Status of medicinal and aromatic plants in - Inia

Report of a Working 

Group on Medicinal 

and Aromatic Plants 

First Meeting, 12–14 September 2002, Gozd Martuljek, Slovenia 

v v 

D. Baricevic, J. Bernáth, L. Maggioni and E. Lipman, compilers 

 

IPGRI is 

a Future Harvest Centre 

supported by the 

Consultative Group on 

International Agricultural 

Research (CGIAR)

European 

Cooperative 

Programme 

for Crop 

Genetic 

Resources 

Networks 

ECP GR 

Report of a Working 

Group on Medicinal 

and Aromatic Plants 

First Meeting, 12–14 September 2002, Gozd Martuljek, Slovenia 

v v 

D. Baricevic, J. Bernáth, L. Maggioni and E. Lipman, compilers

ii 

WORKING GROUP ON MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS: FIRST MEETING 

The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an independent international scientific 

organization that seeks to advance the conservation and use of plant genetic diversity for the well-being of 

present and future generations. It is one of 15 Future Harvest Centres supported by the Consultative 

Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an association of public and private members 

who support efforts to mobilize cutting-edge science to reduce hunger and poverty, improve human 

nutrition and health, and protect the environment. IPGRI has its headquarters in Maccarese, near Rome, 

Italy, with offices in more than 20 other countries worldwide. The Institute operates through three 

programmes: (1) the Plant Genetic Resources Programme, (2) the CGIAR Genetic Resources Support 

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see IPGRI’s Annual Reports, which are available in printed form on request from ipgripublications@cgiar.org 

or from IPGRI’s Web site (www.ipgri.cgiar.org). 

The European Cooperative Programme for Crop Genetic Resources Networks (ECP/GR) is a 

collaborative programme including most European countries aimed at facilitating the long-term 

conservation and the increased utilization of plant genetic resources in Europe. The Programme, 

which is entirely financed by the member countries and coordinated by IPGRI, is overseen by a 

Steering Committee composed of National Coordinators nominated by the participating countries and 

a number of relevant international bodies. The Programme operates through ten networks in which 

activities are carried out through a number of permanent working groups or through ad hoc actions. 

The ECP/GR networks deal with either groups of crops (cereals, forages, vegetables, grain legumes, 

fruit, minor crops, industrial crops and potato) or general themes related to plant genetic resources 

(documentation and information, in situ and on-farm conservation, inter-regional cooperation). 

Members of the working groups and other scientists from participating countries carry out an agreed 

workplan with their own resources as inputs in kind to the Programme. 

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Mention of a proprietary name does not constitute endorsement of the product and is given only for 

information. 

Citation: 

Baričevič, D., J. Bernáth, L. Maggioni and E. Lipman, compilers. 2004. Report of a Working Group on 

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. First meeting, 12-14 September 2002, Gozd Martuljek, Slovenia. 

International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy. 

ISBN 92-9043-633-6 

IPGRI 

Via dei Tre Denari 472/a 

00057 Maccarese, Rome, Italy 

© International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, 2004

CONTENTS 

iii 

CONTENTS 

PART I. SUMMARY REPORT OF THE MEETING 1 

Introduction 1 

Opening of the meeting / Welcome addresses 

Adoption of the agenda and selection of the Chairperson for the meeting 

1 

3 

Presentations 3 

Conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) – needs and strategy 3 

Country reports 6 

Documentation and databases 6 

Methodological approaches in MAP conservation and evaluation 7 

Discussion and recommendations 8 

Conclusion 11 

PART II. PRESENTED PAPERS 13 

General papers 14 

Conservation strategies for medicinal and aromatic plants 14 

Peter Skoberne 

Sustainable use of medicinal and aromatic plants in Europe 19 

Susanne F. Schmitt and Susanne Honnef 

The origin of medicinal plants in Central Europe – an ecological approach 21 

Ernst Schneider 


Medicinal and aromatic plants in Austria 25 

Wolfgang Kainz 

Medicinal and aromatic plant diversity in Bulgaria – protection, collection, study, 

use and conservation 27 

Kana Varbanova 

Legal protection, conservation and cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants 

in Croatia 34 

Zlatko Šatović 

Genetic resources of medicinal and aromatic plants in Cyprus with emphasis on the 

selection, evaluation and management of Origanum dubium 39 

Demetrios Droushiotis and Athena Della 

Current status of the collection of aromatic, culinary and medicinal plants in the 

Czech Gene Bank in Olomouc 42 

Karel Dušek 

Medicinal and aromatic plants in Estonia 44 

Ulve Pihlik 

Perspectives and achievements in genetic conservation of medicinal and aromatic 

plants in Hungary 46 

Jenő Bernáth and Éva Németh 

Medicinal and aromatic plants in the Israeli Gene Bank (IGB) 57 

Eli Putievsky 

Conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in Italy 63 

Carla Vender and Pietro Fusani 

Medicinal and aromatic plants in Latvia 70 

Ieva Zukauska

iv 


Conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in Lithuania 73 

Jolita Radušienė 

Status of medicinal and aromatic plants in the Republic of Macedonia F.Y.R. 82 

Gjoshe Stefkov and Svetlana Kulevanova 

Status of medicinal and aromatic plants in Malta 85 

Everaldo Attard 

Medicinal and aromatic plants in the Nordic Countries 88 

Katarina Wedelsbäck Bladh 

Medicinal and aromatic plants in Finland 91 

Bertalan Galambosi 

The status of medicinal and aromatic plants in Poland 96 

Zenon Węglarz and Anna Geszprych 

Medicinal and aromatic plants in Portugal – a survey 106 

Rena Martins Farias 

Status of the Romanian medicinal and aromatic plant collection 109 

Danela Murariu, Silvia Strajeru, Constantin Milica and Steluta Radu 

Conservation of medicinal and aromatic plant genetic resources in Slovenia 114 

Dea Baričevič, Alenka Zupančič, Anita Železnik-Kušar and Janko Rode 

Current status of medicinal and aromatic plants in Spain 118 

Roser Cristóbal Cabau, Astrid van Ginkel and Federico Varela 

Activities on medicinal and aromatic plants at the Aegean Agricultural Research 

Institute 121 

Ali Osman Sari and Bilgin Oguz 

Medicinal and aromatic plant production in the United Kingdom 128 

Rosemary Cole 

Genetic resources of medicinal and aromatic plants of Yugoslavia – current situation 

and further prospects 130 

Zora Dajić 


The Central Database of the Slovene Plant Gene Bank 143 

Vladimir Meglič 

Research 146 

Molecular tools for determining genetic variability 146 

Branka Javornik 

Genetic variability of native populations of oregano in Slovenia 147 

Jelka Šuštar-Vozlič 

APPENDICES 151 

Appendix I. List of priority species/genera 151 

Appendix II. Abbreviations and acronyms 152 

Appendix III. Agenda 154 

Appendix IV. List of participants 156 

INDEX OF AUTHORS 161

SUMMARY REPORT OF THE MEETING 1 

PART I. SUMMARY REPORT OF THE MEETING 

Introduction 

The newly established Working Group on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) of the 

European Cooperative Programme for Crop Genetic Resources Networks (ECP/GR) met for 

the first time in Gozd Martuljek, Slovenia, 12-14 September 2002. The meeting brought 

together 18 members representing 20 European countries and 12 observers, including 

Slovenian officials and scientists, representatives from the World Wide Fund for Nature 

(WWF-UK and WWF-TRAFFIC Europe) and a private consultant from Germany (see list of 

participants in Appendix IV). 


Mihaela Černe, National Coordinator for ECP/GR in Slovenia welcomed the participants 

with the following address: 

Dear Members of the Working Group on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, distinguished 

guests from the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food (MAFF) and Ministry of 

Environment and Spatial Planning, and observers, 

As National Coordinator for Slovenia I am glad that a new ECP/GR Working Group on 

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants was established and that Slovenia was chosen to host its first 

meeting. This is also the first time that Slovenia hosts an ECP/GR Working Group meeting. 

Slovenia was invited to join the ECP/GR in 1993 and after 5 years of efforts, Slovenia 

joined the programme in the last year of Phase V (1998). 

I would like to express my sincere thanks to the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and 

Food for the establishment of the National Commission and nomination of a National 

Coordinator for plant genetic resources (PGR), for the financial support to the Slovenian 

programme on PGR, and for the contribution to the ECP/GR. 

My thanks go also to the ECP/GR coordinators for their useful suggestions and support 

regarding the formation of the National Commission and plant genetic resources (PGR) 

programme before Slovenia became an official member of ECP/GR and for continued 

cooperation since then. 

The Slovenian Gene Bank was established in the frame of the late Yugoslav Gene Bank in 

1988, although collections of indigenous landraces of bean and cabbage were established 

before World War II. New collections of maize, bean, cabbage, onion and buckwheat were 

established after World War II for breeding purposes. Landraces were used as a source 

material for Slovenian cultivars. Since then only maize accessions were properly stored, but 

data are available for the bean, cabbage and buckwheat collections for the study of genetic 

erosion. The national genebank is decentralized. Accessions are kept at three institutions: 

Biotechnical Faculty of the University of Ljubljana; Agricultural Institute of Slovenia in 

Ljubljana; and Institute for Hop and Brewery in Žalec. A standardized documentation 

system is used by all three institutions and also for forest genetic resources. 

Collections of medicinal and aromatic plants are kept at the Biotechnical Faculty in 

Ljubljana and at the Institute for Hop and Brewery in Žalec. 

I am very happy that the programme for Slovenian Plant Genetic Resources, which has 

been financed since 1996 by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food, is now 

expanding and our researchers are well integrated in different ECP/GR Working Groups.

2 


I would also like to express my sincere thanks to the local organizer of this meeting, Dea 

Baričevič from the Biotechnical Faculty of the University of Ljubljana, who, in collaboration 

with Prof. Karl Hammer from the University of Kassel, Germany, prepared the proposal for 

the establishment of a new Working Group on medicinal and aromatic plants. This proposal 

was submitted to the ECP/GR Steering Committee at its mid-term meeting in St. Petersburg, 

Russian Federation, October 2001. 

I wish all participants a pleasant stay in Gozd Martuljek and fruitful discussions. 

Welcome to Slovenia! 

Janez Glavač (Ministry for Agriculture, Forestry and Food of Slovenia) made the 

following speech: 

Ladies and gentlemen, experts and scientists, 

I consider it a great pleasure and privilege to welcome you to the first meeting of the 

ECP/GR Working Group on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants on behalf of the Ministry for 

Agriculture, Forestry and Food of Slovenia as well as on behalf of our Minister, Mr Franc 

But. 

The MAFF is honoured and very proud that the first meeting of the Working Group on 

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants is taking place in our country. This is certainly a recognition 

for our experts and scientists working in the field of plant genetic resources, with modest 

financial support from the state, but with great enthusiasm. 

Slovenia is a small country and therefore we cannot afford to make big mistakes. Lack of 

attention to the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal and aromatic plants, 

anywhere in the world, would be a great and unreasonable mistake, with many 

unpredictable consequences to follow. 

Because of the increased global interest in the use of medicinal and aromatic plants and 

their habitat loss and alteration, the development of a conservation strategy for these 

important natural resources is a necessity. To reach that objective, we wish you successful 

work at this meeting as well as in the future. 

We would like to wish you also a pleasant stay here in Gozd Martuljek, on the sunny side 

of the Alps, surrounded with majestic mountains. We hope you will keep a pleasant 

memory of this particular occasion and of our country. 

Dea Baričevič also welcomed all Working Group members and observers to the meeting 

on behalf of the Slovenian genebank and of Lorenzo Maggioni, the ECP/GR Coordinator, 

who was unable to attend. She indicated that an invitation had been sent to Melpo Skoula, 

from the MEDUSA Network 1 , who expressed interest to keep in contact but was unable to 

attend the present meeting due to other commitments. Vernon Heywood was also informed 

of the meeting and considered it an excellent development, and declared himself happy to 

cooperate with the Group, both personally and on behalf of ICMAP (International Council of 

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants). IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of 

Nature), FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) and ISF 

(International Seed Federation) were also invited as observers but could not send any 

representative. 

1 MEDUSA Network for the identification, conservation and use of wild plants in the Mediterranean 

region (http://medusa.maich.gr/network/).


Adoption of the agenda and selection of the Chairperson for the meeting 

Dea Baričevič then presented the meeting agenda, which was accepted by the participants 

(see Appendix III). 

The group agreed that Dea Baričevič and Jenő Bernáth would co-chair the meeting during 

the first day, taking alternate roles as Chairperson and Vice-Chairperson. It was also agreed 

that on the second day, Wolfgang Kainz (Austria) and Zlatko Šatović (Croatia) would cochair 

the morning sessions, and Eli Putievsky (Israel) and Zlatko Šatović the afternoon 

sessions. 

Presentations 

The presentations given at the meeting are mentioned below in chronological order. Full 

papers, when available, are published in Part II of this report. The discussions held between 

the presentations and the ensuing recommendations made by the Group, leading to the 

elaboration of the workplan, are grouped and summarized in the section Discussion and 

Recommendations (see below, pages 8-11). 

Conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) – needs and strategy 

The role of ECP/GR and IPGRI in MAP conservation 

On behalf of the ECP/GR Secretariat, Elinor Lipman provided some background information 

in the two following presentations: 

ECP/GR and the Working Group on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 

For the benefit of the many participants who were attending an ECP/GR meeting for the 

first time, the historical background, overall purpose and current structure of the ECP/GR 

programme were presented 2 , with particular focus on the steps leading to the establishment 

of the Working Group on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants within the Minor Crops Network: 

• The recommendations of the Minor Crops Network Coordinating Group meeting in 

Turku, Finland, June 1999, were as follows: 

- Propose the establishment of a Working Group on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants to 

the Steering Committee 

- Dea Baričevič and Karl Hammer to develop a proposal for collaborative action, to be 

implemented in the context of a Working Group 

- Focal persons, in consultation with relevant experts, to identify crops/species for 

priority action, on the basis of agreed criteria for prioritization (risk of genetic erosion; 

economic importance; regional or subregional distribution; traditional knowledge in 

Europe) 

- Focal persons, in collaboration with experts from different parts of Europe, to compile 

information regarding: ex situ and in situ conservation status; distribution and level of 

utilization; list of experts/institutions; list of ongoing activities; elaboration of a 

conservation strategy to be proposed for further action. 

2 Update at time of publication: the structure of the Programme has been re-defined by the ECP/GR 

Steering Committee during its end-of-phase VI meeting held 22-25 October 2003, Izmir, Turkey 

(see http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/Introduction/AboutECPGR.htm).

4 


• The proposal to establish a Working Group was developed by Dea Baričevič and Karl 

Hammer as recommended and presented successfully at the mid-term meeting of the 

ECP/GR Steering Committee (14-17 October 2001, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation). 

The SC recommended that a Working Group on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants be 

established and that a meeting of the Working Group be held in 2002, considering the 

recent developments and increasing interest in these species. 

• This present meeting is the concrete outcome of these recommendations. The activities 

listed in the proposal should form the basis for the development of the workplan of the 

WG on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs), now that it is formally established. These 

activities include: 

- An inventory of natural populations of MAPs 

- A review of the acreage of MAPs under cultivation 

- A review of legal issues for the conservation of MAPs 

- An assessment of the quantities of MAPs collected from the wild and encouragement 

of the use of cultivated MAPs 

- Preparation of a list of potentially endangered/rare/vulnerable MAP species 

- Developing a strategy for the future development of a MAP conservation strategy 

- Preparation of a proposal for submission to the 6th EU Framework Programme. 

The Web pages of the Minor Crops Network and of the Working Group on Medicinal and 

Aromatic Plants 3 were presented to the participants, who were invited to make comments 

and suggestions for their improvement. 

Other important outcomes of the ECP/GR Steering Committee mid-term meeting in 

October 2001 were mentioned: in order to develop a strategy for the next Phase (VII), two 

task forces composed of a few Steering Committee members were established to discuss 

(1) the impact on PGR of recent developments in science, technology and international 

policy; and (2) how genebanks might implement relevant international agreements and their 

impact on their operation. A questionnaire sent to all Working Group Chairs and National 

Coordinators is being used to sound out opinions on future priorities and mode of operation 

of ECP/GR, to be defined during the Steering Committee meeting planned for October 2003. 

• IPGRI's contribution to the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plant species 

This presentation showed how the issue of MAP conservation fits into the global framework 

in which IPGRI operates. It was illustrated by the example of the IPGRI/IFAD project 

"Enhancing the contribution of neglected and underutilized species to food security, and to incomes of 

the rural poor". 4 This project, started in 2001, focuses specifically on MAPs in the Central and 

West and North Africa (CWANA) region, Andean grains in Latin America and nutritious 

millets in Asia. The MAP species/genera considered in the CWANA region are the 

following: 

Aloe spp. Cuminum cyminum Mentha piperita 

Boerhavia elegans Flemingia congesta Nigella spp. 

Capparis spp. Glycyrrhiza glabra Origanum syriacum 

Coriandrum sativum Lawsonia inermis Solenostemma arghel 

3 http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/Workgroups/Med_aromatic/med_aromatic.htm 

4 http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/nus/docs/IFAD-NUS.doc


Examples of activities carried out by the project include: 

- Strengthening or establishing local seed production 

- Surveying the distribution of available genetic diversity and of traditional knowledge 

together with analyses of genetic erosion 

- Investigations throughout the production-consumption chain 

- Identification of improved agronomic and production procedures and value-adding 

strategies 

- Analysis of market opportunities 

- Research on nutritional value of the species, and characterization and evaluation work 

- Development of networks 

- Studies to identify policy failures 

These areas of research might be considered by the WG on MAPs to define its own 

workplan. 

MAP conservation strategies 

Peter Skoberne (Ministry of Environment, Spatial Planning and Energy of Slovenia) gave an 

overview of the situation regarding plant conservation, with a detailed review of the legal 

instruments available at all levels: 

- international treaties or conventions, including protocols and recommendations either at 

global level (RAMSAR Convention, World Heritage, CMS or Bonn Convention, CITES or 

Washington Convention, CBD, GPA…), regional level (the Bern Convention, the 

European Landscape Convention…) or sub-regional level (Alpine Convention, Barcelona 

Convention); 

- supranational legislation such as the EU Habitat Directive and Endangered Species 

Regulation; 

- global strategies such as the World Conservation Strategy (IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1980); 

Caring for the Earth (IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1991); and the Global Biodiversity Strategy 

(WRI/IUCN/UNEP 1992). Of special interest to this working group are the Guidelines on 

the Conservation of Medicinal Plants (WHO/IUCN/WWF 1993); 

- ministerial processes (Environment for Europe, Protection of Forests in Europe) 

- national legislation, the essential tool for implementation of these legal treaties and 

strategies. 

Dr Skoberne concluded by saying that it is now time to move from the writing of papers 

to action. The basic cornerstone of our work should be to respect life and learn from plants, 

working "from the ground", but we cannot work alone. This is what networks are for! 

The full text of the presentation is included in Part II of this report (pages 14-18). 

Sustainable use of medicinal and aromatic plants in Europe 

Susanne Schmitt (WWF-UK) and Susan Honneff (WWF-Germany/TRAFFIC-Europe) 

The abstract of the presentation is included in Part II (pages 19-20). 

Origin of medicinal plants in Central Europe – an ecological approach 

Ernst Schneider (Pharmacist and Biologist, PhytoConsulting) 

The full text of the paper is included in Part II (pages 21-24).

6 


Country reports 

Before the meeting, all Working Group members had been requested to prepare a country 

report covering the following topics: 

- legal protection of MAP species and their natural habitats; 

- ex situ conservation; 

- existence of MAP inventory activities at national level, and if so, type of data recorded; 

- review of the acreage of MAPs under cultivation; 

- availability of information regarding the use of MAPs by processing industries 

(respective amounts of material of cultivated origin and of raw materials gathered in the 

wild); 

- experiences in sustainable use of MAPs. 

The following reports were presented at the meeting by the respective country 

representatives: Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Lithuania, 

Macedonia F.Y.R., Nordic countries, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, Turkey, United Kingdom 

and F.R. Yugoslavia. 

Non-attending members (representatives from the Czech Republic, Malta and Portugal) 

provided contributions for publication in the proceedings. 

All full papers available are included in Part II (see pages 25-142). 

Documentation and databases 

The European Internet Search Catalogue, EURISCO and the EPGRIS project 

On behalf of IPGRI, Elinor Lipman presented the EPGRIS project for the Establishment of a 

Plant Genetic Resources Infra-Structure. This 3-year project (2000-2003) was developed 

within the ECP/GR Documentation and Information Network and was approved for 

funding within the Fifth Framework Programme of the European Union. The objective is to 

establish a European Internet Search Catalogue (EURISCO) with passport information of 

plant genetic resources maintained ex situ in Europe. The catalogue will be frequently 

updated and publicly accessible via Internet. Initial data sets will be derived from the 

European Central Crop Databases (ECCDBs); however the project will promote the creation 

of national inventories, which are planned to become the main source of data. PGR National 

Coordinators of the large majority of European countries have nominated national inventory 

focal persons. These people will be invited to attend three subregional meetings, to discuss 

coordination and standardization of the data flow from the national inventories to the central 

catalogue. The project partners will also provide technical support to the focal persons and a 

limited number of training visits to the main European documentation support centres will 

be arranged. EURISCO is seen as an important European contribution to the Clearing House 

Mechanism (CHM) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the implementation 

of the Global Plan of Action (GPA). A Web-based interface will allow easy searching of the 

European national inventories, in the same way as it is possible today to use SINGER 

(System-wide Information Network for Genetic Resources) to search the CGIAR collections 

and GRIN (Germplasm Resources Information System) to search the USDA collections. The 

catalogue will carry an important minimum set of passport data, frequently and 

automatically updated from the national inventories. These data are based on the revised 

version of the FAO/IPGRI Multi-crop passport descriptor list (MCPD), finalized in December 

2001. The full list is available on-line at http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/Databases/Databases.htm. 

The project has implications for the central databases that are often the main product of 

collaboration within the ECP/GR Working Groups. The idea will be to take the workload of 

collecting the passport data away from the central crop database managers, since these data 

will become directly accessible from the EURISCO catalogue. On the other hand, ECCDB


managers will be expected to dedicate more time to compile and analyze characterization 

and evaluation data. 5 

The Slovenian Gene Bank Database and the National Inventory 

Vladimir Meglič (Agricultural Institute of Slovenia) 

The full text of the paper is included in Part II (pages 143-145). 

Presentation of the MEDPLANT database 

Dea Baričevič gave a demonstration of the MEDPLANT relational database, currently under 

development. The MEDPLANT database was established to hold data on flora, fauna, 

taxonomy and analysis for medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) of Central European and 

Mediterranean regions. The MEDPLANT system works on relational databases principles: 

collected data are arranged according to their characters in appropriate databases 

(systematics, geography, habitats, pedology, phytocoenoses, chemical analyses, 

varieties/cultivars). Pointers which connect specific data in these databases enable 

establishing mutual relationships between required data in the network. The 

objectives/advantages of this first version of the database, which offers user-friendly data 

management, are: 

- rapid and easy input or output of desired/required data; 

- the large database dimension enables fast processing of large data volumes; 

- MEDPLANT is a multi-user system for a network; 

- it is an open system which enables addition of new data types without changing the 

present structure; 

- the MEDPLANT application is open to the addition of processing modules (models). 

The MEDPLANT graphic module enables the presentation of geographical data (e.g. 

maps) as well as pictures, and the establishment of their correlations with recorded data. 

Methodological approaches in MAP conservation and evaluation 

Molecular tools for determining genetic variability 

Branka Javornik (Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia) 

The abstract of the presentation is included in Part II (page 146). 

Genetic variability of native populations of oregano in Slovenia 

Jelka Šuštar-Vozlič (Agricultural Institute, Slovenia) 

The full text of the paper is included in Part II (pages 147-149). 

5 Update at time of publication: EURISCO was launched officially at the Final Conference of the 

EPGRIS Project, 11-13 September 2003, Prague, Czech Republic. A demo version of the catalogue 

is available at http://eurisco.ecpgr.org/

8 


Discussion and recommendations 

A summary of discussions and recommendations leading to the elaboration of the workplan 

is presented below. 

Scope of the Working Group's activities 

• Preliminary definitions 

What are MAPs? 

The Group agreed that definitions were needed for “medicinal and aromatic plants” and the 

following were approved temporarily: 

- Medicinal plants are plants used in official and traditional medicine 

- Aromatic plants are plants used for their aroma and flavour 

Geographical origin of MAP species 

The WG will consider autochthonous European species (of which the centre of origin is 

located in Europe) and species which were domesticated in Europe or are well adapted to 

European ecological conditions. 

• Long-term tasks 

Inventory of MAP genetic resources in Europe 

Knowledge about available wild genetic resources is rather scarce. An inventory needs to be 

prepared of MAP distribution and abundance at a European level. 

Conservation of MAP genetic resources in Europe 

According to the country reports presented, a very high proportion of European MAP 

species on the market is gathered from the wild. The existing legislation at national and 

European levels does not sufficiently prevent the unsustainable exploitation of MAP natural 

resources. Only a limited number of species are officially protected but other important 

MAP species may be endangered. These species must be identified, conserved (in situ 

and/or ex situ) and proposed for official protection. 

Characterization/evaluation of MAPs: development of descriptors at genus level 

MAP species differ substantially from other crops (where descriptors are available) due to 

their content and high variability of secondary metabolites in different environments. The 

Group agreed that characterization is only possible when descriptors (at the genus level) are 

defined and that it would be important to prepare a standard list of descriptors to harmonize 

the data recording methodology, to increase reliability of recorded data and to eventually 

facilitate data exchange. 

Development of a central MAP database 

The WG agreed that access to and sharing of information on European MAPs would be 

greatly enhanced by the creation of a MAP database. 

- Coverage 

Given the large number of species concerned, it was agreed that if such a database were to be 

created it would initially be restricted to only a few priority species identified as defined 

below (section on short-term tasks).


- Data format 

It was agreed that the data format should ensure compatibility with the EURISCO catalogue, 

i.e. FAO/IPGRI Multi-crop passport descriptors (second version, Dec. 2001 6 ) with the 

6 additional descriptors defined for EURISCO. 7 

- Financial support 

The Group agreed that the creation of the database is not possible without financial support. 

Funding opportunities from international organizations (FAO, EC, etc.) or pharmaceutical 

companies which might be interested in MAP genetic resource conservation will be explored 

by the Chair of the WG. 

Ernst Schneider kindly offered to assist in establishing contacts with potential donors 

from the pharmaceutical industry in Germany and his offer was accepted. 

• Short-term tasks 

Election of the Chair and Vice-Chair 

Before establishing the workplan for short-term activities, the Group considered it necessary 

to identify the Chairperson and Vice-Chairperson who would be responsible for ensuring the 

progress of the workplan and coordination between the WG members until the end of the 

next meeting of the Working Group. Dea Baričevič was elected as Chairperson and Jenő 

Bernáth was elected as Vice-Chairperson, both receiving warm congratulations from the 

Group for their contribution to this first meeting of the WG. 

Selection of a list of priority species/genera 

The Group agreed that it should concentrate its short-term activities on a small number of 

species/genera of importance to all and considered as needing urgent attention. A list of 

priority species /genera will be elaborated according to the workplan indicated below. 

The methodology developed for these priority species/genera (e.g. inventory of existing 

material in situ and ex situ, definition of characterization descriptors, establishment of a 

database, etc.) will serve as a model for other species and will encourage appropriate 

activities to be carried out on MAPs at national level. 

Workplan 

1. Each country representative will send a list of 30 species/genera important at national 

level to the Vice-Chair of the WG by the end of October 2002. The list should be 

accompanied by background information on the selection criteria used. 

2. After analyzing the national lists received, the Vice-Chair will select 10 species/genera 

and will circulate this priority list to all WG members by the end of December 2002. 8 

Note: the identification of the priority species will take in consideration (i) the CITES convention 9 ; 

and (ii) the subregional distribution of the species/genera in order to ensure a balanced geographical 

distribution. 

6 FAO/IPGRI's Multi-crop passport descriptors (version 2, December 2001) are available on-line 

(http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/system/page.asp?frame=catalogue/select.asp). 

7 The document EURISCO Descriptors for uploading information from National Inventories to EURISCO 

was distributed at the meeting. The descriptors are also available on-line 

(http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/epgris/Tech_papers/EURISCO_Descriptors.doc). 

8 Update at time of publication: the list of priority species has been elaborated and circulated to all 

members by the Vice-Chair (Appendix I). 

9 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 

(http://www.cites.org).

10 


Development of MAP descriptors for the priority list 

It was agreed that it would be more effective to make use of descriptor lists already available 

for species which have some degree of similarity to MAPs (e.g. IPGRI’s descriptors for 

Allium spp., Piper nigrum, Elettaria cardamomum). These would be modified in order to fit 

MAP specificities. To illustrate this, D. Baričevič presented a selection of relevant descriptors 

taken from Allium and cardamom lists. After discussion, the Group agreed on the following 

workplan: 

Workplan 

1. Dea Baričevič, in consultation with V. Meglič, will prepare a proposal for a list of 

characterization descriptors, to be circulated to all WG members before the end of 2002. 

2. After the priority list of species/genera has been identified by the Vice-Chair and 

validated by the Working Group, D. Baričevič will refine the descriptor list with regard 

to specific characters of the 10 selected species, and send back the proposed descriptor 

list to all WG members within two months after reception of the priority list of 

species/genera. 10 

Inventory of MAP populations at national level 

On the basis of the priority list species, each member of the WG should make all possible 

efforts to ensure that an exhaustive survey of natural populations of the selected MAPs is 

carried out in her/his country, in order to provide information for a European MAP genetic 

resources inventory. 

Workplan 

At the next WG meeting, WG members will report progress on surveys made in their 

country and the responsible institute for compiling the European inventory will be defined. 

Research/training activities 

Recommendations 

• The Working Group encourages collaboration between national programmes working on 

the same plants/groups of plants. The Chair and Vice-Chair of the WG should facilitate 

collaboration and coordination of target teams. 

• The Working Group recognizes the need for the development of harmonized 

methodologies/protocols (sampling and conservation techniques, etc.) by the national 

and international research programmes. The Chair and Vice-Chair of the WG will seek 

funding from relevant international institutions. 

• The Working Group encourages the collectors to provide specimens to the national 

herbarium collections. 

10 A provisional list of descriptors has been elaborated according to the decisions made at the first 

meeting of the Working Group on MAPs and will be available on-line at 

http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/Workgroups/Med_aromatic/med_aromatic.htm. This list is adapted 

from other descriptor lists produced by IPGRI. It is not final but represents a proposal open for 

discussion at the next Working Group meeting.


Next meeting of the Working Group 

Considering the urgency of implementing activities on MAP conservation in Europe, and the 

number of issues to be addressed, the WG agreed that it would be important to meet again 

within a short time frame. 

Recommendation 

The Working Group recommends that another meeting be organized no later than 2004 in 

order to assess the progress achieved in the implementation of the workplan. 

Conclusion 

The section Discussion and Recommendations of the report was presented to the participants 

and was approved with some modifications. 

The organizers thanked the participants for their high degree of involvement and 

valuable inputs, and with best wishes to all for a fruitful implementation of the workplan, 

the meeting was closed.

12 

WORKING GROUP ON MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS: FIRST MEETING

PRESENTED PAPERS 13 

PART II. PRESENTED PAPERS 

General papers 14 

Conservation strategies for medicinal and aromatic plants 14 


The origin of medicinal plants in Central Europe – an ecological approach 21 


Medicinal and aromatic plants in Austria 25 

Medicinal and aromatic plant diversity in Bulgaria – protection, collection, study, 

use and conservation 27 


in Croatia 34 

Genetic resources of medicinal and aromatic plants in Cyprus with emphasis on 

the selection, evaluation and management of Origanum dubium 39 

Current status of the collection of aromatic, culinary and medicinal plants in the 

Czech Gene Bank in Olomouc 42 

Medicinal and aromatic plants in Estonia 44 

Perspectives and achievements in genetic conservation of medicinal and 

aromatic plants in Hungary 46 

Medicinal and aromatic plants in the Israeli Gene Bank (IGB) 57 

Conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in Italy 63 

Medicinal and aromatic plants in Latvia 70 

Conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in Lithuania 73 

Status of medicinal and aromatic plants in the Republic of Macedonia F.Y.R. 82 

Status of medicinal and aromatic plants in Malta 85 

Medicinal and aromatic plants in the Nordic Countries 88 

Medicinal and aromatic plants in Finland 91 

The status of medicinal and aromatic plants in Poland 96 

Medicinal and aromatic plants in Portugal – a survey 106 

Status of the Romanian medicinal and aromatic plant collection 109 

Conservation of medicinal and aromatic plant genetic resources in Slovenia 114 

Current status of medicinal and aromatic plants in Spain 118 

Activities on medicinal and aromatic plants at the Aegean Agricultural 

Research Institute 121 

Medicinal and aromatic plant production in the United Kingdom 128 

Genetic resources of medicinal and aromatic plants of Yugoslavia – 

current situation and further prospects 130 


The Central Database of the Slovene Plant Gene Bank 143 

Research 146 

Molecular tools for determining genetic variability 


146 

147

14 


General papers 

Conservation strategies for medicinal and aromatic plants 

Peter Skoberne 11 

Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia, Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Introduction 

This paper gives a broad framework regarding plant conservation, especially in relation to 

plant use, highlighting international legislation and emphasizing its implementation at the 

national level. 

Nature conservation and plants 

The vital role of plants is usually underestimated in our everyday life. We hardly imagine 

and recognize their importance as life supporters (transformers of solar energy, oxygen 

producers, CO 2 fixers), their use for food, spices, medicinal purposes, natural resources for 

timber, oil, fibres, etc. 

Exploiting the many possible uses for plants requires wisdom. With new technologies we 

are inventing new ways of using plants but on the other hand we are losing a lot of wisdom 

collected within communities closely related to and dependent on nature. 

Common sense suggests that we should respect plants and find sustainable ways to use 

them, as our lives are directly dependent on conserving their diversity. 

Thus it is very logical that early conservation ideas in Europe in the second half of the 19 th 

century were connected with plant conservation. For instance, in a part of what is now 

Slovenian territory, edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum) has been protected since 1896. 

Species conservation was later integrated into a broader concept of "biodiversity", a term 

widely used in biological circles since 1987. Finally, at the Rio Earth Summit (UNCED, 

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) in June 1992 the expression 

"biodiversity" was introduced in the political vocabulary, mostly through the signature of the 

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). But before we take a closer look at this important 

international treaty, let us have a brief overview of various legal instruments concerning 

plant conservation. 

Overview of legal instruments 

Different legal instruments are available according to geographic scope and basic aim. As 

threats for plants are not confined within national borders, international legal instruments 

are essential, especially as the responsibility for species protection is a global one. It is a 

responsibility of mankind. Major levels are: 

• International treaties (conventions) including protocols and recommendations 

Conventions deal with international problems. Countries commit themselves to common 

goals and implement them in a coordinated way through national legislation. Regarding 

11 Address at time of publication: 

Ministrstvo za okolje, prostor in energijo (Ministry of Environment, Spatial Planning and Energy), 

Dunajska 47, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. 

Tel.: (386-1) 478 7157 /Fax: (386-1) 478 7424 / Email: peter.skoberne@gov.si


geographical scope we are talking about global, regional and sub-regional conventions. The 

main treaties are presented in Table 1. 

Table 1. International treaties in the field of nature conservation 

Logo 

Name of the treaty 

Place, year of 

signature 

Number of parties 

(year) 

Global level 

Convention on Wetlands of International 

Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat 

(Ramsar Convention) 

Convention Concerning the Protection of the 

World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World 

Heritage Convention) 

Convention on International Trade in 

Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 

(CITES or Washington Convention) 

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory 

Species of Wild Animals (CMS or Bonn 

Convention) 

Ramsar, 1971 130 (2002) 

Paris, 1972 161 (2001) 

Washington, 1973 150 (2000) 

Bonn, 1979 70 (2000) 

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Rio de Janeiro, 1992 178 (2000) 

Regional level (European) 

Convention on the Conservation of European 

Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) 

Bern, 1979 45 (2003) 

European Landscape Convention Florence, 2000 11 (2004) 

Sub-regional level (concerning Europe) 

Alpine Convention Salzburg, 1991 9 (1999) 

Convention for the Protection of the Marine 

Environment and the Coastal Region of the 

Mediterranean (Barcelona Convention) 

Barcelona, 1976 21 (2000)

16 


• Supranational legislation (e.g. European Union) 

Unlike international treaties that cannot be directly implemented, the legislation of the 

European Communities has an immediate legal effect on the member states. Most important 

for plant conservation are: 

- The Habitat Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of 

natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora – OJ L 206, 22.7.1992) defining a list of plant 

species (Annex II) that require habitat protection and are part of the NATURA 2000 

ecological network, a list of strictly protected plants (Annex IV) and a list of plants that 

can be utilized in a managed way (Annex V). 

- The Endangered Species Regulation (Council Regulation (EC) No. 338/97 of 9 December 1996 

on the protection of species of wild fauna and flora by regulating trade therein – OJ L 61, 

3. 3. 1997) regulates the trade of threatened species. 

• Strategies 

Long-term goal setting and a vision for conservation are set up by strategic documents. 

Some global documents that were the basis for the preparation of some international 

conventions (e.g. the CBD) and national activities are mentioned below. 

- 1980: World Conservation Strategy (IUCN, UNEP, WWF) 

- 1991: Caring for the Earth (IUCN, UNEP, WWF) 

- 1992: Global Biodiversity Strategy (WRI, IUCN, UNEP) 

Specially focused on medicinal plants are the Guidelines on the conservation of medicinal 

plants (WHO, IUCN, WWF), published in 1993. Selected guidelines, more related to the topic 

of our meeting, are mentioned below: 

- basic studies: study traditional knowledge of plant uses, identify medicinal plants, 

study distribution and ecology; 

- utilization: wherever possible, to cultivate medicinal plants as the source of supply; 

ensure sustainable collecting from the wild; 

- in situ and ex situ conservation of medicinal plant populations; 

- build public support, ensure equitable sharing of benefits. 

In the framework of the CBD the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation was developed in 

2002. The overall goals of the strategy are quite ambitious: 

- no species of wild flora to be endangered by international trade; 

- 30% of plant-based products derived from sources that are sustainably managed; 

- the decline of plant resources, and associated local and indigenous knowledge, 

innovations and practices that support sustainable livelihoods, local food security and 

health care, to be halted. 

These goals were further elaborated at the European level through the Planta Europa 

Network in the European Plant Conservation Strategy (2002) which deals with specific regional 

aspects, going in some cases beyond global goals, setting clear goals and targets. Target 3.1 

is specially related to conservation and use of plants: "Best practise for the conservation and 

sustainable use of medicinal plants (and other sociologically important plants) identified and promoted 

to relevant policy-makers." 

• Ministerial processes 

Ministerial processes can also serve plant conservation. Most relevant are Environment for 

Europe (meeting of ministers responsible for the environment) and Protection of Forests in 

Europe (ministers responsible for forests).


• National legislation 

This is the most crucial part of the system of legal instruments as the essential tool for 

implementation. The success of implementation of international treaties and strategies 

depends on the quality of national legislation and on the level of liability. 

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 

This treaty is the most recent and the most sophisticated of all global conventions in the field 

of nature conservation. 

In June 1987 UNEP convened an Ad hoc Working Group of Experts on Biological Diversity 

to harmonize existing biodiversity-related conventions. At its very first meeting, the Group 

agreed on the need for a binding international agreement on the overall problem of 

biological diversity. In May 1988, UNEP established another Ad hoc Working Group of 

Experts on Biological Diversity with a mandate to prepare an international legally binding 

instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. It was instructed 

to take into account "the need to share costs and benefits between developed and developing 

countries and the ways and means to support innovation by local people". In 1991, the Ad hoc 

Working Group evolved into an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC). The INC 

held seven working sessions to negotiate and adopt the text of the Convention on Biological 

Diversity. 

Finally on 22 May 1992 in Nairobi the final text of the Convention was agreed (this 

important day is celebrated every year as "International Day for Biological Diversity"). 

The Convention was opened for signature on 5 June 1992 during the Rio Earth Summit, 

where it received over 150 signatures. UNEP then convened an Intergovernmental 

Committee on the Convention on Biological Diversity which held two meetings to prepare, 

among other things, the first meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP), the 

Convention's supreme body. 

The Convention was formally adopted at the UNCED in Rio, entering in force on 

29 December 1993, 90 days after the 30 th ratification. 

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was adopted in 2000. 

The expression "biodiversity" is broadly defined in the Convention and encompasses all 

living forms at genetic, species and ecosystem levels. The Convention has three main goals: 12 

- the conservation of biological diversity, 

- the sustainable use of the components of biodiversity, and 

- the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. 

All three goals are very relevant to the work with medicinal plants. 

They are reflected in obligations. It is obvious that they are very broadly defined and the 

more detailed elaboration is upon the further development of the convention through its 

bodies (e.g. COP; Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice, 

SBSTTA) as well as through national implementation. 

The main obligations are: 

- to adopt national strategies, plans or programmes: the main improvement of the CBD 

is that the responsibility for the biodiversity convention is not restricted to a particular 

body but everyone is a stakeholder in this process and cannot avoid responsibility. 

Thus the CBD strategy and its implementation concern all economic sectors and the 

general public, and is a splendid opportunity to deliver the message of the importance 

of biodiversity and the need for its conservation; 

12 The text of the CBD is available at http://www.biodiv.org/convention/articles.asp

18 


- to integrate biodiversity conservation concerns into relevant sectors. The CBD 

formalized in a political sense the changing nature conservation paradigm: a shift from 

confrontation of nature conservationists and all others (e.g. developers) to their 

harmonization; 

- identification of processes which have significant adverse effects – a possibility for 

preventive measures and instruments that influence general processes and are not only 

focused on particular areas or species; 

- Clearing House Mechanism (CHM) – an information system for exchange of 

knowledge worldwide. 

What next? 

The easy part – writing strategies and treaties – is definitely over. We have enough good 

instruments, so it is time for action. But all action has to be based on personal commitment 

towards plants: they have to be regarded as living beings that are an integral part of a larger 

system. They have a role and function in it. We must take this into account when planning 

to use or actually using plants. The basic cornerstone of our work should be: respect life and 

learn from plants!



Susanne F. Schmitt 1 and Susanne Honnef 2 

1 WWF-UK, Panda House, Weyside Park, Godalming, United Kingdom 

2 WWF-Germany/TRAFFIC-Europe Germany, Frankfurt, Germany 

The trade in European medicinal plants is long established but has been growing rapidly 

over the past decade. An estimate 150 European medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are 

threatened in at least one European country by this trade and by habitat loss. The 

conservation community, concerned practitioners and the more aware consumer are calling 

for sustainable herbal products. To date only few companies are concerned about 

sustainable and ethical sourcing. Cultivation is generally seen as the main solution. Indeed, 

there is much to be said for cultivation both from a commercial as well as conservation point 

of view. In this paper, however, we would like to emphasize that cultivation cannot be the 

sole solution in the context of a complex trade in many hundreds of species, predominantly 

harvested from the wild, providing livelihoods for large numbers of people in numerous 

European countries. Efforts of domestication should be coupled with measures to achieve 

sustainable management for controlled wild harvesting. 

In this context a number of potential strategies aimed at more sustainable sourcing are 

highlighted and some of the existing initiatives of WWF-UK and WWF-Germany/TRAFFIC- 

Europe Germany presented. The relevance of the European Plant Conservation Strategy 

(http://www.plantaeuropa.org/html/plant_conservation_strategy.htm) and its specific 

MAP target, imbedded in the wider context of the newly adopted Global Strategy for Plant 

Conservation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (http://www.biodiv.org) are 

stressed. 

We hope that the ECP/GP Working Group on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants takes the 

points raised into consideration and seeks collaboration with the wider MAP conservation 

community, interested companies and government bodies. 

Information sources 

Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Y. 2000. Medicinal plants in the hidden land of Dolpo: working with 

Himalayan healers at Shey Phoksundo National Park. People and Plants Video (26 minutes). 

Garg, M., S. Honnef and R. Melisch. 2002. Medizinalpflanzen: rechtliche Rahmenbedingungen und 

Möglichkeiten der Verankerung von Prinzipien der Nachhaltigkeit. Diskussionsvorlage für das 2. 

AG Treffen zum Thema "Nachhaltige Nutzung von Heil-, Kosmetik- und Gewürzpflanzen" am 

24.04.2002 in Schwäbisch-Gemünd [Medicinal plants: legal prevailing conditions and possibilities 

to embody principles of sustainability. Contribution to a discussion at the 2 nd Working Group 

Meeting on "Sustainable utilization of medicinal, cosmetic and spice plants", 24.04.2002, 

Schwäbisch Hall, Germany]. WWF-Germany/TRAFFIC-Europe Germany (unpublished report). 

Laird, S.A. and A.R. Pierce. 2002. Promoting sustainable and ethical botanicals: strategies to improve 

commercial raw material sourcing. Rainforest Alliance, New York (http://www.rainforestalliance.org/news/archives/news/news44.html). 

Lama, Y.C., S.K. Ghimire and Y. Aumeeruddy-Thomas. 2001. Medicinal plants of Dolpo: Amchis’ 

knowledge and conservation. WWF Nepal program, Kathmandu. 150pp. 

Lange, D. 1998. Europe's medicinal and aromatic plants: their use, trade and conservation. Traffic 

International, Cambridge, United Kingdom. 77pp. 

13 Summary of the presentation made at the meeting.

20 


WHO (World Health Organization). 2004. WHO guidelines on good agricultural and collection 

practices (GACP) for medicinal plants (http://www.who.int/medicines/library/trm/ 

medicinalplants/agricultural.shtml). 

WWF-Germany. 2000. Apotheke Wildnis: Naturmedizin boomt auf Kosten der Natur [Drugstore 

Wilderness: Natural medicine booms at nature's expense]. WWF Journal 4/2000.


The origin of medicinal plants in Central Europe – an ecological approach 


PhytoConsulting, Marklkofen, Germany 

When discussing medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs), different points of view can be 

adopted. The genetic science deals with collecting plants and describing the different origins 

of plant genetic resources, while the pharmaceutical science only considers quality 

parameters such as identity, purity and the contents of active ingredients. Scientists in the 

pharmaceutical industry are under pressure from the marketing departments, striving to 

obtain higher contents, better quality and a distinguishable product. But all are dependent 

on the agronomist as primary supplier, who is only looking for highest yield. 

When discussing MAP genetic resources these different opinions should be considered. 

And, most importantly, the optimal ecological conditions for plant growth must be known. 

Worldwide origin 

To learn about the most important medicinal plants used in Europe, some statistics and a 

look at the origin of medicinal plants in the pharmacopoeia are necessary. Some figures for 

the market in medicinal plants used in Germany are given in Table 1. In recent decades the 

number of medicinal plants in use has decreased and the demand in terms of quantity has 

increased. 

Table 1. Number of species used and amounts of medicinal plants imported in Germany 

Year 

No. of 

species 

Amount 

(t) 

References 

Medicinal plants used in Germany 

1985 Plants used by one company 400 pers. comm. 

1986 BGA Aufruf Nr.16 1986 - medicinal plants in use 708 BGA 1986 

1994 Commission E monographs - evaluated 188 Blumenthal 1998 

1993 List of traditional plants 193 BGA 1993 

2001 Traditional herbal medicinal products 1045 Gaedcke 2003 

2001 Deutsches Arzneibuch Stand - plant monographs 75 Gaedcke 2003 

2001 European Pharmacopoeia plant monographs 71 Gaedcke 2003 

Importation data 

1979 Amount of herbs imported into Germany 27900 Lange 1997 

1994 Amount of herbs imported into Germany 43900 Lange 1997 

BGA = Bundesgesundheitsamt 

The worldwide origin of the medicinal plants used in Europe is illustrated in Fig. 1. Most 

of the species used have their origin in the holarctic region of Eurasia and North America 

and in the palaeotropic region of Africa. 

Examples will be presented from the alpine area of Central Europe, from certain valleys in 

southern Europe, from tropical West Africa and from the arid zones of Southern Africa.

22 


HOLARCTIS 

PharmEur 38 DAB 44 

PALAEOTROPIS 


NEOTROPIS 


AUSTRALIS 


CAPENSIS 

PharmEur 1 

ANTARCTIS 

Fig. 1. Floristic regions of the world with the number of medicinal plants used in the 

pharmacopoeia originating in the different regions (PharmEur = European pharmacopoeia; 

DAB = German pharmacopoeia). 

Ecology of medicinal plants 

The ecological parameters influence not only plant growth but also the physiological 

conditions and in parallel the quality of medicinal properties. 

• Vegetation ecology 

Most plants are adapted to growing in a wide variety of ecosystems, but some are dependent 

on the particular conditions of their vegetation unit. 

The first example is that of the willow species (Salix spp.) providing "green aspirin". The 

quality is described in the European Pharmacopoeia and only a few species contain the high 

content of salicin required. A special problem with these species is the production of high 

yield. According to distribution maps of the most important species, Salix purpurea L. and 

S. daphnoides Vill. in Central Europe, the first is fairly equally distributed and the latter is 

found only alongside alpine rivers. Samples with a high salicin content have to be selected 

from collections along transects through the gallery forests of alpine rivers. Not only is the 

high content important but also suitability to cultivation. A very good breed of Salix 

eventually failed because of roe deer foraging leading to destruction of the cultivated crop. 

Another example of a famous medicinal plant dependent on very special conditions of its 

vegetation unit is Spanish arnica (Arnica montana L. subsp. atlantica) that only grows in 

Galicia, northern Spain. Because of its special chemical composition and lower allergenic 

potency the Spanish origin is preferred. The species is under threat in its natural habitat 

because of changing ecological conditions. Decades of wild crafting were not harmful to the 

species but the improvement of the marshy meadows along the typical rias valleys preferred 

by the plant caused disappearance of the species.


• Centres of origin and diversity 

The ecological conditions in the centre of origin and diversity of the species are very 

important. Only limited information is available about these centres for medicinal plants, 

and in some cases it will be difficult to identify these owing to the long history of cultivation. 

Rosella, a favourite herbal beverage in Europe brewed from the red flower calyx of 

Hibiscus sabdariffa, has its centre of origin and diversity in the Sahel area in western Africa, 

the so-called "non-centre A2" according to Harlan (1971). Hibiscus sabdariffa L. var. ruber is 

not only used as herbal tea but also, in its place of origin, in a traditional sauce with millet 

dishes. The species is better known as the source of the fibre kenaf. 

For further use as a beverage or for other medicinal or aromatic uses the variability of the 

calyx is important. As usual in the centre of diversity, this variability can be found, and even 

the colour of the calyx is very variable. 

• Physiological ecology 

The quality of the medicinal properties of a plant depends on the contents of secondary 

metabolites. Plant metabolism and the physiological conditions of the plant are influenced 

by ecological parameters. The very harsh conditions of arid zones are best to demonstrate 

this influence on active ingredients of medicinal plants. 

A very suitable example is devil's claw (Harpagophytum procumbens DC.) growing in the 

bush savannah of the Kalahari in southern Africa. Because of severe wild crafting the 

species was considered as endangered. Due to its adaptability in terms of seed germination 

the plant is able to survive under hard conditions and has a good regeneration rate. The 

secondary root tuber is used as herbal remedy in rheumatic diseases. The main trait of 

interest is the level of harpagoside – one of the active ingredients. When testing many single 

plants it was found that the genetic variation in harpagoside content is exceeded by the 

influence of many environmental and other factors: precipitation, nutrients (phosphorus is a 

limiting factor in the Kalahari), age of mother plant, age of secondary tuber and competition 

with other plants. Removing the competition of other plants on vegetation-free plots results 

in an astonishing increase in the growth of Harpagophytum procumbens. Influenced by higher 

precipitation in recent decades, the growth of other bushes in the Kalahari increased 

competition and this may be an important reason for the endangering of Harpagophytum. 

Conclusions 

The points to consider when discussing future cooperation in collecting and describing MAP 

genetic resources are summarized below. 

From the scientific point of view, the pharmaceutical/food quality of plant material is 

most important. The ecological conditions of the original habitat and genetic properties are 

the basis of the variation in quality. To select proper agricultural conditions for cultivation it 

is necessary to know the ecological tolerance of the species. Interdisciplinary scientific 

research may be necessary to collect the necessary data. 

For the agronomist, high yield and good prices are the most important criteria. He must 

ensure good management for quality, for which he will depend on scientific knowledge. 

The future legal conditions are also very important. In the future herbal market there will 

be several categories of products: medicinal plant products, traditional herbal remedies and 

products called food supplements with functional properties. 

As mentioned above (Table 1) the number of species used as MAPs has fallen in recent 

years. With the legal framework for food supplements with functional properties that will 

be established in future years the number of species used will increase once more. All 

scientists involved in MAP research will have to cope with this challenge. 

The solution must be an interdisciplinary effort of pharmacognosy, ecology and plant 

genetics to cooperate in building up a knowledge database of MAP ecological requirements.

24 


It is highly recommended to elaborate pharmacognostic and ecological fact sheets for 

medicinal plants, and the data should be included in the characterization descriptors for 

MAP genetic resources. 

Literature 

BGA. 1986. Aufruf Nr. 16 zum Einreichen von wissenschaftlichem Erkenntnismaterial über 

Arzneimittel zur Aufbereitung [Official call for information on medicinal plants in use]. 

Bundesanzeiger Nr. 99 vom 4.6.1986. 

BGA. 1993. 21. Bekanntmachung über die Verlängerung der Zulassungen. Stoffe mit traditionellen 

Indikationsangeben [Official list of traditional medicinal plants]. Bundesanzeiger Nr. 119, S. 6015 

vom 1.7.1993. 

Blumenthal, M., editor. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide 

to Herbal Medicines. Integrative Medicine Communications, Austin. 

De Bolos, A. 1948. El Arnica montana en la Peninsula Iberica [Arnica montana in the Iberian Peninsula]. 

Agronomia lusitana 10:113. 

Gaedcke, F. and B. Steinhoff. 2003. Herbal Medicinal Products. Scientific and Regulatory Basis for 

Development, Quality Assurance and Marketing Authorisation. Medpharm Scientific Publishers, 

Stuttgart 

Heinrich, M. and J. Leimkugel. 1999. Arzneidrogen im deutschen und europäischen Arzneibuch 

[Medicinal drugs in the German and European pharmacopoeia]. Zeitschrift für Phytotherapie 

20:264-267. 

Hörandl, E. 1992. Die Gattung Salix in Österreich [The genus Salix in Austria]. Abhandlungen der 

zoologisch-botanischen Gesellschaft in Österreich 27, Wien. 

Lange, D. and U. Schippmann. 1997. Trade survey of medicinal plants in Germany. A contribution to 

international plant species conservation. Bundesamt für Naturschutz (BfN), Bonn. 

Menßen, H.G. and K. Staesche. 1974. Hibiscusblüten, Hibisci flos – Herkunft, Morphologie und 

Anatomie [Hibiscus flowers, Hibisci flos – origin, morphology and anatomy]. Deutsche Apotheker 

Zeitung 114:1211-1216. 

Schneider, E. 1997. Sustainable use in semi-wild populations of Harpagophytum procumbens in 

Namibia. Medicinal Plant Conservation, Newspaper of the IUCN Medicinal Plant Specialist Group 

(Bonn) 4:7-9. 

Willert, D.J. von and E. Schneider. 2001. Teufelskralle-Anbau und Wildsammlung – Ein Beitrag zur 

pharmakognostischen Ökologie [Devil's claw cultivation and wild crafting – an example of 

pharmacognostic ecology]. Deutsche Apotheker Zeitung 141(6):683-688.


Country reports 

Medicinal and aromatic plants in Austria 


Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety – AGES Linz, Austria 

Introduction - General information on the Austrian collections 

In 2002 the former Federal Office of Agrobiology became part of the Austrian Agency for 

Health and Food Safety and was renamed "Austrian Agency of Health and Food Safety – 

AGES Linz". The new agency is a merger of 19 Austrian institutes dealing with human 

healthcare, food analysis and agriculture. It belongs to the ministries of Health, 

Environment and Agriculture. The reason for the establishment of this agency was to 

encourage synergy, reducing costs for the government. 

The Austrian seed collections are well documented as far as the state genebanks are 

concerned. The Index Seminum Austriae, survey of the seed collections in Austria according 

to the multicrop passport descriptor format, is available on-line. 

These seed collections are held in the following institutions: 

• Organizations funded by the district government: 

− Genebank Tyrol, maintaining the oldest cereal collection in Austria, established in 

the 1920s, which consists mainly of cereals grown in the alpine regions. 

− Landesversuchsanlage Wies/Styria, maintaining "special crops" such as medicinal 

plants, spices, traditional oil plants (e.g. Styrian oil pumpkin) and vegetables. They 

serve as experimental stations under Styrian climatic conditions. 

• Organization funded by the federal government: 

− The Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety, maintaining the largest collection 

in Austria with mainly cereals for the pre-alpine and pannonical climate areas, a 

traditional poppy collection, and a medicinal plant collection started in 1898. 

• Private organizations 

− Arche Noah Association, with a large vegetable collection, but no detailed passport 

information published so far. Data are not included in the Index Seminum Austriae 

yet. This will be changing in the near future. 

− Several local associations maintaining traditional fruit trees in ex situ arboreta. 

Details of the collections (excluding the cereal collections) are given in Table 1. 

Table 1. The Austrian collections 

Crops 


accessions 

Origin 

Landesversuchsanlage Wies/Styria special crops, vegetables 260 Austrian 

AGES-Linz special crops 250 Austrian/German 

vegetables 700 Austrian Phaseolus 

medicinal plants, spices* 590 European 

poppy** 150 Austrian landraces 

* This collection was set up in 1898 with importance as a spice-tea store and has increased in importance since 

the renewed interest in natural products in the 1980s. 

** This collection was set up in 1968 with the main task of collecting the last existing landraces of cereals and 

poppy. In 2003 the genebank collections of the Vienna and Linz institutes were concentrated in Linz.

26 


Legal protection 

The Red list of endangered species is updated every few years. 

Sustainable use of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) in Austria 

Over 80% of the different species of medicinal plants cultivated in Austria are selections of 

wild plants, but are mainly distributed as cultivars. Most of these selections are very old and 

their origin can no longer be verified. Advanced cultivars are rather rare. 

The cultivation and processing are carried out by: 

- seed companies 

- agricultural cooperatives working as seed companies 

- agricultural associations of farmers. 

Use of MAPs 

MAPs are used mainly for the production of: 

- teas (of herbs and fruits) 

- single herbs or mixtures of herbs in small packages (e.g. Petroselinum or Carum) 

- foodstuffs with a bacteriostatic effect (Thymus vulgaris, Origanum vulgare) used as dry 

matter directly; this is increasingly important for the large number of farmers using 

organic/biodynamic methods in Austria. 

Only the production and packaging of medicinal and aromatic plants is done in Austria. 

For the processing/extraction itself, semi-processed products are exported to Switzerland or 

Germany. 

Production of poppy should be mentioned separately because of its high volume of 1000 

to 1500 tonnes per year, grown on an area of over 1000 ha. It is only used in traditional food 

prepared in home kitchens and in the pastry industry. There is no production of poppy 

syrup for medicinal processing at all in Austria, because of its low alkaloid content under the 

prevailing climatic conditions.


Medicinal and aromatic plant diversity in Bulgaria – protection, collection, 

study, use and conservation 


Institute of Plant Genetic Resources (IPGR), Sadovo, Bulgaria 

The geographic location of Bulgaria, with its central European, Mediterranean and East 

Asian flora, as well as the very rugged terrain, determine the rich plant species diversity 

(Bondev 1995). Data summarized from different studies showed that of the known 3567 

higher plant species, 750 are medicinal plants. There are different views on the number of 

commonly used species. According to some authors this number is 150 (Stoeva 2000), while 

according to others it is 248 (Hardalova et al. 1994). The number of medicinal and aromatic 

plants (MAPs) is probably much higher if we include the species classified only as aromatic. 

Among the MAPs used, 85% are wild plants and only 15% are introduced or local cultivars. 

Legal protection of MAP species 

The legal protection of MAPs was established in 1936 by passing a law prohibiting or 

limiting the collection of flowers and herbs in certain regions. 

The increased trade in medicinal plants from native habitats led to the Law for Medicinal 

Plants, passed in 1941 and regulating the protection of 63 species (Hardalova et al. 1994). 

Current legal protection is provided by the Law for Nature Protection (LNP) (1967) 

regulating the listing of species with protected status. According to the last normative 

papers of 2001, a special regime is imposed for 79 species, including 44 protected, 24 banned 

for use and 11 with limited use. 

The use of medicinal plants from forest territories is regulated by the Forest Law and is 

controlled by the Forest Office at the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Agrarian Reform. 

The Ministry of Environment and Waters is in charge of the management and control of 

the national natural resources (forests excepted) in the protected territories. A different 

regime of protection has been imposed on 3.5% of the total area of the country, and 82% of 

the protected territory (nature reserves and national parks) received nature protection status 

corresponding to categories I and II defined by IUCN (Mihova 1994). Besides nature 

reserves and national parks, MAPs are also preserved in 49 protected territories, specified for 

definite medicinal plants: Leucojum aestivum L., Paeonia peregrina Mill., Glycyrrhiza glabra L., 

Galanthus nivalis L., Juniperus communis L., Sideritis taurica Steph., Inula helenium L. and 

Primula veris L. (Hardalova et al. 1994). 

A new Law for Medicinal Plants (LMP), regulating the sustainable use of natural resources 

and biodiversity protection has been passed on 7 April 2000 (Official Gazette 29, Sofia). 

Another basis for active protection is the Red Book of Bulgaria which includes 38 medicinal 

plant species according to Hardalova et al. (1994). 

Ex situ collections 

The main activities of the Institute of Plant Genetic Resources (IPGR) in Sadovo are focused 

on the protection and conservation of plant resources as a source of germplasm enrichment 

(Koeva 1998). Part of this general programme is related to MAP resources (Angelova et al. 

1994; Varbanova and Dimitrova 2000). 

The main lines of study include: (i) collecting plants for their diversity; (ii) creation and 

enrichment of collections; (iii) evaluation; and (iv) conservation. They are detailed below.

28 


• Collecting plants for their diversity 

MAP collecting is funded by IPGR, through national and international projects. 

MAP collecting in Sadovo started as early as 1902, but significant activities related to 

genetic resources started in 1983 with the establishment of international exchanges with 

botanical gardens, research institutes, firms, etc. (Guteva et al. 1998). 

Active collaboration and germplasm exchange are currently maintained with the Research 

Institute for Roses, Aromatic and Medicinal Plants in Kazanlak, the Agricultural University 

in Plovdiv, the Institute of Botany in Sofia, as well as with non-governmental organizations 

(NGOs). 

The collection of wild accessions started in 1993 and is carried out through collecting 

missions in different regions of the country. A total of four joint projects with the Committee 

of Forests, the Ministry of Education and Science, the Bulgarian/Swiss Biodiversity 

Conservation Programme (BSBCP) and 13 collecting missions in the country were carried out 

during the period reported. 

• Creation and structure of the collections 

The strategy for the creation of collections is to achieve: 

- Species diversity 

- Intraspecific diversity 

- Diversity of plants with protected status 

- Ecogeographic diversity. 

The ex situ MAP collection in IPGR is represented by 461 accessions distributed in 24 

families. The highest species diversity is found in the families Lamiaceae (28 species) and 

Asteraceae (15). Other families include from 1 to 7 species (Table 1). 

Table 1. Structure of the ex situ field collection 

No. 

Family 

No. of accessions 


species Total Wild Foreign 

Bulgarian 

(local cultivars and 

populations) 

1 Amaryllidaceae 1 23 - 23 - 

2 Araceae 1 1 1 - - 

3 Asteraceae 15 292 18 252 22 

4 Boraginaceae 1 3 3 - - 

5 Caryophyllaceae 7 9 5 4 - 

6 Cistaceae 2 2 2 - - 

7 Crassulaceae 3 3 3 - - 

8 Fabaceae 3 3 3 - - 

9 Ericaceae 2 2 2 - - 

10 Gentianaceae 1 1 1 - - 

11 Hypericaceae 1 2 2 - - 

12 Iridaceae 6 12 10 2 - 

13 Lamiaceae 28 83 69 5 10 

14 Malvaceae 1 1 1 - - 

15 Onagraceae 2 2 2 - - 

16 Paeoniaceae 2 3 3 - - 

17 Primulaceae 2 2 2 - - 

18 Ranunculaceae 4 4 4 - - 

19 Resedaceae 1 1 1 - - 

20 Rosaceae 4 4 4 - - 

21 Rubiaceae 1 1 1 - - 

22 Rutaceae 1 1 1 - - 

23 Scrophulariaceae 5 5 5 - - 

24 Solanaceae 1 1 1 - - 

Total 95 461 143 286 32


According to the plant material origin, MAPs are divided into two groups – cultivated 

and wild: 

- Cultivated species 

This group includes local and foreign cultivars and populations and is represented by 318 

accessions. Among the introduced MAPs obtained by exchange with 15 countries, those 

from European countries are predominant, with the Netherlands and Russia being the most 

represented. Seven countries are represented by 1 to 5 accessions only. The highest share in 

the collection is that of foreign accessions (252) of the family Asteraceae, including mainly 

species with ornamental qualities: Calendula officinalis L., Tagetes sp., Narcissus sp. The 

cultivated Bulgarian MAP species are represented by 10 cultivars and 22 populations. 

- Wild species 

This group is represented by 143 accessions from nine floristic regions of the country. Most 

MAPs have been collected from the North and South Black Sea coast, followed by Strandza, 

East Rhodope Mountains, and the hilly Tundza river plain. A rich species diversity of steppe 

origin is also represented. This group includes 23 families, the highest diversity being shown 

by the family Lamiaceae (28 species). A rich species diversity is collected from the genera 

Salvia (S. verticillata L., S. aethiopis L., S. sclarea L., S. pratensis L., S. officinalis L., S. nutans L., 

S. austriaca Jacq., S. virgata Jacq., S. pinnata L.) and Mentha (M. aquatica L., M. x piperita L., M. 

pulegium L., M. spicata L., M. viridis L.). Collecting from different habitats contributed to the 

achievement of intraspecific diversity in Inula helenium, Symphitum officinale, Thymus sp., 

Teucrium chamaedris, Hypericum perforatum, Mentha viridis L., Salvia verticillata and S. pratensis. 

A total of 32 wild species with different degrees of vulnerability and protection have been 

collected and conserved in ex situ collections (Table 2). Twenty-two of those are registered in 

the Red Book of Bulgaria, with 12 being categorized as rare, 4 as threatened and 6 as endemic. 

Under the Law for Nature Protection (LNP), 17 MAPs have been included in the collection, 

6 of which are protected, 5 are banned for use and 6 are allowed limited use. 

• Evaluation 

The MAP ex situ field collection is studied in three stages: preliminary evaluation, complex 

evaluation and special evaluation. 

Preliminary evaluation is compulsory for the introduced accessions and is performed in 

the quarantine field, where accessions are assessed for quarantine diseases. 

Complex evaluation is an important source of information to be recorded in databases 

and is required for seeds that will be placed under long-term storage in the national 

genebank. It involves biological, morphological and economic characteristics. 

A special evaluation is made for some of the accessions which have undergone complex 

evaluation. It is performed in accordance with the specific lines of use – breeding, trade, 

biogarden establishment, etc. (Varbanova et al. 2003). Trait collections were created for 

Tagetes sp. and Calendula officinalis L., for use as a source of information in breeding 

programmes. 

In wild accessions, special attention is paid to the adaptability of species to the new 

growing conditions and the establishment of suitable propagation methods. 

The evaluation of species adaptability comprises biological, morphological and economic 

traits and is carried out in the habitats and conditions of Sadovo (Peeva et al. 1995; 

Varbanova et al. 1995, 1997; Dimitrova and Varbanova 1995; Dimitrova et al. 1997) (Table 3).

30 


Table 2. Wild MAPs with protected status in the ex situ collection 

No. Species 

Red Book of Bulgaria 

Law for Nature Protection 

Rare Threatened Endemic Protected Banned Limited 

1 Rubia tinctorum L. + 

2 Symphytum officinale L. + 

3 Inula helenium L. + 

4 Glycyrrhiza glabra L. + + 

5 Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum (Link) 

+ 

Ietswaart 

6 Gypsophila trichotoma Wend. + 

7 Gypsophila tekirae Stefanov + 

8 Acorus calamus L. + 

9 Iris aphylla L. + 

10 Iris suaveolens Bois et Reut. + 

11 Rhododendron ponticum L. + 

12 Cistus salvifolius L. + 

13 Artemisia pedemontana Balbbs. + 

14 Achillea clypeolata Sibth. et Sm. + 

15 Adonis vernalis L. + 

16 Althaea officinalis L. + 

17 Atropa bella-donna L. + + 

18 Paeonia peregrina Mill. + 

19 Salvia pinnata L. + 

20 Ruta graveolens L. + + 

21 Alchemilla asteroantha Rotbm. + + 

22 Erica arborea L. + 

23 . Satureja coerulea Janka. + 

24 Sedum acre L. + 

25 Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench + + 

26 Saponaria stranjensis D. Jord. + 

27 Centaurium erythraea Rafin. + 

28 Onanthus maritimus (L.) Hoffm. et Link + 

29 Adonis wolgensis Stev. + 

30 Primula vulgaris Huds. subsp. 

+ + 

sibthorpii (Hoffm.) Sm. et Forest 

31 Primula veris L. + 

32 Galanthus nivalis L. + + 

Total 12 4 6 6 5 6 

Table 3. Adaptability of wild MAPs to cultivation 

No. Species 

Adaptability 

Very good Good Low 

1 Inula helenium + 

2 Iris aphylla + 

3 Gypsophila trichotoma + 

4 Gypsophila tekirae + 

5 Gypsophila paniculata + 

6 Clinopodium vulgare + 

7 Althaea officinalis + 

8 Mentha longifolia + 

9 Symphitum officinale + 

10 Paeonia tenuifolia + 

11 Rubia tinctorum + 

12 Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum + 

13 Adonis vernalis + 

14 Rhododendron ponticum + 

15 Vaccinium arctostaphyllos + 

16 Cistus incanus + 

17 Cistus salvifolius + 

To study the propagation abilities of some wild species (difficult to propagate, valuable, 

with protected status, commercial, etc.) traditional and in vitro methods are applied 

(Dimitrova et al. 1994, 1996, 2001). The results are used to create ex situ field collections and 

in vitro collections, as well as for commercial propagation.


Many MAPs have ornamental value and can be successfully grown in home biogardens. 

The collection of Sadovo includes more than 35 MAP species with ornamental qualities. Of 

high ornamental value are the species Calendula officinalis, Artemisia sp., Iris sp., Adonis 

vernalis, Althaea officinalis, Oenothera biennis, Inula helenium, Paeonia peregrina, Salvia sp., 

Tagetes sp. 

• MAP conservation 

MAP species are conserved ex situ (field collections, genebank seed collections and in vitro 

collections), and in situ (Stoyanova et al. 1998). 

- Ex situ conservation (Table 4) 

A total of 196 accessions are conserved under field conditions. Two collections are 

maintained: a working collection and an in vivo conservation collection. The working 

collection includes 75 accessions. Besides conservation, studies and propagation of 

accessions are performed to produce seed material for the genebank. The in vivo collection 

contains 121 vegetatively propagated accessions. 

The national genebank of IPGR in Sadovo contains 266 seed accessions of 27 MAP 

species, kept in three types of collections: base, active and exchange collections. The base 

collection provides long-term conservation of 152 accessions at a temperature of –18°C for a 

period of 15-20 years. The active collection contains a total of 114 accessions under mid-term 

storage conditions, at a temperature of 6°C. 

An alternative method for conservation and storage of MAPs is the creation of in vitro 

collections. Sixteen wild MAP species are propagated and stored in vitro at IPGR-Sadovo. 

Table 4. Ex situ conservation of MAP species 


Genebank 

Field 

In vitro 

Family 

Total 

In vivo Working 

Long-term Medium-term 

collection collection 

Amaryllidaceae 23 - - 23 - - 

Araceae 1 1 

Asteraceae 292 146 96 12 38 - 

Boraginaceae 4 - 1 1 1 1 

Caryophyllaceae 12 2 3 2 2 3 

Cistaceae 3 - - 2 - 1 

Crassulaceae 3 - - 2 1 - 

Fabaceae 4 - - 2 1 1 

Ericaceae 2 1 - - 1 - 

Gentianaceae 2 - - - 1 1 

Hypericaceae 3 - - - 2 1 

Iridaceae 12 - 2 10 - - 

Lamiaceae 88 - 11 57 15 5 

Malvaceae 1 - - - 1 - 

Onagraceae 2 1 - - 1 - 

Paeoniaceae 3 - - 2 1 - 

Primulaceae 2 - - - 2 - 

Ranunculaceae 4 - 1 1 2 - 

Resedaceae 2 - - 1 - 1 

Rosaceae 4 1 - 2 1 - 

Rubiaceae 1 - - 1 - - 

Rutaceae 3 1 - - 1 1 

Scrophulariaceae 5 - - 1 4 - 

Solanaceae 2 - - 1 - 1 

Total 478 152 114 121 75 16

32 


- In situ conservation 

Within the framework of a Bulgarian/Swiss Biodiversity Conservation Programme (BSBCP) 

project, a programme for in situ conservation was implemented. Ecogeographic 

investigations in the Kaliakra nature reserve and the habitats of Adonis vernalis and Paeonia 

tenuifolia were conducted. During the 5-year investigation period, information about the 

status of populations was collected (Varbanova et al. 1998, 2001). Databases for the 

biodiversity in the Kaliakra nature reserve and its adjacent territories were created and a 

management plan was developed (Angelova and Varbanova 2002). 

Use and trade 

Herb collecting in Bulgaria has long-established traditions (Mladenova 2000). Bulgarian 

medicinal plants are considered to be among the highest quality plants in the world owing to 

the specific soil and climatic conditions. Annually, from 12 000 to 15 000 tonnes of herbs are 

collected and processed in the country. Wild plants account for 70% of the total herb 

production while 30% are cultivated; 60-70% of the MAPs collected are intended for export, 

the other 30-40% remaining in the country as raw material for pharmaceutical and cosmetic 

industries, for the preparation of medicated and common teas, spices, etc. Of the wild plant 

species, the largest quantities exported are of Mentha sp., Melissa officinalis, Lavandula vera, 

Hypericum perforatum, Matricaria chamomilla, Lamium album, Rosa canina, Tilia sp. Bulgaria is 

one of the biggest MAP exporters in Europe, Germany being the major consumer. Recently, 

exports to Italy and Spain have also increased. 

Conclusion 

The great MAP diversity in Bulgaria, the traditions and the trade activities for MAP 

collecting determine the main priorities in the conservation of MAP genetic resources: 

• Effective legislative protection at the national level; 

• Clear strategy of IPGR for MAP collecting, study and conservation; 

• Coordinated activities and interrelations of IPGR as a national coordinator with related 

institutions, research institutes, NGOs, etc.; 

• International collaboration, established and enriched through projects and 

programmes; 

• Development of a database and participation in research on biodiversity conservation 

(Angelova et al. 1996; Angelova and Varbanova 2002). 

References 

Angelova, S., E. Ivanova, Zh. Spiridonov, R. Koeva, M. Michailov and K. Varbanova. 1996. Interaction 

between agriculture and nature conservation in Bulgaria. Bulgarian Swiss Biodiversity 

Conservation Programme (BSBCP), Sofia, Bulgaria. 

Angelova, S. and K. Varbanova. 2002. Plan for managing the Kaliakra nature reserve. Ministry of 

Environment and Water, BSBCP, Sofia, Bulgaria. 

Angelova, S., K. Varbanova, I. Peeva, Y. Guteva and D. Dimitrova. 1994. Cultivation of medicinal 

plants from the wild flora in Bulgaria - possibilities and prospects. Journal of Herbs, Spices and 

Medicinal Plants 2(2):3-8. 

Bondev, I. 1995. Flora and Medicine. Pp. 9-10 in Chorological atlas of medicinal plants in Bulgaria. 

Academic Publishing House "Prof. Marin Drinov", Sofia, Bulgaria. 

Dimitrova, D. and K. Varbanova. 1995. Characteristics of the development of Althaea officinalis L. in 

field conditions. Scientific Works of the Higher Agricultural Institute, Plovdiv 40(1):267-269. 

Dimitrova, D., K. Varbanova and L. Evstatieva. 1996. Possibilities for in vitro propagation of Atropa 

belladonna. Pp. 385-388 in Proceedings of the Second Balkan Scientific Conference on Investigation, 

Conservation and Use of Forest Resources, 3-5 June 1996, Sofia. Vol. 1. PSSA, Sofia, Bulgaria.


Dimitrova, D., K. Varbanova, L. Evstatieva and K. Kozhuharova. 1997. Growth and development of 

Symphytum officinale L. in field conditions. Pp. 263-268 in Proceedings of the Jubilee Scientific 

Session, held on the occasion of the 95 th Anniversary of Acad. P. Popov, 31 October 1997, Plovdiv, 

Academic Publishing House/Higher Agricultural Institute, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. 

Dimitrova, D., K. Varbanova and K. Kozhuharova. 2001. Experiments for adaptation of Atropa 

belladonna L. Scientific Works of Agricultural University, Plovdiv XLVI(1):101-106. 

Dimitrova, D., K. Varbanova, I. Peeva, S. Angelova and Y. Guteva. 1994. A study on in vitro 

cultivation of Glycirrhiza glabra. Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter 100:12-13. 

Guteva, Y., K. Varbanova and D. Shamov. 1998. Enrichment of the national collection of plant genetic 

resources with new germplasm. Plant Science, Sofia 35(10):791-795. 

Hardalova, R., L. Evstatieva and Ch. Gusev. 1994. Wild medicinal plant resources in Bulgaria and 

recommendation for their long-term development. Pp. 527-561 in Bulgaria's biological diversity: 

conservation status and needs assesssment (C. Meine, ed.). Pensoft, Sofia. 

Koeva, R. 1998. Plant diversity in Bulgaria – a strategy and challenge of the present days. Plant 

Science, Sofia 35(10):781-790. 

Mihova, B. 1994. Status of the system of protected territories. Pp. 374 in National Strategy for 

Biological Diversity Conservation. Vol. 2. Bulvest, Sofia, Bulgaria. 

Mladenova, M. 2000. Bulgaria – the biggest herb exporter in Europe. Pp. 110-117 in Proceedings of the 

International Interdisciplinary Conference "Medicinal Plants–Solution 2000", 21-23 June 1999, 

Sofia. Academic Publishing House "Prof. Marin Drinov", Sofia, Bulgaria. 

Peeva, I., K. Varbanova and D. Dimitrova. 1995. Characteristics of Clinopodium vulgare L. under 

natural and cultivating conditions. Scientific Works of the Higher Agricultural Institute, Plovdiv 

40(1):49-52. 

Stoeva, T. 2000. Cultivation of medicinal and essential oil plants in Bulgaria: Traditions and prospects. 

Arandelovac (Yugoslavia) 213-217. 

Stoyanova, S., Y. Guteva, D. Dimitrova, K. Varbanova, I. Peikova and A. Lichkov. 1998. Biological 

diversity conservation at the level of organism. Plant Science, Sofia 35(10):796-804. 

Varbanova, K., S. Angelova, D. Dimitrova and Y. Guteva. 2001. Distribution of Paeonia tenuifolia L. and 

Adonis vernalis L. in the steppes of Kaliakra. Scientific Works of Agricultural University, Plovdiv 

XLVI(1):135-138. 

Varbanova, K., S. Angelova and Y. Guteva. 1998. Ornamental and medicinal plant species in the 

Kaliakra nature reserve. Plant Science, Sofia (10):856-858. 

Varbanova, K. and D. Dimitrova. 2000. Collection, propagation and conservation of wild medicinal 

plant species. Pp. 41-44 in Proceedings of the International Interdisciplinary Conference "Medicinal 

Plants–Solution 2000", 21-23 June 1999, Sofia. Academic Publishing House "Prof. Marin Drinov", 

Sofia, Bulgaria. 

Varbanova, K., D. Dimitrova and St. Dimitrov. 1995. Possibilities for propagation of Inula helenium L. 

and reaction of plants to growth conditions. Scientific Works of the Higher Agricultural Institute, 

Plovdiv 40(1):283-286. 

Varbanova, K., D. Dimitrova and K. Kozhuharova. 1997. Salvia verticillata L. under conditions of 

cultivation. Pp. 257-262 in Proceedings of the Jubilee Scientific Session, held on the occasion of the 

95 th Anniversary of Acad. P. Popov, 31 October 1997, Plovdiv. Academic Publishing House/Higher 

Agricultural Institute, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. 

Varbanova, K., D. Dimitrova and K. Kozhuharova. 2003. Agrobiological characteristics of some wild 

species of genus Gypsophila at introduction. Pp. 214-218 in Proceedings of the Jubilee Scientific 

Session, held on the occasion of the 120 th Anniversary of Agricultural Science in Sadovo, 21-22 May 

2002, Institute of Plant Genetic Resources, Sadovo, Bulgaria.

34 



in Croatia 


Department of Seed Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, 

Croatia 

Legal protection of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) and their natural habitats 

The Law on Nature Protection (Official Gazette 'Narodne novine' Nos. 30/94 and 72/94) is the 

basic Croatian law regulating the issues of biological and landscape diversity preservation. 

The principal in situ biological conservation method is the establishment of protected natural 

areas. Pursuant to the Law on Nature Protection, approximately 7.5% of the Croatian State 

territory is protected in this manner. This Law establishes 8 spatial protection categories 

(national park, park of nature, strict reserve, special reserve, monument of nature, protected 

landscape, park-forest and park architecture monument). All protected areas are subject to 

very strict biodiversity protection measures (Radović 2000). 

Apart from the protected areas, certain plant species (44) are also protected pursuant to 

the Law on Nature Protection (Box 1). Five out of these 44 species (in bold) are traditionally 

used in folk medicine although it is not likely that overexploitation for medical purposes is 

the main reason of their rareness. However, overexploitation of related species such as 

Gentiana lutea L. and Paeonia officinalis L. has led to genetic erosion of these plants in some 

environments. 

The Ministry of Environmental Protection and Physical Planning is currently working on 

a Rule Book that would regulate protection of all plant species on the Red List in Croatia. 

The Red Data Book of Plant Taxa of the Republic of Croatia (Šugar 1994) provided a list of 401 

nationally threatened plant species classified as extinct (2), possibly extinct (2), endangered 

(87), vulnerable (85), rare (214), and indeterminate (11). According to the Red Data Book there 

are 17 plant species that are endangered, inter alia, due to their collecting as medicinal plants 

(Box 2). Nevertheless, other factors such as habitat loss or modification (drainage works, 

dam building, clearing of land for agriculture, road construction, mining) as well as small 

population size and collecting for decorative purposes seems to be more important in most 

cases. 

According to Article 36 of the Law on Nature Protection the Ministry's approval should be 

obtained for gathering plants (and their parts) that are not protected by the present or other 

laws if this is done for processing, commercial or trading purposes. The Rule Book on 

Collecting Plants in the Wild which regulates the gathering, trade and export of particular wild 

medicinal plants is still in preparation. Upon request, the Ministry issues permissions and 

sets quotas for the gathering of particular wild medicinal plants. In 1991, nine companies 

have obtained permissions for wild-collecting of 87 plant species (Box 3) and a total quota for 

the quantities to be wild-collected was set to 108 886.50 kg. The quantities were set 

according to the state of the natural population for the different species on the basis of 

research made by specialists from the Faculty of Science and the Faculty of Pharmacy and 

Biotechnology. Data on actual quantities gathered upon permissions are not complete. 

In the framework of the project "Biological database and geographic information system" 

(main researcher: Toni Nikolić, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb), the Flora Croatica: 

Index Florae Croaticae and Flora Croatica Database have been developed. They are 

continuously updated, supplemented and modified regarding the qualitative structure of 

Croatian flora (Nikolić 1994, 1997, 2000). However, the survey of the status of MAP natural 

resources still has to be done.


Box 1. List of 44 protected plant species in Croatia 

1. Anacamptis pyramidalis (L.) L.C.M. Richard 23. Ilex aquifolium L. 

2. Anthyllis barba-jovis L. 24. Leontopodium alpinum Cassini var. krasense (Derg.) Hayek 

3. Aquilegia kitaibelli Schott 25. Lilium bulbiferum L. 

4. Arbutus andrachnoides Link 26. Lilium carniolicum Bern. ex Koch 

5. Betula pubescens Ehrh. 27. Lilium martagon L. 

6. Centaurea ragusina L. 28. Nigritella nigra (L.) Reichenbach fil. 

7. Cephalanthera damasonium (Mill.) Druce 29. Paeonia mascula (L.) Mill. subsp. mascula 

8. Cephalanthera longifolia (L.) Fritsch 30. Pinus mugo Turra 

9. Cephelanthera rubra (L.) L.C.M. Richard 31. Platanthera bifolia (L.) L.C.M. Richard 

10. Convolvus cneorum L. 32. Platanthera chlorantha (Custer) Reichenbach & Moessler 

11. Cypripedium calceolus L. 33. Polygala chamaebuxus L. 

12. Daphne blagayana Freyer 34. Primula auricula L. 

13. Daphne cneorum L. 35. Primula kitaibeliana Schott 

14. Daphne laureola L. 36. Primula wulfeniana Schott 

15. Degenia velebitica (Degen) Hayek 37. Quercus coccifera L. 

16. Doronicum orientale Hoffmann 38. Rhododendron hirsutum L. 

17. Eranthis hyemalis (L.) Salisbury 39. Ruscus hypoglossum L. 

18. Eryngium alpinum L. 40. Scopolia carniolica Jacuin 

19. Fritillaria meleagris L. 41. Sibiraea croatica Degen 

20. Gentiana acaulis L. 42. Styrax officinalis L. 

21. Gentiana clusii Perr. & Songeon 43. Taxus baccata L. 

22. Gentiana lutea L. subsp. symphyandra (Murbeck) 44. Trollius europaeus L. 

Hayek 

Box 2. List of 17 plant species endangered by wild collecting as medicinal plants 

1. Achillea clavenae L. 9. Iris illyrica Tomm 

2. Anacamptis pyramidalis (L.) L.C.M.Rich. 10. Ophrys fusca Link 

3. Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. 11. Orchis laxiflora Lam. 

4. Arnica montana L. 12. Orchis mascula (L.) L. 

5. Crataegus transaplina Kern. 13. Paeonia mascula (L.) Mill. 

6. Digitalis grandiflora Mill. 14. Paeonia officinalis L. 

7. Gentiana acaulis L. 15. Scopolia carniolica Jacq. 

8. Gentiana symphyadra (Murb.) Fritsch 16. Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertner 

(syn. G. lutea L. subsp. symphyandra Murbeck) 17. Trollius europeaus L. 

Box 3. List of 87 wild-collected species for which permission was granted in 1991 

1. Abies alba Mill. 30. Daucus silvestris L. 59. Rhamnus frangula L. 

2. Achillea millefolium L. 31. Equisetum arvense L. 60. Rosa canina L. 

3. Aesculus hippocastaneum L. 32. Euphrasia officinalis L. 61. Rosmarinus officinalis L. 

4. Agropyron repens (L.) PB. 33. Filipendula ulmaria (L.) Maxim. 62. Rubus fruticosus L. 

5. Alchemilla vulgaris L. 34. Fragaria vesca L. 63. Rubus idaeus L. 

6. Allium ursinum L. 35. Fumaria officinalis L. 64. Rumex acetosa L. 

7. Althaea officinalis L. 36. Galium verum L. 65. Salix alba L. 

8. Anthyllis vulneraria L. 37. Geranium robertianum L. 66. Salvia officinalis L. 

9. Arctium lappa L. 38. Glechoma hederacea L. 67. Sambucus ebulus L. 

10. Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spr. 39. Hedera helix L. 68. Sambucus nigra L. 

11. Artemisia absinthium L. 40. Helichrysum italicum (Roth.) Mill. 69. Satureja montana L. 

12. Artemisia vulgaris L. 41. Humulus lupulus L. 70. Solidago serotina Ait. 

13. Asarum europaeum 42. Hypericum perforatum L. 71. Solidago virgaurea L. 

14. Bellis perennis L. 43. Juniperus communis L. 72. Symphytium officinale L. 

15. Berberis vulgaris L. 44. Lamium album L. 73. Taraxacum officinale Web. 

16. Betula pendula Roth. 45. Malva silvestris L. 74. Teucrium montanum L. 

17. Calendula arvensis L. 46. Melilotus officinalis (L.) Pall. 75. Thymus serpyllum L. 

18. Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull. 47. Melissa officinalis L. 76. Tilia cordata Mill. 

19. Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Med. 48. Ononis spinosa L. 77. Tilia platyphyllos Scop. 

20. Castanea sativa Mill. 49. Origanum vulgare L. 78. Tussilago farfara L. 

21. Centaurium erythraea Rafn. 50. Petasites hybridus (L.) G. 79. Urtica dioica L. 

22. Centaurium umbellatum L. 51. Phyllitis scolopendrium (L.) Newm. 80. Vaccinium myrtillus L. 

23. Ceratonia siliqua L. 52. Plantago lanceolata L. 81. Valeriana officinalis L. 

24. Chelidonium majus L. 53. Plantago major L. 82. Verbascum sp. 

25. Cichorium inthibus L. 54. Polygonum aviculare L. 83. Vinca minor L. 

26. Colchicum automnale L. 55. Potentilla erecta (L.) Rauschel. 84. Viola odorata L. 

27. Corylus avellana L. 56. Prunus spinosa L. 85. Viola tricolor L. 

28. Crataegus monogyna (Poir.) DC. 57. Pulmonaria officinalis L. 86. Viscum album L. 

29. Crataegus oxycantha L. 58. Quercus robur L. 87. Vitex agnus-castus L.

36 


Ex situ conservation of MAP species 

Ex situ conservation of MAP species is carried out at the Pharmaceutical Botanic Garden 

"Fran Kušan"; Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Zagreb; and Croatian 

Bank of Plant Genes, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb. 

• Pharmaceutical Botanic Garden "Fran Kušan" 

This garden was established in 1947, and since then it is one of the few European botanical 

gardens specialized in growing medical plants. The collections include about 3000 taxa 

which are intended for morphological, systematic and ecological studies for scientific, 

practical and educational purposes and needs and also for making collections. This garden 

publishes a Delectus seminum since 1958, and since 1962 the publication Informationes 

Botanicae. 

• Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry 

Ongoing projects include: 

- "Research on medicinal plants of Croatia" (main researcher: Zdenka Kalođera), 

- "Pharmacobotanical and chemotaxonomical investigation of medicinal plants" (main 

researcher: Željan Maleš), and 

- "Medicinal plants - biologically active compounds and QSAR" (main researcher: Marica 

Medić-Šarić). 

• Croatian Bank of Plant Genes 

The MAP collection was established in 1998. Accessions are held in classical ex situ 

maintenance facilities (cold chamber 75 m 3 ; medium-term seed storage at +4°C; seed samples 

in paper bags and glass jars). Currently, the collection covers more than 900 accessions of 

about 180 MAP species. Most accessions represent wild material of Croatian origin. Foreign 

accessions were obtained from commercial seed companies (Austria, Germany, Hungary, 

Italy, the Netherlands, Russia, USA) as well as from other genebanks (Austria, Czech 

Republic, Germany, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, USA) and botanical gardens (Italy, 

Germany). 

Collecting of MAP species is set as one of the priorities of the Croatian Bank of Plant 

Genes and a number of collecting missions are organized each year. In 2002 an international 

collecting mission (Croatia, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Slovenia) was carried out in Istria 

with the aim of collecting medicinal and aromatic plants and forage legumes and grasses. In 

collaboration with the Central Slovene Genebank for Plant Genetic Resources at Ljubljana a 

collecting mission to Kvarner islands (Krk, Cres, Rab, Pag) is planned for September 2003. 

A MAP multicrop collecting form was developed to standardize collecting information. 

Collected information includes: accession identification (taxonomy, distinguishing 

morphology, etc.); collecting site information: physical description (latitude, longitude, 

elevation, topographic landform, soil characteristics, etc.), vegetation description (local 

vegetation classification, dominant vegetation, etc.); and assessment of overall risk of genetic 

erosion (abundance, spatial pattern, diversity status, causes of biodiversity loss, 

overexploitation status, etc.). 

The main problem in the characterization and evaluation of the collected material is the 

lack of suitable descriptor lists. A descriptor list for basil species (Ocimum spp.) based on 

Hiltunen and Holm (1999) has been developed and the characterization of basil accessions 

has been carried out (Karlović 2002). Descriptor lists are currently being developed for 

marshmallow (Althaea officinalis L.), helichrysum (Helichrysum italicum (Roth) G. Don), 

St John's wort (Hypericum perforatum L.), oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), sage (Salvia


officinalis L.), winter savory (Satureja montana L.) and Dalmatian pyrethrum (Tanacetum 

cinerariifolium (Trev.) Schultz Bip.). 

These activities have been carried out as part of two projects at the Faculty of Agriculture, 

University of Zagreb: "Croatian Bank of Plant Genes" (main researcher: Ivan Kolak), and 

"Genetic variability of medicinal and aromatic plants" (main researcher: Zlatko Šatović). 

Characterization and evaluation of germplasm samples in plant genebanks is traditionally 

based on morphological traits, but recently modern conservation programmes include the 

analysis of genetic variability using molecular genetics techniques. Currently, molecular 

genetics research activities include phylogenetic studies of basils (Šatović 2002) and 

investigations on the genetic structure of Croatian sage populations. In collaboration with 

the Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, Ljubljana, studies on the genetic variability of oregano 

populations have been carried out. 

Cultivation of MAP species 

According to the Croatian Bureau of Statistics (CBS 2002), MAPs are cultivated on an area of 

about 2000 ha (yearly average between 1997 and 2001: 2146 ha). The share of MAP 

production amounts only to 0.16% of the area of arable land and gardens (or 0.07% of total 

agricultural land). About 80% of the total cultivation area of MAPs is on family farms and 

the rest is owned by agricultural companies. 

Major cultivated MAP species are: German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita (L.) 

Rauschert), peppermint (Mentha x piperita L.), lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.), sage 

(Salvia officinalis L.), marshmallow (Althaea officinalis L.), pot marigold (Calendula officinalis L.), 

fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) and St John's wort (Hypericum perforatum L.). Since there 

are no statistical data available on the production of specific crops, it is very difficult to give a 

correct estimation. 

The dominant cultivated MAP is German chamomile. Its area of cultivation is estimated 

to amount to more than 3000 ha and this is clearly in contradiction with official statistics. It 

is cultivated on more than 800 family farms concentrated in three Croatian counties 

(Virovitičko-podravska, Osječko-baranjska, and Koprivničko-križevačka). Nearly all the 

farmers have contracts with wholesalers who supply them with seeds and technical 

information and buy the harvested crop. There are three main wholesalers who buy almost 

the entire production (Duhanprodukt, Pitomača; Jan Spider, Pitomača; Agristar, Osijek). The 

average yield of dry chamomile flower is about 600 kg/ha. More than 90% of dried 

chamomile flowers is exported. 

MAP cultivation on family farms is usually a marginal activity and only a few farms 

specialize in MAP production. Most of the farmers produce crops on the basis of contracts 

with wholesalers or industry. The trade is dominated by a few wholesalers who purchase 

plant material from cultivators and also from collectors. There are 15 registered wholesalers 

dealing with MAPs. The harvested MAP material is delivered to different kinds of 

industries, such as the pharmaceutical, cosmetic or food industries, or exported. The main 

buyers of MAP material in Croatia are Pliva (Zagreb) and Frack (Zagreb). 

Trade figures obtained from the Croatian Chamber of Economy are based on the tariff 

heading "Medicinal plants and spices". Unfortunately, tariff codes do not discriminate 

between the wild or cultivated nature of the material. Moreover, sometimes they do not 

refer to actual plant species (or plant parts), but to a mixture of dried herbs that may include 

a number of different species. 

The annual volume of MAP material exported from Croatia in 2001 was 1856 t. German 

chamomile was the most important export commodity and it accounted for more than 60% 

(1207 t) of overall MAP exports. Other important species include peppermint (46 t), sage 

(21 t), marshmallow (12 t) and fennel (11 t). Since all these species are regularly produced in

38 


Croatia it seems that the export is largely based on cultivated material. MAPs are exported 

mainly to European countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Yugoslavia, Slovenia, Austria, 

Germany, Sweden, Italy, Macedonia, etc.) and USA. However, the annual volume of MAP 

material imported into Croatia in 2001 amounted to 2463 t. 

Since 1999, Croatian MAP producers and processors are organized as the "Affiliation of 

Medicinal Herb Producers and Processors at the Croatian Chamber of Economy". The main 

aim of the Affiliation is to encourage cooperation in this sector and to strengthen links 

between research institutes, private companies and government agencies. The Affiliation is 

also involved in making regulations and legislation affecting production, processing, quality 

control, and trade of MAP species and products. 

MAP producers and processors generally agree that marketing opportunities do exist but 

there are many problems to be solved and increased governmental support is clearly needed. 

The main problems are the lack of commercially manufactured specialized machinery, lack 

of suitable storage and drying facilities, lack of commercially available seeds of high quality 

(high-yielding cultivars) and lack of knowledge on crop-specific management (especially 

fertilizer requirements: lack of approved herbicides/pesticides) and harvesting techniques. 

Specific investments are often essential to start production and the return on investment is 

less predictable than for traditional crops. 

References 

CBS. 2002. Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Croatia 2001. Croatian Bureau of Statistics, Zagreb. 

Hiltunen, R. and Y. Holm, editors. 1999. Basil: The Genus Ocimum. Harwood Academic Publishers, 

Amsterdam. 

Karlović, K. 2002. Analiza raznolikosti bosiljka (Ocimum spp.) [Biodiversity analysis in basils (Ocimum 

spp.)]. MSc Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, Zagreb. 

Nikolić, T., editor. 1994. Flora Croatica: Index Florae Croaticae Pars 1. Natura Croatica, Hrvatski 

prirodoslovni muzej, Zagreb. 


prirodoslovni muzej, Zagreb. 


prirodnoslovni muzej, Zagreb. 

Radović, J., editor. 2000. An overview of the state of biological and landscape diversity of Croatia with 

the protection strategy and action plans. Ministry of Environmental Protection and Physical 

Planning, Zagreb. 

Šatović, Z., Z. Liber, K. Karlović and I. Kolak. 2002. Genetic relatedness among basil (Ocimum spp.) 

accessions using RAPD markers. Acta Biologica Cracoviensia Series Botanica 44:155-160. 

Šugar, I., editor. 1994. Crvena knjiga biljnih vrsta Republike Hrvatske [The Red Data Book of Plant 

Taxa of the Republic of Croatia]. Ministarstvo graditeljstva i zaštite okoliša [Ministry of 

Construction and Environmental Protection], Zagreb.


Genetic resources of medicinal and aromatic plants in Cyprus with emphasis 

on the selection, evaluation and management of Origanum dubium 

Demetrios Droushiotis and Athena Della 

Agricultural Research Institute (ARI), Nicosia, Cyprus 

Introduction 

Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean with an area of 9251 km 2 and includes 

four distinct topographical areas. The climate is intense Mediterranean with wet, changeable 

winters from November to March, and hot, dry summers from May to September, separated 

by short spring and autumn seasons. The vegetation consists mainly of coniferous forest, the 

maquis, the garigue and batha. A total of 1907 taxa have been recorded as native or 

naturalized and 376 taxa as cultivated. Of the native taxa 141 are endemic (Della 1999a, 

2000). A number of aromatic, medicinal and other useful plants are being exploited in 

Cyprus, e.g. Origanum dubium, Salvia fruticosa, Sideritis perfoliata, Matricaria recutita, Urtica 

urens, Plantago coronopus subsp. commutata, Mentha spicata subsp. spicata, Rosmarinus 

officinalis, etc. Among the wild shrubs which are partly used for their aromatic fruits are: 

lentisk, Pistacia lentiscus L. ("schinia", "schinnos") and Pistacia terebinthus L. (terebinth, 

"trimithkia"). The aromatic fruit of Pistacia atlantica Desf. ("tremithos"), the mastic-producing 

tree, which is used for making pies, was used in the past for oil production. Laurus nobilis L. 

(laurel) is gathered or grown for its aromatic leaves and fruit. The leaves are used as 

aromatics and the oil from its fruit in cosmetics. An interesting plant of economic 

importance is Rhus coriaria L. (sumach, "roudhi", "soumatji"), an erect or spreading shrub of 

about 2 m in height, which grows on stony mountainsides and in vineyards above 600- 

1800 m. The leaves of Rhus coriaria, an industrial plant rich in tannin, are collected every year 

and exported. Crataegus azarolus L. (azarole, "mosphilia"), a small round-headed tree, is 

grown on rocky mountainsides, by road sides or by field margins, where it is often planted. 

It is found from sea level to 1200 m altitude. Its fruit is gathered and eaten fresh or used to 

make home-made jams. It is used also in industry. The carob tree, Ceratonia siliqua L., the 

"charoupia" or "teratsia" of the Cypriots, which is grown in the wild, is also cultivated for its 

ripe fruit. It grows on dry hillsides in the garigue and in coastal and sub-maritime maquis 

from sea level to 700 m. It is widely cultivated in lowland areas (Della 1999b, 1999c). 

Ex situ collections are conserved in the National Genebank (Della 1997). National 

legislation protects the forest, rare endemic plants, national forest parks or nature reserves, 

as well as very old trees. A framework law has recently been ratified for the protection of 

nature. Although aromatic plants have always been grown in Cyprus, their cultivation has 

increased in recent years due to their use in international cuisine and to their association 

with better health. It is fortuitous that the agroclimatic conditions in Cyprus are very 

suitable for a wide range of aromatic crops. Aromatic and medicinal plants are grown at the 

Athalassa (near Nicosia) Government Nursery (Department of Agriculture) for evaluation 

and utilization. A number of the above species are already grown on a commercial scale. 

Research work at the Agricultural Research Institute includes studies of plant population 

density, cutting height, selection of different genotypes of oregano, experiments with preand 

post-emergence herbicides in a number of aromatic plant species, and irrigation 

experiments to study the effect of irrigation on the yield and quality of oregano and sage. 

Selection of local genotypes of oregano 

The aim of this study is to select among local genotypes of oregano the best clone for yield 

and quality. It has been observed that the populations of oregano were not uniform for 

many parameters such as flowering time, type of flowers (single or double), colour of leaves,

40 


size of leaves, plant size, growth habit (erect/prostrate), and scent (strong/weak). These 

differences, particularly in flowering time, create difficulties at harvest, resulting in yield and 

quality loss, since oregano is normally harvested at full bloom. Oregano is a cross-pollinated 

species, and hence not genetically uniform. Because of its genetic heterogeneity it is possible 

to select better genotypes for agronomic and quality traits. Twenty-one genotypes collected 

from various parts of Cyprus were multiplied vegetatively and planted at Saittas in 

replicated trials for evaluation. Seed of the best genotypes will be produced in isolation and 

will be bulked to produce a synthetic stock. The results so far showed that there are large 

differences in yield and other parameters among the various genotypes tested. Total dry 

matter yield (leaves and flowers) during the last two years (2000-2001) ranged from 

4190 kg/ha to 8670 kg/ha, while the oil content ranged on average from 3.3% to 5.85%. 

Plant population density of oregano 

The aim of this experiment is to determine the optimum population density of oregano 

plants. The treatments comprised nine combinations of three row spacings (60, 90 and 

120 cm) and three within-row spacings (30, 45 and 60 cm). Two experiments were 

established in spring 1997, one at Saittas, which lies at an altitude of approximately 600 m 

above sea level, and the other at Zygi, located at sea level. During the whole experimental 

period from 1997 to 2001 there were 8 cuts at Saittas and 6 at Zygi. The total dry matter yield 

(leaves and flowers) at Saittas and Zygi was 22 100 kg/ha and 9000 kg/ha, respectively. The 

highest yield at Zygi during the experimental period was obtained from plants spaced 

60 x 30 cm giving 5.5 plants/m 2 (10900 kg/ha) and the lowest from plants spaced 90 x 60 cm 

giving 1.8 plants/m 2 (7450 kg/ha), SE ± 727.0. At Saittas there were also significant 

differences among treatments in the first three years, with the plant density of 5.5/m 2 being 

the best in 1997, while the 3.7/m 2 was best in 1998 and 1999. Thereafter, differences 

disappeared because the plants grew large enough to cover the whole plot area. 

Effect of cutting height on the yield of oregano 

Height of cut is important for yield and persistence. A tall stubble leaves a photosynthetic 

area that provides additional carbohydrates for regrowth after cutting. Also, by adjusting 

the cutting height it may be possible to get more cuts per year. Three cutting heights, 8, 13, 

and 18 cm from the soil surface were tested. Two experiments were established in spring 

1997, one at Saittas and the other at Zygi. During the whole experimental period from 1997 

to 2001 there were 8 cuts at Saittas and 6 at Zygi. The total dry matter yield of leaves and 

flowers over the experimental period at Saittas and Zygi was 24330 kg/ha and 10100 kg/ha, 

respectively. 

Cutting at a height of 18 cm from the soil surface at Saittas produced the highest yield, 

26 500 kg/ha whilst a height of 8 cm gave the lowest, 22 300 kg/ha. Cutting at 13 cm was 

intermediate. At Zygi there were no significant differences among the three cutting heights. 

Control of weeds 

Weeds are a serious problem in aromatic and medicinal crops especially where the crop is 

irrigated. In a series of preliminary experiments initiated in 1996 at the Agricultural 

Research Institute several pre-emergence herbicides were screened for their suitability and 

effectiveness in 15 aromatic plant species, i.e. Foeniculum vulgare, Hyssopus officinalis, Laurus 

nobilis, Lavandula angustifolia, Melissa officinalis, Mentha piperita, M. viridis, Ocimum basilicum, 

Origanum dictamus, O. dubium, O. majorana, Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia fruticosa, Sideritis 

scardica and Thymus vulgaris. The herbicides selected were further tested in field trials. Trials 

that started in autumn 1996 with Lavandula, Salvia and Origanum, were completed in 1998. 

The results showed that among the residual herbicides tested, chlorthal dimethyl, oxadiazon


and oxyfluorfen, applied post-planting to crops at 7.5 kg, 0.75 kg and 0.75 kg a.i./ha. 

respectively, were suitable for the above three crops (Vouzounis 2000). 

Irrigation 

• Oregano 

Four amounts of water were tested with drip-irrigated Oregano at Zygi. Irrigation in 1999 

started in mid-April, ending in mid-November, and was applied every two weeks early in 

the irrigation season and weekly during the summer and autumn months. The amounts of 

water tested were 165, 290, 415 and 540 mm, equivalent to 40, 70, 100 and 130% of the 

estimated irrigation requirement, respectively. The crop was harvested in late May, but due 

to high summer temperatures regrowth was prevented, irrespective of irrigation treatment. 

Total fresh yield (stems, leaves, and flowers), marketable air-dried yield (leaves and flowers), 

oil content, and oil yield increased with increasing amount of water applied up to 415 mm 

(Metochis 2000). 

• Sage 

Four amounts of water applied by drip irrigation were tested with sage, also at Zygi. 

Irrigation in 1999 started in mid-April ending in mid-November and was applied every 

2 weeks early in the irrigation season and weekly during the summer and autumn months. 

The amounts of water tested were 125, 215, 310 and 405 mm, equivalent to 40, 70, 100 and 

130% of the estimated irrigation requirement, respectively. The crop was harvested in late 

March, mid-June and early December. Annual fresh yield (stems, leaves, and flowers), 

marketable air-dried yield (leaves and flowers), and oil yield decreased when seasonal 

irrigation was less than 310 mm (Metochis 2000). 

References 

Della, A. 1997. Collecting, conserving and utilizing plant genetic resources in Cyprus. Miscellaneous 

Reports Series No. 65. ARI, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and the Environment, 

Cyprus. 12pp. 

Della, A. 1999a. The Cyprus flora in checklist format; native or naturalized, cultivated, endemic, 

rarities, additions. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy/Agricultural 

Research Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus. 299pp. 

Della, A. 1999b. Neglected and underutilized species of Cyprus: use and conservation. Pp. 86-93 in 

Priority setting for underutilized and neglected plant species of the Mediterranean region 

(S. Padulosi, ed.). Report of the IPGRI Conference, 9-11 February 1998, ICARDA-Aleppo, Syria. 


Della, A. 1999c. Minor crops in the Mediterranean region. Pp. 28-31 in Report of a Network Coordinating 

Group on Minor Crops. Ad hoc meeting, 16 June 1999, Turku, Finland (L. Maggioni, compiler). 


Della, A. 2000. Contribution to the endemism of the flora of Cyprus. PhD Thesis, University of Patras, 

Greece. 460pp. 

Metochis, C. 2000. Irrigation of oregano and sage. Pp. 61-62 in Review for 1999. Agricultural Research 

Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus. 

Vouzounis, N.A. 2000. Control of weeds in aromatic crops. Pp. 42-43 in Review for 1999. Agricultural 

Research Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus.

42 


Current status of the collection of aromatic, culinary and medicinal plants in 

the Czech Gene Bank in Olomouc 

Karel Dušek 

Research Institute of Crop Production (RICP), Vegetable Gene Bank Olomouc, Czech Republic 

The genetic resources of aromatic, culinary and medicinal plants are maintained in the Gene 

Bank in Olomouc, which is now part of the Czech national genebank for agricultural crops. 

Since 1994 it has been, from an organization point of view, affiliated to the Research Institute 

of Crop Production (RICP) in Prague-Ruzyne. The bases of the germplasm collections were 

constituted at the Research Institute of Vegetables Growing and Breeding (RIVGB) in 

Olomouc, which was established in 1951 and ceased operating in 1994. The station in 

Olomouc now maintains genetic resources of all vegetable species usually grown in Central 

Europe (genera Allium, Beta, Brassica, Capsicum, Cucumis, Cucurbita, Daucus, Lactuca, 

Lycopersicon, etc.), and a wide range of aromatic, culinary and medicinal plants. Within the 

ECP/GR, the Gene Bank in Olomouc is responsible for holding the international field 

genebank for vegetatively propagated long-day Allium species. 

Collecting and growing medicinal and culinary plants have a long tradition in the Czech 

Republic. These activities were supported by intensive breeding based on selection from rich 

collections of genetic resources. In spite of a relatively limited growing area (the biggest 

production areas are, with the exception of mountains, in Moravia, along the river Elbe, 

around the towns of Litoměřice, Teplice, Pardubice and Hradec Králové, and in South 

Bohemia), the importance of medicinal and culinary plants is based on their specific quality. 

The collection of aromatic, culinary and medicinal plants 

This collection consists of 973 accessions representing 78 species, including 286 accessions 

that are vegetatively propagated and 687 propagated from seed. The species composition of 

this collection is shown in Table 1. New accessions are obtained from botanical gardens, 

private seed companies, research institutes and international and local collecting missions. 

Table 1. Species composition of the aromatic, culinary and medicinal plants collection in Olomouc 

Species 


Carum L. 277 

Origanum L. 67 

Ocimum L. 44 

Satureja L. 42 

Lavandula L. 41 

Plantago L. 41 

Salvia L. 37 

Mentha L. 35 

Calendula L. 34 

Anethum L. 24 

Althaea L. 22 

Foeniculum vulgare Miller 19 

Leonurus L. 19 

Hyssopus L. 16 

Thymus L. 14 

Malva L. 13 

Melissa L. 12 

Ruta L. 12 

Achillea L. 11 

Hypericum L. 11 

Verbascum L. 11 

Other species (Agrimonia L., Anchusa L., Anthemis L., Valeriana L.,Verbena L.) 171 

Total 973


The aromatic, culinary and medicinal plant accessions of the Gene Bank Olomouc are 

grown in the field at Holice. Cross-pollinated species (e.g. Satureja, Origanum, Carum) are 

grown in isolation cages. Every year 50 accessions are regenerated on average. 

Regeneration of the collection was started in 1994. The whole collection will be regenerated 

during the next 6 years. The harvested seeds are stored in boxes at –20°C. Work on genetic 

resources complies with the rules of the National Programme on plant genetic resources 

conservation and utilization in the Czech Republic. 

The evaluation of aromatic, culinary and medicinal plants includes a basic morphological 

description. Chemical analyses (essential oil content) are made on important species (e.g. 

Carum, Lavandula, Origanum, Ocimum). 

Passport data are fully processed and computerized. Evaluation data are gradually 

recorded and the development of a suitable database is in progress.

44 


Medicinal and aromatic plants in Estonia 

Ulve Pihlik 

Tartu University, Pharmacy Institute, Tartu, Estonia 

Introduction 

The flora and vegetation of Estonia are both very interesting for their biological diversity. 

Despite its small surface area, Estonia has two different biogeographical subdivisions. 

Geologically, eastern Estonia can be characterized by its sandstone bedrock and western 

Estonia by its limestone bedrock. Therefore different soil types occur in these areas. The 

composition of plant communities of western Estonia is, in turn, under the influence of the 

more maritime climate. These conditions give rise to very different plant communities. 

About half of Estonia is covered by forest, over 20% by mires, and about 20% by meadows. 

The indigenous flora of Estonia includes approximately 1500 vascular plants. More than 500 

plant species are situated on the margin of their distribution area: 121 on the northern, 128 on 

the northeastern, 45 on the eastern, 56 on the southeastern, 27 on the southern, 11 on the 

southwestern, 15 on the western and 52 on the northwestern margins. 

Legislation 

The Law of Natural Objects under Protection (passed in 1994, supplemented in 1998) establishes 

the terms for the protection of both plant communities and plant species. Almost 10% of the 

country’s area is subject to various levels of protection. The strict regime of protection 

applies to over 1% of the whole area, and is planned to cover up to 5% of the mainland by 

2010. The above-mentioned law has established the following categories of protection: 

• Conservation areas 

- national parks, meant for the protection of typical landscapes and the biological 

diversity of ecosystems (Lahemaa – northern Estonian plant communities; Karula – 

southern Estonian plant communities; Soomaa – the communities of mires and bogs; 

Vilsandi – littoral communities); 

- wildlife conservation areas, meant for the protection of rare species and species in 

danger of extinction; 

- landscape conservation areas (parks, arboreta, botanical gardens), usually small; 

- programmed areas, in which monitoring, research work and educational activities are 

carried out in accordance with the programme; 

• Protected natural individual objects (live or lifeless natural objects of high scientific, 

historical or cultural value (e.g. single trees, rocks and stones, waterfalls, caves, etc.); 

• Species, fossils and minerals under protection. 

Endangered plant species are divided into three categories according to the protection 

regime: 

1. The first category includes 22 protected species of high scientific value (relicts, species 

with a narrow area of distribution and those on the margin of an area), very rare plants 

(1-5 sites) and clearly endangered species (Kukk 1999). 

2. The second category (145 species) consists of rare and endangered species and species of 

scientific value, for which the threat is not as acute as for the species in the first category. 

They include endemic species, relicts from earlier climatic periods or species situated on 

the margin of their distribution area. The following species used as medicinal plants 

belong to this category: Taxus baccata L., Jovibarba globifera (L.) J. Parnell (syn. J. sobolifera 

(Sims) Opiz), Prunus spinosa L., Rubus arcticus L., Hedera helix L., Helichrysum arenarium (L.) 

Moench and Orchis spp.


3. The third category of protected species covers 41 quite common species that are 

endangered for various reasons. These include many decorative, medicinal and edible 

plants. The following medicinal species are listed: Huperzia selago (L.) Bernh. ex Schrank. 

et Mart., Lycopodium clavatum L., Daphne mezereum L., Myrica gale L., Allium ursinum L., 

Colchicum autumnale L. and Orchis spp. 

In situ and ex situ conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants 

Given the rather large coverage of protected areas in Estonia, the habitats of numerous 

medicinal plants enjoy a fairly good level of protection. In case of necessity it is possible, 

besides protecting the species under observation, to protect the habitat also by setting up 

small conservation areas, thus making the protection of plant communities considerably 

more effective. 

Regarding ex situ conservation, the collection of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) in 

the experimental garden of the Pharmacy Institute at the University of Tartu has a leading 

role. The collection is essential to the research and studies of the pharmacy students. 

Regrettably, an adequate MAP seed bank is still lacking. The botanical gardens of Tartu and 

Tallinn have organized to a certain degree the ex situ conservation of medicinal plants, kept 

in the Department of plant systematics, and a collection of useful plants. In the Nigula 

Wildlife Conservation area, ex situ conservation has been arranged for 760 indigenous forms 

of Oxycoccus palustris Pers. as well as for natural forms of Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. and Rubus 

arcticus L. at the University of Agriculture. 

In Estonia, the following measures are taken for in situ and ex situ conservation: 

- Further development and unification of laws; 

- Land use restrictions in the areas under protection; 

- Arranging support systems and paying compensation in the areas under protection; 

- Claims for damages in case of violation of the law. 

Use of MAPs 

Estonia has long traditions in using medicinal and aromatic plants. Even now one can find 

considerably more herbal drugs and tea blends in our chemists' shops than in most European 

countries. Some of the drugs are gathered in the wild. These include mainly common, 

widely spread species. Along with the restoration of land ownership within the last decade, 

a number of farmers have started growing indigenous MAP species. On the average, about 

ten species are grown but there are also farms where 30 or more species are grown. 

Statistical data about MAPs gathered in the wild and grown on-farm are lacking since no 

reporting or monitoring system has been established yet. 

Regarding medicinal plants, thorough research was done in Estonia in the 1980s on the 

resources and sustainable use of two forest plants: Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. and 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. A possible annual use was calculated on the yearly gain in growth of 

the biomass that guaranteed a continuous renewal of resources. Based on the findings, 

distribution maps of the resources were drawn up. 

Conclusion 

To summarize, owing to long-term traditions of nature conservation in Estonia, the status of 

in situ protection of MAPs is considerably better than that of ex situ conservation. 

Reference 

Kukk, Ü. 1999. Eesti kaitstavad taimeliigid [Protected plants of Estonia]. Huma, Tartu, Estonia.

46 


Perspectives and achievements in genetic conservation of medicinal and 

aromatic plants in Hungary 

Jenő Bernáth and Éva Németh 

Szent István University (SZI), Department of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Budapest, Hungary 

Tradition and future of the utilization of medicinal plants growing wild in Hungary 

The first reports of collection and small-scale cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants 

(MAPs) in Hungary are found in the books written by monks settled in the country in the 

Middle Ages, arriving from the Mediterranean regions (Italy, France). Furthermore many 

medicinal and aromatic plants, especially members of the Lamiaceae family, were 

introduced into the Carpathian valley in these early times. However, till the end of the 19 th 

century, MAP production was carried out on the "family scale" only. Intensification of 

production (both collecting and cultivation) started in the first years of the 20 th century, 

when the processing of the plant raw material including oil distillation also started. In spite 

of the political and economic strife of the former century the MAP sector became a successful 

branch of the Hungarian economy (Bernáth 1994). Some of the national products made from 

either collected or cultivated species became known as special Hungarian products 

("Hungaricum") highly valued on the world market (Chamomillae flos, Basilici herba and 

folium). 

When evaluating the future of the worldwide utilization of natural habitats it should be 

noted that about 90% of the 1200-1300 MAP species which are sold in EU countries are of 

wild origin and originate in developing countries (Lange 1996). In Hungary about 30-35% of 

the total MAP production is based on the natural flora. This means that about 10 000-15 000 t 

dry biomass is produced from the wild, from about 120-130 different species (Németh 1997). 

This places Hungary in an intermediate position considering the European situation as a 

whole. In western European countries there is practically no collecting, while in eastern and 

southern Europe the proportion of drugs gathered in the wild often reaches 100%. 

International data show that for instance in England collecting is restricted to occasional selfconsumption, 

while in Spain about 50% and in Albania 100% of the total drug production 

comes from the wild. A feature of the Hungarian MAP sector is that the spectrum of 

collected species is rather wide. In most countries the collecting of some particular species 

dominates: Thymus in Spain, Origanum in Turkey and Italy, while collecting of Salvia and 

Tillia spp. in Albania provides an important export crop. According to statistical data the 

number of medicinal plants collected in Hungary and either exported or found on the 

domestic market is relatively high (Box 1). 

The worldwide reduction in the number of collected MAPs drew attention to the fact that 

the damage to plant communities over the "theoretical losses" could result in a large decrease 

in profit. The protection of many territories used for collecting MAPs in the past, as well as 

the extension of the protection to individual species resulted in an enormous limitation in 

MAP production. The importance of MAP preservation was recognized by international 

organizations as well as Hungarian authorities. It was recognized that the protection and 

development of plant communities based on scientific analysis and activity, including gene 

conservation, can contribute to sustaining or even increasing the production capacity of the 

indigenous flora.


Box 1. List of medicinal and aromatic plants of great importance collected in Hungary 

Medicinal plant drugs produced in natural ecosystems (collected species) 

Achilleae herba* 

Anserinae herba 

Apii herba 

Asarae herba cum radix 

Asperulae herba 

Bardanae radix* 

Betonicae folium, herba 

Betulae folium 

Bursae pastoris herba 

Calcatrippae flos, herba 

Cerefolii herba 

Chelidonii herba* 

Cichorii herba, radix 

Clematitis herba 

Coryli folium 

Crataegi fructus, summitas* 

Cynodon dactylon rhizome 

Cynosbati fructus* 

Echii herba 

Equiseti herba* 

Eupatorii herba 

Euphrasiae herba 

Fagopyri herba 

Farfarae flos, folium 

Filipendulae herba 

Fragariae folium 

Frangulae cortex 

Fraxini folium 

Fumariae herba 

Galegae herba 

Galeopsidis herba 

Galli herba 

Gei rhizome 

Glandes quercus testae pulvis 

Graminis rhizome 

Hederae herba 

Helianthemi herba 

Herniariae herba 

Juniperi fructus* 

Lamii albi flos, herba 

Lepidii herba 

Linariae herba 

Menthae aquaticae herba 

Mori folium 

Myrtilli folium, fructus 

Ononidis radix 

Papaveris rhoeas flos 

Plantaginis lanceolatae folium 

Plantaginis majoris folium 

Polygalae herba 

Polygoni herba 

Polygoni hydropiperis herba 

Populi gemma 

Primulae flos, folium, radix 

Pruni spinosae flos, fructus 

Pulmonariae folium 

Quercus cerris folium, lichen 

Rhei rhizome 

Robiniae flos 

Salicis cortex 

Sambuci flos*, fructus 

Sedi herba 

Serpylli herba 

Sideritidis herba 

Solidaginis herba* 

Sorbi aucupariae fructus 

Stellariae herba 

Taraxaci folium, herba, radix* 

Tiliae flos, folium* 

Tormentillae rhizome 

Urticae folium* 

Verbenae herba 

Veronicae herba 

Vincae herba 

Violae odoratae folium 

Violae tricoloris herba 

Virgae aureae solidaginis herba 

Visci stipes* 

Medicinal plant drugs produced in both natural and agrarian systems (collected and/or cultivated 

species) 

Absinthii herba 

Agrimoniae herba 

Althaeae flos, folium, radix 

Armoraciae radix 

Amygdalae dulcis farina 

Centauri herba 

Chamomillae flos* 

Cotinius folium 

Hyperici herba* 

Inulae radix 

Leonurii cardiacae herba 

Malvae silvestris flos, folium 

Marrubii herba 

Meliloti flos, herba 

Millefolii flos, herba 

Origani herba 

Saponariae albae 

Saponariae officinalis herba, radix 

Tanaceti flos, herba 

Verbasci flos 

* = about 10–500 tonnes collected per year

48 


Regions of Hungary specialized in MAP collecting and/or cultivation 

The traditional regions of utilization of the indigenous flora and the main cultivation areas of 

MAPs are shown in Fig. 1. 

Reg 2 

Reg.6b 

Reg.3 

Reg.5 

Reg.1 

Reg.4 

Reg.6a 

Reg.7 

Fig. 1. Traditional regions for utilization of indigenous flora and main cultivation areas of medicinal and 

aromatic plants in Hungary: 

Reg. 1 = Great Plain and East Tisza river region 

Reg. 2 = North-central mountainous region of Hungary 

Reg. 3 = Balaton highland 

Reg. 4 = South Hungary 

Reg. 5 = Bakony and its surroundings 

Reg. 6a = Region suitable for "spring poppy" cultivation 

Reg. 6b = Northern part of Transdanubia suitable for "autumn poppy" cultivation 

Reg. 7 = Region of plant species which can be cultivated all over the country 

• Traditional regions of utilization of the indigenous flora 

The regional specialization in Hungary for utilization of the indigenous flora dates back to 

the beginnings of the 1920s. This specialization took place spontaneously in response to 

various biological, economical and social factors (Bernáth 1994). As a result of spontaneous 

specialization during the past 80-90 years, well-defined production areas have appeared, 

which have had a great influence on the effectiveness of the medicinal plant sector in the 

past and may also affect its future development. 

- Region 1 

The natural occurrence of Matricaria recutita in Hungary is one of the model examples 

illustrating the regional specialization for utilization of species of the indigenous flora 

(Fig. 1). From a biological point of view, chamomile grown in saline habitats was regarded 

as high quality. This was first based on empirical observations and later confirmed by 

sophisticated chemical and pharmacological analysis. From a socioeconomical point of view 

the development of this region was promoted by the abundance of labour locally. According 

to the data of trading companies, as many as 15 000-20 000 people are involved in gathering 

chamomile flowers at harvest time, even today. Because of the short duration of the 

chamomile harvest and processing, the regional activity had to be complemented by 

utilization of other MAPs indigenous to the region (Juniperus communis, Achillea millefolium, 

Gypsophila paniculata, Crataegus spp., Rosa spp., etc.).


- Region 2 

The development of special regions for utilization of indigenous plant flora was obvious in 

the north-central mountainous region of Hungary (Fig. 1) since the beginning of the 20 th 

century. In the production areas of Rosa spp., Sambucus nigra, Prunus spinosa, Crataegus spp., 

etc., buying arrangements and centralized processing facilities were installed. Examples of 

centres of MAP production in the northern part of Hungary include Balassagyarmat, Pásztó, 

Veresegyháza and other towns and villages. 

• Specialization of cultivation areas 

In the development of the specialized cultivation areas for MAPs, beside traditional and 

accidental elements the ecological and economical considerations became ever more 

important. 

- Region 3 

The region for lavender cultivation (Lavandula angustifolia and L. intermedia) was created in 

the 1930s mostly based on ecological considerations. Suitable ecological conditions had to be 

chosen for the cultivation of species of Mediterranean origin (Németh 1996). Plantations 

were established on the southern slopes of the Tihany Peninsula and in the neighbouring 

territories (Balatonakali, Daránypuszta, etc.) where the ecological conditions show some 

similarity to the Mediterranean. The importance of lavender plantations has decreased in 

recent decades; however a relict of the first plantation still exists in the Tihany Peninsula. 

- Region 4 

Both ecological and economical considerations led to specialization in marjoram (Origanum 

majoranna) and basil (Ocimum basilicum) cultivation in the region. The climate of Region 4, 

situated in the southern part of Hungary, is relatively warm and receives appropriate 

sunshine. Its climate meets the ecological requirements of species of Mediterranean and 

subtropical origin. From an economical point of view, this area is also known as a major 

cultivation area for red pepper. The drying and postharvest processing of red pepper and 

medicinal and aromatic plant/spices are very similar. This means that the available 

technology and processing facilities located in the region can be utilized for both plant 

groups. 

- Region 5 

The introduction of the cultivation of ergot (Claviceps purpurea) in this area was motivated by 

both ecological and economical considerations. From the wide-ranging cultivation areas of 

the host plant (Secale cereale), a special area possessing suitable ecological conditions for the 

development of fungi had to be chosen. As a result of compromise the southwestern slopes 

of Bakony Mountain were selected for the purpose. The cultivation area has since been 

equipped with valuable cultivation and postharvest technological tools. 

- Region 6 

The cultivation of poppy (Papaver somniferum) has a great tradition in Hungary owing to its 

wide-scale use as both an important food plant and a source of oil and industrial raw 

material. Its large-scale cultivation is organized and controlled by the pharmaceutical 

factory "Alkaloida". The poppy cultivation region can be divided into two sub-regions. The 

cultivation of spring-sown varieties is concentrated in the Great Plain of Hungary and some 

parts of the northwestern regions of the country (Region 6a), while autumn-sown varieties, 

because of their susceptibility to winter damage, are situated in the western part of Hungary 

(Region 6b) where winters are usually much milder and snow covers the fields more 

frequently.

50 


• Species cultivated and collected country-wide 

- Region 7 

Several MAP species can be cultivated and/or collected in Hungary without much 

restriction. Such cultivated species include members of the Apiaceae family (Foeniculum 

vulgare, Carum carvi, Anethum graveolens, Coriandrum sativum, Pimpinella anisum, etc.), mustard 

(Sinapis and Brassica spp.), Silybum marianum, Cucurbita spp., and among collected plants, 

examples include Sambucus nigra, Rosa canina, Equisetum arvense, Crataegus spp., etc. 

Preservation of Hungarian MAP production potential and biodiversity 

Even today, a considerable proportion of the medicinal and aromatic plant drugs produced 

and sold by the Hungarian MAP sector comes from indigenous sources. This exploitation of 

natural plant populations without scientific analysis and control may reduce the 

productivity of natural plant populations and the biodiversity of the Hungarian flora. The 

analysis of the Hungarian situation shows that the ratio of MAPs is high among the 400-plus 

species that are legally protected in Hungary. The reduction of the local medicinal plant 

spectrum is shown, however, by the fact that 17 species which were recommended for 

collecting on a large scale and used as herbs and extracts in 1948 and in 1961 had to be 

removed from the production list. The danger is more obvious if we take into consideration 

the list of protected species which can be used as MAPs according to various literature 

references (Box 2). 

Box 2. List of the Hungarian protected species which are used as medicinal and aromatic plants 

according to literature references 

Achillea crithmifolia 

Achillea ptarmica 

Acorus calamus 

Adonis vernalis 

Betula pubescens 

Colchicum arenarium 

Dictamnus albus 

Equisetum hyemale 

Helichrysum arenarium 

Helleborus purpurascens 

Hepatica nobilis 

Inula helenium 

Iris pumila 

Lycopodium clavatum 

Menyanthes trifoliate 

Nigricans 

Orchis morio 

Polygonum bistorta 

Primula elatior 

Primula vulgaris 

Quercus farnetto 

Ribes nigrum 

Rosa pendulina 

Ruscus aculeatus 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea 

Valeriana sambucifolia 

Alchemilla crinita 

Alkanna tinctoria 

Armoracia macrocarpa 

Arnica montana 

Carlina acaulis 

Gentiana asclepiadea 

Gentiana cruciata 

Gentiana pneumonanthe 

Globularia cordifolia 

Hippophae rhamnoides 

Hypericum elegans 

Hypericum maculatum 

Isatis tinctoria 

Petasites albus 

Peucedanum officinale 

Phyllitis scolopendrium 

Plantago maxima 

Polygala major 

Ruscus hypoglossum 

Scopolia carniolica 

Sempervivum marmoreum 

Sempervivum tectorum 

Tamus communis 

Taxus baccata 

Urtica kioviensis 

Vitis sylvestris


• Factors playing a role in the decrease of the Hungarian MAP production potential and 

biodiversity 

The scientific study of the Hungarian indigenous flora has a long tradition. However the 

detailed study of populations utilized as MAPs (coenological, chemical and yield characters 

was undertaken only recently, in the early 1960s. This seems to be a very important 

phenomenon, especially in the case of medicinal plants which became protected or 

endangered. On the basis of recent investigations, the factors having an adverse effect on 

MAP productivity can be divided into two main groups: 

1. Direct factors limiting the spectrum and productivity of indigenous MAP populations 

- Overexploitation of MAP populations by intensive and inconsiderate collecting may 

result in irreversible damage. Owing to profit seeking and lack of scientific control, more 

and more species have to be included in the list of endangered species. Examples include 

Adonis vernalis, Primula spp. and Dictamnus albus, which became protected due to their 

unregulated exploitation from the wild. 

- The overall reduction of forest areas resulting from progressive industrialization limits 

both the spectrum and productivity of MAP populations. The decrease in the populations 

of Dryopteris filix-mas, Crataegus nigra, Primula vulgaris, Veronica officinalis, etc., can be 

explained by this phenomenon. 

- Drainage of marshy-moist ecosystems as a result of the political decision of the former 

socialist administration (especially in the 1950s) has had an adverse effect on the 

medicinal plant populations after many years. The most valuable species in this respect, 

which have had to be removed from the list of utilized plants, are Acorus calamus and 

Menianthes trifoliata. 

- There are huge losses to former ruderal MAP populations, gathered from cultivated field 

headlands, meadows, farmyards, etc. The biodiversity of these systems has been reduced 

drastically. Species which were collected from these habitats on a large scale, such as 

Marrubium vulgare and Fumaria schleicheri, have become very rare and botanists consider 

there is a need for their protection. 

- The natural distribution of MAPs is limited by pollution. Because of the increasing 

quality requirements, the production area has to be farther from the main roads, 

industrial facilities, etc. This means that more and more territories are withdrawn from 

the production of medicinal and aromatic plants. Some species, especially Arnica montana 

and Vaccinium spp., are very susceptible to pollution. 

2. Indirect factors limiting the spectrum and productivity of indigenous MAP populations 

The overall reduction in the species range in natural plant communities, which is a general 

phenomenon throughout Europe (plants becoming endangered, rare or extinct) is also 

observable in Hungary. Medicinal and aromatic plants, as constituents of the different 

ecosystems, are affected by any factor that damages plants generally. The severe reduction 

of biodiversity affects all Europe and is reflected in the large number of species now extinct 

(Bernáth 1988). This reduction also means the extinction of some chemotaxa existing in 

given natural systems, which may have had potential therapeutic use but are lost forever. 

Several indirect factors such as industrial pollution, increasing amount of agrochemicals, 

harmful human influences, etc., damage the natural ecosystems continuously, including 

plant species utilized as MAPs.

52 


• Efforts made to preserve the MAP spectrum in the country and sustain their production 

capacity (ex situ and in situ) 

The importance of MAP preservation was recognized by the scientists, representatives of 

Hungarian authorities and drug producers, and concrete steps were taken recently to 

increase the effectiveness of protection. To harmonize and distribute the government funds 

allocated to MAP conservation in Hungary a Central Medicinal Conservation Board was 

established within the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. The experts of the 

Department of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of SZI University in Budapest head the Board. 

1. In situ conservation of MAPs 

- Complex protection 

The complex protection of particular geographical regions or areas regulated by 

administrative measures is an indirect form of MAP conservation. The Hungarian protected 

areas that are important from the point of view of MAPs are listed in Table 1. However, the 

MAPs grown in these areas (with some exceptions) cannot be used as a source of raw 

material. Their plant spectrum and chemical diversity constitutes a source for scientific 

studies and further development. 

Table 1. List of Hungarian conservation areas with potential importance for MAPs 

Name Type (1) Name Type (1) 

Adony PA Csorvás - Adonis pop. PA 

Aggtelek* NP Erdôbényei - woody pasture PA 

Ágotapuszta PA Erdôtelek – arboretum PA 

Alcsút - arboretum PA Fényi – forest PA 

Ásotthalom - marshland PA Fertô - lake NP 

Aszófõ - forest PA Fóti Somlyó** PA 

Badacsony PR Füzérradvány – garden PA 

Baktalorándháza - forest PA Gemenc PR 

Baláta-tó, Szente PA Gerencse PR 

Balatonfüred - forest PA Gödöllô - ridge of hills PR 

Barcs PR Gyöngyös, Sár – hill PA 

Bátorliget - pasture PA Hajdúság - woodydeserts PR 

Bátorliget - marshland PA Hajós PA 

Béda-karapancsa PR Hanság PR 

Bélmegyer - forest-desert PA Hencida - Quercus forest PA 

Bihar - pasture PA Hortobágy* NP 

Biharugra PR Jakab hegy, Kôvágószôlôs PA 

Bikács, Ökör - hill PA Jeli - arboretum** PA 

Bodrogszeg, castle - hill PA Káli - basin PR 

Boronka region PR Kámon - arboretum PA 

Borsod - fields PR Karancs-Medves PR 

Börzsöny - hill* PR Kardoskút - "white" lake PA 

Buda, Sas - hill PA Kecsker - pasture PA 

Budapest - botanical garden ** PA Kelemér, Mohos - lakes PA 

Bükk* NP Kéleshalom - sand hills PA 

Cegléd - meadow PA Kelet-Cserhát PR 

Császártöltés - red marshland PA Kelet-Mecsek* PR 

Csévharaszt - Juniperus pop. ** PA Kerecsend - forest PA 

Csokonyavisonta - woody pasture PA Kesznyéteni PR 

Dabas PA Keszthely PR 

Dámányadacs - meadow PA Kis-Balaton PR 

Darvas Lake (Sümeg) PA Kiskunság* NP 

Dévaványa PR Kistápé - marshland PA 

Devecser, Szék - forest PA Kôszeg PR 

Dinnyés, Fertô PA Közép-Tisza* PR 

Lankóc - forest PA Szársomlyó, Nagyharsány PA 

Láz-Horst PR Szarvas - arboretum** PA 

Lesencetomaj PA Szatmár-Bereg PR 

Magas-Bakony PR Szedres - Crocus pop. ** PA 

Makó-landor - forest PA Szeleste - arboretum PA 

Mártély PR Szendrôlád - marshland PA 

Mátra* PR Szentgál - Taxus pop. ** PA


Table 1 (cont.). List of Hungarian conservation areas with potential importance for MAPs 

Name Type (1) Name Type (1) 

Melegmány völgy, Mánfa PA Szentgyörgyvölgy PR 

Nagycenk - Tilia pop. PA Szigetköz PR 

Nagyerdö, Debrecen - Quercus pop. PA Szöllôskert - forest PA 

Némethkér, Látó - hill PA Tállya, Patócs - hill PA 

Ócsa PR Tapolcafô - marshland PA 

Ohat - forest PA Tatársánc - grassland, Pusztaföldvár PA 

Ôrség PR Tátika - Fagus pop. PA 

Ôrtilos, Szent Mihály - hill PA Tihany ** PR 

Pannonhalma - arboretum PA Tiszadorogma, Göbe - forest PA 

Pilis PR Tiszaigar, arboretum PA 

Pitvaros - pastures PR Tiszavasvári, white-saline PA 

Pusztakócs - marshland PA Tokaj-Bodrogzug PR 

Rinyaszentkirály - forest PA Tura - pasture PA 

Ság-hegy PR Újszentmargita - forest PA 

Sárrét PR Úrkút - karst PA 

Sárvár - arboretum PA Uzsai - Calluna pop. PA 

Somogyvár, Kapuvár - hill PA Vácrátót - botanical garden ** PA 

Sopron - Botanical Garden PA Vajdalapos - forest PA 

Sopron PR Vértes PR 

Sümeg, Mogyorós-Domb PA Zákány, Quercus pop. PA 

Szabadkígyós PR Zemplén* PR 

Szakadát, pasture PA Zirc - arboretum ** PA 

Szaporca, Ó-Dráva - river bed PA Zselic PR 

(1) 

Type: NP = National Park, PR = Protected Region, PA = Protected Area 

* = Conservation areas of main importance from the point of view of production 

**= Conservation areas of main importance from the point of view of conservation 

- Controlled utilization of MAP species 

There are possibilities for the controlled utilization of MAP species grown in special 

protected areas. Model examples are the collections of Juniperus communis in the Kiskunság 

National Park and the collection of Matricaria recutita in Hortobágy National Park. These 

species are very abundant in these regions. The well organized collecting of the plants 

controlled by scientists and experts results in no harm to the plant populations and even 

contribute to a better knowledge of these Juniperus and Matricaria populations, which is the 

basis for further development and increased production. Another advantage of this method 

is that the plant drugs coming from such areas are very likely to be free of pollutants. This 

type of collection seems to be profitable from both biological and economic points of view 

and ought to be extended to other MAP species. 

- Protection of individual plants 

Protection of individual plants is used in the in situ conservation of MAP species in Hungary. 

However its effectiveness greatly depends on the actual biodiversity of the species existing at 

the time of protection. The plants can be divided into three groups according to their natural 

biodiversity status: 

a. Individual protection of MAPs which have become extinct or extremely rare is only of 

limited practical importance. Some representatives of this group include Arnica montana, 

Digitalis lanata, Digitalis ferruginea, etc. The chemical, morphological and biological 

product diversity of these species is probably lost. There is little hope for their utilization 

as a genetic source for further development of the MAP sector. 

b. A number of protected MAPs are widely studied for their chemical and biological 

characters in Hungary. The main representatives of this group include Achillea spp., 

Adonis vernalis, Dictamnus albus, Primula spp. and Pulsatilla spp. Many of these species 

show high chemical and biological diversity which can be utilized for the development of 

artificial production models or later on for cultivation. The simple protection of these

54 


species hardly meets the theoretical and practical expectations. The different bio- and 

chemotypes must be preserved by other methods of plant conservation. 

c. Only very limited information is available for the majority of MAP species under 

protection. Thus, for this group, protection is only an administrative measure. Again, 

this simple protection hardly meets the requirements of real plant conservation. The 

intensification of scientific activities in this respect appears necessary. The biological and 

chemical diversity of the species listed in this group could be utilized through 

international cooperation projects. 

- Monitoring of the abundance or extinction of MAPs 

Monitoring of the abundance or extinction of MAPs or their populations appears as a very 

important field of scientific activity related to MAP conservation. The changes occurring in 

the MAP populations must be monitored and predicted. The restriction of the collection of 

plant material from local sites should not be deferred until the populations become 

endangered. The stability of the natural populations should be guaranteed on the basis of 

scientific data. Model investigations in this field are carried out very efficiently in the 

following Hungarian research institutes: 

- SZI University, Department of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Villányi str. 29-45, 1118 

Budapest 

- Research Institute for Medicinal Plants, Lupaszigeti str. 4, 2011 Budakalász 

- Ecological and Botanical Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Science, 

Alkotmány str. 2-6, 2163 Vácrátot 

Scientific activities in this area require greater international cooperation and funds 

allocated from international sources. 

2. Ex situ conservation of MAPs 

In addition to the protection of genetic resources, ex situ conservation of MAPs may 

contribute to the construction of a valuable genepool which serves as a reserve for the 

development of highly productive cultivars or plants possessing diverse chemical characters. 

The distinction of well defined chemical types seems to have both theoretical and practical 

importance. It is well known that the need for chemical compounds varies with time. In the 

case of poppy (Papaver somniferum) the demand for morphine, codeine or thebaine changes 

unexpectedly. The need for different chemotypes of Matricaria recutita also varies from time 

to time. In some cases the most recent pharmacological studies generate new requirements, 

such as requirement for low beta-thujone taxa of Salvia officinalis, or pyrrolisidine-free 

populations of Scrophulariaceae and Asteraceae species. 

- Chemotaxonomical gardens 

The simplest way of ex situ conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants is the 

establishment and management of chemotaxonomical gardens. There are two of these 

gardens specialized in MAPs in Hungary: 

- Chemotaxonomical Garden of the Research Institute of Medicinal Plants, Budakalász 

(address as above) - based on the Dahlgren system (Dahlgren et al. 1981) 

- Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Garden of the Department of Medicinal and Aromatic 

Plants, Soroksár (address as above)


- MAP genebanks 

In Hungary, the conservation of seed material of MAP species started at the beginning of the 

1980s (Tóth and Németh 1996). The following two genebanks are specialized in MAPs: 

- Genebank of the Research Institute of Medicinal Plants, Budakalász (address as above) 

- Genebank of the Department of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Soroksár (address as 

above) 

Genetic conservation of MAPs is a difficult task compared to that of the agricultural crops 

cultivated on a large scale throughout the world. Many difficulties arise from the large 

number of species, varieties and chemotypes which are utilized in practice. The main factors 

making gene conservation work difficult can be summarized as follows: 

- The number of MAP species in Hungary is large (ca. 200), while the number of 

chemotaxa with potential theoretical and practical importance is about ten times 

greater. 

- The majority of medicinal plants are found at a very low level of domestication. 

Knowledge regarding their biological and chemical properties is lacking. 

- There is no reliable information on MAP genetic conservation methods. 

- The genetic conservation of medicinal plants needs to be accompanied by expensive 

chemical analyses. 

As a result of the efforts of the above-mentioned two institutions, 1500 accessions of MAP 

seed are available in Hungary, including seeds of wild populations, chemotaxa, cultivated 

populations and registered cultivars. 

- Biotechnology 

Advanced biotechnological methods are applied for the conservation of MAP species and 

practised in both above-mentioned institutions. This is of great importance in the case of 

MAPs which cannot be propagated from seed or in the case of species whose chemical 

characteristics can be preserved only by clonal propagation. Microclonal propagation and 

biotechnological conservation methods have been developed for the following species: 

Artemisia dracunculus, Lavandula intermedia, Melissa officinalis, Mentha piperita, Salvia officinalis, 

Sempervivum tectorum and Tanacetum parthenium. 

- Introduction of protected and endangered MAPs into cultivation 

From a practical point of view, this seems to be a most effective ex situ conservation method 

(Bernáth 1992, 1993). It involves complex biological and chemical studies aimed at 

determining the ecological requirements, biological and chemical diversity as well as 

effective propagation methods of the given species. Achievements from Hungarian experts 

in this field are summarized in Table 2.

56 


Table 2. List of protected and endangered MAPs introduced or being introduced into cultivation 

Species Reason for conservation Cultivation status 

Adonis vernalis protected in progress 

Achillea crithmifolia protected in progress 

Alkanna tinctoria protected cultivated 

Arnica montana protected cultivated 

Dictamnus albus protected in progress 

Digitalis ferruginea protected to an increased degree in progress 

Digitalis lanata protected to an increased degree cultivated 

Equisetum arvense alkaloid-free populations in progress 

Glycyrrhiza glabra endangered cultivated 

Inula helenium protected cultivated 

Primula vulgaris protected in progress 

Isatis tinctoria protected in progress 

Marrubium vulgare endangered cultivated 

Sempervivum tectorum protected cultivated 

Solidago virgaurea endangered in progress 

Taxus baccata protected Cultivated 

Valeriana sambucifolia protected Cultivated 

References 

Bernáth, J. 1987. Recent efforts of preservation and exploitation of medicinal and aromatic plants. 

Pp. 121-123 in Medicinal and poisonous plants of the tropics (A.J.M. Leeuwenberg). Pudoc, 

Wageningen, The Netherlands. 

Bernáth, J. 1992. Ecophysiological approach in the optimalization of medicinal plant agro-systems. 

Acta Horticulturae 306:397-318. 

Bernáth, J. 1993. Introduction and cultivation of traditional and new medicinal and aromatic plant 

crops in Hungary. Acta Horticulturae 344:238-248. 

Bernáth, J. 1994. Recent advances achieved by the Hungarian medicinal and aromatic plant sector. 

Pp. 246-247 in Plantes aromatiques et médicinales [Medicinal and aromatic plants] (N. Verlet). 

Ministère de l'Agriculture, Région Rhône-Alpes, Nyons, France. 

Dahlgren, R., S. Rosendal-Jensen and B.J. Nielsen. 1981. A revised classification of the angiosperms 

with comments between chemical and other characters. Pp. 109-204 in Phytochemistry and 

angiosperm phylogeny (D.A. Young and D.S. Seigler, eds). Praeger Publ., New York. 

Lange, D. 1996. Untersuchungen zum Heilpflanzenhandel in Deutschland [Research on the market of 

medicinal plants in Germany]. Bundesamt für Naturschutz, Landwirtschaftsverlag GmbH, Bonn- 

Bad Godesberg, Germany. 

Németh, É. 1996. Cultivation and utilization of Mediterranean medicinal and aromatic plants in the 

temperate zone of Europe. P. 51 in Book of Abstracts, World Congress of Pharmacy and 

Pharmaceutical Sciences, 1-6 Sept. 1996, Jerusalem, Israel (56 th International Congress of FIP, 

International Pharmaceutical Federation). 

Tóth, E. and É. Németh. 1996. Recent results in the development of genebank technologies specialized 

for medicinal plants. Beitrage zur Züchtungsforschung 2(1):76-79.


Medicinal and aromatic plants in the Israeli Gene Bank (IGB) 

Eli Putievsky 

Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), Division of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, The Volcani 

Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel 

Introduction 

Israel is located at the meeting point of three phytogeographical regions: Mediterranean, 

Irano-Turanian and Saharo-Arabian. Thus it represents all three regions, with the 

consequence of profuse richness of plant species and varieties. Moreover, Israel is part of the 

Fertile Crescent and is located on the border between desert and temperate regions, where 

domestication of Old World crop plants began. Therefore, quite a number of its native 

species are wild relatives, feral derivatives or even direct ancestors of cultivated plants. In 

addition, other local species may have an untapped economic potential. 

The Israeli Gene Bank (IGB) was established in 1979 and affiliated to two Ministries: the 

Ministry of Science (MOS) and the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA). The structural functions 

of the IGB are shown in Fig. 1. The headquarters are at Bet-Dagan (Volcani Center). 

Ministry of 

Science 

Ministry of 

Agriculture 

IGB Scientific 

Board 

IGB Director 

IDC Director 

Information and 

Documentation 

Center 

IGB’s Long-Term 

Storage Facility 

In situ conservation sites 

and gene parks 

Ex situ collections 

Wild Wheat 

Amiad 

Fruit Trees 

Mattityau 

Allium 

Rehovot 

Herbs 

Newe-Ya’ar 

ARO 

Bet Dagan 

WIS 

Rehovot 

Nahal Oren 

HU 

Botanical Garden 

Jerusalem 

HUJ 

Rehovot 

TAU 

Ramat Aviv 

Haifa 

University 

HU 

Jerusalem 

Fig. 1. Structure of the Israeli Gene Bank (IBG) for Agricultural Crops.

58 


Today we face various types of immediate threats to the Israeli genepool: 

- rapid increase in the human population and with it increased urbanization; 

- road construction, industrial parks and military installations; 

- pollution resulting from industry, traffic, sewage, agricultural fertilizers, etc.; 

- farming activities such as general overgrazing, goat grazing, stubble burning, etc.; 

- forestry activities and fire; 

- collecting of plants from nature; 

- tourism; 

- gene contamination through introduction of new cultivars. 

The IGB is responsible for the collection, preservation, documentation and practical 

evaluation of genetic resources of crop plants and their relatives across Israel; it holds in its 

central storage facilities some 16 000 accessions of indigenous species, landraces, agricultural 

and horticultural crops and their germplasm. 

The Information and Documentation Center (IDC) at the IGB is responsible for the 

documentation of genetic resource holdings in all genebank collections throughout Israel, 

and for maintenance of the database and the information network. 

Other activities of the IGB include: national and international exchange of plant material; 

promotion of national and international collaboration and coordination; organization of and 

participation in workshops, conferences and training activities; and support and guidance of 

research on genetic resources. 

Today, the IGB also focuses on the collection and preservation of the genetic diversity of 

plants that are direct ancestors, wild relatives or landraces of domesticated plants which are 

endemic to our region. The establishment of a central modern seed bank as a long-term 

storage facility is in process (investment of more than US$ 2.5 million), and it will start to 

function in late 2004. 

Until the IGB's new facility is finished, each specialist will be responsible for his own 

collection. Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) in Israel are handled by a group of 

specialists located at the Newe-Ya'ar Research Center, where seeds and living plants are 

preserved (ex situ) and include all aromatic and some medicinal plants (Fig. 1). 

MAPs in Israel 

All the threats that endanger any wild plants in Israel also endanger MAPs, especially the 

threat of collecting for dietary purposes. In Arabic culture, plants like za'atar (Origanum 

syricum) or three-leaved sage (Salvia fruticosa) are part of the diet. Therefore in 1956 a law 

was adopted (The Plant Protection Law) which made the gathering of certain protected plants 

illegal. Besides this law, some areas were designated as "National Park" and/or "Reserve 

Area" in which no grazing or cutting is permitted. 

Special permission allows collecting of plants and seeds from all the wild MAP 

populations in Israel. Throughout the last 20 years or so, ex situ collections of some MAP 

species have been established. Table 1 lists part of these collections (more than 15 different 

species including 584 accessions), all growing at the Newe-Ya'ar Research Center, in the 

north of Israel. Besides these living plants we hold a large collection of MAP seeds, collected 

from wild populations in Israel and abroad, and seeds that are collected regularly from the 

ex situ plants at Newe-Ya'ar.


Table 1.Some examples of the MAP collection at Newe-Ya'ar and in situ in Israel 


Species In situ Ex situ Seed collection 

Coridothymus capitatus 14 21 35 

Foeniculum vulgare 17 5 25 

Melissa officinalis 19 11 28 

Mentha sp. 25 17 9 

Micromeria fruticosa 17 17 22 

Origanum sp. 18 97 115 

Marjoram hortensis - 15 35 

Rosmarinus officinalis - 48 10 

Salvia officinalis - 78 96 

Salvia fruticosa 15 6 32 

Satureja thymbra 12 28 37 

Thymus vulgaris - 141 75 

Achillea fragrantissima 12 8 15 

Achillea sp. 14 15 12 

Artemisia sp. 34 77 30 

Total 197 584 576 

National competitive budgets received annually from the MOS and the MOA are applied 

to specific species by the IGB. For example national surveys have been conducted, covering 

Foeniculum vulgare, Micromeria futicosa, Satureja thymbra and other wild species. 

For each species, after herbarium specimens had been studied and documentation 

prepared, physical searches were conducted in order to locate the largest wild populations 

covering the full range of variation, with primary attention to geographic and climatic 

variation (ecotypes). Then, from each of the populations that were selected, all 

morphological, phenological and chemical information was collected. Some of the plants 

were transferred to Newe-Ya'ar, mainly as cuttings but sometimes by removing the whole 

plant. The ex situ plants are compared with the in situ plants that grow in the wild, with 

respect to all the information mentioned above. Seeds were collected from the in situ and 

from the ex situ plants for at least two successive years. 

Thus, from the living collections, as well as from in situ sites, we have obtained and hold 

data on morphological characters, flowering behaviour, harvest recovery and essential oil 

content and composition. This information is unique and helps us in our selection 

programme, in cooperation with other scientists, and as a link to the industry. The reports 

that are submitted to the IGB are in the public domain. 

MAP production 

Israel produces MAPs on a commercial scale, including the various products listed in 

Table 2. Each group of products involves a great number of species and varieties. For 

example, we grow more than 42 species for fresh herb production (about 100 varieties) and 

more than 30 species for ornamental purposes (more than 80 varieties). Some of the varieties 

that are used commercially are cultivars but some are unregistered varieties that were 

brought, by us, directly from the wild. 

Collection from wild populations (from more than 200 acres) includes a great number of 

species. The specific species that are collected depend on the origin and the diet of the 

collectors. 

There is a small industry in Israel that distils or extracts secondary metabolites from 

MAPs growing in the country, but most of their raw material is imported. 

If we exclude herbs (plants containing essential oils) that are used also for medicinal 

purposes, the "true" medicinal plants that are grown commercially are very limited, grown 

by a few farmers for local use.

60 


Table 2. Production area (in acres) of MAPs in Israel 

Product Green/net houses Open field Wild collection 

Fresh herbs 600 1450 50 

Dry herbs 25 1650 100 

Seeds used as herbs - 1200 20 

Seeds for propagation 5 25 5 

Ornamental herbs 18 3 -- 

Distillation/extraction - 20 -- 

Medicinal plants - 30 10 

Total 648 4378 285 

Wild MAPs in Israel 

Some years ago a very extensive survey was carried out in order to identify potential wild 

MAPs in Israel that could be used in the future. The list is given in Table 3 for 74 species 

with their distribution area, shown in Fig. 2. This list is the basic national inventory of MAP 

natural resources of Israel. Normally from each population, depending on its size, the IGB 

stores 50 seeds or more, together with information on the name of the collector, the time of 

collection, and details of the site and its location. 

Table 3. Wild Israeli MAP species (74) with an economic potential 

Species Family Common name Distribution area (*) 

Abundance 

(**) 

Achillea biebersteinli Compositae Yellow milfoil 1 2 4 5 9 13 14 21 23 27 28 R 

Achillea fragrantissima Compositae Lavender cotton 1 14 17 18 19 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 CC 

Agrimonia eupatoria Rosaceae Common agrimony 12 X 

Alhagi maurorum Papilionaceae Cameltorn 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 C 

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 

Ammi majus Umbelliferae Common bishop's weed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 CC 

18 20 21 22 23 

Ammi Visnaga Umbelliferae Toothpick 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 18 20 CC 

21 23 

Anethum graveolens Umbelliferae Dill 3 7 14 18 2023 RR 

Artemisia arborescens Compositae Shrubby wormwood 2 5 7 9 13 RR 

Artemisia nerbaalba Compositae White wormwood 8 14 17 19 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 CC 

Asphodelus aestivus Lillaceae Tall asphodel 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 CC 

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 

Asteriscus graveolens Compositae Fragrant oxeye 10 16 17 19 20 22 23 25 26 27 28 C 

Atriplex halimus Chenopodiacea Shrubby orache 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 13 14 16 17 18 19 20 21 C 

22 23 25 26 27 28 

Balanites aegyptiaca Zygophyllaceae Jencho balsam 8 16 17 19 22 23 25 F 

Brassica nigra Cruciferae Black mustard 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 18 C 

Brassica tournefortli Cruciferae Tournefort's mustard 2 5 6 8 9 10 13 14 18 20 23 24 25 26 C 

Calamintha incana Labiatae Gray calamint 23 7 9 12 14 19 20 21 R 

Capparis spinosa Capparaceae Thorny caper 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 CC 

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 

Chenopodium 

Chenopodiacea Common crosswort 3 5 6 8 9 10 11 13 14 17 18 19 21 23 

F 

ambrosioides 

24 

Cichorium pumilum Compositae Dwarf chicory 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 CC 

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 26 27 

Conium maculatum Umbelliferae Mother die 1 2 3 4 6 7 9 11 12 13 14 1518 21 F 

Coriandrum sativum Umbelliferae Coriander 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 14 15 18 19 20 21 R 

Coridothymus capitatus Labiatae Capitate thyme 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 13 14 16 17 18 19 20 

CC 

21 22 23 26 

Crataegus aronia Rosaceae Spiny hawthorn 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

C 

18 19 20 21 22 23 

Crataegus azarolus Rosaceae Mediterranean hawthorn 2 4 9 21 RR 

Crocus hyemalis Tridaceae Winter crocus 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 CC 

18 19 20 21 

Crocus pallasil Tridaceae Pallas crocus 1 2 4 6 10 14 21 F 

Deverra tortuosus Umbelliferae 18 19 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 C 

Ecballium elaterium Cucurbitaceae Squirting cucumber 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 18 

C 

19 20 21 23 

Foeniculum vulgare Umbelliferae Common fennel 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 CC 

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 

Galium aparine Rubiaceae Goose-grass 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 

C 

18 19 20 21 22 23 

Glaucium flavum Papaverceae Yellow horned poppy 2 5 9 10 13 18 21 F 

Haptophyllum 

Rutaceae Warty rue 2 5 6 7 8 9 10 16 17 18 19 21 22 23 25 C 

tuberculatum 

26 27 28 

Hyoscyamus aureus Sotanaceae Golden henbane 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 14 15 16 17 

18 19 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 

CC


Table 3 (cont.). Wild Israeli MAP species (74) with an economic potential 

Species Family Common name Distribution area (*) 

Abundance 

(**) 

Inula viscose Compositae Lesser eiecampane 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 17 CC 

18 19 20 21 22 23 

Laurus nobilis Lauraceae Laurel 1 2 3 4 7 9 10 12 14 21 C 

Lavandula stoechas Labiatae French lavender 1 3 5 9 13 18 19 20 21 22 RR 

Mandragora autumnalis Solanaceae Autumn mandrake 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

C 

17 18 19 20 21 23 

Matricaria aurea Compositae Wild chamomile 2 5 6 7 8 9 11 13 14 17 18 19 20 21 22 F 

23 26 27 

Matricaria chamomilla Compositae Wild chamomile 1 2 3 5 6 7 9 13 20 21 23 F 

Melissa officinalis Labiatae Common balm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

F 

17 18 21 

Mentha longifolia Labiatae Horse mint 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 17 

C 

18 19 20 21 22 28 

Micromeria fruticosa Labiatae White savory 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 19 20 

F 

21 22 

Nasturtium officinale Cruciferae True water-cress 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 16 17 18 

C 

19 21 23 

Origanum dayi Labiatae 14 19 21 23 25 26 27 F 

Origanum syriacum Labiatae Syrian marjoram 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 CC 

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 

Papaver subpiriforme Papaveraceae Corn poppy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 CC 

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 

Peganum harmala Zygophylaceae Wild rue 6 7 8 10 14 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 25 26 F 

27 28 

Plantago lanceolata Plantaginaceae Ribwort plantain 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 18 20 

C 

21 23 28 

Plantago major Plantaginaceae Great plantain 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 14 16 18 19 R 

Plantago ovata Plantaginaceae Ovate plantain 1 2 6 7 8 9 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 21 22 CC 

23 25 26 27 28 

Rhus coriaria Anacardiaceae Sumach 1 2 7 9 13 14 18 19 20 21 22 F 

Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae Castoroil plant 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 14 16 18 19 

F 

21 23 24 

Ridolfia segetum Umbelliferae Bishop's weed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 16 17 18 CC 

19 20 21 23 

Ruta chalepensis Rutaceae Common rue 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

F 

18 20 21 23 

Salix acmophylla Salicaceae Willow 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 17 

C 

18 19 21 22 

Salix alba Salicaceae White willow 3 4 7 8 11 18 F 

Salsola Kali Chenopodiacea Prickly saltwort 2 5 7 10 11 13 18 20 21 22 23 24 C 

Salsola soda Chenopodiacea French saltwort 5 9 13 O 

Salvadora persica Saivadoraceae Toothbrush tree 17 19 22 25 26 RR 

Salvia dominica Labiatae Dominica sage 2 3 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 15 16 17 18 19 C 

20 21 22 23 27 

Salvia fruticosa Labiatae Three-leaved sage 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 12 13 14 15 19 20 21 CC 

22 23 

Salvia indica Labiatae Blue sage 1 2 4 6 7 14 18 19 

Silybum marianum Compositae Holy thistle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 CC 

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 

Sinapis alba Cruciferae White mustard 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 CC 

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 

Styrax officinalis Styracaceae Officinal storax 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 20 

C 

21 

Teucrium polium Labiatae Mountain germander 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 CC 

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 

Thymbra spicata Labiatae Spiked thymbra 1 2 3 5 7 9 12 13 14 19 20 21 F 

Trigonella berythea Papilionaceae Beirut fenugreek 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 18 20 

F 

21 

Urginea maritime Liliaceae Maritime squill 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 CC 

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 

Urtica pilulifera Urticaceae Roman nettle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

F 

17 18 19 20 21 23 

Varthemia iphionoides Compositae Goldilocks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 CC 

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 

Verbascum eremobium Scrophulariaceae Round-leaved mullein 19 20 23 25 26 27 28 -1 

Verbena officinalis Verbenaceae Common vervain 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 17 

C 

18 19 20 21 22 23 

Withania somnifera Solanaceae Common winter-cherry 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 17 18 C 

19 20 21 22 23 24 

Ziziphus spinachristi Rhamnaceae Christ-thorn jujube 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 1314 16 17 18 19 CC 

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 28 

(*) see Fig. 2 

(**) Abundance: CC = Very common; C = Common; F = Frequent (between C and R); R = Rare; RR = Very rare (3 to 30 sites); O = 1 to 3 sites; 

X = Not observed since 1960

62 


1. Mount Hermon 

2. Upper Galilee 

3. Hula and Dan Valleys 

4. North Golan 

5. Akko Plain 

6. South Golan 

7. Lover Galilee 

8. Upper Jordan Valley 

9. Mount Carmel 

10. Carmel Coast 

11. Esdraelon Plain 

12. Menashe Hills 

13. Sharon Plain 

14. Samaria Mountains 

15. Mount Gilboa 

16. Samaria Desert 

17. Lower Jordan Valley 

18. Philistean Plain 

19. Judean Desert 

20. Shefela 

21. Judean Mountains 

22. Dead Sea Area 

23. Northern and Western Negev 

24. Gaza Strip 

25. Arava Valley 

26. Southern and Central Negev 

27. Negev Mountains 

28. Elat 

Fig. 2. Districts in which target species are distributed.


Conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in Italy 

Carla Vender and Pietro Fusani 

ISAFA (Forest and Range Management Research Institute), Villazzano, Trento, Italy 

Legal protection of medicinal and aromatic plant species and their natural habitats 

The fundamental text of Italian legislation concerning medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) 

is still the Royal Decree (R.D.) no. 772 of 1932, in which a list of MAPs is reported and where 

the maximum quantity allowed to be harvested, upon authorization, is indicated (Table 1). 

Table 1. Italy: list of the MAPs cited in the Royal Decree n° 772 of 1932 

No. Species Quantity allowed to be harvested 

1 Achillea erba-rotta All. (aerial parts) 1 kg 

2 Achillea moschata Wulfen (aerial parts) 1 kg 

3 Aconitum sp. (leaves and roots) 0 kg 

4 Acorus calamus L. (roots) 2 kg 

5 Adonis sp. (full plants) 0 kg 

6 Angelica archangelica L. (seeds and roots) 2 kg 

7 Arctium lappa L. (roots) 5 kg 

8 Arnica montana L. (flowers and roots) 5 kg 

9 Artemisia absinthium L. (aerial parts) 1 kg 

10 Artemisia campestris L. subsp. borealis (Pall.) (aerial parts) 1 kg 

11 Artemisia genipi Weber (aerial parts) 1 kg 

12 Artemisia glacialis L. (aerial parts) 1 kg 

13 Artemisia pontica L. (aerial parts) 1 kg 

14 Artemisia umbelliformis Lam. (aerial parts) 1kg 

15 Artemisia vallesiaca All. (aerial parts) 1 kg 

16 Artemisia vulgaris L. (flowers, leaves, roots) 2 kg 

17 Atropa bella-donna L. (leaves) 0 kg 

18 Bryonia dioica Jacq. (leaves) 0 kg 

19 Centaurium erythraea Rafn (flowered plants) 5 kg 

20 Urginea maritima (L.) Baker (bulbs) 0 kg 

21 Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (fruits) 0.5 kg 

22 Cnicus benedictus L. (aerial parts) 2 kg 

23 Colchicum autumnale L. (bulbs and seeds) 0 kg 

24 Conium maculatum L. (leaves) 0 kg 

25 Datura stramonium L. (leaves) 0 kg 

26 Delphinium staphisagria L. (seeds) 1 kg 

27 Dictamnus albus L. (flowered plants) 2 kg 

28 Digitalis purpurea L. (leaves) 0 kg 

29 Frangula alnus Mill. (bark) 0.5 kg 

30 Fraxinus sp. L. (manna) 0.5 kg 

31 Gentiana lutea L. (roots) 10 kg 

32 Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (roots) 10 kg 

33 Hyoscyamus niger L. (leaves) 0 kg 

34 Hyssopus officinalis L. (sprigs) 2 kg 

35 Peucedanum ostruthium (L.) W.D.J.Koch (roots) 2 kg 

36 Inula helenium L. (roots) 2 kg 

37 Juniperus sabina L. (sprigs) 0 kg 

38 Lavandula angustifolia Mill. (flowered tips) 10 kg 

39 Lavandula latifolia Medik. (flowered tips) 10 kg 

40 Lycopodium clavatum L. (spore) 0.5 kg 

41 Matricaria recutita L. (flowers) 10 kg 

42 Melissa officinalis L. (flowered tips, leaves) 5 kg 

43 Oenanthe aquatica (L.) Poir. (seeds) 0.5 kg 

44 Pinus mugo Turra (sprigs) 10 kg 

45 Psyllium afrum (L.) Mirb. (seeds) 0.5 kg 

46 Rhamnus cathartica L. (fruits) 0.5 kg 

47 Saponaria officinalis L. (leaves and roots) 10 kg 

48 Solanum dulcamara L. (stems) 

49 Tanacetum vulgare L. (flowers) 5 kg 

50 Taraxacum officinale Weber (roots, 5 kg.) 

51 Teucrium montanum L. (aerial parts) 2 kg 

52 Thymus vulgaris L. (flowered plants) 10 kg 

53 Tilia sp. (flowers) 10 kg 

54 Tussilago farfara L. (flowers) 5 kg 

55 Valeriana sp. (roots) 2 kg 

56 Veratrum lobelianum Bernh. (roots) 0 kg

64 


The attempts to substitute this national law with another one, more updated and 

opportune, have been as numerous as unsuccessful and still some months ago the 

umpteenth parliamentary bill for the regulation of the MAP sector was presented. 

Nevertheless since the 1970s most regions and the two autonomous provinces of Trento 

and Bolzano have passed bills for flora and/or natural habitat protection 

(www.camera.mac.ancitel.it). In these laws a list is given of species whose harvesting is 

forbidden or restricted, but few regional laws contain specific references to MAPs (Table 2). 

Table 2. Legal protection of plant species and MAP collecting regulation in various Italian regions 

Regions 

Regional law 

(year/no.) 

MAP collecting 

regulation 

No. of protected species 

whose harvest is: 

forbidden 

restricted 

Other species 

No. of floral axes 

allowed (1) 

Val d'Aosta 1977/17 specific 40 22 20 (80) 

Piedmont 1982/32 R.D. no. 772 174 - 5 

Liguria 1984/07 R.D. no. 772 32 20 free harvest (4) 

Lombardy 1977/33 R.D. no. 772 - 51 free harvest (4) 

Veneto 1974/53 - 35 - 6 

Trentino 1973/17 derogations 19 - 5 

Alto Adige 1972/13 derogations 23 - 6 

Friuli V.G. 1981/34 specific 20 - 10 

Emilia Romagna 1977/02 derogations 46 - free harvest (4) 

Tuscany 2000/56 free harvest (4) 57 9 free harvest (4) 

Marche 1985/7 free harvest (4) 15 (2) - free harvest. (4) 

Umbria 1987/49 derogations 48 - free harvest (4) 

Lazio 1974/61 free harvest (4) 72 2 free harvest (4) 

Campania 1994/40 R.D. n° 772 20 39 free harvest (4) 

Abruzzo 1997/35 free harvest (4) 36 - free harvest (4) 

Basilicata 1994/28 free harvest (4) (3) - free harvest (4) 

Puglia 1997/19 free harvest (4) - - free harvest (4) 

Calabria 2001/30 free harvest (4) >30 - free harvest (4) 

Sicily 1981/98 free harvest (4) (3) - free harvest (4) 

Sardinia 1989/31 free harvest (4) (3) - free harvest (4) 

(1) 

Per person/day and (groups) 

(2) 

Arborescent species 

(3) 

Species present in the protected habitats 

(4) 

Outside the protected habitats 

Among these, most regions (Piedmont, Liguria, Lombardy and Campania) limit 

themselves to referring to species and quantities mentioned in the R.D., while only Friuli- 

Venezia Giulia and Val d'Aosta provide regional lists of MAPs and fix quantities which may 

be harvested. In Friuli for instance, it is allowed to collect the edible fresh parts of 26 species 

(maximum quantity/day = 1 kg) (Table 3), while for the species not included in the list, 

derogations are provided only for scientific, pharmaceutical, medicinal or educational 

purposes. The list of wild protected MAPs and corresponding quantities allowed in Val 

d'Aosta are almost the same as that of the R.D. 

Table 3. Friuli Venezia Giulia: list of MAPs whose harvest is regulated (1) 

No. Species No. Species 

1 Allium schoenoprasum L. 14 Rosa canina L. 

2 Arnica montana L. 15 Rubus fruticosus L. 

3 Aruncus vulgaris Rafin 16 Rubus idaeus L. 

4 Asperula odorata L. 17 Ruscus aculeatus L. 

5 Cardamine pratensis L. 18 Ruta graveolens L. 

6 Chenopodium sp. 19 Silene cucubalus Wibel 

7 Fragaria vesca L. 20 Symphytum officinale L. 

8 Galium mollugo L. 21 Taraxacum officinale Weber 

9 Humulus lupulus L. 22 Tragopogon pratensis L. 

10 Melissa officinalis L. 23 Urtica dioica L. 

11 Mentha sp. 24 Vaccinum myrtillus L. 

12 Origanum vulgare L. 25 Vaccinum vitis-idaea L. 

13 Papaver rhoeas L. 26 Valerianella olitoria L. Poll. 

(1) 

Maximum quantity allowed =1 kg/person/day of fresh aerial parts


The regional laws to protect flora are more or less severe according to regions. In most 

regions the harvesting of unprotected species and of plants growing outside protected areas 

is unrestricted. On the contrary in other regions, in addition to a list of protected plants 

whose harvest is forbidden, severe limitations in the collection of other species are also 

provided and only a few specimens are allowed. Derogations to these restrictions are 

provided only for scientific, pharmaceutical, medicinal or educational purposes, but in any 

case harvesting needs an authorization. The regional law of Veneto does not provide 

derogations for "medicinal" purposes and as a consequence, in this region, MAP collecting is 

forbidden. The only exception is wild asparagus, of which you may harvest 1 kg/day. 

In the regional lists of protected plants you may also find some "classic" MAPs (Table 4) 

among which Dictamus albus L., Gentiana lutea L. and two species of Ruscus (R. aculeatus L. 

and R. ipoglossum L.) are the most frequently recurring. 

Table 4. MAPs present in the lists of protected plants in different Italian regions 

Genus 

Species 

Val d'Aosta 

Piedmont 

Liguria 

Lombardy 

Veneto 

Trentino 

Alto Adige 

Friuli V.G. 

Emilia Rom. 

Tuscany 

Umbria 

Marche 

Lazio 

Campania 

Abruzzo 

Calabria 

Achillea erba-rotta All. X 

Aconitum sp. X X 

Arnica montana L. X (1) X X (2) X 

Artemisia laxa F. X 

Artemisia 

umbelliformis 

Lam 

X 

Atropa bella-donna L. X X (4) X 

Crocus sp. X X X 

Dictamus albus L. X X X X X X X X X X 

Gentiana sp. X (1) X X X X X X X X X X 

Glycyrrhiza glabra L. X 

Hyssopus officinalis L. X X X 

Iris sp. X X X X X 

Juniperus sp. X X 

Mandragora autumnalis Bert. X 

Myrtus communis L. X 

Paeonia officinalis L. X X X X X X X X X 

Pistacia lentiscus L. X 

Ruscus sp. X X X X X X (2) X (3) X X X 

Solidago 

virgaurea subsp. 

littoralis (Savi) 

X 

Burnat 

Taxus baccata L. X X X X X X 

Thymus vulgaris L. X 

Urginea maritima Bak. X (4) 

Viscum album L. X 

(1) It is allowed to collect 6 flowering stems per day/person and 24 flowering stems per groups >3 people 

(2) It is allowed to collect daily 1 kg of edible, fresh parts per person 

(3) It is allowed to collect daily 10 flowering stems/person 

(4) A collecting authorization is needed 

Instead of referring to "protected species", in some regions of southern Italy (Basilicata 

and Puglia) and in the islands (Sicily and Sardinia), the lawmakers have designated 

"protected areas" in which every kind of capture (animals) or collecting (plants, lichens and 

mosses) is forbidden. In the Basilicata region there are 9 natural protected areas, in Puglia 

there are 33 in total (7 in each of the Bari and Lecce provinces, 11 in the province of Taranto 

and 4 in each of the Brindisi and Foggia provinces); in Sardinia 9 natural parks are present, 

covering more than 300 000 ha. 

These laws have also undoubtedly contributed to preserving MAP genetic resources; 

nevertheless, in the meantime the reasons for the increasing rarity and/or extinction of these

66 


plants have changed: apart from oregano (Origanum vulgare L. subsp. hirtum (Link) 

Ietswaart), still abundantly collected in central and southern Italy, and myrtle (Myrtus 

communis L.), collected in Sardinia to make liqueurs, wild collecting has drastically decreased 

because very few people still take part in this activity. 

Conservation ex situ 

It is well known that the earliest attempts to conserve MAPs ex situ date back to the Middle 

Ages when the first "Horti sanitatis" were established in the monasteries. Afterwards, during 

the Renaissance the first botanical gardens called "gardens of simples" were laid down 

according to similar patterns (Del Prete et al. 2001). The earliest botanical garden in the 

world was established in Pisa in 1543-1544, while a garden connected with the Medicean 

court, in which MAPs were grown, already existed in Florence in 1544. While no traces of 

either of these gardens remain, the botanical garden of Padua, founded in 1545, still exists 

and is tended. Furthermore numerous other universities endowed themselves with similar 

institutions and there are currently 38 botanical gardens in Italian universities. In addition 

there are 31 alpine gardens, including 16 located in the actual Alpine areas, 15 others in the 

Apennines (Sicily included) and 12 thematic gardens of which one is dedicated to MAPs, the 

"Giardino delle erbe" of Casola Valsenio. Nevertheless, this large number of institutions 

does not mean that MAP genetic resources are abundant and properly conserved, as in most 

cases these institutions have only an educational function. 

Activities at a national level to record MAP natural resources 

Because of the huge environmental variation in Italy and the restricted economic importance 

of MAPs in our country, it is not feasible to record MAP natural resources at the national 

level. In the recent past some studies have been carried out on wild populations of oregano 

(De Mastro 1996; Leto 1996). More recently, research on the characterization of different 

wild populations of Chamomilla recutita Rausch. collected in northern (Aiello et al. 2001) and 

central Italy (Taviani et al. 2002) and numerous populations of myrtle and Rosmarinus 

officinalis L. collected in Sardinia (Mulas 2001) is still underway within the National Project 

IPPO ("Increase of medicinal and aromatic plants production"). 

According to research carried out in Trentino (Prosser 2000), involving 10 years of plant 

mapping, 30.6% of the species (723 out of 2359) are considered as threatened, including some 

MAP species. For instance, according to the categories adopted by IUCN (International 

Union for the Conservation of Nature): Centaurea cyanus L. and Marrubium vulgare L. are 

considered critically endangered (CR); Lactuca virosa L. and Rosa gallica L., endangered (EN); 

Gratiola officinalis L., Hyoscyamus niger L. and Hyssopus officinalis L., vulnerable (VU); Althaea 

officinalis L., Equisetum pratense Ehrh., Leonorus cardiaca L. and Lithospermum officinale L., at 

low risk (LR). Also according to this research, the main factor threatening the conservation 

of plant genetic resources (PGR) seems to be the change in land use in the agricultural and 

pastoral sectors: land abandonment and high-input agricultural practices together account 

for almost 3/4 (73%) of all the threatening factors identified. 

As regards the inventory of PGR ex situ, within the project "Cultural Assets", the group 

"Botanical and historical garden" has been working for about 4 years to draw up a complete 

list of the gardens being included in this project and of their corresponding collections (Del 

Prete et al. 2001). On a smaller scale, taking the opportunity of this meeting, the authors of 

this paper contacted numerous botanical gardens and recorded the list of MAPs held by 15 

of these (Table 5).


Table 5. Information recorded about the Italian Botanical Gardens 

Botanical gardens No. (%) 

Total 58 

With a specific collection for maps 25 43 

Having their own Web site 26 45 

Having a general list of plants on the Web site 6 (1) 10 

Having a specific list for MAPs on the Web site 3 (2) 5 

Having an Index seminum on the Web site 4 (3) 7 

Botanical gardens recorded 15 (4) 26 

Total number of MAP species in conservation 1247 - 

Spontaneous in Italy 731 59 

Endemic in Italy 30 2.4 

Exotic 407 33 

Cultivated 467 37 

(1) 

Casola val Senio (RA), Camerino, Majella, Lecce, Bari, Catania. 

Casola val Senio (RA), Camerino, Majella. 

(3) 

Trieste, Modena, Siena, Majella. 

(4) 

Torino, Bergamo, Brescia, Padova, Trieste, Bologna, Ferrara, Casola val Senio (RA), Firenze, Camerino, Majella, Siena, Bari, 

Lecce, Catania. 

Review of the acreage of MAPs under cultivation 

In 1999-2000, ISAFA carried out a survey of the acreage and the characteristics of MAPs 

under cultivation in Italy (Vender 2001). According to this survey, the total area occupied by 

MAPs was 3342 ha and the number of species grown in Italy was over a hundred. However, 

slightly more than 30 species occupy over 90% of the total area. Beside Citrus bergamia Risso 

(bergamot), the only species with an area greater than 1000 ha, the other main species are: 

Mentha x piperita L. (peppermint), Fraxinus sp. (manna ash), Chamomilla recutita Rausch. 

(chamomile), Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (liquorice), Lavandula sp. (lavender and lavandin), 

Hypericum perforatum L. (St John's wort) and Linum usitatissimum L. (linseed). The main 

species cultivated, assembled into six groups according to the area occupied, are listed in 

Table 6. Compared with a similar survey carried out 10 years earlier (ISMEA 1989) the list of 

species has changed: tarragon, orris, roman wormwood, summer savory and jasmine have 

declined; peppermint, manna ash and saffron have fallen in importance, while chamomile, St 

John's wort, liquorice, lavenders, linseed, rosemary, fennel, sage, lemon balm and coneflower 

have greatly increased. 

As to distribution, more than 50% of the total area cultivated in MAPs is located in 

Calabria where, besides bergamot, liquorice and cedar are also grown. Other regions where 

MAP cultivation has some importance are Piedmont, where excellent peppermint oil is 

obtained, and Tuscany, where numerous herbs are grown on a huge farm. 

Excluding bergamot, from which we obtain the famous essence, about 70% of the total 

area cultivated in MAPs is used for the production of dried herbs, 20% for essential oil 

extraction and less than 10% for fresh consumption (Vender 2002). 

As regards farm size, there are huge individual and regional differences, but in general, 

only a small part of the arable area (a.a.) is reserved for MAPs. Farms specialized in MAP 

production (>80% of the a.a. planted to MAPs) represent only 17% of the total and most of 

them are located in the north. Nevertheless there are some exceptions: in Piedmont 

numerous large farms specializing in MAP cultivation are present, and in Tuscany the Aboca 

farm dedicates more than 300 ha to the cultivation of many species. 

Concerning field management, most farms adopt organic techniques (61%), the largest 

proportion of organic farms being in the centre (75%) and the lowest in the south (43%); 

nevertheless we may note that only bergamot, peppermint and St John's wort are handled as 

industrial crops, sustainable practices being used for other species. 

Taking into consideration different parameters (proportion of specialized farms, 

postharvest machinery availability, trade association importance, etc.) we may conclude that 

in the last 10 years there has been no widespread development of the sector or of associated

68 


facilities. This sector could have useful economic potential in our country, but systems and 

organizations aimed to match supply and demand are lacking, and besides the supply is 

widely scattered. 

Table 6. Medicinal and aromatic plants grouped according to the cultivated area, 1999 (source: 

Vender 2002) 

First group: 

>1000 ha 

Surface 

(ha) 

Fourth group: 50-10 ha 

Bergamot 1500 Anise Flea-wort Passion flower 

Blue gum tree Ginkgo Roman chamomile 

Second group: 

Surface Burdock Hash Roman wormwood 

250-100 ha 

(ha) 

Chamomile 171 Citron Hawthorn Rosemary 

Lavender and lavandin 133 Clary sage Hyssop Saffron 

Liquorice 146 Coneflower Immortelle Sage 

Manna ash 200 Dandelion Lemon balm Summer savory 

Peppermint 239 Dog rose Mauve Sweet clover 

St John's wort 156 Fennel Oregano Thyme 

Total 1045 

Fifth group: 10-1 ha 

Surface 

(ha) 

593 

(in total) 

Surface 

(ha) 

Third group: 

Surface Alder Fenugreek Myrtle 

100-50 ha 

(ha) 

Linseed 81 Artichocke Genepi Orange (flower) 

Black currant Grindelia Orris (roots) 

Californian poppy Linden Tarragon 108 

Caraway Marigold Witch hazel (in total) 

Chives Marjoram Wormwood 

Coriander Marshmallow Yarrow 

Dill 

Meadowsweet 

Yew 

Sixth group:


References 

Aiello, N., L. D'Andrea, F. Scartezzini and C. Vender. 2001. Valutazione bio-agronomica di 

popolazioni spontanee di camomilla comune (Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert) [Bio-agronomical 

evaluation of spontaneous populations of common chamomile (Chamomilla recutita (L.) 

Rauschert)]. Pp. 455-462 in 5° Convegno Nazionale: Biodiversità e sistemi ecocompatibili 

[Proceedings of fifth national congress: Biodiversity and ecocompatible systems], 9-10 September 

1999, Caserta, Italy. Imago Media s.r.l. Piedimonte Matese-CE. 

Anonymous. 2000. [Product suppliers]. Pp. 418-452 in Annuario di erboristeria [Herboristery 

Yearbook]. Studio Edizioni, Milano, Italy (in Italian). 

De Mastro, G. 1996. Crop domestication and variability within accessions of Origanum genus. 

Oregano. Pp. 34-48 in Oregano. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and 

neglected crops. 14. Proceedings of the IPGRI International Workshop on Oregano, 8-12 May 1996, 

CIHEAM, Valenzano (Bari), Italy (S. Padulosi, ed.). Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant 

Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. 

Del Prete, C., G. Bedini, D. Dallai and M. Ansaldi. 2001. Gli orti botanici [Botanical gardens]. 

Notiziario Risorse Genetiche Vegetali I(0):1-7. 

ISMEA. 1989. Dalle officinali un contributo alla diversificazione colturale [Medicinal and aromatic 

plants to contribute to agricultural diversification]. Agricoltura 201/202:4-60. 

Leto, C. and A. Salamone. 1996. Crop domestication and variability within accessions of Origanum 

genus. Oregano. Pp. 68-73 in Oregano. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and 


CIHEAM, Valenzano (Bari), Italy (S. Padulosi, ed.). Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant 

Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. 

Mulas, M. 2001. Caratteristiche dei frutti in selezione di mirto (Myrtus communis L.) [Fruit 

characteristics in selected myrtle (Myrtus communis L.) cultivars]. Pp. 263-270 in 5° Convegno 

Nazionale: Biodiversità e sistemi ecocompatibili [Proceedings of fifth national congress: 

Biodiversity and ecocompatible systems], 9-10 September 1999, Caserta, Italy. Imago Media s.r.l. 

Piedimonte Matese-CE. 

Mulas, M., A.H.D. Francesconi and B. Perinu. 2001. Caratteri delle foglie ed dei germogli in varietà di 

rosmarino (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) [Leave and bud characters in rosemary (Rosmarinus 

officinalis L.) cultivars]. Pp. 271-278 in 5° Convegno Nazionale: Biodiversità e sistemi ecocompatibili 

[Fifth national congress: Biodiversity and ecocompatible systems], 9-10 September 1999, Caserta, 

Italy. Imago Media s.r.l. Piedimonte Matese-CE. 

Prosser, F. 2000. Fattori di minaccia [Threat factors]. Pp. 16-45 in Lista Rossa della Flora del Trentino 

[Red List of the flora of the Trentino region]. Edizioni Osiride, LXXXIX pubblicazione del Museo 

Civico di Rovereto. 

Taviani P., D. Rosellini and F. Veronesi. 2002. Variation for essential oil traits among wild populations 

of Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert from central Italy. Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medicinal 

Plants 9(4):353-358. 

Vender, C. 2001. Indagine sulla produzione di piante officinali in Italia [Survey on medicinal and 

aromatic plant production in Italy]. Comunicazioni di ricerca ISAFA (3):1-72. 

Vender, C. 2004. Survey on medicinal and aromatic plants in Italy. Presented at the meeting 

"Medicinal plants: openings for cultivation and research's demands", 21 March 2002, Sanremo, 

Imperia, Italy. Agricoltura Mediterranea (in press). 

Web site: www.camera.mac.ancitel.it

70 


Medicinal and aromatic plants in Latvia 

Ieva Zukauska 

Latvia University of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, Jelgava, Latvia 


The central executive institution for nature protection in Latvia is the Ministry of 

Environmental Protection and Regional Development. With the help of the institutions 

under its supervision, the Ministry is responsible for: preparing and implementing a national 

policy for nature protection, preservation and rational use of natural resources; drafting legal 

acts within its jurisdiction; harmonizing government mission statements with the 

requirements of the European agreements and Commission; and ensuring their 

implementation. 

The National Environmental Policy Plan for Latvia included tasks to cooperate with 

international organizations for nature conservation to ensure consideration of Latvian 

interests and to draw financial investments into the adoption of the National Programme for 

Biological Diversity. 

The Nature Protection Department of the Ministry of Environmental Protection and 

Regional Development is regulated by the laws of Latvia: Law on Protected Territories and Law 

on Conservation of Species and Habitats (National Programme of Biodiversity 2000). Medicinal 

and aromatic plants (MAPs) are included together with other species. 

The Department prepares the National Programme on Biological Diversity. Its main tasks 

are in situ conservation and prevention of the decline in numbers and distribution of local 

wild species. The programme includes: 

- Survey of medicinal plant resources; 

- Development of nature reserves for the most important sites of medicinal herbs, where 

priority is given to resource maintenance and sustainable use; 

- Development and implementation of commercial regulations for harvesting and trade in 

medicinal plants, including requirements for protection of herbs; and 

- Popularization and promotion of herb cultivation. 

Inventory of natural resources of MAPs 

The inventory data of MAP natural resources are not suitable for today's requirements, since 

it was obtained and published 20-30 years ago. Since then, the status of many species has 

changed, and now information on many species including MAPs is quite problematic. 

Additionally much useful information can be found on birds and plants in the Red Book of 

Latvia (Aigare et al. 1985). 

The last inventory project was the CORINE Biotopes Project 14 conducted in Latvia 1994- 

1997 (Opermanis et al. 1997). At the end of the project, 251 "Biotopes sites" for a total area of 

598 106 ha were designated in Latvia. The total terrestrial plus inland water Biotopes sites 

area covers 504 000 ha, or 7.8% of the area of Latvia. About 6% of the total number of 

Biotopes sites contained areas free from human influence. About 174 750 ha (34.6%) of the 

total Biotopes sites coverage is protected by the State. 

14 CORINE = CO-oRdination of INformation on the Environment. The CORINE Biotopes inventory 

aims at identifying the sites of major importance for nature conservation on the European level 

(Biotopes sites).


Protected territories in Latvia with medicinal and aromatic plants 

- State Nature Reserves (5): Moricsalas (1912), Slitere (1921), Grini (1936), Krustkalni (1977), 

Teichi (1982) 

- National Parks (2): Gauja National Parka and Kemeri National Park 

- Nature Parks (21): the most popular are "Tervete" Nature Park and "Daugavas Loki" 

Nature Park 

- Nature Reserves (211): these areas are natural complexes unaltered by human activity, 

areas where rare and endangered species can be found. 

Ex situ conservation of MAPs 

The collections of medicinal and aromatic plants are held in five institutes: 

- Botanical garden of Latvia at Salaspils (largest MAP collection) 

- Botanical garden of the Latvian University in Rîga 

- Latvia University of Agriculture in Jelgava 

- State Selection Station at Skriveri 

- Bulduri Horticultural College. 

Collecting of wild medicinal plants 

The following medicinal plants are regularly collected from the wild only: Filipendula ulmaria, 

Tanacetum vulgare, Taraxacum officinale and Tussilago farfara. 

Most of the marketed raw materials from the following species are collected from the 

wild: Achillea millefolium (~70%), Bidens tripartita (~70%), Thymus serpyllum (~95%) and 

Hypericum perforatum (~10%). 

MAP cultivation in Latvia 

Exact data on cultivation are not officially obtainable, since growers seem to be afraid to give 

accurate information owing to high taxes. The Medicinal Plant Association in Latvia, 

"Metra", consists of 95 members. Most growers with large cultivated areas are situated in the 

districts of Limbazi, Valmiera, Cesis and Aizkraukle. 

According to the statistical information of Metra, the area cultivated under MAPs in 2001 

was about 200 ha, but according to the statistical information of the Central Statistical Bureau 

of Latvia, the total area cultivated with MAPs is estimated to be about 300 ha (Table 1). 

Table 1. Estimated area of cultivated medicinal and aromatic plants in Latvia 

Species Total area (ha) Note 

Valeriana officinalis 50 one farm has about 20 ha 

Chamomilla recutita 60 one farm has about 30 ha 

Hypericum perforatum 35 

Mentha x piperita 30 one farm has about 10 ha 

Calendula officinalis 20 

Carum carvi 50 

Origanum vulgare 20 

Viola arvensis and V. tricolor 3 

Artemisia absinthium 3 

Salvia officinalis 2 

Bidens tripartita 2 

Helichrysum arenarium 2 

Leonorus cardiaca 2 

Other MAP species 

10 

(Hyssopus officinalis, Majorana hortensis, 

Lavandula angustifolia, Thymus serpyllum, etc.) 

Total 289

72 


Use of MAPs by the processing industry 

No precise data are available. About one third of the production is processed by the Riga 

Pharmaceutical Factory. The growers sell about one third of the production directly to 

drugstores (chemist shops) for teas and homeopathic drug production. The last third is 

exported to Russia and to other former Soviet Union republics. 

Experience with sustainable use of MAPs 

The first experiences in different projects are connected with organic (ecological) agriculture 

and country tourism. 

References 

Aigare, V., G. Andrusaitis, J. Lipsbergs, I. Lodzina and L. Tabaka. 1985. Latvijas PSR Sarkana gramata 

[The Red Data Book of the Latvian SSR: Rare and endangered species of animals and plants]. 

Zinatne, Riga, Latvia. 

Anonymous. 1995. Wetland inventory work in Latvia. Technical Report. Latvian Fund of Nature, 

Riga, Latvia. 

Devillers, P., J. Devillers-Terschuren and J.P. Ledant. 1991. CORINE Biotopes manual. Habitats of the 

European Community. EUR 12587/3, Office for Official Publications of the European 

Communities, Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg. 

Ingelög, T., R. Andersson and M. Tjernberg. 1993. Red Data Book of the Baltic Region. Swedish 

Threatened Species Unit, Uppsala, Sweden/Institute of Biology, Riga, Latvia. 

Opermanis, O., I. Kabucis and A. Aunins. 1997. CORINE Biotopes Project in Latvia, 1994-1997. A 

review of methods and results (http://www.daba.lu.lv/ldf/corine/corine.html).


Conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in Lithuania 


Institute of Botany, Vilnius, Lithuania 

Introduction 

The use of wild medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) is widespread and has old traditions 

in Lithuania, especially in forested areas in the southern and southeastern parts of the 

country. About 100 taxa are still harvested from the wild for medicinal purposes, 

representing a significant part of the Lithuanian natural biodiversity which comprises 1323 

vascular plant taxa. The changes in political and economic life (Lithuania regained its 

independence in 1991) have increased the demand for MAPs and therefore determinate the 

importance of germplasm conservation. Active conservation of MAPs is pursued within the 

context of the National State Plant Genetic Resources Programme (1998-2002). 

The Nordic Gene Bank has made a substantial contribution in starting and developing 

plant genetic resources (PGR) conservation activity in Baltic countries. The Nordic-Baltic 

collaborative project on PGR for food and agriculture was initiated in 1994 and is still 

ongoing (Weibull 2001). The MAP working group is one of the crop-specific working groups 

within this project. The new project SPIMED (Spice and medicinal plants in the Nordic and 

Baltic countries. Strategies for conservation of genetic resources) started in 2002. 

This paper provides a brief review of the current research and activities dealing with 

MAP germplasm conservation in Lithuania. 

Material and methods 

The analysis of trade figures is based on data collected by the governmental Department of 

Statistics and the Division of Plant Resources of the Ministry of Environment in 1996-2001. 

Target species for conservation were selected on the basis of their current economic value, 

usefulness for breeding and conservation status. The evaluation of accessions was carried 

out according to the morphometric analysis of the phenotype and the quality and quantity of 

secondary metabolites. Analytical methods were employed for chemical evaluation of the 

raw material of target species. Spectrophotometry was used for the determination of total 

flavonoids. The quantitative analysis of phenolic compounds was carried out by a modified 

HPLC gradient elution method (Hölzl and Ostrowski 1987). Essential oils were isolated by 

hydro-distillation. GC and GC–MS analyses were performed for qualitative and quantitative 

evaluation of the essential oils. 

The species distribution maps were prepared on the basis of herbarium data from the 

Institute of Botany and Vilnius University and our observations on MAP sources. 

Results and discussion 

• The trade in MAPs 

The average annual volume of plant material coming from the wild represents about 29% of 

the total volume used in pharmaceutics. This means that about 85 t dry raw material is 

extracted from the wild populations yearly (Fig. 1). The most frequently used native species 

in herbal medicine are Crataegus sp., Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Menyanthes trifoliata, Hypericum 

perforatum, Thymus serpyllum, Tussilago farfara, Polygonum aviculare, Urtica dioica and Frangula 

alnus.

74 


300 

250 

Harvested from nature 

200 

tons 

150 

100 

50 

Produced in cultivation 

Imported 

Exported 

0 

1998 1999 2000 2001 

Fig.1. Total volumes of raw material of medicinal and aromatic plants 

produced in natural habitats, cultivated, imported and exported in 1998-2001 in Lithuania. 

The increased MAP trade has been greatly influenced by the liberalization of the exportimport 

activity. According to import-export data Lithuania can be characterized as a country 

mainly importing the raw material in contrast to other eastern and central European 

countries (Bernáth 1999) (Fig. 2). The average annual volume of imported MAP raw material 

is about 65% of all material used in the pharmaceutical industry. Exports make up a small 

part of the trade and are mainly directed to the countries of the former Soviet Union. 

Ukraine 

5% 

Egypt 

11% 

Latvia 

13% 

Germany 

2% 

South Africa 

1% 

Other 

6% 

Poland 

62% 

Fig. 2. Structure of MAP imports in Lithuania (1996-2001). 

Cultivation is one of the solutions to the problem of over-exploitation of wild species. 

During recent years an ever-increasing number of the rural population became involved in 

medicinal plant cultivation. The cultivated production covers only 4-6% of the demand for 

MAP raw material. The main plants under more intensive cultivation are caraway, valerian, 

marigold, chamomile, peppermint, and lemon thyme.


• Legislation 

The harvest and trade of MAPs are regulated by the Law on Protected Areas (1993, 2001), Law 

on Endangered Wildlife (1996), Law on Wild Vegetation (1999) and Law on Plant Genetic Resources 

Conservation (2001). Recently, a draft law on the ratification of the Convention on International 

Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora was prepared. The Ministry of 

Environment regulates the gathering of wild MAPs and revises the list of species whose 

collecting is prohibited on the basis of research carried out by specialists from the Institute of 

Botany. The State Register (2000) of the Law on Wild Vegetation lists MAP species for which 

gathering from the wild indicated existing or potential conservation problems and whose 

collecting is therefore limited. Some medicinal plants are included in the National Red Book 

and are subjected to national legislation (Box 1). 

Box 1. List of MAP species regulated by law in Lithuania 

Threatened MAP species whose collecting 

from the wild is regulated by law 


Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 

Angelica archangelica 

Centhaurium erythraea 

Centhaurium pulchellum 

Cetraria islandica 

Chimophila umbellata 

Digitalis grandiflora 


Hierochloe australis 

Hierochloe odorata 



Origanum vulgare 

Potentilla erecta 

Poleminium caeruleum 

Primula veris 

Plantago arenaria 

Sanguisorba officinalis 

Viscum album 

Viola tricolor 

MAP species included in the National Red 

Book 

Arnica mntana 

Allium angulosum 

Allium vineale 

Allium scorodoprasum 

Allium ursinum 

Arctium nemorosum 


Hedera helix 

Hypericum montanum 

Hypericum hirsutum 

Mentha longifolia 

Polemonium coeruleum 

Pulmonaria angustifolia 

Salvia pratensis 

• Conservation methods 

Different methods are used to avoid potential danger and existing threats to MAP species, 

i.e. in situ and ex situ conservation. The biological peculiarities of species and their sources of 

raw material determine the conservation method. MAP species have been divided into three 

groups according to the source of raw material: sufficient, limited and insufficient (Table 1): 

1. For species with sufficient sources of raw material, the Law on Wild Vegetation regulates 

the exploitation of common species. 

2. Widespread species characterized by a large phenotypic diversity but with low sources of 

raw material can be or are cultivated. Wild populations of these species are not 

endangered in their natural habitats; however the sampling of their diversity has been 

initiated to ensure the conservation of their germplasm and further use in breeding. 

3. Species with low sources of raw material and narrow ecological adaptation, which are 

difficult to introduce into cultivation, are in the most critical situation. This group of 

species includes rare and endangered plants. The main factor causing the decrease in 

populations of these species is the changing environmental conditions.

76 


Table 1. Medicinal and aromatic plants of commercial interest grouped according to the sources of 

raw material 

Sources of raw material Species 

Achillea millefolium, Artemisia vulgare, Artemisia absinthium, Calluna vulgaris, 

Crataegus sp., Epilobium angustifolium, Equisetum arvense, Filipendula ulmaria, 

Frangula alnus, Fragaria vesca, Glechoma hederacea, Hypericum perforatum, 

1. Sufficient 

Humulus lupulus, Ledum palustre, Menyanthes trifoliata, Pulmonaria officinalis, 

Rubus idaeus, Tilia cordata, Tussilago farfara, Taraxacum officinale, Urtica dioica, 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Vaccinium myrtillus 

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Arctium lapa, Arctium tomentosum, Agrimonia eupatoria, 

Angelica archangelica, Bidens tripartite, Chamomilla recutita, Chelidonium majus, 

Cichorium intybus, Convallaria majalis, Helichrysum arenarium, Inula helenium, 

Leonurus cardiaca, Malva sylvestris, Oenothera biennis, Origanum vulgare, 

2. Limited 

Plantago arenaria, Primula veris, Plantago major, Polygonum bistorta, 

Potentlla erecta, Sambucus nigra, Symphytum officinale, Tanacetum vulgare, 

Viburnum opulus, Verbascum nigrum, Valeriana officinalis, Viola arvensis, 

Thymus serpyllum 

Acorus calamus, Arnica montana, Centhaurium erythraea, Cetraria isandica, 

Drosera anglica, Gentiana cruciata, Gnaphalium uliginosum, Herniaria glabra, 

3. Deficient 

Herniaria hirsuta, Lycopodium clavatum, Mentha longifolia, Petasites officinalis, 

Polygonum aviculare, Polemonium ceruleum, Viola tricolor, Viscum album 

In situ conservation 

This method of conservation is used mainly for those species which are most endangered or 

for which conservation problems were identified. In situ conservation can be implemented 

using the existing protected areas that contain a broad range of MAP germplasm material. 

Changes in the distribution and survival of natural populations have been observed in recent 

years. The large areas of wasteland previously cultivated or owned by the military are 

currently used for gathering of raw material. 

The monitoring of the vitality of populations, coenodiversity changes and regeneration 

has been carried out on Allium L. spp., Arctostaphylos uva-ursi L., Arnica montana L., 

Centhaurium erythraea Rafn., Origanum vulgare L. and Menyanthes trifoliata L. 

• The distribution area of Arnica montana originates in the European mountain province 

and the northern border of its distribution area crosses the Lithuanian territory. In 

Lithuania it grows only in the southern and southeastern parts of the country (Fig. 3). It 

was observed that populations of Arnica montana growing in optimum lichen-type pine 

stands have not decreased and are potential sources for their exploitation (Radušienė et al. 

1997). 

Fig. 3. Distribution of Arnica montana L. indigenous populations in Lithuania.


• The collecting of Arctostaphylos uva-ursi raw material increased in former military areas 

where populations of high vitality have been observed. In other locations the collecting 

of raw material seriously damages the stands of this plant. 

• Centaurium erythraea is native to oceanic Europe and the Mediterranean, western Asia 

and northern Africa, and naturalized in North America. It is one of the traditional 

panaceas. Wild populations of centaury fluctuate greatly in size and are short-lived. 

They are greatly endangered by collecting and destruction of natural habitats. The 

fluctuations are due to the limited competitive ability of the plant and depend highly 

upon the environment (Radušienė 1995). Several attempts have been made to cultivate 

centaury, but the results were unsatisfactory. 

• It was revealed recently that sources of the widespread species Menyanthes trifoliata 

have decreased significantly of late. The vitality of this plant in most stands is moderate 

or low. This fact indicates changes in moist habitat conditions that threaten the 

populations of Menyanthes trifoliata. 

• Origanum vulgare, in spite of its economic importance, is often referred to as an 

underutilized taxon, in the sense that its genetic resources and variability have not yet 

been fully explored (Padulosi 1997). The research on germplasm conservation is very 

limited outside the Mediterranean region where most resources of oregano are 

concentrated. The whole genepool of oregano should be conserved to have a 

representation of the diversity of this species. The populations of oregano in Lithuania 

are characterized by a limited distribution and low sources of raw material. The majority 

of populations are concentrated in southeast and east Lithuania (Fig. 4). The initial step 

of conservation of oregano consisted in identification of growing sites, gathering of wild 

accessions, their characterization and introduction into the field, further evaluation and 

multiplication of the selected material. 

Fig. 4. Distribution of Origanum vulgare L. indigenous populations in Lithuania.

78 


- All native species of Allium are subject to germplasm conservation in Europe. There are 

seven spontaneous species of Allium in Lithuania. Four of these, A. angulosum L., 

A. scorodoprasum L., A. ursinum L. and A. vineale L. are included in the National Red 

Data Book. In Lithuania A. angulosum stretches over the northern border of its 

distribution area. Only two sites of this species have been found in water meadows. A. 

scorodoprasum is under imminent threat. It is found in over 20 localities, mostly situated in 

protected areas in the western part of Lithuania. Only a few sites of A. vineale are known. 

The first three species are under imminent threat, while A. ursinum has been found in 50 

localities all over the country. A. ursinum covers large areas (up to 10 ha) as pure stands 

in broadleaved forests or as isolated plants (Fig. 5). 

Fig. 5. Distribution of threatened Allium L. species in Lithuania.


Ex situ conservation 

Conservation of MAPs in field collections is carried out at the Institute of Botany, at the 

Kaunas Botanical Garden of Vytautas Magnus University, and at the University of 

Agriculture. 

Target species for ex situ germplasm conservation are the following: Achillea millefolium L., 

Allium oleraceum L., Carum carvi L., Helichrysum arenarium L., Hypericum perforatum L., 

H. maculatum Cranz, Humulus lupulus L., Origanum vulgare L., Thymus pulegioides L., 

T. serpyllum L. and Viola tricolor L. 

• Helichrysum arenarium is a perennial herbaceous plant native to Europe and West Asia. 

It is one of the most frequently used plants in Lithuanian pharmaceutics. As gathering 

from the wild has threatened the populations of this species and does not satisfy the 

market demand, there is a need for its conservation and cultivation ex situ. H. arenarium 

belongs to the species of rather easy introduction and acceptable conservation in field 

collections. The field collection holds 10 accessions of this species. The plants of the same 

population showed a wide range of variation of yield-related characters such as mass of 

inflorescences, number and colour of flowers and plant height (Radušienė 2002). The 

high phenotypic variation of H. arenarium may allow selection of the most valuable 

accessions. 

• Investigations on Hypericum perforatum and H. maculatum described the variation of 

morphological and chemical characters in wild populations and field accessions 

(Bagdonaitė et al. 2000; Radušienė and Bagdonaitė 2001; Radušienė 2002). The expression 

of morphological diversity in wild populations and field accessions of Hypericum is 

influenced by both environmental and genetic factors, while chemical variability is based 

mainly on the genetic background. The content of flavonoids and hypericin varies 

greatly between species, different accessions, and parts of the plant. Significant 

differences were detected in the mean concentrations of quercetin, hypericin, rutin and 

hyperoside+isoquercetrin in flowers and leaves of both species. The flavonoid content 

appeared to be the most constant character in both species. The poorest growth and 

lowest mean concentrations of secondary metabolites were found in H. maculatum. 

• The oregano collection was established in the MAP field collection at the Institute of 

Botany. It holds 15 accessions gathered from indigenous populations and 4 from local 

cultivation. The results of primary evaluation on Origanum vulgare indicated a high 

heterogeneity within the material studied. The accessions of oregano significantly 

differed in all measured morphological and yield-related characters (Radušienė et al. 

2002). The results of essential oil analysis show a rich composition and high variation of 

its compounds. Furthermore, comparison showed that the values of oil yield obtained 

from wild populations and field accessions were not significantly different. 

• The studied morphological variation of thyme resulted in the identification of 8 varieties 

of Thymus pulegiodes and 4 varieties of T. serpyllum in the wild (Ložienė and 

Vaičiunienė 1999). Introduction of 26 wild populations of thyme in the field 

demonstrated that the morphological differences were not stable with the change of 

conditions. Chemical analysis revealed a wide variability in the content and composition 

of essential oil of thyme. Different populations of T. serpyllum and T. pulegioides yielded 

from 0.25-0.11% to 0.78–1.20% of essential oil respectively (in absolute dry matter of the 

leaves+flowers fraction). A total of 80 constituents were identified in T. pulegioides and 75 

in T. serpyllum (Ložienė et al. 2002). The chemical variability among thyme accessions was

80 


characterized by a significant presence of 5 chemotypes in T. pulegioides (thymol, 

carvacrol, geraniol, linalool and α-terpenyl acetate) and 4 chemotypes in T. serpyllum 

(1,8-cineole, dihydrocarvone, germacrene and (Z)-β-ocimene). The chemical variability of 

thyme remained the same in the field and could be predetermined genetically. 

- In selecting Achillea millefolium accessions we tried to sample a wide range of 

environmental factors to obtain as many different genotypes as possible. The variation in 

total essential oil content in A. millefolium field accessions was high: 0.08-0.78% of dry 

mass in inflorescences and 0.05-0.13% in leaves. Wide variation was found in the content 

of proazulenes among A. millefolium populations. Some of them contain no proazulenes 

while others vary widely in their content of these substances. Proazulene-free and 

proazulene-containing individuals occurred at the same site. The quantitative variation of 

proazulenes in natural populations of the A. millefolium group and its relationship with 

abiotic factors and phytosociological releves has been examined. 

- Anthropogenic and technological factors have caused a decrease in Carum carvi habitats 

(natural meadows) and a reduction in genetic resources of this species. The field 

collection of caraway at the University of Agriculture holds 130 accessions, which vary in 

blossoming time, colour of inflorescence and amount of volatile oil. Two different forms – 

pasture and meadow – have been distinguished according to morphological characters 

(Petraitytė et al. 2001). 

Conclusion 

It seems obvious that many of the indigenous species will continue to be collected from the 

wild in the future, as their cultivation is often difficult due to their biological peculiarities. 

Different possibilities for avoiding potential dangers and existing threats to MAP species 

include legislation and conservation projects. MAP germplasm conservation ought to be 

carried out jointly with the research and plant breeding sectors. The material appeared to be 

phenotypically quite variable and therefore needs to be further studied, using more 

sophisticated methods. The germplasm of evaluated species may be a potential source of 

genetic variation to allow selecting valuable material for breeding. 

References 

Bagdonaitė, E., B. Zygmunt and J. Radušienė. 2001. Morphological and chemical evaluation of St 

John's Wort (Hypericum perforatum L.) populations in Lithuania. Herba Polonica 4:294-302. 

Bernáth, J. 1999. Biological and economical aspects of utilization and exploitation of wild growing 

medicinal plants in middle and south Europe. Pp. 31-41 in Proceedings of the Second World 

Congress on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants for Human Welfare (WOCMAP II). Biological 

resources, sustainable use, conservation and ethnobotany (N. Caffini, J. Bernáth, L. Craker, 

A. Jatisatienr and G. Giberti, eds). Acta Hort. 500. ISHS, Leuven, The Netherlands. 

Hölzl, J. and E. Ostrowski. 1987. Johanniskraut (Hypericum perforatum L.) – HPLC–Analyse der 

wichtigsten Inhaltsstoffe und deren Variabilität in einer Population [St John's Wort (Hypericum 

perforatum L.) – HPLC analysis of essential compounds and their variability within a population] 

Deutsche Apotheker Zeitung 127:1227-1230. 

Ložienė, K. and J. Vaičiūnienė. 1999. Keturbriaunio čiobrelio (Thymus pulegioides L) vidurūšinė 

įvairovė ir augaviečių charakteristika [Intraspecific diversity of Thymus pulegioides L. and 

characteristics of habitats]. Botanica Lithuanica 5(1):27-40. [in Lithuanian]. 

Ložienė, K., R. Venskutonis and J. Vaičiūnienė. 2002. Chemical diversity of essential oil of Thymus 

pulegioides L. and Thymus serpyllum L. growing in Lithuania. Biologija 1 (Suppl.):62-64.


Petraitytė, N., A. Sliesaravičius and A. Dastikaitė. Common caraway (Carum carvi L.): accumulation of 

the genefund and study of the stability of morphobiochemical characteristics. Biologija 4 

(Suppl.):69-72. 

Padulosi, S., editor. 1997. Oregano. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and 


CIHEAM, Valenzano (Bari), Italy. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, 

Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. 

Radušienė, J. 1995. Biological peculiarities and possibilities of introduction of Centaurium erythraea 

Rafn. Biologija 3-4 (Suppl.):55-58. 

Radušienė, J. 2002. Laukinių Hypericum perforatum ir Hypericum maculatum cenopopuliacijų augalų 

antriniai metabolitai [Secondary metabolites in wild populations of Hypericum perforatum and 

Hypericum maculatum]. Botanica Lithuanica 8(1):43-50. [in Lithuanian]. 

Radušienė, J. and E. Bagdonaitė. 2001. Analysis of phenotypic variation in wild cenopopulations of 

Hypericum perforatum. Botanica Lithuanica 7(3):215-226. 

Radušienė, J., B. Karpavičienė and D. Radaitienė. 2002. Primary evaluation of Origanum vulgare 

germplasm in Lithuania. Sodininkystė ir daržininkystė 21(1):21-32. 

Radušienė, J., J. Vaičiunienė and A. Peseckienė. 1997. Estimation of distribution and phytocenologic 

dependence of useful indigenous plants in Lithuania. Botanica Lithuanica 1 (Suppl.):71-81. 

Weibull, J. 2001. The Nordic-Baltic plant genetic resources project 1998-2000. Biologija 4 (Suppl.):12- 

14.

82 


Status of medicinal and aromatic plants in the Republic of Macedonia F.Y.R. 

Gjoshe Stefkov and Svetlana Kulevanova 

Institute of Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, 

Skopje, Republic of Macedonia F.Y.R. 

The Republic of Macedonia is a small, landlocked Balkan country in southeastern Europe, 

bordered by Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Greece and Albania. Largely surrounded by high 

mountains, much of the country is a plateau more than 1000 m above sea level. The western 

part of the country, with its alpine climate, and the eastern part, with its continental climate, 

are divided by the largest river, the Vardar, rising in the north and flowing south to Greece 

and into the Mediterranean Sea, drawing the influence of a sub-Mediterranean climate deep 

into the continental territory. This predominantly mountainous country is made up of 

valleys, gorges, plateaux and highlands. The territory of Macedonia includes: 

- Pastureland 25% 

- Grassland and meadows 2% 

- Arable land, vineyards, orchards 23% 

- Barren land 8% 

- Forest land 37% 

- Lakes 2% 

- Urban or industrial land 3% 

Four phytogeographic regions can be distinguished, characterized by their different 

climates and altitudes and consequently by their different flora: 

- sub-Mediterranean region (40% of the territory): Mediterranean plants dominate, growing 

mainly up to 600 m; 

- sub-continental region (37% of the territory): it lies mainly between 600 and 1200 m and is 

subject to some Mediterranean influence and is thus not completely continental; 

- sub-humid region (22% of the territory): between 900 and 1700 m with mainly forest 

vegetation; 

- sub-alpine region (1% of the territory): may be characterized as a real alpine region (above 

2200 m). 

In spite of its small territory (25 333 km 2 ), Macedonia is very rich in plant diversity, 

having approximately 3500 vascular plant species, and is at the top of the list of countries 

called "European hotspots". According to data from local and neighbouring countries’ folk 

medicine there are more than 700 plants with medicinal properties, but only about 150 

species are used frequently. All these approximations are due to the fact that the inventory 

of the flora of Macedonia is still not complete; therefore an exhaustive inventory of the 

medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) is not yet available. The Department of 

Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry and Pharmaceutical Botany of the Faculty of Pharmacy in 

Skopje, through its scientific research and educational activities in this field, has gathered a 

significant amount of data. 

For better consideration of the overall situation of MAPs in Macedonia, it has to be 

mentioned that Macedonia was the last of all the former Yugoslavian republics to acquire its 

independence, withdrawing from Yugoslavia in 1991. This is not a very long period for 

establishing relevant legislation. Some laws are still those that were in force in the former 

Yugoslav legislation, most of them dating from the early 1970s. There is no law for MAPs or 

specific regulation contained in any other law. The only regulation is found in one half-page


article (art. 42 of the Law of the Forests, 1997), classifying MAPs as "other forest products", 

regulating almost nothing. Therefore Macedonia is missing a fully comprehensive 

legislation regulating collecting, trade, cultivation, manufacturing, quality control, 

maintenance, preservation, conservation and evaluation of indigenous and introduced 

MAPs. 

Research studies show that more than 20% of the territory is of special interest regarding 

natural heritage, but only 6% is protected by the Law for protection of natural rarities. 

In situ conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants, not exactly specified as MAPs, but 

as part of the whole flora, can be found in the three national parks, with a total area of 

108 000ha; they are regulated by the following laws: 

- Law for National Park "Pelister" (1948) 

- Law for National Park "Mavrovo" (1949) 

- Law for National Park "Galichica" (1958) 

These laws date from the Yugoslavian regime and are not in accordance with IUCN 

categories for protected areas but there are initiatives and efforts dedicated to changing this 

situation. 

The Macedonian legislative body has ratified the following international 

regulations/conventions: 

- Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Agenda 21 (Rio de Janeiro, 1992) ratified in 

1998. So far, a National Coordinator (focal point) has been nominated and a National 

Committee for Biodiversity has been formed and is functioning; 

- Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats 

(CCEWNH or Bern Convention, 1982) ratified in 1999. A National Coordinator (focal 

point) operates and a National Committee for the Bern Convention is being formed. 

- Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 

(CITES) (Washington, 1973) ratified in 2000; a National Coordinator (focal point) has 

been designated. 

As a permanent member of the CBD, Macedonia is liable to prepare a national biological 

and landscape diversity conservation strategy and an appropriate legislative background. 

These conventions being ratified, they are considered as laws in Macedonia. Beside these, no 

strategy has yet been prepared (the first phase, dealing with data evaluation, is currently 

underway), nor any legislative background. 

In the Republic of Macedonia, there is no ex situ conservation of medicinal plants, because 

of the lack of a national strategy in this field. Yet there are facilities at the Institute for 

Southern Crops in Strumica, which could easily be adapted and used for this purpose. 

The most common way of providing herbal raw materials is traditional collecting of 

medicinal plants from the wild. Organized collecting from natural resources has existed for 

a long time but the people involved do not always have the necessary skills. The collectors 

are mainly private individuals, especially villagers in the vicinity of collecting areas. In most 

cases collecting is done to meet a demand for certain species. Only a few companies in the 

Republic of Macedonia can be regarded as serious and important in this business. The most 

important and by far the largest pharmaceutical company which buys aromatic plants in 

Macedonia, and the only one to have a permanent list of required medicinal plants and eight 

buying stations throughout Macedonia, is "Alkaloid". In addition, 4-5 smaller companies are 

involved in business with MAPs, mainly packing tea-bags. From 90 to 95% of the total plant 

material used in the pharmaceutical industry is of wild origin, 80% being of native origin and 

20% imported.

84 


One of the greatest threats for wild medicinal flora is due to the large requirements for 

certain species from abroad, guided by very small companies with incompetent personnel. 

Likewise, the presence of Gentiana spp., of all Orchidaceae bulbs (which can be used in the 

production of salep), of Sideritis scardica, Sideritis syriaca, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi and others, 

on the buying list with the most tempting prices, endanger these species. Recently, the 

Ministry of the Environment has regulated the export of 50 plant species from Macedonia, 

including many medicinal plants. 

Despite the very good climate and soil for cultivation, today in Macedonia the cultivation 

of medicinal plants on a large scale has been abandoned. Some smaller companies are trying 

to organize cooperative contracts with individual farmers, supplying them with raw material 

and seeds with an obligation to buy their herbal material. This kind of cultivation has 

appeared only recently; it receives no support from the government and the acreage under 

medicinal plants at the moment can be estimated at approximately 50 ha.


Status of medicinal and aromatic plants in Malta 


Institute of Agriculture, University of Malta, Msida, Malta 

Introduction 

Although the Maltese Archipelago has a restricted environment due to its small size, the 

diversity in biological species is vast. The variation in biodiversity is mainly linked to the 

connection of the warm North Africa to the cold southern Europe. The bioclimatic 

conditions of Malta are also found in coastal regions of other Mediterranean countries. In 

fact, about 66% of the flora of Malta is common to other Mediterranean regions. Common 

medicinal flora of the Mediterranean region and Malta include conifers (Pinus halepensis and 

Cupressus sempervirens), broadleaved trees (Laurus nobilis, Morus nigra, Tamarix gallica and 

Rhus coriaria), fruit trees (Ceratonia siliqua, Ficus carica, Punica granatum, Cercis siliquastrum, 

Nerium oleander, Citrus aurantium and Olea europea) and others (Allium sativum, Aloe ferox, 

Arbutus unedo, Capparis spinosa, Myrtus communis, Opuntia ficus-indica, Origanum vulgare, 

Papaver somniferum, Phytolacca decandra and Pistacia lentiscus). The other 34% of the flora is 

adapted to cold European conditions (Populus alba, Salix spp. and Crataegus monogyna) and 

subtropical conditions (Ceratonia siliqua, Ficus carica, Myrtus communis and Cynomorium 

coccineum). 

There are about 1264 vascular plant species, including casual or naturalized aliens. Of 

these, 458 species possess medicinal value and have been used in traditional medicine for 

several ailments (Lanfranco 1975, 1993) particularly related to the Mediterranean region. 

These refer to the nervous system (15%), gastrointestinal (24%), cardiovascular (14%), 

dermatological (13%) and antimicrobial (4%). Predominating medicinal plant families 

include Compositae (15%), Labiatae (7%), Leguminosae (6%), Rosaceae (4%), Umbelliferae 

(4%), Liliaceae (3%), Solanaceae (3%), Cruciferae (3%), Caryophyllaceae (2%), Ranunculaceae 

(2%) and Papaveraceae (1%). These aromatic and medicinal herbs are found in small patches 

throughout the country (Haslam et al. 1977). 

Medicinal and aromatic plant status 

A considerable number of medicinal plants are under threat, mainly not due to overuse but 

to degradation by human activities including building and agricultural practices. Table 1 

shows the status of the threatened population of medicinal plants in relation to the local 

threatened plant species (Lanfranco 1989). 

Table 1. Medicinal plants under threat in Malta (adapted from Lanfranco 1989) 

Extinct Endangered Vulnerable Rare Indeterminate Total 

Medicinal plants 9 9 5 20 1 44 

Total species 109 74 44 137 34 398 


In Malta, few ex situ conservation measures are undertaken for medicinal plants. However, 

the Institute of Agriculture, University of Malta in collaboration with the Micropropagation 

Centre, Department of Plant Health, has looked into conservation of medicinal plants 

through micropropagation. Another area of interest for medicinal plants is their yield of 

secondary metabolites under in vitro and in situ conditions (Cassar 1998; Attard 2001). In the 

near future, the threatened species will be considered on an individual basis in order to 

regenerate their populations. The University Botanic Gardens and the Government's nursery

86 


at Wied Incita have propagated a large variety of plants. In fact threatened medicinal plants 

are found both at the Botanic Gardens and on the University Campus, and in public gardens 

or public areas. Amongst these are included plants such as Ephedra fragilis, Paleocyanus 

crassifolia, Rosmarinus officinalis, Vitex agnus-castus, Quercus ilex, Coronilla emerus, Viola odorata, 

Aloe vera, Pancratium maritimum, Salvia triloba, Spartium junceum, Centranthus ruber, Laurus 

nobilis, Ruscus hyphophyllum, Tamarix africana and Orchis morio. 

Inventory of MAP natural resources 

A Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Database was initiated in 1995 with the emergence of a 

MAP project at the University of Malta consisting of a multidisciplinary research group. 

Throughout the years collection of data on the local medicinal flora has led to the creation of 

another more powerful and user-friendly database at the Institute of Agriculture, University 

of Malta. This database is multidisciplinary with the main focus on: 

- plant nomenclature 

- botanical description 

- local and foreign ethnobotanic uses 

- description of the natural habitat and cultivation requirements 

- plant pests and diseases 

- local, Mediterranean and worldwide distribution 

- plant toxicity to humans and animals 

- chemical constituents and pharmacological uses. 

To complement this, a photo gallery is being compiled alongside the database. 

Review of the acreage of MAPs under cultivation and use of MAPs by processing 

industries 

In Malta, commercial natural products, found in pharmacies, are mainly obtained from 

European countries. Due to the lack of space available for agricultural practices, to date no 

medicinal or aromatic plants are being cultivated for purposes other than for culinary uses. 

Considering the entry of MAP-related produce into the national marketplace for the year 

2001 (Table 2), it can be noted that the local cash crop, the potato tuber, is the most cultivated 

crop. Besides, the most prominent export for the Maltese Islands is the potato export to the 

Dutch markets, with a total of 6069 tonnes for the year 2001 (PQS 2002). 

The local medicinal and aromatic plant industry is still very young. Attempts have been 

made to set up an industry but due to marketing reasons, commercial problems outweigh 

the feasibility of such projects. 

Table 2. Entry of MAP-related produce for the year 2001 into the national marketplace (Anonymous 

2002) 

Produce 

Weight (kg) 

Allium cepa 1319637 

Allium sativum 124941 

Anethum graveolens 1916 

Capparis spinosa 91 

Capsicum spp. 36436 

Ficus carica 16641 

Foeniculum vulgare 838 

Morus alba 39 

Morus nigra 1725 

Ocimum basilicum 4857 

Passiflora caerulea 220 

Petroselinum crispum 332 

Potato tuber 2625209 

Thymus vulgaris 85 

Other herbs 19308


Conclusion 

Although the Maltese Islands have a high level of biodiversity, the limited land area lowers 

the potential for large-scale cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants. Therefore the main 

aim, as regards medicinal and aromatic plants, is to sustain and conserve the genetic stock by 

in situ and ex situ methods. This includes afforestation projects involving, for example, 

Coronilla emerus and Spartium junceum. Also efforts are made in order to promote alternative 

crops (MAPs) that might be the starting material for processing industries. 

References 

Anonymous. 2002. Pitkalija Market. Statistics for the year 2001. Department of Agriculture, Ministry 

of Agriculture and Fisheries, Ta' Qali, Malta. 

Attard, E. 2001. Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Richard in Malta: the in vitro growth and quality of the 

Maltese squirting cucumber, a source of the potential anti-cancer tetracyclic triterpenoid, 

Cucurbitacin E. PhD Thesis, University of Malta, Malta. 

Cassar, E. 1998. Studies on the micropropagation of the local squill: Drimia maritima (L.) stearn. M.Sc. 

Thesis, University of Malta, Malta. 

Haslam, S.M., P.D. Sell and P.A. Wolseley. 1977. A Flora of the Maltese Islands. Malta University 

Press, Malta. 

Lanfranco, G. 1975. Duwa u Semm il-Hxejjex Maltin [The medicinal applications of Maltese herbs]. 

Edizzjoni Klabb Kotba Maltin, Malta. 

Lanfranco, E. 1989. The Flora. Pp. 5-70 in Red Data Book for the Maltese Islands (P.J. Schembri and 

J. Sultana, eds). Department of Information, Malta. 

Lanfranco, G. 1993. Hxejjex medicinali u ohrajn fil-Gzejjer Maltin [Medicinal and other plants of the 

Maltese islands]. Media Centre Publications, Malta. 

PQS (Plant Quarantine Station). 2002. Statistics for the year 2001. Department of Plant Health, 

Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Ta' Qali, Malta.

88 


Medicinal and aromatic plants in the Nordic Countries 


Nordic Gene Bank (NGB), Alnarp, Sweden 

MAPs at the Nordic Gene Bank 

Within the Nordic countries the production and the collection of herbs and medicinal plants 

is quite low. During recent years the interest has increased. 

In 1985, a working group for spices and medicinal plants was established at the Nordic 

Gene Bank. Among other working group activities, the group collected information in the 

area of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs). Only a few accessions of material where 

collected and conserved at the Nordic Gene Bank. Unfortunately, the group was closed 

down in 1993 due to lack of resources. Before it was closed down, the working group 

produced a study on Nordic medicinal plants, covering information such as content of 

chemical substances in the plants, distribution, uses and recommendations for conservation. 

When the working group was closed down the material and the responsibility were carried 

over to the working group for vegetables. Table 1 lists the MAP species conserved at the 

Nordic Gene Bank. 

Table 1. MAP material stored at the Nordic Gene Bank (ACC = accepted; TEM = temporary) 

Species Denmark Finland Iceland Norway Sweden 

ACC TEM ACC TEM ACC TEM ACC TEM ACC TEM 

Anthriscus cereifolium Chervil 2 1 

Carum carvi Caraway 1 3+3 


subsp. archangelica 

Angelica 1 1 

Levisticum officinale Garden lovage 1 

Solanum nigrum 

Garden 

nightshade 

1 

Petroselinum crispum 

var. crispum 

Parsley 11 7 2 

Anethum graveolens Dill 4 3 5 

Humulus lupulus Hops 19 10 31 32 

The SPIMED project 

However, during the late 1990s interest in this material increased and in 2000 the working 

group for vegetables initiated a project called SPIMED (SPIce and MEDicinal plants). It will 

run for five years (2001-2005) and is supported by the Nordic Gene Bank. The full title of the 

project is "Spice and medicinal plants in the Nordic and Baltic countries. Strategies for conservation 

of genetic resources in minor crops". Its aim is to develop strategies for conserving cultivated 

spice and medicinal plants in situ or ex situ in the Nordic and Baltic countries. The three 

Baltic countries (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) are participating in the project as well as 

Norway, Denmark, Finland and Sweden; in 2003, the project will expand to include Iceland. 

Planned activities in the project are: 

1. To establish a priority list of species to be included in the project; list existing in situ 

populations of these species; 

2. Consider if these populations are safe in terms of plant genetic resources conservation; 

3. Collect threatened species/populations for ex situ conservation; 

4. Develop descriptors for characterization of the species on the priority list; 

5. Characterize the collected material according to these descriptors; 

6. Develop systems for documentation of in situ conservation; 

7. Map genetic variation in the species; 

8. Develop strategies for conservation, in situ or ex situ.


The project is divided into two parts, one dealing with the establishment of collections 

and characterization of the material, the other with conservation strategies. 

Table 2 shows the species on the A-list, selected according to the results from the different 

country reports, with priority given to these species. 

Table 2. Species on the A-list and the different countries' selection of priority plants 

Species Estonia Denmark Latvia Finland Lithuania Sweden Norway Iceland 


X 

Arnica sp. X X 

Helichrysum arenarium X X X 

Hypericum sp. X X 

Origanum vulgare X X X X X 

Rhodiola rosea X X X X X 

Thymus sp. X X X X 

Valeriana officinalis X X 

The purpose of this work is to describe genetic diversity within species with value as 

spice and medicinal plants in our region, mainly based on morphological characterizations in 

the collected material. 

These species cover differences in: 

1. geographical distribution (southern/northern, montane/widely distributed) 

2. Red List status (rare/common) 

3. origin (indigenous wild/cultivated/subspontaneous) 

4. use (traditional use/actual commercial production/potential for use) 

5. purpose (medicinal/spice) 

6. need for conservation activities 

This year [2002] will be dedicated to the establishment of collections. The plants will be 

collected both as seeds and living plants from different regions and if possible different 

kinds of habitats. 

The delegates from different countries will be responsible for developing descriptor lists 

for the species. The second part of the project is to investigate which species are threatened 

and consider needs for action and strategies for conserving such species. 

Status report for Denmark, Norway and Sweden 

A short summary of the status reports from Denmark, Norway and Sweden is given below. 

The results from this year's work (2002) are not yet ready. This part only covers the abovementioned 

countries. 15 

• Denmark 

During the summer, Denmark has collected Origanum, Hypericum, Thymus and Valeriana in 

order to establish collections. 

In Denmark there is a production of freeze-dried herbs and spices for the processing 

industry, e.g. Anethum graveolens, Petroselinum crispum var. crispum, Thymus sp., Ocimum 

basilicum and Satureja montana. There is also an increased production of small pot-plants as a 

fresh supply of spices and herbs. The most common are Petroselinum crispum var. crispum, 

Anethum graveolens, Ocimum basilicum, Thymus sp., Origanum vulgare, Melissa officinalis, 

Artemisia dracunculus, Rosmarinus officinalis and Mentha sp. 

15 For Finland, see detailed report by B. Galambosi, following paper.

90 


• Norway 

A collection of Origanum vulgare has been started at the Norwegian Crop Research Institute. 

Norway will also work further on the recently established Rhodiola collection, which consists 

of 90 clones. In 2000 material from Chrysanthemum vulgare from 40 different places in 

Norway was collected as well as 10 clones of Mentha x piperita. 

• Sweden 

The production of medicinal and aromatic plants is quite small in Sweden but it has 

increased during recent years. 

In 2000, the production of herbs grown in the field covered an area of 236 ha (154 ha of 

Anethum graveolens, 43 ha of Petroselinum crispum, 18 ha of Amoracia rusticana and 21 ha of 

different other kinds of herbs) (Anonymous 2000). 

The greenhouse production of herbs more than doubled between 1999 and 2000, from 

11 000 plants to 26 200 (Anonymous 2001). 

Within the SPIMED project, material from the following species was collected during the 

summer: Arnica sp., Helichrysum arenarium, Rhodiola rosea and Valeriana officinalis. 

References 

Anonymous. 2000. Trädgårdsräkningen 2000. Uppgifter avseende 1999 [The 2000 Horticultural 

Census concerning 1999]. JO 36 SM 0001. Jordbruksverket [Swedish Board of Agriculture], 

Jönköping/Statistiska centralbyrån - Statistics Sweden, Örebro. 

Anonymous. 2001. Statistikenheten 2001. Trädgårdsundersökningen 2000 års produktion [Statistics 

2001. Horticultural production in 2000]. Jordbruksverket [Swedish Board of Agriculture], 

Jönköping, Sweden.


Medicinal and aromatic plants in Finland 


Agrifood Research Finland, Environmental Research, Ecological Production, Karila, Mikkeli, Finland 

Despite the severity of the environmental conditions in Finland, more than 100 medicinal 

and culinary herbs grow wild over the entire country during the relatively short but 

intensive photoassimilation period (Hälvä 1988). Knowledge of the utilization of these 

plants varies with the species and part of the country. Quite a limited variety of natural, 

wild-growing herb plants have been used since the early days of Finland. 

Historically, collecting and cultivation of herbs have been occasionally promoted and 

many new species have been introduced in Finland. During the last 15 years intensive 

research and education programmes have been carried out to promote the production of 

herbs as alternative crops (Galambosi 2000). At the same time, attention has been focused on 

the protective management of those threatened plant species that have some practical value 

as medicinal plants. 

Legal protection of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) 

According to the present Finnish law, the following plant species have been assigned 

endangered or protected status in Finland (Table 1). The practical and commercial 

importance of these species as medicinal plants is variable. 

Table 1. Endangered and protected plant species in Finland 

Category 

Critically endangered plants (CR) 

Endangered species (EN) 

Vulnerable (VU) 

Near-threatened (NT) 

Species 

Pimpinella major, Rosa canina 

Agrimonia pilosa, Arctium nemorosum 

Arnica angustifolia, Asarum europaeum, Carlina vulgaris, 

Crataegus monogyna, Galium verum, Ononis arvensis 

Allium ursinum, Anchusa officinalis, Cinna latifolia, Galium odoratum, 

Dryopteris fragrans, Drosera intermedia, 

Allium schoenoprasum var. sibiricum 

Regionally threatened species 

- regionally threatened Agrimonia eupatoria, Arctium lappa, Convallaria majalis 

- regionally protected Angelica archangelica subsp. archangelica 

Restricted collecting 

Daphne mezereum, Hepatica nobilis, Hippophae rhamnoides, 

Juniperus communis, Primula veris 

Inventory of MAP natural resources at national level 

Medicinal plants have not been inventoried officially in Finland. According to personal 

communications from different experts (P. Alanko, University of Helsinki, 2001; A. Alanen, 

Finnish Environmental Centre, Helsinki, 2002) more attention should be paid to the 

following species, because their populations are decreasing in Finland: Acorus calamus, 

Antennaria dioica, Artemisia abrotanum, Hierochloa odorata subsp. odorata, H. odorata subsp. 

baltica, Pimpinella saxifraga, Isatis tinctoria, Leonorus cardiaca subsp. cardiaca, L. cardiaca subsp. 

villosa. 


In Finland there is no special ex situ conservation for medicinal herbs. During 1990-1994 the 

Nordic Gene Bank set up a specialist group to check the situation of MAPs in the 

Scandinavian countries. The group collected basic information about the most important 

medicinal plants used in the Nordic countries and the results have been published (Wahlin 

and Blixt 1994). No official activity was proposed for the protection and inventory of MAPs

92 


at that time, but presently a project named SPIMED (SPIce and MEDicinal plants) has been 

started aiming to analyze more accurately the threatened status of MAPs in the Baltic and 

Scandinavian countries (Asdal 2001). 

Herb gardens and herb collections in Finland 

Historically herb gardens have had an important role in supplying medicinal plants and 

medical raw materials to pharmacies and doctors (Peldan 1967). Presently the function of 

herb gardens has changed: they are a tool for education and research, or serve for touristic 

purposes and special collections. These gardens may provide good possibilities for the 

maintenance and conservation of threatened or endangered medicinal plant species (Väre 

and Siuruainen 1994). At the moment the following herb collections exist in Finland: 

• Botanical gardens 

- Botanical garden, University of Turku 20100 Turku 

- Botanical garden, University of Helsinki 00014 Helsinki 

- Botanical garden, University of Oulu 90570 Oulu 

• Agricultural schools and private farms 

- Herb Garden of Lönnrot 09220 Sammatti 

- Kenkävero, Herb Garden 50600 Mikkeli 

- Tertin Kartano, Herb Garden 50600 Mikkeli 

- Lehtiniemen Kartano, Herb Garden 57600 Savonlinna 

- Luonnon Aromit, Herb farm 88670 Sotkamo 

- Rohto-ja yrttipuisto, Herb Collection and Garden 42100 Jämsä 

- Frantsila Herb Garden, Herb Collection and Garden 39100 Hämeenkyrö 

- Wetersin puutarha, Herb Farm, Collection 25700 Kemiö, Kila 

- Tuorlan koulutila, Herb Garden 1500 Piikkiö 

- Pukkilan kartano, Historical Herb Garden 21500 Piikkiö 

• Research institutes 

- Agrifood Research Centre, Ecological production 50600 Mikkeli 

Collection of wildflower medicinal plants 

In Finland there are about 50 wildflower medicinal plants of commercial importance (Hälvä 

1988). Accurate data on the quantities of collected wildflower medicinal plants is quite 

difficult to obtain. Many of these plants are collected for personal consumption by 

thousands of families. Numerous small local herb farms produce dry tea mixtures or other 

products. Finally, some producers of health food products are using larger quantities for 

further processing/extraction. 

According to a recent review, only a few firms deal with commercial collection and 

processing of these raw materials. On the basis of a telephone interview and personal 

discussions, the quantity of dry wildflower medicinal plants can be estimated at about 

4000-5000 kg/year (Galambosi 1996). 

The most important wild medicinal plants are stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) and birch 

leaves (Folium betulae) with 1000-5000 kg collected each year. The quantity of dry plant 

material of Calluna vulgaris, Juniperus berries and Achillea millefolium flowers varies from 500 

to 1000 kg/year, while 100-500 kg of dried raw material of Solidago, Filipendula, Taraxacum, 

Epilobium and Vaccinium myrtillus leaves are collected each year. About 15 other species are 

collected (less than 100 kg/year per species).


In addition to these species, there is a special product collected by the Oulu District of the 

Finnish 4H Association. During the last 10 years, 500-2200 kg of fresh sundew (Drosera 

rotundifolia) was collected from peatlands and marketed mainly to Switzerland, and partly 

domestically. 

Cultivated herbs 

During the last 15 years, interest in and cultivation of herbs has increased significantly. The 

acreage of herbs in 1985 was 100 ha and in 2001 it reached 3600 ha. At present about 

30 different herbs and medicinal plants are cultivated in Finland to various extents. 

The most important herb is biannual caraway (Carum carvi), since its cultivation can be 

easily mechanized. The area grown in l994 was 1560 ha. In 2001 it had reached 3600 ha, 

spread over about 350 farms. 

The second important spice seed is mustard (Sinapis alba). At its largest, in l991, the 

growing area was about 400 ha, but due to price and quality problems its cultivation has 

now nearly ceased. Presently the area of mustard is barely 50 ha. 

The third important herb is the popular leaf dill (Anethum graveolens). In 1999 it was 

cultivated on 162 ha (323 farms) outdoors and on 8.2 ha indoors. Nearly all dill is used in 

fresh form for direct sale or in the processed food industry. Only a few tonnes are dried in 

Finland. 

Parsley (Petroselinum hortense) is the fourth important herb. It is cultivated outdoors and 

indoors on a total of 20-28 ha, mainly for fresh consumption. 

During the last 4-5 years, the cultivation of garlic (Allium sativum) has increased to 24 ha. 

Production is widely distributed and is carried out on small-scale plots. Nearly 170 farms 

are engaged in garlic cultivation. 

About 10 different herbs, including some medicinal plants (e.g. Coriander, Angelica, 

Oreganum, Mentha sp., Echinacea purpurea, Urtica and Artemisia dracunculus), are cultivated on 

an area of between 1 and 5 ha/each. These plants are produced for further processing, for 

the health food industry or for the growers' own products. The harvested raw materials are 

dried, frozen or extracted. 

About 20 different herb and medicinal plant species (Hypericum, Hyssopus, Matricaria, 

Agastache, Calendula, etc.) are cultivated on less than 0.5 ha/species. 

Use of medicinal plants by processing industries 

Due to the small quantities and lack of information, only limited data are available about the 

industrial use of herbs and medicinal plants. The data presented here were obtained 

through personal contacts. 

Nearly the whole caraway yield is exported from the country. Only 100-120 t of seeds are 

used as a spice by the domestic food industry companies yearly. 

The domestic food industry uses dill mainly in fresh forms (leaf, flowering shoot) and 

only a few farms produce dried dill leaf packed for retail marketing (ca. 5 ha). Experimental 

distillation of caraway seed oil and dill plant oil has been carried out for industrial use. 

Some mint species (Mentha x piperita, M. x dalmatica) are cultivated, mainly for dry leaf 

production and some experiments have been started for distillation of mint oils, mainly for 

aromatization of local herb products. 

Fresh leaf production of stinging nettle has been started from both collecting in the wild 

and field cultivation for the production of special frozen food products. 

The wild-collected sundew (Drosera rotundifolia) is exported in fresh form for the use of 

medicinal industry, mainly to Switzerland, but it is also used to some extent in Finland. 

Bearberry leaves (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) are collected from the wild for further industrial 

processing and the extract is used in the perfume industry abroad and in Finland.

94 


Cultivation of several medicinal plants has been started by the requirements of the 

domestic medical industry. Alcoholic extracts, tablets and other special products are 

produced from Echinacea purpurea, Solidago virgaurea, Rhodiola rosea, Plantago lanceolata, etc. 

The quantities of these plants together are variable (ca. 15-30 t/year). 

Experiences in sustainable use of MAPs 

• Organic production 

Organic production is expanding continuously in Finland. In 1998 the total organic area 

controlled by the local authorities was 126 000 ha. Organic herb production is increasing, but 

is still very small: the organic and converting area was 71 ha in 1995, 121 ha in 1997 and 

228 ha in 2001. 

Since the health drug stores require organically grown raw materials, all medicinal plants 

are grown organically. Finnish consumers prefer herbicide-free products, therefore the local 

producers grow herbs using organic cultivation methods. Since weed control is not 

mechanized in organic cultivation, the production units and quantities produced remain 

small. 

The areas of organically grown mustard, caraway and coriander are between 3-12 ha, dill 

and mint about 5 ha, and those of nearly 20 other herbs about 0.5-3 ha. 

• Sustainable collecting of herbs 

In the guide for wild herb collecting (Mäkinen et al. 1994) general instructions are given for 

sustainable collecting methods. These instructions were given in more detail in some cases, 

e.g. Drosera rotundifolia, which is collected in quite large quantities regularly. 

During 1993-1999 the effect of regular collecting on the regeneration of natural 

populations of Drosera rotundifolia were studied (Galambosi et al. 2000). The results showed 

that after two years of collecting, the density of the plant populations and the available fresh 

yields had decreased by 50%. On the basis of these results, a new environmentally 

sustainable collecting method was developed and applied by the collectors. 

As shown by the results of the experiment, sundew populations seem to regenerate by 

seed. Therefore the Finnish 4H Association immediately elaborated a new, environmentally 

sustainable collecting programme for young collectors to minimize the harmful effects of 

collecting and ensure safe regeneration of natural populations. According to the new 

guidelines, the collector must leave 5-10 flowering plants per square metre on the peatland. 

In theory, this leaves about 400-900 seeds/m 2 . Additionally, sundew may be collected only 

once in the summer from each site. According to our results, 35% of the whole population 

flowered after the first collecting. Following the new guidelines, also later-flowering plants 

can produce seeds safely, disperse them and ensure the natural regeneration of sundew 

populations. These instructions are emphasized in collectors' training programmes. 

• Production-oriented dynamic preservation of threatened medicinal plants 

According to a recent study of the commercial importance and threatened status of 

medicinal plants in Europe, about 150 species were reported to be threatened in at least one 

European country as a result of over-collecting from the wild (Lange 1998). Some of the 

threatened medicinal plants are cold-tolerant or belong to the original Finnish flora. 

A series of 3-year cultivation experiments were carried out in Finland to study the 

suitability of several cold-tolerant medicinal plants for cultivation and possible raw material 

production (Bernáth 1988). Reasonable yields were obtained in southern Finland from the 

following species in organic conditions: Achillea ptarmica, Acorus calamus, Alchemilla alpina, A. 

xanthochlora, Arnica montana, Gentiana lutea, Herniaria glabra, Leontopodium alpinum, Primula 

veris and Rhodiola rosea. After 3-year growing observations, Antennaria dioica, Asarum


europaeum, Allium ursinum and Menyanthes trifoliata showed a slow growth rate and 

insufficient yield level. 

By producing raw material from controlled farming systems, we hope to decrease the 

economic pressure imposed on some threatened plant species and we also wish to provide 

additional income to the growers specialized in herb production. The results of plot 

experiments have to be checked in semi-large scale experimental conditions before educating 

the growers for production of these new medicinal plants. 

References and additional literature 

Asdal, A. 2001. Spice and medicinal plants in the Nordic and Baltic countries. Strategies for 

conservation of genetic resources. Nordic Gene Bank Project 2001-2005. Nordic Gene Bank, Alnarp, 

Sweden (see also www.ngb.se/Organization/news/spimed.php) 

Bernáth, J. 1988. Problems and results in preservation and exploitation of medicinal and aromatic 

plants. Herba Hungarica 27(2-3):17-29. 

Galambosi, B. 1993. Consideration and experiences regarding the cultivation of medicinal wildflowers 

in Finland. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31:161-166. 

Galambosi, B. 1996. Production of aromatic and medicinal plants in Finland. Pp. 155-187 in Towards a 

model of technical and economic optimisation of specialist minor crops (N. Verlet and G. Leclercq, 

eds). Concerted Action AIR3-CT-94-2076. Final report II. Economic data base. Commission 

Européenne, Direction générale de l'Agriculture D.G. VI. 

Galambosi, B. 2000. Research and herb production in Finland 1984-2000. Drogenreport 13(24):57-62. 

Galambosi, B., N. Takkunen and M. Repcak. 2000. The effect of regular collection of Drosera 

rotundifolia in natural peatlands in Finland: plant density, yield and regeneration. Suo 51(2):37-46. 

Hälvä, S. 1988. Culinary herbs and spices of Finland. Pp. 1-23 in Herbs, spices and medicinal plants: 

recent advances in botany, horticulture, and pharmacology. Vol. 3 (L.E. Craker and J.E. Simon, 

eds). Oryx Press, Phoenix, Arizona. 

Lange, D. 1998. Europe's medicinal and aromatic plants; their use, trade and conservation. Traffic 


Mäkinen, Y., P. Hakala, J. Vauras and R. Vauras. 1996. Kauppayrtit [Wild herbs]. Edita, Helsinki. 

64pp. 

Peldan, K. 1967. Suomen farmasian historia. [History of Finnish pharmacy]. Suomen Farmaseuttinen 

Yhdistys, Helsinki. 758pp. 

Väre, F. and M. Siuruainen. 1994. Threatened plants and botanical gardens – a field of possibilities. 

Aquilo Ser. Bot. 33:173-178. 

Wahlin, B. and S. Blixt, editors. 1994. Nordiska Medicinalvaxter. Nordiska Genbanken - Skrifter nr 24 

[Nordic Gene Bank – Publication no. 24]. Alnarp, Sweden. 100pp. 

Web site 

Finnish Ministry of Environment: http://www.environment.fi

96 


The status of medicinal and aromatic plants in Poland 

Zenon Węglarz and Anna Geszprych 

Department of Vegetable and Medicinal Plants, Warsaw Agricultural University (SGGW), Poland 

Introduction 

Poland is an important producer of medicinal and aromatic plant (MAP) raw materials. 

About 200 MAP species are collected in larger or smaller amounts from natural sites, 

including 80 for commercial purposes. About 60 species are cultivated. The average annual 

harvest of raw materials from natural sites is estimated at 8000-10 000 t and more than half is 

exported. About 20 000 t of MAP raw materials originate from cultivation (Jambor 1999). 

Over 10 000 people in Poland are directly or indirectly involved in herb collecting, 

cultivation, processing and trading. 

The distribution of medicinal plants grown wild in Poland is irregular. Most of them, 

taking into consideration both the number of species and the area of natural sites, occur in 

the east of Poland. It is a special region representing the transitional area between 

continental and Atlantic climates. It is one of the ecologically cleanest parts of Poland, 

without heavy industry, large urban agglomerations or large agricultural farms. 

Wild-growing MAP species are endangered by two main factors: the first, not specific to 

MAPs, is connected with irreversible abiotic changes of the environment (e.g. lowering of 

ground water level, pollution of the environment and eutrophication of natural water 

reservoirs); the second is specific to MAPs, i.e. uncontrolled and excessive harvesting. 

Legal protection of MAPs 

The legal protection of MAPs in Poland is based both on: 

- international conventions ratified by Poland in 1995: Convention on the Conservation of 

European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, Bern Convention 1982; Convention on Biological 

Diversity, Rio de Janeiro 1992; and 

- national regulations: Preservation of Nature Act (16.10.1991); Decree of the Minister of 

Environment Protection, Natural Resources and Forestry on the protection of plant 

species (06.04.1995); Decree of The Minister of Environment Protection, Natural Resources 

and Forestry in consultation with the Minister of Health and Social Welfare and the 

Minister of Agriculture and Food Management, concerning the rules of harvesting of 

wild-growing medicinal plants or those important for pharmaceutical industry, as well as 

the management of the plantations of those plants (in preparation); and the Polish Red 

Book of Plants. 

The official control organizations involved in the preservation of MAPs in Poland are the 

National Conservatory of Nature (attached to the Ministry of Environment), Provincial 

Conservatories of Nature, and Nature Preservation League (inspectors). Other institutions 

are also interested in this issue such as the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 

the Scientific Council for the Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources affiliated to the above 

Ministry, universities and research institutes. 

According to the law, 111 species of Polish flora are strictly protected, including 20 species 

of herbaceous medicinal plants (Lycopodium sp., Gypsophila paniculata, Cimicifuga europaea, 

Aconitum sp., Adonis vernalis, Nymphaea alba, Nuphar luteum, Drosera sp., Archangelica 

officinalis, Polemonium coeruleum, Echium rubrum, Atropa belladonna, Digitalis purpurea, 

Gentiana sp., Arnica montana, Veratrum sp., Colchicum autumnale, Leucoium vernum, Galanthus 

nivalis and Hierochloe odorata).


Sixteen other MAP species are partly protected (Cetraria islandica, Ribes nigrum, Ononis 

spinosa, Frangula alnus, Ledum palustre, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Viburnum opulus, Polypodium 

vulgare, Asarum europaeum, Primula elatior and P. officinalis, Asperula odorata, Centaurium 

umbellatum, Gentiana asclepiadea, Helichrysum arenarium, Convallaria maialis, and Hierochloe 

australis). Their harvesting is possible in specified amounts and time limits, with the 

permission of the Provincial Conservatories of Nature. 

Wild-growing MAPs in Poland 

There is no detailed documentation so far concerning the distribution of wild-growing MAP 

species in Poland. The investigations on natural habitats have been made only for some 

species (e.g. Achillea sp., Centaurium umbellatum, Hypericum sp., Euphrasia sp., Adonis vernalis, 

Atropa belladonna, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) and for chosen areas. More thorough studies are 

currently underway in the Research Institute of Medicinal Plants in Poznań and in the 

Department of Vegetable and Medicinal Plants, Warsaw Agricultural University (SGGW) 

(Table 1). They concern geographic location, number of sites, population size, morphological, 

developmental and chemical traits. For chosen species molecular research is also carried out. 

Table 1. MAP species studied in situ 

Species 

No. of in situ 

sites studied 

Frequency of population size 

(no. of sites x most frequent 

population size*) 


transferred to the 

Polish Gene Bank 

Under strict or partial protection 

Adonis vernalis 29 2 x b, 10 x c, 14 x d, 3 x e 26 

Archangelica officinalis 1 1 x c 6 

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 26 4 x a, 8 x b, 10 x c, 3 x d, 1 x e 12 

Arnica montana 15 7 x b, 6 x c, 2 x d 21 

Asarum europaeum 21 2 x b, 8 x c, 9 x d, 2 x e 13 

Centaurium umbellatum 13 1 x a, 4 x b, 7 x c, 1 x d 15 

Colchicum autumnale 23 2 x a, 1 x b, 6 x c, 11 x d, 3 x e 19 

Convallaria majalis 26 1 x b, 6 x c, 11 x d, 8 x e 13 

Hierochloe australis 3 1 x a, 2 x b 3 

Others 

Hypericum maculatum 4 3 x b, 1 x c 2 

Hypericum perforatum 51 6 x a, 19 x b, 11 x c, 9 x d, 6 x e 20 

Thymus pulegioides 2 1 x a, 1 x b 

Thymus serpyllum 20 8 x a, 10 x b, 2 x c 9 

* Population size: 

a = one to several individuals 

b = a dozen or so individuals 

c = dozens of individuals 

d = hundreds of individuals 

e = thousands of individuals 

Figures 1-4 illustrate the chemical variability within two investigated species (Osińska 

and Węglarz 2000; Osińska et al. 2002). 

In the last few years more than 100 samples of seeds of investigated accessions were 

transferred to the Polish Gene Bank in Radzików.

98 


0.3 

0.2 

% 

0.1 

H. perforatum 

H. maculatum 

0.0 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516171819202122232425262728293031323334353637383940414243444546474849505152535455 

Accessions 

Fig. 1. Hypericin content in the herb of Hypericum sp. accessions studied in situ. 

5.0 

4.0 

3.0 

% 

2.0 

1.0 

H. perforatum 

H. maculatum 

0.0 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516171819202122232425262728293031323334353637383940414243444546474849505152535455 

Accessions 

Fig. 2. Flavonoid content in the herb of Hypericum sp. accessions studied in situ. 

0.6 

0.5 

0.4 

% 0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

0.0 

H. perforatum 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 

H. maculatum 

Accessions 

Fig. 3. Essential oil content in the herb of Hypericum sp. accessions studied in situ.


% 

0.8 

0.7 

0.6 

0.5 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

0.0 

T. serpyllum 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 

T. pulegioides 

Accessions 

Fig. 4. Essential oil content in the herb of Thymus sp. accessions studied in situ. 

Ex situ MAP collections 

• Botanical gardens 

Collections of both wild and cultivated MAP species are maintained in botanical gardens. 

Six of the numerous botanical gardens in Poland maintain large MAP collections and offer 

the seeds of those plants according to the Index Seminum. These are mainly the seeds of 

plants cultivated in those gardens (1765 accessions from 110 families). However some 

botanical gardens (e.g. Botanical Garden of Medicinal Plants, University of Medicine, 

Wrocław) also possess seeds of wild medicinal plants collected from natural sites 

(208 accessions) (Table 2). 

• Warsaw Agricultural University 

The Department of Vegetable and Medicinal Plants, Warsaw Agricultural University also 

maintains ex situ collections of some MAP species (Table 3). The collected accessions differ 

both in quantitative and qualitative traits, e.g. content and composition of biologically active 

compounds (Osińska 2000; Węglarz et al. 2002) (Tables 3 and 4).

100 


Table 2. MAP seed collections in Polish botanical gardens (number of accessions from the garden + 

from in situ) 

Family Botanical garden (*) 

A B C D E F 

Acanthaceae 6 2 

Aceraceae 3 2 2 

Agavaceae 4 

Alliaceae 9 2 16 3 

Amaranthaceae 6 1+2 4 1 5 

Amarylidaceae 2 1 1 2 

Anacardiaceae 1 1 1 

Apiaceae 27 13+3 13+1 14 13 8+2 

Apocynaceae 1 2 5 1 

Aquifoliaceae 1 

Araceae 1 1 1 

Araliaceae 1 1 1 

Aristolochiaceae 2 1 1 

Asclepiadaceae 5 3 1 1 

Asparagaceae 2+2 

Asphodelaceae 3 

Asteraceae 78 40+40 102+3 30 37 27+3 

Balsaminaceae 0+2 

Berberidaceae 5 1+1 2 3 

Bignoniaceae 1 

Betulaceae 1 0+2 

Boraginaceae 10 4+2 4 3 6 4 

Brassicaceae 23 13+6 3 5 7 3 

Bromeliaceae 1 1 

Buxaceae 1 

Campanulaceae 4 5+2 1 3 1 

Cannabaceae 2 1 1 

Capparaceae 1 1 

Caprifoliaceae 9 2+8 2+1 2 

Caryophyllaceae 23 13+2 6 4 15 5+1 

Celastraceae 1 2+1 1 1 

Chenopodiaceae 6 4+1 2 3 

Cistaceae 4 

Clusiaceae 3 2+2 2 1 2 1+1 

Convolvulaceae 3 0+1 

Cornaceae 1 1+1 1 

Crassulaceae 4 0+1 2 1 1 3 

Cucurbitaceae 1 1+1 1 1 

Cupressaceae 1 1 1 

Cuscutaceae 1 

Cyperaceae 2 5 

Dioscoreaceae 1 3 

Dipsacaceae 1 8+3 1 

Equisetaceae 1 1 

Ericaceae 0+1 2 2 

Euphorbiaceae 1 2+1 2 1 2 

Fabaceae 26 15+23 12 16 16+4 

Fagaceae 0+2 10 

Gentianaceae 4 1 2 

Geraniaceae 6 1+2 

Globulariaceae 1 

Grossulariaceae 1 

Hemerocallidaceae 1 

Hippocastanaceae 2 0+1 1 

Hydrophyllaceae 1 

Iridaceae 7 2 1 

Juglandacae 2 

Lamiaceae 52 43+8 34 32 23 23+1 

Liliaceae 11 2 9 10 12 

Linaceae 2 2 1 1 1 7 

Lobeliaceae 1 1 1 

Loganiaceae 1 1 

Loranthaceae 0+2 

Lythraceae 1 2 1 

Malvaceae 7 7+1 4 3 4 2


Table 2 (cont.). MAP seed collections in Polish botanical gardens (number of accessions from the 

garden + from in situ) 

Family Botanical garden (*) 

A B C D E F 

Moraceae 1 2+2 1 

Myrtaceae 1 

Nyctaginaceae 1 

Oenotheraceae 2 0+4 5 1 3 3+1 

Oleaceae 1 0+1 1 1 

Osmundaceae 0+1 

Oxalidaceae 1 

Papaveraceae 9 6 1 5 6 12 

Passifloraceae 2 

Phytolaccaceae 1 2 3 1 

Pinaceae 4 0+1 1 2 

Plantaginaceae 5 2+3 3 3 2 2+1 

Plumbaginaceae 2 2+3 1 1 

Poaceae 12 4+9 5 3 10 7 

Polemoniaceae 1 3 1 1 1 

Polygonaceae 14 3+5 5 12 2 

Polypodiaceae 2 

Portulaccaceae 1 

Primulaceae 4 2 4 2 1 

Ranunculaceae 34 16+1 6 8 6 5 

Resedaceae 3 

Rhamnaceae 2 1+1 2 

Rosaceae 20 20+17 9 5 12 5+3 

Rubiaceae 3 1 1 

Rutaceae 3 4 3 2 2 2 

Sapindaceae 1 2 1 

Saxifragaceae 2 2+1 1 2 1 1 

Schisandraceae 1 

Scrophulariaceae 8 9+2 10 5 6 4+1 

Simarubaceae 1 1 

Solanaceae 8 6+2 8 4 7 3+1 

Staphyleaceae 1 

Taxaceae 1 1+1 1 

Thymelaeaceae 4 

Tiliaceae 1 0+1 2 

Tropaeolaceae 1 1 1 1 

Ulmaceae 1 

Urticaceae 2 2+2 1 3 

Valerianaceae 4 1 3 1 1 1+1 

Verbenaceae 1 2 3 1 

Violaceae 3 2+1 3 2 

Vitaceae 1+1 

Woodsiaceae 1 

Zingiberaceae 1 

Zygophyllaceae 1 

(*) Botanical gardens: 

A = Research Institute of Medicinal Plants, Poznań 

B = Botanical Garden of Medicinal Plants, University of Medicine, Wrocław 

C = Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Pharmacology, Kraków 

D = Garden of Medicinal Plants, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University, Kraków 

E = Botanical Garden of the Jagiellonian University, Kraków 

F = Botanical Garden of Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute, Bydgoszcz

102 


Table 3. Ex situ collections of MAP species (Dept. of Vegetable and Medicinal Plants, Warsaw 

Agricultural University – SGGW) 

Species 

Variability range 

No. of seed samples 


Dry mass of herb Essential oil content transferred to the 

accessions 

(g/plant) 

(%) 

Polish Gene Bank 

Hyssopus sp. 17 60.1-245.6 0.85-2.20 10 

Satureja sp. 11 69.2-169.2 0.75-2.30 4 

Thymus serpyllum 10 28.2-123.0 0.20-0.40 4 

Origanum vulgare 14 12.1-276.0 0.30-1.30 6 

Coumarin content 

(%) 

Hierochloe australis 38 2.5-28.0 0.22-0.60 12 

Hypericin 

content (%) 

Flavonoid 

content (%) 

Hypericum sp. 15 61.0-333.5 0.01-0.16 0.55-2.58 5 

Table 4. Content of major constituents of essential oils of MAP species studied ex situ 

Compound 

% essential oil 

Hyssopus sp. Satureja sp. Origanum vulgare 

α-thujene 0.10-0.74 0.03-1.16 0.22-2.52 

α-pinene 0.05-0.32 0.38-2.03 0.13-1.25 

β-pinene 1.51-15.07 0.08-1.40 0.72-18.03 

sabinene 1.00-7.56 0.02-0.63 5.46-35.52 

myrcene 1.15-9.46 0.32-2.46 1.10-7.02 

limonene 0.60-2.71 0.17-4.22 0.50-4.61 

cineol 1.49-46.98 0.29-6.08 0.75-44.50 

α-terpinene - 0.67-2.18 0.00-6.14 

γ-terpinene 0.06-4.30 1.79-16.35 0.00-17.12 

p-cymene 0.03-0.51 2.97-9.76 0.00-9.14 

menthone 0.04-0.18 0.92-1.62 - 

pinocamphone 0.21-58.85 - - 

izopinocamphone 2.78-70.00 - - 

linalool 0.15-3.44 0.20-13.04 0.00-15.60 

β-caryophyllene 0.70-3.48 1.04-4.28 0.39-12.28 

terpinene-4-ol 0.05-0.55 0.08-3.94 0.59-18.48 

α-terpineol - 0.14-2.60 0.00-4.35 

borneol 0.03-5.69 0.11-1.92 - 

caryophyllene oxide 0.11-0.81 0.06-0.82 0.13-15.03 

thymol - 0.38-8.36 0.21-7.35 

carwacrol - 27.26-70.53 0.00-0.40 

Transfer of wild plants into cultivation may affect the chemical composition of raw 

materials. For example, accessions of Hypericum perforatum studied in ex situ conditions were 

characterized by higher content of hypericin and lower content of flavonoids and essential 

oil in comparison with raw materials collected from natural sites (Figs. 5-7). 

0.06 

0.05 

0.04 

% 

0.03 

0.02 

0.01 

in situ 

ex situ 

0 

1 4 5 6 11 12 22 23 

Accessions 

Fig. 5. Hypericin content in the herb of Hypericum perforatum in in situ and ex situ conditions.


% 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

0 

1 4 5 6 11 12 22 23 

Accessions 


ex situ 

Fig. 6. Flavonoid content in the herb of Hypericum perforatum in in situ and ex situ conditions. 

0.25 

0.2 

% 

0.15 

0.1 

0.05 


ex situ 

0 

1 4 5 6 11 12 22 23 

Accessions 

Fig. 7. Essential oil content in the herb of Hypericum perforatum in in situ and ex situ conditions. 

MAP cultivation and trade 

It is difficult to present exact data on the acreage and production volume of MAPs in Poland 

owing to the increasing number of new Polish private enterprises involved in MAP 

production and the activity of many foreign firms on this market. 

The most important MAP raw materials collected from natural sites are (in descending 

order of tonnage of purchased raw material): Urtica dioica (leaves) > Hypericum perforatum 

(herb) > Tilia cordata (inflorescences) > Frangula alnus (bark) > Sambucus nigra (fruits) > Rosa 

canina (fruits) > Equisetum arvense (herb) > Betula verrucosa (leaves) > Solidago virgaurea > 

Quercus robur (bark) > Salix purpurea (bark) > Aesculus hippocastanum (bark) > Pinus sylvestris 

(buds) > Agropyron repens (rhizomes) > Taraxacum officinale (roots) > Potentilla erecta 

(rhizomes) > Juniperus communis (fruits) > Crataegus oxyacantha (fruits) > Sambucus nigra 

(flowers) > Helichrysum arenarium (inflorescences).

104 


Nowadays, MAPs in Poland are cultivated on an area of ca. 20 000 ha. The main 

cultivated species are (in descending order of acreage and tonnage of purchased raw 

material): Oenothera sp. (seeds) > Carum carvi (fruits) > Silybum marianum (fruits) > Mentha 

piperita (leaves) > Chamomilla recutita (inflorescences) > Origanum majorana (herb) > Valeriana 

officinalis (roots) > Thymus vulgaris (herb) > Melissa officinalis (herb) > Coriandrum sativum 

(fruits) > Borago officinalis (seeds) > Cynara scolymus (herb) > Althaea officinalis (roots) > 

Archangelica officinalis (roots) > Levisticum officinale (roots) > Salvia officinalis (leaves) > 

Echinacea purpurea (herb and roots) > Ribes nigrum (seeds) > Ruta graveolens (herb) > Plantago 

lanceolata (leaves). 

The main MAP raw materials exported by Poland are: Carum carvi (fruits) > Oenothera sp. 

(seeds) > Valeriana officinalis (roots) > Mentha piperita (leaves) > Thymus vulgaris (herb) > 

Chamomilla recutita (inflorescences) > Potentilla erecta (rhizomes) > Hypericum perforatum 

(herb) > Borago officinalis (seeds) > Tilia cordata (inflorescences). 

The cultivation of MAPs in "ecological farms" (practicing organic farming) in Poland 

started in the beginning of the 1990s. Unlike that of agricultural and animal organic 

production, the increase in organic MAPs' acreage is relatively slow. Organic MAP 

production is currently concentrated mainly in southeastern Poland. Seven major MAP 

species are cultivated in 80 organic farms (Table 4) and about 15 other MAP species are 

cultivated on smaller areas. 

Table 4. Major MAP species cultivated in organic farms in Poland 

Species 

Cultivated area (ha) 

Oenothera sp. 25 

Borago officinalis 5 

Valeriana officinalis 3 


Nigella sativa 3 

Mentha piperita 2 

Ribes nigrum (leaves) 5 

In 2001, 10 t of Rubus idaeus leaves and 6 t of Urtica dioica leaves were collected from 

natural sites as raw materials. 

In a few major Polish cities (e.g. Warsaw, Kraków, Poznań and Gdańsk) about 20 shops 

specialized in organic food offer MAP products originating both from Poland and from 

abroad. Such products are also sold in chosen grocers’ shops, under the special control of the 

Polish Ecological Club in the town of Gliwice. 

There are about 2500 herbal medicines, estimated at 200 million US$ per year, on the 

Polish market. These include simple medicinal forms (e.g. dried herbs, herb mixtures, 

granulates), more processed forms (e.g. tablets, capsules, dragees) and half-finished products 

for pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industry (extracts and essences). 

For the production of extracts about 4000 t of raw materials of wild-growing plants and 

about 8000 t of cultivated plants are used, most frequently Hypericum perforatum, Urtica dioica, 

Valeriana officinalis, Betula verrucosa, Cynara scolymus, Chamomilla recutita, Silybum marianum, 

Equisetum arvense and Thymus vulgaris. Herbal medicines are used mostly against disorders 

of the digestive tract and as tonics and strengtheners. Among Polish plant preparations the 

most popular are Sylimarol, Raphacholin C and Tussipect (Lutomski 1999).


References 

Jambor, J. 1999. Uprawa i przetwórstwo zielarskie w Polsce [Cultivation and processing of herbs in 

Poland]. Herba Polonica 45(4):302-311. 

Lutomski, J. 1999. Badania nad lekiem roślinnym w Polsce [Studies on phytomedicines in Poland]. 

Herba Polonica 45(4):282-287. 

Osińska, E. 2000. Ocena zmienności morfologiczno-rozwojowej i chemicznej kilkunastu populacji 

lebiodki pospolitej (Origanum vulgare L.) [Developmental and chemical variability of several forms 

of wild marjoram (Origanum vulgare L.)]. Rocz. AR Pozn. Ogrodn. 31(323):391-395. 

Osińska, E. and Z. Węglarz. 2000. Morphological, developmental and chemical variability of 

Hypericum genus. Acta Hort. 523:81-87. 

Osińska, E., Z. Węglarz and M. Angielczyk. 2002. Preliminary investigation on the variability of 

Thymus serpyllum L. growing wild in Central Poland. Pp. 253-256 in Broad Variation and Precise 

Characterization – Limitation for the Future (W. Święcicki, B. Naganowska and B. Wolko, eds). 

Institute of Plant Genetics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poznań. 

Węglarz, Z., E. Osińska and M. Angielczyk. 2002. The morphological, developmental and chemical 

variability of cultivated population of wild thyme (Thymus serpyllum L.). Pp. 291-293 in Broad 

Variation and Precise Characterization – Limitation for the Future (W. Święcicki, B. Naganowska 

and B. Wolko, eds). Institute of Plant Genetics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poznań.

106 


Medicinal and aromatic plants in Portugal – a survey 


Banco Português de Germoplasma Vegetal (BPGV) / Direcção Regional de Agricultura de Entre 

Douro e Minho (DRAEDM), Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária (INIA), Braga, Portugal 

Introduction 

A set of questions was submitted to 43 institutions about research and other activities 

concerning medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs). The topics defined were: collecting, 

conservation, characterization, preliminary evaluation, further evaluation and utilization. 

Twenty-three institutions replied to the questionnaire. Some replies arrived too late to be 

included in this survey, but the work done at the institutions concerned will be taken into 

account in future publications. 

Conservation 

• In situ conservation 

Since 1999 the Institute for the Conservation of Nature (ICN) that oversees one National 

Park, ten Natural Parks, six Natural Reserves and two Protected Landscapes, started a 5-year 

integrated project based on four main objectives: survey of medicinal and aromatic plant 

species; ethnobotany survey; environmental education programmes and public awareness; 

correct management and promotion of sustainable utilization of MAPs. 

Table 1 lists the research activities carried out for this project in the various protected 

areas. 

Table 1. List of protected areas in Portugal and their activities 

Protected areas 

Reserva Natural da Serra da Malcata 

Reserva Natural das Dunas de S. Jacinto 

Parque Natural do Douro Internacional 

Parque Natural da Serra da Arrábida 

Parque Natural do Alvão 

Reserva Natural do Estuário do Tejo 

Parque Nacional da Peneda-Gerês 

Parque Natural da Serra da Estrela 

Área de Paisagem Protegida da Serra do Açor 

Parque Natural de Sintra Cascais 

Species 

survey 

Ethnobotany 

survey 

Environmental 

education 

programme 

Sustainable 

management 

• Ex situ conservation 

In order to conserve, evaluate and use MAP species, different Portuguese institutions such as 

universities, polytechnic schools, the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and 

Fisheries and foundations all over the country have been developing research in this area. 

Since 1990, the Banco Português de Germoplasma Vegetal (BPGV) – Ministry of 

Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries, has been conducting, all over Portugal, a 

systematic collection of Allium sativum L., Allium cepa L., Allium spp., Petroselinum crispum 

(Mill.) Nym. ex AW Hill, Coriandrum sativum L., Humulus lupulus L., Thymus spp., Origanum 

vulgare L. and Mentha spp. This material is conserved in long-term storage conditions at 

-20ºC, in medium-term storage conditions (0-5ºC) and as a field collection.


The Direcção Regional de Agricultura de Entre Douro e Minho (DRAEDM) has done a 

systematic collection of seed and propagules of the following species: Hypericum 

androsaemum L., Ruscus aculeatus L., Melissa officinalis L., Cynara cardunculus L. and 

Centaurium erythraea Rafn. 

Several other institutions such as polytechnic schools and delegations of the Ministry of 

Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries have been collecting material in order to 

create small gardens as a source for environmental education. An excellent example is the 

Jardim Algarve located at the Direcção Regional de Agricultura do Algarve. 

The Serralves Foundation has organized a medicinal and aromatic garden at Oporto 

As a commercial enterprise the Cantinho das Aromáticas–Viveiros develops the 

production and sale of MAPs using organic farming technology. 

Evaluation 

The BPGV and the Escola Superior Agrária de Elvas have been evaluating morphologically 

and agronomically the accessions of local populations of garlic, onion, coriander, parsley and 

hops. Some garlic and coriander accessions are being subjected to molecular analysis 

(Table 2). 

Table 2. Evaluation of MAP species 

Action 

Carried out 

by 

Genera / Species 

Characterization and preliminary evaluation DRAEDM Coriander, garlic, onion, parsley, hops 

Chemical characterization - essential oils 

ESAPL 

Thymus mastichina, 

Rosmarinus officinalis 

Chemical characterization - essential oils 

UC 

Thymus, Juniperus, Teucrium, 

Origanum, Mentha 

Ethnopharmacological survey and essential oils of 

aromatic plants from Africa (Popular Republic of 

UC 

S. Tomé and Principe and Mozambique) 

Technological valorization of the essential oils 

UC 

Antibacterial and antifungal activity of essential oils UC 

DRAEDM = Direcção Regional de Agricultura de Entre Douro e Minho 

ESAPL = Escola Superior Agrária de Ponte de Lima 

UC = Universidade de Coimbra 

Multiplication and utilization 

The sustainable use of all genetic material collected, conserved and evaluated must be 

promoted. Several institutions are working on propagation and multiplication, at the same 

time carrying on with further evaluation (Table 3). 

Table 3. Multiplication and utilization of MAP species 

Action Carried out by Genera / Species 

Propagation (trials on seminal 

Hypericum androsaemum, Melissa officinalis, 

DRAEDM 

and vegetative propagation) 

Cynara cardunculus, Centaurium erythrea 

Hypericum androsaemum L., H. perforatum L., 

Production trials 

DRAEDM Vaccinium myrtillus L., Melittis melissophyllum L., 

Woodwardia radicans L. 

Selection and propagation 

DRAEDM 

Origanum virens, Lavandula spp., Thymus spp. 

and Apium graveolens 

Variety study 

ESAC 

Mentha x piperita, Origanum vulgare, 

Salvia officinalis cv. "green", 

S. officinalis cv. "purpurescens", 

Lavandula angustifolia and Lippia citriodora 

Selection and propagation 

ESAPL 

Petroselinum crispum, Coriandrum sativum, 

Thymus vulgaris 

DRAEDM = Direcção Regional de Agricultura de Entre Douro e Minho 

ESAC = Escola Superior Agrária de Coimbra 

ESAPL = Escola Superior Agrária de Ponte de Lima

108 


Ethnobotany 

A major 3-year National Programme entitled "Ethnobotany, the use and management of 

aromatic and medicinal plants and their sustainable utilization as contribution to 

improvement of rural areas" involves several institutions belonging to the areas of 

agriculture, education, and environmental protection. During this project we will be 

collecting, conserving, evaluating and using the following species: 

Centaurium erythraea Rafn. 

Coriandrum sativum L. 

Cynara cardunculus L. 

Melittis melissophyllum L. 

Mentha aquatica L. 

Mentha cervina L. 

Mentha pulegium L. 

Mentha suaveolens Elrh 

Origanum vulgare L. 

Origanum virens Hoffmanns & Link 

Thymus caespititius Brot. 

Thymus pulegioides L. 

Thymus zygis L. 

Vaccinium myrtillus L. 

The Direcção Regional de Agricultura do Algarve (DRAAL) and the Escola Superior 

Agrária de Bragança (ESAB) are also developing two projects in this subject, circumscribed 

to the areas of Portel, Ponte de Sôr and Bragança.


Status of the Romanian medicinal and aromatic plant collection 

Danela Murariu 1 , Silvia Strajeru 1 , Constantin Milica 2 and Steluta Radu 3 

1 Suceava Genebank, Romania 

2 Agricultural University Iassy, Romania 

3 Central Research Station for MAP Fundulea, Romania 

Introduction 

The relief of Romania is distributed harmoniously: the mountains form an arch in the central 

part of the country and represent 31% of the total area of the country. Hills and plateaus 

covering 33% of the country surround the Carpathian mountain chain, and the plains, 

situated to the south and to the west of the country, represent the remaining 36%. 

The Romanian flora includes 3450 cormophyte species which represent 30% of the 

vascular European flora. Among these, 283 species have therapeutic effects and 180 species 

are studied, but only 52 species are cultivated (Mocanu 1999). In situ and ex situ preservation 

are achieved in natural reserves and on farms respectively, in the institutions and 

agricultural research stations that have breeding programmes and by the Suceava Genebank, 

a governmental institution. 

Legal protection of MAP species and their natural habitats 

The decrease of biological diversity on a global level has led to the elaboration of a Red List 

which includes medicinal and aromatic plants. Table 1 lists the endangered medicinal plants 

from the spontaneous flora which are included in the Red List. 

Table 1. Endangered medicinal plants from the spontaneous flora of Romania 

Plant organs harvested 

Flowers 

Leaves 

Stems, leaves 

Roots, bulbs, tubers 

Species 


Primula officinalis 

Tussilago farfara 

Atropa belladonna 

Allium ursinum 

Althaea officinalis 


Galium verum 


Gentiana lutea 


Helleborus purpurascens 


There are currently 450 reserves in Romania, including: 

- 1 World Heritage Site - Danube Delta (591 200 ha) 

- 2 biosphere reserves: Retezat (54 400 ha) and Rodna (56 700 ha) 

- 12 national parks covering 287 084 ha 

- 2 natural parks (10 150 ha) 

- 161 ornamental plant collections (22 000 ha) 

- 52 forestry reserves of over 113 668 ha 

Thus, the total protected areas cover 1 072 498 ha, i.e. 4.59% of the whole country 

(Anonymous 1995).

110 


Activities dealing with the preservation of plant genetic resources present in parks and 

natural reserves are coordinated at national level by the Romanian Academy, Commission 

for the Protection of Nature Monuments. 

The following laws are currently active (Anonymous 1994, 2000, 2002): 

- Law of the protected areas (5/2000), which includes rules for the protection of natural 

areas and for the conservation of natural habitats and of the wild flora and fauna of 

Romania; 

- Law 69/1994, referring to the international trade agreement related to species of the 

Romanian wild flora and fauna threatened with extinction. 

At the beginning of 2002, the law regulating the use of medicinal, aromatic, toxic and 

drug plants was under discussion in the Romanian Parliament. 

Ex situ conservation of MAP genetic resources 

This is accomplished in Romania through field conservation and medium- and long-term 

conservation. 

Field conservation is carried out in the following institutions: 

- Central Research Station for MAP Fundulea (931 samples - 297 species) 

- Agricultural University Iassy (80 samples - 67 species) 

- Agricultural University Timisoara (74 samples – 66 species) 

Regarding medium- and long-term conservation, two institutions hold MAP collections: 

the Suceava Genebank and the Agricultural University Iassy. 

The Suceava Genebank holds 246 samples (174 species) in the active and base collections 

distributed as shown in Fig. 1. 

Received from 

Romanian 

universities 

20% 

Received from 

other countries 

10% 

Collected by 

Suceava 

Genebank 

35% 

Received from 

MAP Station 

Fundulea 

35% 

Fig. 1. Distribution of the MAP samples conserved in the Suceava Genebank. 

The Agricultural University Iassy holds a collection of 1200 species kept under mediumterm 

conditions. In 2001 a genetic centre for medicinal, aromatic and tinctorial plants 

collected from 52 Asian and European countries was established.


National inventory of MAP genetic resources 

In 2000 the Suceava Genebank, with IPGRI's support, published the National Catalogue of 

Plant Genetic Resources. One fascicle covers medicinal and aromatic plant collections. This 

catalogue includes only information on passport descriptors. 

MAP cultivation areas and yields in Romania 

The dynamics of areas cultivated with MAPs over a six-year period (1995-2000) depended on 

many factors, among which the relief and climatic conditions are decisive. Social factors and 

local customs, economic factors and agricultural policy also had a great influence. Whilst in 

1995 the area covered with MAPs was 26 500 ha (Anonymous 2000), by 2000 it had decreased 

by 4000 ha (Fig. 2). 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

35.8 

29.3 

26.5 

23.4 

22.5 

21.2 

20.6 

15.9 

10.7 

9.2 

11.2 12.4 

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 

Total 

private sector 

Fig. 2. MAP cultivation areas in Romania, 1995-2000 (x 1000 ha). 

The same situation applies to MAP yields in Romania: Fig. 3 shows the fall in MAP yield 

during the same period (1995-2000). 

25 

20 

20.9 

16.4 

21.5 

18.2 

15 

12.1 

12.1 

10 

5 

5.8 6.3 

3.2 

7.3 

6.6 

3.8 

0 

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 

Total (x 1000 t) private sector (x 1000 t) 

Fig. 3. Yields of cultivated MAPs in Romania, 1995-2000.

112 


Use of MAPs by processing industries 

The MAP processing industry in Romania started in 1948 with the establishment of the 

National Society "Plafar" (Pharmaceutical Plants). The main objective of this institution is the 

sustainable exploitation of the medicinal, aromatic and drug plants from the wild flora of 

Romania. The National Society "Plafar" has nine inter-district branches (Botosani, Iassy, 

Bucarest, Cluj, Brasov, Timisoara, Constanta, Mures and Maramures). There are also five 

processing companies which process and produce medicine only from medicinal and 

aromatic plants: Vitasana, Brasov; Herborium, Cluj; Vorel, Piatra Neamt; Digitalis, Orastie; 

and Naturavit, Oradea. 

The quantities of raw materials gathered in the wild and processed in 2001 are presented 

in Table 2. 

Table 2. Quantities of raw materials gathered in the wild and processed in 2001 

Harvested organs Quantity (tonnes) No. of species gathered 

Flowers 1680 27 

Leaves 3500 36 

Stems, leaves 5000 63 

Roots, tubers, bulbs 1000 18 

Seeds and fruits 100 10 

Sustainable use of MAPs in Romania 

This is accomplished in the following ways: 

1. MAP breeding 

2. Research on biology and cultivation of new MAP species 

3. Foundation of a genetic centre of medicinal, aromatic and tinctorial plants and their 

use in herbal medicine. 

1. MAP breeding is carried out in Romania out by the Central Research Station Fundulea. 

The species being bred include Cynara scolymus, Digitalis lanata, Dracocephalum moldavica, 

Foeniculum officinale, Hyssopus officinalis, Coriandrum sativum, Lavandula angustifolia, 

Matricaria chamomilla, Mentha piperita, Ocinum basilicum, Papaver somniferum, etc. The 

research activity during 1980-2002 resulted in 27 advanced cultivars of Cynara scolymus, 

Ocimum basilicum, Thymus vulgaris, Coriandrum sativum, Digitalis lanata, Calendula officinalis, 

Datura innoxia, Lavandula angustifolia, Mentha piperita and Matricaria chamomila. In 

addition, 31 local landraces were certified (Pimpinella anisum, Capsicum annuum, Silybum 

marianum, Satureja hortensis, Tagetes patula, Digitalis purpurea, Foeniculum vulgare, etc.). 

2. Cultivation of new MAP species: during the period 1995-2000 the researchers from 

Central Research Station Fundulea introduced into cultivation five species (Aconitum 

napellus, Artemisia abrotanum, Gentiana lutea, Leonurus cariaca and Lychnis coronaria), taking 

into consideration their mode of use, pharmacodynamic action, chemical composition and 

environmental requirements (Paun 1998). 

3. The foundation at the Agricultural University Iassy of a genetic centre for medicinal, 

aromatic and tinctorial plants and their use in herbal medicine was carried out through 

the following activities: 

- Inventory of MAPs from the wild and cultivated flora; 

- Establishment of a biological collection conserved in the Iassy Genebank; 

- Foundation of a herbal medicine library; 

- Development of some complex therapeutic prescriptions; 

- Testing of the efficacy of the elaborated products; 

- Organization of a network of collaborators interested in herbal medicine.


Future strategies 

The institutions specializing in breeding and processing of MAPs propose a number of 

measures for the near future, such as: 

- Sustainable exploitation of wild medicinal plants; improvement of research through 

breeding and cultivation of new species; 

- increase in the area cultivated with MAPs by the private sector through higher prices of 

dry products collected by the processing enterprises; 

- use of advanced technology for raw material processing and of essential quantitative 

indices for the major medicinal plants cultivated in Romania. 

References 

Anonymous. 1994. Monitorul oficial 25 [Official bulletin no. 25]. The Parliament of Romania – 

Chamber of Deputies, Bucharest. 

Anonymous. 1995. Report on phytogenetic resources in Romania. Suceava Genebank, Suceava. 

Anonymous. 2000. Anuarul Statistic al Romaniei. Productii si suprafete agricole din Romania. 

[Statistical yearbook of Romania. Products and agricultural areas in Romania]. National Institute 

of Statistics, Bucharest. 





Mocanu, P. 1999. Situatia speciilor de interes medicinal din flora spontana. Masuri pentru protectia, 

conservarea si utilizarea lor durabila [Status of the medicinal spontaneous flora. Measures for their 

protection, conservation and sustainable utilization]. Pp. 88-90 in Revista Ocrotirea Naturii si a 

Mediului Inconjurator [Nature and Environment Protection]. Editura Academiei Romane, 

Bucharest. 

Paun, E. 1998. Studiul unor noi specii de plante medicinale si aromatice [Research on cropping of new 

species of medicinal and aromatic plants]. Herba Romanica, Bucharest 9:34-40.

114 


Conservation of medicinal and aromatic plant genetic resources in Slovenia 

Dea Baričevič 1 , Alenka Zupančič 1 , Anita Železnik-Kušar 1 and Janko Rode 2 

1 University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Ljubljana, Slovenia 

2 Institute for Hop Research and Brewing, Žalec, Slovenia 

Introduction 

In 1996, the Slovenian Fund for nature conservation ratified the Resolution on conservation 

of biological diversity and permanent landscape development, including medicinal and 

aromatic plants (MAPs). In order to ensure genepools for future investigations, the 

genebank, a national genebank collection of medicinal and aromatic plants containing 

650 indigenous or foreign/introduced MAP accessions, was established in 1994, officially 

recognized in 1995 and is annually supported by the Slovenian government. The 

programme on MAP conservation in Slovenia involves activities at different conservation 

levels (ex situ, in situ and on-farm) as well as morphological and chemical evaluation of MAP 

accessions held in the MAP genebank (Salvia officinalis L., Origanum vulgare L., Gentiana 

lutea L., Thymus vulgaris L., etc.) (Baričevič 1997a, 1997b; Baričevič et al. 1997; Rode et al. 1998). 

Ex situ conservation and evaluation 

Maintenance of germplasm as seed, in vitro and in vivo collections and seed propagation for 

cultivation purposes (Cynara scolymus L., Gentiana lutea L., Salvia officinalis L., Origanum 

vulgare L., Trigonella foenum-graecum L., Melissa officinalis L., Hyssopus officinalis L., Thymus 

vulgaris L., Satureja montana L.) are the main activities of the Slovenian MAP genebank. 

Because of the high morphological and chemical variability in MAPs, in vitro culture 

techniques have been applied for practical purposes, so the screening for optimal in vitro 

conditions (considering multiplication rate, morphological uniformity and low-cost input) 

has been considered. The micropropagation of MAPs has been recognized as an essential 

tool in obtaining uniform descendants in cross-pollinating species, in species with poor or 

slow germination as well as in virus-infected plant material. The evaluation of MAP 

accessions, which regularly accompanies the routine maintenance work, can be divided into 

three research categories: 

- Evaluation of morphological and chemotaxonomic characteristics of MAPs (Origanum 

vulgare L. subsp. vulgare, Origanum L. subsp. vulgare hirtum, Gentiana lutea L. subsp. 

symphyandra) (Zupančič and Baričevič 2002); 

- Evaluation of MAP ecotypes for quantitative and qualitative differences in secondary 

metabolites with regard to growth and development and/or biological activity (Filipič 

and Baričevič 1997, 1998; Bolta et al. 2000; Baričevič et al. 2001a, 2001b; Zupančič et al. 2001; 

Zupančič and Baričevič 2002); 

- Evaluation of susceptibility of descendants to environmental stress (drought, low 

temperature, depleted soils, etc.) in pot trials in a controlled environment (Baričevič 1995; 

Baričevič et al. 1999; Železnik et al. 2002; Železnik and Baričevič 2002). 


Slovene botanists have made an inventory of the Slovenian flora (not exclusively MAPs) 

throughout the last decade. The inventory is intended to provide the basis for conservation 

of the remaining natural resources of rare and/or endangered species. The result of this 

intensive research was "The Red Data List of Threatened Vascular Plants in Slovenia" 

(Wraber and Skoberne 1989) upheld by the Institute for the Conservation of Natural and 

Cultural Heritage of Slovenia. This document is based on IUCN categories and results from


the classification of endangered plants according to the degree of danger. Amongst 

approximately 3200 plant species (400 of them MAPs) known to be indigenous or well 

adapted to the Slovenian climate, some 10% are considered to be endangered (34 have been 

harmed, 77 are vulnerable, 192 are rare). Slovenia has shown much concern in the 

preservation of natural resources such as medicinal plants. 

In Slovenia, directives for the national programme of production, processing and quality 

control of MAPs have been developed. The strategy for the conservation of natural 

resources is perceived as of the utmost importance. The first stage of the programme 

consists in the monitoring and characterization of natural populations and in situ 

conservation of evaluated indigenous plant material. Data from different sources (e.g. 

Ljubljana Herbarium) and plant inventories are used to obtain data on wild MAP accessions 

in Slovenia. 

Conservation of the natural heritage for future generations, followed by the importance of 

attractive landscapes, are among the principal aspects of the conservation strategy in the 

field of MAPs. This can be achieved by: 

- collecting and estimation of the danger level; 

- active conservation (conservation in situ); 

- sensible/sustainable use of wild plants (for ex situ conservation); 

- limitation of massive exploitation of wild plants by successive introduction into 

cultivation of known genotypes in suitable environments. 

In Slovenia, in situ inventorying/monitoring and estimation of population density as well 

as quality control with the objective of defining particular/optimal market use of raw 

materials are planned to be carried out through the multi-user relational database 

MEDPLANT. Wild populations will be included in the national collection of medicinal and 

aromatic plants. Further activities related to future cultivation (such as propagation of plant 

materials and seed breeding) are planned. 

On-farm conservation 

Principles and techniques of on-farm conservation of local ecotypes and landraces of 

cultivated plants and traditional cultivation techniques have been widely introduced in less 

developed parts of the world. In the last few years a need for similar actions was identified 

for Europe, where a high degree of genepool erosion was found in field crops. 

In Slovenia, there is no special institution engaged in the programme of on-farm 

conservation, breeding or management. Some of the institutions that maintain genetic 

resources of different crops have contacts with individual farmers, who maintain old 

varieties on farm. Some NGOs do include activities similar to on-farm conservation but 

there is little coordination between different parties. There is almost no cooperation between 

farmers and genebanks in the field of breeding or genetic improvement of local ecotypes. 

Regarding MAP on-farm conservation, some valuable species are found in Slovenia. The 

most interesting crop that is considered as a traditional oil and medicinal plant is Camelina 

sativa (L.) Crantz, still widespread in the Koroška region. It is predominantly used as a raw 

material in oil processing. Some incomplete data on its cultivation were collected by the 

extension service offices in Dravograd and Slovenj Gradec and need further survey. Now 

almost 20 seed samples are under investigation at the Agricultural Faculty of the University 

of Maribor and partly in the fields of the Institute for Hop Research and Brewing in Žalec, 

where some data on cultivation technology and oil processing machinery have been 

collected. 

The second interesting potential medicinal crop is buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum 

Moench. Buckwheat was very popular in the old days and some knowledge about 

technology and landraces is still available. But since very good cultivars were developed in

116 


Slovenia they have been preferred by the extension service and many old varieties are no 

longer used. At the Biotechnical Faculty of the University of Ljubljana the buckwheat 

genebank maintains a number of landraces from Slovenia. Its cultivation has decreased 

considerably in recent decades because of crop failures. Unfortunately the records on genetic 

resources have been lost because the farmers were not encouraged to maintain old varieties 

in the past. Besides being a valuable source of healthy food, indigenous accessions need reevaluation 

as MAPs. 

Home gardens as a source of biodiversity 

The idea of studying and conserving biodiversity in home gardens, proposed by the task 

force for on-farm conservation, developed from the on-farm practices. In many European 

countries much biodiversity present in the fields has been lost because of large-scale 

production of new crop cultivars. Home gardens could be considered as a refuge for many 

landraces of traditional crops. They are less susceptible to the pressure of commercial seed 

producers. But the diversity is rapidly decreasing, concomitantly with the ageing of the 

people (women) maintaining the gardens. Among species maintained in the home gardens 

MAPs can also be found. In Slovenia interesting species, traditionally kept in the home 

gardens, are: Dracocephalum moldavicum (south-west Slovenia), Artemisia dracunculus L., 

Carthamus tinctorius L. (Koroška), Salvia officinalis L., pelargoniums with scented leaves, Ruta 

graveolens L., Artemisia abrotanum L., Artemisia absinthium L., old landraces of tobaccco 

(Goričko, Premurje), Oenothera biennis L., Tanacetum balsamita L., Tanacetum parthenium (L.) 

Schultz-Bip. and others. 

In Slovenia there is no special funding for MAP on-farm conservation activities. They are 

partly incorporated into the routine work of the MAP genebank. In 2001 the first serious 

attempts at cooperation with the municipality of Dravograd in the Koroška region were 

conducted for Camelina sativa, but the funds are still not available. There is a need to build 

awareness of on-farm conservation and MAP conservation in Slovenia among farmers, 

scientists, the general public, processing industry and decision-makers. 

References 

Baričevič, D. 1995. Significance of abscissic acid (ABA) in low temperature stress in globe artichoke 

(Cynara scolymus L.) cultivars. Zb. Bioteh. Fak. Univ. Ljubl. 65:25-32. 

Baričevič, D. 1997a. Experiences with oregano (Origanum spp.) in Slovenia. Pp. 111-121 in Oregano. 

Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 14. Proceedings of the 

IPGRI International Workshop on Oregano, 8-12 May 1996, CIHEAM, Valenzano (Bari), Italy 

(S. Padulosi, ed.). Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International 

Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. 

Baričevič, D. 1997b. Plant genetic resources of Slovenia, with special reference to neglected medicinal 

and aromatic plants. Pp. 108-111 in Neglected plant genetic resources with a landscape and 

cultural importance for the Mediterranean region: Proceedings of a meeting held from 7 to 9 

November 1996, Naples, Italy (L. Monti, ed.). Office for Scientific and Technical Cooperation with 

Mediterranean Countries, Rome. 

Baričevič, D., L. Milevoj and J. Borštnik. 2001a. Insecticidal effect of oregano (Origanum vulgare L. ssp. 

hirtum Ietswaart) on bean weevil (Acanthoscelides obtectus Say). Horticultural Science 7(2):84-88. 

Baričevič, D., S. Sosa, R. Della Loggia, A. Tubaro, B. Simonovska, A. Krašna and A. Zupančič. 2001b. 

Topical anti-inflammatory activity of Salvia officinalis L. leaves: the relevance of ursolic acid. 

J. Ethnopharmacol. 75(2-3):125-132. 

Baričevič, D., A. Umek, S. Kreft, B. Matičič and A. Zupančič. 1999. Effect of water stress and nitrogen 

fertilization on the content of hyoscyamine and scopolamine in the roots of deadly nightshade 

(Atropa belladonna L.). Environ. Exp. Bot. 42:17-24.


Baričevič, D., A. Zupančič, M. Eržen-Vodenik and A. Seliškar. 1997. In situ in ex situ ohranjanje 

naravnih izvorov zdravilnih in aromatičnih rastlin v Sloveniji [In situ and ex situ conservation of 

natural resources of medicinal and aromatic plants in Slovenia]. Sjemenarstvo (Zagreb) 14(1-2):23- 

29. 

Bolta, Ž., D. Baričevič, B. Bohanec and S. Andrenšek. 2000. A preliminary investigation of ursolic acid 

in cell suspension culture of Salvia officinalis. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Cult. 62:57-63. 

Filipič, M. and D. Baričevič. 1997. Antimutagenic activity of Salvia officinalis extracts against UV 

induced mutations in E. coli strains. Mutat. Res. (Suppl. 1) 379(1):182. 

Filipič, M. and D. Baričevič. 1998. Inhibitory effect of Salvia officinalis extracts on SOS functions 

induced by UV irradiation. P. 169 in Abstract book, Gemeinsame Jahrestagung 1998 Biochemische 

Gesselschaft–Gesselschaft für Genetik und Gentechnik, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of 

Salzburg, 21-23 September 1998, Austria. 

Rode, J., J. Šuštar-Vozlič and D. Baričevič. 1998. Plant genetic resources of Slovenia: genebank of hop, 

medicinal and aromatic plants. Pp. 121-122 in V manifestacija Dani lekovitog bilja ‘98: Zbornik 

izvoda radova, Banja Koviljača [Proceedings of the V th Manifestation "Days of Medicinal Plants", 

14-19 September 1998, Banja Koviljača, Yugoslavia. Book of abstracts]. Institut za proučavanje 

lekovitog bilja [Institute for Medicinal Plants Research] "Dr Josif Pančić", Belgrade, Yugoslavia. 

Wraber, T. and P. Skoberne. 1989. Rdeči seznam ogroženih praprotnic in semenk SR Slovenije [The 

Red Data List of Threatened Vascular Plants in Slovenia]. Varstvo narave [Nature Conservation] 

14-15. Institute for the Conservation of Natural and Cultural Heritage of Slovenia, Ljubljana, 

Slovenia. 

Železnik, A. and D. Baričevič. 2002. Uvajanje rumenega svišča (Gentiana lutea L.) v pridelovanje 

[Introduction of yellow gentian (Gentiana lutea L.) into cultivation]. Pp. 327-330 in Novi izzivi v 

poljedelstvu 2002: zbornik simpozija [New challenges in field crop production: proceedings of a 

symposium], 5-6 December 2002, Zreče (A. Tajnšek and I. Šantavec, eds). Slovensko agronomsko 

društvo, [Slovenian Agronomy Society], Ljubljana, Slovenia. 

Železnik, A., D. Baričevič and D. Vodnik. 2002. Micropropagation and acclimatization of yellow 

gentian (Gentiana lutea L.). Zb. Bioteh. Fak. Univ. Ljubl. 79(1):253-259. 

Zupančič, A. and D. Baričevič. 2002. Biološka aktivnost navadne dobre misli (Origanum vulgare ssp. 

vulgare [Biological activity of oregano (Origanum vulgare ssp. vulgare)]. Pp. 331-335 in Novi izzivi v 

poljedelstvu 2002: zbornik simpozija [New challenges in field crop production: proceedings of a 

symposium], 5-6 December 2002, Zreče (A. Tajnšek and I. Šantavec, eds). Slovensko agronomsko 

društvo, [Slovenian Agronomy Society], Ljubljana, Slovenia. 

Zupančič, A., D. Baričevič, A. Umek and A. Kristl. 2001. The impact of fertilizing on fenugreek yield 

(Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) and diosgenin content in the plant drug. Rostl. Výroba 47(5):218-224.

118 


Current status of medicinal and aromatic plants in Spain 

Roser Cristóbal Cabau 1 , Astrid van Ginkel 2 and Federico Varela 3 

1 Centre Tecnològic Forestal de Catalunya, Solsona, Spain 16 

2 Almacén de herboristeria Amorós, SA., Barcelona, Spain 17 

3 Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias (INIA), Centro de Recursos Fitogenéticos, Alcala de 

Henares, Madrid, Spain 18 


In Spain the legal protection of nature is under the responsibility of the Spanish 

Governement and of the "Autonomous Communities", each regulated by its own laws. 

The general legislation at national level includes numerous laws and decrees. Reference 

documents include, inter alia: 

- the catalogue of threatened species (Catalogo de especies amenazadas); in April 2000 the 

following categories were identified: threatened species (118), species sensitive to habitat 

alteration (5), vulnerable species (4) and species of special interest (133). 

- the Red List of the Spanish vascular flora (Aizpuru et al. 2000). 

The catalogue of threatened species provides local regulations for the communities of 

Catalunya, Aragón, Asturias, La Rioja, Navarra, Madrid, Euskadi, Valencia, Andalucia, 

Canarias, Murcia and Castilla-La Mancha. 

Other by-laws exist for Catalunya, Aragón and Castilla-La Mancha. 

Ex situ conservation / Inventory of MAP natural resources at national level 

Botanical gardens such as the Jardín Botánico de Córdoba, Jardí Botànic de Soller, Jardín 

Botánico de Madrid and some research institutes and universities are involved in the 

conservation of MAPs, mainly in germplasm banks. The biological material conserved in 

these banks usually comes from various projects carried out by these centres. There are 

currently four projects dealing with these subjects: 

1. Collection, conservation and characterization of germplasm from Spanish populations 

of different species of the genera Rosmarinus and Origanum (Elena Gonzalez, EUETA, 

Dept. Biología, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040 Madrid). The main aim of this project is 

the study of species populations (listed in Table 1) and their conservation in the 

germplasm bank of the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. 

2. Screening of MAP genetic resources in Castilla-La Mancha and Extremadura (Federico 

Varela, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias, Centro de Recursos Fitogenéticos, 

Apartado 1045, Alcala de Henares, Madrid). Since 2000 this team has been collecting 

samples as listed in Table 1. 

3. Screening of MAP genetic resources in Aragón (Jesús Burillo, Servicio de Investigación 

Agroalimentaria, Apartado 727, 50071 Zaragoza). Seed samples studied in Aragón are 

listed in Table 1. 

4. Screening of some MAP species in Catalunya (no list available). 

16 Full details: Centre Tecnològic Forestal de Catalunya, Àrea de Productes Secundaris del Bosc, 

Pujada del Seminari s/n, 25280-Solsona Spain (email: roser.cristobal@ctfc.es). 

17 Full details: Almacén de herboristeria Amorós, SA., Pol. Ind. Santiga, C/Flassaders, nau 16, 08130 

Sta Perpetua de la Mogoda, Barcelona, Spain (email: astridvg@correu.vilaweb.com). 

18 Full details: see list of participants.


Table 1. Projects carried out in Spain on MAP species 

Project 

Collection, conservation and characterization 

of germplasm from Spanish populations of 

different species of Rosmarinus and 

Origanum 

Screening of MAP genetic resources in 

Castilla-La Mancha and Extremadura 

Screening of MAP genetic resources in 

Aragón 

Species studied 

No. of populations 

studied 

Rosmarinus officinalis L. 19 

R. eryocalys 2 

Origanum vulgare (subsp. virens and 

vulgare) 

16 

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 21 


Lavandula latifolia 17 

Lavandula pedunculata 28 

Lavandula stoechas 22 

Satureja montana 5 

Thymus mastichina 58 


Thymus zygis 56 

Althaea officinalis 1 

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 2 

Artemisia absinthium 2 

Evonymus europaeus 1 


Lavandula latifolia 4 

Melilotus officinalis 1 

Plantago major 1 

Ricinus communis 1 

Santolina chamaecyparissus 1 

Tanacetum parthenium 1 

Thymus mastichina 19 

T. vulgaris 19 

T. zygis 1 

Review of the acreage of MAPs under cultivation 

According to various information sources the main species cultivated commercially in Spain 

are lavandin (Lavandula x intermedia), mint (Mentha piperita and M. pulegium), sage (Salvia 

officinalis and S. lavandulifolia), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), lemon balm (Melissa officinalis), 

chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), oregano (Origanum vulgare, O. virens) and anise 

(Pimpinella anisum); there have also been recent experiences in the production of echinacea 

(Echinacea purpurea), lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora) and spike lavender (Lavandula latifolia). 

The main cultivation areas are Andalucia, Valencia, Murcia, Catalunya, Aragón and 

Mallorca, and, although there are no data for the current area cultivated, it can be estimated 

to be about 6000 ha in the whole of Spain. There are two kinds of farm: the small ones are 

more or less experimental, while the bigger ones are usually managed directly by foreign 

companies. 

Use of MAPs by processing industries 

In Spain, 10-20% of the plant raw material used by the industry comes from Spain and 

80-90% is imported, mainly (40-60%) from eastern Europe. 

Every year about 100 000 ha are subjected to collecting from the wild in Spain. The main 

collecting areas are Granada, Almería and Murcia, all in southern Spain. 

Some medicinal plants are collected in large amounts (more than 1 t/year). Most of them 

do not have major conservation problems (Box 1). However Blanco and Breaux (1997) 

reported that some wild plants collected in significant quantities in Spain have potential 

conservation problems and it is necessary to update the collecting regulations as soon as 

possible (Box 2).

120 


Box 1. Collected species with no major conservation problems (van Ginkel 2002) 

Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. subsp. ramosissimum Lavandula spp. 

E. telmateia Ehr. Paronychia spp. 

Lepidium draba L. 

Jasonia glutinosa De Cand. 

Juniperus communis L. Centaurea aspera L. 

Taraxacum officinale Weber. Artemisia campestris L. 

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Spreng. Spiraea ulmaria L. 

Gentiana lutea L. 

Capsella bursa-pastoris Medik. 

Malva sylvestris L. 

Santolina spp. 

Viscum album L. 

Sideritis spp. 

Rosmarinus officinalis L. 

Satureja spp. 

Thymus spp. 

Others 

Salvia spp. 

Box 2. Species with potential conservation problems (Blanco and Breaux 1997) 

Arnica montana Gentiana lutea Petasites hybridus 

Cetraria islandica Jasonia glutinosa Ruscus aculeatus 

Drosera rotundifolia Menyanthes trifoliata Valeriana officinalis 

Experience in sustainable use of MAPs 

Various organizations have carried out local projects in order to promote the sustainable use 

of MAPs and their cultivation. However in most cases the marketing of the final products 

has been too difficult or impossible, and most of these initiatives have been abandoned. 

References 

Aizpuru, I. et al. 2000. Lista Roja de la Flora Vascular Española [Red List of Spanish Vascular Flora]. 

Conservación Vegetal 6:11-38 [in Spanish, with English summary]. 

Blanco, E. and J. Breaux. 1997. Results of the study of commercialisation, exploitation and 

conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in Spain. WWF Traffic-Europe. 

Fundación Alfonso Martín Escudero. 1999. Las plantas de extractos. Bases para un plan de desarrollo 

del sector [Medicinal and aromatic plants. Bases for a development plan of the sector]. Mundi- 

Prensa, Madrid. 

Ginkel, A. van. 2002. Certified wild crafting of medicinal plants? Oral presentation at the 

50 th Congress of the Society for Medicinal Plant Research, 11 September 2002, Barcelona, Spain.


Activities on medicinal and aromatic plants at the Aegean Agricultural 

Research Institute 

Ali Osman Sari and Bilgin Oguz 

Aegean Agricultural Research Institute (AARI), Menemen, İzmir, Turkey 

The use of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) has a long history in the world. According 

to the World Health Organization, 20 000 species are used for medicinal and aromatic 

purposes. Today, 4000 drugs are widely used and 10% of them are commercially exploited 

or produced. Around 500 plant species are used for medicinal and aromatic purposes in 

Turkey (Başer 1998). However, all these species are neglected or underutilized and only a 

few are cultivated or subjected to research. The Aegean Agricultural Research Institute 

(AARI) is one of the institutions working on and giving importance to MAPs to improve 

commercial varieties, find out new crops and assess agronomic requirements of related plant 

species. 

Activities on MAPs at AARI were started in the 1970s. The first studies were on 

identification, collection and conservation of MAPs. The most economically important 

species were given research priorities. The MAPs studied in this institute and research 

results obtained are summarized below. 

Anise (Pimpinella anisum L.) 

Studies on anise were started in 1979. Several seed lots were collected from farmers growing 

anise in Turkey. After six years, a cultivar called 'Gölhisar' was registered. 

Another study focused on the changes in current and real production costs of anise 

between 1989 and 1993. In this study, data were obtained from 67 farmers using different 

farming systems. Labour and weed control costs were the highest share of the total 

production cost (Fig. 1). Anise prices did not repay production costs during the research 

period. 

Harvest and 

trashing 

35% 

Soil 

preparation 

22% 

Fertilization 

4% 

Sowing 

3% 

Manual weed 

control 

30% 

Herbicide 

6% 

Fig. 1. Rates of production inputs in anise production. 

Anise growers used to broadcast anise seed. Research on sowing methods and plant 

density was conducted for three years. Anise yield increased while plant density was 

increased from 20 plants/m 2 to 90 plants/m 2 (Fig. 2). After seeing the research results, 

farmers started to sow, harvest and thrash the anise mechanically. Production costs 

decreased and low rural incomes increased.

122 


80 

70 

60 

Yield (kg/ha) 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 

Density (plants/m 2 ) 

Fig. 2. Effect of plant density on anise (Pimpinella anisum L.) yield. 

In another study, weed species and the effect of some herbicides were identified in anise 

fields in the Aegean region of Turkey. The most important species are as follows: 

Chenopodium album, C. glaucum, Centaurea cyanus, Convolvulus arvensis, Chondrilla juncea, 

Chonringia orientalis, Coronilla scorpioides, Cynodon dactylon, Euphorbia exigua, Gallium tricorne, 

Geranium dissectum, Hypocum procumbens, Lathyrus aphaca, Lithospermum arvense, Polygonum 

aviculare, Polygonum sp., Ranunculus arvensis, Sinapis arvensis, Tragopogon sp., Vicia sp. (Otan 

et al. 1993). The effects of herbicides used in this study varied with years and locations; 

however the highest yield was obtained with mechanical weed control methods. 

Caper (Capparis spinosa L.) 

Experiments were conducted on caper (Capparis spinosa L.) during 1991-1993. Several 

experiments on germination and sowing methods were conducted to find out the best 

method to grow caper. Direct seed sowing in the field was not suitable. Instead, sowing 

non-stratified seeds in raised seed beds and transplanting seedlings were the best methods 

(Otan and Sarı 1994). 

In another study made between 1997 and 1999, yield and morphological characteristics of 

a caper population were assessed. There were significant variations among caper plants for 

yield (ranging 0-87 g), number of primary branches (2-12), primary branch length 

(50-164 cm) and canopy width per plant (80-260 cm) (Table 1). In addition, there were 

significant positive correlations between the following characters: yield and number of 

primary branches, branch length and canopy width. The plants in the population had three 

growth types (prostrate, semi-erect and erect) in the proportions 51%, 29% and 20%, 

respectively (Sarı et al. 2002).


Table 1. Yield, number and length of primary branches and canopy width intervals and frequencies (F) 

of a caper (Capparis spinosa L.) population 

Yield 

(g) 

F 

(%) 


primary 

branches 

F 

(%) 

Primary 

branch length 

(cm) 

F 

(%) 

Canopy 

width 

(cm) 

0 8 5< 4 50-80 24 100< 1 

11-30 71 5-10 87 80-110 40 100-150 20 

31-50 11 >10 9 111-150 32 151-200 45 

51-60 5 >150 4 200-250 32 

61-80 4 >250 2 

>80 1 

F 

(%) 

The germination rate for untreated caper seeds is quite low. Some seed treatments were 

tested to increase germination. Freshly harvested seeds of the year 1999 germinated at 29% 

when immersed for 12 h in 2000 ppm GA 3 . In control seed lots the germination rate was 

only 1% (Fig. 3). 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

29 

28 

21 

26 

22 

1999 

1998 

11 

10 

5 

0 

1 

2 2 

1 1 1 

0 

5 

Control 

Soaking 

H2SO4 (20%) 

H2SO4 (40%) 

GA3 (2000 ppm) 

GA3 (3000 ppm) 

GA3 (4000 ppm) 

Fig. 3. Effect of different seed treatments on germination of caper (Capparis spinosa L.) seed lots. 

Oregano (Origanum onites L.) 

The effects of three levels of nitrogen application (0, 60, 120 kg/ha) and four different 

planting patterns on Origanum onites L. were investigated for three years (between 1991 and 

1993) in three locations. Green herb and drug leaf yield and essential oil percentage were 

measured. Yields and essential oil percentage were generally highest at 45 x 15 cm with an 

application of 60 kg/ha nitrogen (Table 2). 

Table 2. The effects of four planting patterns and three nitrogen levels on green herb and drug leaf 

yields and essential oil percentage of oregano (Origanum onites L.) 

Green herb yield 

(kg/ha) 

Drug leaf yield 

(kg/ha) 

Essential oil 

(%) 

Planting pattern 

45 x 15 cm 26520 5210 2.93 

70 x 10 cm 23320 4580 2.96 

22.5 x 30 cm 25570 5170 2.91 

25 x 20 cm 25070 4880 2.89 

N level 

N 0 24060 4800 2.93 

N 60 25270 4990 2.97 

N 120 26030 5100 2.88

124 


In another study, a sample of 52 Origanum spp. were collected from 12 provinces situated 

in the Aegean and West Mediterranean regions of Turkey. Samples of 10 species 

(O. sipyleum L., O. onites L., O. majorana L., O. vulgare L., O. saccatum P.H.Davis, 

O. syriacum L., O. hypericifolium O.Schwarz & P.H.Davis, O. laevigatum Boiss. and O. bilgeri 

P.H.Davis) and two hybrids (O. sipyleum x O. vulgare subsp. hirtum, O. onites x O. vulgare 

subsp. hirtum) belonging to Anatolican, Chilocalyx, Majarona, Prolaticorolla, Amaracus and 

Origanum sections were investigated for 40 characters (Kıtıkı et al. 1997). The chromosome 

numbers of O. vulgare, O. sipyleum and O. onites were found as 2n=30. The samples could not 

be distinguished by their cytological characters. Principal component analysis (PCA) was 

applied on morphological and anatomic characters. According to PCA results, the Anatolican 

section formed a distinct group from the main group which consists of other sections and 

hybrids. 

A breeding programme has been continued on O. onites L. since 1992. Initiation material 

was constituted by 5000 single plants originating from different locations in western and 

southwestern Turkey. Today, two groups of selected lines consisting of four and three lines 

having similar morphological and agronomic characters, high yield and quality, are grown 

to develop two synthetic lines. There will be two commercial synthetic varieties in a few 

years. 

Sage (Salvia officinalis L.) 

The effect of nitrogen application (0, 80 and 160 kg/ha) and six different cropping systems 

on Salvia officinalis L. (common sage) were investigated in three locations for three years, 

between 1991 and 1993. Green herb, drug herb, drug leaf, essential oil %, essential oil yield, 

dry matter, plant height, plant nutrient composition (Mg, N, Na, K, Ca and P) and 

composition of essential oil were examined. Only the results for drug leaf yield and essential 

oil % are presented here (Table 3). 

Table 3. The effects of six planting patterns and three nitrogen levels on drug leaf yields and essential 

oil % of sage (Salvia officinalis L.) 

Drug leaf yield 

(kg/ha) 

Essential oil 

(%) 

Row space 

45 cm 70 cm 11.5 cm 22.5 cm 12.5 cm 25 cm Mean 

N 0 9560 7650 7510 7560 7550 7690 7920 

N 80 9350 7530 8860 8560 8680 8810 8630 

N 160 9400 7570 7850 8130 8040 8800 8300 

Mean 9440 7580 8070 8080 8090 8430 8280 

N 0 1.89 1.90 1.88 1.91 1.85 1.83 1.88 

N 80 1.83 1.81 1.89 1.85 1.87 1.96 1.87 

N 160 1.84 1.76 1.81 1.81 1.80 1.88 1.82 

Mean 1.85 1.82 1.86 1.86 1.84 1.89 1.85 

Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) 

Eleven lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) populations originating from different sources in 

Turkey and European countries were investigated for three years in two ecologically 

different locations, Menemen and Bozdağ, to find out the populations giving high quality 

and yield. There were significant variations between locations, years and populations for 

yield and quality characters. The ecology was highly suitable in Menemen to grow lemon 

balm successfully and almost all yield and quality characters at Menemen were significantly 

higher than those in Bozdağ (Table 4). The growth of populations in this study increased 

after the first year of trials in both locations; therefore all aspects of yield were significantly 

higher in the second and third years of trials compared with the first year. The populations


numbered 9 and 7, originating from Germany and Romania respectively, had high yield and 

quality and were the two most promising populations for lemon balm cultivation in these 

locations. 

Table 4. Yield and quality characters of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) in two locations (Sarı and 

Ceylan 2002) 

Location 

Plant height Green herb yield Drug leaf yield Essential oil 

(cm) 

(kg/ha) 

(kg/ha) 

(%) 

Menemen 47.58 28690 4969 0.067 

Bozdağ 20.73 4160 900 0.036 

The main component of the essential oil of the lemon balm was geranial in both locations 

and geranial concentration averaged over years and populations was 38.13% in Menemen 

and 53.68% in Bozdağ. Hence, Menemen ecological conditions were quite suited to growing 

lemon balm with a high yield and quality and the populations originating from Romania 

and the Ege University Agricultural Faculty (Germany) were especially recommended to 

growers. 

Mint (Mentha spp.) 

A sample of 232 different mint (Mentha spp.) populations were collected from different 

regions of Turkey in collaboration with the Turkish Extension Service and conserved in a 

field genebank at AARI. Mint populations in the conservation field were characterized using 

morphological and yield parameters. Results were as follows: total green herb ranged 

10 160-168 240 kg/ha, drug herb yield 3760-46 760 kg/ha, drug leaf yield 1000-28 000 kg/ha, 

and plant height 28-116.5 cm. 

Sideritis spp. 

A sample of 68 Sideritis L. was collected from 12 provinces of Aegean and Mediterranean 

regions (Otan et al. 1994). Morphological, anatomical and cytological characters of 20 species 

belonging to Empedoclia and Hesiodia sections were examined. Chromosome numbers were 

found to be 2n=28 for species of the Hesiodia section and 2n=32 for those of the Empedoclia 

section. Submetacentric chromosomes were found on S. leptoclada and some samples of 

S. perfoliata. Hairy and glabrous samples of S. perfoliata were also different according to 

centromer position of their chromosomes. Chromosome 1B was observed for S. tmolea. 

There was intra- and interspecific diversity for stem, pollen and leaf characters. PCA was 

applied to morphological and anatomical characters. According to PCA the Hesiodia section 

formed a distinct group from the main group which consists of the Empedoclia section. 

The interest and demand for Sideritis species is increasing nowadays because of their 

antioxidant properties. Hence a new research project was initiated in 2002 to determine 

optimum plant density and agronomic characters of S. perfoliata, one of the most promising 

species for cultivation. 

Dye plants 

Synthetic dyes were invented in the 19 th century and replaced natural dyes owing to their 

easy application, high fastness and vibrant colours. However, it is realized that synthetic 

dyes may harm the environment. Environmental concern and interest for environmental 

protection and conservation has increased since the 1980s. As a consequence, interest and 

demand for natural dyes and items coloured with them such as carpets, rugs and foods have 

also increased since that time. However, dye plants are not cultivated but collected from the 

wild, with damage to natural habitats.

126 


A new research project was started to conserve natural habitats and obtain standard 

natural dye extracts. Agronomic and chemical characters and dying properties of three dye 

plants, woad (Isatis tinctoria), madder (Rubia tinctorum) and weld (Reseda luteola), providing 

three main colours (blue, red and yellow, respectively) will be investigated. 

Indigenous knowledge 

The indigenous knowledge on usage of MAPs as folk remedies is getting lost owing to 

migration from rural to urban areas, industrialization and changes in life style. The Aegean 

region in Turkey is one of the areas most affected by industrialization. A new project was 

initiated to collect and record the information on MAPs used as folk remedies. 

Possible cultivation methods for orchid species 

The use of salep (ground orchids bulbs) has a long history in Turkey. It is estimated that 

about 20 million orchid bulbs are collected annually in Turkey. This figure clearly shows 

that population density decreased dramatically due to annual harvesting from the wild. A 

new research project aims to find out cultivation methods for salep orchids. 

Genebank activities 

Target areas and species are determined every year. Herbarium samples collected from 

those areas are submitted to the genebank. In addition, seed multiplication is carried out for 

seed lots having insufficient or weak germination rates. Characterization and evaluation 

studies for selected species are also conducted for the genebank. 

Seminars and training courses 

Seminars and training courses on MAP cultivation for Extension Service experts and farmers 

are held at AARI every year. The number of trainees ranges between 10 and 50 from year to 

year. 

Conclusion 

There are many plant species in the world with medicinal properties. However, almost all 

MAPs are neglected or underutilized and insufficiently documented. Cultivation of MAPs is 

limited and most are wild crafted, causing degradation of natural habitats. Therefore, a need 

for conservation is arising for many species. The number of research activities, scientists 

studying MAPs and species investigated should be increased to produce information and 

better understanding to conserve MAPs. An international network storing information on 

MAPs should be established for better use of MAPs and sharing related information. 

References 

Başer, K.H.C. 1998. Tıbbi ve aromatik bitkilerin endüstriyel kullanımı [Industrial use of medicinal and 

aromatic plants]. TAB Bülteni 13-14:19-43. Anadolu Üniversitesi, Eskişehir, Turkey. 

Kıtıkı, A., T. Kesercioğlu, A. Tan, M. Nakiboğlu, H. Otan, A.O. Sarı and B. Oğuz. 1997. Ege ve Batı 

Akdeniz Bölgelerinde yayılış gösteren bazı Origanum L. türlerinde biyosistematik araştırmalar 

[Biosystematic research on some Origanum L. species in the Aegean and western Mediterranean 

regions in Turkey]. Anadolu J. of AARI 7(2):26-40. 

Otan, H. and A.O. Sarı. 1994. Kapari (Capparis spinosa L.)'de Fide Yetistirme Teknigi Üzerinde Bir 

Arastirma [Research on seedling production techniques of caper (Capparis spinosa L.)]. Tarla 

Bitkileri Kongresi, 25-29 Nisan 1994 [Field Crops Congress, 25-29 April 1994], Bornova, Izmir, 

Turkey.


Otan, H., A.O. Sarı, M. Nakiboğlu and H. Aydın. 1994. Türkiye'den toplanan bazı Sideritis L. 

türlerinin floristik kayıtları [Floristic records of some Sideritis spp. collected in Turkey]. Anadolu J. 

of AARI 4(2):22-36. 

Otan, H., A. Uzun, A.O. Sarı, N. Çarkaci, I. Serim and E. Bayram. 1993. Anason (Pimpinella anisum 

L.)'da Yabanci Ot Mücadelesi Üzerinde Arastirmalar [Research on weed control of anise 

(Pimpinella anisum L.)]. Türkiye 1. Herboloji Kongresi, 3-5 Subat 1993 [First Turkish Herbology 

Congress, 3-5 February 1993], Adana, Turkey. 

Sarı, A.O. and A. Ceylan. 2002. Yield characteristics and essential oil composition of lemon balm 

(Melissa officinalis L.) grown in the Aegean Region of Turkey. Turk. J. Agric. For. 26:217-224. 

Sarı, A.O., D. Kahraman, B. Oğuz and A. Kıtıkı. 2002. Menemen ekolojik koşullarında yetiştirilen 

kapari (Capparis spinosa L.) populasyonunun verimi ve morfolojik özellikleri [Yield and 

morphological characters of a caper (Capparis spinosa L.) population grown under Menemen 

ecological conditions]. Anadolu J. of AARI 12(1):27-36.

128 


Medicinal and aromatic plant production in the United Kingdom 

Rosemary Cole 

National Herb Centre (NHC), Banbury, United Kingdom 

Natural solutions are increasingly being sought to agrochemical, pharmaceutical and food 

issues and the market for herb products is growing rapidly, putting an additional strain on 

resources as many herb species are wild harvested. A report by Lange (1998) claimed that 

70-90% of herbal products imported into Germany are wild harvested. Current production of 

herbs in the UK occupies a relatively small area (ca. 4000 ha), mostly of culinary herbs. Herb 

companies still import large quanitites of herbs which could be grown and there is 

considerable potential for expansion to provide industrial raw materials. In order to realize this 

potential and thus meet the UK government's policy aim of encouraging the development of 

crops for industrial applications, a number of projects have been initiated. But evidence of 

the biological activity of these materials, the feasibility and economics of UK production of 

these crops needs to be obtained. 

A number of factors have been shown to influence the yield and composition of essential 

oils and bioactives from herb crops. These include genetics (origin, variation), 

morphogenesis (leaf position and age, harvest, flowering), environment (temperature, day 

length and light intensity) and finally agricultural practices (nutrition, irrigation, 

propagation, harvesting and extraction). Selection of plant material and the optimization of 

agricultural practices is vital for the production of high quality herbs, essential oils and 

extracts. The need to know how the crop has been produced (traceability of raw materials) and 

concern over the quality of imports (pesticides, heavy metals) suggests there is scope to supply 

extracted natural products from herbs grown in the UK to provide high quality raw materials 

for industry. There is potential to develop the UK herb industry, which encompasses a number 

of small- and medium-sized companies, if they meet the stringent specifications, supply chain 

and quality requirements. It is possible to capitalize on this opportunity with a better 

knowledge of cultivar selection, how herbs can best be grown under UK conditions and by 

developing new techniques which may lead to safer and more efficient extraction of natural 

products. 

Below are three projects in which the National Herb Centre is involved. 

The Rapfi project (Rosemary antioxidants for the pharmaceutical and food industries) is part of 

the Competitive Industrial Materials from Non Food Crops (CIMNFC) programme and is a 

collaboration between the National Herb Centre (NHC), Department of Biology at the 

University of Reading, Department of Sonochemistry at the University of Coventry, 

J.K. Kings of Coggeshall (Seedsmen), Advanced Phytonics (Extraction), Langford Electronics 

(Ultrasonic equipment) and Checkmate (Audit trail). The project objectives are to select 

rosemary accessions for high antioxidant activity, enhance antioxidant activity through the 

use of elicitors, produce a predictive model relating antioxidant activity to UV radiation, to 

develop an affordable extraction process and produce an audit trail for the whole production 

process. 

Accessions of Rosmarinus officinalis were collected from throughout Europe. In total 

80 accessions have been trialed and analyzed at the National Herb Centre. Results have 

shown that antioxidant potential as measured by the free radical scavenging activity and 

chain propagation correlated with carnosic acid (r=0.82 and 0.53 respectively). Rosemary 

antioxidants also reduced production of "off flavours" such as hexanal. Rosemary accessions 

were therefore selected for antioxidant activity by screening for carnosic acid concentration. 

Field trials (30 accessions and 6 replicates) had been planted September 1999 in three


different areas of the UK. Analysis of samples showed that plants were reproducible at sites 

and between sites for carnosic acid. In addition there was a fourfold range of carnosic acid 

analyzed between low and high carnosic acid producers. Six high-yielding accessions were 

selected and propagated (1000 plants) to provide for larger scale field trails at the three sites, 

planting in spring 2001 for harvest in 2002. 

Factors affecting the concentration of carnosic acid and antioxidant activity have been 

investigated using abiotic and biotic elicitors and also the effects of water stress. In addition 

the essential oil profiles and yields have been compared with the concentrations of 

antioxidants to determine whether there is a "trade off" in production. 

The Phytoderm project (Optimized production and extraction techniques for consistent yield and 

quality of skin-protecting phytochemicals) is also part of the CIMNFC programme and is a 

collaboration between ADAS, NHC, Molecular Nature Ltd., University of Leeds, Express 

Separations, Boots PLC, Cornwall College and Hydroponic Herbs. The project is 

investigating the effects of root polysaccharides of Astragalus membranaceus and Althaea 

officinalis on cell surface markers, their skin healing and anti-ageing properties. For both 

plants, the identity and structure of the active compounds is largely unknown, and will 

greatly affect the optimal extraction protocol. UV absorbers are important to reduce 

UV-mediated skin ageing, photoallergenic reactions and even skin cancer. Preliminary 

evidence suggests that both Althaea and Astragalus roots contain unusual UV-absorbing 

compounds. 

Hydroponic or soil-less culture techniques are being investigated to enable greater control 

over production, significantly increasing biomass yield per unit time and content of active 

compounds and with less variability in a range of plants grown for phytochemicals. 

Antimicrobial and pesticidal properties of herbs: this project is funded by the 

Department of Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). Herbs and herb extracts have been 

implicated as pesticidal and antimicrobial replacements for synthetic materials. The 

scientific literature is overflowing with references to the pesticidal properties of plantderived 

chemicals but the variety of ways in which this data has been generated makes it 

difficult to assess relative potencies and therefore the most promising candidate materials. 

In addition to their activity as insecticides, many herb oils have been implicated as potential 

antiobitics/preservatives, although few reports of controlled quantitative work can be found 

in the literature. Before any of the legislative and political issues surrounding these issues 

can be addressed, a good scientific basis for these claims needs to be established. This 

project is investigating the role of the major and minor components of essential oils of four 

UK-grown herbs to establish the proof of efficacy over a range of organisms, to establish the 

active component(s) and to allow prediction of the most promising species and chemotypes 

for further exploitation. 

Reference 


International, Cambridge, United Kingdom. 77pp.

130 


Genetic resources of medicinal and aromatic plants of Yugoslavia – current 

situation and further prospects 

Zora Dajić 

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Belgrade-Zemun, F.R. Yugoslavia 19 

Introduction 

During the last decades the demand for medicinal plant raw material has rapidly increased, 

especially in developed western countries. This is due to the recent tendency of 

pharmaceutical companies to process the natural, often cheaper, raw material, but also to a 

"modern human conscience" for development of alternative healing methods, such as 

aromatherapy and homeopathy. The increased use of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) 

in the last decades of the 20 th century was motivated by both emotional and rational factors 

(Lewington 1990; Lange 1996, 1998). (The natural products of MAPs are believed to have no 

adverse effects, be less toxic and more appropriate for healing). According to recent data of 

Traffic International (Lange 1998) the import of MAPs into European countries increased by 

21% in the period 1992-1996. 

Significant and usually secure income generated by the sale of MAPs results in a strong 

decline in the natural medicinal flora caused by enormous and/or unprofessional 

exploitation. In ecologically suitable environments of southeastern and eastern European 

countries, the main exporters of cheap and good quality plant raw material, there is a trend 

towards the endangering or complete elimination of many important medicinal species. The 

great floristic richness and mapping of certain medicinal plant habitats in Serbia (Kišgeci 

et al. 1997; Dajić and Kojić 1997, 1998, 1999; Dajić et al. 2000; Kišgeci and Sekulović 2000; Dajić 

and Fabri 2001) enable their exploitation, but simultaneously draw attention to the need for 

protection of medicinal plant resources in the wild. Therefore this situation requires changes 

in the legislation of MAP protection and an increase in their production. 

Biogeographic situation of Yugoslavia and elements of biodiversity 

Yugoslavia is characterized by a huge geographic and biological diversity reflected in the 

richness of its indigenous flora which exists as various vegetation formations of terrestrial 

and aquatic ecosystems. 

Yugoslavia is part of the Balkan Peninsula. Its whole territory covers 102 173 km 2 , with 

five main biogeographic regions: (i) Mediterranean, (ii) central European, (iii) pontic, 

(iv) boreal and (v) central-south European mountainous (Meusel et al. 1965; Walter 1983; 

Stevanović 1994). 

Dominant ecosystems (biomes) in Yugoslavia include deciduous forests, steppes, 

coniferous forests, meadows and alpine "tundra", as well as the Mediterranean and sub- 

Mediterranean vegetation distributed in the coastal region of Montenegro. 

Yugoslavia is considered one of the 158 world biodiversity centres, based upon the total 

number of plant species (including mosses) (more than 4700). The main factors of such floral 

diversity are: historical background, geographical position, climate, relief (with three main 

areas: the Panonnian plain, hilly-mountainous region and coastal region of Montenegro), 

presence of streams, etc. 

According to the most recent estimates (Stevanović et al. 1995) the flora of Serbia contains 

3662 taxa (and an estimated additional 120 taxa), i.e. 3272 species and 390 subspecies, which 

19 Country name changed to Serbia and Montenegro in February 2003. The denomination Yugoslavia 

(or F.R.Y.) is kept in the present text as it was at time of meeting and preparation of this paper.


makes Serbia a country with very high floristic diversity and density per unit area compared 

to other European countries. All plant species are included in 141 families and 766 genera. 

In addition to its position in the Balkans, Serbia also occupies the southeastern part of the 

Pannonian plain in the Vojvodina region. It is thus divided into two distinct geographical 

and orographic entities which are, though separated by the rivers Sava and Danube, 

interconnected by lowland hilly peripannonian Serbia. These basic geographical and 

landscape entities have determined the characteristics of the Serbian flora and vegetation, as 

well as the differences between the plants distributed in these two micro-regions of Serbia. 

Montenegro covers a territory of 13 812 km 2 . A total of 3136 plant taxa (2920 species with 

216 subspecies) have been recorded (Stevanović et al. 1995) belonging to 804 genera and 

151 families. The floristic richness of Montenegro can be explained by various causes, 

including geography (presence of coasts and mountains), historical and other factors. 

According to the total plant species number per territory size (LogS/LogA), Yugoslavia 

ranks fifth among European countries, Serbia eighth and Montenegro first. 

Considering the vegetation diversity of Yugoslavia, over 600 individual plant 

communities have been identified, including forests (deciduous and coniferous), steppes, 

Mediterranean vegetation, meadows, pastures, vegetation of sand dunes and saline soils, 

swamps, alpine tundra, etc. 

MAP diversity is also quite high. More than 700 species are considered as medicinal 

(Sarić 1989), which accounts for 17.29% of the total flora. Among those, 420 plant species are 

officially registered (10.75% of the total flora), while 279 are to be found in Serbian markets. 

Medicinal plants of Yugoslavia encompass 89 families, of which the following should be 

quoted: Lamiaceae (41 species), Asteraceae (40), Apiaceae (20), Ranunculaceae (19), 

Scrophulariaceae (17), Malvaceae (15), Rosaceae (15), Brassicaceae (10), Polygonaceae (10), 

etc. 

Significance of natural resources 

Meadows and forests are the main resources of indigenous medicinal and aromatic plants. 

A recent analysis of MAP distribution in Serbian forests (Obratov et al. 2002) showed that 

in oak communities (ass. Quercetum frainetto-cerris, the most common forest community of 

Serbia), a total of 123 plant species have been identified, including 53 medicinal plants. Some 

of the most important medicinal plants in oak forests are the following: Achillea millefolium, 

Acer tataricum, Ajuga reptans, Campanula glomerata, Crataegus monogyna, Cornus sanguinea, 

Euphorbia cyparissias, Filipendula hexapetalla, Sorbus aucuparia, etc. 

At higher altitudes, above the oak zone, beech forests (ass. Fagetum montanum) are well 

developed. This association is present on two parent rocks: limestone and silicate. Different 

plant species are found on different types of parent rock. On limestone 45 medicinal plants 

were identified, of which 4 are recommended for exploitation: Veronica officinalis, Tamus 

communis, Clematis vitalba and Corylus avellana. On silicate parent rock 15 different medicinal 

plants were identified, of which two are of greater significance: Calamintha officinalis and 

Asarum europaeum. 

The approximate total number of medicinal plant species present in Serbia is 400, with 122 

medicinal plants in beech forests (about 30%). 

Meadows and pastures of Serbia have not been sufficiently utilized, although they have 

great potential for cattle breeding. The total area covered by grasslands in Serbia is about 

1.65 million ha. They are widespread in very diverse ecological conditions, occurring at 

different altitudes and on various forms of relief, soil type, climate, etc. Therefore, meadow 

vegetation comprises many plant communities differing in floristic structure, stability and 

type of succession. Besides agriculture, they may serve as a main source for medicinal plant 

exploitation and as a natural genebank of various populations suitable for further cultivation 

and selection.

132 


The majority of medicinal plants grow spontaneously in meadows, sometimes forming 

very abundant groups. Intensive utilization of medicinal plants has led to a diminution of 

many plant populations and even disappearance of some species. 

More than 200 MAPs growing in the meadows and pastures of Serbia were classified into 

136 genera of 49 families with a predominance of hemicryptophytes (65.91%) and geophytes 

(10.23%) (Dajić et al. 2000). 

The participation of MAPs in the entire floristic spectrum of the best developed 

meadow/pasture communities of hilly-mountainous regions in Serbia ranges from 21.7% to 

less than 50% (Dajić et al. 2000) (Fig. 1). 

50 

40 

30 

% 

20 

10 

0 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

Fig 1. Participation of medicinal flora in different hilly meadow communities (%). 

1. Agrostietum vulgaris 9. Chrysopogonetum pannonicum 

2. Asperuleto-Agrostietum vulgaris 10. Danthonietum calycinae 

3. Agrostio-Festucetum valesiaceae 11. Cynosuretum cristati 

4. Festucetum valesiaceae 12. Inulo salicinae-Calamagrostietum epigeio 

5. Rhinantho-Festucetum valesiaceae 13. Artemisio-Salvietum officinalis 

6. Festuco-Chrysopogonetum grylli 14. Brometum erecti 

7. Thymo-Chrysopogonetum grylli 15. Koelerietum montanae 

8. Chrysopogonetum grylli 

Regarding the potential of MAP utilization in Yugoslavia, it should be stressed that except 

hilly-mountainous region of Yugoslavia, which are rich in various types of forests and 

meadows, very important MAP resources are found in the northern lowland part of Serbia 

(Vojvodina) and the coastal region of Montenegro. 

The area of Vojvodina is very suitable for MAP production because of its favourable 

environmental conditions (climate and soil). The commonest cultivated MAPs in this region 

are: chamomile, dill, mint, sweet marjoram, parsley, tarragon, marshmallow, celery, valerian, 

lemon balm, poppy, sage, black mustard, coriander, thyme, etc.; a significant number of wild 

MAPs has been also registered (Kišgeci and Sekulović 2000). 

In Montenegro, collecting and processing of MAPs is a long tradition. Among wild 

MAPs, many of which belong to the Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean floristic element, 

the following could be stressed: sage (Salvia officinalis), lavender (Lavandula vera), thyme 

(Thymus sp.), absinthe (Artemisia absinthium), xeranthemum (Helichrysum arenarium), oleander 

(Nerium oleander), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), olive (Olea europea), jasmine (Jasminum 

officinalis), seaside onion (Scilla maritima), pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium) and 

many others (especially members of the Labiatae).



Legislation on MAP protection and conservation in F.R.Y. is directly connected with 

environmental protection in general. In this sense, the work on the ratification and 

implementation of different IUCN, CITES and UNESCO international conventions 

(Agenda 21, Rio Declaration, United Nations 1992; European Community Environment 

Legislation 1992; Bern Convention 1982; Council Regulation No 338/97, 1996; etc.) was of 

great importance. 

Since 1993, legislative means and laws at both federal and republic levels were 

implemented in the domain of MAP protection and exploitation, such as the Resolution of 

policy of environmental protection (1993), Resolution of policy of biodiversity maintenance (1994), 

Law of environment protection (1993), Law of protection of organisms rare in the nature (1993) and 

Direction of control, utilization and turnover of wild plant and animal species (1993, 1996, 1999). 

All rare species (including MAPs) were categorized into the IUCN groups (EX = extinct, 

EW = extinct in the wild, CR = critically endangered, VU = vulnerable, etc.). 

Some important endangered and vulnerable MAPs of the Yugoslav flora are: Drosera 

rotundifolia L., Gentiana punctata L., Gentiana lutea L., Prunus laurocerasus L., Acer heldreichii 

Boiss., Pinus mugo Turr., Acorus calamus L., Adonis vernalis L., Helichrysum arenarium DC., 

Lycopodium clavatum L., Menyanthes trifoliata L., Orchis militaris L., Ruta graveolens L. and 

Veratrum album L. 

The collecting of species listed in the Red Book is strictly forbidden (Box 1). 

The Direction of control, utilization and turnover of wild plant and animal species also lists 

precisely the quantities of certain species whose collection is allowed (together with 

proposed collecting methods), as well as the list of species whose collecting is forbidden (not 

only species from the Red Data Book, but also other endangered and vulnerable MAPs). 

After adoption of the Direction of natural rarities protection, 17.7% of the species of the total 

Yugoslavian flora is under state control. 

Currently 10 big national parks of Yugoslavia cover the main zones of western Serbia and 

almost all zones in Montenegro, whereas eastern Serbia and the Mediterranean part of 

Montenegro are still not sufficiently protected. 

Among various activities that have to be undertaken urgently regarding nature 

protection, MAPs included, the following will be stressed: 

- Implementation of the international conventions and partition of responsibility 

- Identification of biodiversity components (natural goods of extraordinary significance 

for F.R.Y.) 

- Monitoring 

- Information systems 

- Sustainable utilization of natural resources 

- Conditions of access to MAP genetic resources (export, import, trade) 

- Information exchange 

- Prevention of massive exploitation through cultivation of endangered MAPs.

134 


Box 1. MAPs from the Red Data Book of Serbia 

1. EXTINCT TAXA 

1.1 Globally extinct taxa 

- Althaea kragujevacensis Pančić 

- Althaea vranjensis Diklić 

1.2 Extinct taxa from Serbia 

- Aconitum toxicum Reichenb. subsp. toxicum 

- Crocus banaticus Gaz 

- Iris aphylla L. 

- Salvia nutans L. 

2. TAXA THOUGHT TO BE EXTINCT 

- Achillea ptarmica L. 

- Aconitum anthora L. 

- Phlomis pungens Willd. 

- Stachys serbica Pančić 

3. CRITICALLY ENDANGERED TAXA 

3.1. Globally critically endangered taxa 

- Achillea alexandri-regis Bornm.& Rudski 

- Artemisia pancicii (Janka) Ronniger subsp. pancicii 

- Crocus rujanensis Randjelović & D.A. 

- Gentiana pneumonanthe L. subsp. nopcsae T. Wraber 

- Nepeta rtanjensis Diklić & Milojević 

3.2. Critically endangered taxa 

3.2.1. Taxa with populations containing less than 50 mature individuals 

- Paeonia officinalis L. subsp. banatica Soo 

- Colchicum macedonicum Košanin 

- Primula auricula L. subsp. serratifolia 

3.2.2. Taxa with populations containing between 50 and 250 mature individuals 

- Stachys milanii Pančić 

- Allium paczoskianum Tuzson 

- Cypripedium calceolus L. 

- Scopolia carniolica Jacq. 

3.2.3. Taxa with populations containing over 250 mature individuals 

- Allium cyrilli Ten. 

- Betula pubescens Ehrh. subsp. carpatica Willd. 

- Glycyrrhiza glandulifera Waldst. &Kit. 

- Iris humilis Georgi 

- Sideritis scardica Griseb. 

- Swertia perennis L. 

- Achillea ochroleuca Ehrh. 

- Allium atroviolaceum Boiss. 

- Artemisia austriaca Jacq. 

- Helichrysum arenarium (L) Moench. subsp. arenarium 

- Primula halleri Honckeny 

- Helichrysum plicatum DC subsp. plicatum



It is foreseen that in the near future emphasis will be put on preservation and conservation of 

various MAP genetic resources. Several state institutions, together with non-governmental 

organizations and the private sector, have already been included in attempts to maintain 

MAP diversity, such as the Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Federal Institute for Plant and 

Animal Genetic Resources which does the collecting, Federal Department for Nature 

Protection, Institute for Medicinal Plants Research "Josif Pančić" (Belgrade), Institute of Field 

and Vegetable Crops (Novi Sad) – Department for Medicinal Plants (Bački Petrovac), 

Faculties of Biology, Faculties of Agriculture (Universities of Belgrade, Novi Sad and Niš), 

etc. 

Ex situ conservation of MAPs is a very important activity. It includes field collections, 

herbaria, seeds and in vitro cultures in various institutes and faculties and especially in the 

Bank of Plant Genes of Yugoslavia. So far, 459 different genotypes (cultivars and 

populations) of 190 MAPs have been collected (Kisgeči and Sekulović 2000). 

Besides the MAP field collection already established at the Institute for Medicinal Plants 

Research in Pančevo, near Belgrade, some attempts are currently being undertaken in order 

to establish a new collection in the hilly-mountainous region of Serbia where the majority of 

the indigenous medicinal flora grows. 

Additional activities for ex situ conservation of MAP genetic resources are conducted by 

the Biological Institute in Belgrade in terms of in vitro propagation of many MAP species 

such as Gentiana sp., Centaurim umbellatum, Iris sp., Digitalis sp., Blackstonia perfoliata, Frangula 

alnus, Satureja sp. and many others. It is expected that endangered and vulnerable medicinal 

plants will be more intensively included in programmes of in vitro propagation both by this 

and other scientific institutions. 

During the period 2001-2002, the team of scientists at the Institute for Medicinal Plants 

Research "Dr Josif Pančić" has exploited a number of types of terrain in Serbia and 

Montenegro in order to fulfil the needs of the Bank of Plant Genes of F.R.Y. and preserve 

existing plant germplasm. Additional activities were focused on collecting herbarium 

specimens and plant samples for further reintroduction, chemical screening and creation of 

pharmacognostic maps. 

Activities required for MAP protection and conservation 

Besides the official legislative, multidisciplinary MAP research and the establishment and 

development of the MAP collection by the Bank of Plant Genes, other activities should be 

pursued to improve the current situation on MAP protection and conservation, such as: 

- Investigations on possibilities for reintroduction and breeding of the most endangered 

wild medicinal and aromatic plants; 

- Reproduction and multiplication of vulnerable and endangered species directly in 

natural habitats either by sowing or by vegetative propagation; 

- Protection of MAP habitats where the most endangered medicinal plants are present; 

- Limited and controlled collecting; 

- Substitution of MAP collecting with production on plantations and in vitro 

propagation; 

- Education programmes for collectors, breeders and other interested parties; 

- Supervision and inspection at all levels.

136 


Production and processing of MAPs in Serbia 

The big demand for medicinal and aromatic species keeps increasing as a consequence of 

irregular and uncontrolled gathering and exploitation. This imposes the need for cultivation, 

production, breeding and processing of these plants. For example, before the sanctions, 

Serbia was one of the biggest exporters of medicinal plants (chamomile, St John's worth, 

gentian, marshmallow, etc.) with a total average amount of about 1000 tonnes of raw 

material exported per year, and an income of up to 11 million US$ (Dajić 2001). However, 

this position was lost and other countries from eastern and central Europe (Bulgaria, 

Hungary, Slovakia, etc.) appeared on the world market. Medicinal plants from Serbia have 

been exported mainly into European countries (80.26%) and USA and Canada (19.74%) 

(Sekulović 1999). 

Although the collecting of medicinal plants from the wild is the easiest, cheapest and 

fastest way to obtain desirable amounts of medicinal plant raw material, this approach is not 

desirable. 

There are no accurate data on the quantities of medicinal plants collected annually. 

Approximate amounts of MAPs gathered from the nature are given in Table 1. 

Table 1. Wild medicinal and aromatic plants collected in 1999 (source: Stević and Bjelović 2000) 

Species collected With permission Without permission % 

(A) (B) (B/A) 

Achillea crithmifolia W.K. 420 38 9 

Achillea millefolium L. 6538 300 4.5 

Agrimonia eupatoria L. 7713 6573 84.4 

Althaea officinalis L. 10782 1802 16.7 

Angelica sylvestris L. 204 204 100 

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi L. 8942 4242 47.4 

Arctium lappa L. 1350 200 14.8 

Artemisia absinthium L. 6112 4812 78.7 

Asarum europaeum L. 1383 33 2.3 

Betula pendula Roth. 3400 450 13.2 

Centaurium erythraea Rafn. 1538 596 38.7 

Crataegus oxyacantha L. 6600 595 9 

Equisetum arvense L. 4819 1019 21 

Frangula alnus Mill. 3300 200 6.6 

Hypericum sp. 159570 112697 70.6 

Juniperus communis L. 438180 70587 16.1 

Origanum vulgare L. 6103 1083 17.7 

Plantago lanceolata L. 4492 1092 24.3 

Polygonum aviculare L. 941 941 100 

Primula vulgaris Huds. 2374 1649 69.4 

Pulmonaria officinalis L. 2940 1663 56.5 

Rosa canina L. 152926 29926 19.5 

Sambucus nigra L. 27732 16587 59.8 

Satureja montana L. 1325 325 24.5 

Satureja kitaibelli Wiercb. 8945 6545 73.1 

Taraxacum officinale Webb. 4802 852 17.7 

Teucrium chamaedrys L. - 270 100 

Teucrium montanum L. 692 392 56.6 

Thymus sp. 13923 3403 24.4 

Tilia tomentosa Moench. 9093 1697 18.6 

Tussilago farfara L. 432 432 100 

Urtica dioica L. 70799 51499 72.7 

Vaccinium myrtillus L. 365736 45402 12.4 

Despite the significant natural resources (especially in meadows and pastures), a great 

number of medicinal plant populations have disappeared, while many plants are 

endangered or have limited distribution and therefore should be cultivated for the sake of


nature conservation (Achillea sp., Aconitum sp., Acorus calamus L., Satureja sp., Orchis sp., 

Gentiana lutea L., Helychrisum arenarium L., Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Gypsophila paniculata L., 

Angelica archangelica L., Valeriana officinalis L., Ruta graveolens L., Prunus laurocerasus L., Salvia 

officinalis L., Castanea sativa Mill., Centaurium erythraea Rafn., Colchicum autumnale L., Crocus 

sativus L., Daphne alpina L., Daphne blagayana Freyer, Drosera rotundifolia L., Arctostaphylos uvaursi 

Sprengel, Hyssopus officinalis L., Juglans regia L., Adonis vernalis L., Veratrum album L., 

Menyanthes trifoliata L., Pinus mugo Turr., Primula sp., Vaccinium vitis idaea L., Lycopodium 

clavatum L., etc.). 

Medicinal plant production, especially of species with moderate or low ecological 

requirements, is totally justifiable in regions where it is not possible or worthwhile to 

produce the standard crops (rocky, sandy, saline, poor and waterlogged soils, abandoned 

mountainous pastures, etc.). 

MAP cultivation is more sustainable than medicinal plant gathering, which is strictly 

regulated by law. There are several advantages to MAP cultivation, such as the production 

of raw material of standard quality, use of available machinery, processing facilities and 

means of production, more rational use of soil resources, yield planning, financial effects, 

preservation of species whose collection has been prohibited, etc.). In the near future, these 

plants will therefore be the main enterprise of primary nurseries and small- and mediumsize 

enterprises of the agricultural sector. 

Box 2 lists MAPs with known or partially known cultivation technology and Box 3 those 

of unknown cultivation technology. 

Box 2. Medicinal and aromatic plants with known or partially known cultivation technology 

and sold on the Serbian market 

Species with known cultivation technology 

Althaea officinalis 


Borago officinalis 

Carum carvi 

Chamomilla recutita 

Coriandrum sativum 

Cynara scolimus 

Foeniculuma vulgare 

Glycyrrhiza glabra 

Hyssopus officinalis 

Juglans regia 

Lavandula sp. 

Levisticum officinale 

Mentha piperita 

Melissa officinalis 

Majorana officinalis 

Oenothera biennis 

Pyrethrum cinerariifolium 

Rosmarinus officinalis 

Salvia officinalis 

Silybum marianum 


Valeriana officinalis 

etc. 

Species with partially known cultivation technology 

Achillea crithmifolia 

Agrimonia eupatoria 

Cnicus benedictus 

Gypsophila paniculata 

Hypericum barbatum 

Hypericum perforatum 

Inula helenium 

Iris germanica 

Leonurus cardiaca 

Malva silvestris 

Marrubium vulgare 

Origanum vulgare 

Ruta graveolens 

Saponaria officinalis 

Satureja kitaibelli 

Satureja montana

138 


Box 3. Medicinal plants with unknown cultivation technology sold on the Serbian market. 

Achillea sp. 

Geum urbanum 

Aconitum sp. 



Hepatica nobilis 


Herniaria glabra 

Angelica silvestris 

Herniaria hirsuta 

Allium victorialis 

Hyosciamus niger 

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 

Juniperus communis 

Artemisia absinthium 


Aruncus dioicus 

Menyanthes trifoliata 

Atropa belladonna 

Ononis spinosa 

Carlina acaulis 

Orchis morio 

Castanea sativa 

Pinus mugo 

Centaurium erythraea subsp. erythraea 

Potentila erecta 

Colchicum autumnale 

Primula elatior 

Convallaria majalis 

Primula veris 

Crocus sativus 

Prunus laurocerasus 

Daphne alpina 

Pulmonaria officinalis 

Daphne blagayana 

Ruscus aculeatus 

Drosera rotundifolia 

Sambucus nigra 

Digitalis laevigata 

Sanicula europaea 

Digitalis ferruginea 

Solidago virgaurea 

Digitalis grandiflora 

Symphytum officinale 

Digitalis lanata 

Teucrium montanum 

Dryopterix filix-mas 


Fragaria vesca 

Vaccinium myrtillus 

Gentiana asclepiata 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea 


Veratrum nigrum 

Gentiana lutea 

Verbascum densiflorum 

Gentiana punctata 

The poor tradition of MAP cultivation in our country – less than 5000 ha under such crops 

(Table 2) – is not an excuse for low investment and insufficient attention to this agricultural 

sector. Besides production of medicinal plant remedies, seed production and the sale of 

transplants can also generate a significant income. 

Table 2. Estimation of areas cultivated under MAPs in Serbia (source: personal communications from 

specialists from the Institute for Medicinal Plant Research and private sector) 

Species Area (ha) Species Area (ha) 

Althaea officinalis L. 80-100 Majorana hortensis Moench. 20 

Anethum graveolens L. 500 Malva silvestris L. 10-30 

Angelica archangelica L. 10-20 Melissa officinalis L. 100-300 

Artemisia dracunculus L. 20 Mentha piperita L. 800-1200 

Calendula officinalis L. 50-70 Ocimum basilicum L. 50-70 

Carum carvi L. 50-150 Oenothera biennis L. 20-30 

Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rausch. 600-1000 Origanum vulgare L. 30 

Coriandrum sativum L. 50-200 Petroselinum sativum L. 150-300 

Cynara scolimus L. 400-500 Pimpinella anisum L. 220 

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 200-250 Salvia officinalis L. 60-100 

Glycyrrhiza glabra L. 10-20 Sinapis alba L. 30-50 

Hypericum perforatum L. 15-20 Thymus vulgaris L. 50-100 

Hyssopus officinalis L. 80-100 Trigonella foenum-graecum L. 30 

Iris germanica L. 10-20 Urtica dioica L. 10-20 

Lavandula angustifolia Ehrh. 20 Valeriana officinalis L. 120-150 

Levisticum officinale Koch. 50-60 

Total: 3255-5700 

Other problems with MAP cultivation are: slow acclimatization, heterogeneous seed 

material, pest/disease-susceptible plant populations and low yields.


Regarding medicinal plant processing, it is known that the world's annual production of 

essential oils is at least 45 000 tonnes (Verlet 1993). However, Serbian producers do not 

operate on the world market because of variable yields and quality and lack of technical 

information to overcome these problems (Menković et al. 1997). The largest quantities of 

essential oils are obtained from species both indigenous and cultivated in Serbia, such as 

mint, juniper tree, lemon balm, thyme, chamomile, dill, parsley and valerian. 

Only recently, mostly in the private sector, more attention has been paid to essential oil 

distillation from plants such as Levisticum officinale, Angelica archangelica, Ocimum basilicum 

and Echinacea angustifolia (Dajić and Stevanović 2001). Unfortunately, it is very difficult to 

estimate the amount of essential oils produced annually in Serbia, but it is believed to range 

between a few hundred kg and up to 10 000 kg. 

In developed countries, agriculture produces a surplus of traditional crops and this is to 

be restricted. Council regulation EEC 1765/92 and its updates established a support system 

for producers of certain arable crops. Although cereal areas should be reduced, it is 

permitted to use set-aside land for "non-food" crops; medicinal plants and spices belong to 

this category, which is not restricted, but supported (Németh 2000). 

Current research on MAPs and further prospects and goals 

In addition to investigations on MAP biology, diversity and population mapping, significant 

research is conducted on breeding, selection and introduction of wild MAPs (Institute for 

Medicinal Plant Research, Belgrade; Department for Medicinal Plants, Bački Petrovac; 

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade and Novi Sad). 

The main achievements in MAP breeding and selection in F.R.Y. are reflected in the 

number of domestic cultivars (Table 3). 

Table 3. Domestic or improved MAP cultivars in F.R. Yugoslavia (source: Kišgeci et al. 1997; 

Adamović 2000) 

Species 


cultivars 

Species 


cultivars 

1 Achillea millefolium L. 1 26 Majorana hortensis Moench. 4 

2 Acorus calamus L. 1 27 Malva silvestris L. 3 

3 Agrimonia eupatoria L. 1 28 Melissa officinalis L. 3 

4 Althaea officinalis L. 1 29 Mentha x piperita L. 5 

5 Anethum graveolens L. 2 30 Mentha spicata L. 1 

6 Angelica archangelica L. 2 31 Ocimum basilicum L. 4 

7 Artemisia absinthium L. 1 32 Oenothera biennis L. 1 

8 Artemisia dracunculus L. 2 33 Origanum vulgare L. 1 

9 Borago officinalis L. 2 34 Papaver somniferum L. 1 

10 Calendula officinalis L. 1 35 Pimpinella anisum L. 1 

11 Carum carvi L. 4 36 Ricinus communis L. 1 

12 Chamomila recutita (L.) Rausch. 3 37 Ruta graveolens L. 2 

13 Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium L. 1 38 Salvia officinalis L. 1 

14 Cochlearia armoracia L. 1 39 Salvia sclarea L. 2 

15 Coriandrum sativum L. 5 40 Satureja hortensis L. 2 

16 Cynara scolimus L. 1 41 Satureja montana L. 1 

17 Datura innoxia Mill. 1 42 Sideritis scardica L. 1 

18 Digitalis lanata Ehrh. 1 43 Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. 1 

19 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 5 44 Sinapis alba L. 1 

20 Glycyrrhiza glabra L. 1 45 Thymus vulgaris L. 4 

21 Gypsophila paniculata L. 1 46 Trigonella foenum-graecum L. 1 

22 Hyssopus officinalis L. 2 47 Urtica dioica L. 1 

23 Lavandula angustifolia Mill. 1 48 Valeriana officinalis L. 3 

24 Leonurus cardiaca L. 1 49 Verbascum densiflorum Bert. 1 

25 Levisticum officinale Koch. 1 

Total no. of cultivars = 89

140 


Since the establishment of the Institute for Medicinal Plant Research "Dr Josif Pančić" 

(1948), much has been learned about the pharmacological features of MAPs. Other 

institutions also deal with evaluation of chemical content, active substances and qualitative 

composition of MAP drugs, as well as their influence on cells of bacteria, fungi and cancer 

(Faculty of Pharmacy, Faculty of Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Faculty of Biology, etc.). 

The special challenge for the coming decades, in our opinion, is cultivation and/or 

improvement of new technologies for production of endangered medicinal plants, because 

many of them are still not cultivated. Among them, the following species could be stressed: 

St John's wort, eyebright, yarrow, Lady's mantle, gentian, chicory, uva ursi, digitalis, 

agrimony, borage, centaury and many others. Production technologies have already been 

developed for some endangered or vulnerable medicinal plants and therefore it is expected 

that their production will increase in the future (sage, hyssop, valerian, angelica, lemon 

balm, marshmallow, etc.). It is important to emphasize that many species controlled by the 

state may be used for cheap and very efficient soil conservation, i.e. for preventing both 

erosion and leaching of hilly-mountainous soils (e.g. sage, hyssop, lavender, mugwort). 

Breeding and further selection of MAPs in Serbia, together with the proper choice of 

habitat for their production, is of great importance. There are indications that more than half 

of all cultivated MAP areas are sown with non-registered seeds, resulting in low yields and 

uncertain drug quality (Dr Slobodan Drazić, personal communication). 

Furthermore, the acquisition of both cultivation technologies (where more efforts should 

be dedicated to weed and pest control) and modern raw processing methods is necessary. It 

is also important to define the current capacities for MAP production (habitat properties, soil 

characteristics, climate, irrigation possibilities, availability of machinery and processing 

facilities), to supply proper seed or seedling material, to cooperate with state and private 

enterprises and scientific institutions and to analyze the whole financial framework and 

possible risks. 

Application of molecular genetics technologies to MAP studies could provide further 

possibilities for evaluation of suitable genotypes and quality evaluation of MAP products. 

No serious research at the molecular level on MAPs has been conducted in F.R.Y. so far. 

However, the Department of Botany of the Faculty of Agriculture (University of Belgrade) in 

cooperation with the Royal Botanical Gardens in Kew (United Kingdom) has undertaken a 

new and promising project considering diversity and evolution of different species of the 

genus Thymus, mostly endemics of southeast Serbia and the Balkan Peninsula. This research 

will include determination of collected plant material according to cDNA sequencing. It is 

expected that results will serve for further cultivation and selection of certain thyme species. 

At the beginning of 2002 the Ministry of Science and Technology of Serbia approved and 

started financing several national scientific projects that encompass all aspects of MAPs, both 

fundamental and applied. 

There is indeed hope for future opportunities for more intensive collaboration with 

neighbouring countries and all other EU countries through common participation in 

international projects involving multidisciplinary research on MAPs, including the 

development of a common database. 

References 

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251 in Proceedings of the First Conference on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of Southeast 

European Countries, 29 May-3 June 2000, Arandjelovac, Yugoslavia. Institute for Medicinal Plant 

Research “Dr Josif Pančić” and Federal Institute for Plant and Animal Genetic Resources, Belgrade.


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of the European Communities Directorate, General XI Environment, Nuclear Safety and Civil 

Protection, Brussels/Luxemburg. 

Dajić, Z. 2000. Production of rare and endangered medicinal and aromatic plants – the challenge for 

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rural areas], 31 August–2 September 2000, Vlasotince, Yugoslavia. Zavod za sociologiju razvoja 

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Belgrade. 

Dajić, Z., S. Fabri, S. Maksimović and S. Vrbničanin. 2000. Analysis of medicinal plants on meadows 

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Dajić, Z. and T. Stevanović. 2001. Les plantes aromatiques et médicinales en Serbie [Aromatic and 

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végétaux 18:10-12. Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Canada. 

Kišgeci, J., T. Marković, S. Drazić, B. Stepanović and D. Adamović. 1997. Geneticki resursi lekovitog i 

aromatičnog bilja Jugoslavije [Genetic resources of medicinal and aromatic plants of Yugoslavia]. 

Savremena poljoprivreda, Beograd [Modern agriculture, Belgrade] (1-2):129-145. 

Kišgeci, J. and D. Sekulović. 2000. Medicinal plants of Yugoslavia. Pp. 25-36 in Proceedings of the First 

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2000, Arandjelovac, Yugoslavia. Institute for Medicinal Plant Research “Dr Josif Pančić” and 

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Lange, D. 1996. Untersuchungen zum Heilpflanzenhandel in Deutschland [Research on the market of 

medicinal plants in Germany]. Bundesamt für Naturschutz, Landwirtschaftsverlag GmbH, Bonn- 

Bad Godesberg, Germany. 



Lewington, A. 1990. Plants for people. Natural History Museum Publications, London, UK.

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Meusel, H., E. Jager and E. Weinert. 1965. Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropaeischen Flora 

[Compared chorology of central European flora]. Gustav Fisher Verlag, Iena, Germany. 

Németh, E. 2000. Needs, problems and achievements of introduction of wild growing medicinal 

plants into the agriculture. Pp. 1-10 in Proceedings of the First Conference on Medicinal and 

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Serbia. Pp. 133 in Book of abstracts of the Second Conference on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of 

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Walter, H. 1983. Vegetation of the Earth and ecological systems of the geo-biosphere. Springer Verlag, 

Berlin.


Documentation and databases 

The Central Database of the Slovene Plant Gene Bank 


Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Introduction 

In 1996 the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food started financing the Slovene Plant 

Gene Bank Programme with the goal to maintain, evaluate, regenerate and preserve 

Slovenian autochthonous species, ecotypes, populations and landraces of agricultural, 

medicinal and aromatic plants, forest trees and other woody plants from Slovenian forests. 

They include Slovenian cultivars, old cultivars, landraces, various populations, clones and 

lines bred from autochthonous plants and ecotypes from the natural habitat important for 

food, agriculture and forestry (Černe et al. 1998). 

In the Slovene Plant Gene Bank Programme working with agricultural, medicinal and 

aromatic plants (SPGB-AMAP) three institutions are involved: 

- the Agronomy Department at the Biotechnical Faculty of the University of Ljubljana is 

responsible for the Fagopyrum, Zea mays, fruit trees (Malus, Pyrus, Juglans, Prunus), forage 

crops and medicinal and aromatic plant (MAP) collections; 

- the Institute for Hops and Brewery in Žalec is responsible for Humulus and medicinal and 

aromatic plant collections; 

- the Agricultural Institute of Slovenia houses collections of grain legumes, Allium, Solanum 

tuberosum, Triticum, Brassica, Lactuca accessions, forage crops, Rubus and Vitis. 

The Programme for conservation of forest genetic resources (Slovenian Forest Gene Bank) 

is led by the Slovenian Forestry Institute, Ljubljana. 

Multiplication, storage and evaluation 

Each year limited numbers of accessions are planted in the field for seed multiplication, 

characterization and evaluation. During the growth period morphological characteristics 

and disease susceptibility are recorded (Černe 1999). 

When mature, seeds are collected, cleaned and dried. Between 500 and 1000 seeds per 

accession are stored at +4°C in working collections. In addition samples are prepared for the 

base collection (long-term storage at –20°C) located at the Agricultural Institute of Slovenia. 

Genetic resources are also kept in in vitro conditions and in vivo in permanent plantations for 

hops, fruit, grapevine and some MAP species. 

Collecting missions 

Seed samples and passport data were obtained with the help of local elementary and 

agricultural schools, the Agricultural Advisory Service, newspaper ads and farmers. Most of 

the people who sent us samples filled out a questionnaire which provided necessary data 

and some additional information on local names and growing practices. Collecting efforts 

are being continued through collecting missions throughout Slovenia. An important part of 

the collecting missions are joint missions with the Czech Republic and Croatia.

144 


Documentation 

The Agronomy Department of the Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, the 

Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, the Institute of Hop Research and Brewing and the 

Slovenian Forestry Institute form the Slovenian Plant Gene Bank (SPGB) and work with 

species used in agriculture, forestry and for food. These institutions are responsible for 

ex situ germplasm collections stored in the form of seeds, in vitro and in vivo collections. Each 

institution holds a database for its working collection. With a need for a uniform and 

centralized documentation and information system, a computer program was used (Žitnik 

et al. 2000) to unite the four separate databases. This will enable easier and faster access to 

the complete information for all users, better management of germplasm resources in the 

Central Plant Gene Bank and exchange of information with other ECP/GR and EUFORGEN 

genebank databases. 

Each local database of the Slovenian Plant Gene Bank holds only data of the particular 

institution. These local databases are incorporated into the central database. 

The contents of the Central Plant Gene Bank (CPGB) are divided into 5 categories: 

- multicrop passport descriptors, 

- additional passport descriptors, 

- characterization data, 

- evaluation data, and 

- central seed bank holdings. 

The multicrop passport descriptors are the same for all plant species. The other four 

categories are specific for one species or group of species. Therefore, we have one database 

for the multicrop passport descriptors and several databases for the four other categories. 

The central database is constructed using the computer program MS Access 2000. It 

consists of one Access database containing five separate databases corresponding to the five 

categories above. The central database has been built using three different ways of entering 

data: 

- data existing in other computer formats (Dbase, Excel, etc.) are transformed directly into 

the central working database by the database manager; 

- new data are entered into the local Access databases at each institute and a copy of the 

local database is sent by email to the database manager; 

- at present the preferred way of entering data is via a computer program written 

specifically for this purpose, which enables members of the Slovenian Plant Gene Bank to 

enter data automatically into the central database via the Internet. 

The protocol for data entry has been written. Data are entered using a password assigned 

to each institution involved and a unique SRGB 20 accession number is assigned to the data 

set automatically. 

Other users will be able to browse through the read-only, publicly available, version of 

the central database (http://www.kis.si/srgb/) (Žitnik et al. 2000). 

At present multicrop passport descriptor information is available for 3099 accessions in 

the Central Plant Gene Bank Database (agricultural and forest plants combined). We are 

planning to add to the CPGB database a specialized database on medicinal and aromatic 

plants. This database, called MEDPLANT, is being developed at the Biotechnical Faculty at 

the University of Ljubljana, but unfortunately it is not a public database and its use will have 

to remain restricted. 

20 SRGB = Slovenska Rastlinska Genska Banka (Slovenian Plant Gene Bank)


References 

Černe, M., V. Meglič, Z. Luthar, B. Bohanec, J. Šuštar-Vozlič, D. Baričevič and J. Rode. 1998. 

Ohranjanje genskih virov kmetijskih rastlin [Conservation of crop genetic resources]. Pp. 249-252 

in Novi izzivi v poljedelstvu '98: zbornik simpozija [New challenges in crop production: 

proceedings of a symposium], 3-4 Dec. 1998, Dobrna (A. Tanjšek and I. Šantavec, eds.). Slovensko 

agronomsko društvo [Slovenian Agronomy Society], Ljubljana. 

Žitnik, S., V. Meglič and H. Kraigher. 2000. Computer database of the Slovenian plant gene bank for 

agriculture, food and forestry. Pp. 328-329 in 2 nd Congress of Genetic Society of Slovenia with 

international participation: proceedings of the symposium, 13-17 Sept. 2000, Bled, Slovenia. 

(D. Glavač and M. Ravnik-Glavač, eds). Slovensko genetsko društvo [Genetic Society of Slovenia], 

Ljubljana.

146 


Research 

Molecular tools for determining genetic variability 21 


Centre for Plant Biotechnology and Breeding, Biotechnical Faculty, Ljubljana 

This presentation deals with modern approaches in determining genetic variability, in which 

three categories of genetic markers are applied – morphological, biochemical and molecular. 

Morphological markers (such as plant height, leaf shape, colour, etc.) are among the oldest 

markers used in the evaluation of genetic variability. However, they are not sufficiently 

specific and informative because different gene expression in different environments causes 

wide variability of phenotypic characters in individuals. Similarly, biochemical markers 

(such as albumin content, isoenzymes or essential oil contents in an individual organism) can 

be considered to be non-specific due to the wide variability of biochemical characters, which 

are strongly influenced by an individual's environment. 

The development of recombinant DNA in the 1980s enabled the development and use of 

molecular markers, thus providing a modern tool for determining genetic variability. 

Molecular markers show variability among individuals on the DNA level, which is not 

influenced by the environment. 

Different genetic markers (e.g. RFLP, AFLP, RAPD, SSR, SCAR) have different properties, 

(dominant and co-dominant markers, different coverage of the genome) and different 

advantages and disadvantages (e.g. specificity, cost, ease of analytical interpretation of the 

resulting data). However, they are highly informative about genetic variability among 

individuals, populations and cultivars. Their use is universal for all organisms. Molecular 

markers can be considered to be essential tools in cultivar identification (DNA typing), 

assessment of genetic variability and relationships, management of genetic resources and 

biodiversity, studies of phylogenetic relationships and in genome mapping. 

The main aim of the management of genetic resources is to ensure that as much as 

possible of the existing genetic diversity of species is conserved. The effectiveness of this 

depends to a large extent on the genetic information available on the germplasm under 

study. 

Molecular markers provide genetic information of direct value for ex situ and in situ 

conservation. For ex situ conservation, the acquisition of data on the diversity of collections 

is important. Molecular markers can be used (i) to identify valuable genetic variation that is 

under-represented in a collection sample; (ii) to identify duplicate accessions and to monitor 

changes in genetic structure as accessions are generated; (iii) to assess the available genetic 

diversity for each species; (iv) to provide more accurate and detailed information than is 

available using classical phenotypic data; (v) to identify traits and types quickly. 

On a more fundamental level, molecular marker information may lead to the further 

identification of useful genes contained in a collection. Molecular data on diversity may 

provide essential information to develop core collections that accurately represent the entire 

collection. For ex situ conservation, molecular markers may be used in: the determination of 

identity and similarity of accessions or individuals; the measurement of the structure of 

diversity among individuals, accessions, populations and species; and the detection of 

particular allele or nucleotide sequences in a taxon, genebank accession or in situ population. 

21 Summary of the presentation made at the meeting.




Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Introduction 

Many species belonging to the Origanum genus, rich in essential oils, phenolic compounds 

and flavonoids, have been used for thousands of years as spices and in traditional medicine. 

Nowadays, a number of other properties are reported as well (e.g. antifungal, antibacterial, 

antioxidant, antiviral, nematicidal). The taxonomy of the genus Origanum is rather 

complicated and is still a current issue of debate. The genus is characterized by large 

differences in morphological and chemical properties resulting in the distinction of 49 taxa 

and 43 species as well as 18 hybrids (Kintzios 2002). The most comprehensive revision of the 

genus was done by Ietswaart (1980), who divided the taxa in ten sections, the monospecific 

section Origanum being the most widely distributed. 

In Slovenia, O. vulgare subsp. vulgare occurs wild in nature and autochthonous 

populations differ largely in their morphological as well as biochemical characteristics 

(Baričevič 1997). They are characterized by a low content of essential oils (up to 0.5%); 

nevertheless they show a considerable antioxidant activity. Large variability in the 

morphological as well as in the biochemical properties could be a reflection of either 

environmental differences, a product of microclimatic variations found in Slovenia, or of 

genetic differences between the populations and clones, or a combination of both factors. 

Classical methods of estimating genetic diversity among groups of plants have relied 

upon morphological or chemical characters, but these characters can be influenced by 

environmental factors. By looking directly at the genetic material itself, molecular markers 

represent a powerful and potentially rapid method for the characterization of diversity per se 

within the in situ and ex situ conservation (Ford-Lloyd 2001). However, molecular studies 

dealing with medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are rare in comparison with other 

cultivated plants. This is probably due to the presence of large amounts of secondary 

metabolites and essential oils in MAP tissues, which inhibit DNA amplification in PCR 

reaction (Khanuja et al. 1999; Mizukami and Okabe 1999). There have been only two 

molecular studies on the genus Origanum reported until now. A molecular systematic study 

of the family Lamiaceae using rbcL gene sequences was made by Kaufamnn and Wink (1994) 

with two Origanum species (O. vulgare and O. laevigatum) and Majorana hortensis, among 

others. Some authors have treated M. hortensis as a member of the Origanum genus, but the 

results of this study show that it differs significantly from the two Origanum species and was 

therefore suggested to be a separate species. A study using RAPD markers for the 

comparison of essential oils and genetic relationship of Origanum x intercedens with its 

parental taxa in the island of Crete was performed (Gounaris et al. 2002). 

The aim of the present study was to develop a protocol for DNA isolation and to optimize 

the PCR reactions for further evaluation of genetic diversity of wild oregano in Slovenia 

using RAPD markers. 

Materials and methods 

Nine populations of O. vulgare subsp. vulgare from Slovenia conserved in the Slovene 

national genebank for medicinal and aromatic plants were included in the study. One 

population of O. vulgare subsp. hirtum and one population of O. vulgare subsp. vulgare 

obtained from the genebank in Georgia were selected as outgroups. The number of plants 

tested per population varied from two to five. The list of accessions included in the study is 

presented in Table 1.

148 


Table 1. Accessions of O. vulgare L. included in the study 

Population No. of plants Subtaxa Origin 

9 2 O. vulgare L. subsp. vulgare ORI 15/91, Georgia 

9/1 2 O. vulgare L. subsp. hirtum (Link) Ietswaart Greece 

9/3 4 O. vulgare L. subsp. vulgare Jesenice 

9/4 5 O. vulgare L. subsp. vulgare Žirovniška planina 

9/6 4 O. vulgare L. subsp. vulgare Stari vrh nad Škofjo Loko 

9/7 4 O. vulgare L. subsp. vulgare Završnica 

9/8 5 O. vulgare L. subsp. vulgare Mežakla 

9/9 5 O. vulgare L. subsp. vulgare Nanos, Lijak 

9/11 3 O. vulgare L. subsp. vulgare Slovenske Konjice 

9/12 5 O. vulgare L. subsp. vulgare Blato 

9/14 5 O. vulgare L. subsp. vulgare Štampetov most, Vrhnika 

For the isolation of DNA, different types of plant material (fresh, frozen, young, old, 

lyophilized leaves, leaves dried at 40°C, plants grown in vitro) were taken and different 

protocols were tested: two modified CTAB protocols (Šuštar-Vozlič and Javornik 1999; 

Z. Liber, personal communication 2000), SDS protocol (Beye and Raeder 1993) and a 

commercial kit (Dneasy Plant Mini Kit, Qiagen). 

PCR amplifications were carried out in 25 µl mixture with DNA content and Mg 2+ 

concentrations being optimized. Different types of Taq DNA polymerases were also tested. 

Twenty-five arbitrary 10-mer primers (Operon Technologies) were applied. 

A preliminary study of genetic variability using RAPD molecular markers was made. For 

data analysis and the construction of a dendrogram, NTSYS-pc software was used (Rohlf 

1993). UPGMA cluster was performed using the RAPD data. 

Results and discussion 

Various types of plant material and a number of different protocols for the isolation of DNA 

were tested in order to obtain good quality DNA for PCR reactions. When fresh or frozen 

leaves of O. vulgare subsp. vulgare collected in autumn were used for the isolation of DNA, 

no positive result in PCR reaction was obtained regardless of the isolation protocol being 

used. This was probably due to the accumulation of large amounts of secondary metabolites 

in old plant material, as previously reported (Khanuja et al. 1999). DNA purified with 

DNeasy Plant Mini Kit (Qiagen) from plants grown in vitro gave the best results in PCR 

reactions. A positive PCR reaction was also obtained when DNA was isolated from leaves 

taken from the greenhouse or dried at 40°C. It was found out that the age and quality of 

plant material were of major importance for a successful PCR amplification. The results of 

PCR reactions with different types of plant material used and different isolation protocols 

applied are presented in Table 2. 

Because of a limited number of samples from individual populations and a small number 

of polymorphic RAPD profiles generated after electrophoresis of PCR products, the results of 

statistical analysis showed that samples belonging to the same populations, as well as 

outgroups on the dendrogram, did not usually cluster together. 

In the present study a protocol for DNA isolation was developed and PCR reactions were 

optimized. In further investigations, genetic analysis will be performed on a larger number 

of samples from each population of O. vulgare subsp. vulgare, and possible correlations 

between genetic variability, morphological and biochemical properties will be assessed.


Table 2. Plant material, isolation protocols and resulting PCR reaction: (+) = successful amplification, 

(o) = partly successful amplification, (-) = unsuccessful amplification 

Plant material Isolation protocol PCR reaction 

Fresh (frozen) leaves, collected in autumn 

Protocol Liber with modifications, 

CTAB method 

(-) 

Fresh leaves, collected in May Dneasy Plant Mini Kit (Qiagen) (-) 

Protocol Liber (-) 

Leaves from greenhouse 

SDS buffer (-) 

Qiagen Kit (+) 

- fresh Qiagen Kit, SDS buffer (+) 

In vitro - frozen (-) 

grown - lyophilized (o) 

Qiagen Kit 

plants - dried at 40°C (+) 

- treated with hexan and methanol 

(o) 

References 

Baričevič, D. 1997. Experiences with oregano (Origanum spp.) in Slovenia. Pp. 111-121 in Oregano. 

Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 14. Proceedings of the 

IPGRI International Workshop on Oregano, 8-12 May 1996, CIHEAM, Valenzano (Bari), Italy 

(S. Padulosi, ed.). Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International 

Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. 

Beye, M. and U. Raeder. 1993. Rapid DNA preparation from bees and GC% fractionation. 

BioTechniques 14:372-374. 

Ford-Lloyd, B.V. 2001. Genotyping in plant genetic resources. Pp. 59-81 in Plant genotyping, the DNA 

fingerprinting of plants (R.J. Henry, ed.). CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, 

UK/New York, USA. 

Gounaris, Y., M. Skoula, C. Fournaraki, G. Drakakaki and A. Makris. 2002. Comparison of essential 

oils and genetic relationship of Origanum x intercedens to its parental taxa in the island of Crete. 

Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 30:249-258. 

Ietswaart, J.H. 1980. A taxonomic revision of the genus Origanum (Labiatae). PhD Thesis. Leiden 

Botanical Series 4. Leiden University Press, The Hague, The Netherlands. 153pp. 

Kaufmann, M. and M. Wink. 1994. Molecular systematics of the Nepetoideae (Family Labiatae): 

Phylogenetic implications from rbcl gene sequences. Verlag der Zeitschrift für Naturforschung 

49c:635-645. 

Khanuja, S.P.S., A.K. Shasany, M.P. Darokar and S. Kumar. 1999. Rapid isolation of DNA from dry 

and fresh samples of plants producing large amounts of secondary metabolites and essential oils. 

Plant Molecular Biology Reporter 17:1-7. 

Kintzios, S.E. 2002. Profile of the multifaceted prince of the herbs. Pp. 4-8 in Oregano: the genera 

Origanum and Lippia. Medicinal and aromatic plants Series – Industrial profiles (S.E. Kintzios, ed.). 

Taylor & Francis, London/New York. 

Mizukami, H. and Y. Okabe. 1999. A simple and rapid protocol for preparation of crude drug DNA 

suitable for PCR. Biol. Ohar. Bull. 22(7):765-766. 

Rohlf, F.J. 1993. NTSYS-pc, Numerical taxonomy and multivariate analysis system, version 1.80. 

Exeter Publ., New York. 

Šuštar-Vozlič, J. and B. Javornik. 1999. Genetic relationships in cultivars of hop, Humulus lupulus L., 

determined by RAPD analysis. Plant Breeding 118:175-181.

150 

WORKING GROUP ON MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS: FIRST MEETING

PRIORITY SPECIES 151 

APPENDICES 

Appendix I. List of priority species/genera 

The Vice-Chair compiled the proposals from the Working Group members and made a 

priority list of 10 model species/genera, taking into consideration the following criteria: 

- The species must be important from the point of view of both biological and chemical 

diversity; 

- The species must be important from the point of view of medicinal plant production 

(either from cultivation and/or collection); 

- There must be some common interest in the genebank conservation of the chosen species 

for different European regions (at least 1/3 of countries for each); 

- The conservation and characterization/evaluation results achieved could be used as a 

model for the conservation of other MAP species. 

Final 10 species/genera proposed for modelling 

Species/Genus 

Number of 

Countries interested in the study 

proposals 

Achillea spp. 10 Bulgaria, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Lithuania, 

Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovenia 

Artemisia spp. 8 Bulgaria, Estonia, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Nordic Countries, 

Romania, Serbia and Montenegro 

Carum carvi 8 Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Lithuania, Nordic Countries, 

Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovenia 

Gentiana spp. 6 Italy, Lithuania, Macedonia, Poland, Serbia and Montenegro, 

Slovenia 

Hypericum spp. 9 Bulgaria, Estonia, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Macedonia, Nordic 

Countries, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro 

Melissa officinalis 8 Bulgaria, Cyprus, Hungary, Israel, Nordic Countries, Romania, 

Serbia and Montenegro, Turkey 

Mentha spp. 9 Bulgaria, Cyprus, Finland, Hungary, Israel, Nordic Countries, 

Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Turkey 

Origanum spp. 14 Bulgaria, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Israel, Italy, 

Lithuania, Macedonia, Nordic Countries, Romania, Serbia and 

Montenegro, Slovenia, Turkey 

Salvia spp. 11 Bulgaria, Cyprus, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Lithuania, Macedonia, 

Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovenia, Turkey 

Thymus spp. 12 Bulgaria, Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Lithuania, 

Macedonia, Nordic Countries, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, 

Slovenia

152 


Appendix II. Abbreviations and acronyms 

AARI 

AFLP 

ARI 

ARO 

BPGV 

BSBCP 

CBD 

CCEWNH 

CGIAR 

CHM 

CITES 

CMS 

CPGB 

CWANA 

DEFRA 

DRAAL 

DRAEDM 

ECCDB 

ECP/GR 

EPGRIS 

ESAB 

ESAC 

ESAPL 

EU 

EUFORGEN 

EURISCO 

FAO 

GC 

GC-MS 

GPA 

HPLC 

ICMAP 

IFAD 

IGB 

INIA 

INIA 

IPGR 

ISAFA 

ISF 

IUCN 

MAFF 

MAO 

Aegean Agricultural Research Institute, Menemen, İzmir, Turkey 

amplified fragment length polymorphism 

Agricultural Research Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus 

Agricultural Research Organization, Bet-Dagan, Israel 

Banco Português de Germoplasma Vegetal, Portugal 

Bulgarian/Swiss Biodiversity Conservation Programme 

Convention on Biological Diversity 

Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural 

Habitats (Bern Convention) 

Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research 

Clearing House Mechanism 

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna 

and Flora (Washington Convention) 

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 

(Bonn Convention) 

Central Plant Gene Bank of Slovenia 

Central and West and North Africa region 

Department of Food and Rural Affairs, United Kingdom 

Direcção Regional de Agricultura do Algarve, Portugal 

Direcção Regional de Agricultura de Entre Douro e Minho, Portugal 

European Central Crop Database 

European Cooperative Programme for Crop Genetic Resources Networks 

Establishment of a Plant Genetic Resources Infra-Structure 

Escola Superior Agrária de Bragança, Portugal 

Escola Superior Agrária de Coimbra, Portugal 

Escola Superior Agrária de Ponte de Lima, Portugal 

European Union 

European Forest Genetic Resources Network 

European Internet Search Catalogue 

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 

gas chromatography 

gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy 

Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of 

Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture 

High Performance Liquid Chromatography 

International Council of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 

International Fund for Agricultural Development, Rome, Italy 

Israeli Gene Bank, Bet-Dagan, Israel 

Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária, Portugal 

Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias, Spain 

Institute of Plant Genetic Resources, Sadovo, Bulgaria 

Istituto Sperimentale per l'Assestamento Forestale e per l'Alpicoltura 

(Forest and Range Management Research Institute), Villazzano, Italy 

International Seed Federation, Nyon, Switzerland 

International Union for the Conservation of Nature 

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food of Slovenia 

Ministry of Agriculture of Israel

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 153 

MAPs 

MOS 

NGB 

NGO 

NHC 

PCA 

PCR 

RAPD 

RFLP 

RICP 

SCAR 

SGGW 

SPGB 

SSR 

UC 

UNCED 

UNEP 

UNESCO 

WHO 

WRI 

WWF 

medicinal and aromatic plants 

Ministry of Science of Israel 

Nordic Gene Bank, Alnarp, Sweden 

non-governmental organization 

National Herb Centre, Banbury, United Kingdom 

principal component analysis 

polymerase chain reaction 

random Amplified Polymorphic DNA 

restriction fragment length polymorphism 

Research Institute of Crop Production, Prague–Ruzyne, Czech Republic 

sequence characterized amplified region 

Warsaw Agricultural University, Poland 

Slovenian Plant Gene Bank 

simple sequence repeats 

Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal 

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 

United Nations Environment Programme 

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris, 

France 

World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland 

World Resources Institute, Washington DC, USA 

World Wide Fund for Nature

154 


Appendix III. Agenda 

First meeting of the ECP/GR Working Group on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 

12-14 September 2002, Gozd Martuljek, Slovenia 

Wednesday 11 September 

Arrival of participants 

Welcome reception 

Thursday 12 September 

Conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) – needs and strategy 

09:00 – 09:15 Introduction 


(M. Černe, National Coordinator for ECP/GR, D. Baričevič, University of 

Ljubljana, and J. Glavač, Ministry for Food, Agriculture and Forestry of Slovenia) 

09.30 – 09:50 The role of ECP/GR and IPGRI in MAP conservation 

(E. Lipman, IPGRI) 

09.50 – 10.10 MAP conservation strategies 

(P. Skoberne, Ministry of the Environment of Slovenia) 

10:10 – 10:30 Sustainable use of MAPs and the European Plant Conservation Strategy 

(S. Honnef and S. Schmitt, WWF/TRAFFIC) 

10:30 – 11.00 Coffee Break 

11.00 – 11.30 Origin of medicinal plants in Central Europe –an ecological approach 

(E. Schneider, PhytoConsulting) 

11.30 –12.30 Country reports / short presentations 

(Reports from Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Germany, Hungary, 

Israel, Italy, Lithuania, Macedonia F.Y.R., Nordic countries, Poland, Romania, 

Slovenia, Turkey, United Kingdom, F.R. Yugoslavia) 

12:30 – 14:00 Lunch 

14.00 – 15.30 Country reports – continued 

15:30 – 16:00 Coffee break 

16.00 – 18.00 Country reports – continued 

Friday 13 September 

MAP conservation and evaluation databases 

09:00 – 09:30 The European Internet Search Catalogue, EURISCO and the EPGRIS 

project 

(E. Lipman, IPGRI) 

09:30 – 09:45 The Slovenian Gene Bank database and the National Inventory 

(V. Meglič, Agricultural Institute of Slovenia) 

09:45 – 10:15 Presentation of the MEDPLANT database (D. Baričevič, Slovenia)

AGENDA 155 


10:45 – 12:30 Discussion and workplan 

12:30 – 14:00 Lunch 

Methodological approaches in MAP conservation and evaluation 

14:00 – 14:30 Molecular tools for determining genetic variability of natural 

populations – the example of Origanum 

(B. Javornik, Biotechnical Faculty of University of Ljubljana, Slovenia) 

14:30 – 14:50 Genetic variability of native populations of oregano in Slovenia 

(J. Šuštar-Vozlič, Agricultural Institute of Slovenia) 

14:50 – 15:30 Discussion 


16:30 – 18:00 Discussion and workplan 

Saturday 14 September 

8:30 – 15:00 Excursion (visit of the Central Slovene Genebank for Plant Genetic 

Resources, Agricultural Institute, Ljubljana) 

9:00 – 15:00 Drafting of the report (only delegates involved in the drafting) 

15:00 – Lunch 

16:00 

16:00 – Presentation of the draft report and adoption of recommendations 

18:00 

Election of the Chair and Vice-Chair 

Closing remarks 

20:00 Social dinner 

Sunday 15 September 

Departure of participants

156 


Appendix IV. List of participants 

First meeting of the ECP/GR Working Group on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 

12-14 September 2002, Gozd Martuljek, Slovenia 

Chairperson 

Dea Baričevič 

Agronomy Department 

Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana 

Jamnikarjeva 101 

1000 Ljubljana 

Slovenia 

Tel: (386-1) 4231161 

Fax: (386-1) 4231088 

Email: dea.baricevic@bf.uni-lj.si 

Working Group Members 


Austrian Agency for Health and 

Food Safety Ltd. - AGES Linz 

Wieningerstrasse 8 

4021 Linz 

Austria 

Tel: (43-732) 381261/271 

Fax: (43-732) 385482 

Email: wolfgang.kainz@ages.at 


Ornamental and Medicinal Plants 

Institute of Plant Genetic Resources (IPGR) 

4122 Sadovo, Plovdiv 

Bulgaria 

Tel: (359-32) 629026 

Fax: (359-32) 270270 

Email: kanavarbanova@hotmail.com 


Department of Seed Science and Technology 

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb 

Svetošimunska 25 

11000 Zagreb 

Croatia 

Tel: (385-1) 2393935 

Fax: (385-1) 2393930 

Email: zsatovic@agr.hr 

Demetrios N. Droushiotis 

Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) 

PO Box 22016 

1516 Nicosia 

Cyprus 

Tel: (357-22) 403124 

Fax: (357-22) 316770 

Email: droushia@arinet.ari.gov.cy 

Ulve Pihlik 

Institute of Pharmacy 

Tartu University 

Raja 32 

50417 Tartu 

Estonia 

Tel: (372) 7380278 

Fax: (372) 7375289 

Email: ulve.pihlik@ut.ee 

Jenő Bernáth 

Department of Medicinal and Aromatic 

Plants 

Szent István University (SZI) 

Villányi str. 29/45 

1118 Budapest 

Hungary 

Tel: (36-1) 3726251 

Fax: (36-1) 3726330 

Email: drog@omega.kee.hu 

Eli Putievsky 

Division of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 

Agricultural Research Organization (ARO) 

The Volcani Center 

PO Box 6 

50250 Bet Dagan 

Israel 

Tel: (972-3) 9683226 

Fax: (972-3) 9665327 

Email: elip@volcani.agri.gov.il

PARTICIPANTS 157 

Carla Vender 

Forest and Range Management Research 

Institute (ISAFA) 

Piazza Nicolini 6 

38050 Villazzano (Trento) 

Italy 

Tel: (39) 0461 381120 

Fax: (39) 0461 381131 

Email: vender@isafa.it 


Institute of Botany 

Zaliuju ezeru 49 

2021 Vilnius 

Lithuania 

Tel: (370-2) 729930 

Fax: (370-2) 729950 

Email: jolita.r@ botanika.lt 

Gjoshe Stefkov 

Department of Pharmacognosy 

Faculty of Pharmacy 

Vodnjanska 17 

1000 Skopje 

Macedonia, F.Y.R. 

Tel: (38-92) 126032/126024 

Fax: (38-92) 123054 

Email: gstefkov@yahoo.com 


Representing the Nordic Countries 

Agrifood Research Finland 

Ecological Production 

Karila Karilantie 2A 

50600 Mikkeli 

Finland 

Tel: (358-15) 3212222 

Fax: (358-15) 3212210 

Email: bertalan.galambosi@mtt.fi 


Representing the Nordic Countries 

Nordic Gene Bank (NGB) 

PO Box 41 

230 53 Alnarp 

Sweden 

Tel: (46-40) 536659 

Fax: (46-40) 536650 

Email: katarina@ngb.se 

Zenon Węglarz 

Department of Vegetable and Medicinal 

Plants 

Warsaw Agricultural University 

Nowoursynowska 166 

92-787 Warsaw 

Poland 

Tel: (48-22) 8437523 

Fax: (48-22) 8437523 

Email: weglarz@alpha.sggw.waw.pl 

Danela Murariu 

(on behalf of Steluta Radu) 

Suceava Genebank 

B.dul 1 Decembrie 1918 nr. 17 

5800 Suceava 

Romania 

Tel: (40-230) 524189 

Fax: (40-230) 520116 

Email1: dmurariu@assist.ro 

Email2: genebank@assist.ro 

Zora Dajić 

Department of Botany 

Faculty of Agriculture 

Nemanjina 6 

11080 Belgrade-Zemun 

Serbia and Montenegro 

Tel: (381-11) 615315 ext. 192 

Fax: (381-11) 193659 

Email1: zorad@eunet.yu 

Email2: botany@eunet.yu 

Ali Osman Sari 

Aegean Agricultural Research Institute 

(AARI) 

PO Box 9 

35661 Menemen, Izmir 

Turkey 

Tel: (90-232) 8461331 

Fax: (90-232) 8461107 

Email1: aari@egenet.com.tr 

Email2: a_o_sari@hotmail.com 

Rosemary Cole 

The National Herb Centre 

Banbury Road 

Warmington, Warwickshire OX17 1DF 

United Kingdom 

Tel: (44-1295) 5690999 

Fax: (44-1295) 690034 

Email: rcole@herbcentre.co.uk

158 


Observers 


PhytoConsulting 

Seeblick 11 Freinberg 

84163 Marklkofen 

Germany 

Tel: (49-8734) 938214 

Fax: (49-8734) 938215 

Email: schneider.e@phyto-consulting.de 

Mihaela Černe 

PGR National Coordinator 

Španova pot 5 


Slovenia 

Tel: (386-1) 2563433 

Fax: (386-1) 2563433 

Email: mihaela.cerne@siol.net 

Janez Glavač 

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food 

Dunajska 56 


Slovenia 

Email: janez.glavac@gov.si 


Biotechnical Faculty 

University of Ljubljana 



Slovenia 

Email: branka.javornik@bf.uni-lj.si 


Crop and Seed Production Department 

Agricultural Institute of Slovenia 

Hacquetova 17 


Slovenia 

Tel: (386-1) 2805262 

Fax: (386-1) 2805255 

Email: vladimir.meglic@kis.si 

Janko Rode 

Institute of Hop Research and Brewing 

Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Collection 

Garden 

3310 Žalec 

Slovenia 

Tel: (386-63) 715 214 

Fax: (386-63) 712 163 

Email: janko.rode@guest.arnes.si 

Peter Skoberne 22 

Ministry of the Environment, Spatial 

Planning and Energy 

Environmental Agency of the Republic of 

Slovenia 

Vojkova 1 


Slovenia 

Email: peter.skoberne@gov.si 


Agricultural Institute of Slovenia 

Hacquetova 17 


Slovenia 

Tel: (386-1) 280 51 88 

Fax: (386-1) 280 52 55 

Email: jelka.vozlic @kis.si 

Anita Železnik-Kušar 





Slovenia 

Email: anita.kusar@bf.uni-lj.si 

Alenka Zupančič 





Slovenia 

Email: alenka.zupancic@bf.uni-lj.si 

22 Address at time of publication: 

Ministry of the Environment, Spatial 

Planning and Energy 

Dunajska 47 


Tel: (386) 1478 7157 

Fax: (386) 1478 7424

PARTICIPANTS 159 

Susanne F. Schmitt 

WWF-UK 

Panda House, Weyside Park 

Godalming, Surrey GU7 1XR 

United Kingdom 

Tel: (44-1483) 412553 

Fax: (44-1483) 861360 

Email: Sschmitt@wwf.org.uk 

Susanne Honnef 

Species Conservation Section 

WWF/TRAFFIC-Germany 

Rebstoecker Strasse 55 

60326 Frankfurt 

Germany 

Tel: (49-69) 79 144 212 

Fax: (49-69) 617221 

Email: honnef@wwf.de 

ECP/GR Secretariat 

Elinor Lipman 

Le Golf 2 

421, rue Croix de las Cazes 

34000 Montpellier 

France 

Tel: (33) (0) 467041303 

Fax: (33) (0) 467610334 

Email: e.lipman@cgiar.org 

Unable to attend 

Milos Nozinić 

Agricultural Institute 

Banjaluka 

Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Tel: (387) 65624458 

Fax: (387) 51214672 

Email: mmarkovic@blic.net 

Karel Dušek 

Research Institute of Crop Production 

(RICP) 

Genebank Olomouc 

Šlechtitelů 11 

783 71 Olomouc-Holice 

Czech Republic 

Tel: (420) 585 209963 

Fax: (420) 585 209969 

Email: dusek@genobanka.cz 

Bernard Pasquier 

Conservatoire national des plantes 

médicinales, aromatiques et industrielles 

(CNPMAI) 

Route de Nemours 

91490 Millly-la-Forêt 

France 

Tel: (33) (0) 164988377 

Fax: (33) (0) 164988863 

Email: cnpmai@wanadoo.fr 

Karl Hammer 

Fachbereich 11, Fachgebiet Agrarbiodiv. 

Universität Gesamthochschule Kassel 

Steinstrasse 11 

37213 Witzenhausen 

Germany 

Tel: (49-5542) 981214 

Fax: (49-5542) 981213 

Email: khammer@wiz.uni-kassel.de 

Apostolos Goliaris 

Agricultural Research Centre of Makedonia 

and Thraki 

Department of Aromatic and Medicinal 

Plants 

570 01 Thermi, Thessaloniki 

Greece 

Tel: (30-31) 471544 

Fax: (30-31) 471209 

Email: kgeggb@otenet.gr 


Institute of Agriculture 

University of Malta 

Msida MSD 06 

Malta 

Tel: (356) 23402323 

Email: everaldo.attard@um.edu.mt 


Banco Português de Germoplasma Vegetal 

(BPGV) 

DRAEDM 

Quinta de S. José - S. Pedro de Merelim 

4700 Braga 

Portugal 

Tel: (351-253) 621711 

Fax: (351-253) 625101 

Email: bpgv@draedm.min-agricultura.pt

160 


Federico Varela 

Centro de Recursos Fitogenéticos, INIA 

Apdo. 1045 

28800 Alcalá de Henares 

Spain 

Tel: (34-91) 8819286 

Fax: (34-91) 8819287 

Email: varela@inia.es 

Steluta Radu 

Research Station for Medicinal and 

Aromatic Plants 

Bul-dul 22 Decembrie nr.1 

8264 Fundulea 

Romania 

Tel: (40-21) 3153551 

Fax: (40-21) 3153551 

Lorenzo Maggioni 

ECP/GR Coordinator 

Regional Office for Europe 

International Plant Genetic Resources 

Institute (IPGRI) 

Via dei Tre Denari 472/a 

00057 Maccarese (Fiumicino) 

Italy 

Tel: (39) 06 6118231 

Fax: (39) 06 61979661 

Email: l.maggioni@cgiar.org 

WG Members nominated after the 

meeting 

Lufter Xhuveli 

Republic of Albania Council of Ministers 

Blvd. Deshmoyet e Rambit 

Tirana 

Albania 

Tel: (355-42) 28423 

Fax: (355-4) 270628 

Email: lxhuveli@europe.com 

Ashot Charchoglyan 

Institute of Botany 

National Academy of Sciences 

Str. Avan 63 

375063 Yerevan, Avan 

Armenia 

Email: tamsar@sci.am 

Tel: (374-1) 614440/621781 

Melpo Skoula 

MEDUSA Network 

Department of Natural Products 

Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of 

Chania 

Alsyllion Agrokepion 

PO Box 85 

73100 Chania 

Greece 

Tel: (30-8210) 81151 ext. 552 

Fax: (30-8210) 81154 

Email: melpo@maich.gr

INDEX OF AUTHORS 161 

INDEX OF AUTHORS 

Attard, E.......................................................85 

Baričevič, D................................................114 

Bernáth, J......................................................46 

Cole, R. .......................................................128 

Cristóbal Cabau, R....................................118 

Dajić, Z. ......................................................130 

Della, A. .......................................................39 

Droushiotis, D. ............................................39 

Dušek, K.......................................................42 

Farias, R.M.................................................106 

Fusani, P.......................................................63 

Galambosi, B. ..............................................91 

Geszprych, A...............................................96 

Ginkel, A. van ...........................................118 

Honnef, S. ....................................................19 

Javornik, B. ................................................146 

Kainz, W. .....................................................25 

Kulevanova, S. ............................................82 

Meglič, V....................................................143 

Milica, C. ....................................................109 

Murariu, D.................................................109 

Németh, E. ...................................................46 

Oguz, B.......................................................121 

Pihlik, U. ......................................................44 

Putievsky, E.................................................57 

Radu, S. ......................................................109 

Radušienė, J. ................................................73 

Rode, J. .......................................................114 

Sari, A.O.....................................................121 

Šatović, Z. ....................................................34 

Schmitt, S. ....................................................19 

Schneider, E.................................................21 

Skoberne, P. .................................................14 

Stefkov, G.....................................................82 

Strajeru, S...................................................109 

Šuštar-Vozlič, J. .........................................147 

Varbanova, K...............................................27 

Varela, F. ....................................................118 

Vender, C.....................................................63 

Wedelsbäck Bladh, K. ................................88 

Węglarz, Z. ..................................................96 

Železnik-Kušar, A.....................................114 

Zukauska, I..................................................70 

Zupančič, A. ..............................................114

ISBN 92-9043-633-6 

Cover photos: courtesy of © F. Branca, DOFATA, University of Catania, Italy

Status of medicinal and aromatic plants in - Inia

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