European Journal of Medicinal Plants
31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
ISSN: 2231-0894, NLM ID: 101583475
Ethnopharmacological Survey of Medicinal Plants
Used in the Management of HIV and AIDS-Related
Conditions in Makete District, Southern Highlands of
Tanzania
Alphonce Ignace Marealle1,2*, Ester Innocent2, Kerstin Andrae-Marobela3,
Michael Qwarse4 and Mainen Moshi2
1
Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Muhimbili University of
Health and Allied Sciences, P.O. Box 65013, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
2
Department of Biological and Pre-clinical studies, Institute of Traditional Medicine, Muhimbili
University of Health and Allied Sciences, P.O. Box 65001, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
3
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Botswana, Private Bag UB 00704,
Garborone, Botswana.
4
Department of Natural Products Development and Formulations, Institute of Traditional Medicine,
Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, P.O. Box 65001, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Authors’ contributions
This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. Authors AIM, MM, KAM, MQ and EI
designed the study. Authors AIM and MM participated in data collection. Author AIM compiled the
information and drafted the initial manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Article Information
DOI: 10.9734/EJMP/2020/v31i1430317
Editor(s):
(1) Dr. Paola Angelini, University of Perugia, Italy.
(2) Marcello Iriti, University of Milan, Italy.
Reviewers:
(1) Jemimah Ayuma Simbauni, Kenyatta University, Kenya.
(2) Khairuddin Djawad, Hasanuddin University, Indonesia.
Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/61477
Original Research Article
Received 17 July 2020
Accepted 23 September 2020
Published 08 October 2020
ABSTRACT
Aims: Plants used in traditional medicine have contributed to the development of modern
medicines, but in order to boost the discovery of novel drugs to fight diseases such as HIV/AIDS
and emerging new diseases, systematic evaluation of many more plants needs to continue. The
aim of the present study was to document medicinal plants used in the management of HIV and
AIDS-related conditions in Makete District, Tanzania.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
*Corresponding author: E-mail: marealle2010@gmail.com;
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Study Design: This was qualitative ethnopharmacological survey.
Place and Duration of Study: Makete District in Njombe Region, Tanzania between March and
April 2019.
Methodology: This ethnopharmacological survey was conducted using a semi-structured
questionnaire. The study focused only on traditional health practitioners (THP) registered by
government health authorities in Makete District. The HIV and AIDS-related conditions considered
in this study were tuberculosis, Herpes zoster, candidiasis, sexually transmitted infections, cough,
skin rashes, frequent fevers, chronic diarrhea, chronic wounds, warts, oral thrush and weight loss.
Literature survey was carried out to evaluate strength of the THP claims based on similar
ethnopharmacological claims and proven pharmacological activities of the plants.
Results: Among the ten THP interviewed seven were male and three were female. The average
age and years of practice were 57.5 and 26.5 years, respectively. Thirty-seven plant species
representing 36 genera and 27 families were reported to be used for the treatment of different HIV
and AIDS-related conditions. Twelve (32.4 %) and 15 (40.5 %) species did not have previously
reported ethnopharmacological and pharmacological activities, respectively. Among the 37 plant
species identified 13 species (35%) have been previously reported for similar
ethnopharmacological uses and 12 (32%) species had literature reports on respective biological
activities. Nine species have reported antiviral activity and seven of them displayed specific
activities against HIV-1.
Conclusion: A significant number of medicinal plants identified in this study are reported here for
the first time in relation to their use for HIV and AIDS-related conditions. The study also provides
information that correlates well with previously published ethnopharmacological information or
laboratory results of tests against HIV-1 or related conditions, thus justifying the need for screening
and detailed studies intended to isolate and characterize compounds active against HIV and
related conditions.
Keywords: Traditional medicine; HIV and AIDS-related conditions; Makete; Tanzania.
1. INTRODUCTION
conditions can promote the search for products
to supplement the available therapeutic options,
especially in resource-limited countries. Many
previous, successful screening studies to
discover anti-HIV compounds, studied plants
which are used to treat HIV and AIDS-related
conditions [7-9]. For example, some of plant
species previously reported to be used
traditionally in Tanzania for treatment of HIV and
AIDS-related conditions have been reported
elsewhere to have anti-HIV activity [10].
Despite substantial efforts made to control
HIV/AIDS for the past three decades, the disease
still constitutes a leading global health challenge
and there is no cure [1]. Presently, highly active
antiretroviral therapy (HAART) is the main option
at hand in controlling the disease, but the
development of drug-resistant HIV-1 strains to
almost all available classes of anti-HIV-1 drugs
and their high toxicity profiles undermines efforts
to control the disease [2,3].
So far, many natural product-derived compounds
have been reported, targeting different stages of
HIV replication like Calanolide A/B, Tulsi/Holy
Basil, Kuwanon-L, Rheum-palatum L, and
Patentiflorin A which inhibit HIV reverse
transcriptase enzyme, Kuwanon-L and Rheumpalatum L have anti-integrase activity. BowmanBirk inhibitor increases cellular expression of HIV
restriction factors and betulinic acid which
prevents release of infectious viral particles [11].
Although currently there is no plant-derived drug
that is in clinical use to treat HIV and AIDS,
promising activities have been shown by several
natural product-derived candidates in preclinical
and clinical trials. The number of compounds
exhibiting anti-HIV activity isolated from natural
sources is increasing progressively. One among
Medicinal plants have been used for centuries to
treat different human ailments. According to the
World Health Organization (WHO), about threequarters of the African population rely on plants
for the treatment of their illnesses [4]. Plants are
rich resources for many novel biologically active
compounds with potential for use in modern
medicine. Despite the increasing sophisticated
techniques to design molecular modifications in
the laboratories, "Mother Nature" is still the best
designer, since nearly half of all new molecular
entities introduced in the past three decades
have been derived from natural products [5,6].
Identification and documentation of plant species
used for management of HIV and AIDS-related
57
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
the promising anti-HIV compounds is calanolide
A which was isolated from Calophyllum
lanigerum tree latex. Calanolide A which is a
coumarin, has undergone early stages of clinical
trials [12]. Another example of natural productderived candidate which has reached clinical trial
phase is bevirimat [3-O-(3′,3′-dimethylsuccinyl)betulinic acid]. The phase I and II study of safety,
virologic
effect,
and
pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics
of
its
single oral doses against HIV reported bevirimat
to be well tolerated and demonstrated a dosedependent reduction in viral load [13].
the north and west by the Mbeya Region, to the
east by the Njombe District and to the south by
the Ludewa District. It is one of the six Districts of
Njombe Region and is located in the Southern
Highlands of Tanzania about 115 km from the
regional headquarters (Fig. 1). According to
Tanzania National Population and Housing
Census projections of 2012, Makete District has
a total population of 97,266 people [17]. The
District is dominated by Wakinga ethnic tribe
which speaks Kinga language as their local
language. Agriculture provides the livelihood of
most people in this district. Because of the
temperate climate with temperatures ranging
from 2 to 30°C, wheat and potatoes are widely
cultivated. The district has high levels of mobility
due to seasonal workers employed in farms and
numerous timber tree plantations.
An earlier study [14], showed how natural
products have served as important leads for the
discovery of more potent molecules including,
bevirimat and DCK (3'R,4'R-di-O-(-)-camphanoyl(+)-cis-khellactone) which were designed on the
basis of anti-HIV activity of naturally occurring
betulinic acid and suksdorfin, respectively.
Although some natural products such as
clusianone, propolone A, the lectin Ban Lec, and
mirabamide A have shown anti-HIV activity in the
nanomolar/picomolar range, further efforts are
still warranted to find new lead molecules for HIV
and AIDS from natural sources [14].
2.2 Study Design
This qualitative ethnopharmacological survey
was conducted between March and April 2019.
The study employed a purposive sampling in
which selection of respondents only focused on
traditional health practitioners (THPs) registered
by Health Authorities in the office of Makete
District Medical Officer (DMO). This was
important to reduce the likelihood of dealing with
fake or inexperienced THPs. Acknowledging the
contribution of THPs in health care provision in
Tanzania, the Ministry of Health, Community
development, Gender, Elderly and Children is
currently advocating for registration of THP
through the offices of DMOs all over the country.
The legitimacy of the THPs is checked well
before he/she is registered through the
involvement of witnesses like neighbours, village
and ward officials where the THP resides or has
been practicing. The coordinators from the office
of DMO responsible for the registration of THPs
were engaged to locate the THPs and kindly
offered translation services when it was required.
In Tanzania, the highest prevalence of HIV has
for more than a decade been reported in the
southern highland regions. Currently, Njombe
region is leading with a prevalence of 11.4%
followed closely by Iringa and Mbeya regions
with a prevalence of 11.3% and 9.3%
respectively
[15].
One
could
therefore
hypothesize that the overwhelming impact of HIV
and AIDS pandemic in these regions might have
forced the population to search for alternative
weapons to alleviate this problem, such as
resorting to the use of herbal therapies for its
management. Despite the huge biodiversity in
this region [16], to our knowledge, there is no
comprehensive ethnopharmacological survey of
medicinal plants used in the management of HIV
and AIDS-related conditions that has been done.
The present study therefore, intended to
document medicinal plants used in the
management of HIV and AIDs-related conditions
in Makete District in order to increase potential
therapeutic options to strengthen the HIV and
AIDS public health response.
2.3 Permission to Conduct the Study and
Plant Identification
Permission to conduct the study in Makete
District was sought from all authorities from the
district to village level. Medicinal plants voucher
specimens were collected in the wild together
with THPs and a botanist to avoid
misidentification of plants. The voucher
specimens were authenticated in the Department
of Botany of the University of Dar es Salaam.
Vouchers were kept in the Herbarium of the
Institute of Traditional Medicine, Muhimbili
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Study Area
The study was conducted in Makete District,
Njombe Region, a Tanzanian region bordered to
58
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
described to the THPs as a condition
characterized by itching small, flesh colored
bumps or have cauliflower-like appearance. Oral
candidiasis and vaginal candidiasis which are
prominent opportunistic infections were also
probed. Oral candiasis in Kiswahili was explained
to the THPs as “Utando mweupe wa mdomoni”
literally meaning white patches of bumps on
inner cheeks, tongue, gums or lips. Vaginal
candidiasis was described to the THPs as a
condition characterized by itching associated
with
odor-free
discharge
[18].
Other
conditions/symptoms considered were skin
rashes, frequent fevers, chronic diarrhea
(diarrhea for more than two weeks), chronic
wounds, and wasting (weight loss). The THPs
were also probed to find out if they could treat
some conditions like tuberculosis if the patient
has hospital diagnosis.
University of Health and Allied Sciences and
Herbarium of the Department of Botany,
University of Dar-es-Salaam.
2.4 Data Collection
Interviews using a semi-structured questionnaire
were conducted during data collection. The first
sections of the questionnaire were seeking to
gather demographic details about the THP and
information about the diseases that the THP is
capable of treating. The other sections aimed at
documenting medicinal plants that form part of
regimens to manage conditions/symptoms of HIV
and AIDS-related diseases including; Herpes
zoster (in Makete it is commonly known as “moto
wa mungu” meaning god’s fire), persistent cough
(cough for more than two weeks), cough
associated with chest pain, warts which were
Fig. 1. Map showing the location of Makete District in Njombe Region, Tanzania. The map was
originally generated using ArcGIS software version 10.7.1
(https://www.esri.uconn.edu/software/arcgis-student/)
59
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Other sections of the questionnaire documented
the common/local names of the plants, parts
used, the diseases treated, the methods of
preparation, dosage, frequency and duration of
treatments and side effects.
2.5 Literature
Survey
Medicinal Plant Uses
to
However, the majority (62.5%) had less than 26.5
years of practice experience. Only one THP
declined to participate in this study. None of the
THPs had an apprentice under their tutelage and
therefore are not transferring their skills to the
next generation. Thus, this study not only
document medicinal plants use, but also
contributes to preserve valuable information we
obtained from THPs in Makete. Most of the THPs
(60%) acquired their knowledge through spiritual
calling. The rest of the THPs obtained their
knowledge from various sources, such as
parents, other relatives, friends and fellow THPs.
Support
Literature information of the identified plants was
gathered from different search engines including
Pubmed/Medline,
Google
Scholar,
ResearchGate and Hinari. For data searching
related to each identified plant, different
keywords were used such as plant’s name,
ethnomedicines,
ethnopharmacology,
ethnobotany,
HIV,
AIDS,
antimicrobial,
antibacterial, antifungal, anti-HIV, tuberculosis,
Herpes zoster, oral candidiasis, sexually
transmitted infections, cough, skin rashes,
fevers, diarrhea, wounds, warts, oral thrush,
weight loss, vaginal candidiasis etc. The strength
and validity of information obtained from the
informant was evaluated based on there being
found similar ethnopharmacological claims in the
literature or evidence of laboratory results that
support the claims.
3.2 Medicinal Plant Species Documented
A total of 37 plant species used by the Wakinga
tribe for the treatment of various HIV and AIDSrelated conditions were documented (Table 1).
The plants represent 27 families whereby
Compositae and Leguminosae are represented
by 5 species each, the highest number of
documented species. The most frequently used
plant parts were roots (46%), leaves (34%), and
stem barks (15%) (Fig. 2). The forms of
presentation included liquid preparations mainly
decoctions, juices obtained by crushing the plant
material and by squeezing, ashes and latex.
Solid preparations included dry powdered
materials in Vaseline or fat. Most of the
preparations were prescribed for oral intake,
while topical application was mainly used for
wounds and other skin conditions.
2.6 Data Analysis
Ethnopharmacological data were entered into
Excel spreadsheet and summarized using
descriptive statistics. The descriptive statistics
were applied to identify the number and
percentage of species, genera and families of
medicinal plants used in the community. They
were also applied to identify the percentage
distribution of plant part used and diseases
treated by the identified medicinal plants.
Out of 37 reported plant species, 13 (35%) have
been
previously
reported
for
similar
ethnopharmacological uses; 12 (32%) species
were associated with literature reports on
respective biological activities. Out of these,
extracts of nine species showed antiviral activity
and seven of these displayed specific activities
against HIV-1 (Table 1). However, 12 (32.4%)
and 15 (40.5%) plants were found to have no
ethnopharmacological
and
pharmacological
reference in the literature, respectively.
Therefore, it would be interesting to test them for
antimicrobial and anti-HIV activity since they
could be good sources for isolation of novel
bioactive compounds. For example, anti-HIV
alkaloids have been obtained from Erythrina
abyssinica DC [19]. In Makete this plant is used
together with Parinari curatellifolia Benth (stem
barks) for management of diarrhea associated
with HIV and AIDS and this combination is
supported by the reported and relevant
pharmacological activities of this plant which
include strong and broad activity against bacteria
[20-22].
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of
the THPs
Traditional Health Practitioners (THPs) were
interviewed in seven different wards of Makete
District that include Lupila, Luwumbu, Ukwama,
Makangarawe, Ipepo, Iwawa and Lupalilo. These
wards were chosen based on the availability of
registered THPs kindly made available by the
office of Makete District Medical Officer. The
ethnopharmacological survey involved 10
registered THPs who were available and
consented to be interviewed. Out of these, 7
were male and 3 were female. The average age
of the THPs was 57.5 ranging from 40 to 86
years. The THP had average practice experience
of 26.5 years, ranging from 8 to 45 years.
60
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020;; Article no.EJMP.61477
no.
Aerial parts Flowers
2%
3%
Stem barks
15%
Leaves
34%
Roots
46%
Fig. 2. Percentage use of plant parts
Asparagus africana L. reported for syphilis and
warts has been widely reported to be used in
other infections including tuberculosis, diarrhea
and pneumonia [23-25].. Most importantly it has
been proven scientifically to possess in vivo antimalarial,
anti-mycobacterial
mycobacterial
and
antianti
inflammatory activity [26,27],, but there are no
reports for antiviral activity.
tuberculosis
and
some
fungi
[31-35].
Therefore, the use of this plant by the Wakinga
THP for treatment of diarrhea, vaginal
candidiasis, tuberculosis and pneumonia is
supported by these reported pharmacological
activities.
Another plant with
h reported activity against HIV is
Rhoicissus tridentata (L.f.) Wild & R.B. Drumm. It
is associated with HIV-1
1 reverse transcriptase
inhibitory activity together with activity against
Mycobacterium tuberculosis and antifungal
activity [35-37].. The use of this plant for the
treatment of warts and dysentery could be
supported by the reported anti-microbial
anti
activities. Rubia cordifolia L., on the other hand,
has been reported to have in--vitro anti-HIV
activity, anti-adipogenic
adipogenic activity, anti
anti-oxidant
effect, wound healing activity, eczema, antianti
inflammatory activity [38-41].. All these biological
activities are relevant to HIV/AIDS and therefore
the plant could be useful in managing some HIV
opportunistic ailments.
HIV-1
Myrica salicifolia is reported to inhibit HIV
reverse transcriptase enzyme [28] but there is no
report on the responsible phytochemicals. In
Makete, the plant is used in combination with
Parinari excelsa Sabine, a plant with reported invitro anti-leishmanial and anti-plasmodial
plasmodial activity
[29].. The plant is also reported to be used for
management of sexually transmitted diseases in
Nigeria [30].
Bridelia micrantha Benth is reported to inhibit
HIV-1
1 reverse transcriptase enzyme and it
exhibited broad spectrum antimicrobial activity,
including
activity
against
Mycobacterium
61
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Vernonia amygdalina Del. which was reported by
the THPs to be used in management of oral
thrush has been widely studied in terms of
biological activity and it has been reported
to
have
immune-stimulating
activity
in
HIV/AIDS patients, in-vitro anti-HIV activity,
anti-microbial and anti-cancer activity [42-45].
Cancers like Kaposis sarcoma is regarded
as AIDS-defining malignancies and therefore
plants which are reported to be used in its
management especially in areas with high
prevalence of HIV and AIDS could be relevant
[46].
the two plants on the anti-HIV activity is yet to be
investigated.
3.3 Diseases Treated by the THPs
During the survey, a total of 24 different
conditions were found to be treated with the
documented 37 plant species by THP. Most of
these plants were indicated in the management
of diarrhea (30%), Herpes zoster (24%), warts
(24%),
cough
(19%),
oral
thrush
(11%), and weight loss (11%) (Fig. 3). Almost half
of the plant species documented (46%) were
reported to be used for management of more
than two HIV and AIDS related conditions.
Ficalhoa laurifolia Hiern. and Parinari excelsa
Sabine each was reported for treatment of five
different ailments followed by Bridelia micrantha
Benth and Diospyros whyteana (Hiern) F. White.
with four ailments each. Adenia gummifera
(Harv.)
Harms,
Pimpinella
buchananii
H. Wolf, Nuxia congesta R. Br. ex. Fresen,
Rhoicissus tridentata (L.f.) Wild & R.B. Drumm,
Parinari curatellifolia Benth and Aloe lateritia
each was reported for three different HIV and
AIDS-related conditions.
Myrothamnus flabellifolia Welw, was reported to
contain 3,4,5-tri-galloylquinic acids which have
anti-HIV reverse transcriptase activity [47]. It also
has antiviral activity against Herpes simplex virus
type 1 by inhibition of viral adsorption and
penetration [48]. Since this plant is mixed with
Toddalia sciatica (L) Lam. roots by the Makete
THPs for management of diarrhea it would be
relevant to test for antimicrobial and anti-HIV
activity of the separate plants and the
combination. Both plants have been reported to
have anti-HIV activity but the effect of combining
35
30
30
24
24
19
20
15
11
3
3
5
3
3
5
5
3
5
3
3
Urinary tract infection
3
Cancer
5
3
Boils
5
11
8
Tuberculosis
8
10
3
Fig. 3. Proportion of plants used to treat different disease conditions
62
Wounds
Weight loss
Vaginal candidiasis
Syphilis
Skin rashes
Ringworms
Pneumonia
Oral candidiasis
Low immunity
Loss of appetite
Herpes zoster
Hepatitis
Gonorrhea
Warts
Fever
Eye infection
Diarrhea
Cough
0
Anaemia
Percent
25
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Table 1. Plants used for management of HIV and AIDS related conditions in Makete District, Njombe Region
Family name
Scientific name
(voucher specimen
number)
Vernacular name
(Kinga)
Uses
Part used
Method of
preparation and use
Acathaceae
Acanthus
polystachus Delile
(AIM 058)
Linyamutu
Herpes
zoster
Leaves
Asphodelaceae
Aloe lateritia Engl.
(AIM 07)
Likhulakula/muluvelo
Ringworms,
genital warts,
vaginal
candidiasis,
skin rashes,
persistent
cough,
Herpes
zoster
Leaves
Bignonicaceae
Tecomaria nyassae L
(AIM 038)
Linyunyu
Oral
candidiasis
Leaves
Mixed with Telfairia
pedata burned, ashes
mixed with fat or
vaseline and applied
to the affected area
until healed.
Slice leaves and
apply the gel on the
affected area until
healed for
management of ring
worms. Take 1/2 a tea
cup of Aloe leaves
crushed and mixed
with water twice a day
until healed for
treatment of genital
warts. Leaves mixed
with another plant
(Myrica salicifolia
roots) crushed, mixed
with water and drunk
for treatment of skin
rashes and Herpes
zoster.
Leaves crushed and
boiled with water and
gargle twice a day
until healed. For
oesephageal
63
Previous
supporting
ethnomedical
use (Country)
Malaria,
vomiting and
intestinal worms
(Ethiopia) [49,
50]
Reported
Pharmacologic
al activities
Leaves
reported to
have wound
healing activity
[51].
Leaves are
used in
management of
fungal
infections,
typhoid and
wounds
(Tanzania) [52].
No report has
been found
No report has
been found
No report has
been found
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Family name
Chrysobalanac
eae
Scientific name
(voucher specimen
number)
Parinari curatellifolia
Benth. (AIM 047)
Vernacular name
(Kinga)
Lisavula
Uses
Part used
Cough,
diarrhea
Stem
barks
64
Method of
preparation and use
candidiasis gargle
and swallow twice a
day until healed.
Boil the roots and
decoction drunk for
treatment of diarrhea
and cough associated
with chest pain. Stem
bark can be chewed
raw and swallow the
juice. Remove the
external dry part.
Powder can be
administered in tea or
porridge. Mixed with
Erythrina abyssinica
(roots) and decoction
drunk for
management of
persistent diarrhea
even the one
associated with
HIV/AIDS.
Previous
supporting
ethnomedical
use (Country)
Reported
Pharmacologic
al activities
Skin rashes,
Herpes zoster,
Herpes simplex,
Tuberculosis,
Chronic
diarrhea
(Namibia) [53].
Treatment of
diarrhea (Ivory
Coast) [54].
Leaf extracts
inhibit biofilm
formation in
Mycobacterium
smegmatis [55].
Active against
Mycobacterium
avium [20].
Strong
antimicrobial
activities
against
Staphylococcus
aureus,
Escherichia
coli,
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa,
Bacilus cereus,
Bacillus subtilis,
Salmonella
typhi, Candida
albicans,
Streptococcus
pyrogenes [21,
22].
Hepatoprotectiv
e effect [56].
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Family name
Compositae
Scientific name
(voucher specimen
number)
Vernacular name
(Kinga)
Uses
Part used
Method of
preparation and use
Parinari excelsa
Sabine. (AIM 040)
Likanzaula
Warts,
cough, oral
thrush,
genital
swellings
Nodules
on the
leaves or
branches/s
tem barks
Helichrysum
potulifolium Bak.
(AIM 045)
Lufumba
Persistent
cough
Roots
Nodules mixed with
Schoenoplectus
conymbosusroots
ashes, cooked beans
and applied twice a
day for treatment of
Herpes simplex. Dried
pulverized stem barks
mixed with water or
porridge and 1 tea
cup taken 3 times a
day for 8 days for
treatment of
persistent cough,
cough associated with
chest pain or oral
thrush. Dried
pulverized stem barks
mixed with fat or
vaseline applied to
the genital swelling
once a day until
healed.
Boiled with water and
1 tea cup is drunk 3
times a day for 2
weeks
Crassocephalum
Ludondo
Chronic
Flowers
65
Flower wool crushed
Previous
supporting
ethnomedical
use (Country)
Used for
treatment of
sexually
transmitted
diseases
(Nigeria) [30].
Management of
abdominal pain
and
constipation
[54].
No report has
been found
Management of
Reported
Pharmacologic
al activities
In-vitro
antileishmanial
and
antiplasmodial
activity [29].
Anti-HIV
compounds
have been
isolated from
Helichrysum
populifolium
[57]
Antitumor
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Family name
Scientific name
(voucher specimen
number)
Vernacular name
(Kinga)
crepidioides (Benth)
S. Moore (AIM 048)
Uses
Part used
wounds even
those
associated
with HIV
AIDS
and applied on the
affected area and the
wound washed after
every 2 weeks.
Sphaeranthus
steetzii Oliv &
Hiern.(AIM 051)
Lusumba
Herpes
zoster
Leaves
Emilia basifolia Bak.
(AIM 057)
Motodaasi
Herpes
zoster
Leaves
Vernonia amygdalina
Del. (AIM 066)
Likalati
Oral
candidiasis
and painful
teeth
Roots
66
Method of
preparation and use
Crush and mix with
water. Some amount
is applied topically at
the affected area and
some amount is
drunk.
Apply crushed fresh
leaves on the affected
area. Drink the
decoction.
Dry and powder the
root bark and sieve.
Used for brushing
teeth until healed.
Previous
supporting
ethnomedical
use (Country)
HIV/AIDS
(Uganda) [58].
Reported
Pharmacologic
al activities
No report has
been found
activity and
macrophage
nitric oxide
producing
action [59].
Antihelmintic
activity against
Haemonchus
contortus [60].
No report has
been found
No report has
been found
No report has
been found
Skin rashes,
Chronic
diarhhoea,
Herpes zoster,
Herpes simplex,
Cryptococcal
meningitis
(Tanzania) [61].
Sexually
transmitted
diseases
(Nigeria) [30].
Immune
stimulating
activity on
HIV/AIDS
patients [42]. In
vitro anti-HIV-1
activity [43].
Weak
actimicrobial
activity against
B subtilis, K.
pneumoniae, P.
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Family name
Cucurbitaceae
Cyperaceae
Scientific name
(voucher specimen
number)
Vernacular name
(Kinga)
Uses
Part used
Telfairia pedata
Hook. f. (AIM 071)
Litandwe
Herpes
zoster,
ringworms
Leaves
Coccinia adoensis
(A. Rich) Cogn.
Likwawawa
Genital warts
Leaves
Schoenoplectus
corymbosus L. (AIM
046)
Lilulu
Genital
warts, other
warts
Roots
67
Method of
preparation and use
Mixed with Acanthus
polystachins burned
ashes mixed with
vaseline and applied
on the affected area
for treatment of
Herpes zoster.
Leaves are crushed
and applied on the
affected area for
treatment of
ringworms.
Dry, burn, pulverize
and apply on the cut
genital warts
Pound, dry and
applied topicaly on
the cut genital
swellings for
management of
genital warts. Mixed
with Paripari excelsa
nodules on leaves
and stem, cooked
beans and applied
Previous
supporting
ethnomedical
use (Country)
Bacterial and
fungal
infections
(Uganda) [62].
No report has
been found
Chicken pox,
cleans uterus
and abortive
(Tanzania) [63]
No report has
been found
Reported
Pharmacologic
al activities
aeruginosa, P.
vulgaris, S.
dysenteriae and
S. aureus, anticancer [44, 45]
No report has
been found
Anti-fungal and
anti-bacterial
activities [63].
No report has
been found
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Family name
Scientific name
(voucher specimen
number)
Vernacular name
(Kinga)
Uses
Part used
Ebenaceae
Diospyros whyteana
(Hiern) F. White.
(AIM 073)
Takamimbi
Herpes
zoster
Leaves
Euphorbiaceae
Bridelia micrantha
(Hochst.) Bail (AIM
041)
Likongoti
All types of
diarrhoea,
vaginal
candidiasis,
tuberculosis,
pneumonia
Roots/ste
m barks
Flacourtiaceae
Aphloia theiformis
(vahl) Benn. (AIM
067)
Litekenyelela
Weight loss
Roots
68
Method of
preparation and use
twice a day to skin for
management of
warts.
Mixed with Panicum
sp leaves. Pound
together. You can mix
with fat or vaseline
and apply once a day.
Cut into small pieces,
boiled with water and
drunk 1 tea cup of the
decoction twice a day
until healed for
management of all
types of diarrhea and
pneumonia. For
management of
vaginal candidiasis
dried, pulverized and
mixed with fat or
vascelline applied and
the decoction drunk
once a day until
healed.
Mixed with Nuxia
congesta roots. One
teacup of decoction is
drunk 3 times a day
for 3 days.
Previous
supporting
ethnomedical
use (Country)
Reported
Pharmacologic
al activities
Dysmenorrhea,
rashes and
antibacterial
(South Africa)
[64]
Management of
HIV/AIDS
(Uganda) [58].
Management of
sexually
transmitted
diseases
(Kenya) [65].
Management of
diarrhea
(Kenya) [66].
Antimutagenic
activity [64]
A tea made
from the leaves
is drunk for
dysentery,
jaundice and
fever [67].
Inhibition of
HIV-1 reverse
transcriptase
enzyme [32,
33]. In vitro antituberculosis
activity [35].
Antibacterial
activity against
S aureus, S
sonnei, S
typhimurium
and H pylori
[34]. Week
antifungal
activity [31].
Antibacterial
activity against
E. coli, P.
aeruginosa, S.
typhi, S. aureus
[67].
Immunostimula
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Family name
Scientific name
(voucher specimen
number)
Vernacular name
(Kinga)
Uses
Part used
Method of
preparation and use
Previous
supporting
ethnomedical
use (Country)
Reported
Pharmacologic
al activities
Graminae
Panicum sp. (AIM
070)
Lusuta
Skin rashes,
herpes
zoster
Leaves
Crushed and applied
on the affected areas
once a day during the
night for treatment of
skin rashes. Mixed
with Diospyris
whyteana roots and
pounded together. It
can be mixed with
vasceline and applied
once a day for
treatment of Herpes
zoster
No report has
been found
Leguminosae
Indigofera atricepa
Hook. f.
Luvunguvungu
Persistent
cough
Roots
No report has
been found
Leguminosae
(Pap)
Humularia
drepanocephala
(Baker) P.A Duvign.
(AIM 064)
Eriosema affine de
Sitsukuni
Oral
candidiasis
and painful
teeth
Frequent
Roots
Roots rolled in
banana leaves and
warmed on fire. The
roots are then
chewed and juice
swallowed for
management of
persistent cough
Dry, powder the root
bark and sieve. Used
for brushing teeth
until healed.
Boil fresh roots with
nt effect on
monocytes and
granulocytes at
high doses [68].
Some plants
from this genus
have been
reported to
have antifungal
and
antibacterial
activities
including
Panicum
turgidum and
Panicum
maximum [69,
70]
No report has
been found
No report has
been found
No report has
been found
No report has
No report has
Kinektsuva
69
Roots
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Family name
Scientific name
(voucher specimen
number)
Vernacular name
(Kinga)
Wild (065)
Liliaceae
Uses
Part used
fevers
Method of
preparation and use
water. The water is
used for bathing.
Mixed with Paripari
curatellifolia (stem
barks). One litre of
decoction is taken
once a day for 2
weeks.
Erythrina abyssinica
DC. (AIM 068)
Livenge
Diarrhoea
including HIV
associated
diarrhoea
Roots
Dolichos
kilimandscharicus
Taub. (AIM 062)
Nyolia
Diarrhea,
stomach
problems
Root/Tuber
Grind, boil with water
and sieve. One tea
cup taken once a day
for 5 days.
Asparagus africanus
L. (AIM 043)
Linyenyele
Herpes
zoster,
syphylis
Roots
Fresh roots boiled
with water and 1/2 a
litre is taken twice a
day for 2 weeks for
treatment of herpes
zoster or syphilis
70
Previous
supporting
ethnomedical
use (Country)
been found
Stem bark and
root decoction
used in diarrhea
dysentery and
jaundice
(Tanzania) [71].
Used in the
management of
HIV/AIDS
related
conditions
(Uganda) [58,
72]. Dysentry
(Rwanda) [73].
Dysentry,
Newcastle in
chicken,
rheumatism,
scabies and
Herpes zoster
(Malawi) [74].
Diarrhoea,
pneumonia
(Zimbabwe)
[23]. Skin
lesions
(Ethiopia) [24].
Tuberculosis
Reported
Pharmacologic
al activities
been found
It contains AntiHIV-1 alkaloids
[Mohammed et
al 2013]
Antibacterial
and anticancer
activities [75].
In-vitro and
invivo broad
spectrum and
antifungal
activity [76, 77].
Antimycobacteri
al activity [27].
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Family name
Scientific name
(voucher specimen
number)
Vernacular name
(Kinga)
Uses
Part used
Method of
preparation and use
Loganiaceae
Nuxia congesta R.
Br. ex. Fresen (AIM
072)
Likongoti
Weight loss,
gonorrhea,
frequent
fevers
Roots
Melastomatoce
ae
Dissotis polyantha
Gilg. (AIM 042)
Likekele
Persistent
cough
Roots
Myristicaceae
Myrica salicifolia
Hochst. exA. Rich.
(AIM 044)
Likufya/Likhuswa
Diarrhoea
Roots
Mixed with Aphlola
theiformis roots and
take 1 tea cup up to 3
times a day for 3 days
for management of
weight loss. Mixed
with Protea
angolensis Leaves
and 1/2 a tea cup of
decoction is drunk
twice a day until
healed, some amount
may be applied locally
on the genitals for
treatment of
gonorrhea. 1/2 a tea
cup of leaves
decoction drunk twice
a day for treatment of
frequent fevers.
One litre of decoction
is taken per day for 7
days
Mixed with Paripari
excelsa boiled with
water or crushed and
71
Previous
supporting
ethnomedical
use (Country)
and related
ailments
(Uganda) [25].
Eczema
(Namibia) [78].
No report has
been found
Reported
Pharmacologic
al activities
No report has
been found
No report has
been found
No report has
been found
Tuberculosis,
chronic
diarrhea,
Inhibition of
HIV-1 reverse
transcriptase
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Family name
Myrothamnace
ae
Scientific name
(voucher specimen
number)
Myrothamnus
flabellifolius Welw
(AIM AIM 069)
Vernacular name
(Kinga)
Mwangiwe
Uses
Part used
Dysentry
Leaves
72
Method of
preparation and use
mixed with water and
filtered. 1/2 a litre
taken in the morning
and 1/2 a litre of
Paripari excelsa
preparation to be
taken in the evening.
Mixed with Toddalia
asciatica roots, and 1
tea cup of decoction
is drunk 3 times a day
to treat dysentery
without stomach pain
Previous
supporting
ethnomedical
use (Country)
Cryptococcal
meningitis,
Herpes simplex
(Tanzania) [79].
Inhalation of
smoke from
burning leaves
to treat chest
complaints,
together with
butter of
aromatic salves
for wound
sterilization,
herbal teas and
decoctions to
treat coughs,
influenza,
mastitis,
backache,
kidney
disorders,
haemorrhoids
and abdominal
pains as well as
the mastication
of the leaves to
treat scurvy,
Reported
Pharmacologic
al activities
enzyme [28].
Antifungal
activities
against C.
albicans and C.
neoformans
[80]
3,4,5-tri-Ogalloylquinic
acids have antiHIV reverse
transcriptase
activity [82].
Antiviral activity
against Herpes
simplex virus
type 1 by
inhibition of viral
adsorption and
penetration
[48].
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Family name
Scientific name
(voucher specimen
number)
Vernacular name
(Kinga)
Uses
Part used
Method of
preparation and use
Oleaceae
Olea europaea L.
(AIM 039)
Lidonko
Frequent
fevers, boils
Stem
barks
Pounded, dried and
the powder taken with
water twice a day for
9 days for
management of
frequent fevers. The
powder can be mixed
with fat or vaselline
and applied on the
boils once a day until
healed.
Orelidaceae
Eulophia angolensis
(Rchb.f.) Summerh.
(AIM 060)
Linzapila
Genital warts
Tuber
(root)
No report has
been found
Passifloraceae
Adenia gummifera
(Harv.) Harms. (AIM
055)
Ngolomoko
Oral candidiasis
(Tanzania) [61].
Gonorrhea
(South Africa)
[86].
No report has
been found
Proteaceae
Protea angolensis
Welw. (AIM 053)
Lihenye
Weight loss,
loss of
appetite,
Herpes
zoster, low
immunity
Diarrhea,
gonorrhea
Rub the warts with a
sliced tuber. Apply
twice or thrice a day
until it is removed.
Decoction can be
prepared.
Crushed, boiled with
water and the
decoction drunk
Decoction mixed with
Ficalhoa laurifolia
dried root powder and
1 tea cup is drunk
No report has
been found
No report has
been found
73
Stem
barks/leav
es
Previous
supporting
ethnomedical
use (Country)
halitosis and
Vincent's
gingivitis [81].
Fever,bacterial
infections,
diarrhoea,
urinary tract
infections [83].
Reported
Pharmacologic
al activities
Anticancer,
antimicrobial,
antifungal,
antiviral and
antioxidant
activity [83].
Antimicrobial
activity against
H. pylori and C.
jejuni [84]. Antidiarrhea activity
[85].
No report has
been found
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Family name
Scientific name
(voucher specimen
number)
Vernacular name
(Kinga)
Uses
Part used
Rubiaceae
Rubia cordifolia L.
(AIM 059)
Lukenekene
Loss of
appetite and
anaemia
Roots
Rutaceae
Toddalia asiatica (L)
Lam. (AIM 063)
Tonang’ele
All types of
diarrhea,
warts,
hepatitis
Roots/leav
es
74
Method of
preparation and use
Reported
Pharmacologic
al activities
twice a day for
management of
diarrhea in adults and
babies can take 1
table spoonful twice a
day after meal.
Leaves mixed with
Nuxia congesta dried,
boiled with water and
1/2 a tea cup drunk
twice a day until
healed. Some amount
can be applied locally
around the genitals.
Boil or grind and 1 tea
spoonful is taken
twice a day.
Previous
supporting
ethnomedical
use (Country)
Stomach
problems
(India) [87]
Mixed with
Myrothamnus
flabellifolius leaves
and 1 tea cup of
decoction is drunk 3
times a day for
treatment of dysentry.
Leaves mixed with
Diospyris whyteana
leaves pounded,
dried, mixed with
fat/vaselline and
Decoctions or
concoctions
and
administered
orally for the
management of
a number of
disease
conditions
including
stomach
problems,
In-vitro antirotavirus activity
[88]. In-vitro
anti-HIV activity
[38].
Anti-HIV-1
alkaloids [90].
Isolated
compound
Flindersine has
antibacterial
and antifungal
activities [91].
Anticancer
activity [92].
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Family name
Scientific name
(voucher specimen
number)
Vernacular name
(Kinga)
Uses
Part used
Solanaceae
Physalis peruviana L.
(AIM 049)
Lisongo
Diarrhoea
Leaves
Theaceae
Ficalhoa laurifolia
Hiern. (AIM 056)
Ligemusi
Cough,
diarrhea,
urinary tract
infections,
eye
infections
Roots/ste
m barks
75
Method of
preparation and use
applied topically for
warts. Roots pound
and the decoction
drunk together with
eating sugar cane
Taken with Myrica
salicifolia leaves
boiled with water or
crushed and mixed
with water, filtered
and 1/2 a litre drunk
in the evening while
Myrica salicifolia
decoction is drunk in
the morning.
Roots mixed with
Pimpinella buchananii
roots and 2 table
spoonful of the
powder is taken in tea
3 times a day for 2
weeks for treatment
of persistent cough.
Decoction of the stem
bark is taken twice a
day for treatment of
cough associated with
chest pain. Stem
barks mixed with
Previous
supporting
ethnomedical
use (Country)
cough, chest
pain, sore
throat (East
Africa) [89].
Reported
Pharmacologic
al activities
Gastrointestinal
infections
(Uganda) [62].
Antimicrobial
activity against
E. coli, K.
pneumoniae, P
aeruginosa, P.
vulgaris, S.
aureus, C.
albicans, E.
aerogenes;
anti-cancer
properties [93,
94].
No report has
been found
No report has
been found
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Family name
Umbelliferae
Scientific name
(voucher specimen
number)
Pimpinella
buchananii H. Wolf
(AIM 052)
Vernacular name
(Kinga)
Luguguna
Uses
Part used
Persistent
cough,
weight loss,
loss of
appetite,
syphilis
76
Roots
Method of
preparation and use
Protea angolensis
roots and the dry
powder mixed with
decoction from Protea
angolensis roots for
treatment of diarrhea,
1 tea cup is drunk
twice a day and
babies can take 1
table spoonful twice a
day after meal.
Decoction from stem
barks used in the
treatment of urinary
tract infections and
eye infections, 1/2 a
tea cup is taken 3
times a day until
cured.
Mixed with Ficalhoa
laurifolia stem bark.
Mixed, pounded,
boiled with water and
a tea mixed with 2
table spoonful of the
decoction is taken 3
times a day for 2
weeks for persistent
cough. One tea cup of
decoction is drunk
twice a day for
Previous
supporting
ethnomedical
use (Country)
Reported
Pharmacologic
al activities
No report has
been found
No report has
been found
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
Family name
Vitidaceae
Scientific name
(voucher specimen
number)
Rhoicissus tridentata
(L.f.)Wild &
R.B.Drumm (AIM
061)
Vernacular name
(Kinga)
Lingubengube
Uses
Part used
Warts,
Prostate
cancer
Aerial
parts
77
Method of
preparation and use
management of
weight loss and loss
of appetite. Dried
powder mixed with
Aloe sp and water
drunk 3 times a day
for treatment of
syphilis.
Decoction is drunk for
treatment of prostate
cancer. Mixed with
Myrothamnus
flabellifolius leaves
and Toddalia asciatica
and 1 tea cup of
decoction is drunk 3
times a day for
management of
dysentry. Mixed with
Toddalia asciatica
leaves pounded, dried
and mixed with fat or
vascelline and applied
topically for treatment
of warts.
Previous
supporting
ethnomedical
use (Country)
Reported
Pharmacologic
al activities
Herpes zoster
(Tanzania) [61].
HIV-1 reverse
transcriptase
activity,
antimicrobial
and antiinflammatory
activities [36].
In-vitro antiMycobacterium
tuberculosis
activity [35].
Antifungal
activities [37].
Marealle et al.; EJMP, 31(14): 56-83, 2020; Article no.EJMP.61477
4. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
The ethnopharmacological data generated in this
study can serve as a resource for identification
and characterization of traditional medicinal
plants as sources for search of anti-HIV or antimicrobial therapeutic natural products. The data
can serve in provision of leads in the discovery of
indigenous novel anti-retroviral and anti-microbial
drugs. Moreover, studies are required to
systematically determine the anti-HIV, antimicrobial, cytotoxic activity, dosages and active
chemical compounds of the plants. Also studies
on effect of combination of plants may give an
insight into their effect in treatment as used by
the indigenous communities.
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Chauke M, Shai L, Mogale M, Mokgotho
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Narayan C, Rai RV, Tewtrakul S. A
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Maroyi A. Alternative medicines for
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All THPs gave prior written informed consent
before they were interviewed.
ETHICAL APPROVAL
This study was awarded Ethical Clearance by the
Muhimbili University of Health and Allied
Sciences Institutional Review Board (Ethical
clearance No. 2018-04-04/AEC/Vol. XII/87;
th
Dated, 4 April 2018). Permission to conduct the
study in Makete District was sought from all
authorities from the District to village level.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to the THPs who participated in
this study and shared their knowledge of the use
of medicinal plants including Mr. Cosmas
Thobias, Ms. Alitsa Kalenga Sanga, Mr. Sinamali
N Nundu, Ms. Lina Philemon Kyando, Ms. Grace
Jackson Chengula, Mr. Paulo Simon Tweve, Mr.
Hassanali Ludali Tweve, Mr. Major Pakipande
Sanga, Mr. Tukutage Maganga Sanga and Mr.
Kijiji Desturi Kalomo Chaula. We are also
thankful to Mr. Selemani Haji, Botanist from
University of Dar es Salaam for plant
identification. The authors are thankful to
TRISUSTAIN project “Economic, ecological and
therapeutic sustainability in the development of
phytopharmaceuticals for Sub-Saharan Africa”
funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and
Research (BMBF, 01DG17008B) and the
German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD
57369155).
COMPETING INTERESTS
Authors have
interests exist.
declared
that
no
competing
78
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