chilean needle grass and Texasneedle grass management zones werere-mapped, including GPS co-ordinates, andsignage audited.• Signs were repaired where necessary.• Area, density and absolute area cover ofneedle grasses within every control zonewas recorded.• Flowering needle grasses within everycontrol zone were sprayed.• Variations of absolute and area coverageover zones, years and species wererecorded.• Potential ‘non-roadside’ needle grassmanagement zones: Albert Road Reserve,Emu Bottom Wetland Reserve and significantroadside areas, were mapped and assessed.• Needle grass spread within and acrossneedle grass fronts in management zoneswas minimised through herbicide controland weed hygiene procedures.Vehicle hygiene guidelinesHume City Council also introduced vehicle hygieneguidelines for staff and contractors operatingon roadsides. This included use of the ‘washdownpoint’ signs in management zones. Inaddition, the council are taking part in trials andsupporting research into best practice needle grassmanagement and improving vehicle hygiene.What has been the result?The plan has been a catalyst for strengtheningpartnerships within council and with stateagencies, particularly the Department of PrimaryIndustries (DPI) and their work together on anumber of research initiatives targeting needlegrasses. Council’s relationship with VicRoads,managers of major roads, continues to improve.Volunteers, predominantly landholders andmembers of the Weeds Advisory Committee,continue to help deliver the Action Plan.Hume City Council’s proactive approach hascaused interest from numerous councilsacross Australia, and even by a Weed Officerfrom a district council in New Zealand. Thecouncil has been able to provide adviceon the development of strategies andmanagement of needle grasses.What is the plan for the future?The Needle Grass Action Plan has beenincorporated in Hume City council’s SustainableLand Management Strategy. Implementationof the plan is ongoing and continues to drawon ongoing evaluation and wider needle grassmanagement research.Council is about to begin a large-scale weedmapping program using the latest in GIStechnology. Once the data is collected in the field,it will be uploaded onto council’s standard mappingsystem, which can be easily accessed by all staff.This ‘cross-council’ approach will help manydifferent departments to tackle not only Chileanneedle grass and Texas needle grass but manyother weeds as well.For further information please contact:Sustainable Environment DepartmentHume City CouncilBroadmeadows, Victoria.(03) 9205 220071

Section 6 Further information6.1 Declaration details of Chileanneedle grass in Australia 736.2 Contacts 746.3 References and further reading 756.4 Glossary and acronyms 8172

Section 6Further information6.1 Declaration details ofChilean needle grassin AustraliaStateACTDeclaration status(October 2007)D – Declared Pest Plant[Land (Planning andEnvironment) Act 1991]AreascoveredAll ACTLegal RestrictionsRequires that a plan be prepared to control the spread of theseplants. The declaration does not require the immediate removal ofthese plants from gardens in the ACT. The plan will identify as one ofits components public education about the threats these plants poseto the environment.NSWClass 3 (Noxious WeedsAct 1993)30 local councilareas** in NSWThe plant must be fully and continuously suppressed and destroyedand the plant must not be sold, propagated or knowingly distributed.Class 4 (Noxious WeedsAct 1993)Remaininglocal controlauthorities inNSWThe growth and spread of the plant must be controlled accordingto the measures specified in a management plan published by thelocal control authority and the plant may not be sold, propagated orknowingly distributed.NTSchedule Class A/C(Weed Management Act2001)All NTSchedule Class A – To be eradicated.Schedule Class C – Not to be introduced into the Territory.QLDClass 1 [Land Protection(Pest and Stock RouteManagement) Act 2002]All QldPlants not commonly present in the state and, if introduced, wouldcause an adverse economic, environmental or social impact. Class1 plants established in the state are subject to eradication. It is anoffence to introduce, keep or sell Class 1 plants without a permit.SAClass 2 (Natural ResourcesManagement Act 2004)All SAGenerally requiring notification in at least part of the state andcontrol of the plant throughout the whole state.TASD – Declared weed (WeedManagement Act 1999)All TasDetails on actual restrictions or measures for each declared weedare contained in the weed management plan for that weed. Must notimport or allow to be imported, must not sell or distribute; must notpropagate, harvest or store; and may be required to reduce, eradicateor restrict the weed.VICR – Restricted weed(Catchment and LandProtection Act 1994)All VictoriaTrade in these weeds and materials containing them is prohibited.WAProhibited (PlantDiseases Act 1974)All WAProhibited – Plant species on the Permitted and Prohibited list notpermitted entry into WA.P1 (Agricultural andRelated ResourcesProtection Act 1976)P1 – Prohibits movement of declared plants and/or their seedsthrough the prevention of trade, sale or movement of plants into thestate or that area of the state.**NSW Local Councils where Chilean needle grass is declared Class 3: Albury, Balranalo, Berrigan, Bland, Carrathool,Central Murray County Council, Conargo, Coolamon, Cootamundra, Corowa, Deniliquin, Greater Hume, Griffith, Gundagai, Hay,Jerilderie, Junee, Leeton, Lockhart, Murray, Murrumbidgee, Narrandera, Temora, Wakool, Tumbarumba, Tumut, Urana, WaggaWagga, Wentworth, Windouran.73

6.2 ContactsRegionNationalDepartment of Agriculture Fisheries andForestry (DAFF)National Chilean needle grass TaskforceNational Chilean needle grass CoordinatorTelephonenumber(02) 6272 3933For currentcontact detailsvisit websiteWebsitehttp://www.daff.gov.au/www.weeds.org.au/WoNS/Chileanneedlegrass/Australian Capital TerritoryParks, Conservation and Lands 13 22 81 http://www.tams.act.gov.au/live/environmentNew South WalesDepartment of Primary Industries (02) 6391 3100 www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/QueenslandDepartment of Primary Industries and Fisheries(DPI&F), incorporating Biosecurity Queensland.13 25 23 www.dpi.qld.gov.au/South AustraliaDepartment of Water, Land and BiodiversityConservation (DWLBC)(08) 8303 9620 www.dwlbc.sa.gov.au/TasmaniaDepartment of Primary Industries and Water (DPIW) 1300 368 550 www.dpiw.tas.gov.au/VictoriaDepartment of Primary Industries 13 61 86 www.dpi.vic.gov.au/74

6.3 References andfurther reading1. Agriculture and Resource ManagementCouncil of Australia and New Zealand,Australian and New Zealand Environment andConservation Council and Forestry Ministers.(2001). Weeds of National SignificanceChilean needle grass (Nassella neesiana)Strategic Plan. National Weeds StrategyExecutive Committee, Launceston, Tasmania.(available on: www.weeds.org.au/WoNS/Chileanneedlegrass/).2. Anderson, F., Diaz, M. and McLaren, D.(2006). Current status of research onpotential biological control agents forNassella neesiana and Nassella trichotoma(Poaceae) in Australia. Proceedings of the15 th Australian Weeds Conference, Adelaide,South Australia, pp. 591-594.3. Anderson, F., Pettit, W., Briese, D. andMcLaren, D. (2002). Biological control ofserrated tussock and Chilean needle grass.Plant Protection Quarterly 17(3), pp. 104-111.4. Baldyga, N. and Grech, C. (2005). Machineryhygiene guidelines for roadside managers– minimising the spread of Chilean needlegrass. Department of Primary Industries,Bacchus Marsh, Victoria. (available on: www.weeds.org.au/WoNS/Chileanneedlegrass/).5. Barlow, T. (1998). Grassy Guidelines: Howto manage native grasslands and grassywoodlands on your property. Trust for Nature,Melbourne, Victoria.6. Bayley, D. (2001). Efficient WeedManagement. NSW Agriculture, Paterson,New South Wales.7. Beames, L., Hocking, C. and Wlodarczyk,P. (2005). Best practice management ofChilean needle grass (Nassella neesiana) inconservation reserves – the seedbank story.Plant Protection Quarterly 20(1), pp. 2-8.8. Britt, D.L., Lawrie, A.C. and McLaren, D.(2002). Genetic variation in Chilean needlegrass (Nassella neesiana) in Australia. PlantProtection Quarterly 17(3), pp. 125-126.9. Carr, G.W., Yugovic, J.V. and Robinson, K.E.(1992). Environmental Weed Invasions inVictoria: Conservation and ManagementImplications. Department of Conservationand Natural Resources and EcologicalHorticulture, Victoria.10. CRC for Australian Weed Management (2003).Weed Management Guide: Chilean needlegrass. CRC for Australian Weed Management,Adelaide, South Australia. (available on:www.weeds.crc.org.au/documents/wmg_chilean_needle.pdf).11. CRC for Australian Weed Management (2007).Integrated Weed Management Manual. CRCfor Australian Weed Management, Adelaide,South Australia. (Order on: www.weeds.crc.org.au/publications/iwm_manual_flyer.html).12. CRC for Australian Weed Management(2004). Introductory weed managementmanual. Department of the Environmentand Heritage, Canberra, Australian CapitalTerritory. (available on: www.weeds.crc.org.au/publications/education_training_resources.html).75

13. Department of Natural Resources andMines (2005). Queensland Chilean NeedleGrass Strategy 2005–2010. QueenslandGovernment, Brisbane, Queensland.14. Eddy, D. (2002). Managing native grasslands– A guide to management for conservation,production and landscape protection. WWFAustralia (available on: www.wwf.org.au/publications/managing_grasslands.pdf)15. Erakovic, Lj., Subic, A., Abu-Hijleh B.& McLaren, D. (2003). Modelling andsimulation of Chilean needle grass spreadduring slashing. Modsim 2003 InternationalCongress on Modelling and Simulation,Townsville, Queensland, pp. 1577–1561.16. Erakovic, Lj., Subic, A., Abu-Hijleh B. &McLaren, D. (2003). Simulation models ofChilean needle grass spread during slashing.Under Control Pest Plant and AnimalManagement News, 23, pp. 8-9, Departmentof Primary Industries, Frankston, Victoria.17. Gardener, M., Whalley, R. and Sindel, B.(2003a). Ecology of Nassella neesiana,Chilean needle grass, in pastures on theNorthern Tablelands of New South Wales.1.Seed production and dispersal. AustralianJournal of Agricultural Research, 54, pp.613-619.18. Gardener, M., Whalley, R. and Sindel, B.(2003b). Ecology of Nassella neesiana,Chilean needle grass, in pastures on theNorthern Tablelands of New South Wales.1.Seedbank dynamics, seed germination andseedling recruitment. Australian Journal ofAgricultural Research, 54, pp. 621-626.19. Gardener, M., Sindel, B., Whalley, R. and Earl,J. (2005). Can Nassella neesiana, Chileanneedle grass, be incorporated into a grazingmanagement system in Australia? PlantProtection Quarterly 20(1), pp. 36-40.20. Gardener, M. (1998). The biology of Nassellaneesiana (Trin. & Rupr.) Barkworth (Chileanneedle grass) in pasture on the NorthernTablelands of New South Wales: weed orpasture? PhD thesis, University of NewEngland, New South Wales.21. Gardener, M. (1999). Landcare Notes:Chilean needle grass identification. KeithTurnbull Research Institute, Departmentof Natural Resources and Environment,Frankston, Victoria.22. Gardener, M., Sindel, B. and Whalley, R.(1999). Chilean needle grass (Nassellaneesiana) What we know and where to next?Proceedings of the 12th Australian WeedsConference, Hobart, Tasmania, 8-12.23. Gardener, M. and Sindel, B. (1998). Thebiology of Nassella and Achnatherumspecies naturalized in Australia andthe implications for management onconservation lands. Plant ProtectionQuarterly 13(2), pp. 76-79.24. Gardener, M., Whalley, R and Sindel, B.(1996a). The failure of managementtechnology for reproductively efficientgrassy weeds: The Chilean needle grassexample. Proceedings of the 11 th AustralianWeeds Conference, University of Melbourne.pp. 243-6.76

25. Gardener, M.R., Whalley, R.D.B., and Sindel,B.S. (1996b). The usefulness and ecology ofChilean Needle Grass (Nassella neesiana) asa pasture in Argentina. A report for the CRCfor Weed Management Systems, the MeatResearch Corporation, the Weed Society ofNSW and the Matheson Landcare Group.26. Gaur, S. (2005). Spraytopping as amanagement tool to reduce seed productionin Chilean needle grass infestations.Proceedings of the Tussock TerminatorsResearch Forum, Albury, New South Wales,pp. 36-42.27. Gaur, S. and McLaren, D. (2004).Spraytopping as a management tool toreduce seed production in Chilean needlegrass infestations. Proceedings of the 14 thAustralian Weeds Conference, Wagga Wagga,New South Wales, p. 266.28. Gaur, S., McLaren, D., Butler, K. and Bonilla,J. (2006). Broad acre chemical controlfor Chilean needle grass infestations.Proceedings of the 15 th Australian WeedsConference, Adelaide, South Australia, pp.864-867.29. Grech, C., McLaren, D., and Sindel, B.(2005). Effect of grazing management andstockclass on Chilean needle grass (Nassellaneesiana) seed production. Proceedingsof the 15 th Australian Weeds Conference,Adelaide, South Australia, pp. 868-871.30. Grech, C. (2007a). Grazing managementfor the long term utilization and control ofChilean needle grass (Nassella neesiana),PhD thesis, University of New England, NewSouth Wales.31. Grech, C. (2007b). Chilean needle grass:Managing seed production by slashing.AgNote. Department of Primary Industries,Attwood, Victoria. (available on: www.dpi.vic.gov.au/notes/).32. Grech, C. (2007c). Chilean needle grass:Maintaining Feed Value by mowing andfertiliser application. AgNote. Departmentof Primary Industries, Attwood, Victoria.(available on: www.dpi.vic.gov.au/notes/).33. Grech, C. (2007d). Chilean needle grass:Grazing management and stock class.AgNote. Department of Primary Industries,Attwood, Victoria. (available on: www.dpi.vic.gov.au/notes/).34. Grech, C. (2007e). Chilean needle grass:Management by fire. AgNote. Departmentof Primary Industries, Attwood, Victoria.(available on: www.dpi.vic.gov.au/notes/).35. Grech, C. (2007f). Chilean needle grass:Integrating herbicide wipers. AgNote.Department of Primary Industries, Attwood,Victoria. (available on: www.dpi.vic.gov.au/notes/).36. Grech, C. (2005a). Chilean needle grass(Nassella neesiana) – integrated grazingfor success. Proceedings of the TussockTerminators Research Forum, Albury, NSW,Australia, pp. 11-15.Grech, C. (2005b).37. Chilean needle grass,Research Update – Field day fact sheets.DPI Victoria.77

38. Grech, C., McLaren, D., Chapman, D. andSindel, B. (2005). Effect of clipping andfertilizer addition on the feed value ofChilean needle grass (Nassella neesiana)during reproductive growth stages. PlantProtection Quarterly 20(1), pp. 16-17.39. Hancock, B. and Schuster, H. (2004).Winning against seeds – Managementtools for your sheep enterprise. Meat andLivestock Australia ltd.40. Hartley, M.J. (1995). Dalapon resistantindividuals in a susceptible population ofChilean needle grass. Proceedings of the47 th New Zealand Plant Protection Society,Waitangi, New Zealand, pp 75-79.41. Hector, A., Dobson, K., Minns, A., Bazeley-White, E., and Lawton, J.H. (2001).Community diversity and invasionresistance: An experimental test in agrassland ecosystem and a review ofcomparable studies. Ecological Research 16,819-831.42. Hocking, C. (1998). Land management ofNassella areas implications for conservation.Plant Protection Quarterly 13(2), pp. 86-91.43. Hocking, C. (2002). Impacts and controlof exotic stipoid grasses in Australia whathave we learnt since 1998? Plant ProtectionQuarterly 17(3), pp. 83-86.44. Hocking, C. (2005). Chilean needle grass(Nassella neesiana) – potential impactsand control. Proceedings of the TussockTerminators Research Forum, Albury, NSW,Australia, pp. 27-31.45. Iaconis, L. (2004). How is the Chilean needlegrass program progressing? Proceedings ofthe 14 th Australian Weeds Conference, WaggaWagga, New South Wales, pp. 636-639.46. Iaconis, L. and Faithfull, I. (2003). WeedWatch Warning: Chilean needle-grassNassella neesiana. Under Control PestPlant and Animal Management News. No.23. Department of Primary Industries,Frankston, Victoria.47. Lamp, C.A., Forbes, S.J. and Cade, J.W.(2001). Grasses of Temperate Australia – afield guide. Bloomings Books, Australia.48. Leech, F. and Keys, M. (editors) (2003). Thegraziers guide to pastures. NSW Agriculture.49. Liebert, A. (1996). Chilean needle grass:Stipa neesiana – Assessment Report of theNorth Central CALP Region. Department ofConservation and Natural Resources, Victoria.50. Lowien, L.C., Gardener, M.R., and A. Cameron(1998). Chilean needle grass (Nassellaneesiana) management options. Proceedingsof the Thirteenth Annual Conference,Grassland Society of NSW. pp. 84-5.51. Mason, B. (1998). Replacement of Chileanneedle grass (Nassella neesiana) by thenative kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra):managing native grasslands in CentralVictoria using the ‘spray and hay’ method.MSc Thesis, Victoria University, Victoria.Mason, B. (2004).52. Directions for bestmanagement of kangaroo grass (Themedatriandra) re-establishment in south easternAustralian native grassland remnants. PhDthesis, Victoria University, Victoria.78

53. Mason, B. and Hocking, C. (2002). Thepotential for repair of exotic stipoidgrass infested sites with kangaroo grass(Themeda triandra) with special reference toremnant native grasslands. Plant ProtectionQuarterly 17(3), pp. 98-101.54. McLaren, D. Morfe, T.A. and Weiss, J. (2002).Distribution, economic impact and attitudestowards Chilean needle grass (Nassellaneesiana) in Australia. Proceedings of the13 th Australian Weeds Conference, PlantProtection Society of Western Australia. pp.749-52.55. McLaren, D., Coventry, R. and Thorp, J.(2002). Stipoid grasses as Weeds of NationalSignificance. Plant Protection Quarterly17(3), pp. 119-124.56. McLaren, D., Stajsic, V. and Gardener, M.(1998). The distribution and impact ofSouth/North American stipoid grasses(Poaceae: Stipeae) in Australia. PlantProtection Quarterly 13(2), pp. 62-70.57. McLaren, D., Stajsic, V. and Iaconis, L.(2004).The distribution, impacts andidentification of exotic stipoid grasses inAustralia. Plant Protection Quarterly 19(2),pp. 59-66.58. McLaren, D.A., Ramasamy, S., Lawrie, A.C.,Pritchard, G. and Morfe, T. (2006). A nationalassessment of serrated tussock resistanceto flupropanate in Australia. Proceedingsof the 15 th Australian Weeds Conference,Adelaide, South Australia, pp. 534-539.59. McNaught, I, Thackway, R, Brown, Land Parsons, M (2006). A Field Manualfor Surveying and Mapping NationallySignificant Weeds. Bureau of Rural Sciences,Canberra (available on www.weeds.org.au/mapping.htm).60. Mitchell, M. (2002). Native grasses –Identification handbook for temperateAustralia, 3 rd edition. CSIRO publishing,Collingwood, Victoria.61. Moerkerk, M. (2005). Machinery hygiene– what is on our vehicles? Under ControlPest Plant and Animal Management News,32, pp. 15-17, Department of PrimaryIndustries, Frankston, Victoria.62. Moerkerk, M. (2006). Risk of weed movementthrough vehicles, plant and equipment:results from a Victorian study. Proceedingsof the 15 th Australian Weeds Conference,Adelaide, South Australia, pp. 458-461.63. Muyt, A. (2001). Bush Invaders of South-eastAustralia. R.G. and F.J. Richardson, Meredith,Victoria.64. Neville, G. (1999). Chilean needle grassproject. Department of Natural Resourcesand Environment, Victoria.Philips, A. (2000).65. A method for replacingserrated tussock (Nassella trichotoma)with kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra) inlowland native grassland remnants, Masterof Science, Victoria University, Victoria.79

66. Pritchard, G. (2004). Effect of herbicideapplication to emerged seed heads on theviability of panicle seed and cleistogenes ofChilean needle grass (Nassella neesiana).Proceedings of the 14 th Australian WeedsConference, Wagga Wagga, New SouthWales, pp. 274-278.67. Ross, J. (1999). Guide to Best PracticeConservation of Temperate NativeGrasslands. World Wide Fund for Nature,Sydney, New South Wales.68. Sharp, D. & Simon, B.K. (2002), AusGrass:Grasses of Australia. CD-ROM, Version1.0, Australian Biological Resources Study,Canberra, and Environmental ProtectionAgency, Queensland.69. Slay, M. (2002). Chilean needle grass: Aguide to the identification and managementin Hawke’s Bay. Hawke’s Bay RegionalCouncil, New Zealand.70. Storrie, A.M. and Lowien, J.C. (2003).Chilean Needle Grass – Agnote DPI 194,NSW Agriculture.71. Trotter, M. (2005). Producer perceptionsof changing occurrence and successfulcontrol methods for Nassella neesiana andN. trichotoma. Proceedings of the TussockTerminators Research Forum, Albury, NewSouth Wales, Australia, p. 53.72. Thorp, J.R. and Lynch, R. 2000. Thedetermination of Weeds of NationalSignificance. National Weeds StrategyExecutive Committee, Launceston,Tasmania (available on: www.weeds.org.au/docs/WONS/).73. Walsh, N. (1998) Identification of SouthAmerican tussock weeds. Plant ProtectionQuarterly 13(2), pp. 59-62.74. Williams, N. (2005). Management strategiesfor preventing weed invasion in urbangrasslands. Plant Protection Quarterly 20(1),pp. 12-15.Williams, L. (2005).75. An investigation intobest practice management of Chilean needlegrass (Nassella neesiana) in conservationreserves. Honours Thesis, VictoriaUniversity, Victoria.80

6.4 Glossary and acronymsTermawnC3 grasscoronafamilygenusglumeinflorescenceor seed headlemmaligulepaleapaniclestamentribetillertussockDefinitiona fine bristle-like appendage that is attached to the seed.grasses that utilise the C3 photosynthetic pathway; these grasses areusually adapted to cool temperate zones.a crown; in grasses, a ring of hairs at the tip of the lemma.a unit of taxonomic classification above the level of a tribe.a unit of taxonomic classification above the level of a species. The genusname is the first part of a scientific name, for example Nassella (genus)neesiana (species). (plural genera).of a grass, one or two sub-opposite empty bracts subtending the floret orflorets in a spikelet.collective name for the flowering part of a grass.outer bract of a grass floret, enclosing a palea and a flower.a membranous or hairy outgrowth on the adaxial surface of a leaf, at thejunction of sheath and blade, especially in grasses and some sedges.the upper husk enclosing the flower.an inflorescence branched in large loose clusters; a branched raceme.a male organ of a flower, consisting of a filament and anther (which bearspollen).a unit of taxonomic classification above the level of a genus but below thelevel of a family.of a grass, a branch developed from a bud at the base of a stem.large clump or tuft as formed by some perennial grasses and sedges.81

TermACTAPVMACMANSWPPMPTAFEDAFFDPIDPI&FDPIWDWLBCDefinitionAustralian Capital TerritoryAustralian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines AuthorityCatchment Management AuthorityNew South WalesProperty Pest Management PlanTechnical and Further EducationDepartment of Agriculture Fisheries and ForestryDepartment of Primary Industries (New South Wales, Victoria)Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (Queensland)Department of Primary Industries and Water (Tasmania)Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation (South Australia)82

CNG Manual.indd - Weeds Australia

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?