Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1 2010
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To my late nephew, Michael Gismondi,
and to my two sons, Ryan Dharius Pennacchio and
Aiden Michael Pennacchio (MP).
P
lants are essential for human life. They provide the food, shelter, medicines, and
biomass necessary for sustainable livelihoods. Virtually all of our food comes
directly or indirectly from plants. More than three-quarters of the world’s
people use plants as their primary source of medicine. Plants form the framework
and productive base of most natural communities, thus protecting watersheds and
topsoil and maintaining our atmosphere. They sequester carbon, a factor of increas-
ing importance as carbon dioxide contributes to global climate change. Plants also
enhance our daily lives through their beauty and symbolism. We achieved our pres-
ent levels of civilization following a history of millions of years among plants and
depending on them.
Aside from food, one of the earliest and often overlooked uses of plants was the
production of smoke, dating back to the time of early hominid species. Plant-derived
smoke has had an enormous socioeconomic impact throughout human history.
Plants have been burned for medicinal and recreational purposes, magico-religious
ceremonies, pest control, food preservation and flavoring, and perfumes.
Despite the negativity and health concerns associated with smoking, the use of
plant-derived smoke is an important cultural trait that should be documented. More
than 1,400 plant species have been used globally for over 2,000 reported uses. This
book is easy to read and provides a wealth of information on the uses, and users, of
smoke. It contains numerous interesting facts highlighting the importance of plant-
derived smoke to humans.
S
moking has such a tarnished image these days that it is easy to overlook the
enormous socioeconomic impact that all plant-derived smoke has had through-
out our history. For countless generations, humans and their earlier ancestors
have burned close to 1,500 species of plants specifically for the smoke they produce.
Many, like tobacco, cannabis, and jimsonweed, have a long history of use for medici-
nal or self-indulgent purposes. Others have yielded important resins that have been
burned as incense during religious and other ceremonies. Plants that produce and
carry hallucinatory substances in smoke have also found use during religious rituals,
often helping spiritual guides and shamans to communicate with the spirit world and
gods. These are among the oldest known uses for plant-derived smoke. Many other
plants were burned to drive away annoying pests and evil spirits or to preserve and
flavor foods and other items.
In the past, smokable plants and their substances have been in such high demand
that they have diverted the course of history, have given rise to powerful organiza-
tions, both legitimate and illegitimate, and have been fiercely fought over in devastat-
ing wars. Plants such as these have generated wealth beyond avarice for the people
and groups that provide them to the masses. Nowhere is this more evident than in
today’s world, where products such as tobacco are a major source of revenue to gov-
ernments and industry alike. One thousand years earlier, it was the resins of strag-
gly bushes—frankincense and myrrh trees—of southern Oman that made humans
rich and powerful. Knowledge of the use of these plants is an important culture trait
that deserves to be documented and preserved regardless of the negative stereotypes
assigned to smoke.
This is the first book of its kind and one that should appeal to botanists, ethno
scientists, pharmacologists, anthropologists, historians, theologians, and plant lovers
alike. It is unique in that it lists uses that are only possible after plant material has been
burned. To our knowledge, few of the plants listed in this book have been studied for
novel compounds that arise from the combustion of their parts. A whole new class of
compounds quite possibly awaits discovery.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A
book such as this cannot be written without the generous help and support of
many people, all of whom we would like to sincerely thank. Deserving special
mention is Carol Line, Executive Director of Fernwood Botanical Garden and
Nature Preserve in Michigan. Thanks also to Leora Siegel, Director of the Chicago
Botanic Garden Library, and all her staff and volunteers for their assistance, and to
Christine Giannoni and her staff at the Field Museum Library, Chicago, Illinois. Susan
Otto at the Milwaukee Public Museum, Wisconsin, is thanked for assistance with
photographs of Native Americans. We thank Fred Keusenkothen and Chris Freeland
of the Missouri Botanical Gardens for helping us obtain an image of Boswellia carteri
from their rare book collection. Libraries in Illinois, Missouri Botanical Gardens, and
throughout the United States assisted greatly with interlibrary loans. The editors and
staff at Oxford University Press also deserve special mention. They made the entire
process of publishing a book a smooth and enjoyable one, always offering friendly
and useful advice.
We would also like to acknowledge the enormous contribution that Samuel J. Gold-
man, a volunteer at the Chicago Botanic Garden, has made to this project. He assisted
with research and provided us with valuable editorial advice. Bob Meyer, also a vol-
unteer at Chicago Botanic Garden, was instrumental in helping us with illustrations.
The following people are similarly thanked for reading parts or all of the manuscript:
Associate Professor Emilio L. Ghisalberti, Chemistry Department, The University
of Western Australia; Raymond Wiggers, Lake Forest College, Illinois; Dr. Connie
Locher, School of Pharmacy, Curtin University of Technology, Western Austra-
lia. Connie is also thanked for translating German texts; Domenico D’Alessandro,
President, D’Alessandro & Associates, Inc.; Andrea Kramer, Chicago Botanic Garden;
Kristen Kordecki, Chicago Botanic Garden; Mary Stupen, Chicago Botanic Garden;
Marley and Michael Sackheim, volunteers at Chicago Botanic Garden.
Thanks to Dr. Peter Babulka for providing valuable information on plant use in
Hungary and for translating Hungarian texts. We thank Mary and Andy Barr, Perth,
Western Australia, for helping with Australian ethnobotany and photographs. Dr. Erna
V. Lukina, also a volunteer at Chicago Botanic Garden, is thanked for translating Rus-
sian texts. We thank Dr. Sarah J. Moore of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical
Medicine for information on mosquito and insect repellents. Lorraine Wilcox pro-
vided us with information and references to moxibustion. Dr. Dorie Reents-Budet,
Consulting Curator for Precolumbian Art at the Mint Museums in Charlotte, North
Carolina, is thanked for confirming the identity of Tlaloc on the vase in the Balank-
anche cave and for other useful information. We thank Chris Moerhart of Northwest-
ern University, Evanston, Illinois, for help in obtaining additional references. Susanne
Masi, Chicago Botanic Garden, is thanked for providing us with the photo of Aster
novae-angliae. We would also like to acknowledge Randy Hetzel for loaning us his
books, which got us started on this project, and for some of the photographs.
The following people helped in various ways with the preparation of this book:
Dr. Katie Belisle-Iffrig; Ms. Xiu Yuxia (Lily); Judy Cashen, Manager of Volunteer Ser-
vices; Gail Kushino; Luisa Miller; Boyce Tankersley; Monica Vachlon; Lydia Kupsky;
Lori Sollenberger; and Dr. Charlotte Gyllenhaal. We thank our family and friends
for supporting us, especially Antonia (Toni), Onorina, Diodato, Danny, and Palmina
Pennacchio for helping with photographs. Juan de la Cruz and Ruperto of Ek Balam,
Mexico, are thanked for incense information and photographs. Finally, we would like
to acknowledge the wonderful and generous support of the staff and members of the
Plant Conservation Alliance, especially Ms. Margaret Peggy Olwell.
xii Acknowledgments
CONTENTS
Introduction 1
1 Fire and Smoke
3 Medicinal Uses for Plant-Derived Smoke
9 Magico-Religious and Ceremonial Uses
15 Recreational Uses
20 Pest Control
23 Perfumes, Flavoring, and Preservation
25 Veterinary Uses
26 Toxic and Obnoxious Smoke
27 Unspecified Uses
28 Seed Germination
28 List of Plants
List of Plants 31
References 179
Glossary 211
Species Index 217
Subject index 233
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U S E S A N D A B U S E S O F P L A N T- D E R I V E D S M O K E
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INTRODUCTION
F
ire has played a dominant role in the development of this planet (Pyne 2001).
During its approximately 400-million-year reign on Earth, it has radically altered
the global landscape and affected many of the organisms that exist on it. Especially
affected are the plants that provide it with the very fuel and oxygen it needs to survive.
Where fires are a common occurrence, there have been wholesale changes to the struc-
ture of the local communities. Fire-prone ecosystems tend to be dominated by plant
types that are resistant to its effects or are dependent on it for their existence. Nowhere
is this more apparent than in grassland ecosystems, where trees rarely survive fires,
allowing the grasses that do survive to dominate the vegetation (Vogl 1974).
Equally significant is the association that humans have formed with fire. By pro-
viding us with a source of light and a means to keep warm, it has allowed us to
colonize land on every corner of the planet. This in turn may have facilitated fire’s
own spread to places where it would not have occurred naturally. Throughout the
millennia, it has enabled us to explore new foods and diets and therefore may have
played a role in our own evolution and development. In more recent times, we have
learned how to use fire to tap into the vast reservoirs of energy that are locked up in
organisms that perished long ago. The effect that this has had on our technological
advancement has been phenomenal, making it possible for us to reach for the skies
and beyond. Ironically, the abuse of fire now also threatens the very existence of
some of the life on Earth. The huge, dark plumes of smog that hang ominously over
many of our large cities are a major cause of pollution and concern. If left unad-
dressed, it will most likely continue to contribute to the decline and loss of biodiver-
sity on Earth (Wilson 1999).
Fire also possesses the ability to liberate many of the fragrant and therapeutic
chemical agents that are locked up in the plants and other organisms that it so readily
consumes. These substances, the vast majority of which are secondary metabolites,
have provided us with many economically and socially important products. These
chemicals, often lacking clearly defined roles in nature, have found their way into our
medicine cabinets, meditation rooms, and onto supermarket shelves. This has gener-
ated enormous revenues for governments and industry alike and has provided many
cultures with a variety of tools with which to survive. It is almost impossible to begin
to estimate the enormous socioeconomic impact that some of these natural products
have had on our way of life. Frankincense and myrrh, for example, once commanded
1
such high prices that their value may have at one stage exceeded that of gold. These
commodities alone probably accrued more wealth for the Arabian people in ancient
times than oil does today (Roberts 1998).
Despite what is already known about the natural products released during the com-
bustion of plant materials, it is not yet clear when humans first started burning plants
specifically for these purposes. The very nature of smoke and its uses almost entirely
preclude them from the kind of preservation necessary to determine their place in
our history. It is not unreasonable to propose, however, that the human use of plant-
derived smoke probably commenced shortly after our ancestors learned how to make
and control fire. Hominid species, such as Homo erectus, had already mastered this art
(Kempe 1988). These early humans used fire to warm their caves, provide light, cook
their food, and no doubt, to produce smoke that kept annoying insects and other pests
at bay. The use of plant-derived smoke may therefore date back 1.6 million years or
more. Since its inception, 1,460 plant taxa with 2,383 ethnobotanical uses from 125
countries have been reported and are included in this book. There are likely more.
It is not possible, in a survey of this type, to produce a complete or exhaustive list
of all the plants used by humans. The relevant information is not always readily acces-
sible. Occasionally, ethnobotanical surveys have been reported in ancient texts, as well
as in research theses, conference proceedings, and local journals. Adding to the prob-
lem, some of the information may be reported in a foreign language and has to be
translated, adding to the cost and time needed to gather it. Fortunately, the Internet
has improved and sped up the way we collect data. With its powerful search engines,
it enables researchers to sift through thousands of journals and theses that would once
have required visiting several libraries. Furthermore, a number of ancient texts have
been digitized and can now be downloaded from appropriate Web sites. Many of those
in foreign languages have been translated and can also be accessed through the Net.
Another excellent source of information is the interlibrary loan (ILL) system. The
ILL is part of the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC), in which more than
71,000 libraries in 112 countries have agreed to share their resources and make them
available to their users (see www.oclc.org/us/en/default.htm). Through it, we were
able to obtain hundreds of journal articles, books, and conference proceedings. This
can, in many cases, incur a cost, which may or may not be covered by the researchers’
libraries. The authors of this book were also able to access a number of relevant jour-
nal articles through JSTORE (for more information, see www.jstor.org) and Google
Books. Information obtained through the latter was usually tracked down using
interlibrary loans. Some books were purchased.
Furthermore, it is not always possible to verify the information reported in the
literature. In those cases, it was assumed that the information reported was correct.
For example, one of the assumptions we often made was that the plants mentioned
in the surveys were correctly identified. Plant identifications are usually conducted in
the field by ethnobotanists and other researchers and later confirmed by appropriate
authorities and taxonomists. Often, researchers will deposit a voucher specimen in a
local herbarium so that other interested parties can check it.
The competence of the people conducting the ethnobotanical surveys in the field
is also an important consideration. Did they witness the use of the plants themselves,
or was the information collected through interviews? In the latter case, did they
ask the right questions, and did they consult the right person or persons? Did the
researchers perform a long-term study, in which they may have either lived or worked
Introduction 3
Table 1. Ethnobotanical and ecological uses for plant-derived smoke.
Categories of Use Uses Reported Total Plants Used
Note: Many of the plant species have multiple uses, and so totaling the number of plants for each category of use will result
in 1,781 taxa, which is higher than the actual total of 1,460. The same applies to the number of uses. The last category, No
specified use, lists all those plants in which the use for their smoke was not described. See Unspecified Uses near the end
of the Introduction.
Figure 1. Indigenous
Australians often used
plant-derived smoke
to strengthen newborn
babies and their mothers.
“Welcoming the
Newborn” by Patricia
Marrfurra McTaggart
from the Nauiyu
Community (Daly River,
Australia). Photograph
courtesy of Mary and
Andy Barr.
Smoke treatments such as these have also found use for terminating pregnancies.
A number of polyherbal recipes with abortifacient properties were reported, with
cannabis (Cannabis sativa; Merzouki et al. 2000) and maize (Zea mays; Gémes 1987)
among the more interesting ingredients. Other recipes required the addition of poi-
son hemlock (Conium maculatum), a plant commonly known for its toxic effects.
Perhaps equally as fascinating is the burning of onion (Allium cepa) and pigeon feces
to induce abortion through vaginal fumigations, as listed in ancient Indian Ayurveda
texts (Venkataraghavan and Sundaresan 1981). In Hungary, a related bulb, garlic
Introduction 5
also served as an essential ingredient in a variety of witchcraft recipes that induce
feelings of flight and other surreal sensations. The modern-day concept of witches
riding brooms may have derived from those feelings. According to anecdotal stories,
it could also have originated following the use of broom handles to apply vaginal
salves prepared from various Datura species.
Datura stramonium was one of the more commonly used Datura species. This
annual herb grows along roadsides and pastures and in waste areas. Its country of ori-
gin has long been the subject of debate. Notable botanical writers, such as Alphonse
de Candolle (DC.) in his Géographie Botanique of 1855, suggested that the species
was indigenous to the Old World. Thomas Nuttall (Nutt.), in contrast, suggested that
South America or Asia was its more likely center of origin. In more recent times,
Symon and Haegi (1991) have reported that jimsonweed is a New World plant that
probably originated in Mexico and has, since circa the 1700s, slowly migrated north
(Warwick 1990) into North America, where it is now a naturalized and noxious weed.
Its spread into Europe is thought to have occurred sometime around the first century
a.d., when datura-smoking Roma people introduced it there.
Also uncertain is the origins of the species epiphet, stramonium. The generic name
was derived from the Hindu word dhatura, which itself was from the Sanskrit word
for the Indian species Datura fastuosa, d’hastura. The common or vernacular name,
jimsonweed, is believed to be a corruption of the name of the small U.S. Virginia town
Jamestown. In 1676, a detachment of British troops was sent to the town to quell a
rebellion known as Bacon’s Rebellion. In 1705, a Virginian farmer, Robert Beverly,
writing about the slave society that was emerging in Virginia at the start of the eigh-
teenth century, commented that some of the soldiers sent to quell the rebellion added
jimsonweed leaves to their salad (Beverly 1705). He claimed that they went crazy for
11 days, sparing the folks at Jamestown any punishment. Several centuries earlier,
Mark Anthony’s troops may also have suffered a similar fate, falling victim to this or
a closely related species.
Datura use has been reported all over the world but was especially important
in India, where it was considered a sacred plant to the Hindu god Shiva Nataraja
(figure 2). The sculpture depicting the icon is one of India’s best-known works of art
and most recognized images (Kaimal 1999). In the sculpture, the four-armed Shiva
is performing a dance in a ring of fire. Below Shiva’s foot is the dwarf of ignorance,
Apasmara. Nestled in Shiva’s hair is the goddess Ganja, who is a personification of the
Ganges River. Also among the locks of hair are a crescent moon and a datura blos-
som. The smoking of jimsonweed and other Datura species for the relief of asthma is
believed to have originated in the East Indies and from there was spread throughout
Europe and beyond by an English army general.
Datura leaves are usually rolled into cigarettes or smoked in a pipe. Many of
the compounds produced by these species are toxic, therefore restricting their
use. Chief among these are the tropane alkaloids, hyoscyamine, hyoscine, atropine
(D, L-hyoscyamine), and scopolamine (L-hyoscine) (Ellenhorn and Barceloux
1988; Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). These have been referred to as mydriatic alka-
loids because they cause the pupils of the eyes to dilate (Leete 1959). Asthma-
relieving properties are due to atropine, which paralyzes the pulmonary branches
of the lungs, eliminating spasms produced during asthma attacks. These effects are
palliative in nature and therefore only treat symptoms of asthma without leading
to a cure.
Low doses of alkaloids are usually absorbed by smoking Datura species but are
considered extremely dangerous nevertheless. The medical literature abounds with
reports of deliberate or inadvertent poisonings resulting from smoking jimsonweed
and other related species (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). Accidental poisonings have
even occurred as a result of ingesting honey made from Datura species (Ramirez
et al. 1999). Most poisonings occur, however, in teenagers who explore the mind-
altering properties of the smoke. Symptoms of poisoning include mydriasis, cyclo-
pegia, dry skin, dry mouth, urinary retention, tachycardia, delirium, and respiratory
arrest (Winchester 1990). The onset of these symptoms usually occurs within 30 to
60 minutes of smoking the plants (Gilman 1990). Effects can last from 24 to 48 hours
but have been known to persist for up to 2 weeks (Gilman 1990). The lethal nature of
these compounds has thus resulted in worldwide smoking bans for jimsonweed and
related species and is thus not recommended here.
Purification
Although many plants were smoked to treat human illnesses, others have served as
disinfectants and purifying agents to remove illnesses from human surroundings or
prevent them from becoming established there. This is an ancient practice whose ori-
gins have long since faded from human memories. Early records of ancient Egyptian
disinfectants include frankincense, myrrh, and cinnamon bark (Manniche 1989), all
of which are still used today. Several species were used in this capacity throughout
the world. However, none are historically more important and better known than the
fumigations reported from Athens circa 400 b.c.
During the 27-year period from 431 to 404 b.c., Greece’s capital was under siege
by two enemies. Sparta, Corinth, and other members of the Peloponnesian Confed-
eracy had waged war against Athens, killing many of its citizens in the bloody battles
that ensued. Those who managed to survive the war lived only to face an even greater
horror. With little or no regard for rank, sex, race, or religion, a mysterious plague
threatened Athens, exposing the entire populace to risk. Among the many it killed
was the great Greek statesman Pericles. Were it not for Athens’s medical fraternity, the
death toll may have been even higher.
Introduction 7
Despite detailed accounts of the plague by the renowned Greek historian Thucy-
dides, medical historians have yet to identify the agent responsible for the epidemic.
To this day, no known diseases fit the descriptions in Thucydides’ writings. Smallpox
and typhus have both been suggested, but there is still much debate and speculation
(Retief and Cilliers 1998). Even less certain is the identity of the individual who freed
Athens from the clutches of its epidemic. For centuries, the man most directly accred-
ited for the city’s salvation was Hippocrates of Cos (460–377 b.c.), the man many
consider the father of modern medicine. Notable historians and physicians, including
Pliny the Elder of Como (a.d. 23–79), Galen of Pergamum (a.d. 130–201), and Aetius
of Amida (a.d. 502–575), all reported that Hippocrates lit large bonfires in the streets
of Athens to purify the unhealthy air, or miasma, that existed in the city at that time
(Pinault 1986). Juniper berries (Juniperus sp.) were among several herbal ingredients
used to fuel the fires (Milliken and Bridgewater 2004). Interestingly, though, there
was no mention of Hippocrates in any of Thucydides’ works, throwing into question
his role in Athens’s salvation (Pinault 1986). Acron may have ordered the fires accord-
ing to Oribasius of Pergamum (a.d. 320–400).
At least 27 junipers were burned for the use of their smoke, making this genus one
of the most widely used for that purpose. This is not surprising given the widespread
and abundant distribution of the genus. The common juniper (J. communis), for
example, has the largest northern circumpolar distribution of any conifer, extending
further into the northern biotic zone than all others (Rousseau 1974). Smoke-related
uses for this and other junipers range from airing out sickrooms, treating colds, add-
ing flavor to food, perfuming houses and other items, driving away annoying insects,
assisting with childbirth, acting as tonics that gave people greater endurance, and
driving away evil. In parts of Italy, juniper smoke was regularly burned to keep evil
at bay (Pieroni and Giusti 2002). Evil-deterring smoke treatments such as these often
prevented or cured a variety of illnesses as well. Evil and illness are so intimately
intertwined in some cultures that there is often no clear distinction between the two.
Introduction 9
Various researches have suggested that visions seen by the Pythia during her divi-
nations may have been caused by a variety of potentially toxic natural gases escaping
from fissures in the ground. These include light hydrocarbons, such as ethylene and
ethane, which have been used as anesthetics and known to produce similar visions to
those reported by the oracles (Spiller et al. 2002). Fumigations from several known
hallucinogenic plants have also been implicated. These may have been burned below
the mantic chamber (manteion), with the fumes vented up through the hole to the
Pythia whenever she was called on to commune with the gods. Several hallucinogenic
plants, including white henbane (Hyoscyamus albus), jimsonweed (Datura stramo-
nium), mandragora (Atropa mandragora), and hemp (Cannabis sativa), have all been
suggested as likely sources for the smoke-based hallucinogens (Stefanis et al. 1975;
Rätsch 1987). Another possible herbal source for the visions was the laurel tree (prob-
ably Laurus nobilis), apparently a favorite of Apollo. The Pythia may have fumigated
herself with its smoke or chewed its leaves prior to her divinations (Littleton 1986).
At the very least, these would have prepared her for her inquiries.
The use of plant-derived smoke for magico-religious and ceremonial uses such as
these is its second largest category of use and almost certainly one of its oldest (table
1). Its origins probably date back to when religious beliefs and fire commenced rou-
tinely coexisting with humans. To early humans, the sight of smoke slowly spiraling
toward the heavens must have given it important religious significance, especially if
it induced psychedelic hallucinations. Prayers were carried aloft to the gods on fumes
from humans’ fires, petitioning them for favors and protection. To this end, Native
Americans burned the leaves of Hierochloe odorata to summon guardian spirits that
protected members of their tribes from thunder and lightning (Foster and Hobbs
2002). In Africa, the Pokot of northern Kenya believed that the smoke of burning Mae-
rua subcordata leaves could prevent and stop earthquakes (Timberlake 1987). In South
Africa, the Zulu fanned plant-derived smoke over their plant fields, believing it was a
fertility charm that promoted better yields in the subsequent season’s crops (Hutchings
et al. 1996). The use of smoke to promote germination was observed elsewhere, includ-
ing in North America during the 1600s and in several contemporary ecosystems.
Incense
Plant materials burned for magico-religious and similar purposes are often referred
to as incense—a word meaning “to set on fire.” Incense use is an ancient practice that
is widespread throughout the world. In traditional Buddhist rituals, for example, the
burning of plant materials for their fragrant smoke is used to accompany meditations,
for heightening self-awareness, and for freeing oneself from negative states of mind. In
other cultures, it is used to accompany prayer, to worship gods, to purify and perfume
the air, and also to release negative vibrations, or “vibes.” Incense reportedly can uplift
the emotional state, ward off evil spirits, induce trances, and invoke the goodwill of
ancestors. Other religions, including the Catholic Church, routinely burn incense dur-
ing important ceremonies (figure 3). Given such an extensive repertoire of uses, most of
the plants listed in this compendium could quite easily be classified as incense materials,
and almost 400 are. These were all reported as incense in original texts and have simi-
larly been reported as such here.
In its broadest sense, incense is any material that is burned or volatilized to emit
fragrant fumes (Groom 1981). Narrower meanings refer to incense as frankincense
and myrrh, or just frankincense, but will not be used in that way here. Records of
Introduction 11
Figure 4. The Arabian incense trail. Adapted from Langenheim (2003).
bering in the thousands of animals transported the precious cargo across Arabia to
processing plants in Alexandria, west of Gaza (figure 4). Their incredible journey
started in the south of Oman, in Dhofar, and in other nearby regions of Arabia Felix,
or Happy Arabia. Conditions there were ideal for the growth of frankincense and
myrrh trees. Once harvested, the resins were shipped on boats the short distance
from Dhofar to Qana, also in southern Oman. There they returned to land and were
loaded on “ships of the desert” (camels) bound for Alexandria. The actual route taken
may have changed several times due to bandits, sandstorms, and the imposition of
taxes in many of the towns through which the caravans passed.
In Alexandria, the incense was processed prior to being transported to Greece,
Rome, and Mesopotamia. Workers at the processing plants were stripped naked at
the end of each day and searched for stolen incense. By approximately 24 b.c., incense
and other goods were shipped aboard Arabian dhows from southern Oman to Myos
Hormos and other Egyptian ports, ending the incense trail and the long caravans that
traveled its course. Eventually, the trade itself faded into obscurity. Prior to its demise,
the demand for frankincense and myrrh made them among the most precious sub-
stances on Earth (Roberts 1998). According to the legend of the three wise men, or
Magi (Balthasar, Melchior, and Gaspar), gold, frankincense, and myrrh were so pre-
cious they were presented to the Christ child upon his birth (Matthew 2:11). The gold
represented the emblem of royalty, and frankincense symbolized divinity. Myrrh was
associated with Christ’s persecution and death (Groom 1981).
Incense-Producing Plants
Frankincense and myrrh are oleo-gum resins produced by trees of the torchwood fam-
ily, Burseraceae. There are currently 18 recognized genera in this family, with approxi-
mately 700 species in all. The torchwood family is characterized by resin ducts, of which
there are many types in various places in plants (Langenheim 2003). Frankincense, also
known as olibanum, was traditionally less valuable than myrrh but was in greater demand
Introduction 13
Figure 5. (top) Ancient Mayan ruins, like those at Ek
Balam, Mexico, were sites where incense was burned in
copious amounts.
Recreational Uses
Depending on whom you consult, tobacco is both a blessing and a curse. The nega-
tive publicity surrounding cigarette smoking has made it such a socially unacceptable
habit in some parts of the world that it is easy to ignore its place in our history. To
the Native Americans who discovered tobacco several thousands of years ago, it was
a sacred and important plant that had a profound effect on their lives (Brown 1989;
figure 9), both positive and negative. Prior to Christopher Columbus setting foot in
the Americas in 1492, tobacco use was already widespread and well entrenched in
Native American mythology and folklore (Asch 1994). Its use dates back to 2500 b.c.
(Pearsall 1992). Tobacco was one of only a few plant species that Native Americans
cultivated and used as bartering agents. It was an important component during many
important religious ceremonies, meetings, and hunting sessions and was often used
in peace pipes as a flag of truce (Carver 1778; Zeisberger 1779). It was also used to
drive away evil (figure 10). Moreover, tobacco was considered potent medicine.
Early American colonial almanacs reported that tobacco smoke was a useful remedy
for earache and toothache and for relieving convulsions (Wesley 1836). In Louisiana, the
Introduction 15
Figure 9. Tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) has
for millennia been important to Native
Americans. In 1941, John Mink, a member
of the Ojibwa tribe of Wisconsin, smokes
tobacco in a pipe. Photograph by Robert E.
Ritzenthaler. Courtesy of Milwaukee Public
Museum.
Choctaw blew its smoke over patients bitten by snakes because it was believed to alle-
viate the pain and treat the wound (Bushnell 1909). Native North American shamans
used it to drive diseases out of their patients (Seig 1999). To settle colicky babies, the
Ozarker of the Ozark Plateau in the American Midwest blew tobacco smoke through
their milk (Liebert 1987). Tobacco smoke was also widely rumored to provide protec-
tion against malaria for plantation slaves (Romans 1962). Many other uses are listed
in this book. Interestingly, it was for its medicinal uses that tobacco use was first intro-
duced into Europe and, from there, to the rest of the world (Singer 1913).
One of tobacco’s earliest European advocates was France’s minister (a form of
ambassador) to Portugal Jean Nicot. Having learned about its curative powers from
members of Christopher Columbus’s crew, Nicot immediately sent seeds and instruc-
tions on how to grow and use tobacco to his queen, Catherine de Medici. This former
Introduction 17
Figure 11. Smoking the
cigarettes of the Indian
working class, bidis.
Photograph courtesy of
Jorge Reverter.
members of the sect, a schism of the Shiite branch of Islam, had sworn to live, die,
and kill at the command of their leader, Hasan ibn-Sabah. For centuries, their name,
Hashshashins, was thought to have been the result of their alleged use of hashish.
However, Martin Booth (2003) believes that the sect got its name for other reasons
and that it was unlikely that its soldiers smoked hashish prior to engaging their
enemies. Cannabis use was widespread in the region at that time but was mostly for
medicinal and spiritual purposes. That ibn-Sabah’s famous elite fida’i foot soldiers,
whose reputation chilled the blood of even battle-hardened warriors, smoked hash-
ish when preparing to kill makes little sense. Not only was it unlikely to render them
more murderous but also probably would have clouded their judgment and dimin-
ished their abilities to fight. Regardless, their fierce reputation and name, Hashshash-
ins, later gave rise to a new word in European parlance: assassin.
Many of the plants that were smoked for their psychotropic, narcotic, or sedative
properties have similar stories that make for fascinating reading. In 1844, William
Cornwallis Harris reported that sorcerers in Abyssinia (now Ethiopia) forced youth
suspected of stealing to smoke dried jimsonweed (Datura stramonium) leaves, subdu-
ing them to the point where they were more amenable to confessing (Harris 1844).
Bedouin thieves in Egypt, in sharp contrast, used the smoke of burning Hyoscyamus
muticus leaves to dope their victims so they could steal from them with little or no
resistance (personal communication by Kassas in Osborn 1968). In parts of South
America, the leaves of Brugmansia species, a genus closely related to the daturas,
were mixed with tobacco and given to women and slaves to deaden their senses prior
to being buried alive with their dead husbands or masters (Avery 1959). All these
narcotics have reputations that are well deserved, but there is one that stands above
all others: opium.
Humans started regularly smoking opium in China approximately 300 years ago
(Booth 1996). Opium is obtained in sap form after the unripe seedpods of the opium
poppy, Papaver somniferum, are scratched. Its use, however, may date back to the
time of the Egyptian pharaohs, with one of the oldest known samples of opium dis-
covered in the Temple of Cha. Records of opium use appear in early herbals and
engravings, including the Ebers Papyrus of Egypt and in ancient Greek and Roman
Introduction 19
with Chinese immigrants. Only in the quiet confines of dimly lit opium dens did smok-
ers find refuge from loud noises and bright lights, neither of which are tolerated during
a state of narcosis. They were also considered ideal meeting places, especially in China.
Brothels were quick to realize the potential of the new market and began offering opium
as part of their service (Xun 2004). Most smokers preferred to lie on a bed or mat when
they smoked the narcotic. This was not necessary but convenient because they usually
fell into a deep sleep that lasted from minutes to hours depending on how much opium
they had smoked. Many of its users claimed that their “trips” helped them transcend to
new heights of intellect and consciousness. Upon awaking, they felt calm, subdued, and
in a state of lassitude with no aftereffects, such as hangovers.
Cocaine is also well known for its use as an illicit drug. Cocaine powder, obtained
from the coca plant, Erythroxylon coca, is usually inhaled through the nose as a sul-
phate derivative. In more recent times, it has been smoked to induce its euphoric
effects. Cocaine can, however, only be smoked if it is chemically converted into freebase
cocaine. The name crack cocaine is also commonly used and may have derived from the
sound that freebase cocaine makes when it is burned (Castoldi 2004). When smoked,
the alkaloid is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream, inducing an almost immediate
effect. The introduction of crack cocaine during the 1980s, and its subsequent popular-
ization by celebrities, has opened the door for a whole new class of cocaine users.
Alkaloids, such as cocaine from the coca plant, morphine from opium, and the
tropanes of Datura species, have a therapeutic basis to account for their properties.
However, not all compounds are pharmacologically active, even though they may
seem that way to some users. In a 1967 issue of the highly influential 1960s under-
ground newspaper, the Berkeley Barb, it was reported that smoking the charred scrap-
ings of banana peels (Musa acuminata) induced psychedelic visions. The origins of
that story are uncertain but may have been inspired by Donovan Leitch’s song “Mellow
Yellow.” The rest of the media quickly seized on the story, forcing the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration to investigate. The government agency concluded that smoking
banana peels did not induce psychedelic visions. The “effects” experienced by many
of its users were not due to chemical substances but rather to psychic suggestibility
(Bozzetti et al. 1967). Similar household items have been smoked throughout the
world for various reasons. Sun-dried plantains, a relative of bananas, were smoked
for pleasure in Nigeria (Okiy 1960). Others include mangoes, oranges, peaches, coco-
nuts, rice, cinnamon, fennel, oats, oregano, mints, rosemary, turmeric, and cashews.
A total of 156 plants from 69 countries were used for 267 recreational purposes.
Pest Control
Insects and other pests have annoyed humans personally since we first appeared on
this earth. They have tormented us with their bites, stings, and venoms and are vec-
tors for some of the deadliest diseases known. Their ability to congregate, often in
plague proportions, has also resulted in losses to agriculture totaling in the billions of
dollars. To combat these pests, humans have resorted to a variety of different pesti-
cides and pest repellents. Synthetic compounds, such as DEET, are used throughout
the world and are still effective agents after more than 50 years in use (Fradin 1998).
Others, like DDT, were just as effective but wreaked such havoc with our environ-
ment that they had to be abandoned.
Synthetic agents like these are mostly used in developed countries that can afford
to buy them. Poorer third world nations have had to rely on natural substances
Introduction 21
Common household items can also be burned to control pests (figure 12). In
Papua New Guinea, the smoke of burning coconut husks (Cocos nucifera) was used
to drive away two disease-causing mosquito species (Vernede et al. 1994; figure 13).
Wild mango wood and betel nut leaves were similarly considered useful. In Kenya,
rice husks were deliberately burned to repel mosquitoes (Ongore et al. 1989), and in
Ghana and Sierra Leone, orange peels were burned (Aikins et al. 1994). The smoke
of burning coffee beans tested positive for its mortality on honeybees and a species
of tracheal mite (Eischen and Vergara 2004). Its active principle, caffeine, and other
related methylxanthines are considered natural insecticides. Similarly, maize (Zea
mays) smoke was also lethal to the bees and mites (Eischen and Vergara 2004). Other
useful plants include hemp (Cannabis sativa), reported for its insect repellent proper-
ties in Hungary (Vajkai 1943), and tobacco (Nicotiana spp.). The active compound in
tobacco leaves, nicotine, is commonly used in greenhouses as a fumigant to kill soft-
bodied insects and other pests (Rechcigl and Rechcigl 1999). In rural Malawi, locals
burned green grass to repel insects (Rubardt et al. 1999).
Introduction 23
Figure 14. Like most uses for plant-derived smoke, the preservation and flavoring of various foods,
containers, and animal hides are ancient practices. Photograph by Robert E. Ritzenthaler. Courtesy of
Milwaukee Public Museum.
the smoke that was used. Early archeological records discovered in an Irish site close
to the River Bann, where fish may have been preserved with smoke, date back to the
second millennium b.c. (Wilson 1991).
Seventy-one plant species were reportedly useful in preserving and flavoring foods.
Relatives of frankincense and myrrh trees were commonly used in Africa. Another
interesting species was kewda (Pandanus fascicularis). The male spadices, which are
often considered flowers, were important sources of income and perfumery products
in India (Dutta et al. 1987). For more than 200 years, kewda was used to make soaps,
bouquets, lotions, and hair oils. It was also used in the preparation of incense sticks
(agarbatties), for scenting clothes, and for flavoring tobacco (Nicotiana spp.), betel,
and food.
To dilute or mask the taste and effects of tobacco, a variety of plant species have
been smoked with them. Almost 100 plants were used for this purpose, many by
Native Americans who smoked the harsh wild tobacco N. rustica. The native Algon-
quin word for these mixtures and blends was kinnikinnick. This term should not be
confused with the bearberry plant, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, which was also smoked for
various reasons and referred to at times as kinnikinnick. A variety of plants, including
dogwoods (Cornus spp.) and sumacs (Rhus spp.), served as adulterants that diluted
tobacco or gave it a more refined taste. Many of today’s commercially available ciga-
rettes are flavored with Mentha species (mints), giving them a strong menthol taste.
Other flavoring agents include licorice (from Glycyrrhiza glabra), camphor (from
various sources), and the fruits of prunes and peaches (Prunus spp; Lewis and Elvin-
Lewis 2003). Indonesia’s kreteks cigarettes are flavored with the oil of cloves (Euge-
nia aromatica). Throughout their 100-year history, kreteks have been so popular that
Veterinary Uses
In all, 32 plant species from 15 countries were reportedly burned to generate smoke
that was considered ideal for protecting domestic livestock. In some instances, smoke
was specifically generated to harm or even kill animals (see the following section on
Toxic and Obnoxious Smoke). Veterinary uses for plant-derived smoke range from
helping to heal the wounds of castrated animals, to treating specific illnesses, and to
protecting them from evil. A total of 35 uses have been reported, with most of these
occurring in North America and Africa.
In parts of Hungary, an unspecified species of willow (Salix sp.) was once consid-
ered ideal for helping to heal the wounds of cattle that had recently been castrated
(Vajkai 1943). This may have also helped with the pain since known analgesics, such
as salicyclic acid (active ingredient in aspirin), have been isolated from the bark of
Salix vulgaris. In parts of Turkey, the dwarf elderberry, Sambucus ebulus, was used for
similar purposes (Yeşilada et al. 1999), while in North America, the Ramah Navajo
used smoke from burning the leaves of coyote’s tobacco, Nicotiana attenuata, to treat
wounds of castrated horses (Vestal 1952).
Most of the veterinary uses for plant-derived smoke were for treating illnesses,
especially those of horses. These were reported for parts of North America and
Africa. In North America, almost one-third of plant-derived smoke uses were for
treating distemper in horses. Known also as strangles because of the swelling the dis-
ease causes in lymph nodes, horse distemper is a highly contagious disease caused
by the bacterium Streptococcus equi. This upper respiratory tract disease can affect
horses of any age and may hamper their ability to breathe. The disease is fatal only
in approximately 5% of all cases. In Africa, the animals most commonly treated for
illnesses with plant-derived smoke are cattle. In some cases, the smoke was consid-
ered useful in preventing animals from leaving their kraals (enclosures for cattle;
Hutchings et al. 1996).
In other cases, plant species were burned to keep evil at bay from animals or to
bless them. Perhaps one of the species better known for this purpose was the black
henbane, Hyoscyamus niger. For centuries, Europeans used to, on June 23—the eve
of St. John the Baptist’s birthday—burn this henbane in their barns to protect cattle
from evil (Schleiffer 1979). Livestock were often crucial to the survival of individuals,
families, and entire communities, especially in poorer times and areas, and so pro-
tecting them was considered important. The smoke of burning seeds was also said to
be useful in protecting children from witches, sickness, and bad luck. Considerable
Introduction 25
effort went into producing the smoke, some of which was fanned out across fields
of crops to protect them as well. Interestingly, the smoke of black henbane was used
in several parts of the world to relieve toothache and for respiratory problems. The
leaves were also smoked for recreational purposes. The lighting of fires for St. John’s
birthday has persisted since the fourth century, when it replaced the ancient summer
solstice celebrations of pagan times. Brushwood of any type is now used to make the
fires. However, neither the smoke nor its uses are considered important in the cer-
emonies of today, most of which only celebrate and recognize the saint’s birthday.
Unspecified Uses
Some of the reports we used to compile this book did not include details of where or
how the plants generating useful plant-derived smoke were used or who used them.
A total of 46 plants with 59 unspecified uses from 14 countries fall into this category.
Also listed in this book are plants whose smoke was used as a signaling device.
Despite their common association with Native American people, smoke signals
have also played an important role in Catholic traditions that date back hundreds of
years. The Catholic Church uses smoke to signal it has achieved Habemus Papam (it
has elected a new pope). This occurred as recently as April 19, 2005, when a crowd of
100,000 people gathered in St. Peter’s Square to await news on Pope John Paul II’s suc-
cessor. At 5:49 p.m. on day two of the papal conclave, a plume of white smoke slowly
billowed out of the chimney above the Sistine Chapel, where the Sacred College of
Introduction 27
Cardinals meets to cast their ballot. German Cardinal Josef Alois Ratzinger was cho-
sen by a two-thirds majority ballot to fill the vacant See of Saint Peter and become the
Vicar of Christ.
The use of smoke to announce the selection of a new Pontifex Maximus, or Holy
Roman Pontiff, is one of the most famous traditions of papal succession rites. The
ballot sheets used by the cardinal selectors are burned to generate the white smoke.
Chemicals are added to the fire for black smoke, which was traditionally produced by
burning wet straw and used to announce that no decision had been reached. Smoke
was also used in other forms of communication. Before the advent of modern com-
municating devices, smoke signals were used to communicate across vast distances
by at least two cultures. This is an age-old practice that was independently developed
by Native Americans and by the Chinese for use on the Great Wall. There were usu-
ally no standardized codes, so each group was forced to develop their own, limiting
their use.
Seed Germination
Seed germination is reportedly also affected by plant-derived smoke. Our ancestors
may have used smoke in this capacity for centuries. Only recently has the scientific
community delved into understanding the ecology of smoke as a seed dormancy-
breaking mechanism in fire-prone environments. Most research to date has focused
on, but is not limited to, the fire-prone Mediterranean environments of the western
United States, Western Australia, and South Africa. These environments are among
the richest floristic regions in the world, with 3,500 to 9,000 species, and are con-
sidered priority areas for conservation. Appropriate management of these regions
requires an understanding of the ecology of these ecosystems. Knowledge of the role
that smoke plays in breaking seed dormancy is one small but highly important com-
ponent of the multifaceted complexities of fire ecology. Not all species respond to
smoke cues, however. Some require other environmental cues or multiple cues to
germinate. The seed dormancy mechanism often determines which cue is required
to initiate germination.
On a final note, the human population has exponentially grown to approximately
6.6 billion people, with most of that growth occurring in the twentieth century. This
growth has driven humans to further exploit plant species, leading to extinction in
some cases. Without focused conservation measures, this imbalance between plant
use and plant species survival may have disastrous consequences.
Conservation biology is defined by its goal of preserving biodiversity. Whether a
plant species is exploited for smoke, medicine, food, shelter, or beautification, there
are two primary conservation issues that arise when humans use wild plant species.
The species may be overharvested and threatened with genetic erosion and ultimately
extinction, or the species may be cultivated outside its native range and become
weedy or invasive, thus threatening other species. Readers are encouraged to help
conserve plants by minimizing overharvest and by not introducing invasive species
into other countries.
Lists of Plants
Plant species are arranged in alphabetical order according to genus name and species
epithet. The binomial names listed are those reported in the original texts unless they
have since changed. When this was the case, the latest accepted name is listed, with
Introduction 29
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LIST OF PLANTS
Abies spp. 31
resin and needles of various species of firs were used in Europe, especially Ger-
many and Switzerland, for the preparation of incense candles that were burned
during Christmas (Rätsch 2004). The resin and needles were burned as part of
shaman incense mixtures that included Hyoscyamus niger L., Juniperus communis
L., Artemisia vulgaris L., Taxus baccata L., and Thymus serpyllum L.
Abrus precatorius L. (Fabaceae). rosarypea.
According to book 4, chapter 1, topic 177 of the ancient Sanskrit treatise the
Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya (fourth century b.c.), the seeds of this species, when
burned together with the leaves of Gossypium herbaceum L., the seeds of Guilan-
dino bunducella L., Jasminum L. sp., Careya arborea Roxb., cow dung, and vari-
ous salts, will produce smoke that causes blindness in one’s enemies (Sensarma
1998).
Acacia adsurgens Maiden & Blakely (Fabaceae). walpiri mulga.
Native Australians inhaled the smoke produced by burning the leaves of the wal-
piri mulga tree to help relieve diarrhea (Latz 1995).
Acacia ancistrocarpa Maiden & Blakely (Fabaceae). pirraru.
Parts of the whole plant, especially the leaves, were burned by Native Australians to
produce smoke that was considered useful for relieving diarrhea (Latz 1995).
Acacia aneura F. Muell. ex Benth. (Fabaceae). mulga.
Native Australians used unspecified parts of the mulga tree to strengthen new-
borns as well as to stem the flow of postpartum bleeding and induce lactation in
mothers (Barr 1993). In the Northern Territory of Australia, the leaves and twigs
were burned for smoke that promoted good health in babies.
Acacia dictyophleba F. Muell. (Fabaceae). pilpirrinpa.
Native Australians burned parts of the entire plant, especially the leaves, for smoke
that was considered useful for treating diarrhea (Latz 1995).
Acacia glaucophylla Steud. ex A. Rich. (Fabaceae). Acacia.
Traditional healers in Tanzania on Africa’s East Coast used this species to treat
epilepsy. Patients were covered with a blanket and encouraged to inhale the smoke
produced by burning leaves (Mushi et al. 2005).
Acacia goetzei Harms. (Fabaceae). purplepod acacia.
Borana women in southern Oromia, Ethiopia, used a variety of plants, such as this
one, to perfume their clothes and bodies (Gemedo-Dalle et al. 2005). Most of the
women possessed a special saunalike cubicle in their huts consisting of a pit that
was approximately 50 cm deep and 30 cm wide. Sticks were hammered into the
ground to enclose the cubicle, to which there was a single entrance. The women
cut up pieces of their favorite plants and burned them in a special pit. The chamber
was then covered with a mattress or blanket made of cattle hide. Once ready, the
women disrobed and entered into the chamber. They sat on small stools, keeping
their heads out to avoid suffocation. This traditional cleansing method has two
advantages. First, the women sweat in the saunalike conditions, which naturally
cleanses their bodies. Second, the aromatic smell carried in the smoke of the plants
is long lasting and may have the same effect as modern perfumes. Elsewhere, the
Gabbra of Kenya burned the wood of this species for incense purposes (Heine and
Brenzinger 1988).
Acacia horrida Willd. (Fabaceae). doornboom tree.
The Rendille of Kenya’s Marsabit District fumigated their containers with the
smoke generated when burning this species (Heine and Heine 1988b).
32 Abrus precatorius L.
Acacia horrida Willd. ssp. benadinensis (Fabaceae). doornboom tree.
This plant was used for the same purpose as A. horrida Willd. (Heine and Heine
1988b).
Acacia kempeana F. Muell. (Fabaceae). witchetty bush.
The leaves and other parts of the whole plant were burned to produce smoke that
was thought to be useful in relieving diarrhea (Latz 1995). Elsewhere, in the North-
ern Territory of Australia, the leaves were burned near newborn babies so that they
could inhale the smoke to promote well-being and stem the flow of postpartum
bleeding in their mothers (Barr 1993).
Acacia ligulata A. Cunn. ex Benth. (Fabaceae). dune wattle.
The smoke generated by burning leaves and other parts of this plant was inhaled
by indigenous Australians to relieve diarrhea (Latz 1995).
Acacia lysiphloia F. Muell. (Fabaceae). turpentine bush.
The leaves and other parts of this species were mixed with dust scraped off termite
mounds and were burned by indigenous Australians so that the smoke produced
could be inhaled to treat postpartum bleeding in new mothers and to promote
general well-being in the rest of the tribe (Barr 1993).
Acacia macrothyrsa Harms (Fabaceae). large leafed acacia.
In Bulamogi County, Uganda, root powder was smoked to treat epilepsy (Tabuti
et al. 2003).
Acacia mellifera Benth. (Fabaceae). black thorn.
The Mukogodo Maasai of the Laikipia District of northern Kenya burned the
wood to fumigate their milk containers and improve the milk’s flavor (Brenzinger
et al. 1994).
Acacia mellifera Benth. ssp. mellifera (Fabaceae). black thorn.
The Chamus (Heine and Heine 1988a) and Pokot (Timberlake 1987) of Kenya
burned the bark to fumigate, clean, and perfume their milk containers. The Pokot
name for the species is talamo.
Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile (Fabaceae). prickly acacia.
People of the Kharga and Dakhla Oases of Egypt smoked powdered fruits for the
relief of nasal congestion (Osborn 1968).
Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile ssp. subalata (Vatke) Brenan (Fabaceae). Egyptian
mimosa.
The Rendille of the Marsabit District of northern Kenya fumigated and cleansed
various containers by burning this plant (Heine and Heine 1988b).
Acacia nubica Benth. (Fabaceaea). pelil.
The Chamus of Kenya burned the wood of pelil to fumigate and clean their con-
tainers (Heine and Heine 1988a). This was common also with the Gabbra of Kenya’s
Marsabit District and with the Borana of Ethiopia (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Acacia pellita O. Schwartz. (Fabaceae). soapbush.
The Native Australians of Groote Eylandt forced overexcited children to inhale the
smoke of burning soapbush leaves. They claimed that it made them slow down and
stop (Levitt 1981). Note: The identity of this species, known locally as marra, was not
confirmed and may have been a closely related acacia (Levitt 1981). This species may
have been smoked for similar purposes elsewhere in Australia (Bindon 1996).
Acacia pruinocarpa Tindale (Fabaceae). black gidgee.
The leaves and other parts of this acacia were considered ideal for burning and
producing smoke that was thought to be useful in relieving diarrhea (Latz 1995).
36 Adansonia digitata L.
Agastache pallidiflora (A. Heller) Rydb. ssp. neomexicana (Briq.) Lint & Epling var.
neomexicana (Briq.) R. W. Sanders. (Lamiaceae). big Williams mountain giant hyssop.
The Navajo and Ramah of North America burned this plant as a fumigant for
treating deer infections (Vestal 1952). This species was reported as Agastache
neomexicana (Briq.) Standl. in original texts.
Agathis dammara (Lamb.) Rich. (Araucariaceae). dammar pine.
The resin of this pine was burned in the Cordillera region of northern Luzon in
the Philippines to produce smoke that was inhaled to relieve bronchial asthma (Co
1989). The local name for the species is almasigia. The resins produced by the species
are sold over the Internet, frequently trading under the names gold or black copal.
Agathisanthemum bojeri ssp. bojeri Klotzsch (Rubiaceae). Agathisanthemum.
The seeds of this species were smoked for respiratory problems and asthma by the
Karanga of Zimbabwe (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Ageratina altissima R. M. King & H. Rob. var. roanensis (Small) Clewell & Woot.
(Asteraceae). white snakeroot.
The Chickasaw of North America prepared smoke smudges to revive unconscious
people (Smith 1928). This species was reported as Eupatorium urticaefolium Reich-
ard in original texts.
Ailanthus malabarica DC. (Scrophulariaceae). white bean.
The scented resin of white bean was harvested and burned for incense purposes in
parts of India (Usher 1974).
Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston (Simaroubaceae). white sirus.
This species was used in the preparation of incense materials in parts of India
(Cribb and Cribb 1981).
Albizia amara Boivin (Fabaceae). bitter false thorn.
In southern Oromia, Ethiopia, the smoke generated in saunalike chambers in per-
sonal huts was used to perfume and cleanse Borana women (Gemedo-Dalle et al.
2005). For more information on this practice, see Acacia goetzei Harms.
Alchornea latifolia Sw. (Euphorbiaceae). loblob.
In Jamaica, loblob was smoked in a pipe as part of a treatment for toothache
(Asprey and Thornton 1954b).
Alepidea amatymbica Eckl. & Zeyh. (Apiaceae). larger tinsel flower.
The roots of this species, which is called kalmoes in Afrikaans, were smoked in
parts of Africa to cure coughs and colds in children (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk
1962). The smoke of burning roots was also inhaled as a mild sedative (Hutchings
and van Staden 1994). In Zimbabwe, the smoke was inhaled to treat headaches
(Chinemana et al. 1985).
Alhagi camelorum Fisch. (Fabaceae). Arabian manna plant.
In Concan, India, this plant was smoked along with a Datura sp., tobacco (Nicoti-
ana spp.), and the seeds of the ajwan plant—probably Trachyspermum ammi (L.)
Sprague ex Turrill—to relieve asthma (Jayaweera 1981b).
Alhagi pseudoalhagi (M. Bieb.) Desv. ex B. Keller & Shap. (Fabaceae). camelthorn
bush.
The leaves of this plant were smoked to treat asthma in Mt. Abu, Rajasthan State,
India (Sebastian and Bhandari 1984).
Allenrolfea occidentalis Kuntze (Chenopodiaceae). iodine bush.
This plant was regarded as one of the first plants created according to the Seri of Mex-
ico. They used it during a number of smoking ceremonies (Felger and Moser 1985).
40 Amorphophallus sp.
gifts they offered to their spirits (Grinnell 1905; Hart 1981). The Forest Potawatomi
smoked dried flowers or placed them on hot coals to drive away evil spirits by irri-
tating their eyes (Smith 1933). This species was also used for smoke therapies in
Suffolk, Britain, where the leaves were smoked for treating coughs and headaches
(Jobson 1967).
Anaphalis royleana DC. (Asteraceae). dhoop.
The dried flowers of dhoop were burned for incense purposes during certain reli-
gious ceremonies in the small town of Rewalsar, India (Sood and Thakur 2004).
Anaphalis triplinervis Sims ex C. B. Clarke. (Asteraceae). pearly everlasting.
Like Anaphalis contorta Hook. f., this plant was burned for incense purposes in the
Manang District of Nepal (Pohle 1990).
Andira inermis (W. Wright) DC. (Fabaceae). cabbage bark.
The smoke of burning wood was considered toxic and harmful to the eyes accord-
ing to the Darien of Panama (Duke 1968) and others of Isthmian America (Mexico
to Colombia) (Duke 1986). In Guyana, the smoke of burning fruit was considered
a useful pest repellent (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Andrachne ovalis Müll. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae). false lightning bush.
The roots, which are considered poisonous, were burned and inhaled by the Zulu.
This was said to be ideal for treating headaches and snakebites, and it was useful as
an emetic for chest complaints (Gerstner 1941).
Anemone caffra Harv. (Ranunculaceae). Anemone.
In parts of southern Africa, smoke of smoldering roots was inhaled to treat colds
and headaches (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Anemone fanninii Harv. (Ranunculaceae). giant wild anemone.
Like Anemone caffra Harv., the smoke of smoldering roots was used for treat-
ing colds and headaches in parts of southern Africa (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk
1962).
Anemone multifida Poir. (Rananculaceae). windflower.
The ripe seed heads were burned over hot coals in parts of North America to gen-
erate smoke that was inhaled for the relief of headaches (Foster and Hobbs 2002).
Anemone obtusiloba D. Don. (Ranunculaceae). Himalayan blue buttercup.
In the Sikkim Himalayas of India, the roots, which some consider poisonous, were
burned for incense purposes (Pandey 1991).
Anemone virginiana L. (Ranunculaceae). tall anemone.
The Meskwaki of North America burned the
seeds to produce smoke to treat catarrh and
to revive unconscious people (Smith 1928;
Vogel 1970). The smoke was directed up the
nose of the patient using a special cone.
Anemone vitifolia Buch.-Ham. ex DC.
(Ranunculaceae). Scarborough anemone.
The entire plant was burned for incense purposes
in the Manang District of Nepal (Pohle 1990).
Angelica archangelica L. (Apiaceae). Angelica.
The roots of this species were mixed with
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to add flavor to it
(Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). Neither the
country nor its users were specified. Angelica archangelica
Angelica archangelica L. 41
Angelica atropurpurea L. (Apiaceae). purplestem angelica.
The Delaware and Oklahoma of North America mixed the seeds of this species
with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and smoked the mixture for pleasure and other
unspecified purposes (Tantaquidgeon 1942). The seeds were probably added for
flavor. The natives of Arkansas mixed the roots with tobacco (Lewis and Elvin-
Lewis 2003). Other Native Americans smoked the leaves for recreational purposes
(Kavasch 1979).
Angelica breweri A. Gray. (Apiaceae). brewer’s angelica.
The Shoshone, who practiced some of the most powerful medicine in North
America (Rolling Thunder quoted in Pope 1999), dried and shaved the roots of
this species and smoked them to treat headaches (Train et al. 1941). Smoke from
the roots was also used to relieve horse distemper.
Angelica sp. (Apiaceae). angelicas.
The Costanoan of California often smoked the roots of an Angelica species to
relieve headaches (Bocek 1984). The Mendocino, also of California, smoked the
roots to treat colds and catarrh (Chestnut 1902).
Angelica tomentosa S. Wats. (Apiaceae). woolly angelica.
The shamans of the Pomo and Kashaya of North America smoked root shavings
when doctoring (Goodrich et al. 1980). Smoke produced by burning the complete
plant was employed by other Native American tribes to relieve headaches (Foster
and Hobbs 2002).
Aniba canelilla Mez (Lauraceae). rosewood.
In Guyana, smoke from burning stems was inhaled to relieve diarrhea (Defilipps
et al. 2004).
Annona ambotay Aubl. (Annonaceae). karaxmia.
The Waimiri Atroari of Brazil called this species karaxmia. They burned the bark
and inhaled its smoke to cure “madness” (Milliken et al. 1992). The Alter do Chão
of Pará, Brazil, inhaled the smoke from burning wood to treat various illnesses
(Branch and Gersgoff 1990).
Annona senegalensis Pers. (Annonaceae). wild custard apple.
To help keep spirits at bay, the people of Bulamogi County, Uganda, smoked the
roots of this species (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Annona squamosa L. (Annonaceae). sugar apple.
In parts of Mizoram, India, the smoke of burning seeds was inhaled for the treat-
ment of epilepsy (Sharma et al. 2001).
Annona stenophylla Engl. & Diels. (Annonaceae). dwarf custard apple.
This species was one of four ingredients in a Namibian smoke cure for the
heart condition angina pectoris. Its roots, along with those of Lablab purpureus
(L.) Sweet ssp. uncinatus Verdc. var. rhomboideus (Schinz) Verdc., Lannea edu-
lis Engl., and Parinari curatellifolia Planch. ex Benth., were burned on glow-
ing embers to produce smoke that was inhaled to treat other heart pains (von
Koenen 2001).
Antennaria aprica Greene (Asteraceae). small-leaf pussytoes.
The Navajo of North America mixed the leaves with tobacco and smoked them for
pleasure and during medicine ceremonies (Ross 2002).
Antennaria margaritacea (L.) Sweet (Asteraceae). life everlasting.
Ross (2002) suggests that the dried leaves of this species can be smoked for plea-
sure. No other details about its use were given.
42 Angelica atropurpurea L.
Antennaria neglecta Greene (Asteraceae). field pussytoes.
Native North Americans smoked the flowers and leaves for plea-
sure (Kavasch 1979). The Potowatomi used only the leaves for that
purpose (Kavasch 1979). Other Native Americans generated the
smoke to drive away bad spirits (Foster and Hobbs 2002).
Antennaria rosea Greene (Asteraceae). rosy pussytoes.
The Okanagan-Colville of North America burned dried, powdered
roots to drive away bad spirits and to revive unconscious dancers
(Turner et al. 1980). The Blackfoot added the tiny dried leaves to
their kinnikinnick mixtures (Nickerson 1966).
Antennaria sp. (Asteraceae). pussytoes. Antennaria neglecta
The Shoshone people of North America mixed the leaves of an
unspecified species of pussytoe with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and
smoked the mixture for pleasure and other purposes (Murphey 1990).
Anthriscus nemorosa Spreng. (Apiaceae). chervil.
The smoke of this species was prized in the Ladakh region of India as a cure for
rheumatism and inflammation (Navchoo and Buth 1989).
Anthurium oxycarpum Poepp. & Endl. (Aracaceae). laceleaf.
Brazilian and Peruvian people added fresh leaves to tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to
enhance its flavor (Peckolt 1892; Lewin 1964). In other parts of tropical America,
dried leaves were used for that purpose (Uphof 1968).
Apocynum androsaemifolium L. (Apocynaceae). spreading dogbane.
Natives of North America inhaled the fumes of burning dried roots for the relief
of headaches (Krochmal and Krochmal 1973). Similarly, the Pillager Ojibwa, also
of North America, inhaled the smoke from burning roots for headaches (Smith
1932). The Chippewa of North America inhaled the fumes of powdered root to
relieve headache or for mouth twitches (Densmore 1974).
Apocynum cannabinum L. (Apocynaceae). Indian hemp.
The Pillager Obijwa of North America smoked
the roots to relieve headaches (Adams 1951).
Other Native Americans inhaled the smoke
produced by burning dried plants as a remedy
for asthma even though this species is consid-
ered poisonous (Foster and Hobbs 2002).
Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. (Thymelaeaceae).
agar.
Agarwood was burned in India and China
as incense (Willis 1894; Stuart 1911; Uphof
1959; Dutt 1961; Manning 1965) and was
used in the preparation of joss sticks in
China (Uphof 1968; Li et al. 1973). In parts Apocynum cannabinum
of Malaysia, the wood was burned during Islamic prayers (Uphof 1968).
Aquilaria beccariana Tiegh. (Thymelaeaceae). gahuru.
The people of Java, Indonesia, burned the wood of this species for incense pur-
poses (Sangat-Roemantyo 1990).
Aquilaria hirta Ridl. (Thymelaeaceae). karas.
Uphof (1968) reported that this species was used in the preparation of incense
materials. No other details were given.
52 Atractylis gummifera L.
Avena sativa L. (Poaceae). oat.
The seeds were burned for fumigants that were used in Hungary to keep insects
away from houses and animals (Vajkai 1943).
Avicennia germinans (L.) Stearn (Verbenaceae). black mangrove.
According to the Darien of Panama, the wood of this species makes an effective
smoke smudge that repels mosquitoes (Duke 1968).
Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. (Verbenaceae). gray mangrove.
The leaves of this mangrove are considered useful for repelling or killing Culex
quinquefasciatus mosquitoes according to Thangam and Kathiresan (1992). The
country of use was not specified.
Avicennia nitida Jacq. (Verbenaceae). white mangrove.
Asita and Campbell (1990) reported that the wood of the white mangrove could
be burned to produce smoke that effectively inhibited three species of bacteria—
Staphylococcus aureus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Eschirichia coli—all of which
are known to spoil food. It also may have been used to drive away mosquitoes.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae). neem.
The binomial botanical name of neem literally means “bitter tree from India.”
The vernacular name, neem, is from the Sanskrit word nimba, meaning “sprin-
kling of nectar and ambrosia” (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). Neem is used
for a variety of purposes, many of which were recognized by the Indians and
Chinese as early as 4,000 years ago. This species produces several active com-
pounds, of which the tetranotriterpenoid, azadirachtin, is an active insecticide.
In Ghana and Gambia, the leaves of the neem tree were burned to produce
smoke that repels mosquitoes (Aikins et al. 1994). This was true of other
parts of East Africa, especially where the Bantu language of Swahili was spo-
ken (Heine and Legére 1995). Smoke from burning leaves was also used in
the rural villages of the Oio region of Guinea-Bissau, in West Africa, to drive
mosquitoes away (Pålsson and Jaenson 1999b). According to Medvei (1993),
Hindus may have used vaginal fumigations of neem trees as contraceptives.
Along with 16 other plant species, this species was listed in the ancient San-
skrit treatise the Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya (fourth century b.c.) as an ingredient
in a deadly concoction that, when burned, produced smoke that was lethal to
animals (Sensarma 1998). The other plants include Butea monosperma (Lam.)
Taub. in Engl. & Prantl, Careya arborea Roxb., Ferula assa-foetida L., Gossy-
pium herbaceum L., Holarrhena antidysnterica L., Hordeum vulgare L., Lufta
echinata Roxb., Moringa oleifera Lam., Ocimum sp., the broken grains of Oryza
sativa L., Paspalum scrobiculatum., Populus euphratica Oliv., Ricinus communis
L., Salvadora indica Royle., and Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay.
Baeckea frutescens L. (Myrtaceae). Baeckea.
Smoke from burning dried plants was inhaled to treat violent colic in Southeast
Asia (Pételot 1953; van Duong 1993). Patients usually reclined on a lattice bed
under which the plant was burned. They inhaled the smoke as it passed over them.
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. (Balanitaceae). desert date.
In Chad, Africa, the whole plant was burned and used as a fumigant for liver
problems (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). The Borana of Ethiopia fumi-
gated their milk containers with smoke from the burning of this plant (Heine
and Brenzinger 1988). The Ethiopian name for the species is báddan. In Ghana,
60 Bursera gummifera L.
Cadaba ruspoli Gilg. (Capparaceae). cadaba.
The Rendille of Kenya’s Marsabit District fumigated their containers with the
smoke generated by burning this species (Heine and Heine 1988b).
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. (Fabaceae). yellow nicker.
The people of Santhal Pargana, India, smoked powdered yellow nicker seeds to
relieve colic pain (Varma et al. 1999).
Caesalpinia erianthera Chiov. (Fabaceae). Caesalpinia.
Dried plant powder was thrown on smoldering charcoal to produce a fragrant
smoke that was used to perfume and air-out a person’s living quarters and body in
the Dhofar region of southern Oman (Miller and Morris 1988).
Calamintha nepeta (L.) Savi (Lamiaceae). lesser calamint.
The leaves of the lesser calamint were used in the preparation of smoke that was
inhaled to aid in digestion in the upper Lucca Province of Italy (Pieroni 2000).
Calea zacatechichi Schltdl. (Asteraceae). Mexican dreamherb.
This species was used by the Chontal of Mexico to treat fevers and nausea. It
was also considered useful to communicate with spirits (MacDougall 1968; Díaz
1979).
Callicarpa cana L. (Verbenaceae). garwew.
The leaves of this plant were smoked in the Philippines to relieve asthma (van
Duong 1993).
Callirhoë involucrata A. Gray. (Malvaceae). winecup.
The Dakota of North America pulverized the roots of this species, which they then
burned to produce smoke that was inhaled for treating head colds (Uphof 1968;
Usher 1974).
Callitris glaucophylla J. Thomson & L. A. S. Johnson. (Cupressaceae). white
cypress pine.
Indigenous Australians inhaled the smoke of burning twigs as aromatherapy
for babies (Latz 1995). According to Barr (1993), the smoke from the leaves and
branches was also useful in treating adult respiratory problems.
Callitris intratropica R. T. Baker & H. G. Sm. (Cupressaceae). cypress pine.
The Native Australians of Groote Eylandt used the smoke from burning cypress
pine gum with dry Pandanus sp. nuts (Pandanaceae) to repel mosquitoes (Levitt
1981). It was also used as a permanent contraceptive. A woman wishing to prevent
future pregnancies squatted over a pit in which the plant material was burning,
allowing the smoke to pass around her vagina. The local name for this species is
yimundungwa.
Calophyllum inophyllum L. (Clusiaceae). Alexandrian laurel.
In the former Tanzanian area of Tanganyika in East Africa, the leaves were
pounded, mixed with the sap of young leaves and oil, and then cooked in a fire
so that the fumes could be inhaled by people possessed by the devil (von Reis and
Lipp 1982).
Calotropis gigantea (L.) W. T. Ait. (Asclepiadaceae). crown flower.
Known in Fiji as madar, smoke from burning wood was inhaled to treat epi-
lepsy (Singh 1986). In India’s Gujarat State, smoke from burning dried roots
was inhaled for the relief of migraine headaches (Mitaliya et al. 2004). In
Malaysia, smoke from burning leaves was inhaled to treat ulcers in the nose
(van Duong 1993).
Cannabis sativa L. 63
the leaves of this species with those of Warburgia salutaris (Bertol. f.) Chiov. for
the relief of dry coughs (Bryant 1966). Another use for cannabis smoke was as
an insect repellent. The seeds were burned in Hungary to keep insects away from
houses and animals (Vajkai 1943).
Capparis cartilaginea Decne. (Capparaceae). caper.
In the Dhofar region of southern Oman, where the name for this plant is lúsfeh, the
smoke from smoldering leaves was used as a fumigant for relieving itchiness, water-
ing eyes, and running nose associated with allergies (Miller and Morris 1988).
Capparis speciosa Griseb. (Capparaceae). caper.
The Maka of the Paraguayan Chaco burned the branches of caper to fumigate and
heal people who talk in their sleep (Arenas 1987). The smoke was also used as a
fumigant to prevent chicken pox epidemics.
Capparis tomentosa Lam. (Capparaceae). African caper.
Known in Venda, South Africa, as Gwambazi-muoba-dali, the roots of this spe-
cies were burned to treat menorrhagia and headaches (Arnold and Gulumian
1984). The smoke was directed over an exposed female’s vulva for the former
diseases. The smoke was inhaled for the latter. The Lobedu of Africa smoked the
bark in a pipe to relieve chest pains (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). The roots
were smoked in Bulamogi County, Uganda, to help keep spirits at bay (Tabuti
et al. 2003).
Capsicum annuum L. (Solanaceae). chili pepper.
This plant was known to the Jívaro of eastern Ecuador as jímia. When they wished
to punish their children, they forced them to stand over fires into which large
quantities of jímia had been thrown (Harner 1984).
Capsicum frutescens L. (Solanaceae). red pepper.
In Benin, Africa, the smoke of this species was
used as a fumigant to relieve headaches (Neu-
winger 1994). In Aligandi, Panama, red peppers and
cacao (see Theobroma cacao L.) were burned for 7
to 9 days to produce smoke that was said to keep
evil spirits away (Duke 1968). The ancient Maya
of Mesoamerica smoked red peppers mixed with
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) for the relief of whooping
cough (Asprey and Thornton 1955). The smoke has
also been employed to repel mosquitoes (Hartzell
1947) and to protect stored grains from insects and
other pests (McIndoo 1945).
Capsicum sp. (Solanaceae). red peppers.
In the West Indies, red peppers were smoked with
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to treat whooping cough Capsicum frutescens
and sore throats (Asprey and Thornton 1953, 1954a,
1954b, 1955).
Carapa guianensis Aubl. (Meliaceae). bastard mahogany.
Oil derived from the seeds of bastard mahogany was burned to produce illumina-
tion and to drive insects away (Duke 1968).
Cardiospermum grandiflorum Sw. (Sapindaceae). showy balloon vine.
The roots were smoked by the people of Bulamogi County, Uganda, to help keep
spirits at bay (Tabuti et al. 2003).
66 Cassia mimosoides L.
Cecropia peltata L. (Cecropiaceae). trumpet tree.
In the rain forests of Belize, the leaves were dried, powdered, and then smoked for
pleasure by the chicleros and supervisors (Arvigo and Balick 1993). The Darien of
Panama and people living in Isthmian America (Mexico to Colombia) also smoked
the leaves. The latter often smoked the stems as well (Duke 1968; Duke 1986).
Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex Lambert) G. Don (Pinaceae). deodar cedar.
According to the Ayurvedic system of India, parts of this plant were dried in the
sun and then soaked with ghee before being smoked to relieve asthma (Mishra
2003).
Cedrus libani G. Don (Pinaceae). cedar of Lebanon.
According to Avicenna, Iranians used smoke from burning branches and resin
to induce abortions (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006). Elsewhere, the pulverized
wood was mixed with the herbs and resins of plants of the Boswellia and other
genera and were burned as incense (Rätsch 2004). Other Cedrus species may
have served similar roles. No details about the country of use or its users were
given.
Celmisia spectabilis Hook. f. (Asteraceae). common mountain daisy.
The Maori of New Zealand smoked parts of this plant for the relief of asthma and
for other lung ailments (Stark 1979).
Celtis timorensis Span. (Ulmaceae). ki tondok (Indonesia).
In parts of India, smoke from burning wood was used as a general fumigant
(Chopra et al. 1956).
Cephaelis williamsii Standl. (Rubiaceae). Cephaelis.
In the Putumayo area of Colombia, the people dried the leaves of this species and
added them to tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) before it was smoked (Schultes 1985a).
Cestrum laevigatum Schlect. (Solanaceae). palqui.
In southern Chile, the Mapuche smoked dried leaves of the palqui when cannabis
was not available. It was believed to induce hallucinogenic visions (Schultes et al.
2001).
Cestrum parqui L’Her. (Solanaceae). lady of the night.
Like Cestrum laevigatum Schlect., the Mapuche smoked dried leaves of the dama
de noite (lady of the night) when cannabis was not available (Schultes et al. 2001).
Chamaecrista nigricans Greene (Fabaceae). partridge pea.
Unspecified parts of this plant were smoked by people of Bulamogi County,
Uganda, to help keep spirits at bay (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All. (Asteraceae). English chamomile.
The Allioni of Norfolk, Great Britain, burned whole plants to produce smoke that
was used for unspecified medicinal purposes (Bardswell 1911). The dried flower-
ing heads, which produce volatile oils, were mixed with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.)
to add flavor to it (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003).
Chamaesyce hirta (L.) Millsp. (Euphorbiaceae). dove weed.
In Guyana, smoke produced by burning the entire plant was inhaled to treat respi-
ratory complaints (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Cheilanthes calomendos Sw. (Adiantaceae). mphasetje.
Approximately 30 g of root and leaf material was ground into a powder and then
burned for smoke that was used in Swaziland to treat epilepsy (Amusan et al.
2002).
Commiphora sp. 73
for incense purposes (myrrh), perfumery, food and beverage flavoring, and folk
medicines (Lemenih et al. 2003).
Commiphora truncata Engl. (Burseraceae). Commiphora.
This species has generated income for farmers in the rural areas of Liban, Ethiopia.
The oleo-gum resins were burned for incense purposes (myrrh), perfumery, food
and beverage flavoring, and medicinal purposes (Lemenih et al. 2003).
Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari. (Burseraceae). Indian bdellium tree.
In the arid plains of northern India, an exudate from this plant, probably a resin,
was burned for its smoke, which was inhaled to relieve asthma (Shah 1982). The
people of Rajasthan, India, used the fumes of burning resin to drive evil spirits
away and to please their gods (Singh and Pandey 1998). The species was consid-
ered sacred throughout India, where it was often burned as incense during holy
occasions (Dhiman 2003). The Bengali name for the plant is guggul. Near Bella in
Pakistan, the gum was burned on hot coals to produce noxious smoke that kept
snakes away (Goodman and Ghafoor 1992).
Comptonia peregrina (L.) Coult. (Myricaceae). sweet fern.
The Potawatomi of North America prepared a smoke smudge of the leaves of this
species to keep mosquitoes away (Smith 1933). This species was reported as Myrica
asplenifolia L. in original texts.
Conioselinum scopulorum Coult. and Rose (Apiaceae). Rocky Mountain hemlock
parsley.
The Kayenta Navajo of North America smoked the plant to treat catarrh (Wyman
and Harris 1951).
Conium maculatum L. (Apiaceae). poison hemlock.
In Morocco, this species was one of several ingredients used in a polyherbal recipe
that was burned to produce smoke that was considered useful for inducing abor-
tions in pregnant women (Merzouki et al. 2000). See Atractylis gummifera L. for a
list of the other species used.
Consolida regalis Gray (Ranunculaceae). forking larkspur.
Aerial parts of this species were prepared as a fumigant to treat sick people in
Hungary (Kóczián and Szabó 1990).
Conzya incana Willd. (Asteraceae). arfaj.
In Saudi Arabia, the leaves were burned to produce an insect repellent smoke
(Ghazanfar 1994).
Conzya podocephala DC. (Asteraceae). Conzya.
The Sotho of Africa burned parts of this plant as fumigants to treat a variety of
illnesses (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Conyza scabrida DC. (Asteraceae). oondbos.
This species was used for purposes similar to C. podocephala DC. by the Sotho
people of Africa (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Cordia goetzei Gürke (Boraginaceae). mpamapama.
According to the Digo on Kenya’s coast, the firewood of this species, when burned,
caused nose wounds (Pakia 2005). Mpamapama is the Kenyan name for this species.
Cordia sinensis Lam. (Boraginaceae). gundi.
The smoke from burning wood was used by the Rendille of Kenya to fumigate
and cleanse their milk containers (Heine and Heine 1988b). It was used for similar
purposes by the Borana of Ethiopia and by the Gabbra of the Marsabit District of
Kenya (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
76 Cornus sericea L.
Couratari multiflora (Sm.) Eyma. (Lecythidaceae). tauari.
The Palikur and Wayãpi of French Guiana used the inner bark of this species to
wrap their cigars. This was also thought to give the cigars narcotic properties
(Grenand et al. 1987).
Cousinia thomsoni C. B. Clarke (Asteraceae). cousinia.
The people of the cold desert Mooling and Losar tribes of India’s Lohoul-Spiti
area (northwestern Himalayas) smoked the cottonlike threads of the leaves of this
Cousinia species for pleasure (Sood et al. 2001).
Coutarea pterosperma Standl. (Rubiaceae). coparche.
The Tepehuana of Chihuahua, Mexico, have harvested the resins from this species
to burn as incense (Pennington 1969).
Covillea glutinosa Rydb. (Zygophyllaceae). creosote bush.
The Papago of North America used smoke from smoldering green branches to
treat sore feet (Castetter and Underhill 1935). The limbs were held above the
smoke. Moerman (1998) suggests that the species actually used may have been
Larrea tridentata Coville var. tridentata.
Crabbea velutina S. Moore (Acanthaceae). Crabbea.
In Bulamogi County, Uganda, smoke generated by burning the whole plant was
inhaled to protect people from losing a job or to help overcome a criminal case
(Tabuti et al. 2003).
Crataegus oxyacantha L. (Rosaceae). hawthorn.
The young leaves of this species were sometimes smoked as a tobacco (Nicotiana spp.)
substitute (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). The country of origin was not specified.
Crataegus pruinosa (Wendl.) K. Koch. (Rosaceae). frosted hawthorn.
The Flambeau Ojibwa of North America smoked the bark of the frosted hawthorn
to attract deer while hunting (Smith 1932).
Crataegus sp. (Rosaceae). hawthorn.
The Flambeau of North America used the smoke of an unidentified hawthorn to
attract deer (Smith 1932).
Crossopteryx kotschyana Fenzl. (Rubiaceae). Crossopteryx.
The seeds were burned as a fumigant to treat bark cloth in an unspecified part of
the world (Usher 1974).
Crotalaria aculeata De Wild. (Fabaceae). Kasamba ndege.
Leaves were smoked by the people of Bulamogi County, Uganda, to help keep spir-
its at bay (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Crotalaria glauca Willd. (Fabaceae). Lweto.
In Bulamogi County, Uganda, smoke generated by burning the entire plant was
inhaled to protect people from losing a job (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Croton dichogamus Pax (Euphorbiaceae). rocky ground croton.
The leaves of this species were smoked in parts of tropical Africa to treat a condi-
tion known locally as satura, which is a type of malnutrition (Kokowaro 1976).
The leaves were also dried and burned to fumigate people with high fevers. The
Sakuma of tropical Africa smoked the leaves in cigarettes that were meant to treat
chest and stomach complaints. In Tanzania, the leaves were smoked to treat respi-
ratory complaints (Hedberg et al. 1983).
Croton eluteria Sw. (Euphorbiaceae). cascarilla.
The bark was burned as a fumigant that was considered useful for repelling mosqui-
toes (McIndoo and Sievers 1924) and for other unspecified purposes (Vogel 1970).
78 Croton flavens L.
Curcuma domestica Valeton (Zingerberaceae). turmeric.
Known in Indonesia as kakoenji and koenjat, the tubers of this species were burned
to produce a fumigant that was said to promote mucus retention in people with
colds and runny noses (Hirschhorn 1983). In parts of Sri Lanka, dried turmeric
leaves were burned to generate smoke that was inhaled to treat catarrh and head-
aches (Jayaweera 1982b).
Curcuma longa L. (Zingerberaceae). Indian saffron.
In the Marquesas Islands, the smoke generated by this plant, when burned, was
blown into a woman’s vagina if she was experiencing prolonged menstruation
(Ross 2003).
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. (Convolvulaceae). giant dodder.
In Nepal, smoke produced by burning the whole plant was inhaled to reduce fever
(Shrestha and Dhillion 2003).
Cycnium racemosum Benth. (Scrophulariaceae). Cycnium.
The Zulu of South Africa used smoke from the burning of the leaves of this plant
as fumigations to pass over animals to be slaughtered during ritual sacrifices (Watt
and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Cydista aequinoctialis Miers. (Bignoniaceae). garlic vine.
The people of Livingston, Izabal, in Guatemala harvested resins from the dried
bark of this species and burned them to generate smoke that was used as an insect
repellent (Pöll et al. 2005).
Cydonia oblonga Mill. (Rosaceae). quince.
The latex of this plant was burned to produce smoke that was inhaled in parts of
Iran for general gastrointestinal disorders (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Cymbopetalum brasiliense Benth. (Annonaceae). katjoesi anjali.
In parts of Suriname, where this species is known as katjoesi anjali, the leaves were
smoked to relieve stomachache (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Cymbopogon bombycinus (R. Br.) Domin. (Poaceae). silky oil grass.
In the Northern Territory of Australia, the aerial parts of this plant were mixed
with parts of termite mounds and smoked for the postnatal care of newborn
babies (Barr 1993).
Cymbopogon caesius (Hook. & Arn.) Stapf (Poaceae). broad-leaved
turpentine grass.
The Pokot of northern Kenya burned this plant to produce scented smoke that was
inhaled by girls who had recently been circumcised (Timberlake 1987).
Cymbopogon citratus Stapf (Poaceae). oil grass.
Whole plants were burned green or dry in houses in Gabon, Africa, to drive away
mosquitoes (Walker and Sillans 1961 cited in Burkill 1994).
Cymbopogon densiflorus Stapf (Poaceae). lemon grass.
In the African nation of Malawi, the flowers of lemon grass were smoked in a
pipe for the relief of bronchial illnesses (Burkill 1994). The shamans of Tanzania
smoked the flowers either alone or mixed them with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to
induce dreams that helped them foretell the future (Schultes et al. 2001).
Cymbopogon giganteus Chiov. (Poaceae). tsauri grass.
In Nigeria, smoke fumigations prepared from burning roots were inhaled for
relieving migraine headaches and for treating sick horses (Dalziel 1937). The Socé
of Senegal used fumigations from unspecified parts of the plant to treat lumbago
(Kerharo and Adam 1964b cited in Burkill 1994).
82 Datura metel L.
Thornton 1954a); Mexico (Santamaría 1942); Namibia
(von Koenen 2001); Nepal’s Central Development Area
(Joshi and Edington 1990); Peru (Ramirez et al. 1988);
Tanzania (Chhabra and Uiso 1991); Tibet (Tsarong 1986);
Turkey (Sezik et al. 1992); and Zimbabwe (Nyazema 1984;
Gelfand et al. 1985). In other unspecified parts of the world,
jimsonweed leaves were often mixed with those of black
henbane (Hyoscyamus niger L.) and belladonna (Atropa
belladonna L.) and smoked to relieve asthma (Kondratyuk
et al. 1967). The leaves were smoked by the Bakiga and
Baganda people of the Kabale District of Africa’s Buganda Datura stramonium
kingdom to treat asthma, sore throat, and stomachache
(Hamill 2001). In South Africa, the leaves were rolled up
and smoked to relieve asthma and bronchitis (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962;
Iwu 1993; Hutchings and van Staden 1994). This was also common in Norfolk,
Britain (Hatfield cited in Allen and Hatfield 2004) and in the Arrabida Natural
Park area of Portugal (Novais et al. 2004). Various Arab tribes of Saudi Arabia
also smoked the leaves for sinus infections (Abulafatih 1987) as did the Transkei
of South Africa (Hutchings et al. 1996). The Zulu of South Africa considered the
smoke of burning leaves ideal for treating headaches and asthma (Gerstner 1941).
They were also used for that purpose in Zimbabwe (Hillocks 1998). Jimsonweed
was believed to be a sacred plant in parts of India, where its leaves were smoked to
induce narcosis (Dhiman 2003) and to relieve coughs (Tierra 1983). In northern
India, where this species is known as dhatura and is also considered very sacred,
its leaves were smoked with tobacco (Nicotiana sp.) to relieve asthma and stom-
ach troubles (Shah 1982). In Turkey’s Sakarya Province, the leaves were smoked
for treating bronchitis (Uzun et al. 2004). In Hungary, the smoke of burning seeds
and stems was used to relieve toothache, diarrhea, and bleeding (Oláh 1987). That
smoke was also considered useful for ridding oneself of parasites according to the
people of southern Pakistan (Goodman and Ghafoor 1992). Six to seven seeds
were smoked for that purpose. Along with several other plant species (see Atrac-
tylis gummifera L. for a list), jimsonweed was burned to produce smoke that was
used to induce abortions in Morocco (Merzouki et al. 2000). The shamans, or
dumbus, of the Shuhi, a Tibeto-Burman ethnic group that lives exclusively in the
Shuiluo Valley of southwestern China, used the smoke of burning seeds against
toothache (Weckerle et al. 2006). The leaves were smoked for asthma and respira-
tory failure in Mizoram, India (Sharma et al. 2001). Its use as an hallucinogenic
agent was also reported. Native North Americans and many other tribes and
people smoked the leaves for these purposes (Krochmal and Krochmal 1973),
including the Cherokee of North America, the Marie Galente of the Caribbean
(Honeychurch 1986), and people of the Appalachians (Krochmal et al. 1969). Jim-
sonweed smoke was also claimed, at one stage, to have induced psychic visions
in ancient Greece’s Delphic oracle (Stefanis et al. 1975). This is a very poisonous
plant and should not be used by untrained individuals. Its use for many of the
aforementioned purposes has been banned in several countries.
Datura wrightii Regel (Solanaceae). sacred thorn apple.
The plant was mixed with pollen and smoked by the Ramah Navajo of North
America to calm deer during hunting expeditions (Vestal 1952).
Dorstenia contrayerba L 85
Dorstenia sp. cf. barniniana Schweinf. (Moraceae). Dorstenia.
In Ethiopia, Borana women used the smoke from burning tubers to perfume their
hair, their clothes, and their animal hides (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Dracunculus vulgaris Schott (Araceae). dragon arum.
The dragon arum was burned to generate smoke that repelled blowflies and other
livestock pests in unspecified parts of the world (McIndoo 1945).
Drimys winteri Forst. (Winteraceae). winter’s bark.
In south-central Chile, the Mapuche burned the plant as a fumigant to treat boils
and ulcers (Houghton and Manby 1985).
Drymaria cordata (L.) Roem & Schult. (Caryophyllaceae). whitesnow.
The whole plant was burned in unspecified parts of Africa to produce smoke for
treating headaches (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Duboisia hopwoodii (F. Muell.) F. Muell. (Solanaceae). pituri.
Native Australians prized this species for its stimulatory and narcotic effects
(Johnston and Cleland 1933; Cleland and Johnston 1933). The leaves were dried
and then either chewed with ash to help liberate the active alkaloids, or they were
smoked like tobacco. The latter required that the leaves be damp, mixed with the
potash of other plants, and then rolled up into a cigar (Maiden 1889b).
Dyerophytum indicum Kuntze (Plumbaginaceae). mellāh.
In Oman’s southern region of Dhofar, dried stems were sliced into thin pieces and
then smoked with tobacco (Nicotiana sp.) to relieve chest complaints and breath-
ing difficulties (Miller and Morris 1988). Mellāh is the Dhofari Arabic name for
the species.
Dyschoriste radicans Nees (Acanthaceae). Busonga songa.
Leaf powder was smoked by people of Bulamogi County, Uganda, to keep spirits at
bay (Tabuti et al. 2003). Busonga songa is the Bulamogi name for this plant.
Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich. (Cucurbitaceae). squirting cucumber.
This was one of several plants used in a Moroccan polyherbal recipe burned
to produce a fumigant that induced abortions in pregnant women (Merzouki
et al. 2000). Refer to Atractylis gummifera L. for a complete list of all the species
used.
Ecbolium revolutum C. B. Clarke (Acanthaceae). Ecbolium.
In the Marsabit District of Kenya, the Gabbra burned this species to fumigate their
gourds because of the pleasant smelling smoke it produced (Heine and Brenzinger
1988).
Echinacea angustifolia DC. (Asteraceae). blacksamson echinacea.
Many Echinacea species are known for their medicinal uses in North America. The
western Indians burned parts of this plant, also known as the coneflower, to pro-
duce smoke that was inhaled for treating headaches (Gilmore 1919). This included
the Omaha (Gilmore 1919). The Ponca and Hocak used the smoke of this plant to
treat distemper in horses (Gilmore 1919).
Echinacea pallida (Nutt.) Nutt. (Asteraceae). pale purple coneflower.
The Sioux of North America used smoke from the plant to treat distemper in
horses (Hart 1996). Elsewhere, Native Americans smoked it as a treatment for
headaches (Libster 2002).
Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench. (Asteraceae). eastern purple coneflower.
Native Americans smoked parts of this plant for the relief of headaches (Libster
2002).
Epilobium angustifolium L. 87
Epipremnum giganteum Schott. (Araceae). Rengot.
Smoke from burning roots was inhaled twice a week to
treat nose ulcers by people of the Machang District of
Malaysia’s Kelantan State (Ong and Nordiana 1999).
Eremophila latrobei F. Muell. (Myoporaceae). native
fuchsia.
Native Australians forced their babies to inhale the
smoke of smoldering leaves to enhance their chances of
survival (Meggitt 1962; Latz 1995).
Eremophila longifolia F. Muell. (Myoporaceae). berrigan
bush.
The smoke from the leaves of this species was used
to strengthen newborns and to stem the flow of post-
partum bleeding (Cleland and Johnston 1933, 1937;
Barr 1993; Latz 1995). Epilobium angustifolium
Eremophila mitchellii Benth. (Myoporaceae). false
sandalwood.
Native Australians inhaled the smoke of burning twigs for general ailments (Low
1990).
Eremophila neglecta J. Black (Myoporaceae). tar bush.
According to Native Australians, smoke from the leaves was used for unspecified
medicinal properties (Latz 1995).
Eremophila sturtii R. Br. (Myoporaceae). turpentine.
The Pitjantjatjara of Australia inhaled smoke from smoldering branches to relieve
backache (Latz 1995). The Arrernte burned green branches to produce fumes that
were believed to dispel clouds (Latz 1995). In the Northern Territory, the smoke
was used as a fumigant for sore eyes (Barr 1993).
Eremostachys loasifolia Benth. (Lamiaceae). dannân shân.
Villagers living between the Khuzdar and Nal areas of southern Pakistan smol-
dered the seeds of this species over hot coals and inhaled the smoke to remove
worms that had burrowed into their gums (Goodman and Ghafoor
1992).
Eriodictyon californicum Greene (Hydrophyllaceae). California yerba
santa.
The Costanoan of California smoked the leaves for relief from
asthma attacks (Bocek 1984). The Miwok, also of California, smoked
the leaves for colds (Barrett and Gifford 1933).
Erigeron canadensis L. (Asteraceae). horseweed.
Native Americans smoked the flowers and leaves for pleasure (Kav-
asch 1979). According to Smith (1932), the Pillager Ojibwa inhaled
the smoke of burning flowers to relieve head colds. They also used it
in their kinnikinnick smoking mixtures. According to Smith (1932),
the disk florets of this species were smoked as hunting charms. Other
Native Americans sprinkled the tops of leaves on hot coals and inhaled
the smoke in their sweat lodges (Krochmal and Krochmal 1973).
Erigeron philadelphicus L. (Asteraceae). Philadelphia fleabane.
Smoke from burning the flowers was used by the Ojibwa of North
America to relieve head colds (Smith 1932). Other tribes burned com- Erigeron canadensis
90 Ethulia conyzoides L. f.
Eucalyptus spp. (Myrtaceae). gum trees.
The smoking of gum tree leaves for the relief of asthma and bronchitis was pre-
scribed in the latter part of nineteenth-century Australia by colonial doctors, but
it did not endure long as a treatment for these respiratory conditions (Cribb and
Cribb 1981). In the rural villages of the Oio region of Guinea-Bissau, West Africa,
people burned the leaves of an unidentified Eucalyptus species to generate smoke
that drove mosquitoes away (Pålsson and Jaenson 1999b). These researchers
reported that the smoke was significantly more effective than the negative controls
that were used in their comparative study.
Eucarya spicata (R. Br.) Sprague & Summerh. (Santalaceae). Eucarya.
Parts of this plant were burned for incense purposes in an unspecified country
(Uphof 1968).
Euclea natalensis DC. (Ebenaceae). Natal guarri.
In Venda, South Africa, the smoke of burning roots was inhaled to relieve head-
aches (Arnold and Gulumian 1984).
Euclea schimperi (DC.) Dandy (Ebenaceae). bush guarri.
The wood, when burned, produces a thick, black smoke that was considered ideal
for repelling insects and other pests in Oman’s southern region of Dhofar (Miller
and Morris 1988). The Dhofari Arabic name for the plant is kilit.
Eugenia aromatica Baill. (Mytaceae). clove tree.
Ground cloves were mixed with tobacco (Nicotiana sp.) to produce the famous
Indonesian cigarettes kreteks (Hanusz 2003). These are still produced to this day,
with more than 500 manufacturers of the cigarettes.
Eulalia aurea Kunth (Poaceae). silky browntop.
The indigenous people of the Australia’s Northern Territory burned this plant with
parts of termite mounds to encourage lactation in mothers and to promote health
in their new babies (Barr 1993).
Eupatorium maculatum L. (Asteraceae). Joe-pye weed.
The leaves were used by the Hocak (Winnebago) of North America for the prepa-
ration of smoke smudges that were used to treat a variety of illnesses (Kindscher
and Hurlburt 1998).
Eupatorium urticaefolium Reichard (Asteraceae). white snakeroot.
The Chickasaw of North America prepared smoke smudges to revive unconscious
people (Smith 1928). Moerman (1998) suggests that the actual species used may
have been Ageratina altissima (L.) King & H. E. Robins var. roanensis (Small)
Clewell & Woot.
Euphorbia cuneata Vahl. ssp. spinescens (Pax) S. Carter. (Euphorbiaceae).
ormamen.
In southern Oromia, Ethiopia, the smoke generated in saunalike chambers
was used to perfume and cleanse the bodies and clothes of women pastoralists
(Gemedo-Dalle et al. 2005).
Euphorbia hirta L. (Euphorbiaceae). asthma plant.
Parts of this plant were smoked in a pipe by some Native Australian tribes to
relieve asthma attacks (Maiden 1889a; Cribb and Cribb 1981). It was also used for
that purpose in Nepal (Manandhar 2002). In the Cordillera region of northern
Luzon in the Philippines, the leaves were mixed in equal parts with the flowers of
Brugmansia suaveolens (Willd.) Brecht & C. Presl and smoked to relieve asthma
(Jayaweera 1980; Co 1989). The Philippine name for the species was gatus-gatus.
Euphorbia hirta L. 91
Euphorbia ingens E. Mey. (Euphorbiaceae). candelabra tree.
In Zimbabwe, the latex of this species was burned to produce
smoke that was inhaled for the treatment of asthma and bron-
chitis (Gelfand et al. 1985).
Euphrasia himalayica Wettst. (Scrophuliaraceae). Euphrasia.
The whole plant was burned as incense in the Manang District
of Nepal (Pohle 1990).
Evodia amboinensis Merr. (Rutaceae). Evodia.
The dried bark of E. amboinensis was burned for incense pur-
poses in parts of Indonesia (Uphof 1968).
Evolvulus alsinoides L. (Convulvulaceae). slender dwarf morning
glory.
The leaves of this species were smoked throughout the Indian
subcontinent to treat bronchitis, asthma, and other respira-
tory ailments. The main centers of use were India (Uphof 1968; Euphorbia ingens
Usher 1974), including the Garasia tribe of Rajasthan State
(Singh and Pandey 1998) and people of the Tirunelveli District
in Tamil Nadu State (Thomas and De Britto 2000), Nepal (Manandhar 2002), and
along the India–Nepal border (Ranjan 2000). It was also smoked in Sri Lanka
(Jayaweera 1980).
Excoecaria agallocha L. (Euphorbiaceae). milky mangrove.
Native Fijians burned the wood to inhale its smoke for curing ulcers (Cribb
and Cribb 1981) and for treating leprosy (Jayaweera 1980). This was also
common in India, where the smoke from burning the wood was used (Ban-
daranayake 1998). The wood was burned in unspecified areas of Southeast
Asia as incense (Uphof 1968; Usher 1974). The smoke has also been shown
to repel and kill mosquitoes (Thangam and Kathierson 1992; Thangam and
Kathierson 1993).
Exocarpus latifolius R. Br. (Santalaceae). broad-leafed native cherry.
In the Northern Territory of Australia, smoke from burning the leafy branches was
believed to make babies thrive (Barr 1993).
Fabiana bryoides Phil. (Solanaceae). Fabiana.
The pre-Altiplanic people of Chile burned the stems of this species as incense
(Aldunate et al. 1983).
Fagara chalybea Engl. (Rutaceae). ngwevna.
In parts of Botswana, the roots were burned for smoke that was reportedly used as
a remedy for snakebite (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006). Ngwevna is its Botswanan
name.
Fagus grandiflora Ehrh. (Fagaceae). American beech.
German soldiers smoked the leaves of this beech species as a substitute for tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) (Grieve 1931).
Faramea guianensis (Aubl.) Bremek. (Rubiaceae). Ipeca.
In parts of French Guiana, the entire plant was burned to fumigate wounds while
they were being dressed (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Fatsia horrida Benth & Hook. f. (Araliaceae). devil’s club.
The Crow of North America mixed the roots with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and
smoked them to relieve headaches (Blankinship 1905). Moerman (1998) suggests
that the species actually used may have been Oplopanax horridus Miq.
94 Fuchsia excorticata L. f.
Gloriosa superba L. (Colchicaceae). flame lily.
When cattle belonging to the Borana of Ethiopia and Gabbra of Kenya were bitten
by snakes, they were treated with fumigations of this species (Heine and Brenz-
inger 1988).
Glyceria aquatica (L.) Wahlb. (Poaceae). reed
manna-grass.
The Crow and Montana of North America burned this
plant for incense purposes (Barrett and Gifford 1933).
Moerman (1998) suggests that the species actually
used may have been Catabrosa aquatica P. Beauv.
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Fabaceae). licorice.
The root has been added to some tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) products in Egypt to add flavor
(Manniche 1989).
Gnaphalium japonicum Thunb. (Asteraceae).
Japanese cudweed.
When children in Lesotho, Africa, had high fever,
their huts were fumigated and cleansed with the
smoke produced during the burning of this plant
(Perry 1980).
Glycyrrhiza glabra
Gnaphalium margaritaceum L. (Asteraceae).
cudweed.
This species was smoked as a tobacco (Nicotiana
spp.) substitute in North America (Rafinesque 1828).
Gnaphalium polycephalum Michx. (Asteraceae). Indian posy.
Native Americans burned the leaves of Indian posy, inhaling its smoke to relieve
headaches (Kavasch 1979). It was also smoked for recreational purposes. This species
was used separately or with the galls obtained from a beaver’s body to make a smoke
smudge meant to revive fainted or unconscious people (Smith 1923). The smoke was
blown into the person’s nostrils. The smudge was also believed to drive away ghosts.
The Meskwaki of North America also used the smudge to revive
unconscious people (Smith 1928).
Gnaphalium obtusifolium L. (Asteraceae). sweet everlasting.
The Cherokee (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975) and Rappahannock
(Speck et al. 1942) of North America smoked unspecified parts
of this plant for the relief of asthma.
Gnetum nodiflorum Brongn. (Gnetaceae). gnetum.
This species was often burned as incense in Venezuela (von Reis
and Lipp 1982).
Gnetum sp. (Gnetaceae). joint firs.
Hunters in northern Thailand’s Akha area threw small pieces of
wood broken off from an unspecified species of joint fir into
their campfires because it was believed to keep evil spirits away
(Anderson 1993).
Gnidia burchellii Gilg. (Thymelaeaceae). Burchell’s gnidia.
In Africa, the Sotho burned whole plants and inhaled the smoke
to prevent nightmares and fevers (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk
1962). Gnaphalium obtusifolium
96 Gnidia capitata L. f.
Guaiacum spp. (Zygophyllaceae). lignum vitae.
The Aztec of Mexico burned the resins of various Guaiacum species as incense to
treat colds and for their aphrodisiacal properties (Rätsch 2004).
Guiera senegalensis J. F. Gmel. (Combretaceae). tiger bush.
In Dogonland, Mali, West Africa, the smoke from burning tiger bush stems and
leaves was inhaled to treat the wounds caused by Satan (Inngjerdingen et al. 2004).
This species is known locally as toniburu.
Guilandina bonducella L. (Fabaceae). gray nicker.
The leaves of this species, according to the fourth-century b.c. Sanskrit treatise the
Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya, were burned with other plant and animal ingredients to
produce smoke that causes blindness in one’s enemies (see Abrus precatorius L.)
(Sensarma 1998).
Gutierrezia furfuracea Greene (Asteraceae). broom snakeweed.
See Gutierrezia sarothrae (Pursh) Britt. & Rusby.
Gutierrezia sarothrae (Pursh) Britt. & Rusby (Asteraceae). broom snakeweed.
According to Foster and Hobbs (2002), smoke from this plant was burned as a
fumigant to help newborn babies and their mothers. It was also used for women
who were experiencing powerful contractions. Moerman (1998) suggests that it
was this species that the Hopi used for killing bees and not G. furfuracea Greene as
reported in the original texts.
Gutierrezia sp. (Asteraceae). snakeweed.
The Hopi of North America burned a unknown species of snakeweed over a slow
fire to generate smoke that was said to destroy and kill bees (Cook 1930).
Gymnosporia royleana M. Laws. (Celastraceae). jaliddar.
In India’s Udhampur District of Jammu Province, the seeds of this species were
smoked to relieve toothache (Kapur and Singh 1996).
Hagenia abyssinica J. F. Gmel. (Rosaceae). musuzi.
In parts of Ethiopia and Kenya, the roots and wood of this species were burned to
tan and smoke cowhides. The smoke was also used to perfume clothes and other
items (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Hanghomia marseillei Gagnep. and Thénint. (Apocynaceae). hanghomia.
The roots of this species were burned as incense in the local pagodas of Laos
(Uphof 1968; Usher 1974).
Haplocoelum foliolosum (Hiern) Bullock (Sapindaceae). northern gala plum.
The Borana of Ethiopia and the Gabbra of Kenya used this species to fumigate and
cleanse their containers (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. (Simaroubaceae). pedu.
In Ghana, the Nyamwezi “swallowed” the smoke of burning roots to treat ancylo-
stomiasis (Watt and Breyer-Brandwicjk 1962). The smoke was said to traverse the
intestine to mediate the disease’s effects.
Hedychium spicatum Sm. (Zingiberaceae). perfume ginger.
This plant was sold and burned as incense in the markets of Jima, Ethiopia, where
it is known as afer kocher (Siegenthaler 1971).
Helenium cusickii A. Gray. (Asteraceae). cusick’s sunflower.
The Shasta of northwestern California often burned this species to fumigate their
houses, especially when they were inhabited by a patient who had suffered a long,
slow illness with fevers and chills (Holt 1946).
114 Larrea divaricata Cav. subsp. tridentata (Sessé & Moc. ex DC.) Felger
Lavandula pedunculata (Mill.) Cav. (Lamiaceae). Spanish lavender.
The leaves of this species were smoked in the Madeira archipelago for apoplexy
(Rivera and Obón 1995).
Lawsonia inermis L. (Lythraceae). henna.
Smoldering wood was used to fumigate and flavor the insides of milk gourds
according to the Pokot of northern Kenya (Timberlake 1987). The local name for
the species is kaparamenion.
Ledum groenlandicum Oeder (Ericaceae). Labrador tea.
The Parry Island Ojibwa near Lake Huron in North America smoked the leaves of
this species when tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) was scarce (Jeaness 1935).
Ledum palustre L. (Ericaceae). crystal tea.
In eastern Kazakhstan, Russia, Siberia, and Ukraine, the leaves of this plant were
sometimes burned as a fumigant to drive away insects (Minaeva 1991).
Leonotis leonurus (L.) R. Br. (Lamiaceae). lion’s tail.
In 1925, Dornan reported that the Kalahari Bush-
men of South Africa were addicted to smoking this
species, which they called dacha. The Nama of South
Africa were also reported to have smoked the leaves
for recreational purposes (Smith 1966). The Hot-
tentots of South Africa smoked the buds and leaves
for their narcotic effects (Schultes et al. 2001). The
resin produced by the plant was sometimes mixed
and smoked with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.). The plant
was smoked for the relief of epilepsy in other parts of
South Africa (Schwegler 2003).
Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br. (Lamiaceae). Christmas
candlestick.
In Bulamogi County, Uganda, the leaves were smoked
in banana stem pipes to help men divorce their wives
(Tabuti et al. 2003). Leonotis leonurus
Leonotis sibericus L. (Lamiaceae). Siberian
motherwort.
This species was mentioned in the Chinese Book of Songs, Shih Ching, but it
was smoked in Central and South America (Schultes et al. 2001). Dried leaves
were harvested from flowering plants and were then smoked as a cannabis
substitute.
Lepidium ruderale L. (Brassicaceae). wild peppergrass.
The whole plant, when burned, produces smoke that was considered useful for
repelling a variety of insects, including aphids, beetles, and mites (McIndoo
1945).
Lepidium sativum L. (Brassicaceae). garden cress pepperweed.
According to Avicenna, the fumes of burning fruits were used in Iran as pest repel-
lents (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Leptodermis lanceolata Wall. (Rubiaceae). Leptodermis.
The leaves and flowers were burned as incense in Nepal (Manandhar 2002).
Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R. Br. (Lamiaceae). wild tree bush.
Unspecified parts of this species were burned so that the smoke generated could be
employed as a fumigant that repelled mosquitoes (Jacobson 1975).
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G L O S S A R Y O F T E R M S A N D A B B R E V I AT I O N S
211
axonic: Of or relating to the axons, or individual nerve cells, of the nervous system.
Ayurvedic medicine: An indigenous Indian medical system based on Hindu scriptures, or
Vedas. Ayurveda is an ancient Sanskrit word meaning “the science of life.”
b.c: Before Christ. A period of time prior to the Christian era.
bechic agent: A substance or agent that relieves coughs.
biliousness: A liver disease or condition often characterized by excessive bile production.
biodiversity: The totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a geographical region.
biosynthesis: The buildup of chemical compound using simpler “building blocks” (e.g., amino
acids, simple sugars), which is usually catalyzed by an enzyme.
bronchitis: An inflammation of one or more bronchi of the lungs.
ca.: Circa; approximately.
Camas: Any plant of the Camassia genus of the lily family, Liliaceae.
carcinogen: Any substance or agent that causes cancer.
carminative: Any substance or agent that helps expel gas from the stomach or intestine.
catarrh: A condition whereby there is inflammation of the mucous membranes of human
nasal and air passages.
cathartic: A substance or agent that induces bowel movements.
censer: An incense burner.
chaparral: A biome in the western United States characterized by hot, dry summers and cool,
moist winters. It is usually dominated by a dense growth of mostly small-leaved evergreen
shrubs rich in highly flammable resins, which aid the frequent wildfires.
chiclero: A Spanish word that describes a gatherer of latex, especially from the Sapodilla tree
(known as chicle). This formed the base for commercial chewing gum until synthetic gums
replaced it in the 1930s.
CNS: Central nervous system. The CNS forms part of the nervous systems of vertebrates and
consists of the brain and spinal cord, through which all motor impulses are relayed to the
muscles and all sensory input is received. The CNS coordinates the entire nervous system.
CO: Carbon monoxide gas.
CO2: Carbon dioxide gas.
colic: A medical condition related to acute abdominal pain caused by spasms, obstruction, and
twisting of hollow and other organs.
congeneric: Belonging to the same genus.
copal: Plant resins used in Mesoamerica for incense and other purposes. The word was derived
from the Aztec Nahuatl word copalli.
cotyledon: The leaves of an embryonic plant. These usually emerge shortly after the plant has
sprouted. Monocotyledons produce one leaf, and dicotyledons produce two.
coumarin: A natural white crystal lactone often used as a flavoring agent in soaps, perfumes,
and other items (C9H6O2).
crack cocaine: Free-base cocaine in which the hydrochloride salt is removed by processing the
alkaloid with ammonia or baking soda so that it can be smoked for its euphoric effects.
cyclopegia: Loss of accommodation in the eye and therefore the ability to adjust vision over
different distances.
DDT: Dichlor-diphenyltrichlor. A colorless, odorless insecticide that tends to accumulate in
ecosystems and has toxic effects on many vertebrate species.
DEET: N, N-diethyl-3-methylybenzamide. DEET is a synthetic insect repellent that was devel-
oped by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and patented by the U.S. Army in 1946 (Fradin
1998). It remains one of the most effective insect repellents on the market.
delirium: A frenzied mental state characterized by confusion, hysteria, slurred speech, or hal-
lucinations.
demographic stochasticity: Random fluctuations in birth and/or death rates.
dermatitis: A skin condition caused by allergens and other agents and often associated with
inflammation.
217
Aloe cooperi, 39 Apocynum cannabinum, 43
Alpinia spp., 39 Aquilaria agallocha, 43
Alstonia boonei, 39 Aquilaria beccariana, 43
Alternanthera sessilis, 39 Aquilaria hirta, 43
Alyxia flavescens, 39 Aquilaria malaccensis, 44
Alyxia psilostachya, 39 Aquilaria moszkowskii, 44
Alyxia reinwardtii, 39 Aquilaria sinensis, 44
Amaranthus hybridus ssp. hybridus, 39 Aquilaria spp., 44
Amaranthus spinosus, 39 Aquilegia canadensis, 44
Amaranthus viridis, 39 Aralia racemosa, 44
Amasonia campestris, 39 Arbutus menziesii, 44
Ambrosia maritima, 39 Arcangelisia flava, 44
Amorpha canescens, 39 Arcangelisia loureiroi, 45
Amorphophallus sp., 40 Arctium lappa, 45
Amorphophallus variabilis, 40 Arctostaphylos alpina, 45
Amyris balsamifera, 40 Arctostaphylos glandulosa, 45
Amyris elemifera, 40 Arctostaphylos glauca, 45
Anacardium occidentale, 40 Arctostaphylos nevadensis, 45
Anadenanthera colubrina, 40 Arctostaphylos patula, 45
Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil, 40 Arctostaphylos pungens, 45
Anadenanthera peregrina, 40 Arctostaphylos tomentosa, 45
Anaphalis contorta, 40, 41 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, 24, 46
Anaphalis javanica, 40 Areca catechu, 46
Anaphalis margaritacea, 40, 41 Arenaria macradenia, 46
Anaphalis royleana, 41 Argemone mexicana, 46
Anaphalis triplinervis, 41 Arisaema enneaphyllum, 46
Andira inermis, 41 Aristolochia sp., 46
Andrachne ovalis, 41 Artemesia indica, 46
Anemone caffra, 41 Artemisia absinthium, 46
Anemone fanninii, 41 Artemisia argentea, 46
Anemone multifida, 41 Artemisia californica, 46
Anemone obtusiloba, 41 Artemisia douglasiana, 47
Anemone virginiana, 41 Artemisia dracunculus, 47
Anemone vitifolia, 41 Artemisia frigida, 47
Angelica archangelica, 41 Artemisia furcata var. heterophylla, 47
Angelica atropurpurea, 42 Artemisia gmelinii, 47
Angelica breweri, 42 Artemisia japonica, 47
Angelica sp., 42 Artemisia judaica, 47
Angelica tomentosa, 42 Artemisia ludoviciana, 47
Aniba canelilla, 42 Artemisia ludoviciana ssp. ludoviciana, 47, 48
Annona ambotay, 42 Artemisia maritima var. neercha, 48
Annona senegalensis, 42 Artemisia maritima var. seski, 48
Annona squamosa, 42 Artemisia nilagarica, 48
Annona stenophylla, 42 Artemisia parviflora, 48
Antennaria aprica, 42 Artemisia scoparia, 48
Antennaria margaritacea, 42 Artemisia sieberi, 48
Antennaria neglecta, 43 Artemisia spp., 48
Antennaria rosea, 43 Artemisia thuscula, 48
Antennaria sp, 43 Artemisia tridentata, 48
Anthriscus nemorosa, 43 Artemisia tripartita, 48
Anthurium oxycarpum, 43 Artemisia vulgaris, 21, 32, 48, 49, 140
Apocynum androsaemifolium, 43 Artocarpus altilis, 49
Abdominal pains, 54, 65, 138, 212 Amazon, 85, 89, 101, 103, 125, 130, 131, 134,
Aberëshë Albanians, 155, 156 146, 154, 166, 176
Abipone people, 40 Amravati Tahsil, India, 167
Abortifacients, 4, 107, 154, 178–179 Amulets, 89
Abortions, 4, 38, 52, 63, 67, 74, 83, 86, 102, Analgesic properties. See analgesics
176, 179 Analgesic substances. See analgesics
Abscesses, 124, 178 Analgesics, 5, 25, 52, 70, 87, 136
Abyssinia. See Ethiopia Anatolia, Turkey, 38, 70, 155
Acacias, 3 Ancestors, 2, 10, 15, 23, 28, 98–99
Aches, 54, 137 Andaman Island, India, 96, 164
Aching legs, 138 Andes Mountains, 8, 89, 131
Acron, 8 Andhra Pradesh, India, 39, 58, 111, 159, 175
Acupuncture, 49, 214 Anesthetics, 10, 40, 112
Addiction, 19, 130 Angina pectoris, 42, 112–113, 136, 211
Addictive substances, 17 Angola, 59, 101, 138, 143
Aetius, 8 Animal hides, 24–25, 47–48, 86, 140–141,
Africa, 3, 8, 10, 15, 21, 23–25, 36, 37, 41, 148, 156
53, 56–58, 61–74, 76–84, 89–91, 92, Animals, 9, 12, 23, 25, 26, 40, 50, 53, 58, 60,
93–100, 103, 104, 107, 111, 113–117, 119, 64, 79, 85, 96–97, 112–113, 121, 127, 137,
120, 122–124, 132–135, 145, 152, 153, 152, 157, 158, 163, 164, 166, 171, 175, 177
157–159, 162, 167, 168, 175–178 Ankara, Turkey, 38
African American magicians, 46 Anopheles. See anopheline mosquitoes
African Congo (Zaire), 63, 84–85, 120, 126, Anopheline mosquitoes, 21
135, 140, 165, 167, 173 Anticonvulsives, 156
Afrikaans, 37, 111 Antilles, 96, 138
Aire, 59, 104, 114, 145 Antiseptics, 9, 72, 105, 120, 137, 170, 211
Airway irritation, 170 Antispasmodics, 130, 147, 211
Akha people, 95, 136 Antitussives, 167
Alaska, 38, 39, 55, 71, 107, 140, 144–145, 175 Anus, 49, 54
Albuquerque, 148 Apasmara, 6
Alexandria, Egypt, 12 Aphids, 115
Algonquin people, 24, 129 Apollo, 9, 10, 102, 215
Aligandi, Panama, 64, 169 Apoplexy, 46, 114, 115, 153, 211
Alkaloids, 6–7, 17, 20, 86, 89, 90, 123, 138, Appalachians, 83, 126, 151, 172
179 Arabia, 12–13, 68, 73
Allergic reactions, 26, 170 Arabia Felix, 12
Almería, Spain, 69, 93, 139 Arabian people, 2, 11, 19
Alphonse de Candolle, 6 Arakwa people, 176
Alter do Chão people, 42, 147 Argentina, 40, 59, 81, 104, 136, 153, 172
Alveoli, 5 Arizona, 52, 89, 159, 164
233
Arkansas, 42 Bangladesh, 44
Arrernte people, 88, 124 Bantu people, 53, 116, 163
Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya, 26, 32, 49, 53, 60, 65, Barsana people, 172
96, 97, 105, 106, 112, 126, 127, 137, 152, Basilicata region, Italy, 155
157–159, 162, 164, 171, 175, 177 Bears, 130
Ascariasis, 177 Bedouins, 18, 47, 48, 102, 137
Ascea, Italy, 126 Beeling Tribe, 48
Asia, 6, 13, 21, 49, 53, 69, 78, 80, 90, 92–93, Bees, 22, 47, 60, 68, 97, 98, 101, 116, 134,
96, 117, 123, 137, 171, 173–174 141, 145, 151, 164, 167, 178
Asia Minor, 117 Beeswax, 125
Assam, Nepal, 139, 162 Beetles, 115
Assassins, 18 Belize, 59, 67, 123, 153, 164
Assassinations, 17 Bella Coola people, 38, 119
Assyria, 5 Bellorussia, 173
Assyrians, 11, 63 Berkeley Barb, 20
Asthma, 5, 6, 17, 36, 37, 43, 48, 49, 52, 56, 59, Betel nut, 22
61–63, 67, 70, 71, 74, 81–83, 87–88, 90–93, Bhaderwah Hills, India, 50, 124, 160
95, 96, 98, 102, 103, 107, 111, 117, 118, Bhil tribe, 167
120, 122, 125–127, 131, 134–135, 138, 140, Bhils people, 35
145, 151–155, 159–161, 163, 165, 167, 168, Bible, 139
171–174, 176–178 Bidis, 17–18
Athens, Greece, 7–8, 107 Biliousness, 47, 212
Atropine, 6 Birth, 3, 12, 27, 36, 65, 93, 109, 143, 172
Australia, 4, 28, 32, 33, 79, 85, 88–92, 104, Bitans. See Hanzakut shamans
106, 117, 121, 124, 145, 148, 156, 159, Bites, 20, 41, 105, 133, 175
176 Black copal, 37
Avicenna, 38, 54, 57, 67, 107, 115, 118, 131, Blackfoot people, 31, 38, 43, 76, 94, 100,
135, 140–141, 143, 149, 153, 165, 166, 168, 118–119, 127–128, 138
171, 211 Blindness, 32, 50, 82, 96, 97, 105, 152, 156,
Ayuba National Park, Pakistan, 160 159, 162, 171
Ayurveda, 4, 38, 71, 73, 87, 152, 160 Bluejay spirit, 116
Azadirachtin, 21, 53 Bolivia, 21, 49, 51–52, 70–71, 90, 114,
Aztecs, 117, 166 125–126, 145, 147, 157
Bora people, 65–66
Babies, 3–4, 16, 27, 32–33, 35, 47, 52, 59, 61, Borana people, 32–34, 37, 38, 46, 53, 56, 58,
65, 69–73, 79, 85, 88–89, 91, 92, 97, 98, 70, 72, 74, 86, 87, 94, 97, 100, 105, 113,
130, 132, 137–138, 156, 159 119, 120, 133–134, 136, 143, 159, 162,
Babylonians, 11 167, 168, 173, 176
Backache, 5, 88, 123, 142 Brazil, 36, 40, 42–43, 51, 63, 71, 82, 106, 126,
Bacon’s Rebellion, 6 130, 143, 145, 147, 154, 165
Bacteria, 23, 27, 39, 53, 111, 123, 150, 168 Bread, 126
Bad dreams, 71, 105, 110, 114, 119, 124, 132 Breasts, 54, 134
Bad luck, 25, 102, 156 British, 6, 19
Baganda Tribesmen, 83, 177 British Columbia, 31, 38, 47, 119, 148, 153,
Bakiga Tribe, 83, 159 173, 174
Balam Throne, Mexico, 13 British East India Company, 19
Balankanche Cave, Mexico, 13, 14 British Government, 19
Balochistan, Pakistan, 138 Bronchial conditions, 125
Balthasar, 12 Bronchial congestion, 121
Baltic region, 142 Bronchial coughs, 40
Baluchistan province, Pakistan, 161 Bronchitis, 73, 83, 91, 92, 118, 153, 171, 174
Bananas, 20, 22, 39, 115, 124, 131 Buckskins, tanning, 113, 145