Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed)
Datasheet Types: Invasive species, Pest, Host plant, Crop
Abstract
This datasheet on Amaranthus retroflexus covers Identity, Overview, Associated Diseases, Pests or Pathogens, Distribution, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Management, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Amaranthus retroflexus L. (1753)
- Preferred Common Name
- redroot pigweed
- International Common Names
- Englishcarelessweedcommon amaranthredroot
- Spanishamarantoaracuatacubledobledo rojomarxantquelitequentonil
- Frenchamarante récourbéeamarante réfléchie
- Portuguesecaruru gigantemoncos-de-Peru
- Local Common Names
- Argentinaatacatacocaa-ruruyuyo colorado
- Boliviaataco comanchiori
- Brazilbredocarura asperocaruru
- Canadaamarante a racine rouge
- Denmarkopret anaranttilbagebjet anarant
- Finlandvihrea revonhanta
- GermanyAmarant (Rauhhaariger)FuchsschwanzKrummer FuchsschwanzRauhhaariger AmarantZuruckgekrummterZurueckgebogener Amarant
- Irantaj khoroos
- Italyamarantoamaranto comunebiedone
- Japanaogeito
- Madagascaramatarika
- Netherlandspapegaaienkruid
- Norwayduskamarant
- Peruyuyo
- Swedensvinamarant
- Turkeyhoroz kuyrugakirmizi koklu tilki kuyrugu
- Venezuelapira
- Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)hrapavi stir
- EPPO code
- AMARE (Amaranthus retroflexus)
Pictures
Habit
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); habit. nr. Hockenheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. July 2016.
Public Domain - Released by AnRo0002/via wikipedia - CC0
Habit
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); Habit. Niederhollabrunn, Korneuburg, Lower Austria. September 2016.
©Stefan Lefnaer/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Habit
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); habit. in an asparagus field. nr. Reilingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. September 2012.
Public Domain - Released by AnRo0002/via wikipedia - CC0
Flowering habit
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); Flowering habit. Oftersheim, Germany. September 2017.
Public Domain - Released by AnRo0002/via Wikimedia Commons - CC0
Habit
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); habit. Hockenheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. August 2015.
Public Domain - Released by AnRo0002/via wikipedia - CC0
Habit and leaves
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); habit and leaves. Hungary. August 2009.
Public Domain - Released by Szaga/via wikipedia - CC0
Flower spike
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); flower spike.
©Lynk media/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0
Habit
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); habit. Saarbrücken, Germany. July 2014.
Public Domain - Released by AnRo0002/via wikipedia - CC0
Habit
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); Habit. August 2007.
©Lynk media/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 3.0
Inflorescence
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); Inflorescence. Wallau, Germany. July 2015.
Public Domain - Released by AnRo0002/via Wikimedia Commons - CC0
Foliage
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); Foliage. USA. July 2012.
©F. D. Richards/via Flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0
Inflorescence
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); The terminal spike of the inflorescence is usually broadens toward the base. Lindley Place, Bozeman, Montana. September 2008.
©Matt Lavin/via Flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0
Foliage
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); Foliage. USA. July 2012.
©F. D. Richards/via Flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0
Seedlings
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); Seedlings. Krzeszyce, Gorzów, Poland. April 2019.
©Krzysztof Ziarnek (Kenraiz)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Leaf
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); Leaf underside. Aspern, Donaustadt, Vienna. October 2015.
©Stefan Lefnaer/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Seeds
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); seeds.
Public Domain - Released by the USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database/original image by Steve Hurst
Seeds
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); Seeds. Floridsdorf, Vienna. July 2015.
©Stefan Lefnaer/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Fruit with seed
Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed); Opened fruit with seed and bracteole. Floridsdorf, Vienna. July 2015.
©Stefan Lefnaer/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Overview
A. retroflexus has become naturalized throughout the temperate regions of the northern and southern hemispheres. It is an herbaceous annual growing to 2 m tall and is used as a vegetable in many parts of the world and for medicinal purposes by many Native American groups. It is a common weed of most field and horticultural row crops in the temperate areas of the world.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
A. retroflexus has a diploid chromosome number of 34 (Murray, 1940; Grant, 1959). It readily hybridizes with closely related species (A. hybridus, A. powellii and A. caudatus), but the F1 generation is highly sterile (Murray 1940). Hybrids often have oddly shaped inflorescences.
Description
A. retroflexus is a monoecious, erect, finely hairy, freely-branching, herbaceous annual growing to 2 m tall; taproot pink or red, depth varies with soil profile; leaves alternate, egg-shaped or rhombic-ovate, cuneate at base, up to 10 cm long, margins somewhat wavy, veins prominent on underside, apex may be sharp, petiole shorter or longer than leaf; flowers numerous, small, borne in dense blunt spikes 1 to 5 cm long, densely crowded onto terminal panicle 5 to 20 cm long but may be smaller on upper axils; three spiny-tipped, rigid, awl-shaped bracteoles surround the flower, exceeding the perianth, length 4 to 8 mm, persistent; tepals five, much longer than fruit, usually definitely recurved at tips, obovate or highly spatulate, one pistil and five stamens; style branches erect or a bit recurved; fruit a utricle, membranous, flattened, 1.5 to 2 mm long, dehiscing by a transverse line at the middle, wrinkled upper part falling away; seed oval to egg-shaped, somewhat flattened, notched at the narrow end, 1 to 1.2 mm long, shiny black or dark red-brown.
Distribution
A. retroflexus is thought to be a native riverbank pioneer of the central and eastern USA and adjacent regions of south-eastern Canada and north-eastern Mexico (Sauer, 1967). It has become naturalized throughout the temperate regions of the northern and southern hemispheres. A. palmeri is also native to North America, but its distribution is confined primarily to the southern USA and Mexico (Sauer, 1955).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
Hosts/Species Affected
A. retroflexus has a worldwide distribution and is a common weed of most field and horticultural row crops in the temperate areas of the world.
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Immature plants of A. retroflexus are similar in appearance to those of A. hybridus and A. powellii. Flowering plants of the latter two species have thinner, longer branches of the inflorescence, and straight, un-reflexed perianth segments. In A. hybridus, the perianth segments are acute and the bracteoles, although a little shorter than those of A. retroflexus, are distinctly more spiny to the touch. A. retroflexus also resembles A. palmeri and the waterhemps, A. rudis and A. tuberculatus, but the stems and leaves of the three latter species are smooth and hairless, and male and female flowers occur on separate plants. The latter three are all north American species. A. palmeri has not spread significantly outside the USA and Mexico (Sauer, 1955), but has become increasingly important weed in soyabeans, groundnuts and cotton in south-eastern USA (Webster and Cole, 1997).Many other Amaranthus species are superficially similar to A. retroflexus. Of those included in this compendium, A. spinosus has spines, A. viridis has much smaller flowers, A. blitum has indented leaf tips, and A. graecizans and A. blitoides have mainly axillary inflorescences. Further species can occur as weeds on a local basis and reference to local floras or expertise may be necessary
Habitat
A. retroflexus is found on a wide variety of soil types and textures. It grows particularly well in fertile soils and has a high N requirement. It tolerates soil pH from 4.2 to 9.1 (Feltner, 1970), but is less common on acid soils, such as those of the south-eastern USA, where the related species A. palmeri is more abundant. It is common in cultivated fields, gardens, waste places, roadsides, river banks, and other open, disturbed habitats where annual weeds predominate. It is seldom found in closed or shaded communities (Weaver and McWilliams, 1980).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial |
Biology and Ecology
A. retroflexus is an annual that reproduces solely by seed. It is a prolific seed producer, with single vigorous plants capable of producing between 230,000 and 500,000 seeds (Stevens, 1957). Seed production declines beneath crop canopies where light is limited (McLachlan et al., 1995). Germination requirements and dormancy patterns are highly variable depending on distribution and local climatic and ecological conditions and, as such, generalizations should be treated with caution. Recent research suggests that germination is stimulated by light and high temperatures (Gallagher and Cardina, 1997; Oryokot et al., 1997). The seeds are small and most germinate near to the soil surface, with optimum emergence from about 1 cm depth (Wiese and Davis, 1967; Siriwardana and Zimdahl, 1983). Weaver and McWilliams (1980) reported that seeds can remain viable in the soil for many years, but Egley and Chandler (1978) reported a 90% decline in viability after seed burial for 18 months. Seeds are dispersed by wind, animals and as contaminants of crop seeds or farm machinery.
A. retroflexus has the C4 pathway of photosynthesis, typical 'Kranz' leaf anatomy, a low carbon dioxide compensation point and high water use efficiency (Weaver and McWilliams, 1980; Tremmel and Patterson, 1993).
More detailed information on the biology and ecology of A. retroflexus is provided by Weaver and McWilliams (1980) and Holm et al. (1997).
A. retroflexus has the C4 pathway of photosynthesis, typical 'Kranz' leaf anatomy, a low carbon dioxide compensation point and high water use efficiency (Weaver and McWilliams, 1980; Tremmel and Patterson, 1993).
More detailed information on the biology and ecology of A. retroflexus is provided by Weaver and McWilliams (1980) and Holm et al. (1997).
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
A. retroflexus is a host plant for a variety of insect pests and diseases which attack crops, although damage is rarely severe enough to serve as biological control. However, several authors have suggested the pigweed flea beetle (Disonycha glabrata) (Tisler, 1990) and various pathogens (Burki et al., 1997) as potential control agents.
Natural enemies
| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alternaria alternata (alternaria leaf spot) | Pathogen |
Impact
A. retroflexus is an aggressive and competitive weed in a variety of row crops. It causes substantial yield loss in soyabean, maize, cotton, sugarbeet, sorghum, and many vegetable crops (Weaver and MacWilliams, 1980). Holm et al. (1997) list the many countries and crops in which A. retroflexus is a significant weed problem. It has been reported to have allelopathic effects on both weeds and crops (Athanassova, 1996). It has the capacity to accumulate and concentrate nitrates in stems and branches in amounts which are poisonous to livestock (Mitich, 1997; Torres et al., 1997) and leaves have been reported to have oxalate levels as high as 30% (Nuss and Loewus, 1978). Amaranthus species can cause allergic reactions in humans, primarily due to wind-borne pollen (Mitchell and Rook, 1979; Wurzen et al., 1995). A. retroflexus is an alternative host for a number of crop pests and diseases, including the parasitic weed Orobanche ramosa in tomato in the USA, the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae, in orchards, and cucumber mosaic cucumovirus in peppers (Weaver and McWilliams, 1980).
Uses
A. retroflexus is palatable to sheep and has a nutrient composition and digestibility equivalent to that of alfalfa (Marten and Andersen, 1975; Moyer and Hironaka, 1993). Closely related Amaranthus species are used as pot herbs, cultivated grains, and ornamental or dye-plants, particularly in Central and South America (Wesche-Ebeling et al., 1995; Mitich, 1997). A. retroflexus is eaten as a vegetable in many places of the world and is used for many food and medicinal uses by Native American groups. A. retroflexus may have traits useful to breeding programmes for the cultivated grain amaranths.
Uses List
Materials > Poisonous to mammals
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Fodder/animal feed
Human food and beverage > Vegetable
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore
Human food and beverage > Flour/starch
Human food and beverage > Seeds
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Control
Cultural Control
Seedlings can be controlled by cultivation, but older plants often recover from mechanical damage and produce axillary inflorescences. Soil solarization under plastic can provide control of A. retroflexus if high temperatures are achieved for prolonged periods of time (Mas and Verdu, 1996).
Chemical Control
A. retroflexus is readily controlled by most herbicides which inhibit photosynthesis, such as atrazine, simazine, metribuzin, linuron and bromoxynil. It is also highly susceptible to the synthetic auxin herbicides, such as 2,4-D or dicamba, and sulfonylurea and imidizolinone herbicides, such as imazethapyr, thifensulfuron-methyl, rimsulfuron and nicosulfuron. Most other herbicides for control of broad-leaved weeds also provide good control including acifluorfen, fomesafen and pendimethalin (Weaver and McWilliams 1980; Bauer et al. 1995; Carey and Kells 1995; Mamarot and Rodriguez, 1997). Its pattern of intermittent germination throughout the growing season, however, makes the application of residual soil-applied herbicides, or sequential post-emergence treatments, necessary in heavily infested fields. A. retroflexus can be controlled by the soil fumigant methyl iodide (Zhang et al., 1997).
Herbicide Resistance
Populations of A. retroflexus resistant to atrazine have been reported in the USA, Canada, France, Germany, Hungary, Switzerland, Spain, Poland, Chile and the Czech Republic (Heap, 1997). Many of these are cross-resistant to metribuzin and linuron (Daban and Garbutt, 1996). Populations resistant to ALS inhibitors (sulfonylureas and imadizolinones) have been reported in the USA and Israel (Heap, 1997). In the past 20 years biotypes resistant to 15 herbicide active ingredients have been reported in 15 countries (LeBaron and Gressel, 1982; Benbrook, 1991).
Biological Control
Biological control of A. retroflexus with fungal pathogens has been reported (Burki et al., 1997). The pigweed flea beetle, Disonycha glabrata, is native to the southern USA and South America. It has been promoted as a control agent of A. retroflexus (Tisler 1990), but it gives incomplete control in the field because beetle populations develop too slowly and too early in the season to prevent competition with the crop and seed production.
Seedlings can be controlled by cultivation, but older plants often recover from mechanical damage and produce axillary inflorescences. Soil solarization under plastic can provide control of A. retroflexus if high temperatures are achieved for prolonged periods of time (Mas and Verdu, 1996).
Chemical Control
A. retroflexus is readily controlled by most herbicides which inhibit photosynthesis, such as atrazine, simazine, metribuzin, linuron and bromoxynil. It is also highly susceptible to the synthetic auxin herbicides, such as 2,4-D or dicamba, and sulfonylurea and imidizolinone herbicides, such as imazethapyr, thifensulfuron-methyl, rimsulfuron and nicosulfuron. Most other herbicides for control of broad-leaved weeds also provide good control including acifluorfen, fomesafen and pendimethalin (Weaver and McWilliams 1980; Bauer et al. 1995; Carey and Kells 1995; Mamarot and Rodriguez, 1997). Its pattern of intermittent germination throughout the growing season, however, makes the application of residual soil-applied herbicides, or sequential post-emergence treatments, necessary in heavily infested fields. A. retroflexus can be controlled by the soil fumigant methyl iodide (Zhang et al., 1997).
Herbicide Resistance
Populations of A. retroflexus resistant to atrazine have been reported in the USA, Canada, France, Germany, Hungary, Switzerland, Spain, Poland, Chile and the Czech Republic (Heap, 1997). Many of these are cross-resistant to metribuzin and linuron (Daban and Garbutt, 1996). Populations resistant to ALS inhibitors (sulfonylureas and imadizolinones) have been reported in the USA and Israel (Heap, 1997). In the past 20 years biotypes resistant to 15 herbicide active ingredients have been reported in 15 countries (LeBaron and Gressel, 1982; Benbrook, 1991).
Biological Control
Biological control of A. retroflexus with fungal pathogens has been reported (Burki et al., 1997). The pigweed flea beetle, Disonycha glabrata, is native to the southern USA and South America. It has been promoted as a control agent of A. retroflexus (Tisler 1990), but it gives incomplete control in the field because beetle populations develop too slowly and too early in the season to prevent competition with the crop and seed production.
Cultivation
A. retroflexus is found on a wide variety of soil types and textures. It grows particularly well in fertile soils and has a high N requirement. It tolerates soil pH from 4.2 to 9.1 (Feltner, 1970), but is less common on acid soils, such as those of the south-eastern USA, where the related species A. palmeri is more abundant. It is common in cultivated fields, gardens, waste places, roadsides, river banks, and other open, disturbed habitats where annual weeds predominate. It is seldom found in closed or shaded communities (Weaver and McWilliams, 1980).
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
| Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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