the vegetation types and veld condition - Maremani Nature Reserve

Prepared by: 

Ekotrust CC 

THE VEGETATION TYPES AND VELD CONDITION 

Dr Noel van Rooyen 

272 Thatchers Fields 

Lynnwood 0081 

Tel/Fax (012) 348 9043 

Cell 082 7077541 

E-mail: gvrooyen@icon.co.za 

of 

Maremani 

August 2002

CONTENTS 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................. 1 

TERMS OF REFERENCE ............................................................................................................................ 3 

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 4 

CHAPTER 2: THE STUDY AREA................................................................................................................. 6 

CHAPTER 3: METHODS.............................................................................................................................. 9 

CHAPTER 4: VEGETATION....................................................................................................................... 11 

CHAPTER 5: VEGETATION STRUCTURE ............................................................................................... 34 

CHAPTER 6: VELD CONDITION AND GRAZING CAPACITY.................................................................. 36 

CHAPTER 7: GAME ................................................................................................................................... 47 

CHAPTER 8: MANAGEMENT .................................................................................................................... 48 

CHAPTER 9: MONITORING....................................................................................................................... 52 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................... 55 

REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................ 56 

APPENDIX A: PLANT SPECIES LIST........................................................................................................ 58

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

The aim of this project was to classify, describe and map the vegetation types, assess the veld condition 

and determine the economic carrying capacity for grazer and browser wildlife of Maremani. 

Maremani is situated in the Limpopo Province, east of Messina, between approximately 22Ε 18' and 22Ε 

32' South, and 30Ε 13' and 30Ε 25' East. The reserve covers approximately 36583 ha. The area is 

characterised by plains, undulating and gravelly hills, rocky outcrops, higher mountain ranges, and rivers 

and streams. The altitude varies from approximately 427 m along the Limpopo River to 833 m at Mount 

Ga-Dowe on the farm Palm Grove. 

The mean annual rainfall for the Maremani area varies from 331 mm at Messina in the west to342 mm at 

Tshipise in the south. The rainy season is predominantly from October to March with about 85% of the 

mean annual rainfall occurring during these months. The driest months are from June to August. The 

mean annual temperature measured at Messina is 23.4ΕC while the extreme maximum and minimum 

temperatures measured at Messina are 43.8ΕC and 2.7ΕC respectively. The area is regarded as frost 

free. 

Stereo aerial photographs were used to stratify the area into relatively homogeneous units on the basis of 

physiography and vegetation cover, at a scale of 1: 50 000. The vegetation survey consisted of recording 

all identifiable plant species and allocating a percentage cover value to each species. The density 

(individuals per ha) of the tree and shrub layers was determined by counting individuals in a number of 

quadrats. A point survey of the grass layer was made to determine the frequency of grass species to 

calculate veld condition and the economic carrying capacity. The disc pasture meter was used to 

determine the amount of grass biomass. 

A classification of vegetation data was done with the TURBOVEG and MEGATAB computer programmes. 

Seventeen plant communities were distinguished on Maremani and the description of the plant 

communities is accompanied by a vegetation map at a scale of 1: 50 000. The percentage canopy cover, 

density and height of the different growth forms were used to determine the structure of each plant 

community. 

The veld condition and economic carrying capacity of the plant communities were assessed and the 

present economic carrying capacity for the entire area is calculated as 39.2 ha/LAU. Other methods were 

also used to determine the carrying capacity of the area, i.e. the Veld condition/rainfall method (40.7 

ha/LAU); Phytomass method (48 ha/LAU); Rainfall method (25.7 ha/LAU); the LAU/BU method 

(Snyman)(36.8 ha/LAU for grazers and 9.2 BU/100 ha (browsers). The recommended carrying capacity 

according to the LAU/BU method is 41.4 ha/LAU for grazers and 8 BU/100 ha(browsers). 

1

The present low grass biomass and poor species composition indicate veld that is not suitable for high 

numbers of high-selective grazer species. 

Game species that historically occurred in the area are Black Rhinoceros, Blue Wildebeest, Bushbuck, 

Bushpig, Buffalo, Duiker, Eland, Giraffe, Grey Rhebuck, Hippopotamus, Impala, Klipspringer, Kudu, 

Ostrich, Reedbuck, Steenbok, Roan antelope, Sable antelope, Tsessebe, Warthog, Waterbuck, White 

Rhinoceros and Zebra. Species occurring on Maremani that were not historically from that area include 

Blesbok, Gemsbok and Red Hartebeest. Provision is made for 9% low-selective or bulk feeders (grazers), 

13% high selective grazers, 38% mixed grazers/browsers and 40% browsers. The low percentage of 

grazers is due to the poor condition of the grass layer and at this stage the area is more suitable for 

mixed feeders and browsers. 

Monitoring is an important aspect of veld management. Aspects that should be monitored routinely are 

rainfall, game numbers, game mortalities, game distribution, herd composition and birth rates. Other 

aspects that are necessary to monitor include the veld condition in terms of plant species composition, 

species frequency, density and/or cover; carrying capacity; the effects of water provision on veld condition 

and animal movements; the effects of bush encroachment; bush control; veld reclamation measures such 

as soil erosion control; and the effects of browsing on indicator plant species e.g. Baobab (Adansonia 

digitata), Shepherd’s tree (Boscia albitrunca), Common star chestnut (Sterculia rogersii), Sesame bush 

(Sesamothamnus lugardii), Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) and Corkwood species (Commiphora species). 

Approximately 71 tree species, 92 shrub species, 76 grass species, 7 sedge species, 9 geophytes, 30 

succulents, 6 parasites, 2 palm species, 2 fern species, 290 forb species and 14 alien species are listed, 

representing a total of 599 plant species. 

2

The assignment is interpreted as follows: 

TERMS OF REFERENCE 

Classify, describe and map the vegetation types, assess the veld condition and determine the ecological 

capacity of suitable grazer and browser game species for the area. 

1. Initial preparation 

Obtain all relevant maps (topocadastral, geology, land types), stereo aerial photographs, climatic data 

(rainfall and temperature), as well as information on the infrastructure and natural environment of the area 

concerned. Stratification of the area into relatively homogeneous units on aerial photographs, by using a 

stereoscope, on the basis of physiography and vegetation cover. 

1. Vegetation and habitat survey 

Survey the stratified units and record all identifiable plant species, as well as habitat features, e.g. 

geology, topography, aspect, slope and rock cover. Classify the data by means of the TURBOVEG and 

MEGATAB computer programs and describe and map the different plant communities. Identify alien 

species and possible encroacher/invasive plant species. 

Determine the structure of the plant communities in terms of canopy cover and density for different strata. 

Quantitatively survey the grass species composition to assess veld condition to calculate the economic 

carrying capacity of each plant community. Determine the aboveground grass biomass was determined. 

Identify and map management units based on vegetation types, environmental features, rivers and the 

present road network. Compile a checklist of the plant species of the area. 

2. Economic carrying capacity for game 

Determine the grazing and browsing capacity for the area under long-term average rainfall conditions. 

Calculate the stocking rate based on present game numbers. Recommend game numbers and ratios of 

grazers and browsers for the area, based on present veld condition and economic capacity. 

Identify ecologically sensitive areas and/or problem areas in need of special management, e.g. bush 

encroached, eroded and degraded areas. 

3. Monitoring and recommodations 

Recommend aspects of the vegetation that should be managed and monitored. 

3

CHAPTER 2 

INTRODUCTION 

During the last decade or two, wildlife management has developed into a complicated and sophisticated, 

scientifically based enterprise. In practice the management of these enterprises is often not based on 

ecological principles, resulting in the deterioration of the environment, and consequently in the loss of 

valuable natural assets and also the loss of the potential productivity of the veld. This does not only have 

economic consequences, but from a conservation viewpoint, the biological diversity of the natural 

ecosystem is influenced. To enable the assessment of veld condition and economic carrying capacity, an 

ecological evaluation of the area is necessary. 

Vegetation is probably the single-most influential characteristic of the environment that can reveal many 

pieces of vital information on various aspects of an area under observation. Not only is vegetation a large 

contributor when assessing environments in terms of mineral wealth and current health status, it is one of 

the largest role players when it comes to rectifying and rehabilitating lost and damaged habitats. 

Plant communities and their associated habitats form the basis of scientifically based environmental and 

veld management plans. Each plant community has a certain characteristic plant species composition, 

that is mainly a result of the specific environmental composition of its habitat (climate, geology, rock 

cover, topography, soil types, drainage, water regime, etc.). The habitat also influences the distribution 

and structure of plant communities. However, plant communities may also be affected by the utilization 

history of the area. The specific potential of each plant community, with regard to habitat type for animals, 

grazing and browsing capacity and resilience to utilization and drought, is a direct result of the combined 

influence of environmental factors and past management. Consequently each plant community will react 

differently to certain vegetation management practices, for example grazing pressure, fire and utilization 

by man. Certain plant communities will show signs of deterioration sooner, under a particular 

management regime. The soils of certain plant communities are also more susceptible to erosion. 

All components of the Maremani ecosystems (physical environment, vegetation, animals) are interrelated 

and interdependent. A holistic approach is therefore imperative to conserve and utilize the given natural 

resources effectively. Ideally the area should be managed to be self-sustaining, while the quality and 

diversity of the resources should not be allowed to decrease, as this would inevitably lead to ecosystem 

degradation and lower productivity. 

The objectives of a vegetation survey and veld management plan for Maremani are therefore to: 

5

! identify, describe and map the different plant communities; 

! contribute to the conservation of the habitats (ecosystems) of the area; 

! assess veld condition and economic carrying capacity; 

! stock the area with suitable game according to its economic carrying capacity; 

! increase the value of the land; and 

! contribute to the sustainable utilization of the area. 

6

Location 

CHAPTER 2 

STUDY AREA 

Maremani is situated in the Limpopo Province, east of Messina, between approximately 22Ε 18' and 22Ε 

32' South, and 30Ε 13' and 30Ε 25' East. The study area covers approximately 36583 ha. 

Terrain morphology 

The terrain morphology of the area is described by Kruger (1983) as very irregular plains and low hills 

with a relief from 30 m to 210 m, while more than 80% of the slopes has a slope of less than 5%. The 

area is characterised by plains, undulating and rocky hills, rocky outcrops, higher mountain ranges, rivers 

and seasonal streams. The altitude varies from approximately 427 m along the Limpopo River to 833 m at 

Mount Ga-Dowe on the farm Palm Grove. The altitude on the southern border of the farm Solitude is 

about 488 m (Topocadastral maps at scale of 1: 50 000: 2230AA & AC Messina; 2230AD Esmefour; 

2230 Gaandrik; Government Printer, Pretoria). 

Geology 

Broadly the geology (lithology) of the study area from north-west to south-east includes: 

! gneiss and quartzite with gabbro in between; 

! calc-silicate rocks and gneiss; 

! basalt; 

! sandstone; 

! siltstone; 

! shale and mudstone; 

! dolerite; and 

! sandstone and grit. 

Alluvium is found along the rivers and streams (see 2230 Messina, 1: 250 000 Geological Series map, 

Government Printer, Pretoria). 

7

Land Types and soils 

Nine land types have been described and mapped for the area. These are: Land types Ib314, Ah88, 

Ah89, Ah91, Fc482, Fc483, Fc484, Ae265 and Ae266. 

The Ib314 land type is described as ‘rocky areas with miscellaneous soils’ and covers part of the hilly 

areas in the north. Soils are derived from gneiss and quartzite. 

The Ah88 land type has reddish sandy clay loam soils derived from dolerite, with a high clay content. The 

Ah89 land type is characterised by reddish loamy sand to sandy loam derived from gneiss, and the Ah91 

land type has red and yellow loamy sand derived from shale, mudstone and siltstone, with a clay content 

of less than 15%. 

In the Fc land types calcrete and calcareous soils are present. The Fc482 land type is characterised by 

loamy sand derived from sandstone, calc-silicate and quartzite, the Fc483 land type has sandy loam soils 

derived from gneiss, and the Fc484 land type has loam sandy soils derived from gneiss and quartzite. 

The Ae265 land type consists of reddish sandy loam to sandy clay loam soils derived from basalt. The 

soils are usually deeper than 300 mm. Within the Ae266 land type reddish sandy loam soils, derived 

from gneiss, are found. 

Soils derived from gneiss, quartzite and sandstone are usually leached and have a low nutrient content 

whereas soils derived from shale, siltstone, mudstone, dolerite and basalt are usually more clayey and 

have a higher nutrient content and water-holding capacity. 

Silty and clayey alluvial soils occur on flood plains along the Limpopo and Njelele Rivers as well as along 

streams and in the wetland of the Mutanga River in the south of the farm Solitude. 

Climate 

The mean annual rainfall for the Maremani area varies from 331 mm at Messina in the west to 342 mm at 

Tshipise in the south (Tables 1 & 2; Erasmus 1987; Weather Bureau 1988). The rainy season is 

predominantly from October to March, with approximately 85% of the mean annual rainfall occurring 

during these months. The driest months are from June to August (Table 1 and Figure 1). The maximum 

rainfall measured in 24 hours was 167 mm (Table 3). Evaporation is much higher than the annual rainfall. 

8

Rainfall is the primary driving force influencing productivity of the vegetation, therefore the economic 

carrying capacity for the area was calculated at a mean annual rainfall of 340 mm. After prolonged 

drought the area can become totally unsuitable for animal production (especially for grazers) and 

appropriate measures should be taken to avoid animal losses, e.g. reducing animal numbers and 

supplementary feeding. 

The mean annual temperature for the region is 23.4ΕC (Table 4). The mean daily maximum for 

December is 32.3ΕC and for July 26.6ΕC. The mean daily minimum for December is 21.1ΕC and for June 

10.6ΕC. The extreme maximum and minimum temperature measured at Messina over a period of 43 

years were 43.8ΕC and 2.7ΕC respectively (Table 4). The area is regarded as frost free. 

The mean percentage relative humidity for the area is given in Table 5. 

9

Approach 

CHAPTER 3 

METHODS 

Stereo aerial photographs were provided by the client. For proper and efficient surveying, an ecological 

stratification of 1: 50 000 scale aerial photographs on the basis of terrain morphology and vegetation 

cover should be made beforehand. This stratification is used to determine the position and number of 

sample plots, and is the basis for identifying habitat types. 

Vegetation surveys 

An assessment of the habitat, e.g. dominant plant species, topography, geology, rocky outcrops and rock 

cover, soil texture, soil depth, slope and aspect, and a visual assessment of veld condition were made at 

each sampling plot. 

The vegetation survey consisted of recording all identifiable trees, shrubs, grasses, sedges, ferns, forbs, 

geophytes, succulents, palms and alien (exotic) plants within each sample plot. Forbs are herbaceous 

plants not considered as grasses. Each species was allocated a percentage cover value which is required 

for the classification and description of the plant communities. 

An estimate of the total vegetation cover (%) was given for different strata: trees above 6 m, from 3 m to 6 

m, shrubs below 3 m, as well as the herbaceous layer (grasses and forbs). The density (individuals per 

ha) of the tree and shrub layers was determined by counting individuals in several quadrats. The average 

height of the different strata was estimated as well as the maximum height of the large trees. 

Where possible, a point survey of the grass layer was made to determine the frequency (%) of grass 

species which is an indication of the dominance or importance of the species. The information was used 

to calculate veld condition and the economic carrying capacity of each plant community. 

The disc pasture meter was used, where possible, to determine the amount of grass biomass (fuel load). 

The rocky outcrops were excluded from measurements with the disc pasture meter. 

10

Data analyses 

A classification of the vegetation data was done with the TURBOVEG and MEGATAB computer 

programmes (see Table 6). The description of plant communities includes the high tree, tree, shrub, 

grass and forb (herbaceous) layers. The plant species recorded for the quarter degree grids that include 

Maremani were obtained from the PRECIS data bank of the National Herbarium at the National Botanical 

Institute, Pretoria. All species recorded in the sample plots are listed in Table 6 and in Appendix A. The 

description of the plant communities is accompanied by a vegetation map at a scale of 1: 50 000 (Figure 

2). 

Vegetation structure in terms of canopy cover, density and height of the woody species are given in 

Tables 7, 8 & 9 and Figures 3 to 7. The phytomass production of the different vegetation types is given in 

Table 10. 

The subdivision of the area into larger units (zones or management units) is based on floristically related 

vegetation types, but geology, topography, existing roads and rivers were also taken into account to 

produce relatively homogeneous and practical units (Figure 8). 

The economic carrying capacity of each vegetation unit was determined with the Ecological Index 

Method. This incorporates the classification of species into ecological groups. These groups e.g. 

Decreasers and Increasers 1, 2a, 2b and 2c, are based on the reaction of the species to grazing 

pressure, its palatability, biomass production and preference by herbivores. 

Other methods to determine the economic carrying capacity for wildlife on game ranches were used and 

the values obtained compared with the Ecological Index method e.g. the Combined veld condition and 

rainfall method (Danckwerts 1989); the Herbaceous Phytomass method (Moore & Odendaal 1987); the 

Rainfall method (Coe, Cumming & Philllipson 1976); and the Graze/ Browse Unit method (Snyman 1991; 

Dekker 1996; 1997). 

The economic carrying capacity, game numbers obtained from recent (2001) counts, and recommended 

numbers of species are given in Tables 12 to 15. Game that historically occurred in the area, are listed 

(see Chapter 10) and the ratio of suitable species in terms of low and high selective grazers, mixed 

feeders and browsers, are given in Tables 12 & 15. 

11

CHAPTER 4 

VEGETATION 

The area was described and mapped by Acocks (1988) as Mopane Veld (veld dominated by 

Colophospermum mopane), while Low & Rebelo (1998) classified the area as Mopane Bushveld. 

According to their estimate about 38% of the Mopane Bushveld is conserved, mainly in the northern 

Kruger National Park (Low & Rebelo 1998). 

Differences in topography, geology, rockiness, drainage, soil texture and depth, slope, the presence of 

calcrete and previous land-use have resulted in differences in vegetation. Each vegetation unit therefore 

represents a different ecosystem, with its own set of habitat conditions and plant species composition. 

The area is arid and relies on rainfall events for fodder production to sustain the animals. Supplementary 

feeding is sometimes needed to prevent severe loss of condition or mortalities among animals. 

Seventeen plant communities were distinguished on Maremani (Table 6) and mapped as such 

(Figure 2). 

These 17 plant communities on Maremani can be grouped into six main vegetation types: 

A. Rocky outcrops with the Small-leaved rock fig (Ficus tettensis), Large-leaved rock fig 

(Ficus abutilifolia), Paperbark corkwood (Commiphora marlothii) and Mountain grass 

(Danthoniopsis dinteri) the conspicuous species (communities 1, 2 and 3); 

B. Mopane veld on gneiss and quartzite dominated by Mopane (Colophospermum 

mopane), Lowveld cluster-leaf (Terminalia prunioides), White syringa (Kirkia 

acuminata), Red bushwillow (Combretum apiculatum), Resin gardenia (Gardenia 

resiniflua,) and Mountain grass (Danthoniopsis dinteri)(communities 4, 5, 6, 7 & 8). 

This broad vegetation type is further divided into two subtypes based on environmental 

features: 

! Mopane bushveld on undulating low rocky hills and gravelly slopes on 

12

shallow soils derived from gneiss and quartzite (community 4, Table 6), with Mopane 

(Colophospermum mopane), Red bushwillow (Combretum apiculatum), Jacket-plum 

(Pappea capensis), Stunted plane (Ochna inermis), White-stem corkwood 

(Commiphora tenuipetiolata), Xerophyta viscosa and Mountain grass 

(Danthoniopsis dinteri) the diagnostic species. 

! Mopane woodland on plains with moderately deep, to deep soils derived 

from gneiss and quartzite, and a low rock cover (communities 5, 6, 7 & 8, Table 6). Tall 

trees of Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), White syringa (Kirkia acuminata) and 

Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) are prominent. Other abundant trees include Red 

bushwillow (Combretum apiculatum), Velvet corkwood (Commiphora mollis), 

Common star chestnut (Sterculia rogersii), Blue-thorn (Acacia erubescens), Silver 

raisin (Grewia monticola) and False marula (Lannea schweinfurthii). 

C. Low Mopane bushveld and thickets on calcrete, shale and basalt dominated by 

Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), Stink shepherd’s tree (Boscia foetida), Mopane 

pomegranate (Rhigozum zambesiacum), Trumpet thorn (Catophractes alexandri), 

Transvaal sesame bush (Sesamothamnus lugardii), Narrow-leaved mustard tree 

(Salvadora australis), the grasses Tetrapogon tenellus and Thimble grass 

(Fingerhuthia africana) and the forb Monechma divaricatum (communities 9, 10 and 

11). 

D. Species-poor Mopane thickets and forests in lowlands and along watercourses, where 

Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), Lowveld cluster-leaf (Terminalia prunioides) 

and Shepherd’s tree (Boscia albitrunca) are the dominant species (communities 11, 12 

and 13). 

E. Disturbed areas (overgrazed veld, old fields, watering points and kraals) where Umbrella 

thorn (Acacia tortilis) and Sickle bush (Dichrostachys cinerea) are the dominant 

species (community 14); and 

F. Riverine communities on alluvial floodplains, with Leadwood (Combretum imberbe), 

Apple-leaf (Philenoptera violacea), Nyala tree (Xanthocercis zambesiaca), Ilala palm 

(Hyphaene coriacea) and Cyperus sexangularis the dominant species (communities 15, 

16 and 17) (Table 6 and Figure 2). 

The following plant communities were distinguished: 

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1. Croton gratissimus - Danthoniopsis dinteri rocky outcrops 

(Lavender feverberry - Mountain grass rocky outcrops) 

1.1 Entandrophragma caudatum - Portulacaria afra mountain bushveld 

(Mountain mahogany - Porkbush mountain bushveld) 

2. Androstachys johnsonii - Terminalia sericea sandstone hills 

(Lebombo iron wood - Silver cluster-leaf sandstone hills) 

3. Combretum apiculatum - Danthoniopsis dinteri - Tricholaena monachne rocky outcrops 

(Red bushwillow - Mountain grass - Blue-seed grass rocky outcrops) 

4. Colophospermum mopane - Xerophyta viscosa open to dense bushveld on low hills and rocky 

outcrops 

(Mopane - Xerophyta viscosa open to dense bushveld and low hills and rocky outcrops) 

5. Colophospermum mopane - Terminalia prunioides - Psiadia punctulata bushveld 

(Mopane - Lowveld cluster-leaf - Psiadia bushveld 

6. Sclerocarya birrea - Aristida stipitata - Eragrostis lehmanniana open grass and bushveld 

(Marula - Long-awned three-awn - Lehmann’s love grass open grass and bushveld) 

7. Colophospermum mopane - Kirkia acuminata - Acacia erubescens plains bushveld and woodland 

(Mopane - White syringa - Blue thorn plains bushveld and woodland) 

8. Colophospermum mopane - Boscia albitrunca - Terminalia prunioides open to dense bushveld on 

plains and low rocky hills 

(Mopane - Shepherd’s tree - Lowveld cluster-leaf open to dense bushveld on plains and low rocky 

hills) 

9. Colophospermum mopane - Catophractes alexandri - Vernonia cinarescens low and dense 

bushveld 

(Mopane - Trumpet thorn - Vernonia low and dense bushveld) 

10. Colophospermum mopane - Sesamothamnus lugardii - Acacia tortilis open to dense low bushveld 

(Mopane - Transvaal sesame bush - Umbrella thorn open to dense low bushveld) 

11. Colophospermum mopane - Gardenia resiniflua - Tetrapogon tenellus low thicket 

(Mopane - Resin gardenia - Tetrapogon low thicket) 

12. Colophospermum mopane - Aristida adscensionis bushveld 

(Mopane - Nine-awned grass bushveld 

13. Colophospermum mopane - Acacia tortilis - Eragrostis lehmanniana low dense bushveld 

(Mopane - Umbrella thorn - Lehmann’s love grass low dense bushveld) 

14. Acacia tortilis - Eragrostis lehmanniana old fields 

(Umbrella thorn - Lehmann’s love grass old fields) 

14

15. Pechuel-loeschia leubnitziae - Urochloa mosambicensis open grassland to dense bushveld 

(Wild sage - Common signal grass open grassland to dense bushveld) 

16. Combretum imberbe - Philenoptera violacea stream community 

(Leadwood - Apple-leaf stream community) 

17. Xanthocercis zambeziaca - Acacia robusta - Cyperus sexangularis riparian community 

(Nyala tree - Brack thorn - Cyperus riparian community) 

Description of the plant communities: 

1. Croton gratissimus - Danthoniopsis dinteri rocky outcrops 

(Lavender feverberry - Mountain grass rocky outcrops) 

This community occurs scattered on sandstone, dolerite and gneiss rocky outcrops in the 

Steenbokrandjes and Palm Grove area and in the east and south on Frampton, Skirbeek, Dawn, Solitude 

and Bosbokpoort, and covers approximately 936 ha (Figure 2). It occurs on shallow red to brown sandy 

loam soils with a rock cover of 60% to 100%. 

The diagnostic species are the Lavender feverberry (Croton gratissimus), Cork bush (Mundulea sericea) 

and Natal guarri (Euclea natalensis) (species group 1, Table 6). 

High trees (>6 m) have an average canopy cover of 2% and are characterised by the Shepherd’s tree 

(Boscia albitrunca), Paperbark corkwood (Commiphora marlothii), White syringa (Kirkia acuminata), 

Mountain False-thorn (Albizia brevifolia) and Small-leaved rock fig (Ficus tettensis). 

Trees cover on average 5% of the area and the dominant species are the Lavender fever-berry (Croton 

gratissimus), Red bushwillow (Combretum apiculatum), Large-leaved rock fig (Ficus abutilifolia), 

Sjambokpod (Cassia abbreviata) and the Lowveld milkberry (Manilkara mochisia). 

Shrubs cover on average 20% of the area and are characterised by the Corkbush (Mundulea sericea), 

Natal guarri (Euclea natatensis), and Knobbly creeper (Combretum mossambicense). 

The grass layer covers on average 40% of the area. Grass species such as Mountain grass 

(Danthoniopsis dinteri), Finger grass (Digitaria eriantha), Sand quick (Schmidtia pappophoroides), and 

Blue-seed grass (Tricholaena monachne) are locally abundant. 

15

Herbaceous species in this community cover 5% of the area, with Barleria affinis a prominent perennial 

species. 

1.1 Entandrophragma caudatum - Portulacaria afra mountain bushveld 

(Mountain mahogany - Porkbush mountain bushveld) 

This community occurs on gneiss and quartzitic mountains in the north of Maremani. The vegetation on 

these high mountains of Palm Grove and Malalahoek e.g. Ga-Dowe, differ floristically from the other hills 

and rocky outcrops on Maremani due to the presence of diagnostic species such as Mountain mahogany 

(Entandrophragma caudatum), Porkbush (Portulacaria afra), Wild apricot (Ancylobotrys capensis) and 

Aloe globuligemma. This community covers approximately 381 ha. 



This community occurs mainly on the rocky sandstone ridge in the south-eastern parts of Maremani and 

covers approximately 491 ha (Figure 2). It forms the southern border of the farms Dawn, Frampton and 

Skirbeek, and the northern border of Solitude. It occurs on shallow to deep red-brown loamy sand with a 

rock cover varying from 50 to 100%. 

Some of the diagnostic species are the Lebombo iron wood (Androstachys johnsonii), Silver cluster-leaf 

(Terminalia sericea), Herringbone grass (Pogonarthria squarrosa), the grass Digitaria milanjiana and the 

sedge Coleochloa pallidior (see species group 2, Table 6). 

High trees (>6 m) have an average canopy cover of 1% and are characterised by Mountain false-thorn 

(Albizia brevifolia), Propeller tree (Gyrocarpus americanus), Shepherd’s tree (Boscia albitrunca) and the 

Lowveld milk berry (Manilkara mochisia). 

Trees (>3 - 6 m) cover on average 13% of the area and the dominant species are the Lebombo iron wood 

(Androstachys johnsonii), Silver cluster-leaf (Terminalia sericea), Small-leaved rock fig (Ficus tettensis) 

and Paperbark corkwood (Commiphora marlothii). 

Shrub species (

pseudopulchellus), Shakama plum (Hexalobus monopetalus) and the Large-leaved rock fig (Ficus 

abutilifolia). 

The grass layer is well developed and covers on average 85% of the area. The dominant grass species 

and their percentage frequency are: 

Lehmann’s love grass (Eragrostis lehmanniana) 74% 

Herringbone grass (Pogonarthria squarrosa) 14% 

Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) 10% 

Annual three-awn (Aristida adscensionis) 2% 

Other conspicuous grass species are Aristida transvaalensis, Danthoniopsis dinteri, Tricholaena 

monachne and Digitaria milanjiana. 

Herbaceous forb, fern and sedge species in this sub-community cover 5% of the area and include 

Tephrosia villosa, Coleochloa pallidior and Pellaea calomelanos. 

An interesting feature found in the Tshipise sandstone ridges to the south of Dawn, Frampton and 

Skirbeek are the round or oval-shaped hollows on the rocky summits. These hollows are usually one to 

three metres in diameter and more or less 1 metre deep. They resemble potholes and were probably 

created by water and wind erosion. These ‘rock tanks’ or pools accumulate some soil at the bottom where 

plants become established. During the rainy season the hollows are filled with water and the plant 

species have to complete their life cycle before the pools dry up during winter. Some species are 

submerged, e.g. bladder wort (Utricularia stellaris) and ‘babergras’ (Lagarosiphon crispus); floating 

species are duck weed (Lemna species), rooted and floating species are the water lily (Nymphaea 

caerulea) and Aponogeton junceus; and in the moist soil on the edges, sedge species (Cyperus spp.) as 

well as water clover (Marsilea ephippiocarpa), Kyllinga alba and the grass Eragrostis tenella are found. 

When the hollows dry out these plants survive as seed, spores or rhizomes until the next rainy season. 



This community occurs widespread on mostly isolated gneiss and quartzite rocky outcrops and the crests 

of ridges (Figure 2). It covers approximately 763 ha (Figure 2) and occurs on shallow and gravelly red- 

brown loamy sand to sandy loam soils with a rock cover varying from 40% to 100%. Slopes vary from 8 to 

15°. The vegetation composition occurring on the white and black rocky outcrops is very similar. 

17

The diagnostic species are the Carrot tree (Steganotaenia araliaceae), Spear grass (Heteropogon 

contortus) and Abutilon pycnodon (species group 4, Table 6). 

High trees (>6 m) have an average canopy cover of 3% and are characterised by the Small-leaved rock 

fig (Ficus tettensis), Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), White syringa (Kirkia acuminata), Shepherd’s 

tree (Boscia albitrunca), Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) and Boabab (Adansonia digitata). 

Trees (>3 - 6 m) cover on average 14% of the area and the dominant species are the Large-leaved rock 

fig (Ficus abutilifolia), Red bushwillow (Combretum apiculatum), Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), 

Lowveld cluster-leaf (Terminalia prunioides), Common star chestnut (Sterculia rogersii) and the Giant 

raisin (Grewia hexamita). 

Shrubs (

ocky outcrops 


This community occurs on the rocky crests and slopes of the lower hills and ridges in the northern part of 

Maremani, north-west of the Malaladrif road and covers approximately 1398 ha (Figure 2). The slopes 

vary from 5 to 20Ε. It occurs on a shallow and gravelly red to brown sandy loam soil derived from gneiss 

and quartzite with a rock cover varying from 20% against the lower slopes to 80% on the crests of the low 

hills. 

Locally the vegetation resembles a woodland with high trees of White syringa (Kirkia acuminata) and 

Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) the prominent species. Small knobwood (Zanthoxylum capense), Mountain 

grass (Danthoniopsis dinteri) and Blue-seed grass (Tricholaena monachne) are also conspicuous 

species. 

The diagnostic species are Jacket-plum (Pappea capensis), Xerophyta viscosa and Hippocratea 

africana (species group 6, Table 6). 

High trees (>6 m) have an average canopy cover of 6% and are characterised by White syringa (Kirkia 

acuminata), Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), Marula (Sclerocarya birrea), Shepherd’s tree (Boscia 

albitrunca) and Knobthorn (Acacia nigrescens). 

Trees (>3 m - 6 m) cover on average 10% of the area and the dominant species are Mopane 

(Colophospermum mopane), Red bushwillow (Combretum apiculatum), Lowveld cluster-leaf (Terminalia 

prunioides) and White-stem corkwood (Commiphora tenuipetiolata). 

Shrubs (

Species such as Stink grass (Bothriochloa radicans) and Nine-awn grass (Enneapogon cenchroides) 

occur locally abundant. 

Forb species in this community cover 4% of the area and dense stands of Tephrosia villosa occur locally. 

Other forb species include Indigofera heterotricha, Justicia betonica and Ptycholobium contortum. 



This mopane bushveld occurs on the low hills of the farms Bosbokpoort, Dawn, Reitz and Senator in the 

central parts of Maremani. The geological substrate consists mainly of gneiss, quartzite and basalt 

(Figure 2). This bushveld covers approximately 893 ha and occurs on shallow and gravelly greyish sandy 

loam soils with a rock cover varying from 10% to 70%. Slopes vary from 1 to 4°. 

The diagnostic species are Psiadia punctulata and Abutilon angulatum var. angulatum (species group 7, 

Table 6). 

High trees (>6 m) have an average canopy cover of 5% and are characterised by scattered individuals of 

White syringa (Kirkia acuminata), Knobthorn (Acacia nigrescens), Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), 

Tall common corkwood (Commiphora glandulosa), Slender three-hook thorn (Acacia senegal var. 

leiorhachis) and Shepherd’s tree (Boscia albitrunca). 

Trees >3 m - 6 m) cover on average 12% of the area and the dominant species are Mopane 

(Colophospermum mopane), Lowveld cluster-leaf (Terminalia prunioides), Red bushwillow (Combretum 

apiculatum), Common star chestnut (Sterculia rogersii) and Velvet corkwood (Commiphora mollis) 

Shrubs (

Sand quick (Schmidtia pappophoroides) 3% 

Blue buffalo grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) 2% 

Dwarf grass (Oropetium capense) 2% 

Species with a frequency of 2% and lower are listed in Table 6. 

Forb species in this community cover 6% of the area and include Tephrosia villosa, Abutilon austro- 

africanum and Ocimum americanum. 



This open sandveld covers approximately 1106 ha and occurs mainly on the plains and gentle foot slopes 

of the hills as well as old fields or previously cultivated areas on Frampton, Skirbeek and Dawn in the 

south of Maremani (Figure 2). It occurs on deep red loamy sand derived from sandstone, calc-silicate 

and quartzite. The sandy soils are underlain by calcrete in places. Rocks are mostly absent in this 

community. Silver cluster-leaf (Terminalia sericea), Sand quick (Schmidtia pappohoroides) and Silky 

bushman grass (Stipagrostis uniplumis) are some of the characteristic species. 

The diagnostic species are Long-awned three-awn (Aristida stipitata) and Wild medlar (Vangueria 

infausta) (Species group 8, Table 6). 

High trees (>6 m) have an average canopy cover of 3% and are characterised by scattered individuals of 

Marula (Sclerocarya birrea), Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) and Boabab (Adansonia digitata). 


(Colophospermum mopane), Marula (Sclerocarya birrea), Silver cluster-leaf (Terminalia sericea), 

Umbrella thorn (Acacia tortilis) and Shepherd’s tree (Boscia albitrunca). 

Shrubs (


Natal Redtop (Melinis repens) 8% 

Silky bushman grass (Stipagrostis uniplumis) 8% 



Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) 7% 

Long-awned three-awn (Aristida stipitata) 6% 

Species with a frequency of 6% or lower are listed in Table 6 and include Giant three-awn (Aristida 

meridionalis). 

Forb species in this community cover 5% of the area and include Abutilon austro-africanum, Ocimum 

americanum, Dicerocaryum eriocarpum and Ptycholobium contortum. 

7. Colophospermum mopane - Kirkia acuminata - Acacia erubescens plains bushveld and 

woodland 


Communities 7 and 8 are closely related, but the presence of species such as Blue thorn (Acacia 

erubescens), Zebra-bark corkwood (Commiphora viminea), Cissus cornifolia and Jatropha spicata 

differentiate between these two communities. The veld of community 7 is also in very poor condition in 

comparison with community 8. 

This community is found north and west of the Njelele River, mainly on undulating low hills and plains 

(valleys)(Figure 2). This open woodland is characterise by high trees of White syringa (Kirkia acuminata), 

Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) and Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), with Red bushwillow (Combretum 

apiculatum) one of the prominent lower trees. This community covers approximately 6630 ha (Figure 2) 

and occurs on shallow and gravelly red to brown loamy sand to sandy loam soils derived from gneiss and 

quartzite, with a rock or gravel cover varying from 5 to 20%, and locally up to 80% where outcrops occur. 

The area is mostly flat and the gentle slopes vary from 1 to 5Ε. 

The diagnostic species consist of Blue thorn (Acacia erubescens), Cissus cornifolia and Jatropha 

spicata (species group 9, Table 6). 

22


acuminata), Marula (Sclerocarya birrea), Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), Boabab (Adansonia 

digitata), Slender three-hook thorn (Acacia senegal var. leiorhachis) and Knobthorn (Acacia nigrescens). 


(Colophospermum mopane), Red bushwillow (Combretum apiculatum), Zebra-bark corkwood 

(Commiphora viminea), Velvet corkwood (Commiphora mollis), Lowveld cluster leaf (Terminalia 

prunioides), Tall common corkwood (Commiphora glandulosa) and Common star chestnut (Sterculia 

rogersii). 

Shrubs (

This vegetation type varies from a low and dense bushveld to an open woodland in places. It occurs on 

the undulating plains and lowlands (valleys) north and west of the Njelele River (Figure 2) and covers 

approximately 9813 ha (Figure 2). It occurs on shallow and gravelly to moderately deep red to brown 

sandy loam soils derived from gneiss and quartzite. The gravel and rock cover varying from 3 to 20% and 

up to 40% in places. The slopes vary from 1 to 12Ε. 

Diagnostic species are absent, but the absence of species from species groups 6 to 9 (Table 6), and the 

presence of species from species groups 10, 11 and 12 , characterise this community. 


acuminata), Shepherd’s tree (Boscia albitrunca), Slender three-hook thorn (Acacia senegal var. 

leiorhachis), Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), Marula (Sclerocarya birrea), and Baobab (Adansonia 

digitata). 

Trees (>3 m - 6 m) cover on average 17% of the area and the dominant species are Red bushwillow 

(Combretum apiculatum), Velvet corkwood (Commiphora mollis), Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), 

Tall common corkwood (Commiphora glandulosa), Green-stem corkwood (Commiphora neglecta), 

Common star chestnut (Sterculia rogersii), False marula (Lannea schweinfurthii) and Lowveld cluster-leaf 

(Terminalia prunioides). The valleys have dense stands of Colophospermum mopane, while Corkwoods 

(Commiphora species) form dense stands locally. 

Shrubs (


Flaccid finger grass (Digitaria velutina) 3% 

Blue-seed grass (Tricholaena monachne), Sand Quick (Schmidtia pappophoroides) and Guinea grass 

(Panicum maximum), occur locally. Other grass species with a frequency of less than 3% are listed in 

Table 6. 

Forb species cover 11% of the area and include Indigofera bainesii, Blepharis subvolubilis, Barleria 

prionitis, Abutilon austro-africanum, Tephrosia villosa and Ocimum americanum. 




This community covers approximately 7000 ha (Figure 2) and can be found on the gabbro plains of 

Boschrand, Steenbokrandjes, Vryheid and Bokveld in the north-west, as well as on the basalt, calc- 

silcrete and gneiss of Woodhall, Skirbeek, Frampton and Njeleles Drift in the east of Maremani. It occurs 

on shallow and gravelly red to brown sandy loam calcareous soils and although rocks are absent in 

places, up to 30% of the area can be covered by rocks. The slopes vary from 0 to 2Ε. Calcrete is common 

in the soil horizon. Bush densification is clearly visible in this vegetation type as a result of an abundance 

of watering points and overgrazing in the past and the presence of abandoned old fields. 

The presence of Stink shepherd’s tree (Boscia foetida), Trumpet thorn (Catophractes alexandri) and 

Mopane pomegranate (Rhigozum zambesiacum) shows the relationship between communities 9, 10 and 

11 (species group 17, Table 6). 

The diagnostic species are Trumpet thorn (Catophractes alexandri), Gymnosporia pubescens and 

Vernonia cinarescens (species group 13, Table 6). 

High trees (>6 m) have an average canopy cover of 1% and are characterised by Mopane 

(Colophospermum mopane), Tall common corkwood (Commiphora glandulosa), Slender three-hook thorn 

(Acacia senegal var. leiorhachis) and Shepherd’s tree (Boscia albitrunca). 


(Colophospermum mopane), Lowveld cluster-leaf (Terminalia prunioides), Common star chestnut 

(Sterculia rogersii), White-stem corkwood (Commiphora tenuipetiolata) and Velvet corkwood 

25

(Commiphora mollis). 

Shrubs (

There are also open grassy patches dominated by Pan dropseed (Sporobolus ioclados), dense patches 

of high Mopane forest as well as dense low scrub Mopane, especially along the drainage lines. 

The diagnostic species are Transvaal sesame bush (Sesamothamnus lugardii), Three-hook thorn 

(Acacia senegal var. rostrata), Horned thorn (Acacia grandicornuta), Small green thorn (Balanites 

pedicellaris) and the Kalahari sand raisin (Grewia retinervis) (species group 14, Table 6). 


(Colophospermum mopane). 

Trees (>3 m - 6 m ) cover on average 14% of the area and the dominant species are Umbrella thorn 

(Acacia tortilis), Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), Horned thorn (Acacia grandicornuta), Lowveld 

cluster leaf (Terminalia prunioides), Tall common corkwood (Commiphora glandulosa) and Shepherd’s 

tree (Boscia albitrunca). 

Shrubs (

Forb species in this community cover 9% of the area and include Blepharis diversispina, Abutilon austro- 

africanum and Ocimum americanum. 

11. Colophospermum mopane - Gardenia resiniflua - Tetrapogon tenellus thicket 

(Mopane - Resin gardenia - Tetrapogon thicket) 

This thicket community occurs in the south on the plains of the farms Woodhall, Frampton and Dawn and 

the irregular terrain of Solitude and covers approximately 418 ha (Figure 2). It occurs on moderately deep 

red sands on calcrete as well as shallow yellow to red sandy clay loam derived from shale, mudstone and 

siltstone. The sandy soils are underlain by calcrete in some places. The rock cover varies from 3 to 20% 

and locally up to 80%. The slopes are less than 4Ε. 

Thimble grass (Fingerhuthia africana) is a poor diagnostic species for community 11 (species group 15, 

Table 6), but other characteristic species are Tetrapogon tenellus and Resin gardenia (Gardenia 

resiniflua). 

High trees (>6 m) have an average canopy cover of less than 1% and are characterised by Mopane 

(Colophospermum mopane) and the Shepherd’s tree (Boscia albitrunca). 


(Colophospermum mopane) and the Shepherd’s tree (Boscia albitrunca). 

Shrubs (

Tetrapogon tenellus 5% 

Species with a frequency of 5% or lower include Nine-awned grass (Enneapogon cenchroides), Flaccid 

finger grass (Digitaria velutina), Sweet signal grass (Brachiaria erusiformis), Natal Redtop (Melinis 

repens), False signal grass (Brachiaria deflexa) and Blue buffalo grass (Cenchrus ciliaris). Thimble grass 

(Fingerhuthia africana) and Tetrapogon tenellus are conspicuous on the hilly and gravelly areas. 

Forb species in this community cover 3% of the area and include Abutilon austro-africanum. 



This plant community occurs scattered over Maremani (Vryheid, Palm Grove, Njelele’s Drift, Woodhall, 

Lenin) on the lowlands, plains and lower slopes of the hills and covers approximately 2041 ha (Figure 2). 

It occurs on a shallow to deep red sandy loam derived from sandstone, gneiss and gabbro. The rock 

cover varies from 0 to 30% and the slopes are less than 4Ε. Forests of Mopane are found locally in the 

valleys in the west. 

A diagnostic species group is absent but species such as Stunted plane (Ochna inermis), Mallow raisin 

(Grewia villosa), Melhania rehmannii and Zebra-bark corkwood (Commiphora viminea) are characteristic 

species (species groups 18 & 19, Table 6). 


(Colophospermum mopane), Shepherd’s tree (Boscia albitrunca) and White syringa (Kirkia acuminata). 


(Colophospermum mopane), Shepherd’s tree (Boscia albitrunca), Zebra-bark corkwood (Commiphora 

viminea), Lowveld cluster-leaf (Terminalia prunioides) and Slender three-hook thorn (Acacia senegal var. 

leiorhachis). 

Shrubs (



False signal grass (Brachiaria deflexa) 4% 


Natal Redtop (Melinis repens) 4% 

Carrot seed grass (Tragus berteronianus) 3% 

Forb species in this community cover 6% of the area and include Abutilon austro-africanum and Barleria 

prionitis. 

13. Colophospermum mopane - Eragrostis lehmanniana low dense bushveld 

(Mopane - Lehmann’s love grass low dense bushveld) 

This species poor thicket to open bushveld occurs mainly on the plains of Senator and Lenin but is also 

found locally in Riverview, Reitz, Njelele’s Drift and Dawn (Figure 2). It is dominated by Mopane 

(Colophospermum mopane), and Lowveld cluster-leaf (Terminalia prunioides). It covers approximately 

1738 ha. This community occurs on shallow to deep grey to red sandy loam soils derived from gneiss and 

quartzite. The rock cover varies from 1 to 10% and locally up to 50%. The slopes are less than 2Ε. 

A diagnostic species group is absent but species such as Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), Lowveld 

cluster leaf (Terminalia prunioides) and the Shepherd’s tree (Boscia albitrunca) are abundant species 

(species groups 20 & 21, Table 6). This community is therefore also characterised by the absence of 

diagnostic species from species groups 1 to 19 (Table 6). 

High trees (>6 m) have an average canopy cover of 3% and are characterised by the Mopane 

(Colophospermum mopane), Shepherd’s tree (Boscia albitrunca), Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) and 

Boabab (Adansonia digitata). 


(Colophospermum mopane), Lowveld cluster-leaf (Terminalia prunioides), Velvet corkwood (Commiphora 

mollis), Common star chestnut (Sterculia rogersii), Red bushwillow (Combretum apiculatum) and Tall 

common corkwood (Commiphora glandulosa). 

Shrubs (

The grass layer is in poor condition and covers on average 15% of the area. The dominant grass species 

and their percentage frequency are: 




Spreading three-awn (Aristida congesta subsp. barbicollis) 6% 

False signal grass (Brachiaria deflexa) 6% 


Forb species in this community cover 4% of the area and include Abutilon austro-africanum, Ocimum 

americanum and Indigofera bainesii. 



These disturbed areas (overgrazed veld, old fields, watering points and kraals) occur scattered over the 

plains of Maremani (Figure 2). This community covers approximately 460 ha and occurs on deep red 

sandy loam soils derived from gneiss, sandstone and basalt, as well as on alluvial soils along the 

seasonal streams. Rocks are absent. 

A diagnostic species group is absent but species such as Umbrella thorn (Acacia tortilis), Sickle bush 

(Dichrostachys cinerea), Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), Lehmann’s love grass (Eragrostis 

lehmanniana) and Annual three-awn (Aristida adscensionis) are prominent (species groups 22 & 23, 

Table 6). This community is therefore also characterised by the absence of species from species group 

20 & 21, for example Lowveld cluster-leaf (Terminalia prunioides), Red bushwillow (Combretum 

apiculatum), Slender three-hook thorn (Acacia senegal var. leiorhachis), Tall common corkwood 

(Commiphora glandulosa), White syringa (Kirkia acuminata), Common star chestnut (Sterculia rogersii) 

and Blue sourplum (Ximenia americana). 

High trees (>6 m) cover less than 1% and are characterised by Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) and 

Marula (Sclerocarya birrea). 

Trees (>3 m - 6 m) cover on average 5% of the area and the dominant species is Umbrella thorn (Acacia 

tortilis), Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), Shepherd’s tree (Boscia albitrunca) and Knobthorn (Acacia 

nigrescens). 

31

Shrubs (

Trees (>3 m - 6 m) cover on average 5% of the area and the dominant species are the Umbrella thorn 

(Acacia tortilis). 

Shrubs (

The diagnostic species are for example Leadwood (Combretum imberbe), Buffalo thorn (Ziziphus 

mucronata), Ilala palm (Hyphaene coriacea), Sporobolus consimilis and Weeping boer-bean (Schotia 

brachypetala) (species group 26, Table 6). Species such as Cyperus sexangularis, Apple-leaf 

(Philenoptera violacea), Red spike-thorn (Gymnosporia senegalensis) and Nyala tree (Xanthocercis 

zambeziaca) are also prominent species in this community (species group 28, Table 6). Community 16 is 

related to community 17 through the presence of species from species group 28 (Table 6). 

High trees (>6 m) have an average canopy cover of 10% and are characterised by Leadwood 

(Combretum imberbe), Weeping boer-bean (Schotia brachypetala) and Knobthorn (Acacia nigrescens). 

Trees (>3 m - 6 m) cover on average 8% of the area and the dominant species are Umbrella thorn 

(Acacia tortilis) and Buffalo thorn (Ziziphus mucronata). 

Shrubs (

prominent species in this community (species group 25, Table 6) as well as Cyperus sexangularis, Apple- 

leaf (Philenoptera violacea), Red spike-thorn (Gymnosporia senegalensis), Nyala tree (Xanthocercis 

zambeziaca), Leadwood (Combretum imberbe) (species group 28, Table 6). 

High trees (>6 m) include the Common cluster fig (Ficus sycomorus), Nyala tree (Xanthocercis 

zambeziaca), Brack thorn (Acacia robusta subsp. clavigera), Leadwood (Combretum imberbe), Apple-leaf 

(Philenoptera violacea), Large-leaved false thorn (Albizia versicolor), Ana tree (Faidherbia albida), and 

Fever tree (Acacia xanthophloea). 

The dominant tree species are Flame thorn (Acacia ataxacantha), Apple-leaf (Philenoptera violacea), 

Knobthorn (Acacia nigrescens), Umbrella thorn (Acacia tortilis), Buffalo thorn (Ziziphus mucronata), 

Brown ivory (Berchemia discolor), Jackal berry (Diospyros mespiliformis), Large feverberry (Croton 

megalobotrys) and Flame creeper (Combretum paniculatum). 

Shrubs cover on average 9% of the area and are characterised by Red spike-thorn (Gymnosporia 

senegalensis), Large feverberry (Croton megalobotrys), Savanna gardenia (Gardenia volkensii), Magic 

guarri (Euclea divinorum), Wild sage (Pechuel-loeschia leubnitziae), Bulrush (Typha capensis), and 

Woolly caper bush (Capparis tomentosa). 

The grass layer is well developed and covers on average 49% of the area. The dominant sedge species 

is Cyperus sexangularis while grass species are represented by the Common reed (Phragmites australis), 

Broad-leaved panicum (Panicum deustum), Guinea grass (Panicum maximum), Common signal grass 

(Urochloa mosambicensis), Swamp grass (Diplachne fusca), Blue buffalo grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) and 

Pearly love grass (Eragrostis rotifer). Herbaceous and weedy species in this community cover 10% of the 

area and include Abutilon angulatum, Pluchea dioscoridis, Xanthium strumarium, Ageratum conyzoides, 

Schoenoplectus corymbosus and Datura stramonium. 

35

Introduction 

CHAPTER 5 

VEGETATION STRUCTURE 

The primary elements of vegetation structure are growth form, stratification and cover. Vertical structure is 

a function of different growth forms (or size classes) dominating certain layers and can be expressed in 

terms of canopy cover and/or density of each growth form. Density also indicates the spatial distribution of 

different growth forms, populations or individual species. Vegetation can be classified according to 

structure without reference to species names, and layer or size class diagrams can be used to illustrate 

structure by using for example cover or density of each layer. 

Size classes are considered to be good indicators of browse quality and quantity. Although a plant 

community is defined to have a relatively homogeneous floristic composition, structure and habitat, 

different floristic communities can have the same structure or vice versa. Structure can also relate to the 

feeding pattern of animals as well as the suitability of a habitat for different animal species. The available 

leaf mass and volume at different height levels are valuable in determining the suitability of a habitat for 

browser species. 

Density of the woody species can affect the condition of the herbaceous layer. Several studies have 

indicated that the grass production declines when the tree and shrub density exceeds 1500 individuals 

per hectare. 

Cover 

The mean percentage canopy cover and the variation within the communities for different strata and 

vegetation types are summarised in Table 7 and Figures 3 & 4. The percentage cover of the high tree 

stratum is the lowest in communities 1, 2, 9, 11, 14 and 15, representing the communities on rocks, 

calcareous soils and disturbed areas (old fields)(Figure 3). Tree cover was higher tha 15% in communities 

7, 8, 9, 11 and 12, while communities with a dense shrub layer are communities 2, 10, 11 and 12. The 

highest grass cover was found in the south-east on the footslopes of the gneiss and sandstone hills 

(community 6), as well as in the old fields along the major rivers and the riverine communities 

(communities 15, 16 and 17)(Figure 4). Forbs were abundant in areas where calcrete occurs, for example 

community 9. It is apparent that the communities with the lowest shrub and rock cover were associated 

with a high grass cover (communities 6, 15, 16 and 17). 

36

Density 

The mean densities of the different height classes and the variation within the communities are 

summarised in Figures 5, 6 and 7 and Table 8. Community 4 has the most tall trees, with community 9 

and 11 the most trees per ha (Table 8 and Figures 5, 6 and 7). The highest mean shrub density of all the 

communities was found in communities 11, 12 and 13 where up to 2400 individuals per hectare occurred 

in places. This seems to be above the threshold where the vegetation density has an effect on grass 

production. 

Tree height 

The mean height of the woody strata, as well as the maximum height of the high tree stratum are 

summarised in Table 9. 

37

Introduction 

CHAPTER 6 

VELD CONDITION AND ECONOMIC CARRYING CAPACITY 

Maremani is representative of the Mopane Bushveld and the grazing can be considered as sweet veld. 

Veld condition as well as the carrying capacity of the area in general, will vary from season to season, 

depending mainly on the rainfall, and also to a certain extent on past and present utilization. Each of the 

recognised plant communities is associated with a specific habitat, has its own diagnostic species 

composition, and therefore also has its own grazing and browsing potential and economic and ecological 

carrying capacity. 

The concepts of economic and ecological carrying capacities need to be explained. Game numbers 

will increase from an initial low to a level where the available food, water and shelter resources become 

limiting (Caughley 1977). Numbers increase slowly at first and once a critical stage is reached, the growth 

rate is exponential and numbers increase rapidly. At a certain upper level, density-dependent factors such 

as competition for resources, lower fecundity and increased mortalities result in a leveling-off of population 

growth to a point where births equal deaths, and net growth (or yield) is zero. In practice, the ultimate 

population density fluctuates around a fluctuating upper level, which arises from, for example, variations in 

rainfall, inter-specific competition, predator-prey relations or accidental fires. The level around which the 

population oscillates is known as the ecological carrying capacity. It is the population level that is likely 

to exist in unmanaged large natural areas. Fluctuations in numbers can be quite dramatic, with severe 

crashes occurring during periods of prolonged drought or disease epidemics. Allowing certain species to 

attain high densities may impact negatively on other more sensitive species. Therefore, should the 

management objective be to increase species diversity, the numbers of aggressively competitive species 

need to be controlled. 

If a population is maintained below the ecological carrying capacity by cropping, the net growth of the 

population is positive, as there is room for expansion in the form of resource abundance. The population 

is then at an economic carrying capacity. There is no one single economic carrying capacity but there is 

a point at which maximum sustained yield (MSY) is obtained, usually around 70 to 80% of the ecological 

carrying capacity. 

Different equations have been proposed to calculate carrying capacity of an area. In general, by 

combining an ecological or veld condition index, the grass production and/or canopy cover, rainfall, the 

incidence of fire, accessibility of the terrain, grazing habits and social behaviour of animal species, it is 

39

possible to estimate an economic capacity for a particular plant community or game ranch. The ecological 

capacity is usually conservatively estimated to be 20% to 30% higher than the economic capacity. 

Methods 

The following approach is based on the Ecological Index Method (Vorster 1982), but was adapted for the 

specific area. 

The grass species found in the different plant communities were arranged according to their percentage 

frequencies within the communities. This indicates of the degree of dominance and the distribution of the 

relevant species. The grass species were also classified into categories that are based on their reaction to 

grazing, palatability and production potential (see Appendix A - grasses). 

The categories are:- 

D = Decreaser - these species are abundant in veld in a good condition and decrease when the veld is 

over- or under-utilized (valuable grass species) 

I1 = Increaser 1 - these species increase in veld that is under-utilized. 

I2a = Increaser 2a - these species increase in veld that is lightly and/or selectively over-utilized. 

I2b = Increaser 2b - these species increase in veld that is moderately and/or selectively over-utilized. 

I2c = Increaser 2c - these species increase in veld that is severely over-utilized (weeds and 

encroacher species. 

Bare areas were recorded when there was no grass species within a metre from the step point. 

By using these categories, an ecological index is calculated to express veld condition. Theoretically, the 

maximum ecological index value that can be obtained, is 100 %, i.e. if all species present are classified as 

Decreasers. Veld in a good condition, with a high grazing capacity, has a high percentage Decreaser and 

Increaser 1 grass species. By using the ecological index, the total grass canopy cover, the percentage 

canopy cover of trees and shrubs, annual rainfall, fire regime and accessibility of the area, an economic 

capacity is calculated for each plant community. The economic capacity of Maremani was calculated for 

game at a mean annual rainfall of 340 mm. The availability of bush (for browsing), the selective grazing 

habits of many game species, social behaviour (home range and territoriality) and also the restrictions of a 

40

one-camp system (lack of control over animal movements), are taken into consideration in the calculation 

of the economic carrying capacity for game. 

The grazing capacity for livestock is given in large animal units per hectare or hectares per large animal 

unit (LAU). One large animal unit is regarded as a steer of 450 kg. Conversion values to convert from 

game to large animal units or vice versa are used (see Table 12) and on the basis of the metabolizable 

energy requirements and probable food intake of the animals, comparisons are then made in large animal 

units. For example a value of 6.03 impala is given as equivalent to one large animal unit. 

However, because the conversion table does not take into account the differences in food and habitat 

preferences of the different game species, the diversity in vegetation types, their condition and production, 

availability of browse and grazing, and accessibility of the terrain, these tables should be used with 

circumspection and only as a broad and general guideline. Nevertheless, it is a practical method with 

which the different habitat types on a game ranch can be compared to estimate the potential economic 

carrying capacity of the ranch. 

The predictive value of this approach can be enhanced with an intensive study of the habitats on a game 

ranch, which includes surveys of the veld condition and grass and browse production of each of these 

habitats. The area covered by each habitat and its suitability for different game species should be 

included when determining grazer/browser capacity. Varying rainfall influences range condition and 

frequent assessments are essential to assist in management decisions. 

Results and discussion 

The total economic carrying capacity for Maremani was calculated from the economic capacities of the 

individual plant communities, excluding communities 1 (rocky outcrops) and 17 (riverine areas) (Table 12). 

The present economic capacity with a mean annual rainfall of 340 mm is calculated as 39.2 ha/LAU for 

game. The area will be able to support a high number of browsers as browsing material is in abundance. 

However, it should be emphasized that the carrying capacity decreases drastically during prolonged 

periods of drought. The carrying capacity according to the previous Department of Agriculture was 17 

ha/LAU, but presently the Limpopo extention officers prescribe a stocking rate of 25 ha/LAU. 

The veld condition and economic capacities for the individual plant communities are discussed below: 

Communities 1 (rocky outcrops) and 17 (riverine vegetation) are not included. A veld condition index lower 

than 45%, reflects a low grass cover, unpalatable grasses, low biomass production and annual grass 

species, and consequently indicates veld in poor condition for grazing species. Veld in good condition 

should have an index of higher than 60%, with a high grass cover and a high presence of perennial 

41

Decreaser, Increaser 1 and some Increaser 2a species. 



This community covers approximately 491 ha and has a veld condition index of 48.6% (Table 12). The 

mean grass cover is only 15% and the presence of mostly Decreaser and Increaser 2a species indicates 

that the area is in moderate condition. The high percentage rock cover contributes to the low grass cover. 

The economical capacity for this veld is 25 ha/LAU for game. 




mean grass cover is only 11% and although some Decreaser species occur, the high presence of 

Increaser 2a, 2b and 2c species indicates that the community is in a relatively poor condition for grazers. 

This is due to either high grazing pressure and/or the result of frequent droughts. The high percentage 

rock cover contributes to the low grass cover. Unpalatable grass species are also associated with sandy 

soils. The grazing capacity for this veld is 51.7 ha/LAU for game. 

4. Colophospermum mopane - Xerophyta viscosa open to dense bushveld on low hills and 

rocky outcrops 


This community covers about 1398 ha and is in poor condition with a veld condition index of only 31.7% 

(Table 12). The mean grass cover is only 15% and the high presence of Increaser 2a and 2c species 

indicates that the area has been over-utilized and/or subjected to frequent droughts. The high percentage 

rock cover contributes to the low grass cover. The grazing capacity for this veld is 56.6 ha/LAU for game. 



This community covers about 893 ha and is in poor condition with a veld condition index of 37.9% (Table 

12). The mean grass cover is 15% and the high presence of Increaser 2c species indicates that the area 

has been over-utilized and/or subjected to frequent droughts. The grazing capacity for this veld is 38.5 

ha/LAU for game. 

42



This community covers about 1106 ha and has a veld condition index of 50.5% (Table 12). The mean 

grass cover is 66% and the presence of mostly Decreaser and Increaser 2a species indicates that the 

area is in moderate to good condition. The grazing capacity for this veld is 11.8 ha/LAU for game. 

7. Colophospermum mopane - Kirkia acuminata - Acacia erubescens plains bushveld and 

woodland 


This community covers approximately 6630 ha and is in a very poor condition for grazers with a veld 

condition index of only 26.3% (Table 12). The mean grass cover is 15% and the high presence of 

Increaser 2c species indicates that the area has been severely over-utilized and/or subjected to frequent 

droughts. The grazing capacity for this veld is 83.7 ha/LAU for game, indicating the poor condition of this 

vegetation type. 

8. Colophospermum mopane - Boscia albitrunca - Terminalia prunioides open to dense 

bushveld on plains and low rocky hills 

(Mopane - Shepherd’s tree - Lowveld cluster-leaf open to dense bushveld on plains and 

low rocky hills) 

This community covers about 9813 ha and is in a poor condition for grazers with a veld condition index of 

33.8% (Table 12). The mean grass cover is 20% and the high presence of Increaser 2a, 2b and 2c 

species indicates that the area has been over-utilized and/or subjected to frequent droughts. The grazing 

capacity for this veld is 35.1 ha/LAU for game. 




This community covers about 7000 ha and is in a poor condition for grazers with a veld condition index of 

33.4% (Table 12). The mean grass cover is 20% and the high presence of Increaser 2a, 2b and 2c 

species and bare soil indicates that the area has been severely over-utilized and/or is very sensitive to 

frequent droughts. The grazing capacity for this veld is 36 ha/LAU for game, indicating the poor condition 

43

of this vegetation type. 

10. Colophospermum mopane - Sesamothamnus lugardii - Acacia tortilis open to dense low 


(Mopane - Transvaal sesame bush - Umbrella thorn open to dense low bushveld) 

This community covers about 1461 ha and has a veld condition index of 44.1% (Table 12). The mean 

grass cover is 23% and the fairly high percentage Decreaser and Increaser 2a species, indicates that the 

area is in poor to moderate condition. The grazing capacity for this veld is 19.7 ha/LAU for game. 

11. Colophospermum mopane - Gardenia resiniflua - Tetrapogon tenellus thicket 

(Mopane - Resin gardenia - Tetrapogon thicket) 

This community covers about 418 ha and has a veld condition index of 48.3%, indicating veld in moderate 

good condition. Although a high percentage Decreasers occurs in this community, the mean grass cover 

is however only 11% and contributes to the relatively low grazing capacity of 40.3 ha/LAU. 




grass cover is only 14% and the very high presence of Increaser 2c species indicates that this area has 

been severely over-utilized and/or is very sensitive to frequent droughts. The carrying capacity for this 

veld is 124 ha/LAU for game. 

13. Colophospermum mopane - Acacia tortilis - Eragrostis lehmanniana low dense bushveld 

(Mopane - Umbrella thorn - Lehmann’s love grass low dense bushveld) 

This community covers about 1738 ha. The veld condition index is poor at 29.7% and with a grass cover 

of 12% and high percentages of Increaser 2a and 2c species, the carrying capacity is a low 81.7 ha/LAU. 



This area covers about 460 ha and is in poor condition with a veld condition index of only 34.4%. The 

mean grass cover is 24% and the high presence of Increaser 2a and 2c species indicates that the area 

44

has been disturbed and over-utilized in the past. The grazing capacity for this veld is 32.8 ha/LAU for 

game. 

15. Pechuel-loeschia leubnitziae - Urochloa mosambicensis open grassland to dense 


(Wild sage - Common signal grass open grassland to dense bushveld) 

This area covers about 260 ha. The veld condition index is fairly high at 50.8%, indicating veld in 

moderate to good condition in places. The grass cover is also high at 79% and the relatively high 

presence of Decreaser and Increaser 2b species indicates light to moderately utilized veld. The grazing 

capacity for this veld is 12.3 ha/LAU, the highest of all the communities. 

16. Combretum imberbe - Philenoptera violacea stream community 

(Leadwood - Apple-leaf stream community) 

This area covers approximately 210 ha and has a veld condition index of 43.4% (Table 12). The mean 

grass cover is 49% and because no Increaser 2c species were recorded, the grazing capacity for this veld 

is relatively high at 15.8 ha/LAU for game. The high Increaser 2a and 2b species indicates some 

moderately utilized veld. 

Alternative approaches to determine economic carrying capacity 

Other methods can be used to estimate short and long-term economic carrying capacities. These 

methods were developed in savanna regions of South Africa. 

Combined veld condition and rainfall method (Danckwerts 1989) 

The model was developed in the Eastern Cape: 

GC = {-0.03 +0.00289 x (X1) + [(X2 - 419.7) x 0.000633]} 

where: GC = grazing capacity in large stock units per hectare (LAU/ha) 

X1 = percentage veld condition score 

X2 = mean annual rainfall (mm) 

45

The above model requires sample site veld condition scores to be expressed as percentages of a 

benchmark veld condition score. Because of the present fairly poor veld condition of the area it was not 

possible to use a reference or benchmark sample area. When the veld condition indices given in Table 12 

were used, the average economic grazing capacity for Maremani was calculated as 40.7 ha/LAU. The 

grazing capacity between communities varied from 15.1 to 185 ha/LAU. The herbaceous layer in 

communities 7 and 12 are in such a poor condition that this model indicates a zero grazing capacity. 

Herbaceous phytomass method (Moore & Odendaal 1987) 

The stocking rate for grazer species is calculated from herbaceous phytomass data and the method was 

developed in the eastern Kalahari Thornveld: 

SR = phytomass (kg/ha) x 0.35 b /10 bb x 365 bbb 

where: SR = stocking rate in large stock units per hectare per year 

b = utilisation factor: only 35% of the herbaceous material is grazed while 

40% remains as tufts and stubbles and 25% is lost to environmental 

factors 

bb = 10 kg feed per day is required per large stock unit 

bbb = number of days in a year 

The phytomass of the herbaceous layer was determined with the Disc-Pasture Meter (Trollope & Potgieter 

1986) during 2001 following a good rainy season. The grass biomass after the relatively dry 2002 season 

was very poor to non-existent. 

Disc Pasture Meter measurements for Maremani are summarised in Table 10 and the variations 

measured indicated. Community 1 was not measured due to the high rockiness. In parts of the other 

communities where the grass cover was minimal, no measurements could be taken. The flood plains in 

the south of Solitude recorded up to 7 800 kg/ha. Within a community, grass biomass showed large 

spatial variation. The grazing capacity for Maremani according to this method is approximately 48 

ha/LAU. 

Rainfall method (Coe, Cumming & Phillipson 1976) 

A significant relationship was found r² = 0.94, P < 0.001) between rainfall (range: 165 to 650 mm) and 

large herbivore biomass (range: 405 to 4 848 kg/km²). The equation that was derived for wildlife areas 

receiving less than 650 mm rainfall annually, was: 

46

Large Herbivore Biomass (kg/km²) = 8.684 x (mean annual rainfall) - 1205.9 

The herbivore biomass data included game census data from east and southern Africa and a wide range 

of the most common large African grazers and browsers. Herbivore biomass estimates obtained from the 

above equation would therefore represent first approximations of the combined grazing and browsing 

capacity of an area. Shortcomings of this approach are that the broad relationship between biomass and 

rainfall does not take into account local temporal and spatial variations in the habitats. Furthermore, the 

model was based on animal numbers obtained from a wide variety of count methods. 

According to this equation, the Large Herbivore Biomass for Maremani is 1747 kg/km². Maremani covers 

about 366 km², which gives a total of 639 402 kg. In terms of LAU this converts to 1 421 LAU. This is 

about 38% higher than calculated with the Ecological Index method (884 LAU). If the total area of 36583 

ha is used in the calculations, an economic carrying capacity of 25.7 ha/LAU is derived. 

! Large animal unit (LAU) and Browser Unit method of Snyman (1991), related to rainfall 

Stocking rates for animals in terms of LAU’s and BU’s, based on mean annual rainfall, are given by 

Snyman (1991) in Table 11. Accordingly the stocking rate for grazers on Maremani should be 

approximately 2.72 LAU/100 ha or 36.8 ha/LAU, which is comparable to the value of 39.2 ha/LAU found 

for Maremani with the Ecological Index method (Table 12). The browsing capacity according to Table 11 

is approximately 9.0 BU/100 ha (see following method and Table 16). 

Browsing capacity 

Browse is the sum total of woody plant material that is potentially edible to a specific set of animals in a 

specific area. The term available browse is a more restricted quantity and includes all the leaves, twigs, 

bark, flowers and pods that are within reachable height of a given type of animal species. The browsable 

volume is usually limited to the foliage up to 2 m for most browsers, and up to 5.5 m for giraffe and 

elephant. 

The available browse on a game ranch is influenced by: 

$ the density of woody plants; 

$ the amount of leaf material within reach of an animal; 

$ the species composition of the woody vegetation; 

47

$ the palatability and digestibility of the woody vegetation for example tannin content; 

$ the growth potential of woody species; 

$ phenology of woody species; 

$ chemical defences of woody plants e.g. condensed tannins; 

$ structural defences e.g. thorns. 

Browsers are limited by food supply rather than other factors such as territoriality. They will starve to 

death before they kill their resource. The browse supply in the late dry season imposes a limit on the 

stocking rate for browsers. Kudu mortalities in Limpopo have been attributed to sudden cold spells 

(pneumonia), disease (anthrax) and very important, the lack of evergreen palatable plant species for the 

animals to survive the late dry season (low resource availability). 

The browsing capacity of a given area indicates the area’s potential to carry a certain number of animals 

in a healthy productive and reproductive condition over a prolonged period of time, without the 

deterioration of the resources. The browsing capacity for game farms should ideally be determined 

separately from the grazer component. Browsing capacity is defined in terms of the number of browser 

units that can be carried per hectare (BU/ha). A browser unit (BU) is taken as the equivalent of a 140kg 

browser. 

Large animal units (LAU’s) and browser unit (BU) replacement values (or equivalents) can be used to 

calculate the browsing capacity for an area. In Table 14 the LAU and BU unit conversions for game 

species are given. 

The application of only the agricultural LAU concept does not allow for the ecological separation of 

herbivorous ungulates and thus overlooks the potential for using the specialised and complementary 

resource-use habits of wild ungulates to maximise veld utilisation (Snyman 1991; Peel et al. 1994; Dekker 

1996, 1997). 

An adapted version of the LAU/BU method was used to determine the present and recommended 

carrying capacity for Maremani (see Tables 12 to 16): 

Present carrying capacity: 

The total number of LAU’s recommended for grazers is 884 LAU (Table 12). The browsing capacity is 

estimated at 8 BU’s per 100 ha (see Table 11), which gives a total of 2927 BU’s. To convert to LAU, the 

BU’s are multiplied by 0.42 (that is the LAU value per kudu) for a total of 1229 LAU’s. The total 

recommended LAU’s is 2113 LAU’s. 

48

The present numbers of game (2000) are given in Table 13 and the percentage of the recommended 

capacity calculated per feeding class. The present numbers of game indicate overstocking by 

approximately 16% (Table 13). 

When the grazer and browser components are separated according to the feeding spectrum of each 

animal (Table 14), the carrying capacity for grazers is then 34.6 ha/LSU which is higher than the 

calculated capacity of 39.2 ha/LAU. This indicates a 16% overstocking of grazers. The browsing 

capacity of 9.1 BU’s per 100 ha is higher than the 8.0 BU per 100 ha recommended for the area. This 

indicates a 23% overstocking of browsers. If the browser units are converted to LAU’s, the LAU’s for 

grazers (1056) and browsers (1403) add up 2459 LAU’s, giving a carrying capacity of 14.9 ha/LAU. 

However, the important aspect is that only 42.9% of this capacity is allocated to grazers. 

Recommended carrying capacity: 

The recommended percentage ratio of feeding classes as well as the recommended numbers of game 

are indicated in Table 15. An indication of the population growth per annum in terms of animal numbers is 

also indicated. The recommended numbers of the animalsindicated in Table 15 are then used in Table 16 

to calculate the grazing and browsing capacity. The grazing and browsing is separated according to the 

feeding strategies of the animals. The grazing capacity is calculated as 41.4 ha/LAU and the browsing 

capacity as 8 BU’s per 100 ha. 

If substitution ratios are therefore based on metabolic mass only, without consideration of ungulate 

species differences in resource utilisation (grazing and browsing), stocking density could be 

underestimated for an area. 

In summary, the results from the different methods are: 

Ecological Index method 39.2 ha/LAU 

Veld condition/rainfall method 40.7 ha/LAU 

Phytomass method 48 ha/LAU 

Rainfall method 25.7 ha/LAU 

LAU/BU method (Snyman): Grazing 36.8 ha/LAU 

LAU/BU method: 

Browsing 9.2 BU/100 ha 

49

Present capacity: Grazing 34.6 ha/LAU 


Combined: 14.9 ha/LAU 

Recommended capacity: Grazing 41.4 ha/LAU 

CHAPTER 7 

GAME 


Combined: 18.6 ha/LAU 

Game species that historically occurred in the area are Black rhinoceros, Blue wildebeest, Bushbuck, 

Bushpig, Buffalo, Grey duiker, Eland, Giraffe, Grey rhebuck, Hippopotamus, Impala, Klipspringer, Kudu, 

Ostrich, Reedbuck, Steenbok, Roan antelope, Sable antelope, Tsessebe, Warthog, Waterbuck, White 

rhinoceros and Zebra. Species at present on Maremani that were not historically from the area are 

Blesbok, Gemsbok (Oryx) and Red hartebeest. 

According to the present game numbers (based on the count of 2001), the area is stocked to 

approximately 116.1% of its capacity (Table 14). The total area of approximately 36583 ha is used to 

recommend animal numbers (Table 15). The total number of 1967 LAU’s is based on the grazing 

browsing capacity indicated in Table 16. 

The recommended game suitable for Maremani are Blue wildebeest, Bushbuck, Bushpig, Grey duiker, 

50

Eland, Elephant, Giraffe, Impala, Klipspringer, Kudu, Ostrich, Steenbok, Warthog, Waterbuck, White 

rhinoceros and Zebra (Table 15). The numbers of each species are also given. Black rhinoceros could be 

considered in future. The following aspects should be emphasized: 

The introduction of more grazer species such as buffalo, roan antelope, sable antelope and tsessebe is 

not recommended considering the poor condition of the grass layer. 

According to Table 15, provision is made for 9% low-selective or bulk feeders, 13% high selective grazers, 

38% mixed grazers/browsers and 40% browsers. The low percentage grazers recommended is due to the 

poor condition of the grass layer and at this stage the area is more suitable for mixed feeders and 

browsers. 

Harvesting, culling or hunting should be introduced to keep the populations at economic capacity because 

population growth is limited at ecological capacity. Overgrazing also results in animals being more 

susceptible to prolonged periods of drought. 

51

Management strategy 

CHAPTER 8 

MANAGEMENT 

Due to the event-driven and unpredictable climate (rainfall), an adaptive management strategy needs to 

be implemented. This is necessary to limit mass mortalities of animal species or overgrazing of the veld. 

Related plant communities are grouped to form management units based on relatively homogeneous 

vegetation types, topography, roads and rivers (see Figure 8). Existing roads, fences, power-lines, other 

existing infrastructure, inaccessibility of the terrain, and the mosaic distribution pattern of the plant 

communities are also taken into account in the delimitation of these management units. Roads should 

ideally separate these units and act as firebreaks to prevent veld fires from entering the area. 

The infra-structure needed for an efficient game farm is expensive, for example staff housing and game 

fencing, and, if hunting is introduced, accommodation, abattoir and cold room facilities need to be 

provided. Poaching may be a problem and regular patrols along the fence should be undertaken. 

Measures should be taken to avoid or minimise selective or patch overgrazing by game through the use 

of salt blocks and/or game licks in areas that are less utilised. The game numbers could be increased or 

decreased according to rainfall and veld condition and therefore live sales, culling and hunting (trophy 

and/or biltong) of game are an intrinsic part of an adaptive management approach. 

Game 

Game species that occurred historically in the area could be re-introduced, preferably from game ranches 

in the vicinity of Maremani or game adapted to the same vegetation type and climate. The off-loading 

ramp for game should be as far away from fences, rivers or other obstacles as possible. 

Fire 

Fire is not recommended due to the low and unpredictable rainfall and the low biomass (fuel load) 

available. 

Veld condition 

52

The low grass biomass and poor species composition indicate veld that is not suitable for high numbers of 

low and high selective grazer species. Veld condition and carrying capacities need to be monitored as 

regularly as possible - at least on an annual basis initially. 

It is not only the diversity in habitats, geology and terrain morphology that contributes to animal diversity, 

but also a diversity in veld condition of an area. Some animals prefer veld in good condition while others 

tend to prefer poorer or slightly over-utilised veld. 

Ecologically sensitive and/or problem areas 

The riparian vegetation along the rivers and flood plains or wetlands, for example the Limpopo, Sand and 

Njelele Rivers, and the Mutanga flood plain in the southern part of Solitude, needs to be conserved. 

Aspects such as overgrazing, water withdrawal and cultivation (associated with bush clearing) are 

threatening this kind of habitat. 

Erosion should be monitored and measures taken to minimise damage to the system. On Solitude some 

erosion was visible and needs to be monitored or action taken to prevent further erosion. 

Indicator plant species 

Plant species such as Baobab (Adansonia digitata), Shepherd’s tree (Boscia albitrunca), Common star 

chestnut (Sterculia rogersii), Sesame bush (Sesamothamnus lugardii), Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) and 

Corkbushes (Commiphora species) should be monitored because they usually show the first signs of 

over-utilization by browsers and elephants. 

Licks 

Game licks and salt blocks should ideally be placed away from veld in poor condition. Licks can also be 

made up using the following ingredients: 

Lick 1: 50 % coarse salt; 45 % dicalcium phosphate; 5 % Calory-3000 (molasses 

powder) and optionally some mealie meal. 

Lick 2: 50 % coarse salt; 25 % dicalcium phosphate; 20 % Calory-3000 (molasses 

powder) and 5% ureum. (Ureum should not be used in containers that can not 

53

Ticks 

drain rain water and zebra might have problems with ureum). 

Lick 3: 3 - 5 % fish meal; 40 % salt; 50 % dicalcium phosphate; 5 - 8 % Calory 3000; 5 % 

mealie meal. 

Ticks are apparently not a serious problem in Maremani, but some of the tick control systems presently 

available in the game industry include: 

1. Duncan Applicator (Tel. (012) 803 6647, Cell 083 263 7897) 

2. Tick Off (012) 804 4461, Cell 082 454 0793) 

3. Scorpion Dip Applicator ( Parasite Management Systems - Mr. Pierre van Niekerk, (012) 667 

4755, Cell 082 853 5405) 

Water provision 

Permanent water should preferably not be provided in areas that are seasonally dry (winter and spring). 

Control of indigenous encroacher species 

Dense thickets of mopane, sickle bush, umbrella thorn and three-hook thorn occur especially on old 

cultivated fields. Considering the small areas where these species have encroached compared to the total 

size of Maremani, it is not necessary to control indigenous plants. 

Alien (exotic) vegetation 

Alien plants should be eradicated. 

The following categories have been allocated to declared weeds and invader plants (Amendment to the 

regulations of the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act No. 43 of 1983 - see Regulation 15). 

Category 1 plants: They are prohibited and must be controlled by the land user. 

Achyranthes aspera (Burweed), Argemone ochroleuca (Mexican poppy), Agave 

americana (Sisal), Ageratum conyzoides (Ageratum), Datura ferox (Large thorn 

54

apple), Datura innoxia (Downy thorn apple), Datura stramonium (Common thorn 

apple), Nerium oleander (Oleander), Nicotiana glauca (Wild tobacco), Opuntia 

ficus-indica (Sweet prickly pear), Opuntia cf. aurantiaca (Jointed cactus), 

Xanthium strumarium (Large cocklebur), 

Category 2 plants: These are plants that serve a commercial purpose, e.g. shelterbelt, building 

material, animal fodder, medicinal function etc. Plants may be grown and 

maintained in demarcated areas provided that there is a permit and that steps are 

taken to prevent their spread. 

Psidium guajava (Guava), Ricinus communis (Castor-oil plant) 

Category 3 plants: These are ornamentally used plants. These plants may no longer be planted, 

maintained or multiplied. Existing plants may remain, as long as all reasonable 

steps are taken to prevent the spreading thereof. They are not allowed within 30 

m of the 1:50 year flood line of water courses and wetlands. 

Melia azedarach (Seringa), Jacaranda mimosifolia (Jacaranda) 

These species should be controlled by mechanical and/or chemical means. Mechanical means include 

ringbarking (girdling), uprooting, chopping, slashing and felling. An axe or chain saw or brush cutter can 

be used. Stumps or ringbarked stems should be treated immediately with a chemical weedkiller (see 

references below). Follow-up treatment is sometimes needed. More information can be found in: 

Bromilow, C. 1995. Problem plants of South Africa. Briza Publications, Pretoria. 

Grobler, Hermien, J.B. Vermeulen and Van Zyl, Kathy. 2000. A guide to the use of herbicides. 17th 

edition. National Department of Agriculture. Formeset, Pretoria. 

Henderson, L. 2001. Alien weeds and invasive plants. Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook no. 

12, Agricultural Research Council, Pretoria. 

Ecoguard (Access): (011) 463 6057 

Poisonous plants 

These species are known to cause poisoning of livestock. However, game species are not necessarily 

affected in the same way. 

55

Dichapetalum cymosum, Solanum incanum, Solanum panduriforme, Gomphocarpus fruticosus, Acacia 

caffra, Opuntia ficus-indica, Senecio spp., Melia azedarach 

56

CHAPTER 9 

MONITORING 

Detecting ecological effects or ecological monitoring is the purposeful and repeated examination of the 

state or condition of the vegetation in relation to external stress. It is the frequent testing of differences 

between baseline or initial surveys and follow-up surveys. Ecological monitoring emphasizes changes in 

living organisms and not merely in the physical environment. A prerequisite in any monitoring programme 

are permanent reference sites, representative of what is considered necessary to be monitored and 

depending on the method adopted. 

A monitoring programme serves as an early warning system to detect changes or trends as a result of 

management actions, natural events or those areas where past mismanagement occurred with the goal to 

adapt management strategies where necessary. On a game ranch certain management actions are 

implemented and possible changes related to these actions should be monitored over time. 

Monitoring is important where changes are possible in the natural veld due to the application of new 

management programmes. The veld condition and economic capacity of all plant communities need to be 

monitored regularly when the number of animals increases, which could lead to overgrazing and changes 

in plant species composition. 

Aspects that need to be monitored are: 

1. climate (rainfall); 

2. veld condition in terms of plant species composition, species frequency, density and/or cover; 

3. economic and ecological carrying capacity; 

4. vegetation structure; 

5. the effects of water provision; 

6. the effects of bush encroachment and its control; 

7. veld reclamation measures such as soil erosion control; and 

8. game numbers, population growth, mortalities, game distribution, herd composition and birth 

rates. It was found that it is better and more cost effective to a certain extent to count the animals 

on a farm every three to four years, but then 2 to even 4 times during that specific year. 

Monitoring of veld condition is essential when adaptive management is applied on a game ranch. The aim 

is to determine whether a change in species composition, the ratio of decreasers, increasers and invaders 

57

and/or encroachment by woody species has occurred. Depending on the results of monitoring, decisions 

regarding changes in management actions can be taken. 

Methods 

Herbaceous component 

The wheel-point or step-point method, where 100 nearest plant records are recorded, is used to determine 

the plant species composition and species frequency, ratio of ecological status classes (decreasers and 

increasers) and ecological index (veld condition score). The nearest individual (forb or grass species) and 

the nearest perennial grass are recorded. The annual and perennial vegetation are recorded separately 

to provide for the large yearly variation in annual species composition and frequency in this arid area. If no 

plants are recorded within a 0.5 m radius from the point, it is recorded as bare soil. 

Biomass production 

The disc pasture meter is a suitable method to determine the grass production (fuel load) within most of 

the vegetation types on Marimani. 

Woody component 

A plot (transect) of 100 m long and 2.5 m wide is surveyed. A 100 m tape is placed on one side of the 

transect. All woody plants (shrubs and trees) within the transect are identified and their distance from the 

beginning of the transect, height, maximum canopy diameter in two directions, height of maximum canopy 

diameter measurement, height and diameter of lowest leaf material (in two directions) and stem diameter 

(see field form) are recorded. The number of stems is indicated and the diameter of the thickest stem 

measured. Measurements are done per 5 m sections on the tape i.e. each 5 x 2.5 m section constitutes a 

unit. 

An importance value is calculated for each species and profile diagrams can be drawn for each of the 

transects. 

The collected data are also suitable for the BECVOL model (Smit 1996). BECVOL describes the woody 

component quantitatively by determining the leaf volume and leaf mass of individual trees, density of the 

woody species and to analyse the structure of the vegetation. 

58

The BECVOL computer program is used to do the following calculations: 

Primary calculations (for each individual tree) 

Leaf volume, leaf dry mass (DM), ETTE (leaf volume equivalents of a 1.5 m single stem tree), 

BTE (leaf mass equivalent of a 1.5 m single stem tree) and area covered by the canopy. 

Secondary calculations: 

Values are calculated per hectare e.g. ETTE/ha, BTE/ha, DM/ha, plants/ha and CSI (canopied 

subhabitat index: canopy diameter of large trees in the transect expressed as a % of the total 

transect area). These values are calculated per species and per population. The browse capacity 

can also be calculated. 

Fixed point photography 

This is an essential component of monitoring. By taking photographs of the vegetation or landscape from 

the same point at regular intervals, a visual record is obtained which can later be subjected to objective 

analysis. The advantages derived from fixed-point photographs include the following: 

1 They provide a rapid means for assessing short and medium term trends in the vegetation, and 

therefore can have predictive value. 

2. They provide additional evidence for evaluating and interpreting the impact of various external 

influences on the vegetation. 

3. The method is cheap, easy to apply and provides a permanent record for re-examination when 

required. 

The disadvantage of the method is that it is difficult to quantify the results and therefore there is a lack of 

statistical analysis. 

GPS points 

GPS readings should be taken at the beginning and end point of each transect. A metal stake (dropper) is 

hammered into the soil at the beginning and end point of each transect and spray painted with red paint. 

The approximate positions of the plots (transects) should be indicated on a map and for each plot a 

localised map should be drawn to facilitate finding the site in future (Appendix F). 

59

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

Dr S.C.J. Joubert and the staff of Maremani, especially Ben Ferreira and Tommy Fourie are thanked for 

guidance, help and logistic support. Mapo for his excellent cooking and Thomas for helping with the 

surveys. My family for assistance in this project. 

60

REFERENCES 

ACOCKS, J.P.H. Veld types of South Africa. Mem. Bot. Surv. S. Afr. 57: 1-146. 

BOTHMA, J. DU P. (Ed). 1996. Game ranch management. J.L. van Schaik, Pretoria. 

BROMILOW, C. 1995. Problem plants of South Africa. Briza Publications, Pretoria. 

COE, M.J., D.H. CUMMING & PHILLIPSON. 1976. Biomass and production of large African herbivores in 

relation to rainfall and primary production. Oecologia 22: 341 354. 

DANCKWERTS, J.E. 1989. Sweetveld. In: DANCKWERTS, J.E. & TEAGUE, W.R. (Eds.). Veld 

management in the Eastern Cape. Department of Agriculture and Water Supply. Government 

Printer, Pretoria. pp. 140 - 148. 

DEKKER, B. 1996. Ekologiese skeiding tussen groot herbivore van die Messina-proefplaas, 

Limpopovallei. MSc verhandeling, Universiteit van Pretoria. 

DEKKER, B. 1997. Calculating stocking rates for game ranches: substitution ratios for use in the Mopani 

Veld. Afr. J. Range & Forage Sci. 14:62 - 67. 

DUBEL. 2000. Resource inventory. Integrated Environmental Services. 

ERASMUS, J.F. 1987. Rainfall deciles for Transvaal Region. S.I.R.I., Department of Agriculture and Water 

supply. Pretoria. 

GROBLER, HERMIEN, J.B. VERMEULEN and VAN ZYL, KATHY. 2000. A guide to the use of herbicides. 

17th edition. National Department of Agriculture. Formeset, Pretoria. 

HENDERSON, L. 2001. Alien weeds and invasive plants. Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook 

no. 12, Agricultural Research Council, Pretoria. 

KELLERMAN, T.S., COETZER, J.A.W. & NAUDE, T.W. 1988. Plant poisonings and mycotoxicoses of 

livestock in southern Africa. Oxford University Press, Cape Town. 

LAND TYPE MAPS. I.C.S.W. Government Printer, Pretoria. 

LOW, A & REBELO, A. 1998. Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Department of 

Environmental Affairs & Tourism, Pretoria. 

MOORE, A. & A. ODENDAAL. 1987. Die ekonomiese implikasies van bosverdigting en bosbeheer soos 

van toepassing op ‘n speenkalfproduksiestelsel in die doringbosveld van die Molopogebied. J. 

Grassl. Soc. Sth. Afr. 4: 139 - 142. 

PEEL, M. J.C., PAUW, & D.D. SNYMAN. 1994. The concept of grazer and browser animal units for 

African savanna areas. Bull. Grassl. Soc. S. Afr. 5: 61. 

SCHMIDT, A.G., G.K. THERON & W. VAN HOVEN. 1995. A comparison of some methods used to 

estimate the grazing capacity of a game ranch in Northern Province, South Africa. Koedoe 38: 

123 - 128. 

SNYMAN, D.D. 1991. Drakragnorme vir wildplase in die Mopanieveld, noord van die Soutpansberg. 

Navorsingsentrum vir Weiding. Departement van Landbou-ontwikkeling. 

61

TROLLOPE, W.S.W. & A.L.F. POTGIETER. 1986. Estimating grass fuel loads with a disc pasture meter in 

the Kruger National Park. J. Grassl. Soc. Sth. Afr. 3: 148 - 152. 

VAN OUDTSHOORN, F. 1999. Guide to grasses of southern Africa. Briza, Pretoria. 

VAN WYK, A.E. & P. VAN WYK. 1997. Field guide to trees of southern Africa. Struik, Cape Town. 

VORSTER, M. 1982. The development of the Ecological Index Method for assessing range condition in 

the Karoo. Proc. Grassld Soc. S. Afr. 17: 84 -89. 

WEATHER BUREAU. 1988. Climate of South Africa. WB 40. Government Printer, Pretoria. 

62

APPENDIX A 

PLANT SPECIES LIST 

The list is compiled from own surveys, the list from the PRECIS data bank at the National Herbarium, 

National Botanical Institute, and species identified in the report of DUBEL. 

The following plant species were recorded on Maremani and closely surrounding areas. Approximately 71 

tree species, 92 shrub species, 76 grass species, 7 sedge species, 9 geophytes, 30 succulents, 6 

parasites, 2 palm species, 2 fern species, 290 forb species and 14 alien species are listed. This 

represents a total of 599 species. It should be remembered that this list is not complete and collections 

should be made over all seasons to increase the present preliminary list. 

Trees 

Acacia caffra Common hook thorn Gewone haakdoring 

Acacia erioloba Camel thorn Kameeldoring 

Acacia erubescens Blue thorn Blouhaak 

Acacia grandicornuta Horned thorn Horingdoring 

Acacia luederitzii False Umbrella thorn Basterhaak-en-steek 

Acacia nigrescens Knob thorn Knoppiesdoring 

Acacia robusta subsp. clavigera Brack thorn Brakdoring 

Acacia robusta subsp. robusta Ankle thorn Enkeldoring 

Acacia senegal . var. leiorhachis Slender three-hook thorn Slapdoring 

Acacia tortilis subsp. heteracantha Umbrella thorn Haak-en-steek 

Acacia xanthophloea Fever tree Koorsboom 

Adansonia digitata Baobab Kremetart 

Afzelia quanzensis Pod-mahogany Peul-mahonie 

Albizia adianthifolia Flat-crown Platkroon 

Albizia anthelmintica Worm-bark false-thorn Wurmbasvalsdoring 

Albizia brevifolia Mountain false-thorn Bergvalsdoring 

Albizia harveyi Common false-thorn Bleekblaarboom 

Albizia versicolor Large-leaved false thorn Grootblaarvalsdoring 

Androstachys johnsonii Lebombo iron wood Lebombo ysterhout 

Annona senegalensis Wild custard-apple Wildesuikerappel 

Berchemia discolor Brown ivory Bruin-ivoor 

Berchemia zeyheri Red ivory Rooi ivoor 

Boscia albitrunca Shepherd’s tree Witgatboom 

Bridelia cathartica Blue sweetberry Blousoetbessie 

Cassia abbreviata Sjambokpod Sambokpeul 

Colophospermum mopane Mopanie Mopane 

Combretum apiculatum Red bushwillow Rooibos 

Combretum hereroense Russet bushwillow Kierieklapper 

Combretum imberbe Leadwood Hardekool 

63

Combretum molle Fluweelboswilg Velvet Bushwillow 

Combretum zeyheri Large-fruited bushwillow Raasblaar 

Commiphora edulis Rough-leaved corkwood Skurweblaarkanniedood 

Commiphora glandulosa Tall Common Commiphora Gewone kanniedood 

Commiphora marlothii Paperbark corkwood Papierbaskanniedood 

Commiphora mollis Velvet corkwood Fluweel kanniedood 

Commiphora neglecta Green-stem corkwood Groenstam kanniedood 

Commiphora pyracanthoides Common Corkwood Gewone kanniedood 

Commiphora tenuipetiolata White-stem corkwood Witstamkanniedood 

Commiphora viminea Zebra-bark corkwood Sebrabaskanniedood 

Croton gratissimus Lavender feverberry Laventelkoorsbessie 

Croton megalobotrys Large feverberry Grootkoorsbessie 

Diospyros mespiliformis Jackal-berry Jakkalsbessie 

Dombeya burgessiae Pink wild pear Persdrolpeer 

Entandrophragma caudatum Mountain mahogany Bergmahonie 

Ekebergia capensis Cape ash Witessenhout 

Faidherbia albida Ana tree Anaboom 

Ficus sycomorus Common cluster fig Gewone trosvy 

Ficus tettensis Small-leaved rock fig Kleinblaar rotsvy 

Garcinia livingstonei African mangosteen Laeveldse geelmelkhout 

Gyrocarpus americanus Propeller tree Helikopterboom 

Kirkia acuminata White seringa Witsering 

Lannea discolor Live-long Dikbas 

Lannea schweinfurthii var. stuhlmannii False marula Baster maroela 

Maerua angolensis Bead-bean tree Knoppiesboontjieboom 

Manilkara mochisia Lowveld milk berry Laeveldmelkbessie 

Olax dissitiflora Small sourplum Kleinsuurpruim 

Ozoroa paniculosa Common resin tree Gewone harpuisbos 

Pappea capensis Jacket-plum Doppruim 

Philenoptera violacea Apple-leaf Appelblaar 

Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia Kudu berry Koedoebessie 

Rothmannia capensis Cape Gardenia Kaapse katjiepiering 

Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra Marula Maroela 

Schotia brachypetala Weeping boer-bean Huilboerboon 

Steganotaenia araliacea Carrot tree Geelwortelboom 

Sterculia rogersii Common star-chestnut Gewone sterkastaiing 

Strychnos madagascariensis Black monkey orage Swart klapper 

Terminalia prunioides Lowveld cluster-leaf Sterkbos 

Terminalia sericea Silver cluster leaf Vaalboom, Sandgeelhout 

Xanthocercis zambesiaca Nyala tree Njalaboom 

Xeroderris stuhlmannii Wing bean Vlerkboon 

Ziziphus mucronata Buffalo thorn Blink-blaar-wag-‘n-bietjie 

Shrubs 

Acacia ataxacantha Flame thorn Vlamdoring 

Acacia mellifera subsp. detinens Black thorn Swarthaak 

Acacia nebrownii Sticky thorn Kleefdoring 

Acacia senegal var. rostrata Three-hook thorn Driehaakdoring 

Acacia stuhlmannii Vlei thorn Vleidoring 

64

Anisotes rogersii 

Balanites pedicellaris Small green thorn Kleingroendoring 

Bauhinia galpinii Pride-of-the-Cape Vlam-van-de-Kaap 

Boscia foetida subsp. rehmanniana Stink shepherd’s tree Stinkwitgat 

Bridelia mollis Velvet sweetberry Fluweelsoetbessie 

Cadaba aphylla Rooi-storm 

Caesalpinia gilliesii 

Capparis tomentosa Wooly caper bush Wilde Kapperbos 

Catophractes alexandri Trumpet thorn Trompetdoring 

Cissus cornifolia 

Clerodendrum glabrum Tinder wood Tontelhout 

Cocculus hirsutus 

Combretum mossambicense Knobbly creeper Knoppiesklimop 

Combretum paniculatum Flame creeper Vlamklimop 

Commiphora africana Hairy corkwood Harige kanniedood 

Commiphora angolensis Sand corkwood Sandkanniedood 

Commiphora schimperi Glossy-leaved corkwood Blinkblaarkanniedood 

Cordia grandicalyx Round-leaved saucer-berry Rondeblaarpieringbessie 

Croton menyhartii 

Cordia caffra Septee tree Septeeboom 

Cordia monoica Snot berry Snotbessie 

Croton pseudopulchellus Small lavender fever berry Kleinlaventelkoorsbessie 

Dalbergia melanoxylon Zebra wood Sebrahout 

Dichapetalum cymosum Poison leaf Gifblaar 

Dichrostachys cinerea Sickle bush Sekelbos 

Dioscorea cotinifolia Wild yam Olifantsvoet 

Diospyros lycioides Bluebush Bloubos 

Ehretia amoena Sandpaper bush Skurweblaarbos 

Ehretia obtusifolia 

Ehretia rigida Puzzle bush Deurmekaarbos 

Euclea divinorum Magic quarri Towerghwarrie 

Euclea natalensis Natal guarri Natalghwarrie 

Euclea polyandra 

Ficus abutilifolia Large-leaved rock fig Grootblaarrotsvy 

Flacourtia indica Governor’s plum Goewerneurspruim 

Flueggea virosa White-berry bush Witbessiebos 

Gardenia resiniflua Resin gardenia Harpuiskatjiepiering 

Gardenia volkensii Savanna gardenia Bosveldkatjiepiering 

Gossypium herbaceum subsp. africanum Wild cotton Wilde katoen 

Grewia bicolor White raison Witrosyntjie 

Grewia hexamita Giant raisin Reuse rosyntjie 

Grewia flava Velvet raisin Fluweelrosyntjie 

Grewia flavescens Sandpaper raison Skurwe rosyntjie 

Grewia monticola Silver raisin Vaalrosyntjie 

Grewia retinervis Kalahari sand raisin Kalahari sand rosyntjiebos 

Grewia subspathulata 

Grewia sulcata 

Grewia villosa Mallow raison Malvarosyntjie 

Gymnosporia buxifolia Common spike-thorn Gewone pendoring 

Gymnosporia pubescens 

65

Gymnosporia senegalensis Red spike-thorn Rooipendoring 

Halleria lucida Tree fuchsia Notsung 

Heteromorpha stenophylla var. transvaalensis 

Hexalobus monopetalus Shakama plum Shakamapruim 

Hippocratea africana var. richardiana 

Hippocratea longipetiolata 

Hippocratea parvifolia 

Jasminum fluminense 

Lannea edulis 

Lantana rugosa Bird’s brandy Wilde salie 

Maerua parvifolia 

Markhamia zanzibarica Bell bean tree Klokkiesboontjieboom 

Mundulea sericea Cork bush Kurkbas 

Nuxia oppositifolia Water elder Watervlier 

Obetia tenax Mountain nettle Bergbrandnetel 

Ochna inermis Stunted plane Kreupelrooihout 

Pechuel-Loeschea leubnitziae Wild sage 

Phyllanthus reticulatus Potato bush Aartappelbos 

Pluchea dioscoridis 

Plumbago zeylanica Plumbago 

Portulacaria afra Porkbush Spekboom 

Pouzolzia mixta Soap-nettle Seepnetel 

Psiadia punctulata 

Psydrax livida Green tree Groenboom 

Pyrostria hystrix Porcupine bush Ystervarkbos 

Rhigozum zambeziacum Mopane pomegranate Mopaniegranaat 

Salvadora australis Narrow-leaved mustard tree Smalblaarmosterdboom 

Schotia capitata 

Sesamothamnus lugardii Transvaal sesame bush Transvaal sesamebos 

Sesbania sesban 

Solanum coccineum 

Tarenna supra-axillaris Narrow-leaved false bride’s bush Smalblaarbasterbruidsbos 

Tinnea rhodesiana 

Vangueria infausta Wild medlar Wilde mispel 

Vernonia cinerascens 

Ximenia americana Blue sourplum Blousuurpruim 

Zanthoxylum capense Small knobwood Kleinperdepram 

Grasses 

Ecological 

status 

Acracne racemosa 

Andropogon gayanus Blue grass Blougras I1 

Andropogon shinensis Hairy blue grass Harige blougras I1 

Aristida adscensionis Annual three-awn Eenjarige Steekgras I2c 

Aristida congesta subsp. congesta Tassel three-awn Katstertsteekgras I2c 

Aristida congesta subsp. barbicollis Spreading three-awn Lossteekgras I2c 

Aristida meridionalis 

Aristida cf. pilgeri 

Giant three-awn Langbeensteekgras I2b 

66

Aristida rhiniochloa Rough three-awn Skurwesteekgras I2c 

Aristida spectabilis I2c 

Aristida stipitata Long-awned three-awn Langnaaldsteekgras I2c 

Aristida transvaalensis Rock three-awn Klipgras I1 

Bothriochloa radicans Stink grass Stinkgras I2b 

Brachiaria deflexa False signal grass Vals sinjaalgras D 

Brachiaria brizantha Common signal grass Broodsinjaalgras I2a 

Brachiaria erusiformis Sweet signal grass Litjiessinjaalgras I2c 

Brachiaria nigropedata Black-footed signal grass Swartvoetjiegras D 

Cenchrus ciliaris Blue buffalo grass Bloubuffelsgras D 

Chloris roxburghiana Plume chloris Pluim chloris I2a 

Chloris virgata Feathered grass Witpluimgras I2a 

Cynodon dactylon Couch Grass Kweekgras I2c 

Dactyloctenium giganteum Giant crowfoot Reuse hoenderspoor I2a 

Dactyloctenium aegyptium Common crowfoot Hoenderspoorgras I2c 

Danthoniopsis dinteri Mountain grass Berghawer I2a 

Digitaria eriantha Finger grass Vingergras D 

Digitaria milanjiana 

Digitaria sanguinalis Crab finger grass Kruisvingergras 

Digitaria seriata 

Digitaria velutina Flaccid finger grass Slapvingergras I2a 

Diplachne fusca Swamp grass Kuilgras D 

Eleusine coracana Goose grass Osgras I2c 

Enneapogon cenchroides Nine-awned grass Negenaaldgras I2b 

Enneapogon scoparius Bottlebrush grass Kalkgras I2c 

Enneapogon spathaceus 

Enteropogon macrostachyus Mopane grass Mopaniegras D 

Eragrostis annulata 

Eragrostis aspera Rough love grass Grootpluim eragrostis I2c 

Eragrostis cilianensis Stink love grass I2c 

Eragrostis curvula Weeping Love Grass Oulandsgras I2b 

Eragrostis cylindriflora 

Eragrostis gummiflua Gum grass Gomgras I2b 

Eragrostis lehmanniana Lehmann’s Love Grass Knietjiesgras I2a 

Eragrostis porosa 

Eragrostis rigidior Broad-leaved curly leaf Breë krulblaar I2b 

Eragrostis rotifer Pearly love grass I2a 

Eragrostis superba Saw-toothed love grass Weeluisgras I2a 

Eragrostis trichophora Hairy love grass Harige pluimgras I2c 

Eragrostis viscosa Sticky love grass Klewerige eragrostis I2c 

Eriochloa meyeriana Black-footed water grass D 

Fingerhuthia africana Thimble grass Vingerhoedgras D 

Heteropogon contortus Spear Grass Assegaaigras I2a 

Hyperthelia dissoluta Yellow thatching grass Geeltamboekiegras I1 

Melinis repens Natal Redtop Natal Rooipluim I2b 

Oropetium capense Dwarf grass Haasgras I2c 

Panicum coloratum White buffalo grass Witbuffelsgras D 

Panicum deustum Broad-leaved panicum Breëblaarbuffelsgras D 

Panicum maximum Guinea grass Buffelsgras D 

Panicum natalense Natal panicum Suurbuffelsgras D 

67

Phragmites australis Common Reed Fluitjiesriet I2a 

Pogonarthria squarrosa Herringbone Grass Sekelgras I2c 

Schmidtia pappophoroides Sand quick Sandkweek D 

Setaria incrassata Vlei Bristle grass Vleimannagras D 

Setaria sagittifolia Arrow grass Pylblaargras I2a 

Setaria verticillata Bur Bristle grass Klitsgras I2c 

Sporobolus consimilis 

Sporobolus ioclados Pan dropseed Panfynsaadgras D 

Sporobolus panicoides Christmas tree grass Kersboomgras I2a 

Sporobolus pyramidalis Catstail dropseed Katstertfynsaadgras I2c 

Stipagrostis hirtigluma Blue bushman grass Blouboesmangras I2b 

Stipagrostis uniplumis Silky bushman grass Blinkaarboesmangras I2a 

Tetrapogon tenellus 

Tragus berteronianus Carrot seed grass Wortelsaadgras I2c 

Tricholaena monachne Blue-seed grass Blousaadgras I2a 

Urochloa mosambicensis Common signal grass Bosveldbeesgras I2b 

Urochloa brachyura 

Urochloa panicoides Garden signal grass Tuinbeesgras I2c 

Sedges 

Bulbostylis hispidula Fynbiesie Slender sedge 

Coleochloa pallidior 

Cyperus rupestris 

Cyperus sexangularis 

Kyllinga alba Witbiesie 

Mariscus rehmannianus 

Schoenoplectus corymbosus 

Geophytes 

Camptorrhiza strumosa Froetang 

Crinum minimum 

Crinum buphanoides 

Dipcadi papillatum 

Gladiolus oatesii 

Ledebouria revoluta 

Pancratium tenuifolium Aandblommetjie 

Scadoxus multiflorus 

Trachyandra saltii 

Succulents 

Adenia fruticosa subsp. simplicifolia 

Adenia repanda 

Adenia spinosa Olifantsvoet 

Adenium multiflorum Impala lily Impala lelie 

Aloe chabaudii 

Aloe globuligemma 

Aloe littoralis 

68

Aloe lutescens 

Aloe marlothii 

Cissus quadrangularis 

Cyphostemma segmentatum 

Cyphostemma schlechteri 

Cyphostemma spinosopilosum 

Euphorbia cooperi 

Euphorbia malevola 

Euphorbia monteiri subsp. ramosa 

Euphorbia schinzii 

Euphorbia transvaalensis 

Hoodia sp. cf. currorii 

Huernia zebrina subsp. magniflora 

Kleinia longiflora 

Monadenium lugardiae 

Orbeopsis valida 

Sansevieria aethiopica Bowstring hemp Aambeiwortel 

Sansevieria hyacinthoides 

Sansevieria pearsonii 

Sarcostemma viminale 

Stapelia gettliffei 

Stapelia kwebensis 

Tinospora fragosa 

Parasites 

Alectra orobanchoides 

Alectra sessiliflora 

Tapinanthus leendertziae Mistle toe Voëlent 

Tapinanthus sambesiacus Mistle toe Voëlent 

Viscum combreticola Mistle toe Voëlent 

Viscum rotundifolium Mistle toe Voëlent 

Palms 

Hyphaene coriacea Ilala palm Lalapalm 

Hyphaene petersiana Real fan palm Opregte waaierpalm 

Ferns 

Pellaea calomelanos 

Selaginella dregei Resurrection selaginella 

Forbs 

Abutilon angulatum var. macrophyllum 

Abutilon angulatum var. angulatum 

Abutilon austro-africanum 

Abutilon fruticosum 

Abutilon grandiflorum 

69

Abutilon pycnodon 

Abutilon ramosum 

Abutilon rehmannii 

Acalypha indica 

Achyranthes aspera 

Acrotome inflata 

Ageratum conyzoides 

Alternanthera pungens 

Amaranthus thunbergii 

Antherothamnus pearsonii 

Anticharis linearis 

Apium graveolens 

Aptosimum elongatum 

Aptosimum lineare 

Aptosimum marlothii 

Asparagus africanus 

Asparagus aspergillus 

Asparagus bechuanicus 

Asparagus cooperi 

Asparagus nodulosus 

Asparagus suaveolens 

Barleria affinis 

Barleria albostellata 

Barleria bremekampii 

Barleria crossandrifolius 

Barleria elegans 

Barleria holubii 

Barleria lancifolia 

Barleria prionitis 

Barleria rogersii 

Barleria transvaalensis 

Barleria senensis 

Becium filamentosum 

Bergia salaria 

Blepharis aspera 

Blepharis diversispina 

Blepharis pruinosa 

Blepharis subvolubilis 

Boerhavia coccinea 

Boerhavia diffusa 

Calostephane divaricata 

Caralluma lugardii 

Cardiospermum corindum 

Cardiospermum halicacabum 

Celosia trigyna 

Cephalaria pungens 

Ceratotheca sesamoides 

Ceratotheca triloba 

Chamaecrista absus 

Chamaecrista stricta 

70

Chamaesyce inaequilatera 

Chamaesyce neopolycnemoides 

Chascanum incisum 

Cissampelos mucronata 

Cleome angustifolia subsp. petersiana Wild cleome 

Cleome oxyphylla 

Cleome hirta 

Cleome monophylla 

Clerodendrum ternatum 

Coccinia rehmannii 

Commelina benghalensis 

Commelina eckloniana 

Commelina erecta 

Commicarpus helenae 

Commicarpus pentandrus 

Commicarpus pilosus 

Commicarpus plumbagineus 

Conyza scabrida 

Corallocarpus triangularis 

Corbichonia decumbens 

Corchorus asplenifolius 

Corchorus kirkii 

Corrigiola litoralis 

Crotalaria brachycarpa 

Crotalaria damarensis 

Crotalaria laburnifolia 

Crotalaria schinzii 

Crotalaria steudneri 

Crotalaria podocarpa 

Cucumis africanus Wild cucumber Wilde komkommer 

Cucumis zeyheri 

Cyathula lanceolata 

Dalechampia galpinii 

Decorsea schlechteri 

Dicerocaryum eriocarpum 

Dicerocaryum senecioides 

Diclis petiolaris 

Dicoma tomentosa 

Dissotis princeps 

Endostemon tenuiflorus 

Endostemon tereticaulis 

Erianthemum ngamicum 

Evolvulus alsinoides 

Fadogia homblei 

Felicia clavipilosa subsp. transvaalensis 

Felicia mossamedensis 

Flaveria bidentis 

Geigeria acaulis 

Geigeria burkei Vermeersiektebossie 

Gisekia africana 

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Glinus bainesii 

Glinus lotoides 

Glinus oppositifolius 

Gomphostigma virgatum 

Harpagophytum procumbens subsp. transvaalense 

Harpagophytum procumbens 

Helichrysum argyrosphaerum 

Helichrysum candolleanum 

Helictotrichon turgidulum 

Heliotropium ciliatum 

Heliotropium giessii 

Heliotropium ovalifolium 

Heliotropium steudneri 

Heliotropium strigosum 

Heliotropium zeylanicum 

Helixanthera garciana 

Hemizygia albiflora 

Hemizygia elliottii 

Hemizygia petiolata 

Hemizygia petrensis 

Hermannia glanduligera 

Hermannia modesta 

Hermannia stellulata 

Hermbstaedtia fleckii 

Hermbstaedtia linearis 

Hermbstaedtia odorata 

Hibiscus calyphyllus 

Hibiscus engleri 

Hibiscus meyeri 

Hibiscus micranthus 

Hibiscus platycalyx 

Hibiscus sidiformis 

Hibiscus subreniformis 

Hirpicium bechuanense 

Hirpicium gorterioides 

Holubia saccata 

Hybanthus enneaspermus 

Hypertelis salsoloides 

Indigastrum costatum 

Indigofera astragalina 

Indigofera bainesii 

Indigofera circinnata 

Indigofera daleoides 

Indigofera filipes 

Indigofera flavicans 

Indigofera heterotricha 

Indigofera ingrata 

Indigofera oxalidea 

Indigofera schimperi 

Indigofera sordida 

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Indigofera torulosa 

Indigofera trita 

Ipomoea albivenia 

Ipomoea crassipes 

Ipomoea magnusiana 

Ipomoea obscura 

Ipomoea tenuipes 

Jamesbrittenia huillana 

Jatropha spicata 

Jatropha zeyheri 

Justicia betonica 

Justicia flava 

Justicia matammensis 

Justicia odora 

Justicia protracta 

Kohautia caespitosa 

Kohautia cynanchica 

Kyphocarpa angustifolia 

Lagarosiphon muscoides 

Lagynias lasiantha 

Leucas glabrata 

Leucas neuflizeana 

Limeum fenestratum 

Limeum sulcatum 

Limeum viscosum 

Litogyne gariepina 

Lotononis bainesii 

Lotononis curtii 

Lotus mossamedensis 

Marsdenia macrantha 

Megalochlamys kenyensis subsp. australis 

Megalochlamys revoluta subsp. cognata 

Melanospermum foliosum 

Melhania acuminata 

Melhania forbesii 

Melhania rehmannii 

Mollugo cerviana 

Monechma debile 

Monechma divaricatum 

Monsonia glauca 

Monsonia senegalensis 

Neorautanenia amboensis 

Nesaea schinzii 

Neuracanthus africanus 

Nidorella resedifolia 

Ocimum americanum 

Otholobium polyphyllum 

Pachystigma thamnus 

Pavonia burchellii 

Pegolettia senegalensis 

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Pergularia daemia 

Peristrophe cliffordii 

Peristrophe decorticans 

Petalidium aromaticum 

Petalidium aromaticum var. canescens 

Petalidium oblongifolium 

Phaeoptilum spinosum 

Philyrophyllum schinzii 

Phyla nodiflora 

Phyllanthus burchellii 

Phyllanthus maderaspatensis 

Phyllanthus parvulus var. garipensis 

Phyllanthus pinnatus 

Plectranthus tetensis 

Plicosepalus kalachariensis 

Polygala sphenoptera 

Polygonum plebeium 

Polypogon monspeliensis 

Portulaca kermesina 

Priva africana 

Pseudoconyza viscosa 

Pseudognaphalium luteo-album 

Pterodiscus ngamicus 

Ptycholobium contortum 

Pulicaria scabra 

Pupalia lappacea 

Rhinacanthus xerophilus 

Rhynchosia minima var. prostrata 

Rhynchosia minima 

Rhynchosia sublobata 

Rhynchosia totta 

Rhynchosia venulosa 

Schizaea pectinata 

Secamone parvifolia 

Seddera capensis 

Seddera suffruticosa 

Selago cecilae 

Senecio apiifolius 

Senecio pleistocephalus 

Senna italica subsp. arachoides Wild senna/eland’s pea Swartstorm 

Sericorema remotiflora 

Sericorema sericea 

Sesamum alatum Wild sesame Wilde sesame 

Sida chrysantha 

Sida cordifolia Flannel weed Hartblaartaaiman 

Sida dregei 

Sida rhombifolia 

Solanum coccineum 

Solanum incanum 

Solanum kwebense 

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Solanum panduriforme Poison apple Gifappel 

Solanum renschii 

Sphaeranthus peduncularis 

Sphedamnocarpus pruriens 

Stomatanthes africanus 

Stomatostemma monteiroae 

Streptopetalum serratum 

Stylosanthes fruticosa 

Tavaresia barklyi 

Tephrosia limpopoensis 

Tephrosia longipes 

Tephrosia polystachya 

Tephrosia polystachya var. hirta 

Tephrosia purpurea 

Tephrosia villosa 

Thesium mossii 

Tieghemia rogersii 

Tragia rupestris 

Tribulus terrestris Dubbeltjie 

Tribulus zeyheri Dubbeltjie 

Tricliceras glanduliferum 

Typha capensis 

Vahlia capensis 

Vernonia amygdalina 

Vernonia cinerea 

Vernonia fastigiata 

Vernonia glabra 

Vernonia sutherlandii 

Vigna unguiculata 

Waltheria indica 

Xenostegia kentrocaulos 

Xenostegia palmata 

Xerophyta humilus 

Xerophyta viscosa 

Zornia milneana 

Alien (exotic) species 

Achyranthes aspera Burweed Grootklits 

Agave americana Sisal Garingboom 

Ageratum conyzoides Ageratum Ageratum 

Argemone ochroleuca Mexican poppy Bloudissel 

Datura ferox Large thorn apple Grootstinkblaar 

Datura innoxia Downy thorn apple Harige stinkblaar 

Datura stramonium Common thorn apple Gewone stinkblaar 

Jacaranda mimosifolia Jacaranda Jakaranda 

Melia azedarach Seringa Maksering 

Nerium oleander Oleander Selonsroos 

Nicotiana glauca Wild tobacco Wildetabak 

Opuntia ficus-indica Sweet pricly pear Turksvy 

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Opuntia aurantiaca Jointed cactus Litjieskaktus 

Psidium guajava Guava Koejawel 

Ricinus communis Castor-oil plant Kasterolieplant 

Xanthium strumarium Large cocklebur Kankerroos 

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the vegetation types and veld condition - Maremani Nature Reserve

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