Jatropha (Jatropha sp.

) kernel meal and other jatropha products

Common names

Jatropha, physic nut, purging nut, pulza, nettlespurge [English]; pourghère, pignon d'Inde, médicinier
[French]; coquillo, template, piñon, piñoncillo, piñol, tártago [Spanish]; mundubi-assu, turgueira
[Portuguese]; mupuluka [Angola]; fagiola d'India [Italian]; Chi Dầu mè [Vietnamese]; ጃትሮፋ [Amharic];
‫[ جتروفا‬Arabic]; দন্তীi, দন্তিগাছ [Bengali]; 麻疯树属 [Chinese]; जत्रोफा [Hindi]; サンゴアブラギリ
[Japanese]; दं ती, कातरी [Marathi]; Ятрофа [Russian]; யட்ரோஃபா [Tamil]; జట్రోఫా [Telugu]

Products: jatropha kernel meal, jatropha oil meal, jatropha oil cake, jatropha seed meal, jatropha shells,
jatropha hulls

Species

Jatropha curcas L. ; Jatropha platyphylla Müll. Arg. ; Jatropha tanjorensis Ellis & Saroja [Euphorbiaceae]

Synonyms

Synonym for Jatropha platyphylla Müll. Arg.: Jatropha peltata Sassé

Feed categories

Oil plants and by-products Toxic plants

Related feed(s)

Description

Jatrophas are oil plants belonging to the Euphorbiaceae family. The Jatropha genus includes more than
175 species, among which Jatropha curcas L. and Jatropha platyphylla Müll. Arg. have drawn particular
attention as potential biofuel and animal feed sources. Jatropha curcas has both toxic and non-toxic
genotypes while Jatropha platyphylla is a non-toxic species (Makkar et al., 2012).
The jatropha plant

Jatrophas are drought-resistant perennial and multipurpose shrubs or trees, similar to the cassava plant
(Elbehri et al., 2013). Jatropha is a deciduous tree, shedding its leaves during the dry season. It can grow
to a height of 3-5 m, and remains productive for 30 to 50 years. Jatropha has a deep taproot and four
shallow lateral roots. The taproot anchors the plant in the soil, stabilizing the soil against landslides, and
the lateral roots prevent soil erosion. The trunk is covered with a smooth grey bark that exudes watery
and sticky latex when cut. The leaves are smooth, 4-6 lobed, 10-15 cm long and wide, and are usually
pale green in colour (Raheman, 2012). Inflorescences develop at the apex of the branches and bear
approximately 10 or more ovoid fruits (pods) (Makkar et al., 2012). Flowers and fruits develop during the
rainy season or year-round in permanently humid regions. The pods contain many elliptic seeds and
become yellow when they mature. Dry jatropha fruits contain about 38% husks and 62% seeds. The
seeds look like castor seeds in shape, and are black in colour (Raheman, 2012). They consist of 30-40%
testa (shells) and 60-70% kernels. The kernels contain 44-62% oil (King et al., 2009).

Most Jatropha species, including Jatropha curcas, contain numerous toxic components and the plant and
its by-products, when not detoxified, are deleterious to humans and livestock. One species, Jatropha
platyphylla is non-toxic and is eaten by indigenous people in the Sinaloa State of Mexico, who call it
"sangregrado". This species has thick succulent branches and its leaves, borne on long petioles, are
glabrous and larger (25-35 cm) than those of Jatropha curcas. Its seeds are almost circular and contain
50-60% edible oil (Makkar et al., 2011).

Jatropha utilisation

Jatrophas are multipurpose plants. The name jatropha was derived from the Ancient Greek words iatros
(doctor) and trophos (feed) because of its many potential medicinal applications (Elbehri et al., 2013).

Jatropha seed oil is used to make soap, lubricants, varnish, insecticides or medicines (Raheman, 2012). It
has good feedstock qualities for biodiesel production. Jatropha biodiesel meets European Union
(EN14214) and North American standards (ASTM D6751) (Makkar et al., 2012).

Jatropha oil cake (oil kernel meal) results from the oil extraction of decorticated seeds. It can be used as
fertilizer or as feedstock in biogas production. Jatropha kernel meal is a protein-rich product, but only
kernel meal obtained from non-toxic genotypes of Jatropha curcas, from the non-toxic species Jatropha
platyphylla, or detoxified kernel meal from toxic genotypes of Jatropha curcas can be safely used as feed
resources (Makkar et al., 2012). Jatropha seed meal is obtained after the extraction of non-dehulled
seeds.

Jatropha plants are used to make fences and shelter to protect from animals, wind or erosion (Elbehri et
al., 2013).

Jatropha roots yield an oil that has anthelmintic properties.

Jatropha leaves are used as feed in the rearing of silkworms, and in human nutrition as a vegetable for
their antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties (Makkar et al., 2009).

Whole seeds of the non-toxic genotype are sometimes boiled or roasted and eaten as a snack by
humans.

Jatropha latex is used as dye or as a pesticide/molluscicide.

The fruit hulls can be used as green manure or to produce biogas.

The rise and fall of jatropha as a source of biofuel

In the 2000s, the cultivation of jatropha was encouraged in many developing countries in order to
provide both renewable energy and supplementary incomes (Promode Kant et al., 2011). By 2010, about
250 jatropha projects were running worldwide on a total area of around 900 000 ha (Elbehri et al.,
2013). In India, millions of marginal farmers and landless people were encouraged to plant jatropha. In
2006, the Chinese Government decided to grow jatropha over 1 million ha of marginal lands. In Tanzania,
more than 10,000 small farmers established jatropha plantations and many more have done so
elsewhere in East Africa (Promode Kant et al., 2011). However, the results have been disappointing. In
India, 85% of the jatropha farmers have discontinued growing it (Axelsson et al., 2011). In China, there is
very little production of biodiesel from Jatropha seeds. In Tanzania, the results are very unsatisfactory:
the net present value of a five-year investment in a jatropha plantation was negative, with a loss of US$
65 per ha on lands with yields of 2 t/ha of seeds when the expected jatropha seed yield on poor barren
soils is only 1.7 to 2.2 t/ha (Promode Kant et al., 2011). This "extraordinary collapse of jatropha as a
global biofuel" has been ascribed by analysts to an overestimation of jatropha capabilities, as the species
is not yet sufficiently adapted to cultivation to provide sustainably high yields and economic returns,
together with a lack of diligence in implementing nationwide cultivation plans (Axelsson et al., 2011;
Promode Kant et al., 2011).

Distribution

Jatropha is thought to have originated from tropical America (Mexico). It could have been introduced to
other regions from the Caribbean by Portuguese sailors travelling to Cape Verde and Guinea Bissau. It is
now available in many arid, semiarid, tropical and subtropical regions of the world as it is able to thrive
in many climatic zones with a wide range of rainfall (200 to 1200 mm annual rainfall) (Raheman, 2012).
Jatropha is well adapted to arid and semiarid conditions. It can grow on marginal lands with limited
water and agrochemical supply but will not yield enough seeds in such conditions (Elbehri et al., 2013;
Raheman, 2012; Brittaine et al., 2010). Jatropha does better in areas with 1000-1500 mm annual rainfall,
temperatures of 20-28°C with no frost, and where the soils are free-draining sands and loams with no
risk of waterlogging (Elbehri et al., 2013; Raheman, 2012). However, it grows on almost any type of soil
including gravelly, sandy, stony or rocky soils and in the crevices of rocks where soil depth and fertility
are very low. It responds positively to fertilizer or manure with added calcium, magnesium and sulfur. For
economic returns, a soil with moderate fertility is preferred (Raheman, 2012).

Processes

After harvesting, jatropha fruits are dehusked and the seeds are sun-dried and then shelled. The kernels
are pressed for oil extraction, resulting in a protein-rich jatropha kernel meal.

Detoxification

Because jatropha kernel by-products contain many toxic and antinutritional substances, different
processes have been developed to mitigate toxicity or poor feed efficiency. These processes have been
extensively reviewed by Makkar et al., 2012. Further methodological information on solvent and
meal:solvent ratio can also be found in Makkar et al., 2012.

Chemical treatments Effects Reference

Ethanol (80%) or methanol (92%) Saponins and phorbol esters reduced by 95% after four
extractions Makkar et al., 1997

Moist heating at 121°C for 20 minutes Total inactivation of trypsin inhibitors Makkar et al., 1997

Alkaline methanol + heat treatment Phorbol ester reduction and trypsin inhibitor inactivation
Makkar et al., 2010b

Methanol Phorbol ester reduced by 100% Pighinelli et al., 2012

Ethanol (unknown dose) followed by NaHCO3 treatmentLectin inactivation and phorbol esters reduced
by 97.9% Makkar et al., 2012

Ethanol (95%) at 35°C + heating with pressurized steam at 90°C for 30 minutes + sun-drying and further
autoclaving at 121°C for 30 minutes Phorbol esters and antinutrients were still activeChivandi et al.,
2006

Petroleum ether extraction Phorbol esters reduced by 67.7% in kernels Chivandi et al., 2004

Solid-liquid extraction with a sequential combination of hexane and methanol Phorbols esters reduced
by 99.6% Gaur, 2009

Double solvent extraction with methanol/ethanol (50/50 for 8h) Phorbol esters reduced by 97.30%
(down to 0.10 mg/g) in cake Guedes et al., 2014

Double solvent extraction followed by moist heat treatment Phorbol esters reduced by 70.8% in
kernels Chivandi et al., 2004

Double solvent extraction + wet extrusion, re-extraction with hexane and moist heat treatment Phorbol
esters reduced by 87.7% in kernels Chivandi et al., 2004

Heat treatment + bentonite + zinc oxide + NaHCO3 (4%) Phorbol ester content reduced to 0.05-0.04
mg/g (lower than in non toxic jatropha varieties)Sadubthummarak et al., 2013

CaOH (2%) Phorbol esters reduced by 90% in meal Rakshit et al., 2007

NaHCO3 or NAOH (3%) Phorbol esters reduced by 55% in meal Elangovan et al., 2013

NaHCO3 or NAOH (3%) Curcin reduced by 100%Elangovan et al., 2013

Biological treatments Effects Reference

Solid state fermentation of seed cake with white-rot fungi Bjerkandera adusta or Phlebia rufa Phorbol
esters reduced by 91% and 97% respectively de Barros et al., 2011

Solid state fermentation of seed cake with Pseudomonas aeruginosa PseA strain within 9 days under
30°C, pH =7 and 65% relative humidity Phorbol esters reduced to undetectable level Joshi et al.,
2011

In 2010, a process involving meal heat treatment, alkali treatment (up to pH=11), acid treatment (down
to pH=8) with short-chain alcohol (for precipitation) was able to reduce phorbol esters below 3 mg/kg,
thus allowing the use of the detoxified jatropha kernel meal in animal feeding and the production of a
detoxified jatropha protein isolate (Makkar et al., 2010b).

Forage management

Jatropha is a fast-growing plant that can be propagated either by seedlings (generative method) or direct
planting of cuttings (vegetative method) (Raheman, 2012).

Cultivation

Jatropha cuttings can be planted directly in the field, in nursery beds, or in polyethylene bags, during the
rainy season, at 10-20 cm depth in the soil. When jatropha plants develop from cuttings, they produce
many branches but yield fewer seeds and have not enough time to develop their taproot, which makes
them sensitive to wind erosion. Presoaked seeds (24 h in cold water), directly sown in wet soil or in seed
beds under nursery conditions at the beginning of the rainy season are advisable for seed production.
Jatropha can be easily intercropped with shade-tolerant plants, legume seeds such as black gram (Vigna
mungo), and vegetables, such as tomato, bitter gourd (Momordica charantia), pumpkin, and cucumber
can be profitably grown under jatropha plants for the first two years. Irrigation and fertilizers are
beneficial during the establishment period. After establishment, irrigation is not necessary but fertilizer
should be applied every year during the productive period. Pruning should be done to promote
branching and subsequent fruit yield (Raheman, 2012).

Harvest and yields

Depending on climatic conditions, jatropha may be harvested twice in a year under semiarid conditions,
or continuously in more humids areas. Fruits have to be handpicked and harvest is time-consuming.
Jatropha seed yields are variable, depending on growing conditions: in degraded land with low inputs,
yields were reported to range from 1 to 2.5 t/ha/year; in fertile soils with high inputs jatropha could
produce 2 to 5 t/ha/year (Elbehri et al., 2013). It has been noted that even on adequately fertile soils,
jatropha is no match for sunflower and that the hugely variable yields have contributed to its decline in
the early years of the present century (Promode Kant et al., 2011).

Environmental impact

Soil erosion control and wind shelter

Jatrophas, because of their taproot and lateral roots, can play two important roles in soil preservation.
Lateral roots protect soil from heavy rains and provide soil cohesion, decreasing soil erodibility (Reubens
et al., 2011; Henning, 2009). The deep taproot extracts subsurface soil moisture and enhances vegetative
cover or allows intercropping, even in very dry environments. Planting jatropha in lines to form contour
bunds improves rainwater infiltration. Jatropha hedges reduce wind erosion by reducing wind velocity
and by binding the soil with their surface lateral roots (Henning, 2009).

Live fence

Jatropha is used as a living fence in many tropical and subtropical countries. Jatropha leaves are not
eaten by livestock: goats would die of starvation rather than browsing jatrophas. When jatropha is
intended for live fences, jatropha cuttings are planted as a hedge to protect homes, gardens and fields
from wandering animals. Hedges planted very close together (5 cm) form a barrier that is impenetrable
even by chickens (Henning, 2009).