Guideline No.05&06 - SPGS

Plantation Guidelines 

Nos. 5&6 - June 2007 

TREE SPECIES FOR COMMERCIAL TIMBER 

PRODUCTION AND WHERE THEY GROW BEST IN UGANDA 

“Plantations are a major source of industrial wood in Africa. 

Many projects, however, have performed poorly because of poor species choice, lack 

of species trials, limited site characterisation and unforeseen pests” 

(from: The Regional Impacts of Climate Change. UNEP/WMO Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2005). 

(left) 3-yr old plantation of Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis in 

Nakasongola: seed from clonal seed orchards in Queensland, 

Australia. This is one of a number of demonstration blocks 

around Uganda planted in 2002-03 to encourage private 

investors. 

Eucalyptus grandis grown for sawtimber in South Africa: This 

stand is 15 years old and has well thinned. 

A mature Musizi (Maesopsis eminii) tree in Budongo Forest. 

Musizi is a fast growing indegenous hard wood.

So......you are interested in planting trees commercially 

in Uganda are you? Well the most important decision 

you have to make is what species to plant. This 

depends primarily on two main things: firstly - what 

products you want to produce and secondly what 

species will grow well on your land. This Guideline 

will aid this decision with details of the silviculture 

and management of potential species, as well as their 

growth rates, expected rotations and the wood’s 

utilisation characteristics. 

Before planting any particular tree species (especially 

on a commercial scale), it is essential to understand 

their site requirements and their growth characteristics. 

Failure to appreciate this will often result in a crop 

that does not perform well and may well result in the 

plantation development being a financial disaster. 

It should be noted that the species referred to in this 

Guideline are only those with potential for commercial 

scale sawlog (i.e. timber) production. Of course, many 

of the species will produce other products as well (such 

as fuelwood and poles) but still the main aim of the 

National Forest Authority (NFA) and private investors 

- especially those on the Sawlog Production Grant 

Scheme (SPGS) - is timber production. NB. The centre 

4 pages of this guideline give details of matching the 

main species to sites in Uganda. 

EXOTIC VS INDIGENOUS 

We are often asked why most of the species 

recommended for commercial plantations are exotic 

(i.e. not native to Uganda) and why we don’t plant 

more indigenous species. The main reason is that 

most of the indigenous trees grow too slowly (e.g. 

Mahoganies (Khaya anthothica and Entandophragma 

spp.) and Mvule (Milicia excelsa) and thus render the 

investment unprofitable. Many indigenous species are 

also very difficult to grow in a plantation situation (e.g. 

Mvule and Prunus africanum). The exception to this 

is Musizi (Maesopsis eminii), which is a fast growing 

indigenous tree with considerable promise for timber 

plantations on suitable sites in Uganda. On appropriate 

sites, however, we do encourage planters to plant a 

proportion of indigenous trees but for commercial 

reasons, faster growing trees - especially Eucalypts 

and Pines - will dominate plantations for timber in 

Uganda for the foreseeable future. 

Pines and Eucalypts are the main species used for 

plantations throughout the tropics and sub-tropics 

because of their ability to grow well in a plantation 

situation. They are natural pioneer species – which 

means they are adapted to grow over a range of sites 

and in an open situation. In addition, there is a lot 

known about their silviculture – both in the nursery 

and in the field situation – and also their growth and 

utilisation characteristics. Breeding programmes in a 

number of countries also means that there is improved 

seed available for the most important commercial 

species. 

MIXED SPECIES OR MONOCULTURE? 

EVEN OR UNEVEN AGED? 

The vast majority of commercial plantations worldwide 

are monocultures i.e. comprising one species only in 

a given area. Additionally, each block (usually called 

compartment or sub compartment) will be of the exact 

same age. Conservationists often criticise commercial 

forestry organisations for this approach but they fail 

to understand the economics of plantation forestry 

and also the complexities of managing different 

species and/or ages growing together. A sound 

plantation development, however, should develop a 

mosaic of different species and ages over the estate. 

With fast growing Eucalypts on specific sites, it is also 

recommended to apply fertiliser to maintatin the 

nutrient status of the soil. 

The main plantation species referred to in this guideline 

– especially Pines and Eucalypts – can produce very 

high yields when grown intensively in a monoculture, 

even-aged situation. Silvicultural prescriptions (and 

budget figures) can also then be easily applied to large 

areas. There are huge economies of scale to be made 

having blocks of trees the same species and age/size. 

RISKS 

Growing large blocks of monocultures (and with a 

narrow genetic base if using improved seed) comes 

at a price too. Such plantations are more at risk 

than a natural population when it comes to fires 

and pests and diseases and hence, precautions have 

to be taken to minimise such risks – e.g. restricting 

compartments to maximum 30ha; having blocks of 

different ages and species scattered throughout the 

estate; developing infrastructure (especially roads); 

having a fire prevention and control plan. 

2 

TREE SPECIES FOR COMMERCIAL TIMBER PRODUCTION IN UGANDA 

SPGS Plantation Guideline No. 5 & 6

An important – though longer term - method of 

reducing risk is to have in place a breeding programme 

that maintains a wide genetic base that could be called 

on should there be a catastrophic pest or disease 

outbreak in any of the major species in the plantation 

programme. 

BE SCIENTIFIC! 

Going to a nursery and asking for Pine or Eucalypt 

seedlings is like going to a library and just asking 

for a book: you are highly unlikely to get the one 

you wanted! There are over 100 different species of 

Pine and some 600 Eucalypt species - each with their 

own characteristics. For commercial plantations, it is 

essential to select not just the correct species for the site 

but to obtain the right seed origin or provenance from 

within a particular species. Thus the recommendations 

in this Guideline are very specific and should be 

carefully followed. 

SPECIES IN THIS GUIDELINE 

We considered a long list of potential plantation species 

for inclusion in this Guideline. The species were split 

into two categories - primary and secondary. Only the 

former group of species have been included here: the 

secondary group will feature in Plantation Guideline 

No. 13. The primary group are those species which 

are currently being planted for commercial timber 

production in Uganda. Please bear in mind, however, 

the comments made earlier in the Introduction section 

about matching sites with species. The secondary 

group is a mixed group of species that fit into one of the 

following categories: those only likely to be useful on 

a very limited area in Uganda, those severely limited 

by seed availability or those worthy of trial before 

recommending wider planting here. 

SPECIES LIST ( * = indigenous to Uganda) 

PRIMARY: Eucalyptus grandis, Pinus caribaea 

var. hondurensis, Maesopsis eminii*, Pinus patula, 

Pinus oocarpa, Cupressus lusitanica, Araucaria 

cunninghamii, Tectona grandis, Terminalia suberba. 

SECONDARY: Araucaria hunsteinii, Terminalia 

ivorensis, Pinus kesiya, P. tecunumanii, Eucalyptus 

camaldulensis, E. tereticornis, E.pellita, E. urophylla, 

E. paniculata, hybrid Eucalyptus clones (GU & GC), 

Cedrela odorata, Agathis robusta, Prunus africanum*, 

Podocarpus spp*., Grevillea robusta, Mahoganies* 

(Khaya anthotheca, Entandophragma spp.); Milicia 

excelsa*. 

ABBREVIATIONS 

In the interest of space in the species’ datasheets, 

standard abbreviations have been used: 

asl 

above sea level (in metres) 

ERD effective rooting depth (cm) 

ha 

hectares (1ha = 2.47 acres) 

Lat. 

Latitude 

Long. Longitude 

MAI mean annual increment (m 3 /ha/yr). 

MAR mean annual rainfall (mm) 

sph 

stems per hectare 

SOURCES OF INFORMATION: 

Birks JS & RD Barnes, 1990. 

Provenance Variation in PCH, POO & P. tec. Oxford 

For. Inst. Trop.Forestry Paper No. 21. 

Buchholz T. 2003. 

Silvicultural Potential of Maesopsis eminii in Uganda 

– A Study on Tree Quality. I-TOO Working Paper 

No. 12. 

CABI (Centre for Agricultural Biosciences Int., 

Oxford), 2005. Forestry Compendium (CD-ROM). 

Eldridge K et al, 1993. 

Eucalypt Domestication and Breeding. Oxford Science 

Publications; Clarendon Press. 

Evans J & J Turnbull, 2004. 

Plantation Forestry in the Tropics (3rd edn.). Oxford 

University Press. 

Hardcastle PD, 2003. A Silvicultural Classification 

of Uganda (full report available from SPGS). 

Hodge GR et al, 2001. Growth & Provenance Variation 

of Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis as an Exotic 

Species. S. Af. For J. No. 190. 

Jacobs MR, 1981. 

Eucalypts For Planting. FAO For.Series No. 11. 

Jacovelli PA. 1998. 

Compensatory Plantations in Uganda: A Study for the 

EU (available from the SPGS). 

Lamprecht H, 1989. 

Silviculture in the Tropics. GTZ Publications. 

Ntima OO, 1968. 

The Araucarias. Fast Growing Timber Trees of the 

Lowland Tropics No. 3; Oxford For. Inst. 

Poynton RJ, 1979. 

Tree Planting in Southern Africa Vol. 1 The Pines; Vol. 

2 The Eucalypts. S. Af. For. Dept. 

Unasylva (special edn. on Teak) No. 201, 2000. 

Available free on www.fao.org 

SPGS Plantation Guideline No. 5 & 6 


3

EUCALYPTUS GRANDIS 

Family: 

Myrtaceae 

Common names: Blue gum; Saligna; “Kalitunsi” 

Natural Occurrence 

EG occurs naturally in Australia between Lat. 16 0 S (N. 

Queensland) and 33 0 S (NSW), mostly in coastal areas 

and up to 600m asl. EG grows to 75m in places. 

History of Growing in Plantations 

EG is one of main sub-tropical/tropical plantation species 

worldwide, with well over 2M ha planted (mainly Brazil, 

India, Southern & Eastern Africa). Grown in Ug since 

1912 but species has hybridised and very few pure EG 

now. Well known to Ug farmers and is a common cash 

crop for fuel and poles. Grown 

commercially as a fuelwood crop 

in tea estates throughout Ug. 

Characteristics & Uses 

EG has very versatile wood 

properties including excellent 

pulp and paper qualities. In Ug it 

is frequently grown for fuelwood, 

building poles and is increasingly 

used as a source of timber, large 

poles and veneer. The sapwood is 

pale pink; the heartwood darkens 

to a richer red-brown on exposure 

to the light. It has an air-dry 

density of 600-750kgs/m 3 . EG 

wood is not naturally durable and 

thus must be treated if in contact 

with the ground. Fast grown trees 

can have growth stresses and 

appropriate utilization techniques 

must be used to achieve good 

recovery rates. EG is an excellent 

source of 

nectar for bees. 

Site Requirements: 

ERD: at least 750 mm with no impediment to rooting 

(any stone-lines must be shattered before planting). 

MAR: requires >1,000mm/yr. Alt. EG prefers cooler 

climates (in Ug, best growth is in western region). EG does 

not tolerate severe droughts; it is tolerant of waterlogging 

but for a short time only. 

Seed Recommendations 

For commercial plantations, use only improved seed from 

seed orchards in Southern Africa. Best local stand is Fort 

Portal: other locally collected seed is highly likely to be 

contaminated (hybridised) and will not perform as well. 

Hybrid clones (with EG as mother) are planted more than 

pure EG worldwide now but are still in the research phase 

in Ug. 

One of the impressive E.grandis trees in the 

Fort Portal seed stand. 

SUMMARY: 

On good sites EG can grow extremely quickly but 

it requires good land preparation and thorough 

weeding. EG can produce timber and large poles 

in only 8-15 years but only if thinned early and 

heavily. It is also essential to use only improved, 

select seed. Easy to raise from seed and coppices 

vigorously. 

Silviculture: 

Seedlings: mature in 3 months in nursery from seed. 

Spacing: for fuelwood and small poles: 2.5 x 2.5m to 2.0 

x 2.0m (1600-2500 sph); for timber and big poles: 3.0 x 

3.0m to 2.7 x 2.7m (1111-1372 sph). 

Establishment: EG is very sensitive to competition 

(especially grasses) early on in its life and thus sites must 

be kept weed free until canopy closure for maximum 

yields. Pre-plant spraying with Glyphosate is the most 

cost-effective method of weed control. EG responds well 

to fertiliser at planting too. Management: EG is a light 

demanding, shade intolerant 

species, which responds well 

to thinning. To produce large 

diameter stems for timber and 

poles, EG must be thinned heavily 

from an early age - starting no 

later than 2 years in Ug. Final 

crop densities of 250-400 sph are 

recommended. EG plantations 

do not respond to thinning or 

weeding once they have stagnated 

due to either weed competition 

or dense stocking. Pruning in 

stages will also be necessary to 

produce high quality sawlogs. 

EG readily coppices up to 10 

years old: coppice regrowth must 

be selectively thinned on time. 

EG is very sensitive to fire. 

Yields: 

On suitable sites and with 

good silviculture EG can 

produce outstanding growth 

- MAIs >50m 3 /ha/yr have 

been achieved in western 

Ug. Avg. MAIs expected in 

Uganda are 25-45m 3 /ha/yr. With 

poor silviculture, EG will grow slowly and can totally 

fail. Rotations for sawlogs expected to be 8-15 years. 

Common Pests & Diseases: 

Good silviculture (i.e. minimum stress) will greatly 

reduce EG’s suceptibility to the Chalcid wasp in Ug. 

Termites are a major problem in hot, dry areas - but 

these are not good EG sites anyway. Prone to range stem 

canker diseases, hence the use of clonal hybrids. 

Other Issues: 

Complaints of excessive water use are periodically blamed 

on EG. Rapidly grown plantations of any intensively 

grown crop may reduce water catchment yields - thus 

care must be taken when selecting sites for large-scale 

EG planting. 

4 



PINUS CARIBAEA 

var. HONDURENSIS 

Family: 

Pinaceae 

Common names: Caribbean pine; Pitch pine. 


PCH has a wide natural distribution in the Caribean 

basin from lat. 12 0 -27 0 N; long. 77 0 -90 0 W; mostly at low 

elevations up to 760m asl. PCH varies much in form and 

growth throughout its natural range. 


PCH is planted widely for its timber throughout the 

American, Asian and African tropics and sub-tropics. In 

Ug it was introduced in the 1960’s but not from the best 

seed sources. Many of the best individuals have since 

been felled. 


PCH is a fast growing and 

versatile tree for tropical lowland 

plantations. Its needles usually 

occur in fascicles of 3. PCH 

generally forms a straight stem 

- up to 45m under favourable 

conditions. It produces a versatile 

wood (density 400-650kg/m 3 ) 

which saws, dries and machines 

easily. Trees >12 years can 

develop resin in the heartwood - 

heavy pruning helps reduce this. 

PCH can produce good quality 

oleoresin which can be distilled 

to produce terpentine and other 

products. 

SUMMARY: 

PCH is a fast growing tropical species that adapts 

to a wide range of sites. It is the prime species 

for timber plantations in Ug - especially for the 

shallower soils on lower elevation sites. Only 

imported, improved seed is recommended for 

commercial planting in Ug. 

Silviculture: 

Seedlings: PCH is easy to raise from seed: mature in 

4 months in nursery from seed. Mycorrhiza are needed 

for seedling growth: thus litter from old stands must be 

added to nursery potting mix. 

Spacing: 3.0 x 3.0m (1111 sph) recommended for timber 

stands being raised from improved seed. 

Establishment: PCH requires full sunlight to grow - 

thus the site must be cleared well before planting. Whilst 

PCH can tolerate some weed competition, it cannot 

tolerate overhead shade. For best growth, keep the 

1m diameter planting pits clear of weeds and slash the 

interrow vegetation frequently until canopy closure. On 

very weedy sites, pre-plant spraying with Glyphosate will 

be cost-effective. 

Management: To produce large 

diameter stems quickly, PCH must 

be heavily thinned. The actual age 

of thinnings will depend on growth 

rates but on average in Ug, 1st thin 

@ 4-6yrs to ca.722 sph (35%); 

2nd thin @ 8-10yrs to ca.469sph 

(35%); 3rd thin @ 12-14yrs (35%) 

to a final crop of ca.300sph. High 

pruning in stages is recommended 

to produce clean logs. Because of 

PCH’s light canopy, stands will 

have to be periodically cleaned to 

keep weed growth in check. PCH 

is moderately fire resistant after 

ca. 5 yrs when it develops thicker 

bark. 


PCH grows on a wide range of 

tropical and sub-tropical sites at 

altitudes up to 1500m asl (usually 

1,000mm/yr. 


Natural populations of PCH exhibit great variation in 

growth rate, stem form and branch characteristics. PCH 

has been the focus of international provenance (seed 

origin) trials since the 1970’s. Results have proven that 

the Australian clonal seed orchard seed (from Forest 

Plantations Queensland, Australia) has consistently 

perfomed better than natural collections. Improved seed 

from South African (Mondi) and Brazilian seed stands is 

also recommended for Ug. 

3 yr old PCH from Queensland seed orchard 

seed growing near Mubende. 

Yields: 

PCH can produce MAIs of > 30 

m 3 /ha/yr on good sites in Ug but 

only with excellent silviculture. 

Avg. MAIs expected are 15-25m 3 / 

ha/yr. Rotations for sawlogs are 

expected to be 18-25 years. 


PCH is susceptible to damping off in the nursery. It 

is also prone to root rot fungi (e.g. Armillaria mellea, 

Phytophthora cinnamomi) in young plantations, 

which can cause isolated (or group) deaths. Susceptible 

in some countries to fungal needle diseases (e.g. 

Mycosphaerella spp.) in young plants. 

Other Issues: 

The availability of improved seed has restricted planting 

of PCH in some countries (including Ug in 2005) though 

efforts to increase imports are underway. Foxtailing can 

be significant if grown on very fertile sites: rather plant 

hardwoods. 



5

MAESOPSIS EMINII 

Family: 

Rhamnaceae 

Common names: Musizi. 


MUS occurs between 8 0 N and 6 0 S in a band across West, 

Cenral and East Africa from Kenya to Liberia. MUS is 

found throughout the wetter parts of Ug, being a coloniser 

of disturbed forest. 


MUS has been used more for enrichment planting in NHF 

than pure plantations in Ug. Many of these trees (from 

the 1960’s and ‘70s) have since disappeared from the 

CFRs where they were planted, being targetted by timber 

thieves. Farmers in Ug do, however, frequently plant MUS 

as shade for crops (including coffee and cocoa) and also 

value its timber. The potential 

of MUS has long been recognised 

and it is now being promoted for 

timber plantations on suitable 

(fertile) sites around Ug. 


MUS is a semi-deciduous tree that 

produces a widely used, general 

purpose timber (380-480kg/m 3 ). 

The wood is light brown and 

easily saws, dries and machines, 

though it has inter-locked grain 

and thus doesn’t finish well. It 

is used mostly for general indoor 

construction. MUS is not liked 

for exterior work (or veneers) 

because its yellow heartwood 

stains paint. 

Unless grown in full sun,MUS 

can have poor stem form as it 

moves towards the light 

(heliotropism). Many birds, 

rodents and primates eat (and thus disperse) the olivelike 

seed. 


MUS requires moderately fertile, deep and well- drained 

soils. It needs MAR of >1200mm (but does tolerate some 

drought) and altitudes

MATCHING TREE SPECIES TO SITE 

by Pat Hardcastle and Paul Jacovelli 

INTRODUCTION 

One of the most important decisions to be made 

by the potential investor in commercial tree 

planting is what species to plant on their 

land. The choice depends on a number of 

issues – including the availability of improved seed and 

the likely markets for the products. However, the most 

important question to consider first is - “what species 

will grow well on my particular site?” 

Far too often growers in Uganda have decided on what 

they want to grow before considering the silivicultural 

requirements of the particular species and this can 

have disastrous consequences. For example, planting 

E. grandis in very hot areas of the country will cause 

it to be highly stressed and vulnerable to pests and 

diseases (and this is exacerbated by poor weeding). 

Also planting P. patula on low lying areas over most 

of Uganda, will result in a failed investment. Yes, the 

trees will often grow well for the first few years but 

then they will become stressed and start dying back. 

Why? Because P. patula needs a cool climate only 

found in the highlands of the West and South-West of 

Uganda. Teak (Tectona grandis) is also increasingly 

being planted all over Uganda and is struggling on 

most sites. Why? Because teak requires very specific 

climatic/site conditions – most notably, low altitude 

and a long dry season – conditions more readily found 

in southern Sudan and Tanzania. 

SILVICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION MAP 

In order to assist growers in Uganda, we have produced 

a map (Page 8) which provides a broad silvicultural 

classification of Uganda. This map was the result of 

some work commissioned just prior to the SPGS being 

launched in late 2003, when we hired the services of 

Pat Hardcastle from LTS International. It proved 

not an easy task due especially to the enormous loss 

of forest research data and also the lack of reliable 

meteorological data after the 1960’s. Against all odds, 

however, Pat used his experience of a similar exercise 

carried out in Malawi to come up with the map shown. 

We have also drawn sketch maps showing where the 

main species are roughly suited to in Uganda (Page 

10). NB. All these maps are only approximate guides 

as to which species will grow where. 

Successful commercial forestry plantations require 

that the tree species used are well adapted to the site. 

The aim of this work was to try and determine which 

species are best suited to what sites within Uganda. 

The recommendations given are based on current 

information and knowledge. It does not mean, of 

course, that species will not grow in other areas. The 

recommendations are to secure profitable growth. 

Details of the zones and the species suited to those 

zones are on Page 9. 

METHODOLOGY 

Tree species evolve in response to the conditions in 

their natural environment. The key factors are the 

availability of water and nutrients. Trees are also 

affected by temperature - some preferring cold area and 

others hot ones. Water availability depends primarily 

on total rainfall and its distribution. It also depends on 

the depth of soil and the texture. Clay soil holds more 

water than sandy soil. 

In order to create the 10 zones shown on the map, 

information on the monthly rainfall at a range of 

stations was examined together with information on 

the loss of soil water from tree crops by transpiration. 

Information was also gathered on temperature. From 

models showing the balance between rainfall (water 

coming in) and transpiration (water going out) for 

some 25 locations in Uganda, a set of relatively similar 

climatic regions was defined. These are zones A to L 

(note there is no F or I as these letters can be easily 

misread). 

Using historical knowledge from Uganda and countries 

with similar conditions, recommendations were made 

on what species should be planted in which zones. Soil 

factors must also be considered, not just fertility but also 

characteristics such as texture, waterlogging, stoniness 

and compaction as trees vary in their ability to cope 

with different soil characteristics This knowledge must 

also be used in making the final species choice. 

LIMITATIONS 

It proved impossible to find good recent information on 

climate and so that used was taken from the National 

Atlas of Uganda (1967 - 2nd edn.). The mapping was 

done at a scale of 1:1 M and so it is impossible to expect 

it to show local details. The zonation is a guide that can 

be used to assist decision making. 



7

MATCHING TREE SPECIES TO SITE 

8 



SILVICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION MAP LEGEND (REFER MAP PAGE 8) 

ZONENAME 

MEAN ANNUAL 

TEMPERATURE 

MEAN ANNUAL 

RAINFALL 

POTENTIAL FOR 

COMMERCIAL PLANTATIONS 

A Cold, Wet 1250 mm Good but little land available 

B Cold, Dry 1500 mm Very high 

G Warm, Wet 22 – 23 0 C > 1250 mm Very high 

H Hot, Wet, 23 – 24 0 C > 1250 mm Yes with care, especially on weeding 

J Hot, Dry 22 – 24 0 C 1000 – 1250 mm Yes with careful site analysis 

K Very hot, Wet >24 0 C > 1250 mm Some but largely untested 

L Very Hot/Very Dry >22 0 C

10 

10 



SPGS Plantation Guideline No. SPGS Plantation Guideline No. 5 & 6

PINUS OOCARPA 

Family: 

Pinaceae 

Common names: Ocote pine, Nicaraguan pitch pine 

SUMMARY: 

P. oocarpa (POO) yields a high quality sawtimber 

but is slower growing than PCH. POO is well suited 

to higher sites and shallower soils but the current 

lack of genetically improved seed restricts its 

widespread use in Ug for commercial plantations. 


POO grows naturally in Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, 

Hunduras, El Salvador & Nicaragua - between Lats. 

28 0 N and 13 0 N. POO is occurs naturally between 200- 

2500m asl, although its best growth is found on well 

drained slopes at around 1500m asl. POO occupies sites 

with a more severe dry season than PCH. 


POO has been widely introduced to tropical and subtropical 

sountries in Africa, Asia and S. America. It was 

introduced to Ug in the 1960’s though it appears that 

these might not have been from 

the best natural seed sources. 


POO is similar in growth 

characteristics and habit to 

PCH, with a light, conical 

crown. The leaves (needles) 

of POO are usually in fascicles 

of 5 (occasionally 3 or 4) and 

20-25cm long. POO produces 

a high quality sawtimber, less 

prone to splitting and warping 

than most other pines. Wood 

density 450-600 kg/m 3 and 

is used for light construction 

purposes. 


POO grows in a wide range of 

soils. Best growth, however, 

will be on well drained, deep 

soils at approximately 1500m 

a.s.l. and MAR >1000 mm. 

POO can tolerate long, dry 

seasons once established and 

will also tolerate temporary 

waterlogging. PCH performs 

better on shallow soils. 


In international trials, provenances from Nicaragua 

and Mountain Pine Ridge (MPR), Belize performed 

better. Most of best local trees have disappeared and 

thus locally collected seed does not exhibit the excellent 

stem form and growth of imported PCH seed orchard 

seed. Until other seed sources are identified, use POO 

select seed only on steep, shallow sites where PCH will 

not perform as well. 

3-4 year old P.oocarpa in Bushenyi, showing good 

growth but very poor fosrm of locally collected seed. 

Silviculture: 

Very similar to PCH. 

Seedlings: POO is easily grown from seed: direct 

sowing into pots is recommended (ca. 50,000 plants/kg). 

Mycorrhiza must be added to potting mix. Seedlings 

should be of plantable size (ca. 20cm tall) within 4 months 

in Ug. Spacing: 2.7 x 2.7m is recommended (1371 sph) 

since the available seed is not improved. 

Establishment: As for PCH. 

Management: Heavy, early thinnings will be important 

for producing large sawlogs as quickly as possible. High 

pruning in stages will also be 

required to produce clean logs. 

POO at 2-4 years has the ability 

to respond at ground level after 

a fire has destroyed the main 

stem. POO becomes more fire 

resistant with age. 

Yields: 

POO is expected to yield 15- 

20m 3 /ha/yr - generally less 

than the PCH from improved 

seed. Specific seed origins can, 

however, yield very well. 


POO in Ug has been free 

of major pests and diseases 

to date. It is susceptible to 

damping off in the nursery and 

is reported from elsewhere to 

be very susceptible to brown 

needle disease (Mycosphaerella 

spp.) in the nursery too. 

Other Issues: 

The growth rate of POO is 

generally less than PCH, 

making it the less desirable of 

the two species. It has been found that POO hybridises 

naturally with PCH and this fact - combined with the 

better quality of POO’s wood - means that it could be 

important for future breeding programmes in Ug. Some 

of the best POO natural provenances are now classified as 

P. tecunumanii (P. tec.). The SPGS is investigating the 

possibility of importing POO (and P. tec.) seed for trials 

in Ug: in the meantime PCH plantations from improved 

seed are likely to produce significantly better returns for 

commercial growers. 



11

PINUS PATULA 

Family: 

Pinaceae 

Common names: Mexican pine; weeping pine. 


PP occurs naturally in eastern Mexico, where it is a 

medium-sized tree (occasionally over 30m tall). It is a 

very variable species with regard to size, stem form and 

branch characteristics: forking is common. 


PP has been widely planted in commercial plantations 

in southern and East Africa and South America. It is 

a favoured species for pulp (being less resinous than 

many other pines) and for sawtimber. In South Africa 

and Zimbabwe, PP has been the focus of intensive 

tree breeding programmes to 

improve stem form, volume and 

branch size 


PP is easily identified from the 

drooping (weeping) habit of its 

foliage. Its needles are borne 

in fascicles of 4 (sometimes 3 

or 5), 15-30 cm long and very 

thin. The bark of PP is reddishbrown 

and papery: becoming 

thick and scaly on older trees. 

PP’s timber has a density of 

350-400 kg/m 3 . Its wood is 

soft, light, moderately strong 

and contains very little resin. 

The wood is very susceptible to 

blue stain and thus sawnwood 

must be treated quickly. 


PP is best adopted to high 

altitudes with cool climates, 

which restricts its commercial 

planting in Ug to the SW of 

Uganda. PP prefers acidic soils 

with good moisture supply. 

PP is frequently planted offsite 

in Ug (especially at low 

altitudes) - where it will almost inevitably fail and 

become prone to various pests and diseases. 


Cloned seed orchard PP seed from southern Africa is 

strongly recommended. Gains of up to 35% in timber 

yields have been achieved after two generations of 

selection and breeding. PP is a precocious seeding species 

- 5 yr old trees can produce viable seeds. 

SUMMARY: 

PP is the most important pine species over most of 

East & Southern Africa. On the cooler, higher sites 

in SW Ug, PP is the best choice for sawtimber. It 

can grow very fast and will produce a good quality 

wood if thinned and pruned on time. Improved 

(clonal) seed from Southern Africa is available and 

strongly recommended. 

Silviculture: 

Seedlings: PP is easily raised from seed (ca. 100,000 

per kg): similar to the other pines, direct sowing in pots 

is preferred. 

Spacing: For sawntimber (and when using clonal seed 

orchard seed) a spacing of 3.0 x 3.0m is recommended. 

(1111 sph); otherwise 2.7 x 2.7m (1371 sph). 

Establishment & Management: 

A private planter (SPGS client) proudly posing next 

to his 2-yr old P. patula in Kabale (south-western 

Uganda). PP grows very well on cooler sites at high 

altitude in Uganda. 

Techniques are very similar 

to PCH. High pruning is 

particularly important when 

growing PP for sawtimber 

due to its habit of producing 

large whorls of branches. PP is 

particularly sensitive to fires 

as it gets older and develops 

thinner bark. 

Yields: 

On suitable sites, PP can grow 

extremely fast (over 30m 3 / 

ha/yr). In Ug, it is expected 

to yield 20-30 m 3 /ha/yr on 

the right sites and with good 

silviculture. 


As an exotic, PP has proved 

susceptible to many pests and 

diseases - the major ones being 

Sphaeropsis sapinea (especially 

after hail damage), woolly pine 

aphid and more recently the 

Sirex woodwasp. PP is a very 

sensitive species: planting it 

off-site is highly likely to lead 

to health problems. 

Other Issues: 

In favourable areas, PP can become an aggressive 

colonising species. In Southern Africa, PP is a serious 

weed, invading grasslands and other vegetation types. 

The SPGS is already investigating the possibility of 

importing improved PP seed from breeding programmes 

in southern Africa. 

12 



TECTONA GRANDIS 

Family: 

Lamiaceae 

Common names: Teak; Indian Oak 

SUMMARY: 

Teak is widely cultivated in the Tropics in plantations 

for its high value wood. Many plantations have 

failed, however, due to poor site selection and use 

of poor planting stock. There are limited areas 

in Uganda suited to Teak. It’s long rotation and a 

lack of good seed also leads us to recommend other 

species for timber production in Uganda. 


Teak is native to the South Asian and SE Asian region - 

between Lats. 9 0 N to 26 0 N. Much of its natural range is 

characterised by high MAR and a 3-5 month dry season. 


Teak has been widely planted in plantations both within 

and beyond its natural range. It is a major plantation 

species in Africa, C. & S. America and in the Pacific, with 

over 2.2M ha planted by 1995. It has not been planted 

widely in Uganda but significant plantations have been 

established in S. Sudan 

and Tanzania and in many 

tropical W. African countries. 

Its high quality timber has 

stimulated major private 

investment in plantations 

but yield forecasts are often 

over-optimistic. 


Teak is a large deciduous 

tree that grows up to 45m 

tall and a dbh up to 2.5m. 

It is sometimes fluted and 

forked stems are common. 

Its huge leathery leaves are 

simple and opposite. Teak 

yields are of the world’s 

most beautiful timbers. Its 

wood is naturally durable, 

highly valued and used for 

a wide range of applications. 

Excellent international 

markets exist for plantation 

grown Teak but most 

buyers require independent 

One of the best remaining Teak stands in southern 

Sudan - ca.35-yrs old. 

Certification (e.g. from FSC - the Forest Stewardship 

Council). 

Silviculture: 

Seedlings: Teak is established by raising seedlings but 

more frequently by stump planting. There are 2-3000 

seeds/kg and seed germination is often poor. Stumps 

are prepared by letting seedlings grow in rows in nursery 

beds to ca.10 months and then cutting stems back to 5cm 

above ground and the roots to a length of 20cm. 

Establishment: Teak is a hightly light demanding, 

pioneer species. Spacing for plantations ranges from 

around 2x2m (2500 sph) to 2.7 x 2.7m (1372 sph). 

Young plants grow quickly and 

even young trees cast a very dense 

shade. For the first few years, 

however, good weed control is 

important - especially grasses. 

Management: Heavy, early 

thinnnings must be carried out 

or the stand stagnates. A 1st 

thinning of 50% is often carried 

out at around 5 years with further 

thinnings every ca. 5 years to a 

final crop of ca.200 sph. Rotations 

expected to be 25-35 years: such 

long rotations appear necessary 

to realise the high value of the 

heartwood. Teak coppices readily 

from cut stumps. 

Yields: 

Widely varied growth rates are 

reported for Teak plantations, 

with MAI’s of 2- 24 m 3 /ha/yr 

quoted. With good silviculture 

(especially well selected seed, 

intense early weeding and heavy 

thinnings), MAIs of 8-12 m 3 /ha/ 

yr could be achieved in Uganda; 

with rotations around 30 years. 


The optimum site conditions for Teak are: MAR>1500mm; 

a 3-month dry season with monthly rain

ARAUCARIA CUNNINGHAMII 

SUMMARY: 

HOOP can produce a high quality product on fertile 

sites in Uganda. Establishment costs are high, 

however, due to slow early growth. Seed loses its 

viability quickly and is in short supply in Uganda. 

Family: 

Araucariaceae 

Common names: Hoop pine 


HOOP has a wide natural altitudinal and latitudinal 

range in Papua New Guinea and Australia: from sea 

level to >2400m asl; and from Lats 1 0 to 30 0 S. 


For many years, native HOOP stands supplied large 

quantities of defect-free logs to the Australian plywood 

industry. Large scale plantations (ca. 50,000 ha) of 

HOOP have since been established in Australia. In 1971, 

trial blocks were established in Ug (Kifu CFR) covering 

3.65 ha. Although never 

thinned, this trial shows 

the huge potential of 

HOOP on the right site. 


HOOP grows into a very 

large tree (>60m and >1.8m 

dbh have been recorded). 

The mature tree is 

naturally straight, free 

from branches and with 

very little taper. The wood 

has a density of around 530 

kg/m 3 (similar to PCH): it 

is not durable but is easy 

to work and preserve. 

It is used for a wide range 

of purposes including light 

construction, furniture, 

transmission poles (if 

treated). It is especially 

suitable for veneers and 

plywood because of its 

ability to grow large, cylindrical and clean trunks. 


HOOP requires deep, moist soils - usually old THF 

sites. 

Impressive growth of Hoop Pine near Masaka. 

This tree is only 2 years old but on a good site. 


HOOP seed loses its viability quickly but can be cold 

stored for up to 6 years (-70C). Heavy seed years 

only occur every 3-4 years. Only 2nd year cones are 

collected and before they break up on the tree. Until 

importations are made, seed for Ug plantations is from 

the thinned trial in Kifu CFR (seed from NFA). 

Silviculture: 

Seedlings: HOOP seedlings develop a strong tap root 

and thus the seedlings must be root pruned. There are ca. 

4400 seeds/kg. Seedlings should be ready for planting 9 

months from sowing. 

SPH: A spacing of 3.0 x 3.0m (1111 sph) or 4.0 x 3.0 

(833 sph) is recommended. 

Establishment: HOOP seedlings are slow growing at 

first and then must be well weeded until canopy closure 

(3-4 years, depending on spacing). HOOP seedlings 

respond to good weeding. Although tolerant of shade, 

HOOP grows better in full sun. 

Management: In Australia 

a final crop of 400 sph 

are selected and pruned to 

2.4m and 5.4m respectively. 

Two thinning operations are 

carried out - the first to 600 

sph, the 2nd to 400 sph. HOOP 

is extremely fire sensitive. 

Yields: 

In Queensland, Australia,40- 

50 yr rotations and average 

MAI of 15m 3 /ha/yr are 

reported. MAIs up to 45m 3 / 

ha/yr are reported from Papua 

New Guinea. Based on the 

performance of HOOP in Kifu 

CFR, it is expected to achieve 

MAI’s of 20-30 m 3 /ha/yr. on 

appropriate sites in Ug and with 

good management, rotations of 

20-30 years should be possible. 

If there were a premium for 

larger veneer logs, then rotations 

could be increased accordingly. 


In plantations in Papua New Guinea and Australia, 

various rots fungi) - especially Phellinus noxius - causes 

problems. Ugandan plantations have been free from 

any serious pests and diseases to date. 

Other Issues: 

Araucaria hunsteinii (HUN) is preferred for plantations 

in Papua New Guinea due to higher growth rates than 

HOOP, though HUN’s recalcitrant seed has restricted 

its commercial use in plantations. 

14 



CUPRESSUS LUSITANICA 

Family: 

Cupressaceae 

Common names: Cypress; Mexican Cypress; 

Portugese Cedar; Cedar of Goa. 


Cypress has a wide geographic and altitudinal range 

and has been introduced all over the world. It is thought 

to have originated in Mexico, 

Guatemala and Honduras, 

between 15 0 - 28 0 N and 89 0 - 

108 0 W. 

History of Growing in 

Plantations 

Cypress has been planted 

widely both as a commercial 

timber plantation species and 

as an ornamental. In Kenya it 

is a major plantation species, 

with over 85,000ha planted. 

It has also been extensively 

planted in Ethiopia and in 

Mediterranean countries. It 

has been widely planted for 

hedges and windbreaks due to 

its low sensitivity to pruning. 


Cypress grows up to 25-30m, 

with a broadly pyramidal 

crown. It has a straight stem 

and a thick, reddish-brown 

bark that develops longitudinal fissures. It is reasonably 

fast growing but not as fast as Pinus patula, which is 

suited to similar climates. Cypress wood is highly valued 

due to its natural durability and its aesthetic qualities. It 

air dries quickly with little warping; it is easily worked 

and used for cabinet making, sculptures and also for a 

range of exterior purposes. 


In its native habitat, Cypress prefers mountainous 

slopes at medium altitude (1200-3000m asl); it can 

tolerate a low MAR of 600 mm, provided the rain is well 

distributed. Cypress is found growing over much of Ug as 

an ornamental; for commercial planting here, however, it 

is best suited to the cooler, higher areas in the south-west 

and west. 


Cypress is highly variable species, differing significantly 

in traits such as growth rate, stem form, branching 

characteristics and resistance to diseases. No improved 

seed is available in Uganda at present. 

Cupressus lusitanica growing in Bushenyi, western 

Uganda - aged 4-5 years. 

SUMMARY: 

Cypress has been widely planted in higher elevations 

in East Africa and is prized for its excellent timber. 

It is fairly slow growing, however, and the Cypress 

aphid threat raises serious questions over its 

suitability as a major plantation species in Ug. 

Silviculture: 

Seedlings: Cypress is easily raised from seed. Seed is 

collected from cones on the tree (flowering only starts ca. 

15 yrs) when they turn brown. Seed must be stratified for 

21 days at 2-3 0 C and then soaked in water for 2-3 days 

prior to sowing. Germination 

rates can be low. Seedlings 

should be ready for planting 

out in 4-5 months in Ug. 

SPH: With only unimproved 

seed available in Ug at present, 

a plant espacement of 2.7 x 2.7m 

(1372 sph) is recommended. 

Establishment: Cypress is 

shade intolerant – like pines 

and eucalypts – and thus 

must be well weeded in its 

establishment phase. It is slow 

growing in the early years. 

Management: A heavy 

thinning regime is 

recommended for commercial 

Cypress plantations in Ug – 

similar to P. caribaea. Pruning 

is important for quality timber 

production since the trees tend 

to be very branchy. Pruning in 

stages up to a third of total height 

is thus recommended. Cypress 

is relatively susceptible to fires. 

Yields: 

In East Africa, MAIs of 7-17 m 3 /ha/yr are reported and 

rotations of 25-35 years. With good management and on 

suitable sites, Ug should be able achieve MAIs of >15 m 3 / 

ha/yr with a rotation of around 25 years. 


The Cypress aphid, Cinara cupressi, has become a major 

pest of Cypress in E & S Africa. The aphids feed in 

colonies, sucking sap from twigs and branches. Heavy 

feeding can kill the trees. First discovered in Malawi 

in 1986, it has since spread to other African countries 

including Kenya and Uganda. Aphid populations are 

more prominent during dry seasons. 

Other Issues: 

With the threat of the Cypress aphid still around, it would 

be very risky to embark on widescale Cypress planting 

in Ug. Other species can outperform Cypress on its 

favoured sites (especially P. patula) although Cypress’s 

wood is superior. 



15

TERMINALIA SUPERBA 

Family: 

Combretaceae 

Common names: Limba, Fraké. 

SUMMARY: 

Limba has outstanding tree form and is fast 

growing. Its role as a plantation species in Uganda 

will, however, be restricted by its exacting site 

requirements and its timber, which is only of 

average quality. 


Limba occurs naturally in moist, 

seasonally deciduous forests 

throughout West and Central 

Africa, between Lats. 10 0 N and 

6 0 S. 

History of Growing in 

Plantations 

Limba is one of the few species 

of which large plantations have 

been established in tropical 

Africa – notably Cote D’Ivoire 

and DRC. Limba was eventually 

dropped as a commercial timber 

species in the 1980’s from a 

major Cote D’Ivoire’s plantation 

programme due to its poor 

timber qualities.It has not been 

widely planted in Ug, although 

thereis a mature trial block in 

Mukono that shows its promise. 


Limba is a large tree (up to 30m or more), with a long 

straight bole. It is a moderately fast growing tree and well 

suited to plantation development in the humid, lowland 

tropics. Limba wood is relatively soft and light, with a 

density of 520-550 kg/m 3 . In some parts of West Africa, 

Limba is regarded as a highly commercial timber but 

the wood can often be stained which reduces its value for 

certain end uses. 


Limba prefers well drained, fertile soils. It will not tolerate 

extended dry seasons. It requires areas with high rainfall 

- MAR >1300mm; alt. < 1000m asl; MAT 24 0 -27 0 C. 

A privately owned 20 month old Limba plantation 

growing in Mukono District, East Ug., showing 

impressive early performance. 

Silviculture: 

Seedlings: The no. of seeds 

is ca. 6,000/kg (with wings), 

10,000 without. Germination 

is usually low (50%) and can 

take 15-50 days. Seeds should 

only be collected from fruits still 

on the tree or recently fallen. 

Limba is usually planted (like 

Teak) as a stump, prepared from 

12-15 months old plants. 

SPH: A plant espacement 

of 3 x 3m (1111sph) up to 5 x 

5m (400sph) are recommended 

in the literature, although the 

wider spacing is generally used 

in a taungya situation, whereby 

crops are cultivated in between 

the tree rows. Only where 

supervision is rigorous (and 

the right crops used) will the 

wider spacings work properly. 

Establishment: Limba is a light demanding species 

and thus must be weeded well especially in the first year 

or two, until its canopy has closed. In Mukono, Limba 

has closed canopy within 18 months after intensive early 

weeding (planted at 3 x 3m). It grows slowly in the few 

months after planting but then can grow at a rate of over 

2 m per year. Limba has been planted in West Africa 

in both pure stands and in mixed plantings with e.g. 

T. ivorensis and Khaya grandifolia. 

Management: Due to its fast growth and need for light, 

heavy thinning regimes are recommended. Limba 

exhibits some self pruning abilities but to obtain large, 

clean logs, a number of pruning operations will probably 

have be undertaken. 


Considerable variation is known to exist between natural 

provenances of Limba thus care should be taken before 

any large scale planting is undertaken in Uganda to 

ensure a superior seed origin is used. A limited quantity 

of Limba seed is available from the NTSC, collected from 

trial plots near Mukono, though its origin is unknown. 

Yields: 

In Cote D’Ivoire, Limba is grown on a 20-25 year rotation; 

MAIs of ca. 15 m 3 /ha/yr are expected to produce a final 

crop dbh of 45-50cm and a total timber volume of 330 

m 3 /ha (including thinnings). Similar yields are expected 

in Uganda. 


A range of pests have attacked Limba trees in plantation 

in West Africa. The main culprits have been stem borers 

and defoliating insects. 

16 

SPGS OFFICE CONTACTS: 

Physical Address: Plot 92 Luthuli Avenue, Bugolobi, Kampala. 


(coming from Kampala-turn rt. at Shell Bugolobi & proceed for 1.5kms-office on right). 

Tel: +256 312 265 332/3 Email: info@sawlog.ug Web-Site: www.sawlog.ug

Guideline No.05&06 - SPGS

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