BOTANICAL-MEDICINAL DICTIONARY FOR EAST AFRICA Kåre Arnstein Lye, Remigius Bukenya-Ziraba, John R. Tabuti & Paul Waako Suggested citation: Lye, K. A., Bukenya-Ziraba, R., Tabuti, J.R.S. & Waako, P.J. 2008. Botanical-Medicinal Dictionary for East Africa. Makerere Herbarium Handbook no. 2. Department of Botany, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda. This dictionary includes Latin and English words, but not vernacular words from other languages, except for a few Chinese, Hindu, Spanish and other local words when these are widely used in English medicinal literature. As regards medicinal terms and diseases only those which have at one time been used in herbal medicine are included. All East African plant genera with important medicinal uses are included with their scientific Latin names, while genera and species with important medicinal uses elsewhere in the world are included with their vernacular English names only. Words preceded by the star * (asterisc) are explained elsewhere in the text. Latin generic names in bold face are genera with one or more species used as medicine in East Africa. Botanical words are not explained in this dictionary, but see Makerere Herbarium Handbook no. 3. A- – a prefix meaning ’lack of’ or ’without’, e.g. *amenorrhoea = absence of menstruation, and *aseptic = without bacteria or other microorganisms which may cause disease; before a word starting with a wowel the prefix a changes to an, e.g. *anaemia = lack of red blood cells, *anaestethic (or *anestethic) = without external sensation, *anaphrodisiac = which inhibits (lack of interest in) sexual activities, and *anorexia = lack of appetite. Aaron’s rod – Verbascum thapsus (the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae) is a common and widely distributed plant in Europe; it is mainly used treat *bronchitis, *coughs and *catarrh; applied externally this herb is a good wound healer; alternative name: *mullein. abdominal pain – *stomach spasm; pain in belly (including stomach, bowels and other nutritive organs), often produced by strong contractions of intestines; many plants are used to relieve this condition, e.g. *Abrus precatorius (*coral pea, Fabaceae), Alpinia officinarum (*galangal, Zingiberaceae), *Anchomanes difformis (Araceae), Angelica archangelica (*angelica, Apiaceae), *Antidesma venosum (Euphorbiaceae), *Aristolochia bracteata (Aristolochiaceae), *Aspilia mossambicensis (Asteraceae), *Balanites aegyptiaca (Balanitaceae), *Bequaertiodendron natalense (Sapotaceae), *Bothriocline longipes (Asteraceae), *Brucea antidysenterica (Simaroubaceae), *Carissa spinarum (Apocynaceae), Chamomilla recutita (*German chamomile), *Chenopodium opulifolium (Chenopodiaceae), *Cissampelos mucronata (Menispermaceae), *Clematis hirsuta (Ranunculaceae), *Clerodendrum johnstonii (Verbenaceae), *Commiphora eminii (Burseraceae), *Conyza pyrrhopappa (Asteraceae), Corydalis ambigua (*corydalis, Papaveraceae. Fumaroideae), *Cylicomorpha paviflora (Caricaceae), *Dalbergia lactea & melanoxylon (Fabaceae), *Desmodium repandum (Fabaceae), *Diodia sarmentosa (Rubiaceae), *Eriosema psoralaeoides (Fabaceae), *Erythrina abyssinica (Fabaceae), *Flueggea virosa (Euphorbiaceae or Phyllanthaceae), Foeniculum vulgare (*fennel, Apiaceae), Gnidia involucrata & kraussiana (Thymelaeaceae), *Gomphocarpus fruticosa (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Guizota scabra (Asteraceae), *Harrisonia abyssinica (Simaroubaceae), *Hoslundia opposita (Lamiaceae), *Hymenocaridia acida (Euphorbiaceae), *Indigofera rhynchocarpa 2 (Fabaceae), *Ipomoea alba (Convolvulaceae), *Lannea schweinfurthii (Anacardiaceae), *Maesa lanceolata (Maesaceae or Myrsinaceae), *Melissa officinalis (*lemon balm, Lamiaceae), *Mentha × piperata (*peppermint, Lamiaceae) *Mondia whitei (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Myrica (*Morella) salicifolia (Myricaceae), *Ocimum gratissimum & kilimandscharicum (Lamiaceae), *Phoenix reclinata (Arecaceae), *Physalis lagascae (Solanaceae), Pimpinella anisum (*anise, Apiaceae), *Pittosporum viridiflorum (Pittosporaceae), *Plectranthus sylvestris (Lamiaceae), *Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae), *Rauvolfia vomitoria (Apocynaceae), *Rhoicissus tridentata (Vitaceae), *Rhus longipes & natalensis (Anacardiaceae), *Rinorea arborea (Violaceae), *Rubia cordifolia (Rubiaceae), *Rumex nepalensis (Polygonaceae), Santalum album (*sandalwood tree, Santalaceae), *Secamone parvifolia (Apocynaceae), *Senna alata & orientalis & septentrionalis (Fabaceae), *Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae), *Tithonia diversifolia (Asteraceae), *Vernonia amygdalina & karaguensis & lasiopus (Asteraceae), Viburnum opulus (*cramp bark, Caprifoliaceae), *Zehneria scabra (Cucurbitaceae) and *Ziziphus abyssinica (Rhamnaceae); see also *colic and *stomach spasm. abele (tree) – Populus alba (the willow family, Salicaceae) is a North American tree widely cultivated as an ornamental tree in many temperate parts of the world; like *aspen and *quaking aspen its bark contains *salicin, which have fever-reducing, pain-relieving and anti-inflammatory properties that are similar to those of *aspirin. Abildgaardia (Cyperaceae) – a genus of 6 species of perennial herbs in tropical and warm regions (2 species in East Africa, 1 in Uganda), but with more species in southern Africa; in coastal Kenya the Digo plait the flower stems of A. ovata into bangles which they wear around the wrists as remedy for rheumatism (Kokwaro 1976). abortifacient – which causes *abortion; an agent that produces abortion; plants which have been used to cause abortion include seeds of *Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae) and *Riccinus communis (Euphorbiaceae), but such plants are often deadly to the mother also; other plants used include *Abutilon grandiflorum (Malvaceae), *Albizia ferruginea (Fabaceae), *Aloë wilsonii (Aloëaceae), *Caesalpinia pulcherrima (*Barbados flower fence, Fabaceae), *Clerodendrum rotundifolium (Verbenaceae), *Cycnium tubulosum (Orobanchaceae), *Drimia sanguinea (Hyacinthaceae), *Ficus exasperata (Moraceae), *Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae), *Impatiens walleriana (Balsaminaceae), *Ipomoea asarifolia (Convolvulaceae), *Jatropha curcas (*physic nut and *purging nut, Euphorbiaceae), *Juniperus sabina (*savin, Juniperaceae), *Kalanchoe densiflora (Crassulaceae), *Monsonia ovata (Geraniaceae), *Pachycarpus bisacculatus & lineolatus (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) and *Pergularia daemia (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae). abortion (natural) – miscarriage of birth; plants given to a patient after abortion with *haemorrhage include leaves of Coffea canephora (robusta coffee) and the roots of Vernonia theo-phrastifolia (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); for plants used to cause abortion see *abortifacient. abortion (provoked) – the expulsion of a human fetus; interruption of pregnancy, usually during the first three months; the contents of the womb is emptied through an operation, or by using an abortifacient chemical, drug or plant; for plants used see *abortifacient. abrasions – a circumscribed removal of epidermis skin or mucous membrane caused by rubbing. abrin – a very toxic protein found in the seeds of Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae); this protein is a lectin that will agglutinate red blood cells from almost any animal species at very minute concentrations; abrin is very similar in structure and function to bacterial toxins, i.e. *cholera, *tetanus and *diphteria. Abrus (Fabaceae) – a genus of 17 species of woody subshrubs or lianes widespread in tropical regions (4 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a leaf infusion of A. canescens for stomach ache (Masinde 1996); the seeds of Abrus precatorius (*cat’s eye, *crab’s eyes or *coral pea) contain a very toxic protein (*abrin), but in India have 3 been used as a *contraceptive and *abortifacient; in East Uganda the seeds are swallowed for *conjunctivitis and tied around child to give immunity against *measles, and the leaves and roots have been used to treat *abdominal pain, *gonorrhoea and premature *ejaculation (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); elsewhere in Uganda the fresh leaves have been taken to treat *anorexia and *whooping cough (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe chewed leaves of A. precatorius for *colds and *coughs (Masinde 1996); also in other parts of East Africa the whole plant of A. precatorius (except the toxic seeds) is used to treat a number of diseases, e.g. *cystitis, *dysentery, *gonorrhoea, *snakebite and *stomach troubles (Kokwaro 1976) and also *cold and *cough (Geissler et al. 2002); in Rakai district in Uganda one seeds is crushed, water added and given orally to chickens to expel worms (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007); in Tanzania the Shambaa use a decoction of the root of Abrus schimperi for irregular *menstruation, the fresh roots are chewed as an *aphrodisiac and the chewed leaves are used as a poultice on *scorpion bites (Kokwaro 1976). abscess – a local collection of pus in any part of the body; many plants have been used to alleviate this condition, e.g. *Acacia hockii (*white thorn acacia, Fabaceae) & polyacantha, *Aerangis thomsonii (Orchidaceae), *Allium fistulosum (*scallion, Alliaceae), *Boophone disticha (*poison bulb, Amaryllidaceae), *Boscia salicifolia (Capparidaceae), *Cissampelos mucronata (Menispermaceae), Coptis chinensis (*Chinese goldthread, Ranunculaceae), *Cyphostemma adenocaule & serpens (Vitaceae), *Diodia sarmentosa (Rubiaceae), *Dioscorea dumetorum (Dioscoreaceae), *Erythrophleum suaveolens (Fabaceae), *Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae), *Ficus sur (Moraceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllanthaceae/Euphorbiaceae), *Indigofera arrecta (Fabaceae), *Ipomoea asarifolia (Convolvulaceae), *Isoberlinia doka (Fabaceae), *Jatropha curcas (*physics nut or *purging nut), *Lactuca inermis (Asteraceae), *Leucas martinicensis (Lamiaceae), *Luffa cylindrica (*loofah, Cucurbitaceae), *Ocotea usambarensis (Lauraceae), *Oxyanthus speciosus (Rubiaceae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaeae), *Rumex nepalensis (Polygonaceae), *Sarcocephalus latifolius (Rubiaceae) and *Solanum melongea (*aubergine, Solanaceae). absinthe plant – Artemisia absinthum (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a widespread medicinal plant in temperate regions; alternative name: *wormwood; see also Chinese wormwood. Absinthe contains volatile oils (*sesquiterpene lactones, *thujone, *azulenes), *flavonoids, *phenolic acids and *lignans) and has a strong *tonic effect on the digestive system, especially on the *stomach and *gallbladder. It is much used to treat digestive problems such as *anaemia; it eases *stomach pain, stimulates secretion of *bile, eliminates *worms, is *anti-inflammatory and a mild *antidepressant. absinthe (drink) – a widely consumed *addictive alcoholic drink in 19th century France; it was flavoured with essential oils from the plant absinthe (Artemisia absinthum); it is now banned because of many deaths due to its content of *thujone. Abutilon (Malvaceae) – a genus of more than 100 species of herbs and shrubs widely distributed in all tropical and warm countries, some have edible parts (A. esculentum) or are used for fibre (A. theophrasti), others are used as medicine, e.g. in Kenya the Somali dry the root of A. fruticosum in the fire and apply the dust from the pounded root to *wounds (Kokwaro 1976); in central Uganda the Luganda the root of A. grandiflorum is used as an *abortifacient and rubbed in the eye to treat *conjunctivitis, and also worn round the neck as a magic (Kokwaro 1976); in southwestern Uganda the leaves of A. guineensis are used to treat *diarrhoea and *skin ulcers; in East Africa an infusion of the leaves of A. mauritianum is drunk as a remedy for *diarrhoea, while boiled root decoction is drunk for cramp in the stomach, or for the treatment of *bronchitis (Kokwaro 1976); in central Uganda rhe leaves are used to treat *headache (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Abyssinian banana – Ensete ventricosa (Musa ensete) in the banana family (Musaceae); the starch of its trunk is widely used as a staple food particularly in parts of Ethiopia; in East Africa the 4 pseudostem is boiled and the decoction drunk for the treatment of liver problems, and pounded leaves soaked in water is drunk by women who have a *miscarriage; the juice resting between the leaf sheaths around the trunk is also collected and drunk by women after birth as a protection against, or as a cure for, any afterbirth problems (Kokwaro 1976). Acacia (Fabaceae, Mimosoideae) – a large genus of about 1200 species of trees, shrubs and climbers widely distributed throughout the tropical regions of the world (62 species in East Africa, 30 species in Uganda); note that A. albida is transferred to the genus Faidherbia; many species of Acacia are used as medicines; in East Africa the bark and roots of A. amythethophylla (A. macrothyrsa) are used to cure *infections of the brain and also used for *swellings (Kokwaro 1976) and *epilepsy (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); A. arabica (*babul) is taken for diarrhoea, intestinal worms and wounds; in East Africa the roots of A. brevispica are used to treat *diarrhoea, *itchy rash, *snakebite, *sterility in women, *stomach ache and to expel *intestinal worms (Koyama 1976; Geissler et al. 2002), while an infusion of the leaves are used to treat *nasal infections in calves, and a decoction of the bark of A. bussei is drunk as a cure for *coughs (Kokwaro 1976); A. catechu (*black catechu) is a strong *astringent (Neuwinger 1996); in East Africa A. clavigera has been used to treat *malaria and as part of a remedy for *bubonic plague, while the bark of A. drepanolobium is used for *sore throat and the roots as a *diuretic (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the roots of this plant as a *tick medicine (Heine & König 1988); the bark of A. elatior is drunk to treat *diarrhoea, and the bark of A. etbaica is used to treat *gonorrhoea and chewed as a *stimulant (Kokwaro 1976); in Ghana A. farnesiana (*opopanax or *sweet acacia), originally from America, is used for *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *skin diseases and *wounds; in East Africa a root decoction of A. fischeri is used as an *astringent and the root juice applied to bleeding *wounds, and the bark of A. gerrardii is used in the treatment of *coughs and *sore throat (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda the leaves of A. hockii (*white thorn acacia) is used for *dysentery and *warts in vagina or rectum, the flowers for *jaundice and the roots for *diarrhoea and *syphilis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Central Uganda the root is used to treat *cough (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in West Uganda the bark is used for *coughs, the leaves for *stomach-ache and the flowers for *athlete’s foot (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Kenya pounded leaves and buds are mixed with ghee and rubbed on *abscesses and *whitlow, and a leaf decoction given to children suffering from a disease similar to polio (Kokwaro 1976), while the bark is taken to treat *boils, *diarrhoea, *stomach ache and *swellings (Geissler et al. 2002); in Ghana a root decoction is drunk for *fever and heart complaints (Haaf 1967); in Kenya a decoction of the roots of A. kirkii is drunk for *stomach diseases, and the bark of A. lahai is used to treat *skin eruptions in children and to clear *toxaemia of *pregnancy and bowels (Kokwaro 1976), in West Africa the leaves and roots of A. macrostachya are taken for *diarrhoea, *intestinal worms, *snake bites and *vomiting; in East Africa the bark of A. mellifera is used as a remedy for *malaria, *pneumonia, *sterility, *stomach trouble and *syphilis (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the bark of this plant to treat *diarrhoea, irregular *stool and *stomach-ache (Heine & König 1988); in East Africa a bark decoction or the bark juice of A. nilotica is used as a powerful *stimulant and for the treatment of *coughs, *indigestion, *fever and *sore throat; the leaves are used for *chest pain and *pneumonia, and the roots for *chest diseases and *gonorrhoea, while bark and roots are used as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the bark of this plant to treat *stomach trouble, while the juice of the pods is applied to the eyes to alleviate *eye pain (Heine & König 1988); in East Africa the ash of burnt A. nubica is used as a protection against *anthrax (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the bark of this plant to improve general health and the root to treat body *pain (Heine & König 1988); in East Africa the root bark of A. polyacantha is used to treat *skin abscess and *tonsilitis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), while the roots are used to treat *snakebite and the leaves used for sores on the head or body of a young 5 child; in Kenya the Turkana use the roots of A. reficiens to treat a swollen *scrotum, and the infusion drunk as a sexual stimulant (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa a root decoction of A. senegal is slightly *purgative and is drunk to treat *constipation, *gonorrhoea and *stomachache, while a decoction of the bark is drunk for *diarrhoea and *stomach disorders (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the roots are used for *migraine (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in East Uganda the roots of A. seyal are used to treat *amoebiasis, *epilepsy and *snakebite (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the bark of this plant to treat *cough, *eye disease, *fever, *malaria and open *wounds (Heine & König 1988); in East Africa a decoction of the root of A. sieberiana is drunk as a medicine for stomach-ache, and the bark used to treat a child with fever; in West Uganda the bark is taken for *scabies (Kakudidi et al. 2000) and as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005). Acalypha (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus of about 430 species of shrubs or herbs native to tropical and warm regions (29 species in East Africa, 18 species native to Uganda); in East Uganda the roots of A. bipartita are used to treat *snakebite and *sterility (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), and in West Uganda the leaves are applied to fresh *wounds (Kakudidi 2000); in Tanzania the Hehe use the roots of A. ciliata as a medicine for *bilharzia, while the Digo in coastal Kenya use a decoction of the roots of A. engleri as a remedy for *headache, and an infusion of the leaves as a headwash for headache (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the stem and roots of A. fruticosa are used to treat *toothache, a root decoction or infusion is used as a medicine for *colds, *fever, *gonorrhoea, *stomach problems and *whooping cough; the plant is also used to prepare eye drops for *conjunctivitis, while the juice from pounded leaves of A. indica is squeezed into the eyes to treat *eye diseases (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the roots of A. neptunica are boiled in water and the decoction drunk three times a day as a *diuretic (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of A. ornata are taken to stop *diarrhoea (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the root of this plant to treat *venereal diseases and is said to cause *diarrhoea and *urination (Heine & König 1988); in Tanzania the Sukuma use the roots of this plant to cure *leprosy (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the Bwamba use A. psilostachya to treat stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 1996); in East Africa roots and leaves of A. racemosa are used as an *antidote and as an *emetic; a poultice of the leaves is applied to the back as a remedy for *kidney pains and is also used to treat *hernia; ash from the leaves is rubbed into small cuts to relieve body pain (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa roots of A. villicaulis are used as an *aphrodisiac, and an infusion from the roots is given to children suffering from *burning urine; the leaves are sometimes immersed in hot water and used for bathing *wounds and *sores (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda the roots are used to treat premature *ejaculation (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), while in central Uganda the leaves are used to treat *epilepsy and the roots are taken for *dysentery (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a root concoction of A. villicaulis for *diarrhoea (Masinde 1996); in Tanzania the Shambaa take the roots of A. volkensii as a medicine for *earache and *gonorrhoea, while the leaves used to treat very strong *coughs (Kokwaro 1976). Acanthaceae – a family of flowering plants with about 350 genera and 4300 species; the plants are found mainly in tropical regions; genera with medicinal species include *Acanthus, *Adhatoda, *Asystasia, *Brillantaisia, *Crabbea, *Dyschoriste, *Hygrophila, *Justicia, and *Thunberga. Acanthus (Acanthaceae) – a genus with about 30 species of shrubs or herbs native to tropical and warm regions of the old world (3 species native to Uganda); in Kenya the Kakamega lick the ash of A. eminens for the treatment of *spleen disease (Kokwaro 1976); in Central Uganda the leaves of A. pubescens are used in the treatment of *epilepsy, *functional psychosis and *whooping cough (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), and in West Uganda the root bark of the same species is taken for whooping cough (Kakudidi et al. 2000). 6 acetylsalicylic acid – a phenolic glycoside based on *salicin found in the genera Salix and Populus (the willow family, Saliceae) and *meadowsweet, Filipendula ulmaria (the rose family, Rosaceae); it is the same as *aspirin (commercial name); it is used for its *fever-reducing, *painrelieving and *anti-inflammatory properties particularly for *headache, *arthritis and *rheumatic pains (*analgesic); it is the most used of all medicines; every day more than 100 tons are consumed. Achariaceae – a family of trees and shrubs until recently included in *Flacourtiaceae; it is widely distributed in tropical and warm regions (9 genera nd 16 species in East Africa, 4 genera and 6 species in Uganda); species of the genus *Xylotheca are used as medicines. Achyranthes (Amaranthaceae) – a genus with 6 species of herbs and climbers widespread in tropical and subtropical regions; in Uganda the leaves of A. aspera are used to treat *anaemia and *cachectic *alopecia (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in West Uganda the leaves of this plant are used to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Kenya Luo use this plant to treat *bleeding *wounds and *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002). Achyrospermum (Lamiaceae) – a genus with 10 species of herbs or subshrubs widespread in the Old World tropics; in Tanzania the Shambaa use the leaves of A. radicans as a medicine for *headache, while the roots are used as a *diaphoretic, and also with those of another species for *roundworm in children (Kokwaro 1976). acidic indigestion – sour stomach having difficulty in *digesting food; plants used to treat this condition include *Chebulic myrobalan (Terminalia myrobalan). acerola – Malpighia glabra (Malpighiaceae) has edible fruits rich in vitamin C; it is useful in improving general defense for diseases; alternative name: *Barbados cherry. Acmella (Asteraceae) – a genus with about 30 species of annual or perennial herbs widespread in tropical and warm regions but most species from the Americas; in East Africa the roots of A. caulirhiza (= Spilanthes africana & S. mauritiana) are chewed when there are sores in mouth, gums or throat, the Kamba in Kenya apply the sap from pounded leaves to the tongue of children suffering from a disease (”mutata”) which makes the tongue sore; crushed plants are applied to broken limbs, or mixed with water and the juice drunk for *diarrhoea and *stomach-ache; the flower heads are commonly chewed for *toothache and other mouth diseases (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the flower is used to treat fresh wounds, sexual *impotence and toothache (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam chew the leaves of A. caulirhiza to treat *fever and ”white tongue” disease, while coarse leaves are rubbed on white spots (fungal infection?) on the skin until the spots disappear (Heine & König 1988); in West Uganda the leaves are taken to quicken *labour (Kakudidi et al. 2000). acne – small, hard and painful swelling on the body or pustular eruption due to inflammation (with accumulation of secretions); acne is being treated by many different plants, e.g. *Allium sativum (*garlic, Alliaceae), Arctium lappa (*burdock, Asteraceae), Calendula officinalis (*marigold, Asteraceae), *Citrus limon (*lemon, Rutaceae), *Commiphora molmol & myrrha (*myrrh, Commiphoraceae), Coptis chinensis (Chinese goldthread, Ranunculaceae), Echinacea spp. (*purple coneflower, Asteraceae), Iris versicolor (*blue flag, Iridaceae), Melaleuca alternifolia (*tea tree), *Rumex crispus (*curled dock), Symphytum officinale (*comfrey), *Taraxacum officinale (*dandelion, Asteraceae), *Vismia orientalis (Clusiaceae) and Zyzygium aromaticus (*clove). Acokanthera (Apocynaceae) – a genus with 5 species of toxic trees or shrubs distributed from Arabia to South Africa (3 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); they contain *cardiac glycosides similar to *digitalin and are used as arrow poisons and drugs to improve a weakened heart, but is deadly to humans and domestic animals except in the smallest doses; in East Africa decoctions of the roots of A. oppositifolia (A. longiflora) and A. schimperi have been used to treat *syphilis, but is dangerous (Kokwaro 1976); in southern Africa a decoction of the leaf of A. 7 veneata is drunk for the treatment of *snake-bite, *spider-bite or *blood poisoning or simply applied to the swellings (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). aconite – Aconitum napellus (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae) and other species of the genus Aconitum; Aconitum napellus is a south and central European herb widely cultivated as a garden plant; it contains *aconitine, a very poisonous *terpenoid *alkaloid; because it is extremely poisonous aconite can only be used in the smallest doses (except as arrow poison); it is principally applied to unbroken skin to relieve pain from *bruises or *neurological conditions; in India (*Ayurvedic medicine) aconite has been used to treat *asthma, heart weakness and *neuralgia; alternative name: *monkshood; in East Asia *Chinese aconite, A. carmichaelii, has been used to treat shock and congestive heart failure; winter aconite is Eranthus hiemalis. aconitine – a very poisonous terpenoid alkaloid found in *aconite or *monkshood, Aconitum napellus and *Chinese aconite, A. carmichaelii (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae). actinomycete – thread-like (*mycel-like), gram-positive, fungus-like bacteria, which belong to the group Actinomycetes; some produse important *antibiotics like *amphotericin, *cycloheximid, *nystatin and *streptomycin (Streptomyces). actinomycosis – any disease of humans or animals caused by an *actinomycete. acupuncture – a medical practice (originally from China) of attempting to cure illness or relieve pain by puncturing specified areas of the skin with needles. Adansonia (Bombacaceae) – a genus with 8 tree species (1 from continental Africa, 6 from Madagascar and 1 from NW Australia); in East Africa the bark of A. digitata is used in steam bath for high fever and as a *diaphoretic, and a decoction is used for bathing weak infants; the bark is also boiled and and drunk as a cure for pains in the body; a decoction of the roots is taken for *lassitude (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal East Africa the bark has been used as an *antidote for Strophanthus arrow poisoning (Weiss 1979); for other uses in Africa see Watt & BreyerBrandwijk (1962). adaptogenic – helps the body adapt to stress and supports normal function; some medicinal plants have such function, e.g. *coleus, Plectranthus forskohlii (Lamiaceae), ginseng, Panax ginseng (Araliaceae) and schisandra, Schisandra chinensis (Schisandraceae). adder’s tongue (USA) – Erythronium americanum (Liliaceae) has been used to treat *gout; an infusion of the leaves is sometimes taken for skin problems such as *scrofulous skin, *ulcers, *tumours and enlarged *glands; the fresh leaves are strongly *emetic. addictive – which depend physiologically on a drug or or drug plant, e.g. *heroin, *morphine, or *opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). Adenia (Passifloraceae) – a genus with about 95 species (in East Africa 30 species, Uganda 11 species) of herbs, vines and shrubs widely distributed in the old world tropics; in East Uganda (Busoga) the leaves of A. cissampeloides is used to treat *insanity, while the root is taken to treat *chronic *endomitritis, *pyomyositi, *snakebite and *sterility (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); elsewhere an infusion of the roots are taken for *orchitis or the roots used as an *anthelmintic and *antidote for arrow poison (*Acocanthera), while the leaves are crushed and applied to wounds (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa a decoction of the roots of A. gummifera is taken as a remedy for *anaemia, *diarrhoea and *gonorrhoea, while the roos are chewed for *snakebite; A. gummifera is also used for fish poison (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the Sukuma use the stem of A. keramanthus for the treatment of *syphilis, and leaves and roots for *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976); in Buganda A. rumicifolia is used to treat *neurotic illness marked by *somatisation (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Kenya the Kamba burn the tuber of A. volkensii and use the powder with milk for the treatment of internal body swellings and *stomach-ache; the plant is *toxic and may cause *abortion (Kokwaro 1976). Adenium (Apocynceae) – a genus of 5 species of shrubs or small trees native to Arabia and dry parts of Africa (in East Africa and Uganda 1 species;); the species contain *cardiac glycosides and are used as arrow, fish or ordeal poison; in Kenya the Pokot used the roots of A. obesum to kill lice 8 (Kokwaro 1976); in Apac district in North Uganda the sap of this species is used to treat *ringworm, (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); vernacular name: *desert rose. Adenocarpus (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus with about 15 species of much-branched shrubs widespread in the Mediterranean with one species reaching tropical Africa (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa a decoction of the roots and leaves of A. mannii is drunk as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976). Adenostemma (Asteraceae) – a genus with about 24 species of perennial herbs widespread in tropical and warm regions (3 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa an extract from the leaves of A. viscosum (= A. perottetii) is drunk for *stomach pain, while the steam from roots boiled in water is inhaled to treat diseases in the chest (Kokwaro 1976). Adhatoda (Acanthaceae) – a genus of herbs now usually included in the genus Justicia; in West Uganda the leaves of A. engleriana are used to treat *uterine bleeding and blocked *fallopian tubes (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania the Shambaa use the roots as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the roots of A. schimperiana are used to treat *headache, and the plant is also used as a *laxative (Kokwaro 1976). adrenal glands – *suprarenal glands; the glands which produce *adrenaline and *cortisol; the leaves of *black currants (Ribes nigrum) increase the secretion of *cortisol and thus lower *blood pressure . adrenaline – a hormone produced by the *adrenal (*suprarenal) glands; when the body is exposed to stress in the form of anger, *anxiety or *shock, the production of *adrenaline increases, the heart start to beat faster and *blood pressure increases; some plants, e.g. *codonopsis, Codonopsis pilosula (bell family, Campanulaceae), are able to reduce levels of *adrenaline and is therefore useful in reducing stress, high blood pressure and irritability; other plants like Nicotiana tabacum and N. rustica (*tobacco, Solanaceae) cause increase in adrenaline levels thus raising blood pressure; species of *Ephedra (Ephedraceae, Gymnosperma) mimic the effect of adrenaline and thus raising blood pressure.. adzuki beans – beans of the species Phaseolus angularis (pea family, Fabaceae); the beans are rich in proteins and thus an important food preventing *kwashiorkor. Aeollanthus (Lamiaceae) – a genus with about 35 species of herbs or subshrubs confined to tropical and South Africa; in coastal Kenya the Digo consider A. zanzibaricus a a *diuretic and use an infusion of the leaves of as a medicine for *stomach-ache and *vomiting (Kokwaro 1976). Aerangis (Orchidaceae) – a genus with about 50 species of epiphytic orchids native to tropical Africa and adjacent islands reaching Sri Lanka (21 species in East Africa, 8 species in Uganda); in Kenya the ask of A. thomsonii is applied to *abscesses to cause them to disappear, and also to small *cuts in the abdomen to relieve *hernias (Kokwaro 1976). aerophagy (aerophagia) – spasmodic swallowing of air followed by belching (*eructation). Aerva (Amaranthaceae) – a genus with 10 species of herbs native to tropical and warm regions of the old world; in Uganda A. lanata is used to treat *pruritus, *sterility and as a good luck charm (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Uganda A. lanata is smoked in broken earthen-ware and used as a charm to overcome a criminal case (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves of A. lanata are used to treat menstrual problems such as *dysmenorrhoea and excessive bleeding or *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006). Aeschynomene (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus with about 150-200 species of annual or perennial herbs, subshrubs or shrubs widespread in tropical and subtropical regions (about 40 species in East Africa, 7 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Hehe drink a decoction of the root of A. abyssinica for *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the Bende use the roots of A. rubrofarinacea for the treatment of *gonorrhoea, while the Kakamega in Kenya chew the roots of A. schimperi and swallow the juice to stop *palpitations (Kokwaro 1976). affection (medicinal) – disease or disorder. aflatoxin – a toxin produced by some fungi, e.g. Aspergillus flavus, thus the name afla. 9 Aframomum (Zingiberaceae) – a genus with about 50 species of perennial herbs native to tropical Africa (in Uganda 13 species) and used as spices; some are also medicinal herbs; in North Uganda the rhizome of A. alboviolaceum is used to treat *tapeworms (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), while in East Uganda (Busoga) it is used for *haemorrhoids and premature *ejaculation (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the seeds of A. angustifolium (including A. sanguineum; Madagascar cardamon) is taken to expel *tapeworms (Kakudidi et al. 2000), while in Central Uganda they are used to treat ’heat’ in the *abdomen (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); elsewhere in East Africa the seeds ground with finger millet are taken as a powerful *anthelmintic and an effective cure for *stomach-ache; a decoction of the roots of A. angustifolium is taken as a remedy for *dysentery and for s*nakebite (Kokwaro 1976); A. giganteum from West Africa is used as a mild *anthelmintic and *laxative to heal *wounds and to expel *intestinal worms and *microfilaria of the eye; it has also been used for heart troubles; in Mali the fruit of A. latifolium mixed with the root of Trichilia emetica is used to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); in West Africa seeds and other parts of A. melegueta (melegueta pepper) are used for many different diseases and conditions, e.g. seeds are taken for *caries, *colds, *hemorrhoids, *migraine and *toothache, while a root extracts is drunk to expel *tapeworms (Neuwinger 2000); in West Uganda A. mildbraedii has been used to treat *tapeworms (Kakudidi et al. 2000). African barberry – *Berberis holstii (the barberry family, Berberidaceae) is an African shrub growing in mountainous regions; in East Africa the roots are boiled and the liquid drunk for stomach problems, and the powdered root bark is applied to wounds (Kokwaro 1976). African blue lily – *Agapanthus africanus (daffodil family, Amaryllidaceae) and other species of the genus Agapanthus native to South Africa. In Transkei a decoction of the root of A. africanus is taken by pregnant women to ensure an easy childbirth while the Zulu use an infusion of the root in chest troubles (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). African boxwood – *Myrsine africana (myrtle family, Myrtaceae); the fruit contains *embelic acid which is *anthelminthic; for other medicinal use see *Myrsine. African cinchona – *Sarcocephalus latifolius (coffee family, Rubiaceae) is an important medicinal plant in large parts of tropical Africa; for medicinal use see *Sarcocephalus; alternative names: *African peach and *African quinine. African cypress – species of the genus *Widdringtonia (Cupressaceae; Gymnospermae); the gum from branches and cones of W. cupressoides has been used as a fumigation in *gout, *rheumatism and *oedematous swellings; preparations from this tree has also been used as a *diuretic and for *menstrual and *uterine troubles (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); see also *cypress, *swamp cypress and *summer cypress. African daisy – species of *Arctotis (sunflower family, Asteraceae) from South Africa has given positive antibiotic tests with Staphylococcus aureus (Osborn 1943) and has been applied to *sore breasts and used as a douche in *uterine *carcinoma (Kling 1923). African elemi – Canarium schweinfurthii (Burseraceae) has fruits with extremely high amounts of *antioxidants; the bark or its resin is used as a remedy for *colic, *dysentery, *gonorrhoea and *roundworm; the fruit has been used as a *condiment (Watt & Breyer-Bramdwijk 1962). African fan palm – *Borassus aethiopum (Arecaceae), a large tree with fan-shaped leaves and edible fruit and roots also used in medicine; for medicinal use see *Borassus; alternative name: *Borassus palm. African fern pine – *Podocarpus gracilior (Podocarpaceae; Gymnospermae) and perhaps other species of the genus have timbers which produce a *dermatitis, which has the characteristics of an *allergic reaction; in East Africa an infusion of the bark of P. gracilior and P. milanjianus is drunk as a treatment for *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976). African hemp – *Sparmannia africana (Tiliaceae); this fiber plant has irritant hairs on the leaves, which produce a contact *dermatitis; despite of this the flowers and leaves are mucilaginous and 10 have been used in *eye inflammations and in *breast diseases (Dragendorff 1898); alternative names: house lime, stock rose, window linden. African iris – Moraea iridioides (Iridaceae) and other species of this African genus are cultivated as house plants in temperate countries and as garden plants in warm countries; the browsing of several species from this genus is rapidly fatal (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). African lily – Agapanthus africanus (daffodil family, Amaryllidaceae); for medicinal use see *African blue lily. African loosestrife – Lysimachia ruhmeriana (Primulaceae); in Uganda the fruits are used to treat burns (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). African *marigold – Tagetes minuta (sunflower family, Asteraceae) is *allelopatic and may kill other weeds and keep the dangerous nematodes away from potato plants; for medicinal use see *Tagetes; T. minuta is native to South America. African millet – *Eleusine corocana (Poaceae); for medicinal use see *Eleusine; alternative name: *finger millet. African oak – Lophira lanceolata (Ochnaceae); for medicinal uses see *Lophira; alternative name: red irontree. African oak family – see *Ochnaceae. African peach – *Sarcocephalus latifolius (coffee family, Rubiaceae) is an important medicinal plant in large parts of tropical Africa; for medicinal use see *Sarcocephalus; alternative names: *African cinchona and *African quinine. African pencil cedar – *Juniperus procera (Cupressaceae); for medicinal use see *Juniperus. African pepper – *Xylopia aethiopica (Annonaceae); the seed of this plant contains a volatile oil with the odour of cinnamon; it is also said to contain an alkaloid resembling morphine in action (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); alternative name: *Guinea pepper. African quinine – *Sarcocephalus latifolius (coffee family, Rubiaceae) is an important medicinal plant in large parts of tropical Africa; for medicinal use see *Sarcocephalus; alternative names: *African cinchona and *African peach. African rue – Peganum harmala (Zygophyllaceae) is a medicinal plant from North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia and southern Europe; it contains up to 4 % indole alkaloides (see *harmaline, harmalol and harmine) and is used as an intoxicant and to help alleviate the tremors of *Parkinsonism; in Asia the root is used to treat *rheumatism and *nervous conditions; it also has a long history as a *euphoric and *aphrodisiac herb; alternative name: *harmala. African sanicle – Sanicula elata (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is a perennial herb native to African montane forests above 2000 m; for medicinal properties see *sanicle. African satinwood – *Zanthoxylum macrophyllum (the orange family, Rutaceae) is a West African tree producing a fine timber; for medicinal use see *Zanthoxylum. African snakeroot1 – *Aristolochia bracteata (the birthwort family, Aristolochiaceae) is an African perennial used for *scorpion bites and *snake bites; see *Amazonian snakeroot (A. klugii) and *Virginia snakeroot (A. serpentaria) African snakeroot2 – *Rauvolfia vomitoria (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae) is an evergreen shrub native to tropical Africa; it is used as an *anticonvulsant, *aphrodisiac and *sedative in traditional African medicine; see *Rauvolfia and *Indian snakeroot. African stainwood – see *Zanthoxylum gillettii (Rutaceae); for medicinal use see *Zanthoxylum. African star chestnut – *Sterculia africana (Sterculiaceae); for medicinal use see *Sterculia. African tulip tree – *Spathodea campanulata (Bignoniaceae) is a beautiful ornamental tree native to tropical Africa; for medicinal use see *Spathodea. Afrosersalisia (Sapotacaceae) – a genus with about 5 species of trees or shrubs confined to tropical and subtropical Africa (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in coastal Kenya the aromatic roots of A. kaessneri are taken as a remedy for a prolapsed *uterus (Kokwaro 1976). 11 Afrostyrax (Styracaceae) – a genus with 2 tree species from tropical Africa; A. lepidophyllus is used as an *aphrodisiac, *diuretic and a remedy for *venereal diseases (Sandberg & Cronlund 1982). Afzelia (Fabaceae, Caesaloinoideae) – a genus with 13 species of trees from the Old World tropics (3 species in East Africa, 2 species from Uganda); A. africana is taken as a fever-reducing and painkilling medicine for *chest pain, *convulsions, *dysmenorrhoea, *high blood pressure, *high fever and *tachycardia; A. quanzensis has a bark that is used to ease *malaria, *painful teeeths, *pneumonia and to protect against miscarriage; its roots have been used for *bilharzia and *snake bites, and as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976; Neuwinger 1996). Agapanthus – see *African blue lily (daffodil family, Amaryllidaceae). agar1 – a *mucilaginous *polysaccharid (extracted from various species of red seaweeds); it is useful as a *laxative; see *agaropectin and *agarose. agar2 – Gelidium amansii (Rhodophyceae) is a red seaweed most commonly used in China and Japan for the production of the very mucilaginous *polysaccharides *agarose and *agaropectin (agar1), which are widely used in the food industry; as a medicine agar is used as a *laxative; in the intestines agar absorbs water and swells stimulating bowel activity. agaropectin – very *mucilaginous *polysaccharide found in *agar; it is useful as a *laxative. agarose – very *mucilaginous *polysaccharide found in *agar; it is useful as a *laxative. Agathisanthemum (Rubiaceae) – a genus with about 4-5 species of perennial herbs or small shrubs confined to Africa (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa a decoction of boiled roots of A. bojeri is drunk for the treatment of *syphilis, the leaves are chewed for *toothache and as an *antidote for *snakebite, an infusion of the flowers is taken as a remedy for *diarrhoea, and chewed for *sore throat (Kokwaro 1976). Agathosma (Rutaceae) – a South African genus with about 135 species of heath-like shrubs; A. betulina is taken as a general *stimulant, *urinary *antiseptic and *diuretic and to relieve *digestive complaints such as *wind and *bloating; in the British Pharmacopoeia of 1821 it is listed as an effective remedy for ”*cystitis, *urethritis, *nephritis and *catarrh of the *bladder”; in parts of South America it is grown as a commercial crop and used to increase the blackcurrant flavour of *cassia; part of the genus was earlier named Barosma; vernacular name: *buchu. Agauria (Ericaceae) – a genus of s single tree species widespread in tropical Africa (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda A. salicifolia is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996). Agavaceae – a family of about 18 genera and 410 species of mostly large succulent herbs in tropical and warm regions, and particularly in arid parts of America; major genera containing medicinal plants are *Agave, *Dracaena, *Sansevieria and Yucca. Agave (Agavaceae) – a genus with more than 100 species of large succulent herbs native to the Americas; its sap contains *oestrogen-like isoflavonoids, *alkaloids, *coumarins and *vitamins pro-A, B1, B2, C, D and K; as a medicine it has been used to cure a wide range of diseases and ailments, e.g. digestive ailments like *diarrhoea, *dysentery, inflammatory conditions affecting the stomach and intestines; it has also been used to cure *wounds, *ulcers, *syphilis, *tuberculosis, *jaundice and liver disease; alcoholic drinks from fermented sap (*mescal and *tequila) has been used to treat *nervous conditions; in Kenya the juice of young leaves of A. sisalana, which are just about to open, is used as a *disinfectant for the treatment of freshly cut wounds, *stomach-ache and *constipation (Kokwaro 1976); vernacular name: *century plant. ageing – the process of becoming older; many differnt plants are being used to alleviate the healthweaknesses (*debility) accompanying this process, e.g. *Allium sativum (*garlic, Alliaceae), Avena sativa (*oats, Poaceae), Embelia ribes (*embelia, Myrsinaceae), Emblica officinalis (*Indian gooseberry, Phyllanthaceae or Euphorbiaceae), Montia portulaca (*miner’s lettuce, Portulacaceae), Panax ginseng (*ginseng, Araliaceae), Serenoa repens (*saw palmetto, Arecaceae), Smilax sp. (*sarsaparilla, Smilacaceae), Thymus vulgaris (*thyme, Lamiaceae), * Withania somnifera (*withania, Solanaceae) and Ziziphus jujuba (*jujube, Rhamnaceae). 12 Agelaea (Connaraceae) – a genus with about 50 species of lianes or scramblers native to the old world tropics (in East Africa and Uganda 1-3 species depending on different taxonomic treatments); in Tanzania roots of A. pentagyna var. heterophylla (= A. heterophylla) are used to treat *fever (Kokwaro 1976); in Benin a decoction of the leafy twig of A. obliqua together with shea butter is drunk in the treatment of *convulsions, and in the Ivory Coast a bark decoction of A. trifolia is used to treat *fever (Neuwinger 1996). Agelanthus (Loranthaceae) – a genus of 57 species of shrubby hemiparasites native to Africa and the Arabian peninsul (35 species in East Africa, 10 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves and fruits of A. longipes are crushed and the liquid drunk with salt as an *aphrodisiac, while the leaves of A. sansibarensis are crushed in water and the liquid used as a wash for children with nervous twitches (Kokwaro 1976). Ageratum (Asteraceae) – a genus with about 44 species of annual or perennial herbs mostly native to Central and South America; A. conyzoides is a widespread weed and A. houstoniana is a popular garden plant; in East Africa juice from the leaves of A. conyzoides is considered highly *haemostatic and is used to stop *epitaxis and any other bleeding from injury as well as *sore eyes and *bowel complaints, extracts from fresh leaves or roots is a cure for *coughs and *stomach-ache, while a decoction from the roots is drunk for *chest complaints (Kokwaro 1976, Geissler et al. 2002); in West Uganda the leaves are used treat lack of milk in mothers, *lymphogranuloma venereum, threatened *abortion and bewitchment (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), *syphilis and also used in *antenatal care (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So women of Mt. Kadam lies on a layer of the leaves of these plants during *delivery (Heine & König 1988); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe crushed the leaves of A. conyzoides and squeezed the juice into cuts and *wounds to stop *bleeding and for cure (Masinde 1996); vernacular names: *billy goat weed, *blue top, *goat weed, *tropic ageratum and *winter weed. agrimony – Agrimonia eupatoria (the rose family, Rosaceae) has long been used to heal *wounds because it staunches *bleeding and encourages *clot formation; it is also a helpful remedy for *diarrhoea and a gentle tonic for the *digestion as a whole. Combined with other herbs such as *cornsilk (from Zea mays) it is used to treat *urinary problems, *kidney stones, *cystitis, *rheumatism, *arthritis, *sore throats and *hoarseness. Agrocharis (Apiaceae) – a genus with 4 species of annual or perennial herbs native to tropical Africa (3 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Kenya the leaves of A. incognita (= Caucalis incognita) are used as an *antidote (Kokwaro 1976). agnus castus – Vitex agnus-castus (Verbenaceae/Lamiaceae) is a shrub (*monk’s pepper) which are assumed to have the power of subduing the sexual inclinations and thereby thought to be specially useful to those leading the monastic life. Research has confirmed that the berries have hormonial action and today they are used for *menstrual problems and for increasing fertility in women. The plant is also used to increase *breast-milk production, for *eye diseases and *stomach aches, and is the source of a yellow dye; alternative name: *chaste tree. ague – a fever marked by *chill, *fever and sweating; an old fashioned term for *malaria or similar fevers; plants used to alleviate this condition include *Cussonia zimmermannii (Araliaceae) and *Euclea natalensis (Ebenaceae); for malaria fever see *malaria. aids (AIDS) – acquired immune deficiency syndrome; an immune-system disease, caused by a virus, in which the resistance of the body to certain *infections and *cancers is lowered; many plants have been postulated as a cure for aids, e.g. *cat’s claw (Uncaria tomentosa), *lapacho (Tabebuia spp.), *lemon (Citrus limon), *purple coneflower (Echinacea spp.), and *St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum); see also *HIV and *lemon juice. ailanthone – one of the *quassinoids; it is an intensely bitter substance which is *antimalarial and act against *cancerous cells; it is found e.g. in the bark of the *tree of heaven, Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae), a deciduous tree native to southern and eastern Asia. ailment – a less severe disease. 13 air potato – Dioscorea bulbifera (Dioscoreaceae) with large air bulbils in leaf axils; for medicinal use see *Dioscorea. Aizoaceae – a family of about 114 genera and 2400 species of herbs and succulents native to tropical and warm regions, but most abundant in South Africa; species of the genera *Gisekia and *Glinus are of medicinal use (Kokwaro 1976). Ajuga (Lamiaceae) – a genus with about 50 species of herbs widespread in temperate regions of the Old World; in the tropics mainly at high altitudes; in Kenya the Kakamega use the leaves of A. remota as a medicine for *dysentery, *fever, high *blood pressure and *toothache (Kokwaro 1976); see also *bugle (A. reptans). akajou – a swollen edible stem below the fruit of *Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae), an American tree with edible seeds (see *cashew nut) nowadays frequently cultivated in Africa and Asia; akajou is eaten raw or made into jams, and in Brazil into a liquor called *cajuado; alternative name: *cashew apple; other parts of this plants are used as medicine, see *Anacardium. akee (tree or apple) or akye – *Blighia sapida (Sapindaceae) is a tree from West Africa with edible *aril (after boiling); for medicinal use see *Blighia. Alafia (Apocynaceae) – a genus with about 26 toxic climbing shrubs or lianes native to tropical Africa (7 species in East Africa, 5 in Uganda); they have often been used as arrow poisons, but some (e.g. A. lucida & A. scandens) have been used medicinally against *jaundice and *rheumatism. Alangiaceae – a family with 1 genus and about 17 species of trees and shrubs native to the old world tropics (1 species in Uganda); in East Africa the stems and branches of Alangium chinense are sometimes used by native doctors in magic ceremonies (Kokwaro 1976). Alangium (Allangiaceae) – a genus with about 17 species of trees and shrubs native to the old world tropics (1 species in Uganda); in East Africa the stems and branches of A. chinense are sometimes used by native doctors in magic ceremonies (Kokwaro 1976). Albizia (Fabaceae, Mimosoidea) – a genus with about 150 species (22 species in East Africa, 16 species in Uganda 15) of trees widely distributed throughout the warm and tropical regions of the world; many species are *analgesic, *antiseptic, *cicatrizant, *haemostatic and *purgative, and used medicinally for pain, *intestinal worms and other problems; A. adianthifolia (A. gummifera) is used to treat *colic, *dizziness, *epilepsy, *fever, *filaria, *headache, *intestinal worms, *malaria, *skin diseases (Neuwinger 1996; Kokwaro 1976) and in West Uganda the bark is used for *cough (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in East Africa a decoction of the bark or root of A. anthelmintica is used to treat *malaria and as an *anthelmintic (mainly for *tapeworm) and as a *purgative, but an overdose may cause death; roots are used to treat *fever, *gonorrhoea, and as a sexual stimulant for women (Kokwaro 1976); where ever it occurs in coastal East Africa the bark is used as an *anthelmintic (Weiss 1979); in East Africa the bark of A. coriaria is used to treat *menorrhagia, *postpartum *haemorrhage, *stomach ache and threatened *abortion, while the roots are used for *venereal diseases and in steam form for sore eyes (Kokwaro 1976, Geissler et a. 2002); in East Uganda the root or bark is used to treat *amoebiasis, *diarrhoea, *lameness, *pyomyositis, *snakebite and *syphilis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), and in West Uganda the bark it is taken for *cough, *stomach-ache and *tonsilitis (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the bark of this plant as a very strong *laxative and to expel *tapeworms and treat lack of appetite (Heine & König 1988); A. ferruginea is considered very effective against *intestinal pain, and is taken to treat *asthma, *burns, *convulsions, *gonorrhoea, *malaria, *skin diseases, *stiff limbs and *wounds; it is also used to kill lice and as an *abortifacient (Neuwinger 1996); in Uganda an infusion from the roots of A. grandibracteata is drunk in cases of *tonsilitis (Kokwaro 1976), while the sap is taken to treat warts (Kakudidi et al. 2000), in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the bark of this plant to treat *stomach-ache, swollen belly and *barrenness of women (Heine & König 14 1988); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda A. gummifera is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); the root of A. lebbeck is in Lango used to treat *gonorrhoea and * conjuctivitis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania the bark of A. petersiana is used to treat *rheumatic pains, while an infusion from the roots of A. schimperiana is used for headache and to relieve pain (Kokwaro 1976); A. versicolor is used to treat *constipation, *cough, *eye diseases, *headaches, *intestinal worms, *madness and *skin rashes (Neuwinger 1996); in East Africa the bark or root of A. versicolor are used as an *anthelmintic and as a *purgative and to alleviate headache (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the roots of A. zimmermannnii are boiled and the liquid used for sore eyes, and the bark of A. zygia is used to treat *malaria (Kokwaro 1976), while the bark or root is used to treat *cataract and *diarrhoea (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). albizia – some species of the genus Albizia (Fabaceae, Mimosoidea), e.g. bitter albizia (A. amara), large-leaved albizia (A. grandibracteata) and long-podded albizia (A. schimperiana); see also *peacock flower; for medicinal uses see *Albizia. Albuca (Hyacinthaceae) – a genus with about 50 species of herbs with bulbs native to Africa and Arabia (3 species native to East Africa, 2 in Uganda); in East Africa the crushed bulb of A. abyssinica (= A. wakefieldii) is rubbed on the ear to treat *ear-ache, while the pounded bulbs are used as an ointment to dress sores caused by skin *maggots and *jiggers (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda the bulbs are used to treat *pyomyositis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). albugo – a white *corneal opacity; reduced transparancy of the outer covering of the eye. albumin – any of a class of water-soluble proteins in animals and vegetable juices and tissues: see *albuminuria. albuminuria – presence of *albumin in the *urine, sometimes indicating *kidney diseases; see *kidney and *yellow fever. Alchemilla (Rosaceae) – a genus with about 250 species of herbs and small shrubs widely distributed in temperate countries and montane and alpine regions of the tropics (18 species in East Africa, 14 species in Uganda); in West Uganda the Bwamba use A. kiwuensis to treat eye problems (Kakudidi et al. 1996). Alchornea (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with about 50 species of trees and shrubs widely distributed in tropical regions (5 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in Uganda the root bark of A. cordifolia (Christmas bush) is used to treat *snake bite (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania the Haya drink a decoction of boiled leaves of this plant for the treatment of *malaria (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal Kenya the Digo apply ash from the pith of A. laxiflora to cuts in the neck as a remedy for sprained or dislocated neck (Kokwaro 1976). alcohol – a hydrocarbon in which a hydrogen atom is replaced by a hydroxyl (OH) group; many different plants and medicines are taken dissolved in alcohol. alcoholic poisoning – damage to the *liver due to excessive drinking; this damage may to a certain extent be limited by eating the fruits or the flower heads of *milk thistle (*Mary thistle, Silybum marianum, Asteraceae) in the same way as *artichoke; the fruits of milk thistle contain *silymarin, a substance that has a highly protective effect on the liver, maintaining its function, renewing its cells and preventing damage from compounds that are normally toxic; it has also been used successfully to treat *hepatitis and liver *cirrhosis. alcoholism – severe addiction to alcoholic drinks; certain plants are used to treat alcoholism, e.g. *ge gen, Pueraria lobata (the pea family, Fabaceae) and *florist’s chrysanthemum, Dendranthemahybrids (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), previously named Chrysanthemum × morifolium or C. × hortorum), or a mixture of these two herbs; see also *Mary thistle (Silybum marianum, Asteraceae) and *delirium tremens. aldehyde – an organic compound that contains the group –CHO; some are active principles in herbal medicines (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). 15 alder – Alnus glutinosa (Betulaceae); as a medicinal plant alder is an *astringent most often used as a mouthwash and gargle for tooth, gum and throat problems; the drying action of a *decoction of the bark helps to contract the mucous membranes and reduce *inflammation; it has also been used to staunch internal and external *bleeding and to heal wounds; leaves are also used to help to reduce breast *engorgement in nursing mothers. alder buckthorn – Frangula alnus (Rhamnaceae) has a bark widely used as a medicine; it is a *laxative and a *cathartic, and is most often taken as a treatment for chronic *constipation; it is milder than (common) *buckthorn (Rhamnus catharticus) and *senna (Senna alexandrina) and can thus safely be used over longer periods. Alectra (Orobanchaceae; earlier Scrophulariaceae) – a genus with about 40 species of annual or perennial root-hemi-parasites widespread in tropical Africa, South Africa and Asia; in Tanzania the roots of A. sessiliflora var. senegalensis are boiled and used to cure *diarrhoea and used as a mouth wash to relieve *toothache (Kokwaro 1976). Alepidea (Apiaceae) – a genus with about 20 species of perennial herbs native to Africa, but mainly in South Africa (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Kenya a decoction of the rootstock of A. peduncularis (= A. longifolia) is drunk as a cure for fever (Kokwaro 1976). alertness – the state of being mentally attentive and observant; attentiveness; some plants increase alertness, e.g. *cola nut (Cola acuminata). Alexandrian laurel – Calophyllum inophyllum (Clusiaceae) is a coastal tree widely distributed along the coasts of the Indian and Pacific Oceans; on the East African coast an oil obtained from the fruits is used for *glandular swellings in the neck and jaws (Kokwaro 1976). Alexandrian senna – Senna alexandrina, previously Cassia senna (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae) is a small shrub about 1 m tall native to northeastern Africa and southwestern Asia; senna is one of the most well known herbal medicines and is still used in conventional medicine; it is an efficient *laxative because it contains *sennosides, and is specifically used for *constipation; since it is a very strong *laxative (*cathartic) it can cause *griping and *colic, and is therefore usually taken with aromatic, *carminative herbs which relax the intestinal muscles; alternative name: *senna. alfalfa – Medicago sativa (Fabaceae) is widely cultivated as a fodder plant improving soil conditions (increasing nitrogen content in soil), but it is also used in medical treatments; it contains *oestrogenic *isoflavones and *coumarins and could possibly be useful in treating problems relating to *menstruation and the *menopause, but is most often given to *convalescents, who require easily assimilated nutrients; alternative name: *lucerne. algaroba1 – legume of Ceratonia siliqua (pea family, Fabaceae) is a beautiful tree much grown in Mediterranean countries; alternative names: *carob and *locust bean; its fruit and bark has been widely used to treat *diarrhoea (Chevalier 1996). algaroba2 (Am) – Prosopis chilensis og P. glandulosa (the pea family, Fabaceae) are important *agro-forestry trees for dry regions; see also *mesquite; for medicinal use see *Prosopis. alginate – a group of substances derived from the salts of alginic acid (occur in brown seaweeds, and are mainly extracted from *kelp); alginate is much used in food, textiles, paper, *pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. alimentary – of food, especially as nutrient; the alimentary canal is the tubular passage of food for the digestion and absorption of food, beginning at the mouth and terminating at the *anus. alkaloids – a varied group mostly containing a nitrogen-bearing molecule (-NH2) that makes them very pharmacologically active (more than 1000 alkaloids are known); many are well-known drugs, e.g. *vincristine from Vinca rosea (*Madagascar periwinkle) is used to treat some types of *cancer, and *atropine from Atropa belladonna (*deadly nightshade) reduces *spasms, relieves pain and dries up bodily secretions; other well known alkaloids are *cocaine, *hyoscamine, *morphine and *solanine; families with species rich in alkaloids include *Papaveraceae, *Ranunculaceae, and *Solanaceae. 16 alkamides – substances which have the ability to raise the body’s resistance to *bacterial, *fungal and *viral infections by stimulating the *immune system; they can thus prevent or reduce *colds and *flu, and help to heal *acne, *boils and wounds; *purple coneflowers, i.e. species of the genus Echinacea (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), are rich in alkamides. alkekenge – Physalis alkekengi (potato family, Solanaceae); for medicinal uses see *Physalis. Allanblackia (Clusiaceae) – a genus with 10 species of trees restricted to tropical Africa (in Uganda 1 species); in Tanzania the fresh leaves of A. stuhlmannii are chewed and the juice swallowed as a remedy for coughs, while the oil of the seeds is taken for *rheumatism (Kokwaro 1976). allantoin – a cell-proliferant that helps repair damaged tissue; it is know from *comfrey or *knitbone, Symphytum officinale (Boraginaceae). allergic – hypersensitive to pollen (of certain plants), spores (of certain fungi), food, minute animals or certain dust particles; the condition is characterized by difficult breathing, skin rashes, sore eyes, nose and ears, often resulting in *asthma; for medicinal plants used to relieve allergic reaction see *allergy, *asthma and *hay fever; plants causing allergic reaction (*allergy) include *Podocarpus gracilior (*African fern pine, Podocarpaceae; Gymnospermae) and Primula obconica (Primulaceae). allergic *rhinitis – inflammation of the nose or its *mucous membranes due to an allergic reaction; a large number of plants are being used to alleviate this condition, e.g. Althaea officinalis (*marshmallow, Malvaceae), Echinacea spp. (*purple coneflower, Asteraceae), Ephedra sinica (*ephedra, Ephedraceae), Eupatorium perfoliatum (*boneset, Asteraceae), Euphrasia officinalis (*eyebright, Orobanchaceae), Plantago major (*common plantain, Plantaginaceae), Sambucus nigra (*elder, Sambucaceae), Scutellaria baicalensis (*Baical skullcap) & lateriflora (*Virginia skullcap, Lamiaceae), Solidago virgaurea (*goldenrod, Asteraceae), Urtica dioica (*nettle, Urticaceae) and Thymus vulgaris (*thyme, Lamiaceae). allergy – any abnormal or altered reaction to a plant or substance (*antigen or *allergen), including greater or less than normal sensitivity; a large number of plants have been used to alleviate this condition, e.g. *Albizia lebbeck (*East Indian walnut, Fabaceae), Echinacea spp. (*purple coneflower, Asteraceae), Euphrasia sp. (*eyebright, Orobanchaceae), Ginkgo biloba (*ginkgo or *maidenhair tree, Ginkgoaceae) Primula veris (*cowslip & *primavera, Primulaceae), Sambucus nigra (*elder, Sambucaceae), Scutellaria baicalensis (*Baical skullcap) & lateriflora (*mad dog & *Virginia skullcap), *Steganotaenia araliaceae (Apiaceae), Swertia chirata (*chiretta, Gentianaceae), *Tacazzea apiculata, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) and *Tylophora asmatica (*asmatica, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae); see *allergic and *allergic rhinitis. allheal – Valeriana officinalis (Valerianaceae) has been widely used for 2000 years to treat a large number of diseases and symptoms; today it is mainly used to improve sleeping problems and stress; it also lowers *blood pressure (Chevalier 1996). Alliaceae – a family with 13 genera and about 600 species widely distributed in temperate regions, but most common in South America (only 2 species native in East Africa, none in Uganda, but many species of the genus *Allium are cultivated as vegetables or spices); the genus *Allium is more common in the northern hemisphere, but many species are cultivated worldwide, e.g. A. cepa (*onion), A. cepa var. ascalonicum (*shallot), A. ampeloprasum var. porrum (*leek), A. sativum (*garlic) and A. schoenoprasum (*chives); many of these species are valuable medicinal plants improving general health and resistance to diseases. allicin – a strong *antibiotic and *anticeptic volatile oil found in *clove, Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae) and *garlic, Allium sativum (Alliaceae); it is formed when *alliin is broken down by *alliinase into allicin. alligator apple – Annona glabra (Annonaceae); see *apple2. alligator pear – avocado (pear), Persea americana (Lauraceae); for medicinal use see *avocado. 17 alliin – a volatile oil found in *clove, Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae) and *garlic, Allium sativum (Alliaceae); it is broken down by *alliinase into *allicin, which is a strong *antibiotic and *anticeptic. alliinase – a volatile oil (enzyme) found in *clove, Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae) and *garlic, Allium sativum (Alliaceae); it is breaking down *alliin into *allicin, which is a strong *antibiotic and *anticeptic. Allium (Alliaceae) – a genus with about 700 mostly perennial herbs with bulbs or rhizomes native to the northern hemisphere; many species are considered important medicinal herbs and spices in temperate countries; A. cepa (*onion) and A. cepa var. ascalonicum (*shallot), and to a lesser extent A. ampeloprasum var. porrum (*leek), A. sativum (*garlic) and A. schoenoprasum (*chives), are cultivated in tropical Africa; for medicinal value of these see *chives, *garlic, *leek, *onion, and *shallot; in East Uganda the bulb of A. cepa is chewed for *diphtheria and snakebite (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Mali the bulb of A. cepa is used to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); in western Uganda all parts of A. cepa and A. sativum is used as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); in Uganda A. sativum is also eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005). Allophylus (Sapindaceae) – a genus with about 150 species of trees or shrubs widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, but by some authors condidered to belong to one variable species only, i.e. A. cobbe ( 18 species in East Africa, 6 species from Uganda); in East Africa the roots of A. abyssinicus are used to treat *rheumatism and *ringworm, a decoction of the roots of A. pervillei is taken as a remedy for *stomach pains, and leaves used as a dressing for *head pains; the roots of A. rubifolius (including A. alnifolius & A. griseo-tomentosus) are taken as a remedy for *diarrhoea, *gonorrhoea and to make birth easy and normal, or used as a mouthwash to relieve *toothache, while the leaves are used to relieve *headache and as an *antidote for *fever (Kokwaro 1976). allspice – spice from Pimenta dioica (Myrtaceae); a tree mainly from Jamaica, its immature fruits are used as spice; as a medicine it is a *stimulant, stomach-settling and *antiseptic, and it is mainly used to relieve *indigestion and *flatulence, and to treat *diarrhoea; alternative names: *Jamaica pepper and *pimento; Carolina allspice is Calycanthus floridus (Calycanthaceae). almond1 – Prunus dulcis (Prunus amygdalus; Rosaceae) with two varieties, var. dulcis (sweet almond) with edible fruits, and var. amara (bitter almond) with more almond oil which are used in cosmetic formulations; in compounds ’almond’ is used about other species of the genus Prunus, e.g. bitter almond (P. africana), Chinese flowering almond (Prunus triloba) and Russian almond (Prunus nana). almond2 – in combinations also used about species not belonging to the rose family, e.g. bastard almond (Terminalia catappa, Combretaceae), dog almond (Andira inermis, Fabaceae), earth almond (Cyperus esculentus, Cyperaceae), Indian (or Singapore) almond (Terminalia catappa, Combretaceae) and wood almond (Coula edulis, Olacaceae). Aloë (Aloëaceae) – a genus with about 300 succulent species widely distributed throughout Africa reaching the Arabian Peninsula and Madagascar (83 species in East Africa, 16 species in Uganda); many species are of horticultural value or are important medicinal herbs treating wounds, sun burn, sore and dry skin; the most famous species, Aloë vera (also named true aloë or Barbados aloë), is probably native to the Arabian Peninsula, but is widely cultivated throughout the world; the plant also contains *anthraquinones, which are strongly *laxative; the healing and protective effect of aloe is also believed to work internally, and the plant gel have been used for *peptic ulcers and *irritable bowel syndrome; in Kenya A. ballyi is used as a *purgative for opening the *bowels, in Mali the root of A. buettneri is used to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); in Tanzania the sap from leaves and roots of A. flexilifolia is rubbed on *testicles and *scrotum to reduce *swellings, in Kenya leaves of A. kilifiensis are roasted and 18 mucilage used to reduce *swellings, leaves of A. lateritia var. graminicola are boiled in water and the decoction drunk to cause vomiting in order to cure *stomach diseases and *malaria (Kokwaro 1976); in Central Uganda A. mubendiensis or A. wollastonii have been used to treat *hypertension, *febrile convulsion and *whooping cough (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Uganda A. wollastonii is taken for chronic *endomitritis, *jaundice and *skin rash (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), while in West Uganda it is used for *malaria (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Kenya a decoction of the leaves of A. rabaiensis is used as a remedy for enlarged *spleen, but it causes vomiting and *diarrhoea, while the sap from the leaves of A. secundiflora is sucked for lack of appetite, and used for *chest pain, *conjunctivitis, *headache, *malaria, *pneumonia and as a *disinfectant (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the leaves or juice of A. wilsonii and other species of the genus as an *emetic and to treat body *pains, *earache, *headache, *swellings and *toothache (Heine & König 1988); many different species of Aloë are used to treat similar diseases or as an *abortifacient, but there are frequent fatal poisoning from overdose of Aloe juice; species of this genus should therefore be used for external treatment only; in West Uganda the leaves of various species of Aloë are used to treat menstrual problems such as *dysmenorrhoea and excessive bleeding or *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Apac district in Uganda the roots and stem of species of Aloë are used to treat *diarrhoea, *renal problems, *stomachache and *worms (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Rakai district in Uganda the leaves of species of Aloë are crushed, water added and given orally to chickens to treat *NCD and *typhoid (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007); bitter aloë or candelabra aloë is A. ferox; tree aloe are species with a prominent trunk, e.g. A. bainesii and A. ferox; see also *American aloë (Agave americana). Aloëaceae – a family with 7 genera and about 400 species widely distributed in Africa, Arabia and Madagascar (1 genus and 83 species in East Africa, 16 species in Uganda); probably all species of the genus Aloë are of medicinal value. aloë family – see Aloëaceae above. aloeswood – wood from the genus Aquilaria (Thymelaeaceae) from China to Malaysia; it has a hard, dense, resiniferous *heartwood, yielding a valueable oil for medical use and incense; alternative name: *eaglewood. alopecia – baldness; with the scalp wholly or partly hairless; a natural or abnormal condition, somtimes induced by drugs or other medicinal treatment; *bu ghu zi (Psoralea corylifolia) is sometimes used to improve the scalp. alpha amino acid – an amino acid in which the amino group (NH2) is attached to the number two (alpha) carbon adjacent to the carboxyl group (COOH); such compounds represent the building blocks of *proteins and *peptides. alpha helix – the usually right-handed coil-like configuration of a polypeptide chain; it represents the secondary structure of some protein molecules. alpine strawberry – *wild strawberry, Fragaria vesca (var. semperflorens) in Rosaceae; a European plant which has been used to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery (Chevallier 1996). Alstonia (Apocynaceae) – a genus with about 43 species of trees widespread in tropical regions ( 2 species in Africa; 1 in Uganda); A. scholaris (*dita bark) has been widely used as a *vermifuge, being alledgedly *antimalarial; in Uganda the stem bark of A. boonei is used to treat *ascariasis (the state of being infested with *roundworms). Alternanthera (Amaranthaceae) – a genus with about 80 species of herbs widespread in tropical and subtropical regions; some are edible like *spinach, while A. philoxeroides (alligator weed) is a troublesome water weed; in Uganda the leaves of A. repens are used to treat *psychotic excitement (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Alyce clover – species of the genus Alysicarpus (Fabaceae); for medicinal use see *Alysicarpus. Alysicarpus (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus with 25 species of herbs native to the old world tropics (5 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in East Africa juice from pounded fresh 19 leaves of A. glumaceus is applied to *bruises and the leaves also used for foot diseases and children’s *stomach disorders (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of A. rugosus are used to treat *stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 2000): in coastal Kenya the Digo use an infusion of the leaves of A. vaginalis as a stimulating wash for babies (Kokwaro 1976). Alzheimer’s disease – a severe *dementia; certain plants have the ability to alleviate this condition, e.g. *maidenhair tree or *ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgophyta, Gymnospermae) and *sage, Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae). amanita poisoning – severe damage to the *liver due to eating death cap mushrooms (or tetrachlorides) can to a certain extent be avoided by taking *silymarin immediately before or within 48 hours after the ingestion of the mushroom; silymarin is found in the fruits of *milk thistle (*Mary thistle, Silybum marianum); silymarin has a highly protective effect on the liver, maintaining its function, renewing its cells and preventing damage from compounds that are normally toxic. See also *death cap mushroom poisoning. amaranth – species of the genus *Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae); see *Amaranthus. Amaranthaceae – the amaranth family is a large family with 65 genera and about 900 species widely distributed in tropical and warm temperate regions; many genera are used as medicinal herbs, e.g. *Achyranthes, *Aerva, *Alternanthera, *Amaranthus, *Celosia and *Cyathula; the family is often included in Chenopodiaceae. amaranth family – see Amaranthaceae. Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae) – a genus with about 60 species of annual herbs widely distributed in both tropical and temperate regions, but mostly as weeds in disturbed habitats; many species are eaten as a green vegetable, e.g. green amaranth (A. lividus and A. viridis), *prickly amaranth (A. spinosus), *slim or *smooth amaranth (A. hybridus), *spiny amaranth (A. spinosus), tassel amaranth (A. paniculatus) and wild amaranth (A. graecizans and A. lividus); species of amaranth contain much iron, and are thus particularly useful for people suffering from little blood, such as women with excessive menstruation; in Uganda A. hybridus is taken to treat *anaemia and *asthenia-malaise, A. lividus is used to treat *warts and *polyps, and A. spinosus has been applied for *functional psychosis, *hypertension and to chase evil spirits (Adjanohoun 1993, Kakudidi et al. 2000, Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Kenya the Luo use A. spinosus to treat mouth infection (Geissler et al. 2002).. Amaryllidaceae – the daffodil family comprises about 60 genera and about 800 species of herbs with bulbs or rhizomes in warm and temperate regions (7 genera and 23 species are native to East Africa, 5 genera and 11 species are native to Uganda, but others cultivated); species of many genera are of medicinal value, e.g. *Crinum and Haemanthus; for *anti-inflammatory and *antibacterial activities of Amaryllidaceae *alkaloids see Elgorashi et al. (2003). amaryllis – species of the genera Hippeastrum and Amaryllis (Amaryllidaceae) contain various toxic substances and some are used in herbal medicine; see also *belladonna lily (Amaryllis belladonna). amatoxins – poisonous substances present in the fruit bodies of certain species of the mushroom genus Amanita (Basidiomycetes); when eaten by humans, amatoxins cause severe *gastrointestinal symptoms and degereration of liver and kidneys. They may be deadly even in small amounts. Amazonian snakeroot – Aristolochia klugii (the birthwort family, Aristolochiaceae) is an American perennial used for *snake bites; see *African snakeroot (A. bracteata) and *Virginia snakeroot (A. serpentaria). ambarella – Spondias cytheria (Anacardiaceae); is a Pacific tree with edible drupes; the fruits have some medicinal value due to their content of vitamins and minerals; alternative names: *golden apple, *jew’s plum, *otaheite apple; see also *jobo, *mombin, red mombin *Spanish plum and *yellow mombin. 20 Ambrosia (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 40 species of annual or perennial herbs native to the Americas; A. maritima has become a pantropical weed; in Uganda the leaf is used to treat *abdominal colic in children,*fever with vomiting and *malaria (Adjanohoun 1993). amenorrhoea – abnormal suppression or abscence of *menstruation; plants which have been used to treat this condition include *Diodia sarmentosa (Rubiaceae) and *Sarcocephalus latifolius (Rubiaceae). American aloe – Agave americana (Agavaceae); for medicinal use see *century plant. American angelica – Angelica atropurpurea (the carrot family, Apiaceae), is a tonic and warming herb for conditions suffered by women, helping to regulate *menstruation, relieve *periodic pain and *cramp and *tonify the blood; it will also improve poor circulation as it improves blood flow to extremities; it strengthens the digestion and the liver, has an antibiotic effect and regulate *uterine contractions; se also *angelica og *Chinese angelica. American aspen – Populus tremuloides (the willow family, Salicaceae) is a widespread tree in North America, but also planted in Europe because it has a higher annual production than the European *aspen, P. tremula; the bark contains *phenolic glycosides, including *salicin and populin), which have fever-reducing, pain-relieving and anti-inflammatory properties that are similar to those of *aspirin; it has been taken for a large number of diseases and conditions, including *anorexia, *arthritic and *rheumatic pains, *diarrhoea, *fever, *irritable bowel syndrome and urinary tract infections; alternative name: *quaking aspen. American boxwood – Cornus florida (the dogwood family, Cornaceae) is a shrub native to North America; it was used to relieve *fever by native Americans. American cherry – Prunus serotina (Rosaceae) is a tree to 30 m tall widely used by American indians to relieve cough, colds, diarrhoea and natal pains; alternative name: *wild cherry (USA). American chestnut – Castanea dentata (the beech family, Fagaceae) is a deciduous tree native to North America; the fruits are nutritious and are roasted and eaten; the leaves were used by native Americans to treat *whooping cough; see also *sweet chestnut (C. sativa). American cranberry – Vaccinium macrocarpon (Ericaceae) is a North American prostrate herb with sour edible berries rich in *vitamin C; due to its *antioxidant reaction the berries are important in improving the body’s defence to diseases; they have also been widely used to prevent and cure *urinary infections (Chevallier 1996). American cranesbill – Geranium maculatum (Geraniaceae), is used to staunch wounds and treat haemorrhoids, irritable bowel syndrome, heavy menstrual bleeding and excessive vaginal discharge. American figwort – Scrophularia marylandica (Scrophulariaceae) is a perennial herb native to North America; the Latin generic name alludes to the plant’s age-long use to treat the disease *scrofula; American figwort is *diuretic and helps to detoxify the body and expel *intestinal worms; it is also helpful in treating chronic skin diseases such as *eczema and *psoriasis; it will also speed the healings of *wounds, *burns, *ulcers and *haemorrhoids; see also *Chinese figwort (S. ningopoensis), *(common) *figwort (S. nodosa), and *water figwort (S. aquatica). American ginseng – Panax quinquefolium (Araliaceae), has been used by native Americans to increase female fertility; it increases the ability to tolerate *stress of all kinds, and is used to treat general weakness, *wheezing and *coughs. American hellebore – Veratrum viride (Melianthiaceae), is a very *toxic plant native to Europe and North America; it is an effective *insecticide (de-lousing agent), but can cause damage to human skin; it has also been used to ease *rheumatic pain; it is being used in *homeopathic preparations to slow heart rate; in Europe this plant is named *green hellebore. American mandrake – Podophyllum peltatum (Berberidaceae) is a *toxic plant containing *lignans (especially *podophyllotoxin) that are active against *tumours and has *anticancer potential; due to its cell-killing (*cytotoxic) action is now mainly taken externally, e.g. to treat warts, although 21 it was previously widely used by native Americans as a *purgative, *emetic and *wormexpelling herb; alternative name: *may apple. American mastic tree – Schinus molle (Anacardiaceae), is an ornamental tree widely cultivated in all tropical regions; the leaf and bark is used to treat *wounds and sores and internally as a *diuretic, for pain in the extremities and in *blennorrhagia; the gum-resin has been used as a remedy for *gout and *rheumatism and as a *purgative (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); alternative name: *pepper tree. American pennyroyal – Hedeoma pulegoides (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial aromatic herb native to America; the Latin word ’pulegioides’ comes from ’pulex’ which means ’flea’; like *pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium), this herb was traditionally used to repel *fleas. American red gum – Liquidambar styraciflua (Hamamelidaceae) with its beautiful autumn colours and a good timber has been used for thousands of years to treat *fevers and *wounds, *scalp and other *skin infections and *inflammations; alternative name: *American sap gum and *sweet gum. American sap gum – Liquidambar styraciflua (Hamamelidaceae); see *American red gum. American spikenard – Aralia racemosa (the ivy family, Araliaceae), is a bush that encourages sweating, is *stimulant and *detoxifying; its root is taken for *asthma, *coughs and *rheumatism; applied externally as a *poultice it is used to treat *eczema and other *skin diseases; a related American species, *wild sarsaparilla (A. nudicaulis) is used in much the same way. American valerian – Valeriana uliginosa (the valerian family, Valerianaceae) is a perennial herb native to North America; it was taken for *cramps and *menopausal symptoms by the Menomince people in North America; se also *valerian (V. officinalis). American witch hazel – Hamamelis virginiana (the witch hazel family, Hamamelidaceae) is a small deciduous North American tree; the bark is strongly *astringent and taken internally for damaged blood vessels, *haemorrhoids, heavy *menstrual bleeding and *varicose veins; it will also benefit inflamed and tender skin and *abrasions and makes a good eyewash for *inflammation of the eyes; alternative name: *witch hazel. amide – an organic compound formed from ammonia (NH3) by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms by organic acid-groups; amides are classified as primary, secundary and tertiary according to whether 1, 2 or 3 hydrogen atoms are replaced. amine – an organic base formed from ammonia (NH3) by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms by organic radicals; amines are classified as primary, secundary and tertiary according to whether 1, 2 or 3 hydrogen atoms are replaced. amino acid – an organic compound containing an acid carboxyl-group (COOH) and an alkaline amino (NH2) group; the formula is R-CH(NH2)-COOH where R is usually a carbone chain or ring. The amino acids are classified as either neutral, alkaline or acid – alternatively as non-polar (*hydrophobic), polar (*hydrophilic) or loaded (see fig. x). *Peptides and *proteins (albumen) are built from amino acids. More than 20 different amino acids are found in natural proteins. amino group – the radical-group NH2. Ammannia (Lythraceae) – a genus with with 25 species of small annual or short-lived perennial herbs in water or wetlands in both hot and temperate regions (9 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in East Africa an infusion of the fresh leaves of A. prieuriana is drunk as an *anthelmintic (Kokwaro 1976). ammoniacum – Dorema ammoniacum (the carrot family, Apiaceae), is a tall Asian herb that contains *resin, *gum, volatile oil, free *salicylic acid and *coumarins; it is much used as an *antispasmodic and as an *expectorant and stimulates the *coughing up of thick *mucus; it is used for *asthma, *chronic bronchitis and persistent coughs. amnesia – loss of memory. amoeba – microscopial animal perpetually changing shape; some cause diseases (the most common is Entamoeba histolytica); see *amoebiasis. 22 amoebiasis – having *amoeba in a body organ, most frequently in the *intestines; plants used to alleviate this disease include *Acacia seyal (Fabaceae), *Albizia coriaria (Fabaceae), *Cardiospermum halicacabum (*balloon vine, Sapindaceae), *Carissa spinarum (Apocynaceae), *Chenopodium opulifolium (Chenopodiaceae), *Conyza bonariensis (Asteraceae), *Cyphostemma adenocaule (Vitaceae), *Dichrocephala integrifolia (Asteraceae), *Erythrina abyssinica (Fabaceae), *Grewia trichocarpa (Tiliaceae), *Guizotia scabra (Asteraceae), *Lantana trifolia (Verbenaceae), *Leonotis nepetifolia (Lamiaceae), *Microglossa pyrifolia (Asteraceae), *Morinda morindoides (Rubiaceae), *Teclea nobilis (Rutaceae), *Urena lobata (Malvaceae) and *Vernonia amygdalina (Asteraceae). Amorphophallus (Araceae) – a genus with about 90 species (6 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda) of robust herbs widely distributed in the old world tropics; the starch of the corms (up to 50 kg) of some species are used as flour (e.g. A. paeoniifolius), others are medicinal, e.g. A. dracontioides (from West Africa), which is used as arrow poison and to treat *asthma, *lumbago and *rheumatism. Ampelocissus (Vitaceae) – a genus with about 95 species (5 species in Uganda) widely distributed througout the tropics; A. africanus is used to treat *fever, *menorrhagia, *pyaemic conditions and *skin diseases; it has also been used to increase breast milk production (Neuwinger 1996); in coastal Kenya a root decoction is used as an *anthelmintic, for *chest diseases, *hookworm and *leprosy (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply powder from dried leaves of A. africanus on cuts and *wounds (Masinde 1996); in Mali the rootstock of A. grantii mixed with the leaf, bark or fruit of Tamarindus indica is used to treat *intestinal *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006). Amurian angelica – Angelica dahurica (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is known as a sweat-inducing herb in East Asia for 2000 years; it is belived to counter harmful external influences on the skin, e.g. cold, heat, dampness and dryness; it is used for aching eyes, *headaches, *nasal *congestions, *toothache and *sores, *boils and *ulcers affecting the skin; alternative name: *bai zhi (Chinese). amygdalin – a secondary nitrogen containing metabolic substance found in the seed of *apricot, Prunus amygdalos (the rose family, Rosaceae); amygdalin liberate the toxin *cyanid (CN) and has been used in cancer research. an- – a prefix meaning ’lack of’ or ’without’; it is used before a word starting with a wowel (otherwise the prefix is a), e.g. *anaemia = lack of red blood cells, *anaestethic (or *anestethic) = without external sensation, *anaphrodisiac = which inhibits (lack of interest in) sexual activities, and *anorexia = lack of appetite. ana – of or involving the *anus; near the anus. anabolic – which promotes tissue growth and encourages weight gain; *saw palmetto, Serenoa repens (the palm family, Arecaceae), is one of the few western plant remedies which is *anabolic. anabolism – *metabolism that includes those reactions which require energy and result in the biosynthesis of nesessary compounds. anabsinthin – a *sesquiterpene *lactone found in *absinthe or *wormwood (Artemisia absinthum); it is *insecticidal; see also *artabsin. Anacardiaceae – a family containing about 75 genera and 800 woody species mostly native to tropical and subtropical regions, but some native to temperate North America; some genera are of commercial interest for their edible parts, e.g. Anacardium (*cashew-nut), Mangifera (*mango) and Pistacia (*pistachio), or for their medicinal value, e.g. *Anacardium, *Lannea, *Mangifera, *Ozoroa and *Rhus. anacardic acid – this acid is found in the gum of *Anacardium occidentale; it will kill *bacteria, *fungi, *worms and *protozoa and may be useful for *stomach ulcers. 23 Anacardium (Anacardiaceae) – a genus with 8 tree species native to tropical America, but A. occidentale (*cashew-nut, *acajou) is cultivated in most tropical countries for their edible parts; the tree has many medicinal uses; the leaves are used for *toothache and *gum problems; the roots are *purgative; in India the bark is used to *detoxify *snake bites; the gum contains *anacardic acid which kills *bacteria, *fungi, *worms and *protozoa and may treat *stomach ulcers; the gum is also applied externally to treat *corns, *fungal infections and *leprosy; see also *cashew apple. anaemia (anemia) – a condition in which the red blood cells is less than normal and hence the patient is pale and weak, e.g. rather less *haemoglobin in the blood (fewer *erythrocytes than normal); blood is deficient either in quantity or quality; different diseases may cause anaemia, or eating food with too little iron; plants which are believed to alleviate this condition are: *Achyranthes aspera (Amaranthaceae), *Adenia gummifera (Passifloraceae), *Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae), Angelica sinensis (*Chinese angelica, Apiaceae), *Artemisia absinthium (*wormwood, Asteraceae), Astragalus membranaceus (*Chinese milk-vetch, Fabaceae), *Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), *Cajanus cajan (Fabaceae), Chenopodium bonus-henricus (*good King Henry, Chenopodiaceae), *Euadenia trifoliata (Capparidaceae), Gentiana lutea (*yellow gentian) & purpurea (*gentian or *purple gentian, Gentianaceae), *Harungana madagascariensis (Hypericaceae), *Hibiscus acetosella & sabdariffa (Malvaceae), *Kigelia pinnata (*sausage tree, Bignoniaceae), *Maytenus senegalensis (Celastraceae), *Neoboutonia melleri (Euphorbiaceae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae), *Senna didymobotrya (Fabaceae), *Sesamum indicum (*sesame or *simsim, Pedaliaceae), *Sonchus oleraceus (Asteraceae), *Steganotaenia araliaceae (Apiaceae), Swertia chirata (*chiretta, Gentianaceae), *Triticum aestivum (*wheat, Poaceae), Urtica dioica (*common nettle or *nettle, Urticaceae) and *Withania somnifera (*Indian ginseng or *withania, Solanaceae); see also *sickle cell anaemia. anaesthesia – loss of sensation; for plants used to treat this condition see *analgesic. anaesthetic – (an agent or drug) which numbs perceptions of external sensations (i.e. which produces insensibility to touch or to pain); plants or plant substances used include *cocaine from the *coca-plant Erythroxylum coca (the coca family, Erythroxylaceae), and *morphine og *codeine from the *opium poppy Papaver somniferum (the poppy family, Papaveraceae); alternative spelling: *anestetic; see also *analgesic. analeptic – (a drug) with restorative effect. analgesia – the state of being without pain. analgesic – (an agent) which relieves pain; many plants contain analgesic substances, e.g. *salicin, which is extracted from species of the genera Salix (Saliceae) and Filipendula (Rosaceae); stronger analgesic but *addictive substances, such as *morphine and *codeine, are found in Papaver somniferum (*opium poppy, Papaveraceae); plants with slight to moderate analgesic action include Ajuga reptans (*bugle, Lamiaceae), *Albizia spp. (Fabaceae), *Allium cepa (*onion, Alliaceae), *Cannabis sativa (*bhang, *dagga, *marijuana, *pot, Cannabaceae), *Chelidonium majus (*greater celandine. Papaveraceae), Cinnamomum camphora (*camphor tree, Lauraceae) & verum (*cinnamon), Clematis vitalba (*old man’s beard & *traveller’s joy, Ranunculaceae), Corydalis ambigua (*corydalis, Papaveraceae, Fumarioideae), Eschsholzia californica (*Californian poppy, Papaveraceae), *Ficus carica and other Ficus spp. (*figs, Moraceae), *Glyphaea brevis (Tiliaceae), Harpagophytum procumbens (*devil’s claw, Pedaliaceae), Ilex paraguensis (*mate, Aquifoliaceae), Mandragora officinalis (*love apple & *mandrake, Solanaceae), *Piper methysticum (*kava-kava, Piperaceae) and Tanacetum parthenium (*feverfew, Asteraceae). Ananas (Bromeliaceae) – a genus with 8 species native to tropical America; A. comosus (pineapple) is widely cultivated as a fruit crop throughout tropical and warm regions of the world; in West Uganda the leaves and young fruits are used for *whooping cough (Kakudidi et al. 2000) and to 24 treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & OryemOriga 2006). anaphrodisiac – inhibits *libido and sexual activity; a drug or agent that reduces the sexual desire; plants with such characteristics include Nymphaea nouchali (*blue waterlily, Nymphaeaceae) and *Vitex agnus-castus (*agnus castus, *chaste tree or *monk’s pepper, Verbenaceae). anasarca – accumulation of fluid in various tissues of the body; in Uganda the roots together with the leaves of *Desmodium velutinum are used to treat anasarca (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). anaesthesia (anesthesia) – a partial or total loss of the sense of pain, touch, temperature, etc. Anchomanes (Araceae) – a genus with 5 species of tall perennial herbs from tropical Africa; the only Ugandan species, A. difformis, is an important medicinal herb; the rhizome is *diuretic and strongly *purgative, but is poisonous; it is used for *abdominal pain, *boils, *constipations, *gonorrhoea, *hernia, *rupture, *stomach pain and *swellings (Neuwinger 1996). Ancyclobotrys (Apocynaceae) – a genus with 7 species of shrubs or lianas native to tropical Africa (3 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in Tanzania a root decoction of A. petersiana is drunk for the treatment of *influenza, *snakebite, and as a *diaphoretic (Kokwaro 1976). ancyclostomiasis – having the intestinal system infected by *hookworms; many different plants are used to expel *hookworms, e.g. *Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae), *Combretum molle & padoides (Combretaceae), *Crotalaria goodiiformis (Fabaceae), *Cucurbita pepo (*marrows, *pumpkins, Cucurbitaceae), *Dioscorea bulbifera (*yams, Dioscoreacaeae), *Dissotis rotundifolia (Melastomataceae), *Dombeya taylorii (Sterculiaceae), *Maytenus putterlickioides (Celastraceae), *Morella (Myrica) salicifolia (Myricaceae), *Plumbago zeylanica (*Ceylon leadwort, Plumbaginaceae), Polygonum aviculare (*knotgrass, Polygonaceae), *Portulaca oleracea *(common) *purslane or *pigweed, Portulacaceae), *Vangueria infausta (Rubiaceae) and *Ximenia caffra (Olacaceae); for other medicinal plants used to treat hookworms see *anthelmintic. androgenic – see *cerasee or *kerala, Momordica charantia (the melon family, Cucurbitaceae); the seeds are *androgenic and inhibit sperm production, it has been tested as a *contraceptive in China. Aneilema (Commelinaceae) – a genus with about 60 species of perennial herbs almost entirely confined to Africa; in western Uganda both chimpanzees and people eat A. aequinoctiale to expel *intestinal worms; in coastal East Africa an infusion of this plant was used to relieve *colds (Weiss 1979); also elsewhere in East Africa the leaves of this herb is used for colds and as a remedy for *kwashiorkor, while the flower nectar is used for *eye troubles; in Kenya the leaves of A. pedunculosum are wrapped round the injured *penises of Kikuyu boys after *circumcision; in Tanzania the roots of A. petersii are used to treat *snake bites (Kokwaro 1976). anemia – see *anaemia. anesthesia (anaesthesia) – a partial or total loss of the sense of pain, touch, temperature, etc. anesthetic – (an agent or drug) which reduces the sense of pain; which numbs perceptions of external sensations; plants or plant substances used include *cocaine from the *coca-plant Erythroxylum coca (the coca family, Erythroxylaceae), and *morphine and *codeine from the *opium poppy Papaver somniferum (the poppy family, Papaveraceae); alternative spelling: *anaestetic. angelica – Angelica archangelica in the carrot family (Apiaceae) is a *tonic and warming remedy, helping in many illnesses, including *indigestion, *wind and *colic; it will also improve poor *circulation as it improves blood flow to extremities; it also stimulates the *coughing up of *phlegm thus bring relief from *bronchitis and other *respiratory conditions; in the past in cold regions the young shoots in spring were an important source of *vitamin C; wild angelica is Angelica sylvestris (also named *Jack-jump-about); see also *American angelica (A. atropurpurea) and *Chinese angelica (A. sinensis). 25 angel’s trumpet – Brugmansia (Datura) suaveolens and B. arborea (Solanaceae) are widely cultivated American shrubs in all tropical and warm countries; the plants are rich in very *toxic *alkaloids such as *hyoscamine and merely the odour of the flower is said to produce *headache; the plants have been used either as *poultice or *ointment for the relief of *pain; alternative name: *moonflower. angina – any inflammatory infection of the *throat or *fauces; see also *croup and *quincy. angina pectoris – a disease of the heart signalled by acute constricting pains in the chest; pain in the chest or arm due to lack of oxygen to the heart muscle; in Chinese herbal medicine the pollen of *bulrush (Typha sp., Typhaceae) is used in the treatment of angina; see also *heart disease. Angola hemp – species of the genus *Sansevieria (Agavaceae); for medicinal use see *Sansevieria. angostura – Galipea officinalis (the orange family, Rutaceae) is a tropical American tree, which bark is used as *tonic and *fever remedy in South America; it stimulates the the *stomach and *digestive tract; it is also used as a fish poison. Angraecum (Orchidaceae) – a genus with about 200 species of epiphytic orchids native to tropical Africa and adjacent islands reaching Sri Lanka (22 species in East Africa, 8 species in Uganda); the leaves of the stem of A. dives are either chewed or pounded, soaked in water and the infusion drunk as a cure for *sores (Kokwaro 1976). animal parasites – different kinds parasitize different organs; some live on the outside of hosts and suck blood, e.g. *fleas, *lice and *mites; others make their way into the intestines and either absorb some of the food which the host has digested, e.g. *roundworms and *tapeworms, or attach themselves to the intestines or other internal organs and suck blood, e.g. *hookworms. Aningeria (Sapotaceae) – a genus with about 4 tall tree species native to tropical Africa (3 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in West Uganda the Bwamba use A. adolfi-friederici to chase away evil spirits (Kakudidi et al. 1996). anise – Pimpinella anisum (Apiaceae) has fruits which contain aromatic oil and are used for medicinal purposes and as a flavouring in cookery; it is mildly *oestrogenic and is used as a *stimulant of sexual drive and of *breast-milk production: it reduces *wind and *bloating, and has been used to treat *digestive problems, *impotence, *frigidity and to relieve *toothache; Chinese or star anise is Illicium verum (Illiciaceae), Japanese anise is I. anisatum, purple and tree anise is I. floridanum. Anisopappus (Asteraceae) – a genus with 32 species of annual or perennial herbs widespread in tropical and South Africa and extending to China (4 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Pare use the leaves of A. chinensis (= A. africanus) on *sores or as a medicine for *hookworm (Kokwaro 1976). Anisotes (Acanthaceae) – a genus with about 20 species native to tropical Africa and Madagascar; in Tanzania the Nyamwezi use a root decoction of A. dumosus as an *enema and for infertility (Kokwaro 1976). ankylostoma – *hookworms; a group of worms, which attach themselves to the intestines or other internal organs and suck blood; they give rise to the disease *ankylostomiasis (hookworm disease), which is an almost universal disease among people living in warm tropical conditions; if food is plentiful hookworms may produce no symptoms, but if food is restricted the worms by sucking blood produce pallor, breathlessness, wasting, swelling of the feet and mental *lethargy; many medicinal plants are taken to expel these worms, see *anthelmintic and *hookworms. ankylostomiasis – with the human intestines infected by *hookworms; for medicinal plants used to treat this condition see *anthelmintic and *hookworms. annatto – Bixa orellata and other species of the genus Bixa (Bixaceae); their seeds contain a bright reddish yellow colour; the leaves have been used to treat *dysentery, *epilepsy, *fever and taken as an *aphrodisiac; the seeds are eaten as an *antidote to poisons (Chevalier 1996). 26 annatto family – Bixaceae is a very small family with 1 genus and 1-4 species; they are native to tropical America, but now widespread in Africa and Asia as an escape from cultivation; the genus Bixa is of medicinal value; see *anatto. Annona (Annonaceae) – a genus with about 100 species of shrubs and trees in Africa and America (2 species native to East Africa, 1 species naive to Uganda), but many species are cultivated for their edible fruit-like structures (syncarps) in warm countries worldwide; A. senegalensis (A. chrysophylla; *wild custard apple) is a *diuretic widely used for a number of diseases and conditions, e.g. *abdomi-nal pain, *chest pain, *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *fever, *intestinal worms, *joint problems, *leprosy, *snakebite, *sterility, *venereal diseases and *vomiting (Kokwaro 1976; Neuwinger 1996); in coastal East Africa the roots are used to treat stomachache (Weiss 1979); in Mali the root of A. senegalensis is used to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); in Apac district in Uganda species the roots of this tree are used to treat *diarrhoea, (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); A. squamosa (*custard apple; *sugar apple, *sweetsop) has edible syncarps and the leaves, bark and unripe fruits are strongly *astringent and *anthelmintic and used to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery and to expel intestinal worms. Annonaceae – the custard apple family; a family containing about 125 genera and about 2000 species of trees, shrubs and lianes widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions (12 genera and 30 species native to Uganda); the genus *Annona contains many species with useful medicinal herbs (see above). annual mugwort – Artemisia annua (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is an annual herb native to Asia and southern Europe; it is a very important medicinal plant used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat *malaria; it is now grown for this purpose in many tropical and warm temperate countries; research has shown it to prevent and cure malaria being relatively free from sideeffects; annual wormwood contains volatile oils (*abrotamine and beta-bourbonene), *sesquiterpene *lactone (*artemisinin) and *vitamin A; artemisinin is the powerful *antimalarial and it also reduces the risk of developing *malaria; the plant also has an *antibiotic effect against many *fungal *skin diseases, and is also used to treat *headaches and *fever; alternative name: *Chinese wormwood. Anogeissus (Combretaceae) – a genus of 8 species in the Old World tropics (none in East Africa, but is known from the Sudan); in Mali the leaf of A. leiocarpa is used to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); it is more widely known as a *vermifuge for cattle. Anopheles (Anopheline) – mosquitoes, many of which are vectors for the *malaria parasite; the most dangerous species in Africa are A. garobiae and A. gambiae. anorexia (nervosa) – lack of appetite; a condition where a person, because of psychological reasons, eat too little; a person suffering from anorexia will become exceedingly meagre and can eventually die; many plants are useful in treating this condition, they are often very bitter, e.g. *Abrus precatorius (*coral pea, Fabaceae), Elettaria cardamom (*cardamom, Zingiberaceae), Jateorhiza palmata (*calumba, Menispermaceae), Marsdenia condurango, (*condurango, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae), *Phyllanthus ovalifolius (Phyllanthaceae), *Physalis lagascae (Solanaceae), Picrasma excelsa (*quassia, Simaroubaceae), Populus tremuloides (*American aspen & *quaking aspen, Salicaceae) and Trigonella foenum-graecum (*fenugreek, Fabaceae). Ansellia (Orchidaceae) – a genus with a single very variable species of epiphytic orchids (or on rocks or boulders) native to tropical Africa; in Kenya the stems of A. africana is heated over a fire until they become soft, and the juice is then squeezed into the ears as a remedy to relieve *ear-ache (Kokwaro 1976). antenatal – (the period) before birth; previous to birth; many plants are believed to be useful for this period, e.g. *Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae), *Asystasia gangetica (Acanthaceae), *Cleome gynandra (*spider wort, Capparidaceae), *Clerodendrum (*Rotheca) myricoides (Verbenaceae), *Diplosyclos palmatus (Cucurbitaceae), *Hewittia scandens (Convolvulacea), *Kalanchoe 27 crenata (Crassulaceae), *Microglosa pyrifolia (Asteraceae), *Secamone africana (Apocynaceae), *Senna didymobotrya (Fabaceae), *Solanecio angulatus (Asteraceae) and *Tylosema fassoglensis (Fabaceae). anthelmintic – (a plant or drug) which expels or destroys parasitic intestinal worms, especially *hookworms (*ankylostoma), *roundworms (*ascaris) and *tapeworms (*taenia); a large number of plants are used as vermifuges, e.g. *avocado (Persea americana), *pink root (Spigelia anthelmia & marilandica) and *wormseed (Chenopodium ambrosioides) in America, *pomegranate (Punica granatum) in Europe and Asia, and *Clerodendrum rotundifolia and *Albizia anthelmintica in Africa; other plants used as anthelmintics include *Achyrospermum radicans (Lamiaceae), *Adenia cissampeloides (Passifloraceae), *Aframomum angustifolium & giganteum (Zingiberaceae), *Albizia versicolor (Fabaceae), *Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae), *Ammannia prieuriana (Lythraceae), *Ampelocissus africanus (Vitaceae), *Annona squamosa (Annonaceae), *Anthocleista grandiflora (Loganiaceae), *Aphloia theiformis (Aphloiaceae or Flacourtiaceae), Artemisia cina (*Levant wormwood, Asteraceae), *Balanites aegyptiaca (Balanitaceae), *Begonia oxyloba (Begoniaceae), *Bersama abyssinica (Melianthaceae), *Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae), *Canarium schweinfurthii (*African elemi, Burseraceae), *Combretum molle & padoides & xanthothysum (Combretaceae), *Crotalaria goodiiformis (Fabaceae), *Croton macrostachyus (Euphorbiaceae), *Cucurbita pepo (*marrows, *pumpkins, Cucurbitaceae), *Cylicomorpha parviflora (Caricaceae), *Dalbergia melanoxylon (Fabaceae), *Deinbollia kilimandscharica (Sapindaceae), *Dioscorea bulbifera (*yams, Dioscoreacaeae), *Dissotis rotundifolia (Melastomataceae), *Dombeya taylorii (Sterculiaceae),*Embelia schimperi (Myrsinaceae), *Erythrophleum suaveolens (Fabaceae), *Euclea natalensis (Ebenaceae), *Fuerstia africana (Lamiaceae), *Funtumia africana (Apocynaceae), *Geranium incanum (Geraniaceae), *Hagenia abyssinica (Rosacaeae), *Helichrysum odoratissimum (Asteraceae), *Hibiscus trionum (*bladder hibiscus, Malvacea), *Jasminium grandiflorum ssp. floribundum (Oleaceae), *Jatropha curcas (*physic nut & *purging nut, Euphorbiaceae), *Markhamia zanzibarica (Bignoniaceae), *Maytenus heterophylla & putterlickioides (Celastraceae), *Morella (Myrica) salicifolia (Myricaceae), *Myrsine africana (Myrsinaceae), *Oxalis pes-caprae (Oxalidaceae), *Pachypodanthium staudtii (Annonaceae), *Palisota schweinfurthii (Commelinaceae), *Pentaclethra macrophylla (Fabaceae), *Pericopsis angolensis (Fabaceae), *Phytolacca dodecandra (Phytolaccaceae), *Picralima nitida (Apocynaceae), *Piper capensis (Piperaceae), *Plumbago zeylanica (*Ceylon leadwort, Plumbaginaceae), Polygonum aviculare (*knotgrass, Polygonaceae), *Portulaca oleracea *(common) *purslane or *pigweed, Portulacaceae), *Prosopis africana (Fabaceae), *Protoasparagus falcatus (Asparagaceae), *Psychotria peduncularia (Rubiaceae), *Rapanea melanophloeos (Myrsinaceae), Rhoicissus capensis (*Cape grape, Vitaceae), *Schumanniophyton magnificum (Rubiaceae), *Rhus natalensis (Anacardiaceae), *Scorodophloeus fischeri (Fabaceae), *Senna occidentalis & petersiana (Fabaceae), *Solanecio mannii (Asteraceae), *Spirostachys africana (Euphorbiaceae), Spondias mombin (*jobo & *yellow mombin, Anacardiaceae), *Swartzia madagascariensis (Fabaceae), *Syzygium guineense (Myrtaceae), *Tacca leontopetaloïdes (Taccaceae), *Teclea nobilis (Rutaceae), *Vangueria apiculata & infausta (Rubiaceae), *Ximenia caffra (Olacaceae)and *Zimmermannia capillipes (Phyllanthaceae); see also *ascariasis, *ankylostomiasis, *hookworms, *roundworms, *taeniasis, *taenifuge, *tape-worms, *vermifuge and *worms. Anthericaceae – a family containing 8 genera and about 400 species in tropical and temperate countries (in Uganda 2 genera and 21 species); species of the genus *Chlorophytum are of medicinal use. Anthocleista (Struchnaceae) – a genus with 14 tree species native to tropical Africa and the islands (3 species in East Africa and Uganda); in the Impenetrable forest in Uganda A. grandiflora is used as a medicine by herbalists (Cunningham 1996). 28 anthraquinones – substances that irritate the *intestinal wall causing a bowel movement; they have an irritant *laxative effect on the large intestine stimulating bowel movements about 10 hours after being taken; they also make the stool more liquid, easing bowel movements; anthraquinones are found in many herbs, e.g. Cassia senna (*senna) and Rheum palmatum (*rhubarb). anthrax – *splenic fever; an infectious disease of animals, especially the herbivores due to presence in the blood of the bacterium Bacillus anthracis; some plants have been used to alleviate this disease, e.g. *Acacia nubica (Fabaceae), Alpinia officinarum (*galangal, Zingiberaceae), *Croton pseudopulchellus (Euphorbiaceae), *Erythrina abyssinica (Fabaceae) and Vernonia karaguensis (Asteraceae). Anthriscus (Apiaceae) – a genus with about 10 species of annual or perennial herbs widespread in temperate regions; in tropical Africa in the uplands (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa the seeds of A. sylvestris are mixed with honey and chewed as a remedy for *chest colds (Kokwaro 1976). antialgetic – (an agent or drug) acting against or reducing pains; plants or plant substances used include *cocaine from the *coca-plant Erythroxylum coca (the coca family, Erythroxylaceae), and *morphine and *codeine from the opium poppy Papaver somniferum (the poppy family, Papaveraceae); see also *anaesthetic and *analgesic. Antiaris (Moraceae) – a genus with 1 or 4 species (depending on taxonomic concept) native to the old world tropics; in West Uganda the bark of A. toxicaria is taken for stubborn *cough (Kakudidi et al. 2000), and in Central Uganda the leaves are used to treat *functional psychosis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). antibiosis – the fact that a fungus (or other organism) produces a chemical compound which retards the growth of a *bacterium; such substances are named ’antibiotics’. antibiotic(s) – a compound which destroys or inhibits micro-organisms; chemical compounds produced by a fungus (or other organism) and which retard the growth of a *bacterium, e.g. *penicillin. anticeptic – see *antiseptic. anticeptic properties – a large number of plants have been shown to have anticeptic properties, not only fungi like Penicillium, but also many flowering plants, e.g. *citrus fruits, +++++ anticoagulant – which prevents *blood clotting; e.g. *corn silk (Zea mays), *cowslip (Primula veris), *gingko (Ginkgo biloba), *hairy strophanthus (Strophanthus hispidus) and *turmeric (Curcuma longa). anticonvulsant – which prevents violent involuntary contractions, e.g. *lovage, Levisticum officinale (Apiaceae) and West African *black pepper, Piper guinense (Piperaceae); usually all *phthalides are anticonvulsant. antidepressant – a medicine which counteracts *depressions (sadness; low spirits); some plants are useful antidepressants, e.g. *cola nut, Cola acuminata (Sterculiaceae) with its high content of *caffeine. Antidesma (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with about 170 species of shrubs or small trees widespread in the Old World tropics and subtropics, but with only 7 species in Africa (3-4 species in East Africa and in Uganda); in East Africa scrapings from the roots of A. membranaceum (sometimes included in A. venosum) are used to cure mouth *ulcers in children, the roots boiled with those of another tree is taken in cases of *pneumonia, while a decoction of the roots is used by the Digo in coastal Kenya as a remedy for *kwashiorkor (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the leaves, twigs and roots of A. venosum are pounded together and the decoction drunk to cure *abdominal pain, a boiled root decoction is drunk for *hookworm, the very bitter roots are strongly *emetic and chewed as a remedy for*snakebite, while an infusion of seeds steeped in water is drunk for *liver complaints (Kokwaro 1976). antidiabetic – (an agent or plant drug) that checks or alleviates *diabetes, e.g. Caesalpinia bonducella (*nikkar nut, Fabaceae), Cynara scolymus (*artichoke, Asteraceae), *Dioscorea 29 dumetorum tuber (*yam, Dioscoreaceae), *Gardenia ternifolia (Rubiaceae), Hordeum vulgare (*bran of barley, Poaceae), Momordica charantia (*cerasee or *kerala), Morinda citrifolia (*Indian mulberry or *noni, Moraceae), Ocimum sanctum (*holy basil or *tulsi, Lamiaceae), *Olea europaea (*olive, Oleaceae), *Opuntia vulgaris (Cactaceae), Pfaffia paniculata (*Brazilian ginseng or *pfaffia, Amaranthaceae), *Phaseolus vulgaris (*French beans, Fabaceae), Plantago indica & P. psyllium (*flea seeds, Plantaginaceae), *Rauvolfia vomitoria (Apocynaceae), Scutellaria baicalensis (*Baical skullcap, Lamiaceae) & S. lateriflora (*mad dog or *Virginia skullcap), *Sida cordi-folia (Malvaceae) and Vaccinium myrtillus (*bilberry or *blueberry, Ericaceae). antidiarrhoeic – (a plant or drug) which acts against or alleviates *diarrhoea; for antidiarrhoeic plants see *diarrhoea. antidote – a plant or agent that neutralizes a poison or counteracts its effects; for plants used as antidote see *snakebite. antiemetic – (substance or plant) which prevents *vomiting, e.g. Atropa belladonna (*belladonna, Solanaceae), Scopolia carniolica (Solanaceae) and *ginger (Zingiber officinale). antiestrogenic – (substances, drugs or plants ) which counteract hormones, e.g. *antiestrogenic constituents in *soybean (Glycine soya) may check the growth of hormone-dependent cancers (Etkin 1996); see also *estrogenic. antifebrile – (a plant or drug) which reduces or prevent *fever; alternative names: *antipyretic & *febrifuge; for medicinal plants see *fever. antifungal – which combats *fungal infections. antihelminthoid – (an agent or plant) acting against *intestinal worms; for medicinal plants used see *anthelmintic. antih(a)emorrhagic – (an agent or plant) that stops bleeding or *h(a)emorrhage; for useful plants see *haemorrhage. antih(a)emorrhoid – (an agent or plant) acting against *h(a)emorrhoids; for useful plants see *haemorrhoid. antihormones – substances which counteract hormones, e.g. *antiestrogenic constituents in *soybean (Glycine soya) may check the growth of hormone-dependent cancers (Etkin 1996). antihysteric – (an agent or plant) that helps to stop *hysteria, which is functional disturbance of the nervous system. anti-inflammatory – which reduces *inflammation; for plants used see *inflammation. antileprous – effective against *leprosy, a chronic contaginous disease due to infection with the lepra basillus; leprosy is a disease that slowly eats away the body by causing silvery scales on the skin due to the infection with the lepra bacillus; it is sometimes treated by oil from the *chaulmoogra tree, Hydnocarpus kurzii (Flacourtiaceae); for other plants used to alleviate this disease see *leprosy. antimalarial – which kills or reduces the growth of the *malaria parasites, i.e. four species of *protozoa of the genus Plasmodium; alternative name: antiplasmodial; for medicinal plants see *malaria. antimicrobial – which destroys or inhibits micro-organisms, e.g. *cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), *licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) and *turmeric (Curcuma longa). antimitotic – which inhibits or prevent *mitosis, the process of cell division. antimony – a silvery-white metallic element (Sb); compounds are used in medicine, especially as an *antidote for *toxins as it causes *vomiting, but is itself poisonous; it was also used to treat certain tropical diseases and once sold as “James Fever Powder”. antineuralgic – (a drug or agent) which stops the intense intermittent pain, usually of head or face, caused by *neuralgia; for plants used to alleviate this condition see *neuralgia. antioxidant – a compound (usually organic in nature) that prevents or retards the oxidation by molecular oxygen of food and other materials; it acts by scavenging the free radicals generated in 30 autoxidation chain reactions, and thus provides an alternative oxidation pathway; plants which contain a lot of antioxidants are important medicinal plants increasing resistance to different diseases, e.g. *pomegranate (Punica granatum). antioxidant properties – the power of neutralizing harmful free radicals; numerous plants have such properties, e.g. *Canarium schweinfurthii (*African elemi, Burseraceae), Curcuma longa (*turmeric, Zingiberaceae) and *Punica granatum (*pomegranate, Punicaceae) and *Vangueria apiculata (Rubiaceae). antiphlogistic – which acts against *inflammation and *fever; for medicinal plants used see *inflammation. antiplasmodial – *antimalarial; which kills or reduces the growth of the *malaria parasites, i.e. four species of *protozoa of the genus Plasmodium; for medicinal plants see *malaria. antipruriginous – (a drug or agent) which acts against *prurigo, which is a chronic *inflammatory skin disease producing *eruptions and severe *itching. antipyretic – (a plant or drug) which reduces or prevent *fever; alternative names: *antifebrile & *febrifuge; for medicinal plants see *fever. antirabic – (an agent or drug) which prevents, alleviate or cures *rabies; plants used to treat this disease include Echinacea spp. (*purple coneflower or *echinacea, Asteraceae) and Scutellaria lateriflora (*mad dog or *Virginia skullcap, Lamiaceae). antiscorbutic – (an agent or drug) which corrects, alleviate or cures *scurvy; in temperate and cold regions the disease could be avoided by eating *scurvy-grass (Cochlearia officinalis, Brassicaceae), and in warmer regions (especially by sailors) by eating *oranges (Citrus × aurantium, Rutaceae); other plants which have been used to treat scurvy include *Brassica oleracea (*cabbage, *broccoli, *Brussels sprout, Brassicaceae), Eryngium maritimum (*sea holly, Apiaceae), *Punica granatum (*pomegranate, Punicaceae), Rosa spp. (*rose hips, Rosaceae) and Tsuga canadensis (*hemlock pine, Pinaceae); see also *scurvy. antisecretory – which reduces secretion from *secretory glands, e.g. *ginger (Zingiber officinale), *cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) and *turmeric (Curcuma longa). antiseptic – exceptionally clean; free from *germs and other microorganisms; which destroys or inhibits micro-organisms that cause infection, e.g. *cricetine in Crocus sativus (*saffron, Iridaceae), *eugenol in *clove (Syzygium aromaticum, Myrtaceae), *menthol in Mentha × piperita (*peppermint, Lamiaceae) and *thymol in Thymus vulgaris (*garden thyme, Lamiaceae); a large number of other plants are also antiseptic, e.g. *Agathosma betulina (*buchu, Rutaceae), Albizia spp. ( Fabaceae), *Allium sativum (*garlic, Alliaceae), Arbutus unedo (*strawberry tree), Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (*bearberry, Ericaceae), Apium graveolens (*celery, Apiaceae), *Artemisia vulgaris (*mugwort, Asteraceae), Babtisia tinctoria (*wild indigo, Fabaceae), Betula pendula (*silver birch, Betulaceae), Calendula officinalis (*marigold, Asteraceae), Canella winterana (*canella or *wild cinnamon, Canellaceae), Cedrus spp. (*cedar, Pinaceae), Cinnamomum camphora (*camphor, Lauraceae), Cochlearia officinalis (*scurvy grass, Brassicaceae), Copaifera officinalis (*copaiba, Fabaceae), *Citrus × limon (*lemon, Rutaceae), Commiphora myrrha (*myrrh, Burseraceae), Dendranthema hybrids (*florist’s chrysanthemums, Asteraceae), *Eucalyptus globulus & smithii (*eucalyptus, Myrtaceae), *Euphorbia balsamifera (Euphorbiaceae), Gaultheria procumbens (*wintergreen, Ericaceae), Gnaphalium (Filaginella) uliginosum (*marsh cudweed, Asteraceae), *Harungana madagascariensis (Clusiaceae or Hypericaceae), *Hoslundia opposite (Lamiaceae), Inula helenium (*elecampane, Asteraceae), *Juniperus communis (*juniper, Cupressaceae), Larix decidua (*larch, Pinaceae), Lavandula officinalis (*lavender, Malvaceae), Melaleuca alternifolia (*tea tree) & leucadendron (*cajaput) & linearifolia (*narrow-leaved paper bark tree) & viridiflora (*niaouli, Myrtaceae), *Mentha aquatica (*watermint) & × piperata (*peppermint) & spicata (*spearmint, Lamiaceae), *Microglossa pyrrhopappa (Asteraceae), Myroxylon pereira (*Peruvian balsam, Fabaceae), Myrtus communis (*myrtle, Myrtaceae), 31 Nigella sativa (*black cumin, Ranunculaceae), Nymphaea alba (*white water lily, Nymphaeaceae) & odorata (*white pond lily), Origanum vulgare (*wild marjoram, Lamiaceae), *Paspalum scrobiculatum (Poaceae), Peumus boldus (*boldo, Apiaceae), Pimenta dioica (*allspice, Myrtaceae), Pinus sylvestris (*Scots pine, Pinaceae), Piper angustifolia (*matica) & cubeba (*cubeb) & nigrum (*black and green pepper, Piperaceae), Pogostemon cablin (*patchouli or Jamaica pepper, Lamiaceae), Salvia officinalis (*sage, Lamiaceae), Sanguinaria canadensis (*blood root, Papaveraceae), Santalum album (*sandalwood, Santalaceae), Saussurea lappa (*kuth, Asteraceae), Schumanniophyton magnificum (Rubiaceae), Sphagnum spp. (*bog moss, Sphagnaceae; Bryophyta), Styrax benzoin (*benzoin gum, Styracaceae) & officinalis (*gum storax), *Tinospora caffra (Menispermaceae), Thymus serpyllum (*wild thyme) & vulgaris (*garden thyme, Lamiaceae), Tropaeolum majus (*nasturtium, Tropaeolaceae), Turnera diffusa (*damiana, Turneraceae), Tsuga canadensis (*hemlock spruce, Pinaceae), Vaccinium myrtillus (*bilberry or *blueberry, Ericaceae) and Zingiber officinalis (*ginger, Zingiberaceae). antispasmodic – (an agent or drug) which relieves muscle *spasm or the involuntary and irregular contractions of the body muscles. antisyphilitic – (an agent or drug) which alleviates or is a remedy for *syphilis; a large number of plants have been used in attempts to cure this disease, see *syphilis. antitussive – (an agent or drug) which soothes and relieves coughing. antiulcer – (an agent or drug) which arrests or reduces the growth of ulcers (open sores or lesions). antiviral – (an agent or drug) which kills or reduces the growth of viruses, e.g. Allium sativum (*garlic, Alliaceae), Citrus × limon (*lemon, Rutaceae), Echinacea spp. (*purple cone flower or *echinacea, Asteraceae), Hypericum perforatum (*St. John’s wort, Hypericaceae), Melissa officinalis (*balm, *bee balm or *lemon balm, Lamiaceae), Paeonia officinalis (*white peony, Paeoniaceae), Phyllanthus amarus (*phyllanthus, Phyllanthaceae), Piper guinense (*West African *black pepper, Piperaceae), anus – the opening at the lower end of the *alimentary canal. anxiety – uneasiness caused by danger or misfortune; a state of psychic tension found in most forms of mental disorder; the herbs *basil (Ocimum basilicum) and *lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) contain a volatile oil (*citral) that calm the central nervous system, and is thus useful in alleviating this condition. Aoranthe (*Rubiaceae) – a genus with 5 species of shrubs, lianes or small trees confined to Africa (1 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in Tanzania A. penduliflora is used as a *fever remedy (Kokwaro 1976). apathy – absence of emotions; lack of interest or concern. aperient – a mild *laxative; slightly *cathartic. Aphloia (*Flacourtiaceae or Aphloiaceae) – a genus with a single species (shrub or tree) native to eastern Africa and Madagascar (not in Uganda); in Tanzania a root *decoction of A. theiformis is drunk as an *anthelmintic (Kokwaro 1976). aphrodisiac – which stimulates sexual desire; which excites *libido and sexual activity; in East Africa a large number of species have been used as aphrodisiacs, e.g. *Abrus precatorius & schimperi (Fabaceae), *Acacia mellifera & nilotica (Fabaceae), *Acalypha villicaulis (Euphorbiaceae), *Aframomum angustifolium (Zingiberaceae), *Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (Styracaceae), *Afzelia quanzensis (Fabaceae), *Agelanthus longipes (Loranthaceae), *Albizia anthelmintica (Fabaceae), *Bersama abyssinica (Melianthaceae), *Bixa orellata (*annatto, Bixaceae), *Caesalpinia volkensii (Fabaceae), *Catunaregam spinosa (Rubiaceae), *Chlorophytum suffruticosum (Anthericaceae), *Cleome usambarica (Capparidaceae), *Coffea bukobensis & canephora (Rubiaceae), *Combretum constrictum & pentagonum & xanthothyrsum (Combretaceae), *Craterispermum schweinfurthii (Rubiaceae), *Crotalaria laburnifolia (Fabaceae), *Cryptolepis hypoglauca (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Cyperus 32 esculentus (*chufa, *tiger nut, *yellow nut sedge or *watergrass, Cyperaceae), *Dichrostachys cinerea (Fabaceae), *Diospyros kirkii (Ebenaceae), *Dombeya burgessiae & dawei (Sterculiaceae), *Dregia abyssinica & rubicunda (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Ehretia cymosa (Boraginaceae), *Entada stuhlmannii (Fabaceae), *Euadenia trifoliolata (Capparidaceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllanthaceae), *Funtumia africana (Apocynaceae), *Gardenia ternifolia var. jovis-tonanthes (Rubiaceae), *Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae), *Glyphaea brevis (Tiliaceae), *Gnidia microcephala (Thymelaeaceae), *Harungana madagascariensis (Clusiaceae), *Hibiscus fuscus (Malvaceae), *Kigelia africana (*sausage tree, Bignoniaceae), *Maerua triphylla (Capparidaceae), *Mallotus oppositifolius (Euphorbiaceae), *Marantochloa leucantha (Marantaceae), *Maytenus putterlickioides (Celastraceae), *Milletia lasiantha (Fabaceae), *Mondia whitei (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Morus mesozygia (Moraceae), *Mundulea sericea (Fabaceae), *Pachycarpus bisacculatus & lineolatus (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Parquetina nigrescens (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae), *Pavetta oliverana (Rubiaceae), *Peganum harmala (Zygophyllaceae), *Persea americana (*avocado pear, Lauraceae), *Pericopsis angolensis (Fabaceae), *Phyllanthus welwitschianum (Phyllanthaceae), *Piper umbellatum (Piperaceae), *Piptadeniastrum africanum (Fabaceae), *Platostoma africanum (Lamiaceae), *Polygala sphenoptera & paniculata (Polygalaceae), *Pristimera andongensis (Celastraceae), *Pseudarthria hookeri (Fabaceae), *Psychotria cyathicalyx & lauracea (Rubiaceae), *Rauvolfia vomitoria (*African snakeroot, Apocynaceae), *Stephania abyssinica (Menispermaceae), *Tragia furialis (Urticaceae), *Vernonia lasiopus (Asteraceae), *Xylocarpus granatum (Meliaceae) and *Xylotheca tettensis (Achariaceae); elsewhere other plants widely used as aphrodisiacs include Allium cepa (*onion, Alliaceae), Caesalpinia bonducella (*nikkar nut, Fabaceae), Cananga odorata (*ylang-ylang, Annonaceae), Coriander sativum (*ciliantro or *coriander, Apiaceae), Elettaria cardamomum (*cardamom, Zingiberaceae), Eleutherococcus senticosus (*Siberian ginseng), Gnaphalium (Filaginella) uliginosum (*marsh cudweed, Asteraceae), Hibiscus subdariffa (*roselle, Malvaceae), Myristica fragrans (*mace or *nutmeg tree, Myristicaceae), *Panax ginseng (*Asiatic ginseng or *ginseng) & notoginseng (*notoginseng or *san qui) & psudoginseng (*sanchi) & quinquefolia (*American ginseng, Araliaceae), Pausinystachya yohimbe (*yohimbe, Rubiaceae), Pogostemon cablin (*patchouli, Lamiaceae), Penianthus longifolius & zenkeri (Menispermaceae), Pfaffia paniculata (*Brazilian ginseng or *pfaffia, Amaranthaceae), Rhodiola (Sedum) rosea (*midsummer-men, Crassulaceae), Syzygium aromaticum (*clove, Myrtaceae) and Turnera diffusa (*damiana, Turneraceae). aphtha (pl.: aphthae) – an ulcer of the mucous *membrane, usually *oral. aphthous ulcer (oral) – shallow, painful erosion of the mouth; the fresh young leaves of Vitex fischeri are chewed and the juice swallowed to treat this condition (Adjanohoun 1993). Apiaceae – a family with about 420 genera and 3100 species of mostly perennial herbs, more rarely annual herbs, shrubs or small trees, most abundant in temperate regions (in East Africa 34 genera with 83 species, in Uganda 25 genera and 43 species); many genera contain species with medicinal value, e.g. *Agrocharis, *Alepidea, *Ammi (*visnaga), *Anethum (*dill), Angelica (*angelica, *bai zhi, *Chinese angelica), *Anthriscus (*chervil), *Apium (*celery, *smallage), Bupleurum (*hare’s ear root), *Centella (*Indian pennywort), Conium (*hemlock), Coriander (*coriander, *cilantro), Crithmum (*samphire, *sea fennel), *Daucus (carrot), Dorema (*ammoniacum), Eryngium (*sea holly, *erynco), *Ferula (*devil’s dung, galbanum), *Foeniculum (*fennel), *Heteromorpha, *Hydrocotyle, Imperatoria (*masterwort), *Lefebvria, Lomatium (*lomatium, *toza), *Oenanthe, *Petroselinum (*parsley), *Peucedanum, Peumus (*boldo), *Pimpinella (*anise), Sanicula (*sanicle) and *Steganotaenia. In East Africa the following genera are cultivated (all with some medicinal value): *Ammi (bishop’s weed), *Anethum (*dill), *Apium (*celery), *Daucus (*carrot), *Foeniculum (*fennel), *Petroselinum (*parsley), and *Pimpinella (*anise); in North Africa and more temperate regions other important medicinal 33 herbs are Angelica, Bupleurum, Anthriscus (*chervil), Carum (*caraway), Imperatoria (*masterwort), Levisticum (*lovage), Lomatium, Notopterygium and Peumus (*boldo). apigenin – a *flavonoid found in *common plantain, Plantago major (the plantain family, Plantaginaceae); it is *anti-inflammatory. apnoea – lack of breathing; no breathing. Apocynaceae – the periwinkle family; a family containing about 215 genera and 2100 species of trees, shrubs, lianes, herbs or succulents native to both hot and temperate countries, but most common in the tropics (31 genera and 79 native species in East Africa, 19 genera and 44 species in Uganda); many genera have species of medicinal value (but many are very toxic), e.g. *Acokanthera, *Adenium (*desert rose), *Alafia, *Baissea, *Carissa, *Catharanthus (Madagascar rosy periwinkle), *Funtumia, *Landolphia, *Nerium (*oleander), *Picralima, *Rauvolfia, *Saba, *Strophanthus, Tabernaemontana, *Tabernanthe, *Thevetia and *Vinca (*periwinkle); the previously recognized family *Asclepiadaceae is now included in Apocynaceae as subfamily Asclepiadoideae. Apodostigma (Celastraceae, earlier Hippocrateaceae) – a genus with a single species of robust liane native to tropical Africa and Madagascar; in Uganda the root of A. pallens var. dummeri is used to treat *asthenia weakness (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Apodytes (Icacinaceae) – a genus of about 15 species of trees or shrubs native to the Old World tropics (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Kenya a decoction of the bark of A. dimidiata is taken to treat *stomach troubles (Kokwaro 1976). apoplexy – stroke; a sudden loss of bodily function due to rupture or occlusion of a blood vessel in the brain; this condition, often arising through aging, may be avoided by regular use of *ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), a Chinese tree, which leaves are belived to maintain good circulation to the head and brain, improving memory, concentration and energy levels (Chevallier 2001). Aporrhiza (Sapindaceae) – a genus with about 6 tree species native to tropical Africa (1 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in coastal Kenya an infusion of the bark of A. paniculata is taken as a remedy for *tuberculosis, while a decoction of the roots is taken as a remedy for *gonorrhoea (Kokwaro 1976). appendicitis – inflammation of the *vermiform appendix, a small attachment to a certain segment of the intestine. apple1 – species of the genus Malus (Rosaceae); the cultivated forms of apple (Malus × domestica) are given commercial names like ’Cox’s Orange Pippin’, ’Golden Delicious’, ’Granny Smith’, ’Gravenstein’, ’James Grieve’ and ’White Transparent’; *crab apples (partly Malus sylvestris) are wild species and small fruited ornamental species. apple2 – in compound words ’apple’ is also used about many other genera from different families, e.g. African apple (Eugenia malaccensis, Myrtaceae), *akee apple (Blighia sapida, Sapindaceae), *alligator apple (Annona glabra, Annonaceae), balsam apple (Momordica balsamina, Cucurbitaceae), bell apple (Passiflora laurifolia, Passifloraceae), bush apple (Heinsia crinita, Rubiaceae), *custard apple (Annona reticulata and A. squamosa, Annonaceae), Dead Sea apple (Calotropis procera, Apocynaceae/Asclepiadoideae), *devil’s apple (Datura stramonium, Solanaceae), downy thorn apple (Datura innoxia, Solanaceae), elephant apple (Dillenia indica, Dilleniaceae), *golden apple (Aegle marmelos, Rutaceae), green *thorn apple (Datura stramonium, Solanaceae), hairy thorn apple (Datura innoxia, Solanaceae), Indian apple (Datura innoxia, Solanaceae), *love apple (Solanum aculeatissimum and Mandragora officinalis, Solanaceae), Malay apple (Eugenia/Syzygium malaccensis, Myrtaceae), monkey apple (Annona glabra, Annonaceae; Trichilia prieureana, Meliaceae; Anisophyllea laurina and A. meniaudi, Rhizophoracea), monkey star apple (Chrysophyllum perpulchrum, Sapotaceae), mummy apple (Carica papaya, Caricaceae), apple of Peru (Datura stramonium, Solanaceae), *otaheite apple (Spondias cythera, Anacardiaceae), *rose apple (Eugenia jambos, Myrtaceae), scaly custard apple (Annona squamosa, Annonaceae), serpent apple (Annona glabra, 34 Annonaceae), *Sodom apple (Calotropis procera, Apocynaceae/Asclepiadoideae and Solanum incanum), star apple (Chrysophyllum albidum, C. cainito and C. delevoyi, Sapotaceae), *sugar apple (Annona squamosa, Annonaceae), *thorn apple (Datura stramonium, Solanaceae), and wild custard apple (Annona chrysophylla and A. senegalensis, Annonaceae). apricot1 – some species of the genus Prunus (Rosaceae), e.g. black apricot (Prunus dasycarpa), common apricot (Prunus dulcis/armeniaca) and Japanese apricot (P. mume); *apricot vine is Passiflora incarnata (Passifloraceae). apricot2 – Prunus dulcis/armeniaca (the rose family, Rosaceae), a Chinese tree now widely cultivated in warm countries; the fruit is nutritious, *cleansing and mildly *laxative; a decoction of the astringent bark soothes inflamed and irritated skin; the seeds (which are toxic and contain cyan-ogenic glycoside which yields laetril and hydrocyanic acid) are prescribed in small amounts in Chinese tradition as a treatment for *asthma, *coughs, *wheezing, excessive *mucus production and *constipation; apricot seed paste helps combat *vaginal infection, and *laetril from the seeds has been used as a controversal treatment of *cancer; alternative name: common apricot. apricot vine – Passiflora incarnata (passion fruit family, Passifloraceae) is a tall American climbing vine with valuable *sedative and *tranquillizing properties; in Mexico it is taken for *epilepsy, *hysteria and *insomnia; this passion flower is a *painkiller and is given for *headaches and *perodic pain; it has been used to treat *asthma, high *blood pressure, muscle *cramps and *palpitations, but its major effect may be to reduce over-activity responsible for the disorders; alternative name: *maypop; see also *passiflora and *passion flower. Araceae – a family containing about 110 genera and 2500-3000 species of mostly perennial herbs and climbers (some aquatic) widely distributed in both warm and temperate countries, but with most species in the tropics (15 genera and 39 species in East Africa, 8 genera and 12 species native to Uganda); in Africa the following genera are of medicinal value: *Amorphophallus, *Culcasia, *Gonatopus, *Pistia and *Zamioculcas. Arachis (*Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus with 22 species native to South America, but *groundnut (also named *earthnut and *peanut; A. hypogaea) is widely cultivated for food in all tropical regions; in western Uganda A. hypogaea is used as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); A. hypogaea is also eaten to improve *sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005). aralia – species of the genera Aralia and Fatsia (Araliaceae); for medicinal use see *American spikenard (Aralia racemosa); false aralia er Dizygotheca elegantissima (Araliaceae). Araliaceae – a family containing about 57 genera and 800 species of trees, lianes and shrubs, rarely herbs native to both tropical and temperate regions (in East Africa 3 genera and 16 species; in Uganda 3 genera and 9 species); in Africa the genera *Cussonia, *Polyscias and *Schefflera are all of medicinal value; this family also includes the important temperate genera Eleutherococcus (*Siberian ginseng) and Panax (*ginseng). arbor-vitae1 – Thuja occidentalis (the juniper family, Cupressaceae) is a large North American tree; its leaves have been widely used as a medicine for *fever, *headaches, *coughs, swollen hands, *uterine *cancer and *rheumatic problems; arbor-vitae makes an effective *expectorant and *anti-catarrhal remedy, has *antiviral activity and is most often used to treat *respiratory infections, *warts and *polyps, alternative names: *American arbor-vitae or *white cedar. arbor-vitae2 – species of the genus Thuja (the juniper family, Cupressaceae), e.g. American arborvitae or white cedar (T. occidentalis), Chinese or oriental arbor-vitae (T. orientalis), giant or western arbor-vitae or western red cedar (T. plicata) and Japanese arbor-vitae (T. standishii); for medicinal use see arbor-vitae1. archangel – Lamium album (Lamiaceae); for medicinal use see *white deadnettle. archangelica – Angelica archangelica (Apiaceae); for medicinal use see *angelica. 35 arctic bramble – Rubus arcticus (Rosaceae) has edible fruits rich in *vitamin C and *antioxidants and thus important in building up a general defense for diseases. Arctotis (Asteraceae) – for medicinal use see *African daisy. Ardisiandra (Primulaceae) – a genus with 3 species of creeping herbs in African upland areas above 900 m (3 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Shambaa boil the leaves of A. sibthorpioides in water and drink the decoction for indigestion (Kokwaro 1976). Arecaceae (Palmae) – the palm family contains about 200 genera and 2650 species widely distributed in all tropical regions (but fewest species in Africa; 8 genera and 11 species native to East Africa, 6 genera and 6 species native to Uganda); many palms have edible fruits (e.g. *coconut palm: Cocos nucifera), oil (*oil palm: Elaeis guinensis) or pith (raffia palm: Raphia farinifera); some genera have species with medicinal value, e.g. *Cocus, *Elaeis (oil palm) and *Phoenix (date palm). Argemone (Papaveraceae) – a genus with 28 species of annual herbs (1 shrub) in America and Hawaii, but A. mexicana (*Mexican poppy; *prickly poppy) is widely distributed as a weed throughout the warm parts of the world; in Uganda the leaves and ripe fruits are used to treat *psychotic excitement (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in some East African towns the *toxic seeds are are ground and the powder added to beer to increase potency (Kokwaro 1976). Aristolochia (Aristolochiaceae) – a genus with about 300 species widely distributed throughout the world but most species native to the Americas; some species are cultivated as ornamental climbers, e.g. A. durior (in temperate countries), A. labiata and A. elegans (both in tropical countries); others are used as medicines (but are dangeous and should not be used), e.g. A. clematitis (*birthwort) has been used to ease *delivery; in East Africa the roots of A. albida (A. petersiana) is used as a remedy for *coughs and *sore throats, and used as an *antidote for *snakebite (Weiss 1979); in the Sudan A. bracteata is used to treat *scorpion bites; in Uganda A. elegans is used to treat *abdominal pain, *hernia, *malaria, *migraine, *insanity, *poisoning and *snakebite (Adjanohoun 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); see also: *birthwort, *Dutchman’s pipe and *Virginia snakeroot. Aristolochiaceae – a family containing 7-8 genera and about 500 species of climbers, shrubs and herbs native to tropical and warm regions, but most abundant in tropical America (in Uganda 2 genera and 2 native species, but other species are introduced); the genus Aristolochia has some species of medicinal value. Aristotle (384-322 BC) – Greek physician who has been regarded as the founder of European medicine; he had been influenced by Indian and Egyptian ideas; Aristotle developed and endorsed the ”*Theory of the four humours”; according to this theory, four principal fluids (or humours) exist within the body: blood, choler (yellow *bile), melancholy (black bile) and *phlegm; the ”ideal” person bore all four in equal proportions, but in most people one or more humours predominate, giving rise to particular temperaments or character. arjuna – Terminalia arjuna (Combretaceae) is an Indian tree, whose bark has been widely used as a *cardiac (heart) tonic for at least 3000 years; it reduces blood *cholesterol levels and help maintain a regular heart beat and improve blood supply to the heart (*angina); it is also used to treat *oedema. aromatic oil – essential oil with a strong and often pleasant odour; a large number of aromatic oils are known from different plants used as medicines, e.g. *thymol in *thyme (Thymus vulgaris). arnica – Arnica montana (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) has been used extensively in European folk medicine; it is an effective *ointment and compress for *bruises, *sprains and *muscle pain; it is *anti-inflammatory and improves the local blood supply accelerating healing; it is used internally for the treatment of *angina. arrowroot – Maranta arundinacea (Marantaceae) is cultivated for its edible starch rich rhizomes (mainly on the island St. Vincent in West India); as a medicine it is used to relieve acidity, 36 *indigestion and *colic, and is mildly *laxative; the Maya made the rhizome into a *poultice for *smallpox sores, and an infusion for *urinary infections; see *maranta starch. Artabotrys (Annonaceae) – a genus of about 100 species of scrambling or erect shrubs or small trees widely distributed in tropical Africa and Asia (9 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in coastal Kenya an infusion of the leaves of A. modestus is taken as a remedy for *nausea and *vomiting, while a decoction of the roots is taken to cure *diarrhoea and *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976). artabsin – a *sesquiterpene *lactone found in *absinthe (*wormwood), Artemisia absinthum; it is *insecticidal; see also *anabsinthin. Artemisia (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) – *mugwort, *southernwood, *tarragon, *wormwood; a genus of about 300 species mainly distributed in the northern temperate and warm regions (in East Africa and Uganda only 1 native species, viz. A. afra (*African wormwood); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the leaves of this plant to treat *diarrhoea and ”white tongue disease”, and also to treat sick calves (Heine & König 1988); in Tanzania the leaves of A. afra are chewed and the juice swallowed as an *emetic and a decoction of the roots drunk for *intestinal worms; the plant is also used for *indigestion, while a fermentation of the heated herb is given to children to cure *fever and *sore throat (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa A. annua (or its hybrid) is cultivated for use against malaria and other diseases; many species of the genus Artemisia are aromatic herbs or shrubs, and some are important medicinal plants widely used as stimulants and for expelling *intestinal worms and the *malaria parasite; important medicinal species are: A. abrotanum (*southernwood), A. absinthium (*wormwood), A. annua (*Chinese wormwood), A. capillaris (*liver wormwood), A. cina (*Levant wormwood), A. dracunculus (*tarragon), and A. vulgaris (*mugwort); in West Uganda A. annua is used to treat *cough (Adjanohoun et al. 1993) and *malaria. artemisin – a *sesquiterpene *lactone which is a powerful *antimalarial and it also reduces the risk of developing *malaria; it is relatively free from side-effects; it is extracted from *Chinese wormwood (Artemisia annua). arteriosclerosis – an *arterial disease characterised by hardening and thickening of the vessel walls decreasing blood flow; certain plants increase *cerebral blood flow in patients with *arteriosclerosis and will thus ease their conditions, e.g. *Chinese ginseng, Panax notoginseng (the ivy family, Araliaceae) and *ge gen, Pueraria lobata (the pea family, Fabaceae). arthralgia – pain in the joints; for medicinal useful plants see *arthritis. arthritis – *gout; *inflammation of a joint; *paroxysmal disease with painful *inflammation of smaller joints due to excessive *uric acid in the blood and formation of chalk-stones; many plants contain substances which are efficient in reducing *rheumatic pain, e.g. *salicin, which is extracted from species of the genera *Salix (the willow family, Saliceae) and Filipendula (the rose family, Rosaceae); other plants sometimes used to treat arthritis are: Aegopodium podograria (*goutweed or *bishop’s weed, Apiaceae), Agrimonia eupatoria (*agrimony, Rosaceae), Ajuga chamaepitus (*ground-pine, Lamiaceae), Alpinia officinarum (*galangal, Zingiberaceae), Apium graveolens (*celery, Apiaceae), Arctium lappa (*burdock, Asteraceae), Bambusa arundinacea (*spiny bamboo, Poaceae), Betula pendula (*silver birch, Betulaceae), Boswellia serrata (*Indian olibanum or *sallaki, Burseraceae), Caesalpinia bonducella (*nikkar nut, Fabaceae), *Capsicum frutescens (*cayenne or *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), *Cardiospermum sp. (*balloon vine, Sapindaceae), Carica papaya (*pawpaw, Caricaceae), *Centella asiatica (*Indian pennywort, Apiaceae), Cichorium intybus (*chicory, Asteraceae), Cimifuga racemosa (*black cohosh, Ranunculaceae), Colchicum autumnale (*autumn crocus or *meadow saffron, Colchicaceae), *Dioscorea dumetorum & villosa (*yam, Dioscoreaceae), Erythronium americanum (*adder’s tongue, Liliaceae), *Euclea divinorum (Ebenaceae), Eupatorium perfoliatum (*boneset, Asteraceae) & teucrifolium (*wild horehound), *Gloriosa superba (*glory lily, Colchicaceae), Glycyrrhiza glabra (*liquorice, Fabaceae), Guaiacum officinale & 37 sanctum (*lignum vitae, Zingiberaceae), Harpagophytum procumbens (*devl’s claw, Pedaliaceae), Iberis amara (*candytuft or *wild candytuft, Brassicaceae), Jatropha curcas (*fig nut, *physics nut or *purging nut, Euphorbiaceae), *Juniperus communis (*juniper, Cupressaceae), Menyanthes trifoliata (*bog bean or buckbean, Menyanthaceae), Ononis spinosa (*spiny restharrow, Fabaceae), Petroselinum crispum (*parsley, Apiaceae), Pinus sylvestris (*Scots pine, Pinaceae), Prunus avium (*cherry, *sweet cherry or *wild cherry, Rosaceae), *Rumex crispus (*curled dock, *yellow dock or *sour dock, Polygonaceae), Schinus molle (*American mastic tree, *Californian pepper tree or *pepper tree, Anacardiaceae), Smilax spp. (*sarsaparilla, Smilacaceae), Taraxacum officinale (*dandelion, Asteraceae), Teucrium chamaedrys (*wall germander, Lamiaceae) & scorodonia (*wood sage), Tylophora asmatica (*asmatica, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Urtica dioica (*common nettle, Urticaceae), Viburnum opulus (*guilder rose, Caprifoliaceae), Widdringtonia cupressoides (*African cupress, Cupressaceae), *Withania somnifera (*Indian ginseng, Solanaceae), Zanthoxylum americanum (*prickly ash or *toothache tree) & clavaherculus (*Southern prickly ash, Rutaceae) and *Zea mays (*cornsilk of *maize, Poaceae). artichoke – Cynara scolymus (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), has edible young inflorescences (capitula); it is a valuable medicinal plant protecting the liver against *toxins and *infections; all parts of the plant are bitter and stimulate *digestive secretion, especially bile; this makes artichoke useful for the treatment of *gallbladder problems, *nausea and *indigestion; it also lowers *blood sugar and *cholesterol levels; it is thus also useful for late-onset *diabetes; alternative names: *globe artichoke og French artichoke; see also *Japanese artichoke (Stachys sieboldii) and *Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus). Artocarpus (the fig family, Moraceae) – a genus of 31 tree species native to the Indo-Malesian region, but some species widely cultivated elsewhere; in Uganda the roots of the frequently cultivated A. heterophyllus are used to treat *impotence in man (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). arum family – *Araceae is a large family with about 110 genera and 2000 species widely distributed in all tropical and warm regions of the world; for medicinal use see *Araceae. Lemnaceae is often included in Araceae. asafoetida – Ferula assa-foetida (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is an important Indian and Midle East medicinal plant; it is used for simple *digestive problems such as *wind, *bloating, *indigestion and *constipation; it has a volatile oil, like that of *garlic, aid the *coughing up of congested *mucus; it is taken for *bronchitis, *bronchial asthma, *whooping cough and other *chest problems; it also lowers *blood pressure and thins the blood; alternative name: *devils dung. ascariasis – the state of being infested with *roundworms (*ascaris); for plants used to alleviate this condition see *anthelmintic and *roundworms. ascaris – roundworms; for plants used to expel ascaris see *anthelmintic and *roundworms. ascites – abdominal *dropsy. Asclepiadoideae – a subfamily of Apocynaceae containing about 350 genera and 2850 species of shrubs, lianes, herbs or succulents native to both hot and temperate countries, but most common in the tropics and South Africa; many genera have species of medicinal value (many are very toxic), e.g. *Calotropis, *Caralluma, *Ceropegia, *Cryptolepis, *Dregea, *Ectadiopsis, *Gomphocarpus, *Huernia, *Mondia, *Pachycarpus, *Parquetina, *Pentarrhinum, *Pergularia, *Pleurostelma, *Sarcostemma, *Secamone, *Stapelia, *Stathmostelma, *Stigmatorhynchus and *Tacazzea. Asclepias (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) – a genus with many species in the Americas; African species previously classified in this genus are now transferred to other genera. ascorbic acid – *vitamin C, a water-soluble acid found especially in fruits and vegetables; very high amounts are found in rose hips (Rosa) and pomegranate (Punica granatum); a deficiancy of ascorbic acid in humans causes *scurvy; in some plants ascorbic acid plays an important part in aerobic respiration, replacing *cytochromes as electron carrier. 38 aseptic – free from contamination by *bacteria, *viruses or other micro-organisms that may cause *infection. 1 ash (tree) –Fraxinus excelsior (Oleaceae), was the tree of life (Yggdrasil) in Norse mythology, with its roots spreading to the domain of the gods, and the branches extending to the remotest corners of the universe; in Norse myth the first man was carved from a piece of ash wood; ash bark and leaves are *astringent, and the leaves have a mild *laxative and *diuretic effect; although extensively used as a medicinal herb for limited periods, it is not much used today; alternative names: common ash and European ash. 2 ash (tree) – in compound words other species of the genus Fraxinus, e.g. *American (white) ash (F. americana; also named Canadian ash), black ash (F. nigra), flowering ash (F. ornus; also named *manna ash), green ash (F. pennsylvanica), Japanese ash (F. mandschurica), Mexican ash (F. pennsylvanica), Oregon ash (F. latifolia), red ash (F. pubescens), water ash (F. caroliniana) and white ash (used for several species, e.g. F. americana, F. nigra and F. pennsylvanica). See also *mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia). ash gourd – Benincasa hispida (Cucurbitaceae) is cultivated as a vegetable and medicinal plant in Asia; for medicinal use see *wax gourd. ashweed – Aegopodium podograria (Apiaceae); for medicinal use see *herb Gerard; other alternative names: *bishop’s weed, *goutweed, *ground elder. Asian plantain – Plantago asiatica (Plantaginaceae) is used in Chinese medicine as a *diuretic and to counter (bronchial) *catarrh. Asiatic ginseng – Panax ginseng (the ivy family, Araliaceae) is a perennial East Asian herb, which root has been used as a medicine for at least 7000 years; it is particularly useful to improve *stamina and resistance to cold, fatique and *stress (both mental stress such as taking exams and physical stress for athletes), and as a life-enhancing *tonic; it is widely used as a male *aphrodisiac to alleviate *impotence and premature *ejaculation; Asiatic ginseng increases *immune function and resistance to *infection and improves *liver function; alternative name: *ginseng. asmatica – Tylophora asmatica (Asclepiadoideae-Apocynaceae) is an Indian twiner widely used as a specific remedy for *asthma as it may relieve symptoms for up to 3 months; it also relieves *fever, and is prescribed for acute *allergic problems such as *eczema and *nettle rash; it has also been used to relieve *rheumatoid *arthritis. Asparagaceae – a family with 2 genera and about 140 species of perennial herbs or shrubs widespread in tropical and warm countries of the old world (most species in Africa); some species of the genus Asparagus are used as medicine. Asparagus (Asparagaceae) – a genus with about 50 species of perennial herbs or shrub-like plants widely distributed in the old world, but the genus is now often split into smaller genera (see *Protoasparagus); A. africanus is a widespread thorny African savanna plant which is toxic and used as arrow poison and taken in traditional medicine for *bilharzia, *mental illness, pain and *venereal diseases like *gonorrhoea and *syphilis, and in East Africa also to cure *bubonic plague, *coughs, *sore throat and *wounds, and taken by women in *parturition (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves and fruits are used to treat *measles, and the fruit for sex determination of the *foetus (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Central Uganda the Baganda drink a root infusion of this plant to facilitate *childbirth (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in Apac district in Uganda the fruit of this species is used to treat *eye problems (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Tanzania the roots of A. buchananii are pounded and mixed with water and drunk to treat *bilharzia; in East Africa a decoction of the root tubers of A. falcatus is taken as a remedy for *gonorrhoea and used as an *anthelmintic and to cure *hernia in children, while the roots of A. flagellaris are dried and pounded into a fine powder which is applied to *wounds; in West Uganda A. flagellaris is taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamate-nesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); A. officinalis (*garden asparagus) is widely 39 cultivated as a vegetable, but is also medicinal (see *asparagus); in East Uganda A. racemosus has been used to treat *burns, *hydrocele in children, *kwashiorkor and *migraine (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), and in West Uganda it is used for *scabies (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in East Africa a root decoction of A. racemosus is also drunk for *indigestion and for *gonorrhoea, while the pounded fruits and leaves of A. setaceus are soaked in water and the infusion drunk for the treatment of *coughs and *pneumonia, and a root decoction is used to treat *bilharzia (Kokwaro 1976). asparagus – Asparagus officinalis (the asparagus family, Asparagaceae) is widely cultivated for its edible young shoots; it is a strong diuretic useful to improve urine flow and to treat *kidney problems, *jaundice and *sciatica; it reduces *rheumatic pain by helping to remove waste products accumulated in the joints; it is also a *bitter, mildly *laxative and *sedative; alternative names: common aparagus and *garden asparagus; for medicinal usage of related species see *Asparagus. asparagine –amino acid with polar (hydrofil) neutral R group. aspen – Populus tremula (Salicaceae) is a widespread tree in the northern temperate regions, but in North America it is replaced by the very closely related *American (or Canadian) aspen, P. tremuloides; for medicinal use see *quaking aspen. aspergillosis – any human or animal disease caused by fungi of the genus Aspergillus (an anamorph fungus); in humans most often as a lung infection which may lead to *pneumonia. asphyxiation – suffocation. Aspilia (Asteraceae) – a genus with about 60 species of herbs (rarely shrubs) native to Africa and the Americas (21 species in tropical Africa; 6 species in East Africa, 5 species in Uganda); many species contain *thiarubrine, which is *antibacterial and expels *intestinal parasites, and is much eaten by sick chimpanzees as well as by people; the three species A. africana, A. mossambicensis and A. pluriseta are very similar, and usually have the same local names and are used for the same diseases; in Uganda the tops of A. africana are used to treat *inguinal *hernia (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), in East Uganda powder of A. kotschyi is applied to *wounds, while the sap is dropped into nostrils to alleviate *migraine (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in East Africa a decoction of the root of A. mossambicensis is drunk as a remedy for *cystitis, *gonorrhoea, and to increase *milk production in women, while a pounded leaf decoction is drunk to expel *intestinal worms; pounded leaves are applied on cut fresh *wounds, and rubbed on parts of the skin affected by *ringworm; a hot or cold juice from the plant is taken for *abdominal pain; a decoction of the bark is drunk for the treatment of *backache; the plant also has magical properties such as finding game or having luck in war (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the tops of A. mossambicensis are used to treat *inguinal *hernia (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe crushed the leaves of A. mossambicensis and squeezed the juice onto cuts and *wounds (Masinde 1996); in East Africa the sand paper like leaves of A. pluriseta are used by herbalists to cut the eye rash of *trachoma infected patients (A. mossambicensis is used in the same way); pounded leaves are applied on skin diseases or put on cut wounds (Kokwaro 1976), and also used like A. mossambicensis for other diseases (including expelling *intestinal worms); in central Uganda the root of A. pluriseta is taken for *malaria (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), and in West Uganda the leaves are used in dental care (Kakudidi et al. 2000). aspirin – an originally commercial name for *acetylsalicylic acid (from the company Fredrich Bayer & Co.); it was extracted from the genera Salix and Populus (the willow family, Saliceae) and *meadowsweet, Filipendula ulmaria (the rose family, Rosaceae); aspirin is used for its *feverreducing, *pain-relieving and *anti-inflammatory properties and particularly for *headache, *arthritis and *rheumatic pains (*analgesic); aspirin is the most used of all medicines; every day more than 100 tons are consumed. Asplenium (Aspleniaceae - Pteridophyta) – a genus of about 650 species of ferns widely distributed in both tropical and temperate regions of both hemispheres; in East Africa the crushed leaves of 40 A. loxoscaphoides are soaked in water and the *infusion used as a gargle for the treatment of *sore throat (Kokwaro 1976). astasia-abasia – inability to stand or walk, although the legs are otherwise under control. Asteraceae – the largest of all plant families with about 1315 genera and 21000 species of herbs, shrubs, trees and also some aquatics and succulents (in East Africa 137 genera and 800 species; in Uganda 41 genera and 355 species); a large number of genera contain medicinal herbs, e.g. *Acmella, *Ageratum, *Ambrosia, *Artemisia, *Aspilia, *Berkheya, *Bidens, *Blumea, *Bothriocline, *Carduus, Chamomilla (*German chamomille), *Chrysanthellum, Cichorium (*chicory), *Conyza, *Crassocephalum, Dendranthema (*wild chrysanthemum), *Dichrocephala, *Echinops, *Emilia, *Galinsoga, *Guizotia, *Helichrysum, *Lactuca, *Microglossa, *Schkuhria, *Senecio, *Sigesbeckia, *Sonchus, *Silybium (*Mary thistle), *Solanecio, *Synedrella, *Tagetes, *Tanacetum (*tansy), *Tithonia and *Vernonia. asthenia (malaise) – weakness; lack or loss of energy; in East Africa many different plants have been used to treat asthenia (Kokwaro 1976, Adjanohoun et al. 1993), e.g. *Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae), *Apodostigma pallens var. dummeri (Celstraceae), *Chenopodium opulifolium (*Chenopodiaceae), *Cissampelos mucronata (Menispermaceae), *Desmodium gangeticum (Fabaceae), *Hibiscus acetosella & sabdariffa (*roselle, Malvaceae), *Jasminium dichotomum (Oleaceae), *Myrica kanthiana (Myricaceae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae), *Polygala sadebeckiana (Polygalaceae), *Senna septentrionalis (Fabaceae) and *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae). asthma – a condition resulting in breathing difficulty and shortness of breath (often with whistling sounds) usually prompted by an allergic reaction to pollen, dust, animals or foods. Plants used to remedy this condition include *asthma herb (Euphorbia hirta), *Baikal skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis), cramp bark (Viburnum opulus), *German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita), *gumplant (Grindelia camporum), *lobelia (Lobelia inflata), *nettle (Urtica dioica), *purple coneflower (Echinacea angustifolia og E. purpurea) and *thyme (Thymus vulgaris). asthma plant/weed – Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae) is a troublesome weed in many countries, but is in Asia much used to treat *asthma (*bronchial asthma and other *respiratory tract conditions); it is mildly *sedative and *expectorant, and is most often taken along with other *anti-asthmatic herbs such as *gumplant (Grindelia camporum) and *lobelia (Lobelia inflata); alternative name: *garden spurge, *hairy spurge and *pill-bearing spurge. Astragalus (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of some 2000 species of herbs or subshrubs widely distributed in warm and dry regions, and most common i western Asia (only 1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Kenya a decoction of the roots of A. atropilosulus is added to hot milk and given to women with *uterine pains after childbirth (Kokwaro 1976). astringent – (an agent or drug) which tightens *mucous membranes and skin reducing secretions and capillary *bleeding from *abrasions; (about taste) so bitter that mucous membranes in the mouth tighten; for useful astringent herbs see *bleeding. Astripomoea (Convolvulaceae) – a genus with 12 species of annual or perennial herbs confined to Africa (10 spcies in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in North Uganda the Acholi give an infusion of the roots of A. malvacea to infants to treat *constipation (Kokwaro 1976); in Apac district in Uganda the roots of this species are used to treat *dysmenorrhoea (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in West Uganda the leaves of A. grantii are eaten or inserted in vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005). Asystasia (Acanthaceae) – a genus with about 70 species of annual or perennial herbs in the old world tropics; A. gangetica is now a pantropical weed; in Uganda the whole plant is used to treat *splenomegaly, and the leaves taken for *antenatal care and *whitlow (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), while in Kenya a decoction of the leaves is taken as a cure for *intestinal worms (Kokwaro 1976); A. schimperi is also weedy but is in East Uganda used as a medicine, viz. the roots are chewed to treat *snakebite, a poultice of the leaves is used to treat *dermatitis and a tea with 41 powdered leaves is drunk to expel *intestinal worms; the herb has also been used to prevent *miscarriage and ease *inflammation in finger or toe (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Kenya the Luo has used the leaves of A. schimperi to treat false teeth; the Maragoli make a drink from crushed leaves of A. somalensis, which they give to children who suffer from *cold or *headache (Kokwaro 1976). ataxia – a loss of the power of muscular co-ordination. Atharva Veda – a more than 3000 years old Sanskrit text including medical knowledge and forming the base for the *Ayurvedic medical tradition; see also *Rig Veda. athlete’s foot – a fungal infection of the skin of the foot causing itching and pain; in West Uganda the flowers of Acacia hockii (*white thorn acacia) are taken to treat *athlete’s foot (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in America *blood root (Sanguinaria canadensis) is used to treat this fungal infection. atony – insufficient muscular *tone. atropine – toxic *alkaloid with important medicinal function; atropine stimulates the heart, widens the pupils and is an *antidote for organic phosphate poisoning; atropine is found in e.g. *belladonna (Atropa belladonna). aubergine – Solanum melongena (Solanaceae) is native to tropical Asia, but is now widely cultivated as a vegetable fruit in all continents; aubergine fruits lower blood *cholesterol levels, can regulate high *blood pressure, and are effective *diuretics; aubergine leaves have been used for making a soothing, *emollient *poultice for the treatment of *abscesses, *burns and *cold sores. aucubin – an iridoid found in e.g. *common plantain, Plantago major (the plantain family, Plantaginaceae); it increases *uric acid excretion by the *kidneys. autopsy – post-mortem examination. autonomic nervous system – part of the nervous system responsible for the control of bodily functions that are not consciously directed, such as beating of the heart, sweating, etc. autumn crocus – Colchicum autumnale (Colchicaceae) is an attractive Mediterranean herb; it contains the very toxic* alkaloid *colchicine, which is widely used in the laboratory to create new plants with double chromosome numbers; colchicine is anti-inflammatory and has been used in conventional medicine for acute *gout pain and *laekaemia; it has also been used with some success to treat *Behcet’s syndrome; alternative name: *meadow saffron. avens – Geum urbanum (Rosaceae), is a common European herb in forest, and occasionally occurring as a weed in gardens; it is an *astringent herb used chiefly for problems affecting the mouth, throat, and *gastro-intestinal tract; it tightens up soft gums, heals mouth *ulcers, makes a good gargle for *infection of the *pharynx and *larynx, and reduces irritation of the stomach and gut; it is also reputed to have a mild *quinine-type action in lowering *fever; alternative names: common avens and wood avens. Avicenna (980-1037) – a Persian philosopher and statesman who wrote a voluminous work names “Canon of Medicine” based on Greek writings and his own observations; book 2 of the Canon contains Avicenna’s pharmacology of herbs. avocado (pear) – *Persea americana (Lauraceae) from Central America is a beautiful evergreen tree today widely cultivated in tropical and warm countries for its edible extremely nutritious fruit (*drupe) rich in oils, vitamins A, B og E, but it is also a very important medicinal plant; the *rind is used as a remedy to expel worms; the fruit pulp is used as baby food and is supposed to have *aphrodisiac properties, and used externally the pulp is cooling and soothing to the skin and wounds – and it is also believed to stimulate hair growth; the seed is used to treat *diarrhoea; alternative name: *alligator pear; Mexican avocado is P. drymifolia, and has been used in a similar way. avokado (pear) – see avocado (pear), *Persea americana (Lauraceae). ayahuasca – Banisteriopsis caapi (Malpighiaceae) from the Amazon jungle is a woody climber with a bark widely used as a *hallucinogen by local people and particularly their healers (ayahuasca means ’spirit of the dead’); the plant contains betacarboline *alkaloids which stimulates 42 hallucinations; the bark is also *emetic and *purgative, and in low doses it is a mild *detoxifier – but medicinal use of the plant is not recommended. Ayurveda – a traditional Indian system of medicine; it involves both science, religion and philosophy. An Indian scholar, Charaka, described 350 Indian plants as valuable medicines about 2700 years ago. Ayurveda medicines include such plants as garlic (Allium sativum), cloves (Eugenia caryophyllata), holy basil (Ocimum sanctum) and turmeric (Curcuma longa). Azadirachta (Meliaceae) – a genus with 2 species of trees native to the Indo-Malesian region, but widely cultivated in other tropical regions; Azadirachta indica is an *insecticidal with *antimalarial activity; *neem oil from seeds is both *anti-inflammatory, *antifungal, *antiviral and *anti-bacterial and promotes *wound healing, preventing scabies and ringworm; it somewhat reduces *fever and lowers *blood sugar levels; the oil is also used to treat *headlice; the sap of the tree as well as the oil has been used to treat skin conditions like *eczema, *psoriasis and *leprosy; the leaves are used to treat *skin rashes; it is a potential *contraceptive for both men and women; in East Uganda it is used to ease *cough and reduce *fever (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion), and in West Uganda the seeds are used for almost any disease (Kakudidi et al. 2000); alternative names: *margosa tree and *neem. Azanza (Malvaceae) – a genus now transferred to the genus Thespesia. azarole – Crataegus azarolus (Rosaceae) is a South European hawthorn, which fruit is used for jam; since it is rich in *vitamin C and a useful *antioxidant it will improve general health. Azima (Salvadoraceae) – a genus with 3-4 species of spiny shrubs native to the Old World tropics (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa the pounded roots are used to cure snake-bite by rubbing the pounded material on the wound and drink the remainder (Kokwaro 1976). azulenes – a group of substances ; they are *anti-inflammatory and are found in the medicinal plant *absinthe, Artemisia absinthum (the sunflower family, Asteraceae). babul – Acacia arabica (Fabaceae: Mimosoideae) is a tree with a strongly *astringent bark which is used to contract and toughen *mucous membranes, e.g. a lotion for treating *bleeding gums, a gargle for easing the irritation of *sore throats, a wash for *eczema, an eyewash for *conjunctivitis and other *eye problems, and a douche for excessive *vaginal discharge; the leaves, flowers and pods have been used to expel *worms, heal *wounds and alleviate *diarrhoea; in Indian medicine it is taken to treat premature *ejaculation. bacillus – a bacterial cell that is rod-shaped (longer than wide). backache – pain in the back; the following plants have been taken to alleviate this condition: *Aspilia mossambicensis (Asteraceae), *Cardiospermum spp. (*balloon vine, Sapindaceae), *Coffea canephora (*coffee, Rubiaceae), *Flueggea (*Securinega) virosa (Phyllanthaceae), *Ocotea usambarensis (Lauraceae), *Pseudarthria hookeri (Fabaceae), *Rothmannia longiflora (Rubiaceae), *Sarcocephalus latifolius (Rubiaceae), *Senna didymobotrya (Fabaceae), *Sida schimperiana (Malvaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae) & tuberosum (*potato), *Synadenium glaucescens (Euphorbiaceae), *Thunbergia alata (Acanthaceae) and *Vitex doniana (Verbenaceae). Bacoba (Orobanchaceae; or earlier Scrophulariaceae) – a genus with about 100 species of annual herbs in tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world; in coastal Kenya the crushed-up leaves of B. crenata is given to children for *stomach-ache, or poured over the head to relieve *headache, or spat into the eyes as a remedy for *ophthalmia; a decoction from the leaves is used as a wash for a baby whose *umbilical cord has not healed properly (Kokwaro 1976). bacillary – caused by bacteria, e.g. bacillary *dysentery, which is sometimes treated by *common purslane (Portulaca oleracea). bacteria – see *bacterium. bacterial – which has to do with a *bacterium or caused by a bacterium, e.g. *bacterial disease. bacteriostatic – (a drug or plant) that inhibits the growth and reproduction of *bacteria. 43 bacterium (pl.: bacteria) – a single bacterial cell or a particular *prokaryotic organism. bael (fruit) – Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae) is a holy tree for Hindus and is commonly planted near temples; the half-ripe bael fruits reduces irritation in the *digestive tract and is much used for *diarrhoea and *dysentery; the ripe fruit is *demulent and *laxative, and it eases *stomach pain, the leaves are taken to treat *peptic ulcers; alternative name: *Bengal quince og golden *apple. Baical skullcap – Scutellaria baicalensis (Lamiaceae) has been an important Chinese medicine for about 2000 years; it is widely used for ”hot and damp” conditions, such as *dysentery and *diarrhoea; the plant is *anti-allergenic, *antibacterial *anti-inflammatory and *sedative; it is used for *asthma, hay *fever (*allergic *rhinitis), *eczema, *nettle rash, *bronchitis, *chronic *hepatitis, high *blood pressure and *diabetes. bai zhi – Angelica dahurica (Apiaceae) is known as a sweat-inducing herb in East Asia for 2000 years; it is belived to counter harmful external influences on the skin, e.g. cold, heat, dampness and dryness; it is used for aching eyes, *headaches, *nasal congestions, *toothache and *sores, *boils and *ulcers affecting the skin; alternative name: *Amurian angelica. bai zhu – Atractylodes macrocephala (Asteraceae) is cultivated as a medicinal herb in East Asia as it is uncommon in the wild; it has been used for at least 1500 years to treat *syphilis, *digestive problems (*diarrhoea and *vomiting), excessive sweating and to strengthen the *spleen. ba ji tian – Morinda officinalis (Rubiaceae) is a Chinese plant used for 2000 years to strengthen the *kidneys and to treat irregular *menstrual cycle, *impotence and premature *ejaculation in men, *infertiliy in both men and women and other hormonially linked conditions; it is also used to treat *incontinence and pain in the lower back region. Balanitaceae – a family of 1 genus and 9 species of trees and shrubs native to tropical regions of Africa extending to India and Burma, but with most of the species in tropical Africa only (6 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); Balanites aegyptiaca is widely used as a medicinal plant; for medicinal use see *Balanites. Balanites (Balanitaceae) – a genus of 25 species of trees or shrubs native to Africa and southern Asia (6 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); B. aegyptiaca is toxic and the bark and fruit has been widely used as a fish and arrow poison; fruit, roots and stem bark is taken as a strong *purgative and *anthelmintic used for *colic, *diarrhoea, *intestinal worms and *venereal diseases; the leaves are used on *wounds, and the gum softened in water is applied to inflamed eyes (Neuwinger 1996); in East Africa roots of B. aegyptica are used to treat *abdominal pain, and as a *purgative and *anthelmintic, and molten gum from the wood is mixed with maize meal porridge and eaten to treat *chest complaints (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda the roots are used to treat *measles and *uterine fibroids (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the bark of B. aegyptiaca as an *emetic and *laxative and to treat *diarrhoea, while the gum is used to treat *eye diseases both in humans and cattle (Heine & König 1988); in Kenya the Luo has used B. aegyptiaca to treat *chestpain, *cough and *diarrhoea (Geissler et al. 2002); in Mali the root of B. aegyptiaca is used to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); the So in Karamoja use the liquid of the leaves of B. rotundifolia to treat *eye pains in cattle (Heine & König 1988). Balanophoraceae – a family of 18 genera and 44 species of root parasites native to tropical and warm regions (in East Africa 2 genera and 2 species, in Uganda 1 genus and 1 species); some genera have species of medicinal value, e.g. *Thonningia in tropical Africa. baldness – lacking hair on the scalp; extracts of leaves and root of Ceylon leadwort, Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae) is used to treat baldness. balloon vine – species of the genus Cardiospermum (Sapindaceae) are *sedative; in Indian medicine the root is used to relieve *arthritis, *backache and to bring on delayed *menstruation; the leaves stimulate local *circulation and are applied to painful *joints. balm1 – Melissa officinalis (Lamiaceae) is a Mediterranean scented medicinal herb containing *flavonoids, *polyphenols, *tannins, *triterpenes and volatile oil (caryophyllene oxide, *citral, 44 *citronellal and linalool); the polyphenols are *antiviral and e.g. combat the *herpes simplex virus, which produces cold *sores; the volatile oil is strongly *antispasmodic and calm the *central nervous system and is thus a medicine for *anxiety and *depression; it can be used as a modern relaxing *tonic when over-anxiety cause *digestive problems such as acidity, *bloating, *colic, *indigestion and *nausea; it also inhibits *thyroid function and is given to people with an over-active thyroid; alternative names: *bee balm and *lemon balm. balm2 – in compound words about species from different genera and families, e.g. *balm-of-Gilead (see below), balm-of-Gilead fir (Abies balsamea, Pinaceae), bastard balm (Melittis melissophyllum, Lamiaceae), bee balm and bergamot (Monarda didyma, Lamiaceae), field balm (Glechoma hederacea, Lamiaceae), fragrant balm (Monarda didyma) horse balm (Collinsonia canadensis, Lamiaceae) and Molucca balm (Moluccella laevis, Lamiaceae). balm-of-Gilead1 – Commiphora gileadensis (Burseraceae) is a plant native to North Africa and Arabia; it is the original biblical source of ”balm of Gilead” and is used both as medicine and for incense; alternative name: Mecca myrrh. balm-of-Gilead2 – Liquidambar orientalis (Hamamelidaceae) is an attractive tree from Turkey and neighbouring islands; from its bark is obtained a balsam that has been much used medicinally and as a fixative for perfumes; the balsam acts as both an irritant and an *expectorant within the respiratory tract; it is applied externally to heal *skin diseases such as *scabies, *wounds and *ulcers; alternative name: *Levant storax. balm-of-Gilead3 (Am) – Populus balsamifera and P. × candicans (Salicaceae) is widely grown as ornamental trees; the buds and stem bark have significant *expectorant, *antibacterial, *antifungal and *anti-inflammatory properties; these plants have been taken for thousands of years to soothe *inflamed or irritated skin, *sore throats, dry irritable *coughs and *bronchitis; it is a common ingredient of cough mixtures and applied externally it may help relieve the pain of *rheumatic joints and *strained muscles. balm-of-Gilead4 – Cedronella canariensis (Lamiaceae) is a small shrub native to Macaronesia; it is used for tea and locally as medicine and for incense. balm-of-Gilead5 (fir) – balsamgran, Abies balsamea (Pinaceae) is a North American forest tree containing a resin named *Canada balsam; Canada balsam has been widely used by native Americans for *colds and *chest problems such as *bronchitis, and it was also smeared on *burns, *cuts and *sores; alternative name: *balsam fir. balmony (USA) – Chelone glabra (Scrophulariaceae) is a strongly bitter remedy mainly used to treat *gallstones and other gallbladder problems; it stimulates *bile flow and is mildly *laxative; it is also taken to relieve *nausea and *vomiting, *intestinal *colic and to expel *worms. balloon vine – Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae) is a herbaceous climber widespread in Africa (but perhaps native to tropical America); in Uganda the whole plant is used to treat *asthma (Adjanohoun et al. 1993) and *vertigo, while in East Uganda the leaves are used to treat *amobiasis, *chronic endomitritis, *convulsions, *measles and *insanity (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Kenya the roots are used to treat *rashes (Kokwaro 1976). balsam family – *Balsaminaceae; it is a fairly large family with 2 genera and about 900 species of herbs widely distributed in all continents except Australia and South America; species of the genus *Impatiens are used as medicine. balsam fir – Abies balsamea (the pine family, Pinaceae) is a North American forest tree containing a resin named *Canada balsam; Canada balsam has been widely used by native Americans for *colds and *chest problems such as *bronchitis, and and it was also smeared on *burns, *cuts and *sores; alternative name: *balm-of-Gilead (fir). Balsaminaceae – a family of 2 genera and about 900 species widely distributed in both warm and temperate regions, but most species in tropical and subtropical parts of the old world (in East Africa 1 genus and 70 species, in Uganda 1 genus and 18 species); some species of the genus *Impatiens are of medicinal value. 45 balsam pear – Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae) is cultivated as a vegetable and medicinal herb in Asia; for medicinal use see *cerasee. Bambara groundnuts – Voandzeia subterranea (Fabaceae); the beans are rich in *protein and thus useful protection against *kwashiorkor. bamboo – woody grass (Poaceae), e.g. black bamboo (Phyllostachys nigra), feathery bamboo/ golden bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris), *spiny bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea) and yellow bamboo (Phyllostachys aurea); for medicinal use see *spiny bamboo. bamboo shoots – young shoots of many bamboo species are edible, e.g. Arundinaria alpina, Bambusa vulgaris and Phyllostachys pubescens (Poaceae). banana – different species and hybrids of the genus *Musa (Musaceae); they include both cooking bananas (*plantains or *starch banana) and those eaten raw (also red banana); on the other hand dwarf banana (M. cavendischii), ornamental banana (M. coccinea) and fibre banana (M. textilis; *abaca and *Manila hemp) are true species; unripe bananas and plantains are *astringent (and the roots are strongly astringent) and are used to treat *diarrhoea; in Cuba dried plantain leaves are made into a syrup and is widely used to treat *cough and *chest conditions such as *bronchitis; some bananas may soothe *gastric ulcer; *Abyssinian banana is *Ensete ventricosum (Musa ensete); for medicinal use see *Musa. banana family – *Musaceae is a small family with 2 genera and about 40 species in tropical parts of Africa and Australasia; species of *Ensete as well as *Musa are used as medicine. banyan (tree) – Ficus benghalensis (Moraceae) is an attractive tree sacred to the Hindu; the bark and leaves are *astringent and are used to relieve *diarrhoea and *dysentery and to reduce *bleeding; the fruit is *laxative and the roots are chewed to prevent *gum disease. baobab – species of the genus Adansonia (Bombacaceae/Malvaceae); the African baobab is A. digitata; for medicinal use see *Adansonia. baobab family – *Bombacaceae is a rather small family with 20 genera and about 180 species; it is sometimes included in *Malvaceae; species of the genus *Adansonia are used as medicine. Barbados cherry – Malpighia glabra (Malpighiaceae) has edible fruits rich in vitamin C; it is useful in improving general defense for diseases; alternative name: *acerola. Barbados flower fence – *Caesalpinia (Poinciana) pulcherrima (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae) is a handsome ornamental shrub or climber; flowers, root and bark have been used as a remedy for *lung diseases, *fever, *skin diseases, as an *abortifacient and for poisoning (Watt & BreyerBrandwijk 1962); alternative name: *Barbados pride. Barbados gooseberry – several species of the genus Pereskia (Cactaceae) are cultivated for their edible fruits rich in *vitamin C and *antioxidants; they are useful in improving general defense for diseases, e.g. P. aculeata and P. grandifolia. Barbados pride – *Caesalpinia (Poinciana) pulcherrima (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae); for medicinal use see *Barbados flower fence. barbary fig – species of the genus *Opuntia (the *cactus family, *Cactaceae) have compressed spiny stems and edible fruits; they are native to the Americas, but are widely cultivated for hedges and ornament in all dry tropical countries, and are often going wild and becoming troublesome weeds; the plants are host for the cochinille-lice producing the red substance cochineal, which are used in lipstick; the fruit is used to make conserves and (alcoholic) drinks; the split stems have been bound around injured limbs as a first-aid measure; the flowers are *astringent, reduce *bleeding and are taken to treat an enlarged *prostate gland; they are also taken for problems of the *digestive tract; alternative name: *prickly pear. barberry – *Berberis vulgaris and other species in the genus *Berberis (Berberidaceae); these plants are strongly *antibacterial and *amoebicidal and stimulate *bile secretion; some of the *alkaloids are thought to be *cancer-inhibiting; barberry have been shown to have *antibiotic activity against *cholera, *giardia, *shigella, *salmonella and E. coli; since barberry improves *bile flow it ameliorates *gall bladder pain, *gallstones and *jaundice; barberry has a strong, 46 highly beneficial effect on the *digestive system as a whole; it also improve *chronic skin conditions such as *eczema and *psoriasis; in East Africa the roots of B. holstii (African barberry) are boiled and the liquid drunk for *stomach problems, and the powdered root bark is applied to *wounds (Kokwaro 1976). barberry family (*Berberidaceae) – a family of 15 genera and about 570 species of perennial herbs, shrubs and trees widely distributed especially in the northern hemisphere (1 genus and 1 species in Uganda); in Africa the genus Berberis (barberry) is of medicinal value. bark cloth (fig) tree – *Ficus natalensis (Moraceae) is a tall tree earlier much used for making bark cloth; in East Uganda the leaves of F. natalensis are used to treat *septic ears and *snakebite, while the root is used to ease *cataract, *hiccup and to promote *labour and expel retained *placenta (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). Barleria (*Acanthaceae) – a genus with about 250 species native to many tropical regions; in Kenya the Turkana use B. acanthoides as medicine for goats; in Tanzania the Shambaa use a decoction of the root of B. amanensis for the treatment of *gonorrhoea; in Kenya the leaves of B. grandicalyx are chewed or rubbed into *snakebites as a treatment; in Tanzania the Zaramo crush the leaves of B. prionitis and apply drops of the juice for *sore eyes or drink the liquid for swollen *testicles (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of B. splendens are taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamate-nesi-Mugisha & OryemOriga 2006). barley – species of the genus Hordeum (Poaceae); H. vulgare and H. distichon are cultivated in temperate regions worldwide for their nutritious *grains; barley porridge is an excellent food for *convalescence as it contains easily assimilated nutrients and is soothing to the throat; it also soothes *inflammation of the *gut and *urinary tract and clears *catarrh; barley aids in the digestion of milk and will reduce fever and prevent *diarrhoea and the development of *curds in the stomach of children; a poultice of barley has been used on *sores and *swellings to reduce *inflammation; research has indicated that barley may help in the treatment of *hepatitis and control *diabetes; see also *bran (of barley). Barosma (Rutaceae) – this South African genus is now included in *Agathosma; several species are used as medicine; see Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962. Barringtoniaceae – this family is now included in *Lecythiaceae; some species of the genus Barringtonia are used as medicine. Barringtonia (Lecythiaceae) – a genus of 39 species of trees and shrubs widely distributed in tropical Asia and the Pacific, but only 3 species in Africa with Madagascar; in coastal Kenya a decoction of the roots of B. racemosa is given to children as a remedy for high *fever, and an infusion of the leaves is used as a cooling wash (Kokwaro 1976). Basananthe (Passifloraceae) – a genus with 25 species of herbs and climbers native to tropical Africa (10 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Sukuma chew the roots of B. lanceolata (= Tryphostemma longifolium auct.) and swallow the juice for the treatment of *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976). Basella (Basellaceae) – a genus of 5 species of twining succulent herbs native to Africa and Asia (1 species native to Uganda); in East Uganda a decoction of the leaves of B. alba is drunk to treat *ulcers (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Central Uganda the leaves are used to treat *constipation (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in West Uganda the same species is used to treat *calloused skin, *constipation, *measles and to quicken *labour (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda B. alba is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996). Anthocleista (Struchnaceae) – a genus with 14 tree species native to tropical Africa and the islands (3 species in East Africa and Uganda); Basellaceae – a family of 4 genera and 15 species of annual or perennial herbs or climbers widely distributed in tropical and warm regions, but most species in tropical America (1 genus and 2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); the genus *Basella is of medicinal value. 47 basil – Ocimum basilicum (Lamiaceae) is a spice and medicinal herb probably native to India, but now widely grown throughout the world; in folklore it is believed that eating basil checks the pain caused by a *scorpion’s sting, and since Roman times basil has been used to relieve *flatulence, to counteract *poisoning, as a *diuretic and to stimulate *breast-milk production; basil acts mainly on the *digestive and nervous systems, easing *flatulence, stomach *cramps, *colic and *indigestion; it can be used to relieve *nausea and *vomiting and kill *intestinal worms; it has a mild *sedative action helping to treat *nervous irritability, *depression, *epilepsy, *migraine, *anxiety and difficulty in sleeping; the juice from the leaves brings relief to *insect bites and stings; alternative name: *sweet basil, but this name is also used for O. suave; see also *holy basil (O. sanctum). Basilicum (Lamiaceae) – a genus with 7 species of herbs or subshrubs widespread in the Old World tropics; in Tanzania the Chagga chew the roots of B. polystachyon as a *cough cure, and the roots are cooked with food and eaten as a protection against *flatulence (Kokwaro 1976). basswood (Am) – species of the genus Tilia (the linden family, Tiliaceae); alternative name: *lime (tree) and *linden; for medicinal use see *linden. bastard toad flax – species of the parasite genus Thesium (Santalaceae); in southern Africa several species of this genus are used as medicinal herbs, see Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962). Bauhinia (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae) – a genus of about 250 species of trees, shrubs and lianes widely distributed throughout the tropics (5 species native to East Africa, in Uganda only as introduced unless the genus *Tylosema is included in Bauhinia); in Tanzania the boiled root of B. kalantha is eaten by the Gogo to treat *bilharzia (Kokwaro 1976); B. tomentosa (yellow *camel’s foot), a native of East Africa, is in India used as a *vermifuge and as an *astringent gargle; in southern Africa B. variegata (purple *camel’s foot; widely cultivated as an ornamental tree in East Africa) is considered *astringent, *purgative and *tonic and widely used for the treatment of *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *leprosy, *scrophula, skin diseases, *syphilis and *ulcerations (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); note that the genus *Tylosema is now often included in Bauhinia. bayberry – Myrica cerifera (the bog myrtle family, Myricaceae) is an American shrub or small tree; the root bark is used to increase *circulation, stimulate *perspiration, reduce *colds, *flues, *coughs and *sore throats, strengthen resistance to infection and keep bacterial infections in check; a paste of the root bark is used externally on *sores and *ulcers; see *bog myrtle and *sweet gale. bay laurel – Laurus nobilis (the laurel family, Lauraceae) is an evergreen tree or shrub from the Mediterranean widely used as spice, medicine and for decoration; the leaves are used mainly to stimulate the appetite, promote the *digestion and absorption of food, treat disorders of the upper *digestive tract and to ease *arthritic pains; it has also been used to promote the onset of *menstrual periods; alternative name: *lauel. bay laurel family – the laurel family, Lauraceae is a large family with about 50 genera and 2500 species widely distributed in all tropical and subtropical regions (4 genera and 8 species native to East Africa, 3 genera and 5 species in Uganda, but Persea, the *avocado pear, widely cultivated); species of many genera are used as medicine, e.g. *Cassytha, *Cryptocarya, Laurus (*laurel) *Ocotea and Persea (*avocado). bay-tree – Laurus nobilis (Lauraceae); for medicinal use see *bay laurel. bead-tree – species of the genus Melia (Meliaceae); for medicinal use see *Persian lilac; alternative name: *Ceylon mahogany. beans – edible seeds from different genera and species of the family Fabaceae, e.g. Phaseolus vulgaris (*Algerian wax beans, *butter beans, *French beans’, *haricot beans, *kidney beans); see also *adzuki beans (Phaseolus angularis), *broad beans (Vicia faba), *Florida velvet beans (Stizolobium derringianum), *hyacinth beans (Dolichos lablab), Jack beans (Canavalia ensiformis), *Lima beans (Phaseolus lunatus), *Metcalfe beans (Phaseolus metcalfii), *moth 48 beans (Phaseolus aconitifolius), *rice beans (Phaseolus calcaratus), (scarlet or white Dutch) *runner beans (Phaseolus coccineus), *soybeans (Glycine max) and *tepary beans (Phaseolus acutifolius); beans are rich in proteins and therefore protective against *kwashiorkor. bean-tree – Ceratonia siliqua (the pea family, Fabaceae); for medicinal use see *carob; alternative name: *locust-bean. bearberry – Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (the heather family, Ericaceae) is a perennial evergreen creeping herb from temperate and cold northern countries; the leaves and berries have *antibacterial effects, and the herb is considered as one of the best *urinary *antiseptics to disinfect and *astringe the urinary tract in cases of acute and chronic *cystitis and *urethritis; alternative name: *uva-ursi; black bearberry is A. alpinus. bears breeches (or bear’s breech) – Acanthus mollis (Acanthaceae) from the Mediterranean is best known for the decorative pattern at the top of Corinthian columns inspired by the leaves of this plant; the leaves and root contain large quantities of *mucilage and *tannin and is traditionally used to treat *dislocated joints and *burns; it is also an *emollient useful in treating irritated *mucous membranes in the *digestive and *urinary tracts. bearsfoot (USA) – Polymnia uvedalia (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is used by native Americans as a *stimulant and *laxative remedy; the root is widely used in hair lotions and to treat *inflammation of the breast tissue (*mastitis); it may relieve *indigestion and counteract *liver malfunction as it is thought to have beneficial effects on the *stomach, *liver and *spleen. bechic – a *tonic or other remedy that controls *coughing. Becium (Lamiaceae) – a genus with 10 species of perennial herbs or small shrubs native from tropical Africa to India; in West Uganda the leaves of B. obovatum (including B. affine) are eaten or inserted in *vagina to improve *sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); in Kenya the Akamba witch-doctors use this plant to cleanse evil spirit (Githinji & Kokwaro 1993). bedbug or bed bug – rather small dark reddish brown wingless insects with a flattened body and a very distinct unpleasant smell (genus Cimex); bed bugs thrive in dirty houses and come out at night to suck the blood of man; although bed bugs may not carry disease, they are a source of annoyance and loss of sleep, and thus weaken people and make them more likely to take other diseases; in Karamoja in Uganda the leaves of Clerodendrum rotundifolium are used as a body wash to keep away bed bugs. bedstraw – species of the genus Galium (Rubiaceae), e.g. fen bedstraw (G. uliginosum), heath or stone bedstraw (G. saxatile), hedge or white bedstraw (G. mollugo), lady’s or yellow bedstraw (G. verum), marsh or water bedstraw (G. palustre) and northern bedstraw (G. boreale); see also *cleavers (G. aparine), *crosswort, *goosegrass, *hairif, *mugwort, *sticky Willie, and sweet *woodruff; for medicinal use see *yellow bedstraw and *cleavers. bedstraw family – coffee family, *Rubiaceae; a very large widely distributed family with about 500 genera and 7000 species; for medicinal genera see *Rubiaceae. bee balm1 – Monarda didyma (the *mint family, *Lamiaceae); alternative name: *bergamot and *Oswego tea; for medicinal use see *bergamot. bee balm2 – Melissa officinalis (the *mint family, Lamiaceae) is a Mediterranean scented medicinal herb containing *flavonoids, *polyphenols, *tannins, *triterpenes and volatile oil (caryophyllene oxide, *citral, *citronellal and *linalool); the polyphenols are *antiviral and e.g. combat the *herpes simplex virus, which produces cold *sores; the volatile oil is strongly *antispasmodic and calm the central nervous system and is thus a medicine for *anxiety and *depression; it can be used as a modern relaxing *tonic when over-anxiety cause *digestive problems such as acidity, *bloating, *colic, *indigestion and *nausea; it also inhibits *thyroid function and is given to people with an over-active thyroid; alternative names: *balm and *lemon balm. beech family – Fagaceae is a rather large family with 8 genera (e.g. beech - Fagus, *oak - Quercus and hornbeam - Carpinus) and about 1000 species; they are most common in temperate to summerwarm regions; species of the genus Quercus are used as medicine. 49 beet family – goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae is a large family with about 100 genera and 1500 species, most common in temperate and hot dry regions. If Amaranthaceae is included the family includes 165 genera and 2400 species. Species of the genus Chenopodium are used as medicines. beet(root) – Beta vulgaris (the goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae) is a perennial herb with a swollen edible root; there are two major varieties, *red beet with red root and *white beet (sugar beet) with white root; they are both widely cultivated for food or sugar, and also used as herbal medicine; the wild form of this plant is named *sea beet, and occurs along the European, North African and Asian coasts. beet(spinach) – Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Chenopodiaceae); alternative name: beat-leaf; this herb is particularly important im improving low blood values due to its high *iron content. beggar’s-ticks – Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae) is a troublesome American weed introduced to most tropical and warm countries; alternative name: *Spanish needle og *stick tight; this name is also used about Bidens frondosa and other species in the genus Bidens; for medicinal use see *Bidens. Begonia (Begoniaceae) – a large genus of about 900 species (and more than 10000 hybrids and cultivars) of somewhat succulent herbs and shrubs widespread in tropical and warm countries; in Tanzania leaves and roots of B. oxyloba are boiled or soaked in water and used as an *anthelmintic (Kokwaro 1976). Begoniaceae – a family of 2 genera and about 900 species of succulent herbs or shrubs widely distributed especially in the northern hemisphere (1 genus and about 8 species in Uganda); the genus Begonia has some species of medicinal value; vernacular name: *begonia family. begonia family (Begoniaceae) – a family of 2 genera and about 900 species of succulent herbs or shrubs widely distributed especially in the northern hemisphere (1 genus and about 8 species in Uganda); the genus Begonia has some species of medicinal value. Behcet’s syndrome – a condition with *inflammation of skin and *mucous membranes caused by *vasculites; it is sometimes alleviated using *meadow saffron (*autum crocus) Colchicum autumnale (Colchicaceae). belch – to eject (gas) noisily from the stomach through the mouth; a mild condition of mental disturbance is characterised by belching and mumbling (captive qualm). Beleric myrobalan – Terminalia belerica (Combretaceae) is an East Asian tree with a fruit which is *astringent, *tonic and *laxative; it is mainly used for *digestive and *respiratory problems, e.g. *diarrhoea, *indigestion, chronic *constipation, *coughs, *hoarseness and *sore throats. belladonna – Atropa belladonna (the potato family, Solanaceae) is a deadly poisonous Eurasian herb widely used in herbal medicine to relieve intestinal *colic and to treat *peptic ulcers; it contains up to 0.6 % *tropane alkaloids (including *atropine and *hyoscyamine); this herb has been used to treat the symptoms of *Parkinson’s disease by reducing tremors and rigidity and improving speech and mobility; in conventional medicine it is used to dilate the pupils for eye examinations and as an *anaesthetic; alternative name: *deadly nightshade. belladonna lily – Amaryllis belladonna (the daffodil family, Amaryllidaceae) from South Africa is cultivated as a pot or garden plant; small doses of the bulb produce *emesis while large doses are very poisonous with *cardiac action (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); alternative name: *Cape belladonna. bellflower family – *Campanulaceae; a widely distributed family with about 35 genera and 600 species, or about 65 genera and 1800 species if Lobeliaceae is included in Campanulaceae; species of the genus Wahlbergia are used as medicines. bell peppers (USA) – red and green pepper; chillipepper (Capsicum annuum, Solanaceae); for medicinal use see *Capsicum. Bell’s palsy – a paralysis of the face; in China a paste made from *nux vomica (Strychnos nuxvomica, Strychnaceae) seeds was applied to 15 000 patients with this disease, and was reported effective in more than 80 % of the cases. 50 Bengal kino – the gum of *palas, Butea monosperma (Fabaceae), a tree from India and Malaysia with a mildly *astringent gum used as a substitute for the gum from bastard teak (Pterocarpus marsupium); it is taken to treat acid *indigestion, *dysentery, *diarrhoea, *sore throats and *vaginitis; alternative name for the tree: *flame of the forest. Bengal quince – Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae) is a holy tree for Hindus and is often planted near temples; the half-ripe bael fruits reduces irritation in the *digestive tract and is much used for *diarrhoea and *dysentery; the ripe fruit is *demulent and *laxative, and it eases *stomach pain, the leaves are taken to treat *peptic ulcers; alternative name: *bael (fruit) and *golden apple. benign enlargement of the prostate gland (*BPH) – a painful enlargement of the muscular, glandular organ which surrounds the *urethrea of males at the base of the *bladder; this condition is sometimes improved using *Cucurbita pepo (*pumpkin-seeds, Cucurbitaceae), Eryngium maritimum (*sea-holly, Apiaceae), Hydrangea arborescens (*wild hydrangea, Hydrangeaceae), *Opuntia spp. (*barbary fig or *prickly pear, Cactaceae), *Prunus africana (*pygeum, Rosaceae), Serenoa repens (*saw palmetto, Arecaceae) and Urtica dioica (*common nettle or *nettle). benign prostatic hyperplasia (*BHP) – enlarged *prostate gland; for plants used to alleviate this condition see above; Prunus africanus is now commercially grown and exported as international medicine for this disease; see Longo & Tira 1981, Martelli et al. 1986, Barlet et al. 1990, Breza et al. 1998, Chatelain et al. 1999 for efficacy. ben nut – the nutlet of Moringa oleifera (*horseradish tree, Moringaceae); it contains an oil (*ben oil), which is used for food, paint and soap; for medicinal use of the plant see *Moringa. benzoin gum – Styrax benzoin (Styracaceae) from Southeast Asia is a tree with a strongly *antiseptic and *astringent gum; it is used externally on *wounds and *ulcers to tighten and *disinfect the affected tissue; when taken internally, benzoin gum stimulates *coughing, settles *griping pain and disinfects the *urinary tract. Bequaertiodendron (Sapotacaceae) – a genus with about 3-4 species of trees or shrubs confined to tropical and South Africa (3 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in southern Tanzania the roots of B. natalense are taken as a remedy for *abdominal pain (Kokwaro 1976). Berberidaceae – the barberry family; a family of 15 genera and about 570 species of perennial herbs, shrubs and trees widely distributed especially in the northern hemisphere (1 genus and 1 species in Uganda); some genera are of medicinal value, e.g. *Berberis (*barberry), Caulophyllum (*blue cohosh or *squaw root) and Podophyllum (*American mandrake); vernacular name: *barberry family. Berberis (Berberidaceae) – a large genus of about 450 species of evergreen or deciduous shrubs or subshrubs of the northern hemispere with a few species in upland areas of the tropics (1 species in tropical Africa); many species (e.g. B. vulgaris) are strongly *antibacterial and *amoebicidal and stimulate *bile secretion; some of the alkaloids are thought to be *cancer-inhibiting; barberry have been shown to have *antibiotic activity against *cholera, *giardia. *shigella, *salmonella and E. coli; since barberry improves bile flow it ameliorates *gall bladder pain, *gallstones and *jaundice; barberry has a strong, highly beneficial effect on the *digestive system as a whole; it also improves chronic skin conditions such as *eczema and *psoriasis; in East Africa the roots of B. holstii (African Barberry) are boiled and the liquid drunk for *stomach problems, and the powdered root bark is applied to *wounds (Kokwaro 1976). bergamot1 – Monarda didyma (Lamiaceae); in the 1800 century in America it was given to young mothers and considered a *stimulant and regulator of *menstruation; alternative name: *bee balm and *Oswego tea; wild bergamot is Monarda fistulosa, while horsemint is Monarda punctata. bergamot2 – Citrus bergamia (Rutaceae); it is most likely a subspecies (ssp. bergamia) of sour orange, which is a hybrid between C. maxima and C. reticulata; it is a small tree from tropical Asia, but is widely cultivated for the essential oil (*bergamot oil) contained in the peel; this oil 51 provides a distinct flavour to Earl Grey tea; bergamot oil can be used to relieve tension, relax muscle *spasms and improve *digestion; see also *bitter orange. bergamot-mint – Mentha aquatica and M. citrata (the mint family, Lamiaceae); for medicinal use see *Mentha. bergamot-oil – a volatile oil that can be used to relieve tension, relax muscle *spasms and improve *digestion; it is found in *bergamot2 (Citrus bergamia); see also *bitter orange. bergapten – a *coumarin found in *celery (Apium graveolens, Apiaceae); it stimulates skin tanning; for medicinal use see *celery. beriberi – a deficiancy disease mainly confined to India, East Asia and other regions where rice (Oryza sativa) is the staple food; it occurs when only polished rice is eaten because the polishing process removes *thiamine and the *proteins of the grains; the symptoms are *neuritis, *oedema and *cardiac weakness; beriberi starts with a general lack of energy and with increasing muscular weakness of the legs. Berkheya (Asteraceae) – a mainly South African genus of about 72 species of herbs or shrubs (4 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Hehe rub ash of burnt leaves of B. bipinnatifida into cuts to alleviate pain in any part of the body (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of B. spekeana are used to treat *dysentery (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the leaves of this plant to treat *”white tongue disease”, while a decoction of the root is drunk to treat *infant diseases (Heine & König 1988); in Kenya the Marakwet use the ash of the plant for *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a root concoction of B. spekeana for stomach ache (Masinde 1996). Bermuda-grass – Cynodon dactylon (the grass family, Poaceae) is one of the world’s worst weeds; alternative names: *common quick grass (South Africa), *common star grass, *couch grass og *star grass; for medicinal use see *Cynodon. Bermuda buttercup – Oxalis pes-caprae (Oxalidaceae) is a South African herb with edible bulbs, but is a troublesome weed in many countries; for medicinal use see *Oxalis. Bersama (Melianthaceae) – a genus of 2 species of trees native to Africa, but sometimes considered to consist of one very polymorphic species; in parts of Africa B. abyssinica is a very important medicinal plant widely used for treatment of different diseases; in Tannzania dried powdered bark or its decoction is used a an *anthelmintic for small children and juice from the bark is taken as a *purgative; the extract from young twigs is drunk to treat *dysentery and *roundworms, while the leaves are used for *colds or chewed as an *aphrodisiac; a root *decoction is drunk for *epilepsy and *haemorrhoids and used to wash *wounds (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the bark is used to treat *febrile convulsions (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda B. abyssinica is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996). beta-solamarine – a tumour-inhibiting agent found in *bittersweet (Solanum dulcamara). betel nut – the fruit of the palm Areca catechu (Arecaceae) is chewed alone or together with the leaves of Piper betle (betel pepper, Piperaceae); for medicinal use see *betel nut palm. betel nut palm – Areca catechu (the palm family, Arecaceae); the leaves mixed with orange leaves have been used to treat *stomachache. betel (pepper) – Piper betle (Piperaceae): the leaves have been chewed alone or together with betel nut from the palm Areca catechu for thousands of years; chewing quickly produces a red-stained saliva; long-term use is considered to increase the incidence of *cancer of the mouth and tongue; betel leaves are mainly used as a gentle *stimulant, since they apparently induce a mild sensation of well-being; they also affect the *digestive system relieving *flatulence and preventing *worm infestation. betel quid – quid for chewing made from the leaves of Piper betle (Piperaceae) and/or betel nut from the palm Areca catechu (Arecaceae). 52 beth root – Trillium erectum (Trilliaceae) is a North American woodland plant; the rhizome was used by native Americans to aid childbirth and treat irregular *menstrual periods and heavy menstrual *bleeding. betony – Stachys officinalis (Lamiaceae) is an old European medicinal herb widely used as a remedy for *headaches; under Emperor Augustus 2000 years ago it was believed to cure 47 different diseases (being a *panacea); the plant is mildly *sedative, relieving *nervous stress and *tension; betony is also *astringent and mildly *bitter; it stimulates the *digestive tract and the *liver; yellow betony is Stachys alopecuros. bewitchment – being affected by witchcraft; a large number of plants are used to counter bewitchment, e.g. Zehneria minutiflora (Cucurbitaceae) and Clerodendrum myricoides (Verbenaceae). bhang – largely mature leaves of marijuana plants, Cannabis sativa var. indica (the hemp family, Cannabaceae); these are dried and smoked as a drug with or without tobacco; marijuana contains a large number of *cannabinoids including *delta 9-*tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), a major psycho-active chemical; it has a pleasantly exciting effect, relieves pain and induces sleep, but reduces *fertility and can cause *delirium; see also *hashish, *marijuana and *pot. bdellium – *oleoresin from myrrh, Commiphora myrrha (the myrrh family, Burseraceae); this resin is the base for the myrrh incense and *purgative medicine; see also *myrrh and *opoponax. Bidens (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 340 species of herbs and shrubs worldwide (63 species in Africa, 32 species in East Africa and 13 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Shambaa chew the root of B. magnifolia as a treatment for *cough and *pneumonia; in East Africa the leaves or a *decoction of the leaves of the widespread weed B. pilosa are used as a remedy for *conjunctivitis, *constipation, *intestinal worms and *stomach-ache, while the liquid from the herb’s root is taken as a cure for *malaria (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda the leaves of B. pilosa are used to treat *diarrhoea, *eye problems, *insanity, *snakebite and *wounds (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Central Uganda the whole plant is taken for *asthma and *tonsilitis, the leaf is used to treat *functional psychosis and *peptic ulcers, and the root for *eye disease and *venereal disease (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda B. pilosa is used by herbalists and midwives (Cunningham 1996); in West Uganda the same species is used to treat *anaemia, *conjunctivitis, fresh *wounds, *malaria and to quicken *labour (Kakudidi 2000) and to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves and roots of this species are used to treat *toothache and tooth decay (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Rakai district in Uganda the leaves are crushed, water added and given orally to chickens to treat *coccidiosis (*CCD) and *NCD (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe use a root infusion of B. pilosa for *convulsions (Masinde 1996); in East Africa the roots of B. schimperi are boiled in water and the decoction drunk for *chest pains; in East Africa powdered leaves of B. whytei (= B. angustata) are taken as part of a medicine for washing the body in case of *sunstroke. Bignoniaceae – a family of about 112 genera and 725 species of trees, shrubs and lianes (rarely herbs) widely distributed in tropical regions, but most diverse in South America (4 genera and 7 species native to Uganda); many genera have species with medicinal value, e.g. *Fernandoa, *Kigelia, *Markhamia, *Spathodea and *Stereospermum. bilberry – Vaccinium myrtillus (Ericaceae) is a widespread dwarf shrub throughout temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; its berry is a natural *antioxidant and is widely eaten fresh, in jam, juice or soup; it has long been used as a mild *laxative (because of its sugars), and to relieve *diarrhoea and *indigestion (due to *tannins), and because it tastes nicely it is particularly useful for young children; the berries heal *inflammation and improve capillary function, thus helping to heal *haemorrhoids, easy *bruising, high *blood pressure, *diabetes and blood flow to the eyes; bilberry fruits help the eyes to adjust to the dark and stimulate the part of the *retina most involved in seeing clearly; the leaves have a marked *antiseptic effect 53 within the *bladder and urinary tract; the leaves are mildly *anti-diabetic, helping in pre-diabetic states; alternative names: *blueberry and blue *whortleberry. bile – a bitter brownish-yellow or yellowish-green liquid gathered by the *liver and stored in the *gall-bladder; it changes fatty food so that it can be used by the body; many plants will stimulate the secretion of bile, e.g. *artichoke (Cynara scolymus), *balmony (Chelone glabra), *barberry (Berberis vulgaris), *curled dock (Rumex crispus), *fig nut (Jatropha curcas), *polypody (Polypodium vulgare) and *wormwood (Artemisia absinthium); if excess of bile see *biliousness. bilharzia (bilharziasis) – a disease in man caused by *flatworms (schistosomes) that live in the large veins of the portal system; there are two common worms in East Africa, i.e. Schistosoma haematobia (*genito-urinary bilharzia) and S. monsoni (*intestinal bilharzia); several plants such as *Phytolacca americana & dodecandra will kill the parasite in water before it can enter man; many plants have been used to kill the *parasite in man, but their effect is more uncertain, e.g. *Acalypha ciliata (Euphorbiaceae), *Afzelia quanzensis (Fabaceae), *Asparagus africanus & buchananii & setaceus (Asparagaceae), *Bauhinia kalantha (Fabaceae), *Boscia senegalensis (Capparidaceae), *Cadaba kirkii (Capparidaceae), *Clerodendrum uncinatum (Verbenaceae), *Combretum hereroense (Combretaceae), *Delonix elata (Fabaceae), *Dioscorea dumetorum (Dioscoreaceae), *Dissotis rotundifolia (Melastomataceae), *Euphorbia tirucalli (Euphorbiaceae), *Khaya grandifoliola (Meliaceae), *Lotus goetzei (Fabaceae), *Macaranga kilimandscharica (Euphorbiaceae), *Neorautanenia mitis (Fabaceae), *Ozoroa obovata (Anacardiaceae), *Phytolacca americana (*inkberry or *pokeweed) & dodecandra (Phytolaccaceae), *Terminalia kaiserana & sericea (Combretaceae) and *Tetradenia riparia (Lamiaceae); alternative name: *schistosomiasis. biliary – relating to *bile. biliousness – a medical condition of having to much *bile (galle); *Senna didymobotrya (Fabaceae), *Turraea mombassana (Meliaceae) and *Withania somnifera (Solanaceae) are sometimes used to alleviate this condition; species of dodder (Cuscuta spp., Convolvulaceae) are traditionally used to purge black bile; see also *bile. bilirubin – a *bile substance, which in case of *jaundice circulates in the blood and being deposited in certain parts of the body, like the skin and eyes, which appear yellow. Billygoat plum – ?; it has the fruit with the highest amount of *vitamin C, 100 times more than in oranges; in the kiwi fruit it is 60 times higher. Billy goat weed – Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae) is a troublesome weed in many tropical and warm countries; for medicinal use see *Ageratum; alternative names: *blue top, *goat weed, *tropic ageratum and *winter weed. bindweed family – *Convolvulaceae is a large family with about 100 genera and 2000 species widely distributed in all parts of the world except the coldest; for medicinal use see *Convolvulaceae; alternative name: *morning glory family. biocide – a chemical substance that destroys life, especially plant life. Biophytum (Oxalidaceae) – a genus of about 70 species of annual or perennial herbs widely distributed in the tropics (8 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda B. abyssinicum is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in Tanzania the Padhola use B. petersianum to alleviate *fever in a young child (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe used dried leaf powder ointment of B. petersianum for *scabies (Masinde 1996). birch family – Betulaceae is a rather small family with 6 genera and about 170 species; it is most common in temperate habitats in the northern hemisphere; species of the genera Alnus (alder) and Betula (birch) are used as medicine; see *silver birch. bird cherry – *Prunus padus (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a deciduous tree native to Europe and Asia; the bark of this tree is *astringent and widely used as an effective treatment for *chronic dry and irritable *coughs; it is also used to treat *colds, *indigestion and *bowel problems; the 54 bark contains a cyanogenic *glycoside (*prunastin) that yields the very toxic *prussic acid or *hydrocyanic acid (HCN); prunastin reduces the cough reflex; Himalayan bird cherry is *Prunus puddum. bird of paradise (Am) – species of the genus *Caesalpinia (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae), e.g. red bird of paradise (C. pulherrima) and yellow bird of paradise (C. mexicana); for medicinal use see *Caesalpinia. birthwort – *Aristolochia clematitis (Aristolochiaceae) is an erect herb native to Europe; the curved form of its flower recalls a human *foetus in right position prior to birth, and according to the *Doctrine of Signatures this herb has been used to ease *parturition; alternative names: *Dutchman’s pipe, *pipe vine; see also *Virginia snakeroot. bishop weed (bishop’s weed) – Aegopodium podograria (Apiaceae); alternative names: *ashweed, *goutweed, *ground elder, *herb Gerard; for medicinal use see *herb Gerard. bistort – Bistorta major or Polygonum bistorta (Polygonaceae); this plant is strongly *astringent and the rhizome has been widely used to stop *bleeding, heal mouth and throat *inflammations and alleviate *diarrhoea and *dysentery. bitter – very acid; a substance (medicinal) which stimulates secretion of *saliva (spit) and *digestive juices thus increasing appetite; for medicinal herbs see *bitters. bitter bush – Chromolaena (Eupatorium) odoratum (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a troublesome weed in many warm countries; the fresh plant is sometimes rubbed into the skin to prevent mosquito bites and alleviate *hypothermia, and a decoction is drunk to treat *metrorrhagia and *mycosis; alternative name: *Jack-in-the-bush and *siam weed. bitter gourd – Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae) is cultivated as a vegetable in Asia; for medicinal use see *Momordica. bitter orange – Citrus × aurantium (the orange family, Rutaceae); this plant is now considered a hybrid between *mandarine (Citrus reticulatus) and *pomelo (Citrus maxima); see *bergamot, *Sevilla orange, *sour orange and *sweet orange; these are all variations of the same hybrid; bitter orange is an Asian tree now widely cultivated throughout the world, and commercially in Spain particularly; the peel contains *flavonoids and a volatile oil with *limonene; the flavonoids are *antibacterial, *antifungal and *anti-inflammatory; the essential oils are used to reduce heart rate and *palpitations, to encourage sleep and sooth the *digestive tract; the flowers contain *linalool (neroli) and are *antispasmodic and *sedative; the juice helps the body to eliminate waste products, and being rich in *vitamin C, helps the immune system to resist *infections; the strongly acidic fruit stimulates the digestion and relieves *flatulence; the unripe fruit contains *citrantin and is believed to be *contraceptive. bitters – substances (medicinal) which stimulates secretion of *saliva (spit) and *digestive juices thus increasing appetite; with the improved digestion and absorption of nutrients that follows, the body is nourished and strengthened; many herbs have bitter constituents and are used to improve digestion, e.g. Achillea millefolium (*milfoil & *yarrow, Asteraceae), Acorus calamus (*sweet flag, Acoraceae), Ajuga reptans (*bugle, Lamiaceae), Artemisia abrotanum (*southernwood) & absinthium (*wormwood, Asteraceae), Capparis spinosa (*caper, Capparidaceae), Centaurium erythraea (*centaury, Gentianaceae), Chamomelum nobile (*Roman chamomile, Asteraceae), Cichorium intybus (*chicory, Asteraceae), Citrus × aurantium (*bitter orange) & bergamia (*bergamot, Rutaceae), Curcuma zedoaria (*zedoaria, Zingiberaceae), Cynara scolymus (*artichoke, Asteraceae), Gentiana lutea (*yellow gentian) & macrophylla (*Chinese gentian or *qin jiao) & purpurea (*purple gentian, Gentianaceae), Iberis amara (*candytuft or *wild candytuft, Brassicaceae), Humulus lupulus (*hop, Cannabaceae), *Jateorhiza palmata (Menispermaceae), Marrubium vulgare (*white horehound, Lamiaceae), Marsdenia condurango (*condurango, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), Menyanthes trifoliata (*bogbean or *buckbean, Menyanthaceae), *Olinia rochetiana (Oliniaceae), *Phyllanthus hutchinsonianus & leucocalyx (Phyllanthaceae), Picrasma excelsa (*quassia, Simaroubaceae), Stachys officinalis (*betony, 55 Lamiaceae), Swertia chirata (*chiretta, Gentianaceae) and *Vernonia hildebrandtii (Asteraceae). bittersweet – Solanum dulcamara (Solanaceae); this Eurasian climber is *diuretic and *sedative and has been widely used to treat *skin diseases, *sores, *swellings, *asthma and *rheumatism; it contains *beta-solamarine, which is a *tumour-inhibiting agent. bitter vetchling – Lathyrus linearifolius (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a widespread herb in northern Eurasia; the small tubers on the roots have been placed in water or spirit and drunk to treat *sore throat and *heartburn (cardialgia). bitterwort – species of the genus Gentiana (Gentianaceae); for medicinal use see *gentian. blackberry – many species of the genus Rubus (Rosaceae) or sometimes given the collective name Rubus fruticosus; some species are widely cultivated in gardens for their abundant sweet fruits, e.g. American or cut-leaved blackberry (R. laciniatus) and evergreen thornless blackberry (R. ulmifolius); the leaves are strongly *astringent, and in Europe have long been used for washing and staunching *wounds or as a gargle for *sore throats; a decoction has been used to relieve *diarrhoea and *haemorrhoids. blackberry nightshade – Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae) is a troublesome toxic weed in many countries; for medicinal use see *Solanum; alternative name: *black nightshade. black bamboo – Bambusa breviflora (the grass family, Poaceae) is a tall bamboo native to East Asia; it is *diuretic and in Chinese medicine the juice and root are used to alleviate *fever, *coughs and other *chest problems black catechu – Acacia catechu (Fabaceae-Mimosoideae) is a small Indian-East African thorn-tree; it is a strongly *astringent and clotting agent helping to reduce excess *mucus in the nose, the large *bowel or *vagina; it is also used to treat *eczema, *haemorrhages, *diarrhoea and *dysentery; the shiny, black-brown extract of leaves and young shoots is named *cutch, and is sold as a brittle solid. black cohosh (Am) – Cimifuga racemosa (Ranunculaceae), a North American herb, which root has long been used for women’s complaints, especially for problems associated with the *menopause (e.g. hot flushes) and *menstrual problems where *oestrogen levels are too low; it has *sedative properties and has been used to treat high *blood pressure and *tinnitus (ringing in the ears); it has also been used to treat *inflammatory and *rheumatoid *arthritis; alternative names: *snakeroot and *squaw root. black cumin – Nigella sativa (Ranunculaceae) is widely grown as a garden and medicinal plant in Asia and the *Mediterranean; the seeds are beneficial for the *digestive system, soothing *stomach pain and *spasms and easing *wind, *bloating and *colic; the seeds are also *antiseptic and are used to treat *intestinal *worms and to increase *breast-milk production. black currant(s) – Ribes nigrum (Grossulariaceae) is widely grown in Europe for its sweet-sour berry (10-15 % sugar) rich in *vitamin C; it contains proanthocyanidins which are strongly *antioxidant and *anti-inflammatory; the berries or their juice help improve resistance to *infection and make valuable remedy for treating *pneumonia, *colds and *flu; the leaves have *diuretic effect and are used to lower *blood pressure; they increase the secretion of *cortisol by the *adrenal glands, and thus will stimulate the activity of the *sympathetic nervous system and relieve *stress-related conditions; a gargle of the leaves have been used for *sore throats and mouth *ulcers. black death – see *bubonic plague. black dogwood – Frangula alnus or Rhamnus frangula (Rhamnaceae); for medicinal use see *alder buckthorn (an alternative name). black gram – Vigna mungo (Fabaceae); these beans are rich in *protein and thus useful protection against *kwashiorkor. 56 black haw (Am) – Viburnum prunifolium (Caprifoliaceae) is an American shrub often used as a medicine interchangeably with *cramp bark (Viburnum opulus), but is believed to have a more specific action on the *uterus. black hellebore – Helleborus niger (Ranunculaceae) from the *Mediterranean is widely grown as a winter garden plant often flowering in mid-winter; in small doses this plant has *purgative and *cardiotonic properties similar to foxglove (Digitalis purpurea); it expels *worms and promotes *menstrual flow; it has been used as a heart stimulant for the elderly, but is now considered too strong for safe use; alternative name *Christmas rose. black horehound – Ballota nigra (Lamiaceae) is a perennial herb widely distributed in the north warm-temperate region; it is mildly *sedative and *antispasmodic, and is currently occasionally used as an *anti-emetic preventing or reducing *vomiting; the Greek physician Dioscorides 2000 years ago recommended a plaster of black horehound leaves and salt for infected *wounds, *ulcers and *dog bites. blacking plant – Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Malvaceae); in Asia the plant has been used as an *emollient and the flower buds as a *poultice on *boils, *cancerous swellings and the swellings of *mumps; the English name comes from the juice of the flower being used as a shoe-black and to blacken the eyebrows (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). black Jack – Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae) is a troublesome weed in tropical and warm regions; for medicinal use see *Bidens. black nightshade – Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae) is a troublesome toxic weed in many countries; for medicinal use see *Solanum; alternative name: *blackberry nightshade; plants from Uganda previously identified as this plant are S. scabrum (Olet et al. 2005 & 2006). black pepper – fruits (peppercorns) of Piper nigrum (the pepper family, Piperaceae) collected unripe and dried; pepper has a stimulant and antiseptic effect on the *digestive and *circulatory systems; see *green pepper, *pepper, *red pepper and *white pepper. black quarter – a bacterial disease of cattle and sheep whose main feature is a gas-filled *gangrenous lesion in muscle; affected animals will show high *fever, tremors, inability to walk or breathe properly; in East Africa a *decoction of the leaves of Erythrococa bongensis is sometimes used for the treatment of this disease in cattle (Kokwaro 1976). black root (Am) – Leptandra virginica (Scrophulariaceae) is taken in small doses as a *laxative and remedy for *liver and *gallbladder disorders; it is also used to treat *flatulence and *bloating, and eases the discomfort of *haemorrhoids, *chronic *constipation and *rectal *prolapse. black walnut (tree) – Juglans nigra (the wallnut family, Juglandaceae) is a tall deciduous tree native to North America; the fruits are highly nutritious, lower *cholesterol levels and contain significant quantities of *alpha-linolenic acid; the inner bark has been used as a *laxative and *tonic remedy, to treat *headaches, *wounds, *constipation, *dysentery and *arthritic joints; black walnut lowers cholesterol levels, and promotes the clearance of waste products by the *liver; it is *anti-microbial and *astringent and may kill *intestinal worms; see also *butternut (tree), J. cinerea and *walnut (tree), J. regia. black willow – Salix nigra (the willow family, Salicaceae) is a tall deciduous tree native to Europe and parts of Asia; the bark (stripped from branches 2-5 years old) contains *salicylic acid, which relieves pain and soothes fever, and is used in the same way as *aspirin (the commercial product) for *headaches and *fever; black willow is a good remedy for *arthritic and *rheumatic pain; the bark is also *astringent and was formerly used to staunch internal *bleeding; see also *crack willow (S. fragilis) and *white willow (S. alba). bladder – urinary bladder; a membraneous sac-like organ serving as a receptacle for urine; the leaves of bilberry or blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus, Ericaceae) have a marked *antiseptic effect within the *bladder and *urinary tract; *catarrh of the bladder is sometimes alleviated using *Agathosma betulina (Rutaceae) and *bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus, Ericaceae); see also *urethritis. 57 bladder cherry – Physalis alkekengi (Solanaceae); for medicinal use see *Physalis; alternative names: *Chinese lantern and winter cherry. bladder hibiscus – Hibiscus trionum (Malvaceae); in southern Africa the leaves of this herb have been used as a dressing for *septic *wounds and as a *roundworm remedy (Hewat 1906), in southern Europe the leaves have been used as an *expectorant (Dragendorff 1898). bladder tonic – which strengthens and improves the function of the bladder; the seeds of *pumpkin (*Cucurbita pepo, Cucurbitaceae) are tonic to the bladder. bladderwrack – Fucus vesiculosus (brown seaweeds, Fucaceae) is a very widespread and abundant seaweed along the shores of the North Atlantic Ocean; it has been widely used as winter feed for domestic animals and as a source of *iodine and *potash; it is used as an *anti-goitre remedy and is considered to relieve *rheumatic conditions; it may have *antiviral and *anti-HIV activity; alternative name: *kelp (Am). blazing star (Am) – Chamaelirium luteum (liljefamily, Liliaceae s.lat.) is an important medicinal plant in Eastern North America, its root has long been used for women’s complaints, especially for *menstrual problems encouraging a regular menstrual cycle, *menopausal symptoms, ovarian *cysts, *uterine *infections and *endometriosis; alternative names: *false unicorn root and *helonias. bleeding – the loss of blood from the vascular system; many plants have *astringent qualities thus useful to stop bleeding, e.g. *Acacia arabica (*babul) & fischeri (Fabaceae), Achillea millefolium (*milfoil or *yarrow, Asteraceae), Achyranthes bidentata (*niu xi, Amaranthaceae), *Adhatoda engleriana (Acanthaceae), *Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae), Agrimonia eupatoria (*agrimony) & pilosa (*Chinese agrimony or *xian he cao, Asteraceae), Alchemilla spp. (*Lady’s mantle, Rosaceae), Alnus glutinosa (*alder, Betulaceae), *Amaranthus hypochondrius (*Indian amaranth) & spinosus (*needle bur, *prickly or *spiny amaranth, Amaranthaceae), Artemisia verlotiorum (*Chinese mug wort, Asteraceae), Bistorta major (*bistort, Polygonaceae), Butea monosperma (*flame of the forest or *palas, Fabaceae), Capparis spinosa (*caper, Capparidaceae), Capsella bursa-pastoris (*shepherd’s purse, Brassicaceae), Caulophyllum thalictroides (*blue cohosh, *papoose root or *squaw root, Berberidaceae), *Celtis australis (*nettle tree, Celtidaceae), *Cissus quadrangularis (Vitaceae), Conyza (Erigeron) canadensis (*Canadian fleabane, Asteraceae), Cornus officinalis (*shan zhu yu, Cornaceae), *Crassocephalum crepidioides (Asteraceae), Crocus sativus (*saffron crocus, Iridaceae), Cycnium herzfeldiana (Orobanchaceae), *Delonix elata (Fabaceae), *Eclipta prostrata (*trailing or *white eclipta, Asteraceae), Equisetum arvense (*common horsetail, Equisetaceae; Pterophyta), Ficus benghalensis (*banyan tree, Moraceae), Gardenia jasminoides (*Chinese gardenia or *zhi zi, Rubiaceae), Gentiana lutea (*yellow gentian) & purpurea (*purple gentian), Geranium maculatum (American cranesbill, Geraniaceae), Gossypium herbaceum (*Levant cotton, Malvaceae), Hamamelis virginiana (*American witch hazel, Hamamelidaceae), Hieracium pilosella (*mouse-ear hawkweed, Asteraceae), *Juniperus communis (*juniper, Cupressaceae), Kickxia elatine (*fluellin, Scrophulariaceae), Krameria triandra (*rhatany, Krameriaceae), Lamium album (*white deadnettle, Lamiaceae), Lysimachia vulgaris (*yellow loosestrife, Primulaceae), Lythrum salicaria (*purple loosestrife, Lythraceae), *Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae), *Opuntia spp. (*barbary fig or *prickly pear, Cactaceae), Panax notoginseng (*Chinese ginseng or *notoginseng, Araliaceae), *Pergularia extensa (*pergularia, Apocynaceae, Asclepidoideae), Piper angustifolia (*matico, Piperaceae), Plantago major (*broad-leaved or *common plantain, Plantaginaceae), Polgonum aviculare (*knotgrass, Polygonaceae), Potentilla anserina (*silverweed, Rosaceae), Prunella vulgaris (*selfheal, Lamiaceae), Prunus mume (*Japanese apricot or *wu mei, Rosaceae), Pulmonaria officinalis (*lungwort, Boraginaceae), Ruscus aculeatus (*box-holly or *butcher’s broom, Ruscaceae), *Salix alba (*white willow) & fragilis (*crack willow) & nigra (*black willow, salicaceae), Sanicula europaea (*sanicle, Apiaceae), *Tamarindus indica (*tamarind, Fabaceae), Trillium 58 erectum (*beth root, Trilliaceae), *Typha angustifolia (bulrush, *pu huang) & latifolia (*bulrush, Typhaceae), Urtica dioica (*common nettle or *nettle, Urticaceae) and Vinca minor (*lesser periwinkle, Apocynaceae); for heavy menstrual bleeding see *hypermenorrhoea. bleedwood tree – Pterocarpus angolensis (Fabaceae); in Zambia the red sap from under the bark is used to control *ringworm and to heal sores; an *enema of the sap is used to expel *intestinal parasites, and a *decoction of the root is used as a remedy for *gonorrhoea and intestinal *worms (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). blennorrhagia – inflammation of the mucous linings or membranes often resulting in excessive secretion and discharge of *mucus; plants used to alleviate this condition include *blue waterlily (Nymphaea nouchalii, Nymphaeaceae), Rauvolfia vomitoria (Apocynaceae), Sarcocephalus latifolia (Rubiaceae), Smilax anceps (Smilacaceae), *Californian pepper tree (*Schinus molle, Anacardiaceae), and several species of the genus *Zanthoxylum, including *East African prickly ash (Zanthoxylum chalybeum, Rutaceae). Blepharis (Acanthaceae) – a genus with about 100 species of herbs or shrubs native to the Old World tropics, but with the centre of diversity in Africa (3 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Sukuma use the leaves and roots of B. maderaspatensis for *eye-ache and any infection in the eyes; in southern Tanzania the Yao crush the leaves of B. pratensis for the treatment of *earache (Kokwaro 1976). Blepharispermum (Asteraceae) – a genus with about 15 species of shrubs or trees native from Africa to India (9 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Sukuma use the roots of B. zanguebaricum to treat *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976). blepharitis – *inflammation of the eyelids; among plants used to relieve this condition are *eyebright, i.e. species of the genus Euphrasia (Orobanchaceae), and *Blepharis maderaspatensis (Acanthaceae). blessed thistle – Cnicus benedictus (Asteraceae) is an annual Mediterranean herb; for medicinal use see *holy thistle. Blighia (Sapindaceae) – a genus of 3 species of trees or large shrubs native to tropical Africa (2 species native to East Africa and Uganda); in West Uganda the leaves of B. unijugata are used to treat *cough and *splenomegally (Kakudidi et al. 2000), while an infusion of pounded roots is drunk as a remedy for *fever (Kokwaro 1976); in West Africa the powdered leaf of B. sapida (*akee tree) mixed with water is given to an infant which is *vomiting (Watt & BreyerBrandwijk 1962). blister – thin vesicle on the skin filled with serum, and caused by rubbing, friction, burn, etc. bloat – a distension of the rumen of cattle caused by accumulation of gases of fermentation. bloating – to have the intestinal system full of gas; plants used as remedies for bloating include Acorus calamus (*sweet flag or *sweet sedge, Acoraceae), Agathosma betulina (*buchu, Rutaceae), Aletris farinosa (*colic root, *star grass or *true unicorn root, Liliaceae s.lat.), Allium fistulosum (*scallion, Alliaceae), Chamaemelum nobile (*Roman chamomile, Asteraceae), Carum carvi (*caraway, Apiaceae), Chamomilla recutita (*German chamomile, Asteraceae), Coriandrum sativum (*ciliantro or *coriander, Apiaceae), Eletteria cardamomum (*cardamom), Ferula assa-foetida (*asafoetida or *devils dung, Apiaceae), Foeniculum vulgare (*fennel), Iberis amara (*candytuft or *wild candytuft, Brassicaceae), Leptandra virginiva (*black root, Scrophulariaceae), Melissa officinalis (*balm, *bee balm or *lemon balm, Lamiaceae), Mentha aquatica (*watermint) & × piperita (*peppermint) & spicata (*spear mint, Lamiaceae), Lippia citriodora (*lemon verbena), Nigella sativa (*black cumin, Ranunculaceae), Pimpinella anisum (*anise, Apiaceae), Piper cubeba (*cubeb) & nigrum (*black and *white pepper, Piperaceae) and Syzygium aromaticum (*clove, Myrtaceae). blood – the fluid that circulates in the vascular system of humans and other vertebrates; it consists of plasma consisting of blood serum and plasma protein fibrinogen, in which is suspended 3 types of structures, viz. red blood cells (RBC) or erythrocytes, white blood cells (WBC) or leukocytes, 59 and the much smaller trombocytes; usually 1 mm3 blood contains about 5 000 000 red cells and 7000 white cells. blood cholesterol – a colourless crystalline *fat occurring in blood and tissues of the animal organism; see *cholesterol; various plants are able to regulate cholesterol levels; the following plants are believed to lower blood cholesterol levels: *arjuna (Terminalia arjuna, Combretaceae), *artichoke (Cynara scolymus, Asteraceae), *aubergine (Solanum melongea, Solanaceae), *bran of barley (Hordeum vulgare, Poaceae), *Chinese foxglove (Rehmannia glutinosa, Scrophulariaceae), *East India walnut (Albizia lebbeck, Fabaceae), *fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum, Fabaceae), *garlic (Allium sativum, Alliaceae), *rose (Rosa gallica, Rosaceae), *safflower (Carthamnus tinctorius, Asteraceae), *turmeric (Curcuma longa, Zingiberaceae) and *walnut (Juglans cinerea, J. nigra & J. regia); another species *flowery knotweed (Polygonum muliflorum, Polygonaceae) will raise cholesterol levels. blood circulation – the flowing of blood through the vascular system of humans and other vertebrates; many plants are warming *stimulants improving blood circulation, e.g. *chilli (Capsicum frutescens, Solanaceae), *Chinese angelica (Angelica sinensis, Apiaceae) and broadleaved paper bark tree (Melaleuca viridiflora, Myrtaceae). blood clotting – the thickening of the blood forming clots not able to flow through the thinner blood veins; some plants prevent or reduce blood clotting (*anticoagulant), e.g. *corn silk (Zea mays), *cowslip (Primula veris), *gingko (Ginkgo biloba), *hairy strophanthus (Strophanthus hispidus) and *turmeric (Curcuma longa); other plants encourage blood clotting thus help stop *bleeding, e.g. Chinese agrimony (Agrimonia pilosa), Chinese ginseng (Panax notoginseng), Croton macrostachyum, *cutch (Acacia catechu) and Euphorbia grantii. blood flower – Scadoxus katherinae and S. multiflorus (Amaryllidaceae), Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae) and Calothamnus sanguineus (Myrtaceae); for medicinal use see *Scadoxus. blood pressure – force originating in the pumping action of the heart, exerted by the blood against the walls of the blood vessels; the stretching of the vessels in response to this force and their subsequent contraction are important in maintaining blood flow through the vascular system; the highest (systolic) pressure, normally about 120 (100 to 140) mm Hg, occurs during contraction of the ventricles; the lowest (diastolic) pressure, normally about 80 (60 to 100) mm Hg, occurs during ventricular relaxation; *hypertension is elevation of blood pressure; certain plants will regulate blood pressure, e.g. *aubergine (Solanum melongea); many plants lowers blood pressure, e.g. *Chinese foxglove, Rehmannia glutinosa (Scrophulariaceae) and *corn silk of maize (Zea mays, Poaceae); other such plants are *Chamaecrista nigricans (Fabaceae), *Diodia sarmentosa (Rubiaceae), *Gomphocarpus physocarpus (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Kigelia pinnata (Bignoniaceae), *Milicia excelsa (Moraceae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae), *Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae), *Senna didymobotrya (Fabaceae), *Sesamum angustifolium (Pedaliaceae), *Solanum aethiopicum (Solanaceae), *Tinnea aethiopica (Lamiaceae) and *Tylosema fassoglensis (Fabaceae). blood root – Sanguinaria canadensis (Papaveraceae) is a North American herb whose rhizome is a strong *expectorant that also has *antiseptic and local *anaesthetic properties; in herbal medicine blood root has been used as an expectorant promoting *coughing and the clearing of *mucus from the *respiratory tract, as a gargle for *sore throats, to treat *bronchitis, *asthma and *whooping cough, and for *fungal and *viral *skin conditions such as *warts and *athlete’s foot. blood sugar – *glucose in the blood; many plants are taken to reduce blood sugar levels, e.g. Arctium lappa (*burdock, Asteraceae), *Azadirachta indica (*margosa tree or *neem, Meliaceae), Cynara scolymus (*artichoke, Asteraceae), Lythrum salicaria (*purple loosestrife, Lythraceae), Ocimum sanctum (*basil or *tulsi, Lamiaceae), *Olea europaea (*olive, Oleaceae) and *Phyllanthus amarus (*phyllanthus, Phyllanthaceae); another species, *flowery knotweed (Polygonum muliflorum, Polygonaceae), will increase blood sugar levels. blood wort – Sanguinaria canadensis (Papaveraceae); for medicinal use see *blood root. 60 blow flies – metallic blue or green flies from the genera Chrysomia and Lucilia; the larvae of a few species feed in the living flesh of man, especially in *wounds and *sores; infestation with larvae of flies is called *myiasis; other species will, like the *house fly, transmit diseases like *dysentery, *tuberculosis, *typhoid and *yaws; alternative name: *bluebottles. Congo floor maggot – yellowish brown flies from the genera Auchmeromyia and Cordylobia; the larvae of Auchmeromyia hide in cracks in the floor of huts during the day and come out at night to suck the blood of people sleeping; blue African lily – species of the genus Agapanthus (Amaryllidaceae); for medicinal use see *African blue lily. blueberry1 – Europe: Vaccinium myrtillus (Ericaceae) is a widespread dwarf shrub throughout temperate regions of the Eurasia; its berry is a natural *antioxidant and is widely eaten fresh, in jam, juice or soup; it has long been used as a mild *laxative (because of its sugars), and to relieve *diarrhoea and *indigestion (due to *tannins), and because it tastes nicely it is particularly useful for young children; the berries heal *inflammation and improve *capillary function, thus helping to heal *haemorrhoids, easy *bruising, high *blood pressure, *diabetes and blood flow to the eyes; bilberry fruits help the eyes to adjust to the dark and stimulate the part of the *retina most involved in seeing clearly; the leaves have a marked *antiseptic effect within the *bladder and *urinary tract; the leaves are mildly *anti-diabetic, helping in pre-diabetic states; alternative names: *bilberry and blue *whortleberry. blueberry2 – North America: Vaccinium corymbosum (Ericaceae); alternative names: swamp blueberry and high bush blueberry; low blueberry is V. pennsylvanicum; like in the European blueberry the berries of these species are rich in *vitamin C and also important *antioxidants. blue bottle – Centaurea cyanus (Asteraceae); for medicinal use see *cornflower. bluebottles– metallic blue or green flies from the genera Chrysomia and Lucilia; the larvae of a few species feed in the living flesh of man, especially in wounds and sores; infestation with larvae of flies is called *myiasis; other species will like the *house fly transmit diseases like *dysentery, *tuberculosis, *typhoid and *yaws; alternative name: *blow flies. blue Cape plumbago – Plumbago capensis (Plumbaginaceae); for medicinal use see *Plumbago. blue cohosh (Am) – Caulophyllum thalictroides (Berberidaceae) is an important medicinal plant in Eastern North America, its root has long been used for women’s complaints, especially for *menstrual problems encouraging a regular menstrual cycle, help to reduce heavy menstrual *bleeding and *periodic (*uterine and *ovarian) pain, and improve contractions during *labour; it has been used as a *contraceptive by native Americans by both sexes, but may cause malformation of the *embryo and *foetus in the womb; alternative names: *papose root and *squaw root. blue flag (Am) – Iris versicolor (Iridaceae) is a North American lily sometimes cultivated in gardens; it has a rhizome widely used by native Americans as an *emetic, *cathartic and *diuretic, for *colds, *earache, *cholera and to treat *wounds; today the plant is mainly used to detoxify the body and as a mild *laxative, to treat *skin diseases such as *acne and *eczema, *biliousness and *indigestion. blue gum – Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae) is a large fast-growing Australian tree widely planted in hot countries for timber or firewood; it causes strong reduction in biodiversity as the trees absorb huge quantities of water and cover the ground with only slowly degenerating thick leaves, which prevent germination and seedling establishment. Eucalyptus oil is a strong *antiseptic and *expectorant, and in addition has the ability to dilate the small airways (*bronchioles) of the *lungs; it is an aboriginal remedy for *infections and *fevers, and is now used worldwide for treating *colds, *coughs, *flu, *sore throats, *sinus problems, *catarrh, *chest infections, *bronchitis, *pneumonia, *earache and *rheumatic pains. 61 blue lotus (of Egypt) – Nymphaea nouchalei, previously named N. caerulea or N. capensis (Nymphaeaceae) is a very beautiful aquatic plant; for medicinal use see *Nymphaea; alternative names: *Cape blue waterlily and *blue waterlily. blue passion flower – Passiflora caerulea (Passifloraceae) is a popular house plant; for medicinal use see *Passiflora. blue toadflax – Linaria canadensis (Veronicaceae) is a North American *diuretic and *laxative herb used to relieve *haemorrhoids. blue top – Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae) is a troublesome weed in tropical and hot countries; for medicinal use see *Ageratum; alternative name: *billy goat weed, *goat weed, *tropic ageratum and *winter weed. blue vervain – Verbena hastata (the vervain family, Verbenaceae) is a perennial herb native to North America; it has *tonic, *restorative properties, and is taken to improve *digestive function and relieve *anxiety and *stress; it also eases *headaches and *migraines; *vervain is V. officinalis; rose vervain is V. canadensis. blue waterlily – Nymphaea nouchali, previously named N. caerulea or N. capensis (Nymphaeaceae) is a very beautiful aquatic plant; for medicinal use see *Nymphaea; alternative names: *Cape blue waterlily and *blue lotus (of Egypt). blue waterlily – Nymphaea nouchalei, før N. caerulea (Nymphaeaceae); for medicinal use see *Nymphaea; alternative name: Blumea (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 120 species of annual or perennial herbs in the old world tropics (6 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda, or if excluding Laggera then 3 species in East Africa and 1 species in Uganda); the genus *Laggera is often included in Blumea, but is kept separate in FTEA Asteraceae part 2 (2002); in Tanzania a root decoction of B. axillaris (= B. mollis) is drunk 2-3 times a day for the treatment of *gonorrhoea (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of B. crispata (B. alata or Laggera crispata) are taken to ease *diarrhoea (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Tanzania the roots of this herb are used to treat *hiccups and *colds in the head (Kokwaro 1976); see also *Laggera. blurred vision – obscure sight; the state of seeing indistinct; some plants are believed to improve this condition, e.g. *Chinese wolfberry (Lycium chinense) and *bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) fruits. Boerhavia (Nyctaginaceae) – a genus of about 40 species (in Uganda 4 species) of annual or perennial herbs native to most tropical and warm regions, sometimes occurring as weeds; in Uganda the fresh leaves of B. diffusa are macerated in cold water and drunk to prevent premature *labour (Adjanohoun 1993); in West Uganda the leaves and roots of B. diffusa are boiled and eaten to improve *sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); in Kenya the leaves of B. erecta has been used by the Luo to treat *diarrhoea and *ringworm (Geissler et al. 2002). bog asphodel – Narthecium ossifragum (Liliaceae s.lat.) is an attractive temperate bog lily which cause photosensitisation when eaten by sheep resulting in severe wounds; see also *horse-brush (Tetradymia). bogbean or bog bean – Menyanthes trifoliata (Menyanthaceae) is a widespread wetland plant of cold and temperate parts of the northern hemisphere; it is a major plant in the vegetation development from open water to bog; the leaves have been used to treat *arthritis, *rheumatism, *scabies and *fever; *bogbean is a strongly *bitter herb that encourages the appetite and stimulates *digestive secretions; alternative name: *buckbean. bogbean family – Menyanthaceae is a small family with 5 genera and about 40 species widely distributed in all continents; Menyanthes trifoliata is of medicinal use. bog-berry – Vaccinium oxycoccus and V. macrocarpon (Ericaceae); for medicinal use see *cranberry. bog-moss – species of the genus Sphagnum (Sphagnaceae, Bryophyta); this moss is *antiseptic and has been widely used for bandaging, especially in times of war. 62 bog-myrtle – Myrica gale (Myricaceae) is a widespread strongly aromatic shrub of temperate northern bogs and wet heathlands; it is an effective repellent and *insecticide and has been widely used to repel *fleas and *midges thus reducing *viral infections. bog-violet – Pinguicula vulgaris (Lentibulariaceae); for medicinal use see *butterwort. bog-whortleberry – Vaccinium uliginosum (Ericaceae); like *blueberry the berry of this plant is rich in *vitamin C and a natural *antioxidant. boil – hard inflamed tumour forming *pus (*suppurating) on the body, often the *pyrogenic infection originates in a hair follicle; boils are being treated by many different plants, e.g. *burdock (Arctium lappa), *clove (Zyzygium aromaticus), *comfrey (Symphytum officinale), *dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), *purple coneflower (Echinacea spp.), *garlic (Allium sativum), *lemon (Citrus limon), *marigold (Calendula officinalis), *myrrh (Commiphora molmol) and *tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia). boldo (Am) – Peumus boldus (Apiaceae) is a strongly aromatic South American shrub; the leaves stimulate *liver activity and *bile flow and are valued as a remedy for *gallstones and *liver or *gallbladder pain; boldo is also a mild *urinary *antiseptic and *demulcent. Bombacaceae – a family of about 20 genera and 180 species of trees widely distributed in the tropics, but with most species from South America; the genus *Adansonia is of medicinal use. Bonamia (Convolvulaceae) – a genus with 45 species of shrubby climbers or subshrubs widely distributed in tropical regions (2 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in coastal Tanzania the Zaramo apply the dry and powdered roots of B. mossambicensis on *wounds (Kokwaro 1976). Bonatea (Orchidaceae) – a genus with nearly 20 species of terrestrial orchids native to tropical Africa with 1 species reaching Yemen (6 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in Tanzania a root decoction of B. steudneri is drunk for *stomach problems such as *indigestion, and also used as a remedy for *influenza, and the crushed tuberous roots are placed on *sores caused by *maggots, acting both as a *poultice and maggot killer (Kokwaro 1976). boneset (Am) – Eupatorium perfoliatum (Asteraceae) is a North American herb widely used to treat *arthritis, *colds, *fever and *rheumatic pains; the plant increases resistance to *viral and *bacterial *infections, and reduces fever by encouraging sweating; it also loosens *phlegm and promotes its removal through *coughing; it was once upon a time a virtual *cure-all. Boophone (Amaryllidaceae) – a genus of 6 species (1 native to Uganda) native to eastern and southern Africa; B. disticha (*poison bulb) is a very poisonous (Verdcourt & Trump 1969) dry country herb with a very large bulb; the juice of the bulb is used as arrow poison and to increase *sexual potency (if instead paralyzed, powder of the burnt bulb is rubbed into the skin of the paralyzed part); the silky outer scales of the bulb are used as a dressing on *abscesses, *boils, *burns, areas of *rheumatic pain, *skin diseases, and *septic wounds. borage – Borago officinalis (Boraginaceae) is an annual herb from Mediterranean countries widely cultivated as an ornamental or culinary herb in gardens; the blue flowers are often used in salads and the seed oil is very rich in polyunsaturated fats; the seed oil is used to treat *premenstrual complaints, *rheumatic problems, *eczema and other *chronic *skin conditions; borage is a *demulcent herb and soothes *respiratory problems; the flowers encourage sweating and the leaves are *diuretic. borage family – *Boraginaceae; see below. Boraginaceae – a family of 154 genera and about 2500 species of trees, shrubs and herbs widely distributed in both hot and cold countries; many genera are used as medicines, e.g. Borago (*borage), *Cordia, *Cynoglossum, *Ehretia, *Heliotropium, Pulmonaria (*lungwort) and *Trichodesma. Borassus (Arecacaceae or Palmae) – a palm genus with about 5 species in Africa and Asia (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); B. aethiopum has edible fruit and roots; the fruit is a rich source of *vitamins A and C, the sprouting seed is used as a *diuretic and *galactogogue and the 63 root juice is taken as a *diarrhoea remedy (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); English names: *African fan palm and *Borassus palm. Borassus palm – *Borassus aethiopum (Arecaceae), a large tree with fan-shaped leaves and edible fruit and roots also used in medicine; for medicinal use see *Borassus; alternative name: *African fan palm. Boscia (Capparidaceae) – a genus of 37 species (in East Africa 8 species; in Uganda 3 species) of shrubs and trees native to Africa and Arabia; in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam apply the soaked bark of B. angustifolia to the body to treat *malaria (Heine & König 1988); in Tanzania the bark is boiled in water and the decoction drunk in small quantities three times a day to cure *malaria, and in Kenya the leaves of B. coriacea are chewed and the juice swallowed to stop *stomach pain, while the roots are used as a remedy for *gonorrhoea (Kokwaro 1976); the fruits and seeds of B. salicifolia are edible, and in times of famine also the leaves are eaten; in Niger a plaster of dry leaves is applied to painful places; in Tanzania a *decoction of the root is drunk against *diarrhoea and *mental illness, and the leaves are used to treat *boils, swellings of the glands and *supporating abscesses and for fever in cattle; the bark is taken for various women’s diseases (Kokwaro 1976; Neuwinger 1996); B. senegalensis is a mostly West African species; it is used as arrow poison and as a medicine to treat *bilharzia, *colds, *colic, *eczema, feverish *cholecystitis, *gingivitis, *haemorrhoids, *intestinal worms, itching eyes, *jaundice, sexual weakness, *syphilis, *toothache and *ulcers (Neuwinger 1996). Boswellia (Burseraceae) – a genus of about 24 species of trees or shrubs native to the old world tropics (2 species in Uganda); several species have fragrant resins used in incense or as medicines; frankincense (*gum olibanum) is obtained from B. sacra from NE Africa and African elemi from B. carteri and B. frereana from Somalia; on the Kenyan coast the Digo take a decoction of the root of B. neglecta (B. hildebrandtii) as a *diuretic and as a remedy for *gonorrhoea (Kokwaro 1976); *Indian olibanum (B. serrata) is an important Indian medicinal plant. Bothriocline (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 40 species of shrubs native to tropical Africa and Madagascar (27 species in East Africa, 10 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of B. longipes (= Erlangea tomentosa) are crushed with a little water and the paste put on sores caused by skin *maggots to kill the maggots; the raw roots are chewed for *sore throats, and an extract from roots and leaves is drunk to stop *vomiting (Kokwaro 1976); in Central Uganda the Baganda give a ½ teaspoon of a leaf decoction to babies as a *tonic (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in West Uganda the root of B. longipes is used to treat *conjunctivitis (Kakudidi et al. 2000), and the leaves for *abdominal and *pre-menstrual pain often associated with *vomiting and *diarrhoea, and for *cough and open wounds in infants (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi 2000); in West Uganda the leaves of B. longipes are boiled, steamed or squeezed and eaten or inserted in vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005). bo-tree – Ficus religiosa (the fig family, Moraceae) is a long-living Indian tree sacred to Hindus and Buddhists; it is cultivated in any tropical region where Indians have settled; the leaves are taken for *diarrhoea, *constipation and *dysentery; the powdered fruit is used for *asthma and the white latex is applied to aching *joints, *haemorrhoids and *warts; alternative names: *peepal, *peepul, *pipal, *pipul and sacred bo-tree. bottlebrush (tree) – species of the genera Callistemon og Melaleuca (Myrtaceae); for medicinal uses see *cajuput (Melaleuca leucadendron) and *tea tree (M. alternifolia). Bougainvillea family – see *Nyctaginaceae for genera with medicinal value. boviform spongiform encefalopati (BSE) – a deadly disease which attacks the brain in cows and other mammals; the disease is believed to be caused by mutations in a protein (and not by bacteria or viruses); in sheep the disease is named *scrapie; the disease occasionally attacks humans and the disease is then named *Creuzfeldt-Jakobs disease. 64 bowel cancer – cancer in the larger or smaller bowels (*intestines); *bran of barley (Hordeum vulgare) may have the effect of preventing bowel cancer. bowels – the *alimentary canal, which consists of the large bowel (*colon) and the small bowel (*intestine); the large bowel starts from the stomach (*pylorus) and ends in the *duodenum; the small bowel is the lower part of the alimentary canal and extends from the duodenum to the *anus and consists of a longer narrow part. bowstring hemp – strong durable fibres obtained from Sansevieria zeylanica and other species of the genus Sansevieria (Agavaceae); for medicinal uses see *Sansevieria. box-holly – Ruscus aculeatus (Ruscaceae) is an evergreen perennial from Europe, North Africa and adjoining Asia; it is sometimes cultivated in gardens; it contains *saponins, which are *antiinflammatory and cause the contraction of blood vessels; it is often used for *venous problems, and has been shown to have a positive effect on *varicose veins and *haemorrhoids; in the past it was used to promote urine flow and *menstrual *bleeding; alternative name: *butcher’s broom. boxthorn – species of the genus Lycium (Solanaceae), a genus of about 100 species in temperate and subtropical regions of both hemispheres; alternative names: *matrimony-vine and *wolfberry; see also *Chinese matrimony-vine (Am), *Duke of Argyll’s tea-plant (Lycium halimifolium), and *tea-plant. BPH (*benign enlargement of the *prostate gland) – a painful enlargement of the muscular, glandular organ which surrounds the *urethrea of males at the base of the bladder; this condition is sometimes improved using seeds of *pumpkin Cucurbita pepo (the pumpkin family, Cucurbitaceae). Brachiaria (Poaceae) – a grass genus of about 90 species widely distributed in tropical and warm countries, but most species in tropical Africa; in West Uganda the leaves of B. brizantha are used to treat *fever and heart *palpitations and to quicken *labour (Kakudidi et al. 2000). Brachystephanus (Acanthaceae) – a genus with about 10 species of herbs or shrubs native to tropical Africa and Madagascar; in Tanzania the Shambaa drink a *decoction of the roots of B. holstii for *intestinal disorders, while the pounded roots are used for the treatment of *gland irritation (Kokwaro 1976). bracken – the fern Pteridium aquilinum (Polypodiaceae/Dennstaedtiaceae); animals and people eating bracken often develop *cancer such as *leucemia; trembling bracken is Pteris tremula (Pteridaceae). Brackenridgea (Ochnaceae) – a genus with about 12 species of trees or shrubs native to the old world tropics (2 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in East Africa the powdered roots of B. zanguebarica are (yellow like iodoform) used to treat *wounds, while the powdered leaves and branches are used to treat *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976). bramble – certain species of the genus Rubus (the rose family, Rosaceae) with black fruits; for medicinal use see Rubus. bran – the outer coat or covering of *grains like *barley, *wheat and *rye, usually separated from the grain before this is made into flour; bran is considered beneficial for *digestion; bran of barley may have the effect of lowering *cholesterol and preventing *bowel cancer. Brassica (Brassicaceae) – a genus of about 30 species widely distributed in the Mediterranean area, Asia and a few in Africa and temperate Europa (in Uganda 4-5 species cultivated or weedy); most well known are the different forms of B. oleracea (*cabbage), which are cultivated worldwide as vegetables rich in *vitamins A, B and C; leaves of cabbage have been widely used as a *poultice on *swellings, *wounds, *tumours and painful *joints; leaves eaten raw or cooked aid *digestion and the breakdown of *toxins such as *alcohol in the *liver, and it has in fact been widely used to ease a *hangover; because of the high *vitamin C content and the fact that it is green in winter (except in the coldest countries) cabbage was in the past important in the prevention of *scurvy; excessive eating of cabbage may cause *goitre both in animals and 65 humans; in Tanzania mothers drink a decoction of B. carinata (= B. integrifolia auct.) root pounded in water to improve *lactation. Brassicaceae (earlier Cruciferae) – a family comprising about 390 genera and 3000 species of annual or perennial herbs, rarely shrubby, and widely distributed in both hot and cold countries; many genera contain species which are useful medicinal herbs, e.g. *Brassica (*cabbage), Capsella (*shepherd’s purse), *Cardamine, Cheiranthus (*wallflower), *Erucastrum , Raphanus (*radish) and *Rorippa; vernacular names of family: *cress family, *mustard family and wallflower family; the family Capparidaceae is sometimes included in Brassicaceae, and this extended family will comprise 425 genera and 3700 species. Brazilian gingseng – Pfaffia paniculata (the amaranth family, Amaranthaceae) is a Brazilian climbing perennial; its root-stock is used as an *aphrodisiac and to treat *cancer, *diabetes and *wounds; alternative name: *pfaffia. Brazilian pepper tree – Schinus terebinthifolius (Anacardiaceae) is an ornamental tree cultivated in tropical regions; internally the bark is used as a *stimulant, *tonic and *astringent and externally for *rheumatism, *gout and *syphilis; the leaf and fruit are used as a lotion to bathe *wounds and *sores (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); breast cancer – cancer in the milk-secreting organs of women; this disease is sometimes treated using various plant medicines, e.g. Forsythia suspensa (*weeping forsythia, Oleaceae) and Linum usitatissimum (*flaxseed, Linaceae); see also *cancer. breast diseases – *chest diseases such as *asthma and *bronchitis; plants used to alleviate breast diseases include *banana leaves (Musa hybrids), broad-leaved paper bark tree (Melaleuca viridiflora, Myrtaceae), breast milk production – many different plants are taken as a means to increase milk production in mothers, e.g. Codonopsis pilosula (Chinese *codonopsis), *Dracaena steudneri (stem), *Ensete ventricosa (leaf sheath of wild banana), Nigella sativa (*black cumin), Ocimum basilicum (*basil) and *Vitex agnus-castus (*agnus castus); see Kakudidi et al. 2000; for other plants used see *lactation. breast problems – *chest diseases such as *asthma, *bronchitis and *pneumonia; plants used to alleviate breast problems include *balsam fir (Abies balsamea), *banana leaves (Musa hybrids), broad-leaved paper bark tree (Melaleuca viridiflora, Myrtaceae), *coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara, Asteraceae) and Eucalyptus spp. (Myrtaceae). breast tenderness – tenderness and *sore nipples in connectio with menstruation; plants used to treat this condition include *German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita) and *marigold (Calendula officinalis). breech – the buttocks. Breonadia (Rubiaceae) – a genus of a single species (B. salicina) native to tropical Africa and Madagascar; in Tanzania powdered bark is sprinkled on injuries and wounds, and in Malawi a decoction of the bark is taken for *colic and *diarrhoea; chewed twigs serve as toothbrushes. Brexia (Brexiaceae) – a genus of a single species or up to 9 closely related species of trees or shrubs native to Madagascar, with one species reaching the East African coast; in coastal Tanzania the roots of B. madagascariensis are used to treat *yaws (Kokwaro 1976). Brexiaceae – a small family of 3 genera and up to 12 species mostly native to Madagascar; the genus Brexia has species with medicinal use. Bridelia (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus of about 60 species of shrubs or trees in the old world tropics (8 species in East Africa, 5 species native to Uganda); in Tanzania a boiled root decoction or infusion of B. cathartica (including B. fischeri and B. niedenzu) is drunk for intestinal disorders and *stomach-ache, and to increase milk production in mothers (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the bark of B. micrantha is used as a remedy for *aching joints, *diarrhoea in small children, *stomach-ache and *tapeworm, while the roots are used to cure *headache; in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda B. micrantha is used by herbalists and midwives (Cunningham 66 1996); in Central Uganda the Baganda use boiled bark to bathe a baby with skin *rash (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in West Uganda the leaves are taken to ease *vomiting (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a root concoction of B. micrantha for *diarrhoea and blood-stained stool (Masinde 1996); in East Uganda a decoction of the root of B. scleroneura is drunk to cure *insanity and the bark is taken in tea to treat *hernia (Tabutu, Lye & Dhillion 2003), while the leaves are used to treat *paronychia (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania the Kerewe drink an infusion of the powdered roots for *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976). brier – species of the genus Smilax (Smilacaceae), e.g. cat brier and horse brier (S. rotundifolia); for medicinal use see *sarsaparilla and *Smilax. Brillantaisia (Acanthaceae) – a genus of about 40 species of herbs or shrubs native to Africa and Madagascar; in Uganda the leaves of B. kirungae are used to treat *urethritis and *psychotic excitement, also the leaves of B. mahonii are used for *psychotic excitement; the leaves together with roots of B. mahonii are used to treat *arthralgia (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). broad beans – Vicia faba (Fabaceae); the broad beans are rich in *protein and thus useful protection against *kwashiorkor. broad-leaved paper bark tree – Melaleuca viridiflora (Myrtaceae) is an evergreen tree from New Caledonia grown for its timber and essential oil; it has *antiseptic properties and is used to treat *colds, *coughs, *sore throats and *chest infections; this tree stimulates the *circulation and is *antispasmodic and may be used as a friction rub for *rheumatic joints and *neuralgia; alternative name: *niaouli; see also *cajaput (M. leucadendron), *narrow-leaved paperbark tree and *tea tree (M. alternifolia). broad-leaved plantain – Plantago major (Plantaginaceae), a troublesome weed; the leaves are widely applied to *wounds, *nettle rash and *insect bites and to stop *bleeding; used internally it is *diuretic, *expectorant and *anti-catarrhal and is commonly prescribed for *gastritis, *peptic ulcers, *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *respiratory catarrh and *urinary tract *bleeding; alternative names: *common plantain, *dooryard plantain, *great plantain and *whiteman’s foot. broccoli – Brassica oleracea var. asparagoides (Brassicaceae); sprouting broccoli is var. italica; this plant is rich in *vitamin C and will prevent contracting the fatal disease *scurvy. Bromeliaceae – a large family of about 50 genera and 2000 species mostly native to America, but with one genus reaching West Africa, and *ananas (Ananas sativa) is widely cultivated in all tropical and warm countries; the genus *Ananas has species with medicinal use. bronchial – pertaining to the bronchi (see *bronchus) of the lung. bronchial asthma – *asthma affecting the bronchi (see *bronchus); many different plants are used to treat this condition, e.g. *echinacea (Echinacea angustifolia, E. pallida or E. purpurea). bronchiectasis – a damaged air passage within the *lung; this condition is in Europe treated with *white horehound, Marrubium vulgare (the mint family, Lamiaceae). bronchitis – inflammation of the mucous membrane lining of the bronchial tubes of the lung; this condition is treated with a large number of medicinal herbs, including *white horehound, Marrubium vulgare (the mint family, Lamiaceae). bronchioles – small airways in the lungs; if the bronchioles are becoming narrowed causing *asthma, they can be delated by taking a decoction of *desert tea, Ephedra sinica (Ephedraceae; Gymnospermae) or other species of the genus Ephedra. bronchus (pl. bronchi) – either of the two main branches of the *trachea (the tube connecting the throat to the lungs); for diseases see *bronchial asthma and *bronchitis. broom1 – Cytisus scoparius (Fabaceae) is a widespread European shrub considered as a serious weed in some parts of western Europe; as a medicinal plant the flowering tops are used for an irregular, rapid *heart beat; broom acts on the electrical conductivity of the heart, slowing and regulating the transmission of the impulses; it also causes the muscles of the *uterus to contract, 67 and has been used to prevent blood loss after *childbirth; broom is also strongly *diuretic, stimulating *urine production and thus countering fluid retention. broom2 – Cytisus scoparius (Fabaceae) and other species of the genera Cytisus and Genista; *butcher’s broom is Ruscus aculestus (Ruscaceae). broomrape family – see *Orobanchaceae. broom-weed – Sida acuta (the mallow family, Malvaceae) is a troublesome weed in many countries; for medicinal use see *Sida; alternative names: *cheeseweed, *southern sida (USA) and *spinyhead sida. Brucea (Simaroubaceae) – a genus of 6 species of shrubs or small trees native to the Old World tropics (3 species in East Africa and 2 species in Uganda); in East Africa powdered leaves of B. antidysenterica is mixed with *ghee and taken as a medicine for *leprosy, *skin diseases and *wounds; boiled root decoction is used for *abdominal pain and *dysentery, and leaves and roots are cooked with meat to cure *indigestion and *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976). Brugmansia (Solanaceae) – a genus of 5 species of shrubs or trees native to the Americas, but particularly B. suaveolens (*angel’s trumpet) is widely cultivated as an ornamental or for honeybees, and is in Africa often naturalized in forest margins; in Uganda the leaves of B. suaveolens are used to treat pain of any origin resulting in sleeplessness (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). bruise – injury by a blow to the body tissue without breaking the skin, but causing discolorations. Brussels sprouts – Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera (Brassicaceae); this plant is rich in *vitamin C and will prevent contracting the fatal disease *scurvy. Bryophyllum (Crassulaceae) – a genus of about 30 species of rather succulent herbs native to Madagascar, but several species are cultivated and B. pinnatum is widely naturalized in continental Africa; in Uganda the stem of this species is used to prepare charms for protection against *evil spirits (Adjanohoun 1993). bryony – species of the genera Bryonia og Tamus (Cucurbitaceae), e.g. black bryony (Tamus communis) and white bryony (Bryonia cretica ssp. dioica); for medicinal use see *white bryony. BSE (Boviform Spongiform Encefalopati) – a deadly disease which attacks the brain in cows and other mammals; the disease is believed to be caused by mutations in a protein (and not by bacteria or viruses); in sheep the disease is named *scrapie; the disease occasionally attacks humans and the disease is then named *Creuzfeldt-Jakobs disease. bubo – an *inflammatory swelling of a *lymphatic gland, especially in the *groin or armpit. bubonic – relating to an enlargement of a *lymphatic gland usually leading to *suppurative inflation. bubonic plague – *black death; an epidemic disease of high mortality characterized by *buboes, *chills and *fevers; it is caused by a bacterium, Pasteurella pestis, that is transmitted to man by the rat flea Xenopsylla cheopis; plants reported to have been used to alleviate this disease include *Acacia clavigera (Fabaceae) and *Asparagus africanus (Asparagaceae). Buchnera (Orobanchaceae; or earlier Scrophulariaceae) – a genus with about 100 species of annual often hemi-parasitic herbs in tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world; in East Africa B. nuttii has been applied as a medicinal herb, but no specific use is now known (Kokwaro 1976). buchu – Agathosma (Barosma) betulina (Rutaceae) is a South African shrub taken as a general *stimulant, urinary *antiseptic and *diuretic and to relieve *digestive complaints such as *wind and *bloating; in the British Pharmacopoeia of 1821 it is listed as an effective remedy for ”*cystitis, *urethritis, *nephritis and *catarrh of the bladder”; in parts of South America it is grown as a commercial crop and used to increase the blackcurrant flavour of *cassia; in South Africa buchu leaf has been used about almost any disease (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); the Hottentot use the name ’buchu’ about any aromatic herb they find suitable for use as a dusting powder. buckbean –– Menyanthes trifoliata (Menyanthaceae) is a widespread wetland plant of cold and temperate parts of the northern hemisphere; the leaves have been used to treat *arthritis, 68 *rheumatism, *scabies and *fever; buckbean is a strongly *bitter herb that encourages the appetite and stimulates *digestive secretions; alternative name: *bogbean or bog bean. buckeye (Am) – species of the genus Aesculus (Hippocastanaceae), e.g. Californian buckeye (A. californica), Ohio buckeye (A. glabra), red buckeye (A. pavia), sweet og yellow buckeye (A. octandra); for medicinal use see *horse-chestnut. buckthorn – Rhamnus cathartica (Rhamnaceae) and other species of the genus Rhamnus; the bark of buckthorn has been widely used as a *laxative and *cathartic medicine for *constipation, but is now mostly used in veterinary medicine; alternative name: common buckthorn; *alder buckthorn is Frangula alnus (= Rhamnus frangula). buckthorn family – see *Rhamnaceae for medicinal use. buckwheat – Fagopyrum esculentum (Polygonaceae) is widely grown as a grain-crop in some temperate regions; it is probably native in the Middle East, but has been cultivated in Europe for about a thousand years; leaves and flowers are used for *circulatory problems, e.g. fragile *capillaries, *varicose veins, *chilblains, *haemorrhage in the *retina and high *blood pressure; buckwheat is also strongly *antioxidant due to its high content of the bioflavonoid *rutin. buckwheat family – Polygonaceae; for medicinal plants see *Polygonaceae; alternative name: knotweed family. buckthorn plantain – Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae) is used as a medicine in the same way as *common plantain (P. major); alternative name: *narrow-leaved plantain *ribgrass and *ribwort plantain. Buddha’s hand – a variant of Citrus medica (Rutaceae) with finger-like outgrowth on the fruit; it is used as a medicine and to scent rooms and flavour tea and sweets. buffalo bean – Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae); in Uganda the leaves of this plant are used to treat nervousness believed to be due to spirits (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania the leaves are pounded, boiled and the decoction drunk as a *styptic for *nose bleeding and other types of bleeding; in East Africa Tragia furialis (including T. scheffleri) is used to counteract the effects of the poisonous seeds of this plant (Kokwaro 1976). buffalo-thorn – Ziziphus mucronata (Rhamnaceae), a widespread African spiny tree or shrub; for medicinal use see *Ziziphus. bug – any of a group of insects that have sucking parts; see *bedbug; in Siberia *bugbane (Cimifuga foetida, Ranunculaceae) is used to chase away bugs. bugbane – Cimifuga foetida (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae) is in Siberia used to chase away *bugs, in China it is medicinal. bugle1 – Ajuga reptans (Lamiaceae) is a widespread herb in Europe, Asia and North Africa; it has long been valued as a *wound-healing herb, also for internal wounds; it is *bitter, *astringent, *aromatic, sligtly *analgesic and mildly *laxative; alternative name: common bugle. bugle2 – species of the genus Ajuga (the mint family, Lamiaceae), e.g. African bugle (A. remota), blue bugle (A. genevensis), Chinese bugle (A. decumbens), common bugle (A. reptans) and pyramidal bugle (A. pyramidalis). bugle lily – species of the genus Watsonia (Iridaceae); for medicinal use see *Watsonia. bugleweed (Am) – Lycopus virginicus (the mint family, Lamiaceae) has *sedative properties, and today this plant is mainly used to treat an overactive *thyroid gland, and the rapid *heartbeat that often accompanies this condition; bugleweed has also been considered as *astringent and calming to the nerves and reduces the production of *catarrh. bugloss – species of the genus Echium (Boraginaceae); for medicinal use see *vipers bugloss. bu gu zhi – Psoralea corylifolia (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a perennial herb cultivated as a tonic herb in China; the seeds are taken to treat *impotence, premature *ejaculation, frequent urination, *incontinence, *bed-wetting and to improve *vitality; it is used externally to treat *skin conditions such as *psoriasis, loss of hair (*alopecia) and loss of skin pigmentation (*vitiligo). 69 Bulbine (Asphodeliaceae; or earlier Liliaceae) – a genus with about 50 species of perennial herbs mainly confined to the Cape region in South Africa, but with 5 species in Australia and 1 species reaching north to the Sudan and Ethiopia, and also found in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania; for anthracene derivates in B. abyssinica see Wanjohi et al. (2005). bulrush – Typha angustifolia and T. latifolia (Typhaceae) are widespread plants in northern temperate wetlands and tropical uplands; the inflorescences are often used indoors for decoration in winter; the pollen, which is produced in very large amounts, is *astringent and in Chinese herbal medicine it is used to stop internal and external *bleeding; it may be mixed with honey and applied to *wounds and *sores; the pollen is now also used in the treatment of *angina. bupleurum – Bupleurum chinense (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is one of China’s ancient ”harmony” herbs balancing different organs and energies within the body; it is used as a *tonic, strengthening the action of the *digestive tract, improving the *liver function and helping to push blood to the surface of the body; the root is used as a *tonic and *anti-inflammatory; it also induces sweating, and in addition to strenthening the *liver, it is taken to reduce *fever (Chevallier 2001); alternative name: *hare’s ear root. burdock1 – species of the genus Arctium (Asteraceae), e.g. common or lesser burdock (A. minus) and great burdock (A. lappa); for medicinal use see below. burdock2 – Arctium lappa (Asteraceae) is one of the most important detoxifying herbs in both Chinese and western herbal medicine; the root and the fruits help to cleanse the body of waste products, and the root is believed to be particularly useful at eliminating *heavy metals; especially the fresh root has *antibiotic effect, both *antibacterial and *antifungal; burdock is also *diuretic and lowers *blood sugar levels (*hypoglycaemic); the fruits are *anti-inflammatory, *antioxidant and *hepatoprotective; burdock was in the past a remedy for *fevers, *gout and *kidney stones; alternative name: great burdock; other species of the genus have been used in a similar way. bur-marigold – species of the genus Bidens (Asteraceae); tripartite bur-marigold (B. tripartita) is *astringent and *diuretic; it has been used to to treat *bladder and *kidney problems, uterine *haemorrhage and conditions causing blood in the urine; it is useful in staunching blood flow, counteracting *peptic *ulceration and *diarrhoea; many species have fruits with spiny bristles and are weeds or ’trouble-plants; see also *black jack (Bidens pilosa), one of the world’s worst weeds, but also an important medicinal plant; for medicinal use see *Bidens. burnet – species of the genera Sanguisorba and Poterium (Rosaceae) and particularly S. officinalis (also named great burnet); see *spiny burnet (Poterium spinosum). burning bush – Dictamnus albus (Rutaceae) is a Mediterranean-Asian strongly aromatic bushy herb widely grown in gardens; it contains so much volatile oil that on a hot day it can burst into flames without damaging the plant (cf. the ”burning bush” of the Bible); in past European folk medicine it was used as an *antidote to *poison, *pestilence, and the bites of all poisonous animals; it strongly stimulates the muscles of the *uterus, starting *menstruation and can cause *abortion; it relaxes the *gut and acts as a mild tonic for the *stomach; it has also been used as a treatment for *nervous conditions; alternative name: *dittany. burns – many different plants are used to treat *burns, e.g. *Aloe vera gel or *lavender (Lavandula officinalis) essential oil is often applied to burns, sometimes also a lotion of Calendula officinalis (*marigold). burnut – species of the genus Tribulus (Zygophyllaceae); T. cistoides (*false puncture vine) og T. terrestris (*puncture vine) are both troublesome weeds; for medicinal use see *Tribulus; alternative name: *caltrop(s); see also *carpet weed, *ground burnup, *land caltrop, *Malta cross, *puncture weed and *sandbur. Burseraceae – a family of 17 genera and about 560 species of trees or shrubs native to all tropical regions (3 genera and 9 species native to Uganda); species from the genera *Boswellia and *Commiphora are used as medicines. 70 Bushman’s poison – Acokanthera venenata (Apocynaceae); for medicinal uses see *Acokanthera. Bussea (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae) – a genus of 6 tree species (2 species in Tanzania) native to tropical Africa and Madagascar; in Liberia B. occidentalis is used to poison fish and monkeys, and is taken as a medicine for *sleeping sickness and *jaundice together with Distemonanthes benthamianus. butcher’s broom1 – species of the genus Ruscus, and particularly R. aculeatus (Ruscaceae); for medicinal use see below. butcher’s broom2 – Ruscus aculeatus (Ruscaceae) is an evergreen perennial from Europe, North Africa and adjoining Asia; it is sometimes cultivated in gardens; it contains *saponins, which are *anti-inflammatory and cause the contraction of blood vessels; it is often used for *venous problems, and has been shown to have a positive effect on *varicose veins and *haemorrhoids; in the past it was used to promote urine flow and *menstrual *bleeding; alternative name: *boxholly. butcher’s broom famly – for medicinal use see *Ruscaceae. buteonine – a secondary nitrogen containing metabolic product; it is the deep red colour in the corm of red beet, Beta vulgaris (Chenopodiaceae); it is valuable as an *antioxidant. butter-and-eggs – Linaria vulgaris (Scrophulariaceae); for medicinal use see *common toadflax. butter bean – Phaseolus lunatus (limensis), also named *lima bean (Fabaceae); the name butter bean is more rarely used about Phaseolus vulgaris. butterbur – Petasites hybridus (Asteraceae) was in the past an important medicinal plant counteracting *pestilence, but is not much used today; other species in the genus are Japanese butterbur (P. japonicus) and white butterbur (P. albus). buttercup – species of the genus Ranunculus (Ranunculaceae), e.g. bulbous buttercup (R. bulbosus), creeping buttercup (R. repens), fan-leaved buttercup (R. paludosus), hairy buttercup (R. sardous), meadow buttercup (R. acris), Persian and turban buttercup (R. asiaticus); all species are poisonous to stock; see also *crowfoot, *goldilocks and *spearwort; all species are toxic; for medicinal use see *Ranunculus; Bermuda buttercup is Oxalis cernua. buttercup family – Ranunculaceae; for medicinal use see *Ranunculaceae. buttercup tree – species of the genera Cassia and Senna (Fabaceae, Caesalpiniaceae); for medicinal use see *Cassia and *Senna. butterfly-iris – species of the African genus Moraea (Iridaceae); the species are toxic to stock, but widely cultivated in tropical gardens; alternative names: *peacock iris and *wedding flower. butterfly-weed – Asclepias tuberosa (Asclepiadoideae/Apocynaceae); for medicinal use see *pleurisy root (an alternative name). butternut – Juglans cinerea (Juglandaceae) a large North American tree with valuable timber and edible fruits; the nuts are highly nutritious, lower *cholesterol levels and contain alpha-*linolenic acid; the inner bark has been used as a *laxative and *tonic remedy, to treat *headaches, *wounds, *constipation, *dysentery and *arthritic joints; butternut lowers *cholesterol levels, and promotes the clearance of waste products by the *liver; it is *anti-microbial and *astringent and may kill *intestinal worms; see also *black walnut (J. nigra) and *walnut (J. regia). butter tree – species of the genus Madhuca (Sapotaceae) from India; they are large trees with oil-rich fruits used as margarine; the seed oil is *laxative and is taken for *constipation and to loosen the *stool of *haemorrhoid sufferers; the leaves are applied as a *poultice to *eczema; the *expectorant flowers are used to treat *chest problems such as *bronchitis and to increase *breast-milk production; see also *shea butter tree (Vitellaria paradoxa). butterwort – insectivorous plants of the genus Pinguicula (Lentibulariaceae), e.g. alpine butterwort (P. alpina), common butterwort (P. vulgaris), downy butterwort (P. villosa), greater butterwort (P. grandiflora) and pale butterwort (P. lusitanica); in Scandinavia P. vulgaris has been widely used to curdle milk; it contains *cinnamic acid which has *antispasmodic properties; as a medicine butterwort is mainly used as a *cough remedy. 71 Butyrispermum paradoxum (Sapotaceae) – an old name for *Vitellaria paradoxa, *shea butter nut. Byrsocarpus orientalis (Connaraceae) – an old name for *Rourea orientalis. cabbage – different horticultural variants of Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae); this Eurasian herb is cultivated worldwide as a vegetable rich in *vitamins A, B and C; leaves of cabbage have been widely used as a *poultice on *swellings, *wounds, *tumours and painful *joints; leaves eaten raw or cooked aid digestion and the breakdown of *toxins such as *alcohol in the *liver, and it has in fact been widely used to ease a *hangover; because of the high *vitamin C content and the fact that it is green in winter (except in the coldest countries) cabbage was in the past important in the prevention of *scurvy; excessive eating of cabbage may cause *goitre both in animals and humans. cabbage-lettuce – Lactuca sativa var. capitata (the sunflower family, Asteraceae); for medicinal use see *lettuce; alternative name: *cos. cabbage tree1 – Anthocleista grandiflora (Loganiaceae) is a widespread timber tree in Uganda and East Africa; in Transvaal a decoction of the bark is used as a remedy for *malaria, and the bark is chewed as a remedy for *diarrhoea and *roundworm (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); New Zealand cabbage tree is Cordyline australis (Agavaceae). cabbage tree2 – species of the genus Cussonia (Araliaceae), e.g. spiked cabbage tree (C. spicata); for medicinal use see *Cussonia; see also *elephant’s toothbrush. cacao – Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae) is a small tree from Central America widely grown as a major crop throughout the tropics; its seed pulp is the major ingredient in plain and hot chocolate; as medicine cocoa has therapeutic value as a *nervous system stimulant, to treat *angina, and as a *diuretic; it contains *polyphenols which have strong *antioxidant activity within the heart and the *stomach; the seeds are taken as a heart and *kidney *tonic; they contain small amounts of *endomorphins, which are powerful *painkillers; alternative name: *cocoa; recent research has shown that also *chocolate has some of the medicinal values of the plant cacao. cachectic alopecia – loss of hair associated with general *debility; the debility may be due to poor food intake or unbalanced diet. Cactaceae – a mainly American plant family comprising 130 genera and 1650 species mostly confined to hot and dry climates, but much cultivated as indoor plants; in Africa the genus *Rhipsalis only is native, but species of the genus *Opuntia are established as troublesome weeds; many genera have species with medicinal uses, e.g. Lophophora (*mescal or *peyote), Opuntia (*fig cactus) and *Rhipsalis (*mistletoe cactus). cactus – a species or a plant of the family Cactaceae; the only native species in Uganda and East Africa is mistletoe cactus (Rhipsalis baccifera), but *fig cactus (Opuntia species) are cultivated and naturalized and many other species are cultivated as ornamentals; for medicinal uses see *fig cactus and *mescal (*peyote). cactus family – see Cactaceae. Cadaba (Capparidaceae) – a genus of about 30 species mostly native to the drier areas of Africa, but with some species reaching East Asia and North Australia (13 species in East Africa, 2 in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of C. farinosa are used to cure *gonorrhoea and *ulcers, and the ash of the plant is used for rubbing into the skin to cure general body pains (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use this plant as toothbrush, while the powdered roots are used to treat *eye disease in cattle (Heine & König 1988); in coastal East Africa an infusion of the leaves is heated and inhaled to clear the head of colds; in Mali a decoction of the leaves of C. farinosa is used to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); in Tanzania the roots of C. kirkii is taken together with those of Dioscorea dumetorum for the cure of *bilharzia (Kokwaro 1976). caecum – the blind gut situated at the beginning of the human large intestine. 72 Caesalpinia (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae) – a genus of about 100 species of trees, shrubs or hook climbers (3 species in Uganda); in West Uganda the rootbark of C. decapetata is used to treat male *impotence (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in East Africa the leaves of C. volkensii are used for many diseases, but particularly to treat *malaria; it is also considered an *aphrodisiac, and the pounded fruits are given to pregnant women with *stomach problems (Kokwaro 1976). caffeine – a bitter alkaloid, the most active substance in *coffee; it is a *stimulant and *diuretic; for medicinal use see *coffee and *Coffea. Cajanus (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of 2-3 species of shrubs or subshrubs widely distributed throughout the tropics, but probably native to Africa and southern Asia (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa the burnt ash of the stem of C. cajan (*pigeon pea) is applied to *wounds and *scalds; stalks are also chewed to alleviate *toothache (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves are used to treat *anaemia, *diarrhoea, *thread worms and for *leucorrhoea in pregnancy (Adjanohoun 1993); in West Uganda the leaves are used to treat *conjunctivitis, fever and retained *placenta (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves of this species are used to treat *anal itching and nose blockage in children (Okello & Ssegawa 2007). cajaput – Melaleuca leucadendron (Myrtaceae) is a large evergreen tree from South East Asia in many countries grown for its timber and essential oil; it has *antiseptic properties and is used to treat *colds, *coughs, *sore throats and *chest infections; cajaput stimulates the *circulation and is *antispasmodic and is used as a friction rub for *rheumatic joints and *neuralgia; see also *narrow-leaved paperbark tree (M. linariifolia), *niaouli (M. viridiflora) and *tea tree (M. alternifolia). cajuado – a liquor from Brazil made from the *cashew apple, which is a greenish, fleshy, swollen stem below the fruit of Anacardia occidentale (Anacardiaceae), an American tree with edible fruits much cultivated in Africa and Asia. Calabar bean – Physostigma venenosum (Fabaceae) is a highly poisonous West African legume sometimes applied for murder and in sacrifices. calabash gourd – Lagenaria siceraria (Cucurbitaceae) has a gourd widely used as a utensil, but its content is poisonous to rabbits and is sometimes used as medicine, see *Lagenaria. calamint – species of the genus Calamintha (Lamiaceae), e.g. alpine calamint (C. alpina), common calamint (C. ascendens/ officinalis/ sylvatica) and large calamint (C. grandiflora). Common calamint stimulates sweating and thus helps lower *fevers; it also settles *wind and *indigestion, and is *expectorant and a good *cough and *cold remedy. calcium (Ca) – calculus (pl.: calculi) – deposits of solid matter composed of mineral substance and salts formed in any portion of the body such as *kidney stone. calefacient – an agent, substance or drug that causes a sense of warmth, e.g. the plants Alpinia officinarum (*galangal, Zingiberaceae), Angelica sinensis (*Chinese angelica, Apiaceae), Capsicum frutescens (*Cayenne or chilli pepper, Solanaceae), Evodia rutaecarpa (*evodia, Rutaceae), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (*rose of China or *show flower, Malvaceae), Schizonepeta tenuifolia (*jing jie, Lamiaceae) and Zingiber officinalis (*ginger or *singabera, Zingiberaceae). Californian false hellebore – Veratrum californicum (Melianthiaceae), is a very toxic plant native to western North America; it is an effective *insecticide (*de-lousing agent), but can cause damage to human skin; a *decoction of the root was taken daily for three weeks by native Americans as a female *contraceptive to produce permanent *sterility; see also *American hellebore, *green false hellebore and *white false hellebore. Californian pepper tree – Schinus molle (Anacardiaceae) is an ornamental tree widely cultivated in all tropical regions; the leaf and bark is used to treat *wounds and *sores and internally as a *diuretic, for pain in the extremities and in *blennorrhagia; the gum-resin has been used as a remedy for *gout and *rheumatism and as a *purgative (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); 73 alternative names: *American mastic tree, *pepper tree; *Brazilian pepper tree is S. terebinthifolius. Californian poppy – Eschsholzia californica (the poppy family, Papaveraceae) is a widely grown annual in gardens; the sap of this poppy is used as a *painkiller, particularly for *toothache; unlike the *opium poppy this plant is not a *narcotic, but tends to normalize *psychological function; it is gently *antispasmodic, *sedative and *analgesic, and is thus used to treat physical and psychological problems in children. Callistemon (Myrtaceae) – a genus of about 20 species of trees and shrubs native to Australia, but widely planted as ornamentals in all tropical regions; in Uganda the stem, bark and leaves of C. citrinus are used to treat *cough (Kakudidi et al. 2000), and the leaves of C. speciosus (and probably related species) also for *whooping cough (Adjanohoun 1993). calomel – a white tasteless powder used chiefly as a *purgative and *fungicide. Caloncoba (Flacourtiaceae) – a genus of 10 species of shrubs or trees native to Africa (1 species native to Uganda); C. echinata is a source of *gorli oil used like *chaulmoogra oil in the treatment of *leprosy. Calophyllum (Clusiaceae) – a genus of about 140 species in tropical regions, but most often in Australasia (1 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); on the East African coast an oil obtained from the fruits of C. inophyllum (*Alexandrian laurel) is used for *glandular *swellings in the neck and jaws (Kokwaro 1976). Calotropis (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) – a genus of 2 species of herbs or shrubs native to dry parts of Africa and adjacent Asia (1 species in Uganda); in Kenya the root of C. procera is used to treat *snake bite and expel *hookworms, and as an *emetic and medicine for camel diseases (Kokwaro 1976); in Mali a decoction of the root of C. procera with leafy parts of Stylosanthes erecta is used to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); vernacular names: *Dead Sea apple, *Dead Sea fruit and *Sodom apple. Calpurnea (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of 6-7 species of shrubs or small trees all but one confined to South Africa (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa fresh juice from the leaves of C. aurea is applied to a *wound to kill any *maggots present (Kokwaro 1976). caltrop(s) – species of the genus Tribulus (Zygophyllaceae); T. cistoides (*false puncture vine) and T. terrestris (*puncture vine) are troublesome weeds in dry tropical regions; alternative name: *burnut; see also *carpet weed, *ground burnup, *land caltrop, *Malta cross, *puncture weed and *sandbur; for medicinal use see *Tribulus. caltrop family – Zygophyllaceae is a medium sized family with about 25 genera and 240 species widely distributed in all continents, but lacking in cold regions; some species of the genus Tribulus (*caltrop) are used as medicines. calumba – Jateorhiza palmata (Menispermaceae) is an East African climber with a very bitter bark useful as a remedy for a poor *digestion, stimulating stomach acid production and increasing the appetite; it is an extremely good remedy for loss of appetite and *anorexia; it helps to prevent digestive infections such as *dysentery, as well as improving the absorption of foods. Calvoa (*Melastomataceae) – a genus of about 15 species of succulent or semi-woody herbs native to tropical Africa (in East Africa and Uganda 1 species); in Tanzania the Shambaa use the roots of C. orientalis as a *diuretic and for general *poisoning (Kokwaro 1976). Camellia (*Theaceae) – a genus with 82 species of evergreen shrubs or trees native to SE Asia but widely cultivated in warm and temperate regions as ornamental shrubs or for manufacture of tea; in Uganda an infusion of the leaves of C. sinensis (= Thea sinensis; the *tea plant) is given to patients with *hypotension and for the treatment of *malaria (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); tea contains *theobromine, 2-5 % *caffeine and *vitamin C; *green tea contains significant levels of *polyphenols; *black tea, which is produced by a process of fermentation, has lower levels of polyphenols; the caffeine in tea may help to relieve headaches, but is less effective than coffee (Coffea spp.); green tea is considered a much healthier drink than black tea due to its strong 74 *antioxidant activity (perhaps *cancer preventative); the high intake of green tea in China and Japan is believed to be partly responsible for the low incidence of som types of *cancer in these countries; strong brews of green tea are used in *digestive infections, as a *nerve *tonic, and to soothe *insect stings, irritated eyelids, *sunburns and *swellings; green tea may help to induce weight loss and treat *hepatitis (Chevallier 2001). camel’s foot – species of the genus *Bauhinia (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae), e.g. purple camel’s foot (B. variegata) and yellow camel’s foot (B. tomentosa); alternative name: *orchid tree; for medicinal uses see *Bauhinia. Campanulaceae – a family of 35 genera and some 700 species of annual or perennial herbs, rarely climbers or small shrubs widely distributed in temperate and warm countries (3 genera and 12 species native to Uganda); the genera Campanula (*bluebell) and *Wahlenbergia (including Lightfootia) have species of medicinal value. camphor – a secondary metabolic substance (*terpenoid) much used as a *disinfectant; the name ’camphor’ is also used about a white crystalline substance derived from the stems, root and other parts of the *camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora, Lauraceae); camphor has powerful *antiseptic, *stimulant and *antispasmodic properties, but should not be taken internally. camphor tree – Cinnamomum camphora (Lauraceae) is an East Asian tree cultivated for its beautiful wood and volatile oil; this oil (camphor oil) is a mixture of *camphor, safrole, eugenol, terpineol and *lignans, camphor is irritant and *antiseptic, and *safrole is believed to be *carcinogenic; camphor is used externally as a counter-irritant and *analgesic linement to relieve *skin problems, *arthritic and *rheumatic pains, *neuralgia and *back pain; silver camphor tree is Tarchonanthus camphoratus (Asteraceae). Canada balsam – a resin obtained from the *balsam fir, Abies balsamea (Pinaceae), a North American forest tree; this resin has been widely used by native Americans for *colds and *chest problems such as *bronchitis, and and it was also smeared on *burns, *cuts and *sores. Canadian fleabane – Conyza canadensis or Erigeron canadensis (Asteraceae) is a troublesome annual weed in temperate countries; the dried plant used to be burnt to create a smoke that warded off insects; it is an *astringent herb sometimes taken for *gastro-intestinal problems such as *diarrhoea and *dysentery, and to treat *gonorrhoea and other *urinogenital diseases; it is considered very good for treating bleeding *haemorrhoids. Canarium (Burseraceae) – a genus of 77 species of trees in high rainfall regions of the Old World tropics (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); C. schweinfurthii (*African elemi) has fruits with extremely high amounts of *antioxidants; the bark or its resin is used as a remedy for *colic, *dysentery, *gonorrhoea and *roundworm; the fruit has been used as a *condiment (Watt & Breyer-Bramdwijk 1962). Canavalia (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of 51 species of perennial herbs or woody lianes widespread throughout the tropics and subtropics, but most common in America (5 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa a *decoction of the roots from C. ensiformis is drunk for the treatment of *urinary infection which produces bloody urine (Kokwaro 1976). canavanine – a secondary nitrogen containing metabolic substance (a toxic non-protein *amino acid) found in the seeds of *Canavalia ensiformis (Fabaceae); see *Jack beans. cancer – a general term used to indicate any of the various types of malignant *neoplasms, i.e. growth of *tumour in any part of the body; a large number of plants have been used to treat various types of cancer, e.g. Ailanthus altissima (*quassin or *tree of heaven, Simaroubaceae), *Berberis vulgaris (*barberry, Berberidaceae), Beta vulgaris (*red beet, Chenopodiaceae), *Camellia chinensis (*China tea bush or *tea plant, Theaceae), *Catharanthus (Vinca) roseus (*Madagascar or *rosy periwinkle, Apocynaceae), Ceanothus americanus (*New Jersey tea, Rhamnaceae), Curcuma zedoaria (*zedoary, Zingiberaceae), Dipsacus fullonum (*wild teasel, Dipsacaceae), *Euclea racemosa (Ebenaceae), *Ficus exasperata (Moraceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllanthaceae), Forsythia suspensa (*weeping forsythia, Oleaceae), *Galium 75 aparinoides (Rubiaceae), *Glycine soya (*soya or *soybean, Fabaceae), *Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (*blacking plant, Malvaceae), Hordeum vulgare (*bran of *barley, Poaceae), *Kigelia pinnata (*sausage tree, Bignoniaceae), Larrea tridentata (*creosote bush or *chaparral, Zygophyllaceae), Linum usitatissimum (*flaxseed, *Linaceae), *Maytenus obscura (Celastraceae), Morinda citrifolia (*Indian mulberry, Rubiaceae), *Ocotea usambarensis (Lauraceae), Pfaffia paniculata (*Brazilian ginseng or *pfaffia), Podophyllum peltatum (*American mandrake or *May apple, Berberidaceae), *Prunus dulcis (*apricot, Rosaceae), Tabebuia spp. (*lapacho or *pau d’arco, Bignoniaceae), Taraxacum officinalis (*dandelion, Asteraceae), Taxus brevifolia (*Pacific yew, Taxaceae), Thuja occidentalis (*arbor-vitae, Cupressaceae), Trifolium pratense (*red clover, Fabaceae), Trigonella foenum-graecum (*fenugreek, Fabaceae), *Uapaca guineensis (*sugar plum, Euphorbiaceae), Viola odorata (*sweet violet, Violaceae), *Viscum album (*mistletoe, Viscaceae), Withania somnifera (*Indian ginseng or *withania, Solanaceae). candidiasis – accelerated growth of the yeast-like fungus Candida albicans (Saccharomycetales, *anamorphic) within the gut; it can cause considerable problems, but mild cases can be helped with *antiseptic and *antifungal herbs, such as garlic (Allium sativum) or herbs that boost the immune system, such as *elderberries (Sambucus nigra) and *purple sunflower (Echinacea angustifolia and E. purpurea); see also *oral thrush and *vaginal thrush. candle bush – Senna alata and S. didymobotrya (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae); see also *peanutbutter cassia; for medicinal use see *Senna. candytuft – species of the genus Iberis (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae); I. amara (*wild candituft) is an annual herb native to Europe and North Africa (cultivated as an ornamental in East Africa); it is a *bitter-tasting *tonic aiding *digestion and relieving *bloating and *wind; it has also been taken to treat *arthritis, *gout and *rheumatism. Canellaceae – a family of 5 genera and 16 species of aromatic trees in Africa and America (only 1 species native to Uganda); the genera Canella (*canella) and *Warburgia are of medicinal value. canella – Canella winterana (Canellaceae) is a white-barked tree native to Central America used as a substitute for *cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum, Lauraceae), the bark has long been used for flavouring tobacco, canella bark is *aromatic, *stimulant, *antiseptic, *antifungal, *cytotoxic (kills cells) and repels insects, and also used as a fish poison; an infusion is drunk for its pleasant flavour and it is considered a sexual *stimulant; alternative name: *wild cinnamon. canella bark – bark from Canella winterana (Canellaceae), an important medicin (*tonic and *stimulant), but also used as a fish poison. canine madness – *rabies; an infectious *virus disease passed on to man by the bite of an infected animal causing *choking, *convulsions, etc.; for medicinal plants used see *rabies. canker – *ulcer-like sore that spreads, especially in the mouth. Cannabaceae – a family of 2 genera and 3 species native to Europe and Asia, but at least one species widely cultivated also in East Africa; species of the genera *Cannabis (*hashish & *marijuana) and Humulus (*hops) are both of medicinal value. Cannabis (Cannabaceae) – a genus of 1 species native to Central Asia, but now widely cultivated in both hot and temperate countries; in East Uganda an infusion or decoction of the leaves of C. sativa (*hashish and *marijuana) is drunk to cure *diarrhoea, *measles and *syphilis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves are used to treat *whooping cough, while the leaves and seeds together are taken for *diarrhoea and *fever (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), and also used to treat animal diseases (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in western Uganda the leaves of this plant are used as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); in Rakai district in Uganda the seeds and leaves are crushed, water added and given orally to chickens to treat *coccidiosis (*CCD), *NCD and *typhoid (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007). Canthium (Rubiaceae) – a genus of about 50 species of shrubs or small trees widespread in the Old World tropics (23 species in East Africa, 3 species in Africa); in Kenya the leaves of C. keniense 76 are pounded, mixed with *ghee and rubbed over a newly born baby as a *poultice for skin swellings, while C. lactescens (including C. crassum auct.) is in East Africa more widely used as a *purgative and to treat *earache and expel *intestinal worms (Kokwaro 1976). Cape belladonna – Amaryllis belladonna (Amaryllidaceae) is widely cultivated as an ornamental; the bulb is very poisonous and has *cardiac action; alternative name: *belladonna lily. Cape blue waterlily – Nymphaea nouchali, previously named N. caerulea or N. capensis (Nymphaeaceae) is a very beautiful aquatic plant; for medicinal use see *Nymphaea; alternative name: *blue waterlily. Cape germander – Teucrium capense (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial aromatic herb native to South Africa; it has been used as a soothing remedy to treat *haemorrhoids and other *wounds; see *wall germander (T. chamaedrys) and *wood sage (T. scorodonia) Cape gooseberry – Physalis peruviana (Solanaceae) from South America is cultivated worldwide for its tasty edible berries; in Uganda the leaves of P. peruviana are used to treat *febrile *convulsions in children (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), for *cough (Kakudidi et al. 2000) and *vomiting (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). Cape grape – Rhoicissus capensis (Vitaceae); the Zulu use the root as an *anthelmintic in the calf. Cape honeysuckle – Tecomaria capensis (Bignoniaceae) is widely cultivated as an ornamental; in South Africa its powdered bark is used to treat *abdominal troubles, *pneumonia and high *fever; it is said to relieve pain and to produce sleep (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Cape mahogany – Trichilia emetica (Meliaceae) is a tree with a light timber; for medicinal use see *Trichilia. Cape pigweed – Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae) is a troublesome worldwide weed; for medicinal use see *Amaranthus; alternative names: *slim amaranth, *smooth amaranth and *smooth pigweed. Cape prickly ash – Zanthoxylum capense (the orange family, Rutaceae) is a South African tree traditionally used for *colic; see *Zanthoxylum. Cape primrose – species and hybrids of the genus Streptocarpus (Gesneriaceae) are popular garden and house plants; their corm has given positive tests for the presence of organic acids, *phenols and *sterols (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). caper – Capparis spinosa (Capparidaceae) is a small shrub native to the Mediterranean; the flower buds are harvested before the flowers open and are pickled for culinary use; the buds are *laxative and the bark is *bitter and can be taken immediately before meals to increase the appetite; a decoction of the plant is used to treat *vaginal thrush; the root bark is *purifying and stops internal *bleeding . caper family – Capparidaceae, a family of about 45 genera and 700 species widely distributed in all tropical and warm countries; for medicinal use see *Capparidaceae. Cape valerian – Valeriana capensis (the valerian family, Valerianaceae) is a perennial herb native to southern and eastern Africa from the Cape province to Kenya; it has been prescribed for *epilepsy and *hysteria; see also *valerian (Valeriana officinalis). Capparidaceae – a family of about 45 genera and 700 species of herbs, shrubs, scramblers and trees widely distributed in all tropical and warm regions (in East Africa 10 genera and 90 species, in Uganda 8 genera and 29 species); the genera *Boscia, *Cadaba, *Capparis, *Cleome (including Gynandropsis), *Maerua and *Thylachium are of medicinal value. Capparis (Capparidaceae) – a genus of about 250 species of shrubs, scramblers and trees in tropical and warm countries (in East Africa 6 species, in Uganda 4 species); in East Africa a decoction of the leaves of C. cartilaginea is used as an *eye lotion and drunk warm as a remedy for *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the roots of C. erythrocarpos are used to treat general pain (Adjanohoun et al. 2993), while in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam boil the roots to treat *bone disease and *rheumatism (Heine & König 1988); the pounded roots of C. fascicularis are added to soup as a remedy for *cold, while the Luo in Kenya use the leaves and 77 roots to treat *diarrhoea, *false teeth, intestinal problems and *worms (Geissler et al. 2002); in coastal Kenya a decoction of the roots of C. sepiaria is inhaled or sucked through a cloth as a remedy for chest pains producing a burning sensation and acting as an *emetic and a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976); the leaves of C. tomentosa are used to treat *asthma, *diarrhoea and *convulsions, the bark is used for chest pain and the roots for diarrhoea, *cataract, *chronic *endomitritis, *general pain, *haemorrhoids, *hernia, *itchy skin, *migraine, *rectal prolapse, *snake bite, *sterility, *stomach-ache and *uterine fibroids (Kokwaro 1976; Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Neuwinger 1996; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use this plant as toothbrush and to treat *sterility in women, while the powdered roots are used to treat *eye disease in cattle (Heine & König 1988); in Mali a decoction of the root or roots of C. tomentosa with the leaves of *Riccinus communis and the roots of Euphorbia balsamifera is used to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006). capsaicin – a major substance in *chilli fruits; if applied to the skin it *desensitizes nerve endings and thus acts as a *counter-irritant and *painkiller. Capsicum (Solanaceae) – a genus of 10 species of annual or perennial herbs or small shrubs native to tropical America, but some species are cultivated worldwide as vegetables, spices and medicinal plants; in Uganda the roots of C. frutescens (*cayenne pepper, *chilli pepper; perhaps only a form of C. annuum) are taken to treat *diarrhoea and the leaves are applied to fresh *wounds (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Uganda the roots are used to treat *migraine, the flowers are taken for *hernia and the fruit for *arthritis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the fruits are used to treat *coccidiosis and *headache (Kakudidi et al. 2000) and as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves of this species are used to treat *mental problems (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Rakai district in Uganda the fruit is crushed, water added and given orally to chickens to treat *NCD (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007); in Kenya the fruits are taken as a remedy for *indigestion and *nausea (Kokwaro 1976); Ethiopians who eat raw meat believe the fruits kill dangerous *micro-organisms in the mouth and stomach; the fruit is also used to fight *amoebic infections and *intestinal worms (Jansen 1981); an Amahara, who has been bitten by a *rabid dog, is given the dog’s liver with Capsicum seeds as an *antidote (Lemordant 1981); in Burundi *tonsillitis is treated with fruit juice, and a root decoction is drunk for *hydrocele (Baerts & Lehmann 1989); in Congo a paste is made from crushed fruits to teeth for *infections, a drink from the leaves is taken for *coughs and *cardiac complaints, the leaf sap is inserted into the eyes against *conjunctivitis and persistent *headache, and in cases of *muscle and *joint pain, it is applied as a massage; Lokele and Turumba drink a root macerate as an *expectorant, while the Mongo in the central forest area use fruit powder anally for *haemorrhoids and to revive *unconscious patients (Neuwinger 1996); in the Central African Republic a fruit is inserted into the anus to treat *constipation, and an inflamed anus of a baby is rubbed with salt and powder from a burnt peeled twig of Capsicum; the fruit is also used in recipes for *cough and *fever (Motte 1978); in West Africa Capsicum is regarded as a powerful *stimulant, *purgative and *carminative and used for many different diseases and conditions (either alone or mixed with other herbs), e.g. *cataract, *colic, *coughs, *dysuria, *German measles, *gonorrhoea, *hyperthermia, *intercostal neuralgia, *jaundice, *madness, *oedema, *panacea, *schistosomiasis and *tetanus spasms (Adjanohoun et al. 1989; Neuwinger 1996). captive qualm – a mild condition of mental disturbance characterised by *belching and mumbling. Caralluma (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) – a genus of about 120 species of succulent herbs mostly native to the drier regions of Africa; in Uganda C. dummeri is used to treat wax in the ear (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Kenya and Tanzania the juice of the stem of C. speciosa is diluted with water and then drunk as an *emetic (Kokwaro 1976). 78 carambola – Averrhoa carambola (Oxalidaceae) is a small tree with juicy very acid edible fruits rich in *vitamin C and *antioxidants and thus useful as a general protection against diseases. caraway – Carum carvi (Apiaceae) is an aromatic Eurasian perennial herb; the young shoots are used as a vegetable in early spring, and the fruits as a spice, particularly in cheese; the fruits improve appetite, are *antispasmodic and soothe the *digestive tract, relieve *colic, *griping pain, *bloating and *wind; the fruits are also *expectorant and *tonic and are used in *bronchitis and *cough remedies; they are also believed to increase *breast-milk production. carbuncle – a large, red swelling on the skin, usually very painful; it can be treated by various herbal medicines, e.g. Chinese rhubarb, Rheum palmatum (Polygonaceae). carcinogenic – which causes cancer; a number of chemicals and plants may cause *cancer if taken in sufficient high amounts, e.g. Acorus calamus (*sweet flag, Acoraceae), Piper betle (*betel pepper, Piperaceae), Pteridium aquilinum (*bracken, Dennstaedtiaceae) and Senecio vulgaris (*common groundsel, Asteraceae). carcinoma – a malignant tumour made up of chiefly *epithelial cells; see *African daisy. Cardamine (Brassicaceae) – a genus of about 130 species of annual or perennial herbs native to most warm and temperate regions (5 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in Uganda the tops of C. trichocarpa are used to treat *kwashiorkor (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). cardamon – Elettaria cardamomum (Zingiberaceae) is an old Indian spice now also cultivated in the tropics of Asia and Central America; the aromatic seeds have been widely used as a herbal medicine and in the production of perfumes; cardamon is strongly antispasmodic and thus effective in treating many digestive problems such as wind, colic and griping pain; in India cardamon is taken to treat asthma, bronchitis, anorexia and kidney stones, and in China it is used for urinary incontinence and as a tonic; it is also considered an aphrodisiac; cardamon has a pleasant taste and is often mixed in other herbal medicines to counteract their bad tastes; it is also an effective treatment for bad breath. cardiac – pertaining to the heart; see also *cardiotonic. cardiac glycosides – *glycosides which have a strong, direct action on the *heart, supporting its strength and rate of contraction when it is failing; *cardiac *glycosides are also *diuretic and help to stimulate urine production; plants rich in cardiac glycosides are very toxic and include Convallaria majalis (*lily of the valley) and Digitalis purpurea (*common foxglove). cardiodynia – pain in the heart; for medicinal plants used to improve heart problems see *heart disease; see also *agina pectoris, *cardiotonic, *heart disease and *heart palpitations. Cardiospermum (Sapindaceae) – a genus of 14 species of climbers mostly native to tropical America, but with a few species in the old world also; in Uganda the shoots of C. grandiflorum are used to treat *fever, while the leaves are used for *dysentery; in Kenya the leaves of this species are used to treat *ringworms and cure *fever (Kokwaro 1976), while in Uganda the roots of this species are used for spirits (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Uganda the whole plant of C. halicacabum (*balloon vine) is used to treat *asthma (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Uganda the whole plant is taken to treat *vertigo, while the leaves are used to treat *amoebiasis, *chronic *endomitritis, *convulsions, *measles and *insanity (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), and in Kenya the roots are used to treat *rashes (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe use a leaf concoction of C. halicacabum for *tuberculosis (Masinde 1996); in Uganda Waako et al. (2005) did not find *antimalarial activity in this plant. cardiotonic – which improves heart function, e.g. *Cola acuminata (Sterculiaceae), Crataegus spp. (*hawthorn, Rosaceae), Digitalis lanata (*woolly foxglove) & lutea (*yellow foxglove) & purpurea (*purple foxglove, Scrophulariaceae), Helleborus niger (*black hellebore or *Christmas rose, Ranunculaceae), Lycopus europaeus (*gipsywort, Lamiaceae) and Terminalia arjuna (*arjuna); see also *angina pectoris, *cardiodynia, *heart disease and *heart palpitations. cardoon – Cynara cardunculus, often named C. scolymus (Asteraceae) has edible leaf stalks; for medicinal use see *artichoke. 79 Carduus (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 90 species of mostly spiny herbs native to temperate regions in Eurasia and upland Africa (8 species in East Africa, 5 in Uganda); in West Uganda the leaves of C. afromontanus are used to treat *prurigo (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda C. kikuyorum is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996). Carica (Caricaceae) – a genus of 22 species native to warm parts of America, but *pawpaw (Carica papaya) widely cultivated in all tropical countries; in East Uganda the roots of C. papaya are taken to treat *migraine, *snake bite and to promote labour, the ash of the burnt stem to alleviate *cough, and the powdered leaf to counter *sterility (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves are used to treat *tonsilitis (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in West Uganda the leaves, roots and fruit of this tree is taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots of this species are used to treat *cough and *diarrhoea (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in other parts of Uganda the leaf is used to treat *whooping cough, and the roots used for *arthritis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Rakai district in Uganda the seeds are crushed, water added and given orally to chickens to expel worms (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007). Caricaceae – a family of 4 genera and 31 species of sparsely branched trees native to the Americas with one genus (Cylicomorpha) native to Africa, but *pawpaw (Carica papaya) is widely cultivated for its edible fruits in all tropical regions; the genera *Carica and *Cylicomorpha both contain species of medicinal value. Carissa (Apocynaceae) – a genus of 37 species of shrubs and trees native to the old world tropics (in East Africa 3 species, 2 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of C. spinarum (C. edulis) are taken for *abdominal pains, *chest pain, *diarrhoea, *indigestion, *malaria and *measles (Kokwaro 1976, Geissler et al. 2002); in East Uganda the roots are used to treat *amoebiasis, *cough, *diarrhoea, *epilepsy, *insanity, *intestinal worms, *sterility, *syphilis, and to promote *labour; also the leaves are used for *amoebiasis and *diarrhoea (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), while in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the root as an *emetic and *laxative and to treat *headache and *stomach-ache (Heine & König 1988); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots and fruits of this species are used to treat general body swellings (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a root decoction of C. spinarum for stomach problems, while fruits are eaten as an appetiser (Masinde 1996). carissa – Carissa spinarum (Apocynaceae) is a shrub with edible berries rich in vitamin C; for medicinal use see *Carissa. carminative – which relieves *digestive gas and *indigestion by relaxing intestinal muscles; some plants help to improve this state, e.g. *cayenne or *chilli (*Capsicum frutescence, the tomato family, Solanaceae); see also *colic, *flatulency and *indigestion. carnation – Dianthus caryophyllus (Caryophyllaceae) is a Mediterranean herb widely cultivated as a garden plant and much used for decoration as a cut-flower; it is sometimes prescribed for *coronary and *nervous disorders; alternative name: *gilly flower. carnation family – Caryophyllaceae is a large family with about 80 genera and 2000 species; for medicinal use see *Caryophyllaceae. carob (tree) – Ceratonia siliqua (Fabaceae) is a *Mediterranean tree cultivated for its edible fruit pods; the sugary young fruits are eaten raw; they are sweet-tasting and mildly *laxative and *antidiarrhoeal; They are also believed to expel *intestinal worms and treat poor eysight and *eye infections; carob seeds are very equally sized and are the original *carats of jewellers; alternative name: *locust tree. carotene – any of three isomeric red hydrocarbons (carotenoids) found in many plants (especially *carrots) and transformed to *vitamin A in the liver. carotenoid – yellow or yellowish red colouring in chloroplasts or chromoplasts (comprise *carotene and *xanthophyll). 80 carpet weed – Tribulus cistoides (Zygophyllaceae); alternative name: false puncture vine; a joint name for this species and the closely related species T. terrestris (*puncture vine) are *burnut and *caltrop(s); both are troublesome weeds; for medicinal use see *Tribulus. carragheen1 – Chondrus crispus (Rhodophyta) is a red alga widely distributed along the Atlantic coasts; it contains large amounts of *polysaccharides and is used widely in the food and pharmaceutical industries as an *emulsifying and binding agent; carragheen is used for *coughs, *bronchitis, acid *indigestion, *gastritis and *urinary infections; it can also be taken to thin the blood; taken externally this *emollient alga soothes *inflamed skin; alternative name: *Irish moss. carragheen2 (*carrageenan) – a complex *polysaccharide made from the red alga Chondrus crispus (Rhodophyta); this substance is widely used as a stabilisator in food, paint and in the pharmacological industry; carragheen is also used as an alternative name for the red alga *Irish moss, Chondrus crispus (Rhodophyta). carrageenan – an alternative name for *carragheen, a complex *polysaccharide. carrier oil – oil to which essential oils are added in order to dilute them for use, e.g. *wheatgerm. carrion flower – species of the genus Stapelia (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae); for medicinal use see *Stapelia. carrot – Daucus carota (Apiaceae) is a Mediterranean herb widely cultivated almost worldwide for its edible fleshy orange nutritious taproot; it is also a good *cleansing medicine, which supports the *liver and stimulates urine flow and the removal of waste by the *kidneys; particularly the juice of the root is a valuable *detoxifyer; carrots are rich in *carotene, which is converted to *vitamin A by the *liver; the seedlike fruits are *diuretic and stimulate *menstruation, relieve *flatulence and settle the *digestion; intake of carrot leaves will lead to increased levels of *sex hormones; in West Uganda the root is eaten to treat painful menstruation, *dysmenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006). carrot family – Apiaceae (Umbelliferae); a large family with about 300 genera and 2500-3000 species widely distributed throughout the world; for medicinal use see *Apiaceae. Caryophyllaceae – a family of about 90 genera and 2080 species of herbs and shrubs widely distributed in both warm and cold countries (in East Africa 15 genera and 32 species, in Uganda 9 genera and 21 species); the genera *Drymaria, *Pollichia, *Polycarpaea and Stellaria (*chickweed) contain species with medicinal use. cashew – Anacardia occidentale (Anacardiaceae), an American tree nowadays in Africa and Asia frequently cultivated as a commercial crop for its edible nutritious seed (see *cashew nut); the tree has many medicinal uses; the leaves are used for *toothache and *gum problems; the roots are *purgative; in India the bark is used to *detoxify *snake bites; the gum contains *anacardic acid which kills *bacteria, *fungi, *worms and *protozoa and may treat *stomach ulcers; the gum is also applied externally to treat *corns, *fungal infections and *leprosy; see also *cashew apple. cashew apple – a swollen edible stem below the fruit of Anacardia occidentale (Anacardiaceae), an American tree with edible seeds (see *cashew nut) nowadays frequently cultivated in Africa and Asia also; the ’apple’ is made into jams, and in Brazil into a liquor called *cajuado; alternative name: *akajou. cashew family – Anacardiaceae; a fairly large family with 77 genera and about 600 species widely distributed in tropical and warm regions; for medicinal plants see *Anacardiaceae. cashew nut – the edible seed of Anacardia occidentale (Anacardiaceae); it is highly nutritious containing 45 % fat and 20 % protein; the carpels (lining surrounding the seed) contain an oil which is *toxic and highly irritant and must not be used in any form; see *cashew. cassareep – the toxic evaporated juice of *cassava or *manioc, Mannihot usitatissima (Euphorbiaceae); it is used for preserving meat and certain table sauces. 81 cassava – Mannihot usitatissima (Euphorbiaceae) is a shrub from tropical America nowadays widely cultivated as a food crop throughout the tropics; it has large tuberous roots rich in starch (*tapioca) rather immune to insect attack due to high levels of cyanide (or rather *cyanogenic *glycosides) in wild forms (bitter cassava), but some cultivated forms (sweet cassava) have little cyanide and can be eaten without special washing out of the poisons; the water in which bitter cassava is washed can be used as a fish poison, and it has been used to treat *scabies; cassava root is easily digestible and makes a suitable food for *convalescence; bitter cassava may be used to treat *diarrhoea, *dysentery and *scabies; cassava flour has been used to dry out weeping skin; alternative name: *manioc. Cassia (*Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae) – previously considered a very large genus of more than 500 species, but now most species are transferred to the genera *Chaemaecrista and *Senna; in East Africa the roots of C. abbreviata (long-pod cassia) are used to cure *chest complaints, *gonorrhoea, *malaria. *pneumonia, *stomach troubles, *syphilis and *uterine problems (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the roots of C. angolensis are used to treat *venereal diseases, and the leaves chewed for *coughs (Kokwaro 1976). cassia1 – some species of the genera *Cassia and *Senna (Fabaceae, Caealpinoideae), e.g. blackwood cassia (Senna siamea), cigar cassia (Senna brewsteri), *long-pod cassia (Cassia abbreviata) and peanut-butter cassia (Senna didymobotrya); for medicinal use see *Senna. cassia2 – Cinnamomum cassia (the laurel family, Lauraceae) or the bark of this tree; it is native to China and Japan and it is used as medicine in the same way as *cinnamon, i.e. to treat *colds, *flu and *digestive problems (*nausea, *vomiting and *diarrhoea); alternative name: *bastard cinnamon. Cassipourea (Rhizophoraceae) – a genus with 62 species of trees and shrubs widespread in tropical regions, including mangroves (8 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the powdered roots of C. mollis are used as an *astringent (Kokwaro 1976). Cassytha (Lauraceae) – a genus of 17 species of parasitic climbers native to the old world tropics, but mostly in Australia (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Zaramo take powdered C. filiformis as a protective medicine after childbirth (Kokwaro 1976). castor-oil plant – Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae) is an African shrub with seeds containing castor-oil; the whole plant is poisonous, and 2 seeds may be sufficient to kill an adult, but the toxins do not pass into the processed oil; *castor oil has been used in medicine for 4000 years; it is a strong *laxative or *purgative and is widely used to clear the *digestive tract in cases of poisoning; the oil is tolerated by human skin, and it is sometimes massaged into the breasts after childbirth to stimulate milk flow; in India a *poultice of castor oil seeds is used to relieve swollen and tender *joints; see *Ricinus. cataplasm – *poultice; a paste of a plant part or drug applied to sore or inflamed part of the body to supply moisture or to act as a local *stimulant. cataract – eye-complaint producing partial blindness; partial or complete opacity of the lens of the eye; a large number of plants are used to cure or relieve this condition, e. g. *Albizia zygia & zimmermannii (Fabaceae), *Argemone mexicana (*Mexican poppy, Papaveraceae), *Capparis tomentosa (Capparidaceae), *Capsicum frutescens (Solanaceae), *Desmodium triflorum (Fabaceae), Ervatamia coronaria (Apocynaceae), *Ficus natalensis (Moraceae), *Lantana triflora (Verbenaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae), *Sporobolus pyramidalis (Poaceae), *Tephrosia elegans (Fabaceae) and *Vernonia perottetii (Asteraceae). catarrh – mild *inflammation of the *mucous membrane leading to a flow of *mucus, most often used about inflammation in the eye and the air passage of the nose, throat and *bronchia (eye catarrh, nasal catarrh and bronchial catarrh), but also used about catarrh of the bladder; many plants are used to treat different types of catarrh, e.g. Adiantum capillus-veneris (*maidenhair fern, Adiantaceae), *Agathosma betulina (*buchu, Rutaceae), Asclepias tuberosa (*pleurisy root, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), Castanea sativa (*sweet chestnut, Fagaceae), Cedrus spp. 82 (*cedar, Pinaceae), *Cymbopogon citratus (*lemon grass, Poaceae), Eriodictyon californicum (*yerba santa, Hydrophyllaceae), *Eucalyptus globulus (*blue gum, Myrtaceae), Euphrasia spp. (*eyebright, Orobanchaceae), Gnaphalium (Filaginella) uliginosum (*marsh cudweed, Asteraceae), Hieracium pilosella (*mouse-ear hawkweed, Asteraceae), Hordeum distichon & vulgare (*barley, Poaceae), Lepidium virginicum (*Virginia peppergrass, Brassicaceae), Lobaria pulmonaria (*tree lungwort, a lichen), Lycopus virginicus (Lamiaceae), Mentha haplocalyx (*corn mint, Lamiaceae), Morus alba (*white mulberry, Moraceae), Myrtus communis (*myrtle, Myrtaceae), Nymphaea alba (*white waterlily) & odorata (*white pond lily, Nymphaeaceae), *Ocimum basilicum (*basil or *sweet basil. Lamiaceae), Plantago major (*broad-leaved or *common plantain, Plantaginaceae), Polygonatum multiflorum (*Solomon’s seal, Convallariaceae), Polypodium vulgare (*polypody, Polypodiaceae; Pteridophyta), Pulmonaria officinalis (*lungwort, Boraginaceae), Ranunculus delphinifolius (*yellow water crowfoot, Ranunculaceae), Symplocarpus foetidus (*skunk cabbage, Araceae), Tilia spp. (*lime or *linden, Tiliaceae), Tropaeolus majus (*common nasturtium or *nasturtium, Tropaeolaceae), Teucrium chamaedrys (*wall germander) & scorodonia (*wood sage, Lamiaceae), Thuja occidentalis (*arbor-vitae, Cupressaceae), Verbascum thapsus (*Aaron’s rod or *mullein, Scrophulariaceae), Veronica officinalis (*speedwell, Veronicaceae or Plantaginaceae) and Viola odorata (*sweet violet, Violaceae). cat brier – Smilax rotundifolia (Smilacaceae); for medicinal use see *Smilax. catchweed – Galium aparine (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a troublesome annual weed in many temperate countries; it is a mild *laxative and *diuretic taken for swollen *lymph *glands, *kidney stones, *urinary problems and *skin diseases such as *eczema, *psoriasis and *seboohoea, alternative names: *cleavers, *goosegrass, *hairif, *robin-run-over-the-hedge, *scratch grass, *sticky Willie; see also *bedstraw. Catha (Celastraceae) – a genus of 2 species of shrubs or trees to 20 m tall native to Africa and SW Arabia; the leaves and young bark of C. edulis (*khat) are chewed fresh by Moslems as daily *stimulant to reduce hunger making one feel elated and peaceful; it is also believed to cure *coughs and *malaria; the roots are used as a cure for *gonorrhoea, *influenza, *stomach troubles and general body illness (Kokwaro 1976); in western Uganda the leaves of C. edulis are used to treat sexual *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam add the bark to milk to treat *pain and children’s diseases (Heine & König 1988);. Catharanthus (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) – a genus of 8 species of herbs or shrubs native to Madagascar, but C. roseus (*Madagascar periwinkle) is widely cultivated in tropical countries and often escaping as a weed; in east Uganda the leaves of C. roseus are drunk in tea to cure *ulcers (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); this herb contains a large number of different *indole alkaloids including *vincristin and *vinblastin, which are both powerful *anti-cancer agents and used in the treatment of *leukaemia, *Hodgkins disease and other types of *cancer. catharrh – see *catarrh. cathartic – (an agent or drug) which has a drastic *purgative (very strong *laxative) action of the bowels; which is cleaning or *purging; many plants are cathartic, e.g. Allamanda cathartica (*golden trumpet, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), Bryonia dioica (*white bryony, Cucurbitaceae), Frangula alnus (*alder buckthorn, Rhamnaceae), Gardenia campanulata (*Indian gardenia, Rubiaceae), Iris versicolor (*blue falg, Iridaceae), *Jatropha curcas (*physic nut or *purging nut, Euphorbiaceae), Linum catharticum (*purging flax, Linaceae) & usitatissimum (*linseed), *Phytolacca dodecandra (Phytolaccaceae) and Rhamnus cathartica (*buckthorn, Rhamnaceae). catmint – Nepeta cataria (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a Eurpean perennial herb widely used in medicine; it is *sedative, settles the *stomach, and reduce *fever by stimulating sweating; it improves *colds, *flu, *indigestion, *flatulence and *colic; because it tastes nicely it is 83 especially suitable for children; the plant contains *nepatalactone, a *terpenoid, which has an excitatory effect on cats; alternative name: *catnip. catnip – Nepeta cataria (the mint family, Lamiaceae); for medicinal use see *catmint. cat’s eye – Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae) is a perennial climber widely distributed in all continents; the seeds of Abrus (*crab’s eyes or *coral pea) contain a very toxic protein (*abrin), but in India have been used as a *contraceptive and *abortifacient; the fresh leaves are used to treat *anorexia and *whooping cough; see *Abrus. catstail2 or cat’s tail – Typha latifolia (Typhaceae) and other species of the genus Typha; for medicinal use see *Typha. cats whiskers or cat’s whiskers – species of the genus Tacca (Taccaceae); for medicinal use see *Tacca. cattail – species of the genus Typha (Typhaceae); for medicinal use see *Typha. Catunaregam (Rubiaceae) – a genus with 5-6 species of shrubs or small trees native to Africa and Asia (3 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa the bark of C. nilotica (= Xeromphis nilotica) is taken as a remedy for *dropsy and prolonged *stomach pain, while the the roots are *diuretic and *purgative and also used to treat *snakebite; the roots of C. spinosa (= Xeromphis obovata) are used for the treatment of *gonorrhoea and *snakebite, and the roots cooked with meat as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976, Weiss 1979). cauliflower – Brassica oleracea var. botrytes (Brassicaceae); for medicinal use see *Brassica. caustic – capable of burning or corroding living tissue. Cayenne (pepper) – the plant or the red pungent fruits of Capsicum frutescens (Solanaceae) from Central America; the fruits are well known in cookery for its hot, burning taste; in medicine it is a powerful warming *stimulant acting on the *blood circulation and *digestion; it is used to treat a large variety of diseases and complaints, e.g. *colic, *diarrhoea, *wind (*carminative), cold hands and feet, muscle *spasms, *arthritis, *psoriasis, *neuralgia, pain and *headache; a major substance in chilli, e.g. *capsaicin, if applied to the skin, *desensitizes nerve endings and thus acts as a *counter-irritant and *painkiller; alternative name: *chilli (chillies). Cayratia (Vitaceae) – a genus of about 50 species of perennial herbs or woody climbers native to the tropics of Africa and Australasia (3 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the fresh roots are chewed or boiled and the decoction used as a cough remedy (Kokwaro 1976). CCD (*coccidiosis chicken disease) – an animal disease due to infection of *coccids, especially from the genera Eimeria and Isospora; for treatment see Cannabis sativa (hashish, Cannabaceae), Capsicum frutescens (*chilli pepper, Solanaceae) and Bidens pilosa (Solanaceae); see Bukenya-Ziraba et al. (2007). Cecropiaceae (earlier Moraceae) – a family of 6 genera and about 200 species of trees native to tropical regions (2 genera and 5 species in East Africa and 2 genera and 4 species in Uganda); species of the genus Myrianthus are of medicinal use. cecum – the start of the colon (larger bowel) from the stomach. cedar1 – species of the conifer genus Cedrus (Pinaceae, Gymnospermae or Pinophyta), e.g. Atlantic cedar (C. atlantica), Cyprus cedar (C. brevifolia), cedar of Lebanon (C. libani) and Himalayan cedar (C. deodara); the cedars are all trees producing valuable timber; their leaves contain essential oil, that has been used for thousands of years in medicine, incence, perfumes and embalming; the oil is strongly *antiseptic, *astringent, *diuretic, *expectorant and *sedative; it will disinfect the *respiratory tract, and massaged into the skin it treats *skin wounds, *ulcers, *catarrh, *chest infections and *cystitis. cedar2 – in compounds also used about other genera of Pinophyta, e.g. *African pencil cedar (Juniperus procera in Cupressaceae), Bermuda cedar (Juniperus bermudiana), Chilean cedar (Libocedrus chilensis), Clanwilliam cedar (Widdringtonia cedarbergensis), incense cedar or white cedar (Calocedrus decurrens), Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica), Mlanje cedar (Widdringtonia nodiflora), Oregon cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), red cedar or Virginia 84 pencel cedar (Juniperus virginiana), western red cedar (Thuja plicata), white cedar (Thuja occidentalis and other species) and yellow cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis). cedar3 – in compounds also used about angiosperms (Magnoliophyta), e.g. Australian cedar and Burma cedar (Toona ciliata; Meliaceae), bastard cedar (Cedrela sinensis and Guazuma tomentosa, Meliaceae), cedar wattle (Acacia terminalis), West Indian cedar (Cedrela odorata) and white cedar (Melia azedarach). celandine – Ranunculus ficaria (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae) is a widespread herb in Europe and adjacent parts of Asia and Africa; it contains *anemonin, *protoanemonin, *saponins, *tannins and *vitamin C; this herb has been widely used as a medicine for the relief of *haemorrhoids and *ulcers; alternative name: *lesser celandine and *pilewort; see also *greater celandine (Chelidonium majus). Celastraceae – a family of about 95 genera and 1300 species of trees, shrubs and lianes widely distributed in both tropical and temperate countries (in East Africa 17 genera and 57 species; in Uganda 16 genera and 33 species); a number of genera contain species with medicinal use, e.g. *Catha, *Elaeodendron, *Maytenus, *Mystroxylon, *Pristimera, and *Salacia. celeriac – Apium graveolens var. rapaceum (Apiaceae) is cultivated for its swollen lower part of the stem (”turnip-rooted celery”) is cultivated for its edible swollen basal stem; as a medicine it has similar uses as *celery. celery – Apium graveolens var. dulce (Apiaceae) is widely cultivated as a vegetable for its edible swollen stem, but celery stems and seeds have long been taken for *arthritic, *rheumatic and *urinary problems; the seeds are used for treating rheumatic conditions and *gout; they help the *kidneys dispose of *urates and other waste products; the seeds are useful in arthritis, helping to detoxify the body and improve the *circulation of blood to the *muscles and *joints; the seeds also have a mildly *diuretic *antiseptic action, and are an effective medicine for *cystitis, helping to disinfect the *bladder and *urinary tubules; they are also beneficial for *chest problems such as *asthma and *bronchitis. cellulitis – a diffuse *inflammation of the *connective (binding) tissues of the body, especially those just under the skin (the subcutaneous tissue); some plants have been used to alleviate this condition, e.g. *Oxalis corniculata (Oxalidaceae), *Solanum aculeastrum (Solanaceae) and *Tephrosia linearis (Fabaceae). Celosia (Amaranthaceae) – a genus of about 50 species in tropical and warm parts of America and Africa; in East Uganda the tops of C. trigyna are used to treat *ascariasia (Adjanohoun et al. (1993), while an infusion of the leaves is taken to treat *vertigo (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots of this species are used to treat *eye problems and *tuberculosis (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in East Africa C. argentea is sometimes used as spinach thus improving mineral content in the body preventing certain diseases. Celtis (Cannabaceae or Celtidaceae; earlier Ulmaceae) – a genus of about 60 species of trees or shrubs in both tropical and temperate regions (7 species in East Agrica and Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of C. africana are eaten by goats and soaked in water and the juice given to goats for *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the stem bark of C. africana is used to reduce *fever, and the leaves and stem of C. gomphophylla to treat *prolapsed uterus and also to chase evil spirits (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in coastal Kenya the Digo take a *decoction of the roots of C. phillipensis (= C. wightii) as a remedy for *diarrhoea (Kokwaro 1976). centaury – Centaurium erythraea or Erythraea centaurium (Gentianaceae) is a small biennial herb long valued as a *bitter plant useful in stimulating appetite as well as *digestive secretion from the *salivary glands, *stomach, *intestines and *gallbladder; with increased digestive juices, food is processed and broken down more effectively; alternative name: ’common centaury’. Centella (Apiaceae) – a genus with about 40 species of perennial herbs native to South Africa, but one species throughout the tropics (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Uganda the whole plant of C. asiatica is used to treat *peptic ulcer (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Africa the 85 plant is said to have cured syphilis (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe placed a leaf paste of C. asiatica on *snakebite wounds as an *antidote (Masinde 1996); in *Ayurvedic medicine it was a useful *tonic and cleansing herb for *skin problems and digestive disorders; in India it is used to treat *leprosy and *wounds, but is valued chiefly as a revitalizing herb that strengthens *nervous function and memory; one of its constituents, *asiaticoside (a triterpenoid *saponin) may reduce *fertility, but stimulates wound healing by speeding up *collagen formation and the laying down of new blood vessels and increasing *antioxidant levels within the wound; in Europe it is mainly used for *skin problems, *wounds, *rheumatoid arthritis, *rheumatism and poor venous circulation (Chevallier 2001). century plant – Agave americana (Agavaceae) and other species of the genus Agave; its sap contains *oestrogen-like isoflavonoids, *alkaloids, *coumarins and *vitamins pro-A, B1, B2, C, D and K; as a medicine it has been used to cure a wide range of diseases and ailments, e.g. *digestive ailments like *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *inflammatory conditions affecting the *stomach and *intestines; it has also been used to cure *wounds, *ulcers, *syphilis, *tuberculosis, *jaundice and *liver disease; alcoholic drinks from fermented sap (*mescal and *tequila) has been used to treat *nervous conditions; alternative name: *agave; see also *sisal agave. cephalalgia – *headache; for plants used to treat this condition see *headache. cerasee – Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae) is an annual Asian climber now fairly widespread in most tropical regions; a decoction of the leaves is used to treat *skin- and *liver problems and *colites; the fruit or its juice has been used as a *purgative and to treat *colic, *fever, *worms and *urinary stones; the unripe fruit is used to treat late-onset *diabetes as the fruit juice stimulates production of the *pancreatic cells, which secrete *insulin; the seeds are *androgenic and inhibit *sperm production, it has been tested as a *contraceptive in China; alternative name: *kerala. cerebellum – part of the brain related to function. cerebral – relating to the forepart of the brain. cerebral palsy – a form of paralysis caused by brain injury during or before birth; it is characterised by difficulty in conrol of the voluntary muscles. cerebrospinal – relating to the brain and *spinal cord. Ceropegia (Apocynaceae - Asclepiadoideae) – a genus with more than 160 species of perennial herbs native to the Old World tropics and subtropics, but with the highest diversity in tropical Africa; in Tanzania the Sukuma south of Lake Victoria chew the fresh roots of C. lugardiae and the juice swallowed, while the rest of the chewed stuff is squeezed on the *wound (Kokwaro 1976); the Sandawi in Tanzania use the roots of C. stenantha for *stomach diseases in young children (Kokwaro 1976). cervical – of the neck (*cervix); concerning the neck. cervical cancer – cancer of the *lymph glands of the neck; this disease is sometimes treated using plant medicines, e.g. Curcuma zedoaria (*Zedoary, Zingiberaceae); see also *cancer. cervical lymphadenitis – *inflammation of the *lymph glands of the neck; the leaves of *Lactuca inermis (Asteraceae) and the juice of Galium aparine (*cleavers, *scratch grass or *sticky Willie, Rubiaceae) have been used to alleviate this condition. cervix – neck, or any part of organ resembling a neck, e.g. cervix uteri (neck of *uterus). Ceylon leadwort – Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae) is a shrubby climber from Asia naturalized in Africa; the juice of this plant has been used as a tattoo dye; the root is acrid and *stimulates sweating; it has been widely used as a paste to relieve *rheumatic aches and pains and to treat *skin infections such as *ringworm and *scabies; in Asia extracts of the leaves and root are taken for *digestive infections such as *dysentery, and to treat *baldness. Ceylon spinach – Basella alba (Basellaceae) is cultivated as a potherb and often naturalized in east Africa; for medicinal use see *Basella; alternative names: *Indian spinach, *Malabar nightshade and *Malabar spinach. 86 Chaetacme (Cannabaceae or Celtidaceae; earlier Ulmaceae) – a genus with a single species of trees or shrubs native to Africa with Madagascar (also in Uganda); in Kenya the roots of C. aristata (*thorny elm) are believed to be *toxic, but the medicinal use is vague (Kokwaro 1976). Chamaecrista (Caricaceae) – a genus with about 200 species of herbs and shrubs (previously included in the genus Cassia) widespread in all tropical and warm countries (in Uganda 9 species); in Tanzania the root of C. absus is used for stomach troubles, and the leaves pounded and applied to *syphilitic sores; in Kenya the leaves of C. falcinella are used to treat *rheumatism and in a mixture of other plants to cure *broken bones, C. fallacina causes *photo-sensitisation if eaten by cattle, and in Kenya the leaves of C. kirkii is given to sick goats (Kokwaro 1976); C. mimosoides is used to cure *burns, *coughs, *diarrhoea, *sore eyes, and *wounds in the ear (Kokwaro 1776); in Uganda the root of C. nigricans is used to treat *hypertension, *stomach problems, to promote *labour and expel retained *placenta (Kokwaro 1976; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), while the leaf is used to treat skin *ulcer and *tuberculosis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves and roots of this species are used to treat *tuberculosis (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); the Luo in Kenya use the leaves and roots to treat *intestinal *worms and *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002); in Mali the powdered plant is taken to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006). chamazulene – an *essential oil obtained from distillation of the volatile oils of Matricaria recutita (*German chamomile); this oil is *anti-allergenic and *anti-inflammatory. chamomile1 – Chamaemelum nobile (Asteraceae); for medicinal use see *Roman chamomile; *German chamomile is Matricaria recutita. chamomile2 – Matricaria recutita or Chamomilla recutita (Asteraceae); for medicinal use see *German chamomile; *Roman chamomile is Chamaemelum nobile. chancroid – the hard and soft forms of sores caused by all *venereal infections other than *syphilis. chaparral (Am) – Larrea tridentata (Zygophyllaceae) is a very abundant bush in some American deserts and semi-deserts; it contains 12 % resins and *lignans and a *decoction of the plant was used by native Americans to treat *stomach troubles and *diarrhoea; the leaves were aplied for *respiratory and *skin problems, and young twigs were used for *toothache; until fairly recently large amounts of this plant were consumed in America; it was thought to be a beneficial remedy for *rheumatic pain, *urinary and *venerial infections and certain types of *cancer; the use of this plant is now banned in USA and many other countries as it was found that one of the lignans, *nordihydroguaiauretic acid, was found harmful to the *lymph glands and *kidneys; other lignans have been shown to have *antiviral activity against *HIV; alternative name: *creosote bush. Chasmanthera (Menispermaceae) – a genus of 2 species of lianes native to tropical Africa (in East Africa and Uganda 1 species); in East Uganda the root of C. dependens is used to treat *gonorrhoea, promote *labour and expel retained *placenta (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). Chassalia (Rubiaceae) – a genus of about 40-50 species of shrubs, subshrubs or small trees widely distributed in the Old World tropics (about 12 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in East Africa the fruits of C. albiflora are used for the treatment of *wounds, and the root of C. buchwaldii as a *purgative and for *snakebite, while the leaves are used in *circumcision treatment; in coastal Kenya the roots of C. umbraticola are used for treating *chest pain (Kokwaro 1976). chaste tree – Vitex agnus-castus (Verbenaceae/Lamiaceae) is a shrub which seeds (*monk’s pepper) have been assumed to have the power of subduing the sexual inclinations and thereby thought to be specially useful to those leading the monastic life. Research has confirmed that the berries has hormonial action and today it is used for *menstrual problems and increasing *fertility in women. The plant is also used to increase*breast-milk production, for *eye diseases and *stomach aches, and is the source of a yellow dye; alternative name: *agnus castus. 87 chaulmoogra oil – vegetabilian oil; ethylesters of this oil is used in medical treatment of *leprosy and some similar *skin diseases; the oil is extracted from the *chaulmoogra tree, Hydnocarpus kurzii (Flacourtiaceae) and related species. chaulmoogra tree – Hydnocarpus kurzii (Flacourtiaceae) and related species; ethylesters from an oil extracted from this tree is used in medical treatment of *leprosy and some similar *skin diseases. Chazaliella (Rubiaceae) – a genus of 24 species of shrubs widely distributed in tropical Africa (1 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of C. abrupta (= C. parvifolia) are used for *earache (Kokwaro 1976). Chebulic myrobalan – Terminalia myrobalan (Combretaceae) is an evergreen tree from central Asia and India, where its fruit has been used in medicin for thousands of years; the *astringent and *laxative fruit is mainly used for *digestive problems such as *diarrhoea, *dysentery, acidic *indigestion and *heartburn; a lotion has been used for sore and *inflamed eyes, and as a douche for *vaginitis and excessive *vaginal discharge. cheeseplant – Monstera deliciosa (Araceae); a robust climber from tropical America widely grown as an ornamental; the large leaves have characteristic holes; the spadix with its fruits is edible and taste of *pineapple, and may have some medicinal value as an *oxidant; alternative names: ceriman and *fruit salad vine. cheeseweed – Sida acuta (Malvaceae) is a troublesome weed in some tropical and warm countries; for medicinal use see *Sida; alternative names: *broom-weed, *southern sida (USA) and *spinyhead sida. chemotherapy – the treatment of disease by means of chemicals, such as in many treatments of *cancer; to alleviate the harmful effects of such treatments *marijuana, Cannabis sativa (the hemp family, Cannabaceae) and *Chinese milk-vetch, Astragalus membranaceus (the pea family, Fabaceae) are sometimes used; another herb *zedoary, Curcuma zedoaria (Cucurbitaceae) is used to increase the cancer-killing effect of chemotherapy. chenille (plant) – Acalypha hispida (Euphorbiaceae); a leaf extract has been drunk to treat *tryanosomiasis (Neuwinger 2000); alternative name: red-hot *catstail. Chenopodiaceae – a family of about 120 genera and 1300 species of annual or perennial herbs, shrubs or rarely climbers or small trees widely distributed, but most common in very dry and saline areas (in Uganda 1 genus and 4 species of introduced weeds only); the family Amaranthaceae is now often included in Chenopodiaceae, which then comprises about 190 genera and 2100 species; some species of the genus Chenopodium are used as medicine. Chenopodium (Chenopodiaceae) – a genus of about 150 annual or perennial herbs widely distributed in temperate regions, in tropical areas only as introduced weeds (9 species in East Africa, 5 species in Uganda); in Uganda the leaves and tops of C. ambrosioides are used to treat *febrile convulsions, *fever, *functional psychosis, *psychotic excitement, *vertigo and for stopping *nightmares (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the Bwamba use C. ambrosioides to treat stomach-ache and muscular pain (Kakudidi et al. 1996); in Central Uganda the Baganda drink a crushed leaf infusion of this plant to treat mothers for fever known as ”amakiro” in Luganda (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in Uganda C. opulifolium is used to treat *abdominal pain in children, *amoebiasis, *febrile convulsions, *cough, *fever, *headaches, *measles, sexual *asthenia in females, *syphilis and to stop constant *sneezing (Adjanohoun et al. 1993, Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda this herb is used to treat menstrual problems such as *dysmenorrhoea, excessive bleeding or *hypermenorrhoea and *prolapsed uterus (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Rakai district in Uganda the leaves are crushed, water added and given orally to chickens to expel worms (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007); in West Uganda the Bwamba use C. procerum to treat stomach-ache and muscular pain (Kakudidi et al. 1996); in West Uganda the leaves of C. procerum are taken to treat fresh *wounds, *pneumonia and postnatal pains (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Tanzania the same plant is used to treat *constipation in children and *headache 88 (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the roots of C. schraderanum are taken as a remedy to relieve stomach-ache, while the leaves are used to cure *colds (Kokwaro 1976). cherimoya – Annona cherimolia (Annonaceae) has edible fruits rich in *vitamin C and *antioxidants and thus useful as general resistance to diseases. cherry (cherries) – some species of the genus Prunus (Rosaceae), e.g. amarelle cherry (P. cerasus), *bird cherry (P. palustris), black cherry laurel (P. laurocerasus), cherry-plum (Prunus cerasifera), chokecherry (P. virginiana), flowering cherry (P. puddum and P. serrulata), mahaleb cherry (P. mahaleb), Nanking cherry (P. tomentosa), rum cherry (Prunus serotina), *sweet cherry (P. avium) and *wild cherry (Prunus serotina), bastard cherry is Cerasus pseudocerasus; see also *almond, *apricot, *peach, *plum and *Portugal laurel; for medicinal uses see *Prunus. chervil – Anthriscus cerefolium (Apiaceae) is an annual, aromatic, Eurasian herb widely used in cooking; it is diuretic and a good remedy for settling the *digestion, and to lower *blood pressure; juice from fresh plants has been used to various skin problems such as *abscesses, *eczema and *wounds. chestnut – Castanea sativa (Fagaceae), also named *common chestnut, Spanish chestnut and *sweet chestnut, a popular tree with edible fruits; other species are *American chestnut (C. dentata) and Japanese chestnut (C. crenata); Australian or Moreton Bay chestnut (Castanospermum australe) and golden chestnut (Castanopsis chrysophylla) belong to closely related genera; chestnut oak is Quercus prinus; for medicinal use see *sweet chestnut. chest problems (or ailments) – breast problems such as *asthma, *bronchitis, *cough and *pneumonia; plants used to alleviate breast problems include *balsam fir (Abies balsamea), *banana leaves (*Musa hybrids), *broad-leaved paper bark tree (Melaleuca viridiflora, Myrtaceae), *coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara, Asteraceae) and *Eucalyptus spp. (Myrtaceae). chickenpox – disease, chiefly affecting children, caused by a virus and resulting in red spots or *sores on the skin (often becoming *vesicles and then *pustules); this condition can be alleviated by taking herbs that support the *immune system as a whole, e.g. *lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) or a mixtire of *echinacea (Echinacea sp.) and *St. John’s wort (Hypericum perfoliatum) or a mixture of *garlic (Allium sativum), *ginger (Zingiber officinalis) and *lemon (Citrus × limon) – all prescriptions found in Chevallier (2001). chick pea – Cicer arietinum (Fabaceae); the chick peas are rich in *protein and thus useful protection against *kwashiorkor. chickweed – Stellaria media (Caryophyllaceae) is a troublesome weed in many countries; it can be used to relieve *eczema, *nettle-rash (*urticaria), *itchiness and certain *ulcers; it is also used in bathwater as it has *emollient properties and will repair tissue and reduce *inflammation of the skin or in *rheumatic joints; in small quantities it will aid *digestion, but taken in larger doses it may cause *diarrhoea and vomiting; alternative names: *satin-flower and *starweed (both USA). chicory – Cichorium intybus (Asteraceae) is a widespread herb with a root that contains up to 58 % *inulin; the roasted root has been used as a coffee substitute, and the boiled root can be boiled and eaten like *parsnips: chicory is a mild *laxative (particularly useful for children) and a mild bitter *tonic for the *liver and *digestive tract supporting the action of the *stomach and the *liver and cleansing the *urinary tract; it has also been taken for *gout and *rheumatic conditions. chilblain – a painful *swelling, especially on the hand or foot, caused by cold; leaves and flowers from *buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum (Polygonaceae) as well as oil from *ginger, Zingiber officinalis (Zingiberaceae) will alleviate this condition. childbirth – *delivery or *parturition; *puerperium is the period after birth; a large number of plants are used in connection with childbirth, e.g. *Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae), Aristolochia clematitis (*birthwort, Aristolochiaceae), *Asparagus africanus & falcatus (Asparagaceae), *Astragalus pilosulus (Fabaceae), *Cassytha filiformis (Lauraceae), *Crepis carbonaria 89 (Asteraceae), *Crotalaria goreensis (Fabaceae), *Cussonia holstii (Araliaceae), Cytisus scoparius (*broom, Fabaceae), Gossypium hirsutum (*cotton, Malvaceae), *Heliotropium zeylanicum (Boraginaceae), *Indigofera circinella (Fabaceae), *Ipomoea batatas (*sweet potato, Convolvulaceae), Mitchella repens (Rubiaceae), *Murraya paniculata (*cosmetic bark, Rutaceae), *Phyllanthus leucocalyx (Euphorbiaceae), *Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae), *Psychotria lauraceae (Rubiaceae), *Rhus vulgaris (Anacardiaceae), *Rubus idaeus (*raspberry, Rosaceae), *Schefflera goetzenii (Araliaceae), *Tamarindus indica (*tamarind, Fabaceae), *Tephrosia interupta (Fabaceae), Trillium erectum (*beth root, Trilliaceae), Ustilago zeae (*corn smut, Ustilaginales) and *Zanha africana (Sapindaceae). chill – a shivering or shaking accompanied by a sense of cold. chilli (pl: chillies) – the plant or the red pungent fruits of Capsicum frutescens (the potato family, Solanaceae) from Central America; the fruits are well known in cookery for its hot, burning taste; in medicine it is a powerful warming *stimulant acting on the *blood circulation and *digestion; it is used to treat a large variety of diseases and complaints, e.g. *colic, *diarrhoea, *wind (*carminative), cold hands and feet, muscle *spasms, *arthritis, *psoriasis, *neuralgia, pain and *headache; a major substance in chilli, e.g. *capsaicin, if applied to the skin, *desensitizes nerve endings and thus acts as a *counter-irritant and *painkiller; the name chilli is sometimes also applied to small and pungent forms of the related species Capsicum annuum (*paprika or *Hungarian pepper); alternative names: *chilli pepper and *cayenne (pepper). chilli pepper – this is an alternative name for *chilli (chillies); see above. China tea bush – Camellia sinensis (the tea family, Theaceae) is a small to large shrub native to East Asia, but is today widely cultivated in many temperate tropical regions; tea is perhaps the most widely used drink after water; it contains *theobromine, 2-5 % *caffeine and much *vitamin C; *green tea contains significant levels of *polyphenols; *black tea, which is produced by a process of fermentation, has lower levels of polyphenols; the caffeine in tea may help to relieve *headaches, but is less effective than coffee (Coffea spp.); green tea is considered a much healthier drink than black tea due to its strong *antioxidant activity (perhaps *cancer preventative); the high intake of green tea in China and Japan is believed to be partly responsible for the low incidence of cancer in these countries; strong brews of green tea are used in digestive infections, as a nerve tonic, and to soothe *insect stings, irritated eyelids, *sunburns and *swellings; green tea may help to induce weight loss and treat *hepatitis; alternative name: *tea. Chinese aconite – Aconitum carmichaelii (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae) is used in China for shock and to support the *circulatory system in emergencies; trials have shown it to be helpful in *congestive heart failure; see also *aconitine. Chinese agrimony – Agrimonia pilosa (the rose family, Rosaceae) has long been used to heal *wounds because it staunches *bleeding and encourages clot formation; it is also a helpful remedy for *diarrhoea and is a *tonic for the *digestion as a whole; alternative name: *xian he cao. Chinese anemone – Pulsatilla chinensis (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae) is a perennial East Asian herb believed to lower *fever and counteract *toxicity; it is often used to treat *infections within the *gastro-intestinal tract, e.g. *amoebic *dysentery; the root has been used to treat *malaria fever and*vaginal infections. Chinese anise – Illicium verum (Illiciaceae) is a tall evergreen tree native to East Asia; it is mainly used as a spice and has a similar taste as *anise (Pimpinella anisum); it has *digestive, *diuretic and stimulant properties and is used to treat *back pain, *colic, *hernias, *indigestion, *rheumatism, *toothache and *wind; alternative name: *star anise. Chinese angelica – Angelica sinensis (the carrot family, Apiaceae), is a major *tonic and warming herb for conditions suffered by women, and in China it is taken on a daily basis by millions of women, helping to regulate *menstruation, relieve periodic pain and *cramp and *tonify the blood; it will also improve poor *blood circulation as it improves blood flow to extremities; it 90 strengthens the *digestion and the *liver, has an *antibiotic effect and regulate *uterine contractions; se also *American angelica and *angelica. Chinese cabbage – Brassica chinensis (Brassicaceae) is probably only a variant of *cabbage (Brassica oleracea); for medicinal use see *Brassica. Chinese cinnamon – the bark of Cinnamomum aromaticum (previously named C. cassia) in the laurel family (Lauraceae); the bark is used for flavouring food, and is in China used to treat *diarrhoea. Chinese date plum – Diospyros kaki (Ebenaceae) with edible fruits rich in vitamin C and antioxidants and thus useful for general protection against diseases; alternative names *kaki and *persimmon. Chinese figwort – Scrophularia ningopoensis (maskeblomstfamily, Scrophulariaceae) is an East Asian herb in China used to treat *infections and to clear *toxicity. Chinese foxglove – Rehmannia glutinosa (the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae) is a handsome perennial herb from China; it has a marked *tonic action on the *liver and *kidneys preventing poisoning and liver damage; it is a good treatment for *hepatitis; furthermore it reduces *fevers, lowers *blood pressure and *blood cholesterol levels; in China it is said that it ’cools the blood’ and therefore given to lower *fever in acute and chronic illnesses; it is also a valuable tonic for old age believed to prevent *senility; alternative name: *rehmannia. Chinese gardenia – Gardenia jasminoides (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is an evergreen shrub native to China; it is much used to flavour tea and its essential oil is used for making perfume; it has been used to treat *headache, *fever, irritability, restlessness, *insomnia, difficulty in breeding, painful urination, *cystitis and *jaundice; it staunches *bleeding, and is taken for both *nosebleeds and for urinary and *rectal bleeding. Chinese ginseng – Panax notoginseng (the ivy family, Araliaceae) is a perennial Chinese herb, which root has been widely used as a medicine; it is a useful plant to arrest *bleeding by hasting *blood clotting; it also improves *coronary circulation (thus useful to treat *arteriosclerosis), lessens the symptoms of *angina and reduces blood pressure levels; applied externally it speeds the healing of *wounds and *bruises. Chinese goldthread – Coptis chinensis (Ranunculaceae) is a Chinese alpine plant; it is a bitter-tasting herb with a rhizome used in the treatment of *tuberculosis, *diarrhoea, *dysentery and *vomiting, and to relieve *fever, sore throats, red and sore eyes as well as *skin problems like *acne, *abscesses, *boils and *burns; it is also taken as a gargle for *toothache, swollen gums, and mouth and tongue *ulcers; see also *goldthread (C. trifolia). Chinese lantern (plant) – Physalis alkekengi (the potato family, Solanaceae) is a perennial herb native to Asia, but widely cultivated and naturalized elsewhere; the fruit contains alkaloids and vitamins A and C; it has been widely used in the past as a *diuretic and to treat *gallstones and *kidney stones; alternative name: * winter cherry. Chinese loosestrife – Lysimachia christinae (the primrose family, Primulaceae) is a perennial herb native to East Asia; it is a *diuretic herb used to treat *urinary pain; it is also effective in treating *gallstones and *kidney stones; see also *yellow pimpernel (L. nemorum) and *yellow loosestrife (L. vulgaris). Chinese matrimony-vine (Am) – Lycium chinense (the tomato family, Solanaceae) is an important Chinese *tonic herb traditionally believed to promote long life; the berries are shown to protect the *liver from damage caused by *toxins; they improve *blood circulation and absorption of nutrients, and are believed to improve *blurred vision, failing eysight, dizziness, *tinnitus and wasting conditions; the root relaxes the *artery muscles thereby lowering *blood pressure; it also reduce *fever (including *malaria fever) and help to control involuntary bodily functions; alternative name: *Chinese wolfberry; see *boxthorn, *Duke of Argyll’s tea-plant (Lycium halimifolium), *matrimony-vine and *wolfberry. 91 Chinese milk-vetch – Astragalus membranaceus (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a perennial herb native to eastern Asia; its rootstock has a sweet taste and is a classical energy *tonic particularly for young people increasing endurance and *stamina, and improving resistance to cold; it is also *diuretic and lowers *blood pressure; it has also been used to restore normal *immune function in *cancer patients after *chemotherapy and *radiotherapy; in China it is often combined with *Chinese angelica (Angelica sinensis) to treat *anaemia. Chinese mugwort – Artemisia verlotiorum (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is an Asian perennial herb very similar to *mugwort (A. vulgaris), but with contradictary medicinal use; in Chinese usage it is prescribed to prevent *miscarriage and to reduce or stop *menstrual bleeding. Chinese prickly ash – Zanthoxylum bungeanum (the orange family, Rutaceae) is an East Asian tree traditionally used for illnesses causing *abdominal pain. Chinese rhubarb – Rheum palmatum (Polygonaceae) is considered the most useful *purgative herb in herbal medicine; due to its gentle action it is safe even for young children; it has a more than 2000 years long history as a very effective treatment for many *digestive problems such as *constipation (in combination with *carminative herbs), *diarrhoea (small doses) and loss of appetite (as a mild appetite *stimulant); it can also be used for *boils, *burns, *carbuncles and mouth *ulcers. Chinese sargassum – the brown seaweeds Sargassum fusiforme and S. pallidum (Sargassaceae), found along the coastlines of India and Japan, have been widely used as a source of *iodine and *potash; they are used as an anti-*goitre remedy and also have *antifungal and moderately *anticoagulant actions; see also *bladderwreck and *kelp. (Chinese) schisandra – Schisandra chinensis (Schisandraceae) is an aromatic woody vine climbing to 10 m high; it is native to East Asia and widely cultivated in China; it contains up to 30 different lignans, which have all a liver-protective (*hepatotoxic) action; it also stimulates the nervous system improving mental clarity; the fruits are thought to reduce *depression and help improve irritability and forgetfulness; it also stimulates the *uterus, strengthening rhythmic contractions; like *ginseng (Panax ginseng) it is *adaptogenic helping the body to adapt to stress; it is also *sedative and used in the treatment of *respiratory infections. Chinese valerian – Valeriana hardwickii (the valerian family, Valerianaceae) is a perennial herb native to eastern Asia; it has been used as an *antispasmodic in China easing *cramps; se also *valerian (V. officinalis). Chinese wolfberry – Lycium chinense (the tomato family, Solanaceae) is an important Chinese *tonic herb traditionally believed to promote long life; the berries are shown to protect the *liver from damage caused by *toxins; they improve *blood circulation and absorption of nutrients, and are believed to improve *blurred vision, failing eysight, dizziness, *tinnitus and wasting conditions; the root relaxes the *artery muscles thereby lowering *blood pressure; it also reduce *fever (including *malaria fever) and help to control involuntary bodily functions; alternative name: *Chinese matrimony-vine (Am); see *boxthorn, *Duke of Argyll’s tea-plant (Lycium halimifolium), *matrimony-vine and *wolfberry. Chinese wormwood – Artemisia annua (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a very important medicinal plant used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat *malaria; it is now grown for this purpose in many tropical and warm temperate countries; research has shown it to prevent and cure malaria being relatively free from side-effects. Chinese wormwood contains volatile oils (*abrotamine and beta-bourbonene), *sesquiterpene lactone (*artemisinin) and *vitamin A; artemisinin is the powerful *antimalarial and it also reduces the risk of developing malaria; the plant also has an *antibiotic effect against many *fungal *skin diseases, and is also used to treat *headaches and *fever; alternative name: *annual mugwort. Chinese yam – Dioscorea opposita (the yam family, Dioscoreaceae) is an East Asian climber widely used in Chinese medicine as a *tonic for the *stomach and *digestion; it is also taken for appetite loss and *wheezing; alternative name: *shan yao; see also *wild yam (D. villosa). 92 Chionanthus (Oleaceae) – a genus with about 100 species widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, rarely in temperate regions (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in West Tanzania the Bende boil the roots of C. nilotica and drink a cupful of the *decoction twice a day to cure *swellings of the *scrotum and *testicles (Kokwaro 1976); this genus was previously named *Linociera. chiretta – Swertia chirata (Gentianaceae) is an annual herb at high altitudes in Himalaya; chiretta was a common treatment for *malaria until *Peruvian bark (Cinchona spp.) became available in Europe and Asia; it is a strongly *bitter herb useful for a weak *stomach, and to improve appetite and *digestive function; like most bitters it reduces *fever and increases blood flow to the *liver; with other herbs it has been used to treat *allergies. chives – Allium schoenoprasum (Alliaceae); for medical uses see *Allium. Chloris (Poaceae) – a genus of about 40 grass species in tropical and warm regions (15 species in East Africa, 7 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of C. virgata are pounded, soaked in water and applied to *wounds to prevent *bacterial *infection (Kokwaro 1976). Chlorophytum (Anthericaceae) – a genus of about 150 species of perennial herbs with rhizome or corms (52 species in East Africa, 22 species in Uganda); in Uganda the tuberous roots of C. blepharophyllum are used to treat *infertility (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), and a *decoction of the corm of C. comosum is drunk to treat *sterility (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Tanzania the underground parts of C. suffruticosum are used as an *aphrodisiac by the Shambaa (Kokwaro 1976). chloroquine – a synthetic drug resembling *quinine and widely prescribed to prevent the malaria parasite to produce malaria in humans, and also used to treat *malaria; from the 1960s the malarial parasite became resistant to chloroquine, and the natural drug *quinine once again became a major antimalarial drug; see also *chloroquine, *fever bark tree and *Peruvian bark. chocolate – energy food with a high content of the seed pulp from *cacao, Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae); particularly black chocolate with little additions has like cacao or *cocoa therapeutic value as a *nervous system stimulant, to treat *angina, and as a *diuretic; it contains *polyphenols which have strong *antioxidant activity within the heart and the *stomach; the seeds are taken as a heart and *kidney *tonic; they contain small amounts of *endomorphins, which are powerful *painkillers. cholera – an acute, often epidemic fatal disease caused by a comma-shaped bacteria, Vibrio (Comma bacillus) characterized by profuse *diarrhoea, *vomiting and strong dehydration often resulting in death; plants sometimes used to treat this disease include *Berberis vulgaris (*barberry, Berberidaceae), *Hoslundia opposita (Lamiaceae), *Hibiscus fuscus (Malvaceae), Iris versicolor (*blue flag, Iridaceae) and *Syzygium aromaticum (*clove, Myrtaceae). choleretic – which stimulate secretion of *bile by the *liver; see also *choleretics and *chologogue. choleretics – herbs that stimulate secretion of *bile by the *liver, e.g. Cynara scolymus (*artichoke); see also *chologogue and *choloretic. cholesterol – a colourless crystalline *fat occurring in blood and tissues of the animal organism; it occurs in all cell membranes and is the base of many *hormones; it is transported in the blood as *lipoproteins; high concentrations of cholesterol in the blood may result in *arteriosclerosis; there are two major types of cholesterol; *HDL (high density lipoproteins) transport cholesterol away from the walls of the veins (”good cholsterol”), while *LDL (low density lipoproteins) or *VLDL (very low density lipoproteins) transport cholesterol to the wall (dangerous cholesteol); many plants are able to lower cholesterol levels, see *blood cholesterol. choline – one of the B-complex *vitamins found in *lecithin. chologogue – choleretic; (an agent or drug) which stimulates the flow of bile by the liver; many medicinal plants are believed to have this value, e.g. *artichoke (Cynara scolymus). choloretic – chologogue; (an agent or drug) which stimulates the flow of bile by the liver; many medicinal plants are believed to have this value, e.g. *artichoke (Cynara scolymus). 93 chorea – involuntary muscular twitching. chou wu tong (Chinese) – Clerodendrum trichotomum (Verbenaceae or Lamiaceae) is a deciduous Chinese shrub useful to reduce *blood pressure; the plant is mildly *analgesic and is prescribed for *joint pain, *numbness and *paralysis. Christmas bush – Alchornea cordifolia (Euphorbiaceae) is a large shrub widely distributed in tropical Africa; in Uganda the root bark is used to treat *snake bite (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Christmas rose – Helleborus niger (Ranunculaceae) is a perennial evergreen Mediterranean herb widely cultivated as a garden plant often flowering in mid-winter; it is *toxic except in the smallest doses; it has *purgative and *cardiotonic properties, promotes *menstrual flow and expels *worms; the leaves contain *cardiac glycosides with a similar action as those from *foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) and have been used as a heart *stimulant for the elderly, but is now considered too strong for safe use; alternative name: *black hellebore. chromium (Cr) – an element which does not occur naturally in the free state; it has been added to food to prevent development of *diabetes type 2. Chrysanthellum (Asteraceae) – a genus of 10 species of annual or rarely perennial herbs widely distribued in tropical regions; in East Africa and Uganda 1 species; in East Uganda the leaves or whole plant of C. indicum subsp. afroamericanum are used to treat *jaundice, *kwashiorkor, *syphilis, painful *uterus and as an *antidote (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). chrysanthemum – species which were earlier classified in Chrysanthemum (Asteraceae), but are now transferred to the following genera: Balsamita, Chrysanthemum, Dendranthema, Leucanthemum og Tanacetum; see also *florist’s chrysanthemum, which is the most well known chrysanthemum for medicinal use. Chrysobalanaceae – a family of about 17 genera and 460 species of trees and shrubs widely distributed in tropical regions (in Uganda 1 genus and 2 species); the family is sometimes included in the family Rosaceae; the genus *Parinari has species of medicinal use. chufa – Cyperus esculentus (the sedge family, Cyperaceae) or the fixed oil from this sedge; the plant is a tropical and subtropical weed with small edible tubers; the tuber is regarded as a *digestive tonic easing *flatulence and promoting urine production and *menstruation; it is also belived to *aphrodisiac, and the juice is taken to heal *ulcers of the mouth and gum; alternative name: *tiger-nut. cicatriz (pl. cicatrtices) – new tissue that forms over a wound andlater contracts into a scar. cicatrization – the formation of *cicatrix (new tissue over a wound). ciliantro – Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae) is a strongly aromatic annual herb widely cultivated as a spice throughout the world; the leaves are used in soups and the seeds in curri powder; an infusion of the plant is a gentle remedy for *flatulence, *bloating, *griping, *spasms within the gut, *rheumatic pain and *nervous tension; in Europe it has traditionally been thought to have *aphrodisiac properties; chewing the plant will sweeten the breath particularly after having eaten *garlic; alternative name: *coriander. cinnamon – Cinnamomum verum, earlier named C. zeylanicum (the laurel family, Lauraceae), or the bark of this tree; it is native to India and Sri Lanka, but is widely cultivated in the tropics of both hemispheres; it is widely used in food and as medicine; the herb is mainly taken for colds, flu and *digestive problems (*nausea, *vomiting and *diarrhoea); cinnamon has been shown to be *sedative and *analgesic, and is thought to reduce *fevers and *blood pressure; extracts of the bark have *antibacterial and *antifungal actions; *bastard cinnamon is Cinnamomum cassia. cinquefoil – some species of the genus Potentilla (Rosaceae); e.g. hoary cinquefoil (P. argentea), marsh cinquefoil (P. palustris), rock cinquefoil (P. rupestris) and shrubby cinquefoil (P. fruticosa); see also *silverweed (P. anserina) and *tormentil (P. erecta). circulation – *blood circulation; the flowing of blood through the vascular system of humans and other vertebrates; many plants are warming *stimulants improving blood circulation, e.g. *chilli 94 (Capsicum frutescens, Solanaceae), *Chinese angelica (Angelica sinensis, Apiaceae) and broadleaved paper bark tree (Melaleuca viridiflora, Myrtaceae). circulatory stimulant – which increases blood flow, usually to a given area, e.g. feet and hands; for medicinal plants alleviating this condition see *blood circulation and *circulation. circumcision – to remove the *prepuce of a male; in Kenya the leaves of A. pedunculosum are wrapped round the injured *penises of Kikuyu boys after *circumcision, while in Mali crushed leaves are applied to *circumcission wounds (Neuwinger 1996). cirrhosis – disease of *liver characterised by increase of *connective tissue and chiefly caused by high alcoholic consumption; for useful plants see *alcoholism and *delirium tremens; some plants have been used to alleviate this disease, e.g. Glyceria glabra (*liquorice, Fabaceae), *Pseudocedrela kotschyi (Meliaceae), Silybum marianum (*Mary thistle or *milk thistle, Asteraceae) and *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae). cirrhosis – hardening of tissue due to increase in the connective tissue. Cissampelos (Menispermaceae) – a genus of 19 species of climbers, lianes or scrambling shrubs widespread in tropical regions (4 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of C. mucronata are taken to treat skin *abscess and *functional psychosis, while the roots are used for *abdominal pains, *asthenia, *diarrhoea, *dysentery and as an *antidote to *snake bite (Kokwaro 1976, Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a root decoction of C. mucronata for stomach ache (Masinde 1996); in Central Uganda the Baganda chew the boiled roots of this plant to stimulate *uterine contractions and to expel stuck *placenta, crushed leaves are used to clean baby’s tongue, while burnt leaves are mixed with jelly applied to the womb to rightly position the baby (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in East Uganda the root is used to treat diarrhoea, as an *antidote and to remove spells (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves of C. mucronata are used to treat a dry *cough named ekintu (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots of this species are used to treat *intestinal worms (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Tanzania the roots of C. pareira and C. truncata are used as an *antidote for *snake bite and other *poisoning; the roots (and leaves) of C. pareira are also used as a remedy for *colds, *coughs, *pregnancy pains, *sore throats, *stomach-ache and *wounds (Kokwaro 1976). Cissus (Vitaceae) – a genus of about 250 species of perennial herbs, shrubs or climbers, sometimes succulent, widespread in tropical and subtropical countries (in East Africa 40 species and in Uganda 15 species); in Uganda the leaves of C. aralioides are used to treat *malaria (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Africa the root of C. oliveri is used as a *purgative and for *stomach problems, while the leaves are eaten for *constipation, and the sap as an eye medicine (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of C. quadrangularis are used to treat *neurotic disorder, the stem for *fractures and the whole plant as a preventive charm against *bewitchment (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda C. quadrangularis is boiled or steamed and eaten to improve *sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); in coastal Kenya C. quadrangularis is used to stop wound *bleeding, applied on *swellings and taken as a remedy for *colds in the chest (Kokwaro 1976; Vetrichelvan et al. 1999); the Luo in Kenya use the roots to treat bloody *diarrhoea, *ear ache and *skin disorders (Geissler et al. 2002); in Mali a decoction of the whole plant of C. quadrangularis alone or mixed with other plants is drunk to treat both *urinary and *intestinal *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006). in East Uganda the leaves of C. rotundifolia are applied to *insect bites (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the leaves as plasters on *wounds, while the liquid of the roots or rootstock is dripped on *burnings and *wounds to keep flies away (Heine & König 1988); in Kenya and Tanzania they are used on *inflammation and *swellings on the skin, while the roots are used for *yaws, as a *purgative, and externally for *ulcers (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the leaves of C. trothae are chewed and the juice swallowed for treating *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976). 95 citral – a volatile oil found in (lemon) balm, Melissa officinalis (the mint family, Lamiaceae); it is strongly *antispasmodic and calm the central nervous system and is thus a medicine for *anxiety and *depression; *citronellal and *linalool have similar functions. citrantin – a substance believed to be *contraceptive; it is found e.g. in the unripe fruit of *bitter orange, Citrus × aurantium (the orange family, Rutaceae). Citric acid – this acid immobilizes human sperm and is sometimes used by prostitutes and poor people as a *contraceptive; it is particularly common in the genus *Citrus. Citropsis (Rutaceae) – a genus of 8 species of shrubs or small trees in tropical Africa (1 species in Uganda); in West Uganda the root bark of C. articulata is used to increase sexual potency (Kakudidi et al. 2000), while the root or bark is taken as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005). citron – Citrus medica (Rutaceae); this small Indian tree is an important medicinal plant; it is one of the parents to the *lemon tree (C. × limon) and probably also to *lime (C. × aurantifolia); the tree is not much cultivated for food (only for candied peel), but in Jewish tradition the variety *etrog is important. citronellal – a volatile oil found in (lemon) balm, Melissa officinalis (the mint family, Lamiaceae); it is strongly *antispasmodic and calm the central nervous system and is thus a medicine for *anxiety and *depression; *citral and *linalool have similar functions. Citrullus (Cucurbitaceae) – a genus of 3 species of twining herbs native to Africa and Asia (2 species native to East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); the seeds or fruits of C. colocynthis are used to treat *eczema and skin *pustules (El-Kamali & Khalid 1996); in Tanzania the leaf sap of C. lanatus (water melon) is drunk to treat *fever and *malaria, while the ground leaves are bound on to treat *whitlow (Haerdi 1964). Citrus (Rutaceae) – a genus of 12-16 species of shrubs or trees native to south and southeast Asia and Australia; in East Africa about 8 species or hybrids are cultivated for their edible sour fruits; all species are of medicinal value due to their content of *vitamin C and *antioxidants; Citrus medica (*citron) is a small Indian tree and the most important medicinal plant in the genus; it is one of the parents of *lemon and probably also *lime; in East Africa the lime tree (C. × aurantifolia) is widely used for medicine; the leaves, fruits and roots are used for *cough and *influenza, the root for *helminthiasis and the root or fruits to counter *poisonings; a fruit decoction is a good *tonic (Kokwaro 1976, Adjanohoun et al. 1993, Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Mali a *decoction of the leaves and fruit of C. × aurantifolia mixed with leaves of Tamarindus indica is drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); in West Uganda the leaves of lemon (C. × limon) are used to alleviate *cough (Kakudidi et al. 2000), while in East Uganda a fruit decoction is drunk for *cough and *influenza and with honey used as a *tonic (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); the juice of lemon (*citric acid) immobilizes human sperm and is sometimes used by prostitutes and poor people as a *contraceptive; in East Africa the leaf of *orange (variously named C. sinensis or more correctly Citrus × aurantium) is used to treat cough (Kakudidi et al. 2000) while the juice of the leaves is squeezed into the ear for *ear-ache (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda a decoction of the bark is drunk to treat *diarrhoea while the roots are taken to counter *snake bite (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); mandarin, C. reticulata, and the hybrid between mandarin and orange (*tangarine and *clementine) also has some medicinal value due to its content of vitamins. citrus fruit family – Rutaceae; it is a large family with about 150 genera and 900 species widely distributed in all tropical and warm regions; for medicinal uses see *Rutaceae; alternative names: *orange family and *rue family. citrus hybrids – hybrids between species in the genus Citrus (Rutaceae), e.g. grapefruit & oranges (C. × aurantium), lemon (C. × limon) and lime (C. × aurantifolia); all are important sources of *vitamin C and are thus useful as a general protection against diseases. 96 citrus tree – trees of the genus Citrus (Rutaceae), e.g. *citron (C. medica), *kumquat (C. japonica), *mandarin (C. reticulata) and *pomelo (C. maxima). clary – Salvia sclarea (Lamiaceae); for medicinal use see *clary sage; meadow clary is Salvia pratensis, whorled clary is Salvia verticillata and *wild clary is Salvia verbenacea. clary sage – Salvia sclarea (Lamiaceae) is a biennial Mediterranean aromatic herb somtimes cultivated for its essential oil; it is *antispasmodic and used to treat *digestive problems such as *wind and *indigestion; it helps to relieve *periodic pain and *premenstrual problems; it has *oestrogen-stimulating action and therefore most useful for complaints associated with the *menopause; alternative name: *clary. Clausena (Rutaceae) – a genus of about 25 species of trees and shrubs, one widespread and common species in Africa, the others in southeast Asia; in West Uganda the stem bark of C. anisata is taken to ease *cough (Kakudidi et al. 2000), in East Uganda the roots are used to treat *kyphosis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), and twigs are used to ward off evil spirits (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use twigs of this plant commonly as toothbrush and as a medicine in connection with female reproduction (Heine & König 1988); in East Africa the twigs are used as toothbrushes, a root decoction is taken by women to cleanse the *uterus of blood after child birth and to hasten *lactation; the roots are also recommended for *headache, *indigestion, *influenza and *malaria (Kokwaro 1976). cleavers – Galium aparine (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a troublesome annual weed in many temperate countries; shepheards have used the stems to make sieves for straining milk; it is a mild *laxative and *diuretic sometimes taken for swollen *lymph glands, *kidney stones, *urinary problems and skin diseases such as *eczema, *psoriasis and *seboohoea, alternative names: *catchweed, *goosegrass, *hairif, *robin-run-over-the-hedge, *scratch grass, *sticky Willie; see also *bedstraw; false cleavers is Galium spurium. Cleistopholis (*Annonaceae) – a genus of 3-4 species of trees or shrubs native to tropical Africa (in East Africa 1 species in Uganda only); in different countries C. patens has been used to treat *diarrhoea, *headache, *hepatitis, *joint pain, *swellings, *trypanosomiasis and *tuberculosis (Neuwinger 2000). Clematis (*Ranunculaceae) – a genus of about 230 species of herbs and climbers (mostly slender lianes) widely distributed in both cold and warm countries (7 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in central Uganda the leaves of C. hirsuta are used to treat *rectal prolapse and low abdominal pain in women due to *fallopian tube problems, while the root is used to treat *corneal opacity (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in West Uganda the leaves and flowers are used to treat *influenza and *whooping cough (Kakudidi et al. 2000), while in East Uganda the leaves are used to treat *insanity and used in rituals (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves of this species are used to treat *influenza and mental problems (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in East Africa this plant has also been used to treat *cold in the head, *gonorrhoea, *headache, *malaria, *sore throat and *syphilis; in Kenya the elephants are believed to eat this plant to clear their trunks when suffering from colds in the head; a decoction of the roots of a closely related species (C. simensis) is drunk for the treatment of *malaria, but it also causes *diarrhoea and acts as a *purgative, while the leaves are chewed and the juice swallowed as a cure for *headaches and colds (Kokwaro 1976). Clematopsis (*Ranunculaceae) – a genus of about 18 species of erect herbs native to Africa and Madagascar (2 species in East Africa, 1 in Uganda), but the genus now usually included in Clematis; in Kenya the leaves of C. villosa (= C. scabiosifolia) are cooked and the extract used as a medicine for goats (Kokwaro 1976). clementine – a hybrid between *mandarin (*Citrus reticulata, also named *tangerine) and orange (C. × aurantium) in the citrus family (Rutaceae); clementines are separated from mandarines by having a less loose peel and few or none seeds; see also *orange. Possibly tangerines are also a hybrid between *mandarin (*C. reticulata) and orange (C. × aurantium), and then clementines 97 are a backcross with oange. Presently mainly clementines are sold, never the true species C. reticulata (mandarine), which is full of seeds; for medicinal use see *Citrus. Cleome (*Capparidaceae) – a genus of about 150 species of annual or perennial herbs widely distributed in tropical and warm countries (22 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of C. gynandra (= Gynandropsis gynandra) are chewed or a decoction drunk to facilitate birth (*antenatal/promote *labour), to treat *conjunctivitis, *diphteria, *septic ears, *stomach-ache and severe infections by *threadworms, while the leaves are used to treat *aching ears, *epileptic fits, *splenomegaly with pain, *vomiting and *wounds (Kokwaro 1976; Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Central Uganda the Baganda chew fresh or baked roots of this plant to induce *uterine contractions (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in western Uganda the leaves of C. gynandra are taken as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves and roots of this species are used to treat *ringworm and stomachache (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); the Luo in Kenya use C. gynandra to treat *diarrhoea, *leprosy, and *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002); in Tanzania the roots of C. hirta are chewed or boiled and the liquid drunk for *stomach-ache, while in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam gather this plant and give it to goats in the evening to keep them quiet at night (Heine & König 1988); in East Uganda the leaves of C. monophylla are used to treat *vertigo (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in coastal Kenya a leaf decoction of C. strigosa was formerly used to ease earache (Weiss 1979); in Tanzania the roots of C. usambarica are mixed with roots of *Macaranga usambarensis as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976). Clerodendrum (*Verbenaceae or *Lamiaceae) – a genus of about 400 species of shrubs, trees or lianes, rarely perennial herbs native to all tropical and warm regions (about 50 species in East Africa and 14 species in Uganda or about 30 (11) species if the genus *Rotheca is excluded); in coastal Kenya the roots of C. acerbianum are used for *stomach problems (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of C. capitatum are used to treat *stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 2000), while in coastal Kenya the leaves of this species are used for *headache and *epilepsy in children (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the leaf of C. eriophyllum is used to treat *malaria, and a root decoction drunk for *intestinal disorders (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda a decoction of the leaves of C. fuscum is drunk to treat *diarrhoea (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in coastal Kenya C. incisum is used to treat heart *palpitations, *fever and other diseases ib children, and in Tanzania the leaf juice of C. johnstonii is taken as a remedy for *abdominal pains and stomach problems (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa C. myricoides is used to treat *chest pains, *colds, *constipation, *delirium, *diarrhoea, *dizziness, *gonorrhoea, *impotence, *indigestion, *malaria, *marasmus, *rheumatism, *snake bites, *skin problems, *sore throat, *swellings, *tonsilitis, *ulcers and *vomiting, and also used in *antenatal care (Kokwaro 1976; Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 20003); in Central Uganda the Baganda drink a root decoction of this plant to treat painful *menstruation and *infertility (WanyanaMaganyi 1999); in West Uganda the leaves of this plant is taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Tanzania the shambaa use the roots of C. robustum var. fischeri for swollen *testicles; the thin stems, which are hollow, are used like a *syringe, the stem being inserted into the *penis tract and the liquid blown through the tube into the penis; this causes profuse urination after which a cure will be obtained (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of C. rotundifolium are boiled or squeezed and eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use a body wash from the leaves to expel or keep away *lice and *bed bugs both in humans and calves (Heine & König 1988); in Rakai district in Uganda the leaves are crushed, water added and given orally to chickens to treat *Gumboro and *worms (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007); in Tanzania the leaves and roots of C. rotundifolium are used to treat *boils, *cold, *headaches, *rheumatism and *swellings, as an 98 *anthelmintic to expel *tapeworms, and to provoke *abortion; in Tanzania the roots of C. sansibarensis (= Clerodendrum scheffleri) are used to treat sick children and for the treatment of *snake bite (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the roots of C. umbellatum (= C. cordifolium) are used to treat *pelvic inflammatory disease, and *spleen and *liver diseases in children (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kokwaro 1976); in Apac district in North Uganda the buds of this species are chewed fresh to treat *headache and *stomachache (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Tanzania the roots of C. uncinatum are used to treat *bilharzia; Clerodendrum myricoides and C. sansibarense are now often transferred to the genus *Rotheca. climacteric – any critical period; the period of of decreasing reproductive capacity, culminating in women in *menopause. climbing hempvine – species of the genus Mikania (Asteraceae); for medicinal use see *Mikania; alternative name: *hempvine. clonic (med) – relating to convulsions marked by alternate contractions and relaxation of muscles. clotting (med) – see *blood clotting. cloudberry – Rubus chamaemorus (Rosaceae); a northern temperate species with fruits rich in *vitamin C and *antioxidants and thus useful for general protection against diseases. clove – a spice which consists of the flower buds from Syzygium aromaticum, also named Eugenia caryophyllata (Myrtaceae) from the Molucca Islands, but it is now most extensively cultivated in Zanzibar; clove is widely used as a spice in food, but is also a valuable medicinal plant; its volatile oil is *anaesthetic and strongly *antiseptic, and is therefore useful as a pain relief for *toothache; in Asia it has been used to treat infections and parasites such as *cholera, *malaria, *scabies and *tuberculosis; it also relieves muscle *spasms, eases *coughs and digestive discomfort such as *abdominal bloating, *colic and *wind; cloves are also a *stimulant both to the body and mind (belived to improve memory and being *aphrodisiac); cloves will also repel mosquitos. clover – species of the genus Trifolium (Fabaceae), e.g. alsike clover (T. hybridum), buffalo-clover (T. pennsylvanicum), crimson clover (T. incarnatum), meadow or zigzag clover (T. medium), *red clover (T. pratense), strawberry clover (T. fragiferum), and white clover (T. repens); for medicinal use see *red clover. clubmoss1 – a vascular spore plant belonging to one of the genera in Lycopodiaceae or Selaginellaceae, e.g. alpine clubmoss (Diphasiastrum alpinum), common clubmoss (Lycopodium clavatum), fir clubmoss (Huperzia selago), interrupted clubmoss (Lycopodium annotinum), lesser clubmoss (Selaginella selaginoides), marsh clubmoss (Lycopdiella inundata) and stagshorn clubmoss (Lycopodium clavatum); for medicinal use see *clubmoss2. clubmoss2 – Lycopodium clavatum, a vascular spore plant (Lycopodiaceae), has been used medicinally at least since the Middle Ages; this plant is *diuretic, *sedative and *antispasmodic, and is particularly useful in treating chronic *urinary complaints, *indigestion, *gastritis and for flushing out *kidney stones; the spores are strongly water-resistent and are used to coat tablets.; other species of clubmosses are sometimes used in a similar way. Clusiaceae (previously Guttiferae) – a family of about 40 genera and 1000 species of trees, shrubs and herbs widely distributed in tropical as well as in temperate regions (7 genera and 20 species in Uganda); several genera contain species with important medicinal uses, e.g. *Allanblackia, *Calophyllum, *Garcinia, *Harungana, *Hypericum, *Psorospermum, *Symphonia and *Vismia; the genera Harungana, Hypericum, Psorospermum and Vismia are sometimes classified in a separate family, the Hypericaceae. cluster pea – Cyamopsis psoraloides (Fabaceae) is mainly cultivated in India; the cluster peas are rich in *protein and thus useful protection against *kwashiorkor. Clutia (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus of about 70 species of small trees, shrubs or woody herbs native to Africa and Arabia (7 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda): in Uganda the leaves of C. abyssinica (including C. pedicellaris) are used to treat *colic, *perusis and *shock (Adjanohoun 99 et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000); elsewhere in East Africa this plant is taken as a remedy for *colds, *fever, *headache, *liver pain, *malaria and *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda C. abyssinica is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in West Uganda the leaves of C. abyssinica are steamed or squeezeded and eaten or inserted in *vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); in Kenya the roots of C. robusta are used as a remedy for *colds and *rheumatism (Kokwaro 1976). Cnestis (Connaraceae) – a genus of about 40 species of shrubs, lianes and small trees native to tropical Africa (2 species native to East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in Tanzania a leaf infusion of C. corniculata (C. confertiflora) is drunk to expel *intestinal worms (Chhabra et al. 19871993), while a root decoction is drunk to treat *ascariasis and the leaf sap is drunk to treat *malaria (Haerdi 1964); in West Africa C. ferruginea is widely used to treat many different diseases (Neuwinger 2000). cnicin – a *sesquiterpene *lactone; it is somewhat *antibiotic; it is one of the constituents in *corn flower, Centaurea cyanus (Asteraceae). cobra – a group of very *venomous African and Asian snakes; many plants are used to treat snake bites (see *snake bite), but in Kenya the leaves of *Crossandra nilotica (Acanthaceae) are specified as being used for the treatment of *cobra bite by chewing the leaves and then spitting on the place where the *venom has been injected or sprayed (Kokwaro 1976). coca – *Erythroxylum coca (*Erythroxylaceae) is an evergreen shrub native to Bolivia and Peru; it is mostly cultivated for the illegal market; the plant’s *stimulant and *anaesthetic action is due largely to *cocaine, an extremely addictive *narcotic; cocaine extracted from coca leaves is used legally in convential medicine as a local *anaesthetic; the chewing of coca leaves seems to have a beneficial effect on gums and teeth; coca leaves chewed with lime and ashes help high altitude people to survive the effects of cold, exhaustion and poor food. coca family – Erythroxylaceae; it is a medium sized family with 4 genera and about 260 arter widely distributed in all tropical areas; the family is sometimes included in Linaceae; for medicinal uses see *Erythroxylaceae and *coca. cocaine – a debilitating narcotic causing *euphoria and enhancing sexual desire in girls; cocaine is found in the leaves of the coca plant, *Erythroxylum coca (*Erythroxylaceae); the Indians maintain *blood glucose levels despite poor diets by chewing coca leaves; as a medicine cocaine is used as an *anesthetic. coccid – a one-celled animal, sporozoa, living as a parasite in the intestines of mammals and birds. coccidiosis (*CCD) – an animal disease due to infection of *coccids, especially from the genera Eimeria and Isospora; for treatment see Cannabis sativa (hashish, Cannabaceae), Capsicum frutescens (*chilli pepper, Solanaceae) and Bidens pilosa (Solanaceae); see Bukenya-Ziraba et al. (2007). cocculus – Anamirta cocculus (Menispermaceae) is a large Asian woody climber which contains a very powerful poison and nerve *stimulant named *picrotoxin; the fruit is used as a fish poison, and is sold commercially as a remedy for expelling *parasites; it is applied externally to kill parasites such as *lice, and it should not be taken internally; it is aslo used for skin *ulcers and fungal conditions such as *ringworm. Coccinia (Cucurbitaceae) – a genus of about 30 species of climbing or trailing herbs native to the old world tropics (16 species in East Africa, 5 in Uganda); in East Africa leaves of C. adoënsis are mixed with water and drunk as a cure for *puff-adder bite (Kokwaro 1976); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda C. barteri is used by herbalists (Cunningham 1996); the Luo in Kenya use the whole plant of C. grandis to treat *diarrhoea (Geissler et al. 2002); in West Uganda the Bwamba use C. mildbraedii to treat stomach-ache and muscular pain (Kakudidi et al. 1996). 100 Cochlospermaceae – a family of 2 genera and about 25 species mainly in the Americas but a few species in the old world tropics (1 genus and 1 species native to Uganda); Cochlospermum tinctorius is of medicinal use. Cochlospermum (Cochlospermaceae) – a genus of about 12 species of trees or shrubs scattered in tropical regions (1 species in Uganda, none in Kenya or Tanzania); C. tinctorium is an *antiulcer plant containing *immunomodulating polysaccharides (Nergard et al. 2006); in Mali a decoction of the leaves of this plant is drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006). cocillana – Guarea rusbyi (Meliaceae) is an evergreen tree from the eastern Andes; it has been used as an *emetic in tropical America; it is taken in *cough mixtures and it is an even stronger *expectorant than *ipecacuanha (Cephaelis ipecacuanha, Rubiaceae); it is also used for *bronchitis and excessive *mucus production in the throat and chest. cocoa – Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae) is a small tree from Central America widely grown as a major crop throughout the tropics; its seed pulp is the major ingredient in plain and hot chocolate; as medicine cocoa has therapeutic value as a nervous system *stimulant, to treat *angina, and as a *diuretic; it contains *polyphenols which have strong *antioxidant activity within the *heart and the *stomach; the seeds are taken as a heart and *kidney *tonic; they contain small amounts of *endomorphins, which are powerful *painkillers; alternative name: *cacao. cocoa family – Sterculiaceae; a large family with 60 genera and about 700 species widely distributed in tropical and warm countries; for medicinal uses see *Sterculiaceae; the family is sometimes included in *Malvaceae. coconut – the inner part of the fruit of Cocos nucifera (Arecaceae); the fruit is a drupe and the coconut is the seed surrounded by the inner fruit layer (endocarp); for medicinal uses see *Cocos and *copra. coconut palm – Cocos nucifera (Arecaceae) is a tall palm widely distributed along the coasts of the Indian and Pacific Oceans; for medicinal uses see *Cocos. coco plum – Chrysobalanus icaco (Chrysobalanaceae) has edible fruits, while a bark decoction is used to treat *skin itching and *allergic skin diseases. coco plum family – Chrysobalanaceae is a medium-sized family with 17 genera and about 400 species widely distributed in all tropical regions; for medicinal uses see *Chrysobalanaceae. cocoyam – Colocasia esculenta (Araceae) a tuberous herbs native to Asia, but it has edible starchrich corms or tubers and is cultivated in all wet tropical regions; a root decoction is used an *enema to treat *stomach problems, while the leaf pulp is used as a dressing to treat *insect bites, *rheumatism and *snakebites; the sap of the leaves together with that of Crassocephalum montuosum is drunk as an abortifacient (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Neuwinger 2000); alternative names: *dasheen and *taro. Cocos (Arecaceae) – a genus with a single species of a tree-like palm native to the coasts of the Pacific and Indian Oceans (in East Africa naturalized along the coast); fluid from the fruit is frequently used as an ingredient in commercial medicines. codeine – an alkaloid found in the *opium poppy Papaver somniferum (the poppy family, Papaveraceae); codeine is *analgesic and *narcotic, but *addictive and is therefore mainly used after less powerful *analgesics have failed to bring relief. However, *codeine is less addictive than *morphine, and therefore at present more widely used in hospitals than morphine. codonopsis – Codonopsis pilosula (Campanulaceae) is a twining perennial from northeastern China; it is able to reduce levels of *adrenaline and is therefore useful in reducing stress; it is also taken for general *fatique, tired limbs, tense neck muscles, *headache, *irritability, high blood pressure and for digestive problems such as loss of appetite, *diarrhoea and *vomiting. Coffea (Rubiaceae) – a genus (coffee) of about 90 species native to Africa including Madagascar and the Mascarenes (about 20 species in East Africa, and 3 species native to Uganda); C. arabica, which is native to northern Kenya, Ethiopia and the Sudan, is cultivated worldwide as a 101 commercial crop; it includes a number of cultivars; coffee is a powerful *diuretic, stimulating *digestive juices and increasing heart output; immature *coffee beans are sometimes used for *headaches; the most active chemical in coffee is *caffeine; in western Uganda the fruit of C. arabica and that of another species of coffee is taken as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); in Uganda the leaves of C. canephora (robusta coffee) are used to treat *abortion with *haemorrhage, *cough, *diarrhoea, *jaundice, *stomach-ache and *vomiting, while the *coffee bean is used as a *sexual stimulant and for *backache (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in the West lake area of Tanzania the roots of C. canephora (as C. bukobensis) are used as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976). coffee – species of the genus Coffea (Rubiaceae), e.g. Arabian coffee (C. arabica), Liberian coffee (C. liberica) and robusta coffee (C. canephora); the best quality coffee is obtained by fermenting, sundrying and roasting the seeds surrounded by the inner fruit wall; coffee is an effective *stimulant, having a particular effect on the central nervous system, temporarily improving perception and physical performance; coffee is a powerful *diuretic, stimulates *digestive juices and increases heart output; immature *coffee beans are sometimes used for *headaches; the most active chemical in coffee is *caffeine. coffee beans – seeds surrounded by the inner fruitwall (endocarp) in species of the genus Coffea (Rubiaceae); for medicinal use see *Coffea and *coffee. coffee family – Rubiaceae; a very large widely distributed family with about 500 genera and 7000 species; for medicinal uses see *Rubiaceae. coitus – sexual intercourse; many diseases are contracted mainly in connection with coitus, i.e. *venereal diseases, e.g. *gonnorrhoea, *lymphogranuloma venereum and *syphilis. Cola (Sterculiaceae) – a genus with about 125 species of trees native to the Old World tropics; some species are cultivated for their *caffeine-containing seeds, which are chewed or used in cola drinks, especially C. acuminata (Abata cola); in western Uganda the fruits of C. acuminata are used to treat sexual *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); the fruits of this plant contain about 2 % catechine-coffeine (colanine) and are used in many countries as a *stimulant and *cardiotonic, and in the treatment of *diarrhoea, *loss of appetite, *melancholy (form of depression), *migraine and *neuralgia. cola nut – *Cola acuminata (Sterculiaceae) is an evergreen tropical tree native to West Africa, but widely cultivated in the tropics of both hemispheres for its edible seeds; the seeds contain more *caffeine (up to 2.5 %) than coffee; cola nuts stimulates the central nervous system and the body as a whole; it is a useful *antidepressant and it increases *alertness and muscular strength; it is also used to treat *headaches and *migraine; alternative name: *kola nut. Colchicaceae – a family of 9 genera and about 225 species of herbs or climbers widespread in temperate and tropical regions (6 genera and 8 species in East Africa, 3 genera and 3 species in Uganda); species of the genera Colchicum (*naked ladies) and *Gloriosa are used as medicine. colchicine – a toxin which has the power to double the number of chromosomes in cells; it is also used in the medical treatment of *gout; colchicine is extracted from *autumn crocus, Colchicum autumnale (Colchicaceae). cold – a *respiratory *viral infection characterised by *sneezing, *sore throat and *coughing; a large number of herbs are used to alleviate this condition, e.g. Abies balsamea (*balm-of-Gilead, *balsam fir or *Canada balsam, Pinaceae), *Acalypha fruticosa (Euphorbiaceae), Achillea millefolium (*milfoil or *yarrow, Asteraceae), *Aframomum melegueta (*melegueta pepper, Zingiberaceae), Anagallis arvensis (*common pimpernel or *pimpernel, Primulaceae), *Allium cepa (onion) & schoenoprasum ssp. sibiricum (*wild onion, Alliaceae), *Aneilema aequinoctiale (Commelinaceae), Angelica archangelica (*angelica) & dahurica (*Amurian angelica or *bai zhi, Apiaceae), *Anthriscus sylvestris (Apiaceae), Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (*bearberry, Ericaceae), *Asplenium monanthos & trichomanes (Aspleniaceae), *Asystasia somaliensis 102 (Acanthaceae), *Bersama abyssinica (Melianthaceae), *Blumea (Laggera) axillaris & crispata (Asteraceae), *Boscia senegalensis (Capparidaceae), *Capparis fascicularis (Capparidaceae), *Chenopodium schraderianum (Chenopodiaceae), Cinnamomum cassia (*cassia) & verum (*cinnamon, Lauraceae), *Cissampelos pareira & truncata (Menispermaceae), *Cissus quadrangularis (Vitaceae), Citrus × limon (*lemon, Rutaceae), *Clematis hirsuta & simensis (Ranunculaceae), Clerodendrum (Rotheca) myricoides & rotundifolium (Verbenaceae), *Clutia abyssinica & robusta (Euphorbiaceae), *Commelina benghalensis (Commelinaceae), *Commiphora africana (Burseraceae), *Croton jatrophoides & macrostachyus (Euphorbiaceae), Cupressus sempervirens (*Italian or *Mediterranean cypress, Cupressaceae), *Cyperus longus (*galingale, Cyperaceae), Dendranthema hybrids (*florist’s chrysanthemum, Asteraceae), Echinacea angustifolia & pallida & purpurea (*echinacea or *purple coneflower, Asteraceae), Ephedra spp. (*desert tea, *ephedra or *joint-pine, Ephedraceae), Eriodictyon californicum (*yerba santa, Hydrophyllaceae), Eucalyptus globulus (*blue gum, Myrtaceae), *Eupatorium cannabinum (*hemp agrimony) & perfoliatum (*boneset) & teucrifolium (*wild horehound, Asteraceae), *Euphorbia schimperiana (Euphorbiaceae), *Ficus sur (Moraceae), Forsythia suspensa (*weeping forsythia, Oleaceae), *Galinsoga parviflora (Asteraceae), Galium odoratum (*sweet woodruff, Rubiaceae), *Gladiolus psittacinus (*corn flag, Iridaceae), *Grewia bicolor (Tiliaceae), *Hoslundia opposita (Lamiaceae), *Hypoëstis aristata (Acanthaceae), *Icacina oliviformis (Icacinaceae), Iris versicolor (*blue flag, Iridaceae), *Juncus oxycarpus (Juncaceae), *Lannea schimperi (Anacardiaceae), *Lantana camara (Verbenaceae), Lomatium dissectum (*lomatium, Apiaceae), Melaleuca lineariifolia (*narrow-leaved paperbark tree) & leucadendron (*cajaput or *paperbark tree) & viridiflora (*broad-leaved paperbark tree or *niaouli, Myrtaceae), Melissa officinalis (*balm or *lemon balm, Lamiaceae), Mentha haplocalyx (*corn mint, Lamiaceae), *Microglossa pyrifolia (Asteraceae), Myrica cerifera (*bayberry, Myricaceae), Nepeta cataria (*catmint, Lamiaceae), *Notopterygium incisum (Apiaceae), *Ocimum kilimandscharicum & sanctum (*holy basil or *tulsi, Lamiaceae), *Oldfieldia somaliensis (Euphorbiaceae), *Pachypodanthium staudtii (Annonaceae), *Pavetta crassipes (Rubiaceae), Peucedanum ostruthium (*masterwort, Apiaceae), *Piliostigma thonningii (Fabaceae), *Polysphaeria lanceolata (Rubiaceae), Prunus cerasus (*dwarf cherry) & padus (*bird cherry) & serotina (*American cherry, Rosaceae), *Psidia punctulata (Asteraceae), *Psychotria holtzii (Rubiaceae), Ribes nigrum (*black currants, Grossulariaceae), *Rhus natalensis (Anacardiaceae), *Rubus rigidus (*blackberry), Sambucus niger (*elder, Sambucaceae), *Schefflera volkensii (Araliaceae), *Senecio hadiensis & syringifolius (Asteraceae), *Solanecio angulatus (Asteraceae), Solanum melongena (*aubergine, Solanaceae), *Sphaeranthus suaveolens (Asteraceae), *Strychnos spinosa (Strychnaceae), *Syzygium aromaticum (*clove, Myrtaceae), *Terminalis kilmandscharica (Combretaceae), *Thevetia peruviana (*yellow oleander, Apocynaceae), Tilia spp. (*lime or *linden, Tiliaceae), *Toddalia asiatica (Rutaceae), *Trichilia emetica (Meliaceae), *Vernonia hildebrandtii (Asteraceae), *Vitellaria paradoxa (*shea butter nut, Sapotaceae), *Wahlenbergia abyssinica (Campanulaceae), *Withania somnifera (*Indian ginseng, Solanaceae), *Xeroderris stuhlmannii (Fabaceae), *Zanthoxylum chalybaeum (*East African prickly ash, Rutaceae) and *Zingiber officinalis (*ginger or *singabera, Zingiberaceae). cold hands and feet – a condition when *blood circulation is poor (sometimes due to low *blood pressure); this condition is sometimes alleviated by taking warm *stimulant plants such as *chilli (Capsicum frutescens, Solanaceae) or Chinese angelica (Angelica sinensis, Apiaceae). cold sores – tiny blisters formed mainly around the nostrils and lips; they are caused by the *herpes simplex virus, and usually occur when the body has an infection or has been exposed to sunshine or wind; some plants have antiviral qualities and are believed to relieve this condition, e.g. (*Mexican) *prickly poppy, Argemone mexicana (the poppy family, Pappaveraceae), *balm or *lemon balm, Melissa officinalis (the mint family, Lamiaceae), *white peony, Paeonia lactiflora 103 (the peony family, Paeoniaceae) and *aubergine Solanum melongena (the potato family, Solanaceae). cole – Brassica napus ssp. oleifera (Brassicaceae) is cultivated for its oil-rich seeds; also *colza (Brassica rapa ssp. oleifera) is cultivated for its edible seeds; for medicinal use see *Brassica. Coleus (Lamiaceae) – old name; species of this genus are now transferred to the genera *Solenostemon and *Plectranthus, e.g. Coleus comosus = Plectranthus comosus. coleus1 – Plectranthus forskohlii or P. barbatus (Lamiaceae) is a robust shrubby herb in India widely cultivated (up to 1000 tons harvested per year) for its excellent medicinal qualities in treating *digestive, *respiratory and *circulatory problems; its most active constituent, *forskolin, lowers high *blood pressure, relaxes smooth muscles, reduce pressure within the eye, increase the release of hormones from the *thyroid gland and stimulate *digestive secretions; the plant is *antispasmodic and is widely used to treat *bronchial asthma, *glaucoma and *congestive heart failure; it also improves circulation of blood to the brain. coleus2 – species of the genera Coleus and Plectranthus (Lamiaceae), e.g. bush coleus (C. thyrsoideus) and prostrate coleus (P. oertendahlii). colic (pain) – acute pain pertaining to a part of the intestine called the *colon; severe *griping pain in belly; *stomach spasm; *spasmodic pain in the *abdomen, or severe pains in the *intestines; *abdominal pain produced by strong contractions of intestines or bladder; many plants are used to relieve this condition, e.g. *angelica (Angelica archangelica), *anise (Pimpinella anisum), *chilli (Capsicum frutescens), *cramp bark (Viburnum opulus), *fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), *galangal (Alpinia officinarum), *German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita), *lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) and *peppermint (Mentha × piperata); see also *stomach spasm; for other plants used to relieve this disease or condition see *abdominal pains. colic root – Aletris farinosa (Liliaceae) is a tall American lily by native North Americans used for *stomach ache and *snake bites; because of its content of *steroidal saponins and *oestrogenic action it is at present mainly used for *gynaecological problems, particularly at the *menopause, but it is also given for periodic pain and irregular periods; it is also a good digestive herb treating loss of appetite, *indigestion, *flatulence and *bloating; alternative names *star grass (very inappropriate name as it is not a grass) and *true unicorn root. Colocasia (Araceae) – a genus of 6 tuberous herbs native to Asia, but C. esculenta (*cocoyam) has edible starch-rich corms or tubers and is cultivated in all wet tropical regions; a root decoction is used an *enema to treat *stomach problems, while the leaf pulp is used as a dressing to treat *insect bites, *rheumatism and *snakebites; the sap of the leaves together with that of Crassocephalum montuosum is drunk as an abortifacient (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Neuwinger 2000); alternative names: *cocoyam, *dasheen and *taro. colon – the part of the large intestine extending from the *cecum to the *rectum; large bowel. coltsfoot – Tussilago farfara (Asteraceae) is a widespread European herb often being the first plant to flower in spring; for more than 2000 years this plant has been taken to ease *coughing and smoked to ease breathing; in Europe the leaves are one of the most used remedies for treating *chest problems; when smoked as a medicinal cigarette, coltsfoot relieves *asthma and *spasmodic coughs, but its effect is short. colza – Brassica rapa ssp. oleifera (Brassicaceae) is cultivated for its oil-rich seeds; alternative name: turnip-like rape; also *cole (Brassica napus ssp. oleifera) is cultivated for its edible seeds; for medicinal use see *Brassica. coma – unconsciousness; unnatural deep sleep. Combretaceae – a family of about 20 genera and 500 species of trees, shrubs or climbers widely distributed in tropical and warm regions (5 genera and 75 species in East Africa; 2 genera and 21 species in Uganda); species of the genera *Combretum and *Terminalia are widely used as medicines. 104 Combretum (Combretaceae) – a genus of about 250 species of trees, shrubs and climbers widespread throughout the tropics and subtropics (about 45 species in East Africa, 15 species in Uganda); in East Africa C. apiculatum is used to treat bloody *diarrhoea, *leprosy, *scorpion bite and *snake bite (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the roots of C. collinum are used to treat *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *epilepsy, *gonorrhoea, *hydrocele in children, *pyomyositis, *snake bite and *vomiting, and promote *labour and counter *sterility (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots of this species are used to treat *diarrhoea (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Tanzania the roots of C. constrictum are applied to *snake bite wounds and used as an *aphrodisiac, the leaves of C. exalatum are used externally for painful *joints and *rheumatism, roots of C. fragrans are used to treat chest *coughs and the primary sores of *syphilis, roots of C. hereroense are used as part of a medicine for *bilharzia (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the root of C. hereroense to cure blood in stool (Heine & König 1988); in East Africa the tuberous rootstock of C. longispicatum is applied to *wounds on the sole of the foot (Kokwaro 1976); in Mali a *decoction of the leaves of C. micranthum mixed with leafy parts of Cissus quadrangularis and Stylosanthes erecta is drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); in East Africa C. molle (including C. gueinzii and microlepidotum) is used to treat a large number of diseases and conditions, viz. *dysentery, *fever, *hookworms, *leprosy, *scabies, *snakebites, *swellings and *wounds, and also as a charm to protect against illness (Kokwaro 1976; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam the leaves of C. molle are chewed raw to treat *cough, while the liquid of the rootstock is dripped into ears for *earache and mixed with water used as an *emetic and *laxative and to stop *vomiting; the powder of the ground rootstock is used to treat *eye disease in cattle and the whole plant for general cattle diseases (Heine & König 1988); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots and buds of this species are used to treat *cough (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); the Luo in Kenya use the bark and roots to treat *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002); in Tanzania a root decoction of C. mossambicense is used as a drastic *purgative and form part of a treatment for *bilharzia; in East Africa the roots of C. paniculatum are used for *fever and to expel *intestinal worms (Kokwaro 1976), while in Uganda the leaves are used to treat *cough (Adjanohoun 1993); in Tanzania the roots of C. padoides are taken to expel *hookworms and the leaves for *snake bite, while the roots of C. pentagonum are used as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of C. racemosum are taken to treat *malaria fever (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Kenya the leaves of C. schumannii are used to treat *headache and *pneumonia, and the roots to reduce *oedema (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the roots of C. xanthothyrsum are used as an *anthelmintic or as an *aphrodisiac, while the roots of C. zeyheri are used to cure *cough, *dysentery and *toothache (Kokwaro 1976). comfrey – species of the genus Symphytum and particularly S. officinale (Boraginaceae); S. officinale is a native European herb known as a medicinal plant for 2000 years; it was believed to heal all inward *wounds and ruptures including including *bones and the *hymen; the leaves and inflorescences are still used to heal injuries and *skin problems like *acne and *boils and to relieve *psoriasis; the name comfrey (originally ”con firma” meaning ”bone is ”made firm”; the plant contains *allantoin (a cell-proliferant that helps repair damaged tissue), *rosmarinic acid (*anti-inflammatory) and other *phenolic acids, but also *pyrrolizidine alkaloids that damage the *liver (mostly found in the root); alternative name: *knitbone. Commelinaceae – a family of about 40 genera and 600 species of annual or perennial herbs (sometimes succulent) widely distributed in tropical and warm regions; species of the genera *Aneilema, *Commelina, *Cyanotis and *Tradescantia contain species of medicinal value. Commelina (Commelinaceae) – a genus of about 150 species of erect or creeping herbs widespread in tropical and warm countries (in Uganda about 20 species); in Kenya the juice of C. africana is taken as a remedy for *ear-ache and is also believed to have magical properties, and an infusion 105 of the plant is used as a wash to reduce *fever; the fluid of the flower buds is used as an *antidote when any irritant latex drops into the eye (Kokwaro 1976); in parts of Uganda the root of C. benghalensis is used to treat *psychotic excitement (Adjanohoun 1993), while the leaves are boiled in meat and eaten to cure *insanity (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Apac district in North Uganda the flowers of this species are crushed and squeezed in the nose to treat nose blockage in children (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Zanzibar C. benghalensis has been used for the relief of eye injuries (Weiss 1979); in Kenya the stem sap is used in the treatment of *colds and *ear-ache, while the liquid of flower buds inside the involucral bracts are used as a cure for *eye troubles, and used at weddings as a fertility symbol (Kokwaro 1976); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda C. capitata is used by herbalists (Cunningham 1996); in Uganda C. diffusa is applied to open *wounds (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda C. diffusa is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in coastal Kenya the Digo use an infusion of the whole plants of C. forskalaei or C. imberbis as a wash to reduce *fever (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of species of Commelina are steamed or squeezed and eaten or inserted in the *vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005). Commiphora (Burseraceae) – a genus of about 190 species of trees or shrubs widespread in the tropics, and particularly common in less humid parts of eastern and southern Africa (65 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda); in East Africa a decoction of the roots of C. africana is drunk to treat *stomach troubles and swollen *testicles; bark and roots are used in steam baths for *colds and *fevers; the bark is also chewed with tobacco and applied on a *snakebite; fruits are used for to treat *typhoid and the resin for sealing and *disinfecting *wounds (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the roots of this tree to cleanse the teeth, and chew the fruit to treat *eye diseases and *blisters in the mouth of children; the saliva is not swallowed but spit into the eyes or mouth in cases of young children (Heine & König 1988); in Kenya the Taita boil the roots of C. campestris and drink the decoction as a cure for *stomach pain; in East Africa the powdered bark of C. edulis subsp. boiviniana (C. boiviniana) is mixed with millet meal and eaten to cure *dysentery, while a decoction from boiled fruits is used as a remedy for *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the roots of C. eminii subsp. zimmermannii (C. zimmermannii) are used to treat *snakebite, the root and bark is used to treat *constipation, the bark with meat is eaten against *indigestion or chewed and the juice swallowed to relieve *abdominal pain, *constipation and *stomach-ache; to relieve *toothache the leaf stalks are heated in the fire and chewed (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya and Tanzania the fruits of C. madagascariensis is used as a cure for *fever, while its milky juice (latex) is applied to the teeth for the treatment of *toothache (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the roots of C. pteleifolia are boiled and the decoction drunk for *headache (Kokwaro 1976). common chestnut – Castanus sativa (the beech family, Fagaceae); foe medicinal use see *sweet chestnut (an alternative name). common dogwood – Cornus sanguinea (Cornaceae) is a large shrub widespread in Europe and Asia; its bark is used as *astringent and to relieve *fever. common foxglove – Digitalis purpurea (Scrophulariaceae) is a native European plant also cultivated in gardens; it is a very poisonous plant feared by parents, but it also contains a life-saving heart medicine; common foxglove contains *cardiac glycosides (*digoxine, *digitoxine and lanatosides), which enable the heart to beat more strongly, slowly and regularly without requiring more oxygen; at the same time common foxglove stimulates urine production (is *diuretic), which lowers the volume of blood, and thus lessens the load on the heart; note that an overdose is fatal; alternative names: *foxglove and *purple foxglove; see also *woolly foxglove (D. lanata). common hollyhock – Althaea rosea (Malvaceae); as a medicine it is used in the same way as *marshmallow (Althaea officinalis). 106 common horsetail – Equisetum arvense (Equisetaceae; Pteridophyta) is a troublesome weed in many temperate and cold countries; this plant has been widely used to heal *cuts, *sores and *wounds, and as a mouthwash for oral infections, and internally to promote *urination and to reduce menstrual *bleeding; alternative names: *field horsetail, *horsepipes, *mare’s tail and *snake grass. common mallow – Malva sylvestris (Malvaceae) is a native European herb from which the young leaves and shoots have been eaten as a ”sufficient medicine at home” for at least the last thousand years (a *panacea); the plant is *demulcent and *emollient good for sensitive areas of the skin; it is believed to reduce *swellings and draw out *toxins, is *laxative and reduces gut irritation; combined with *eucalyptus it makes a good remedy for *cough and other *chest ailments; the root has been given to children to ease *teething. common nasturtium – Tropaeolum majus (Tropaeolaceae) is an Andean straggling annual with large showy flowers; it is often cultivated as a garden plant; as a herbal medicine it is disinfectant, *antiseptic, wound healing, and an *expectorant to relieve chest conditions; an infusion of the leaves may be used to increase resistance to bacterial infections and to clear *nasal and *bronchial catarrh; the juice has been taken internally for the treatment of *scrophula (*tubercular infection of the *lymph nodes); alternative name: *nasturtium, but note that the Latin genus Nasturtium is *watercress. common nettle – Urtica dioica (the nettle family, Urticaceae) is a perennial herb from temperate regions worldwide; it is a *cleansing and *detoxifying herb increasing *urine production and thus the elimination of more waste products; it is *astringent and stops or slows bleeding from wounds, *nosebleeds and heavy *menstrual bleeding; nettle leaves also have *anti-inflammatory action on *arthritis; nettle is *anti-allergenic and can treat *asthma, *hay fever, itchy skin and *insect bites; the juice is used to treat *nettle stings; nettle leaves are rich in iron and is used to counter *anaemia and improve breast-milk production; the root is used to treat enlarged *prostate (benign prostate hypertrophy); alternative name: *nettle; see *Urtica. common oak – Quercus robur (Fagaceae) is a slow-growing deciduous tree from the northern hemisphere; it produces galls which contain about 50 % tannins; bark, leaves and *acorns are *astringent and are used as a gargle to treat *sore throats and *tonsillitis; this tree is also used to treat *anal fissures, *haemorrhoids, small *burns and other *skin problems; powdered oak bark is sometimes sniffed to treat *nasal *polyps and sprinkled on *eczema to dry it; alternative name: *pedunculate oak. common pimpernel – Anagallis arvensis (the primrose family, Primulaceae) is a troublesome weed in many temperate parts of the world; this herb is *diuretic, sweat-inducing and *expectorant; it has mainly been used to stimulate the coughing up of *mucus and help recover from *colds and *flu, but was also taken to treat *epilepsy and mental problems; alternative name: *pimpernel, *poison chickweed, *poisonweed, *poor man’s weatherglass, *red chickweed, *scarlet pimpernel, *shepherd’s clock, *shephard’s weatherglass og *wink-a-peep. common plantain – Plantago major (Plantaginaceae); this widespread healing plant is in temperate countries widely used to treat *wounds and *bruises; it quickly staunches blood flow and encourages the repair of damaged tissue; a lotion or ointment is sometimes used to treat *fistulae, *haemorrhoids and *ulcers; used internally it is *diuretic, *expectorant and *anticatarrhal and is commonly prescribed for *gastritis, *peptic ulcers, *diarrhoea, *dysentery, respiratory *catarrh and urinary tract bleeding; alternative names: *broad-leaved plantain, *dooryard plantain, *great plantain and *whiteman’s foot. common purslane – Portulaca oleracea (the purslane family, Portulacaceae) is a succulent annual herb native to southern Europe and Asia, but now widespread as one of the world’s worst weeds; it is a *diuretic and a mild *antibiotic and effective in treating *hookworms and *bacillary *dysentery; it has also been used to treat *headaches and *stomach ache and as an *antidote for *snake bites and *wasp stings; alternative names: *pigweed, *purslane and *pursley. 107 common St. John’s wort – Hypericum perforatum (St. John’s-wort family, Hypericaceae or Clusiaceae) is a perennial herb native to the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; it is a valuable medicinal herb for *nervous exhaustion, *depression and seasonal affective disorders (active substance: *hyperforin); this herb also has *antiviral activity (active substance: *hypericin) and seems to act against enveloping viruses, e.g. *herpes virus, *hepatitis B and C and perhaps *HIV; the herb may also increase the lowered vitality that can accompany the *menopause; alternative name: *St. John’s wort. common thyme – Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceae); for medicinal use see *thyme; alternative name *garden thyme. common toadflax – Linaria vulgaris (Scrophulariaceae) is a showy temperate weed earlier widely used as a medicinal herb for the *liver and *digestion; it may be applied externally to relieve *haemorrhoids, *skin diseases and *sores. common vine – Vitis vinfera (Vitaceae); for medicinal use see *grape (vine). communicable disease – a disease which can be transmitted from the sick to the healthy. Compositae – an old name to a family now named *Asteraceae. compress – a cloth pad soaked in medicine or cold or hot herbal extract and applied to the skin. conceive – to become *pregnant; certain plants are used to prevent a person becoming pregnant (see *contraceptive), others are used to increase the chances of becoming pregnant. conception – the act of *conceiving (becoming pregnant) or state of being conceived (pregnant). concoction – a preparation (e.g. of medicinal herbs) containing more than one (usually several) ingredients. condiment – a spice for seasoning the food; many condiments have additional medicinal action. condurango – Marsdenia condurango (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) is a South American climbing vine used as a potent *bitter and *digestive *tonic; the bark stimulates *stomach secretion and is used to treat nervous *indigestion and *anorexia nervosa. coneflower – see *purple coneflower, Echinacea spp. (the sunflower family, Asteraceae). confetti tree – *Maytenus senegalensis (Celastraceae); for medicinal use see *Maytenus. congestion – abnormal accumulation of a substance in an organ, e.g. *phlegm in the nose or lung, blood in any organ or accumulation of stool in the bowels (colon or intestine); *Hyptis pectinata (Lamiaceae) is used for congestion of the lungs, *Amurian angelica, Angelica dahurica (Apiaceae) and *yellow water crowfoot, Ranunculus delphinifolius (Ranunculaceae) are both used to treat nasal congestion. congestive heart failure – +++; this condition is sometimes alleviated using *Chinese aconite (Aconitum carmichaelii). Congo floor maggot – yellowish brown flies from the genera Auchmeromyia and Cordylobia; the larvae of Auchmeromyia hide in cracks in the floor of huts during the day and come out at night to suck the blood of people sleeping; coniine – a very toxic *alkaloid, a nerve toxin found in *hemlock, Conium maculatum (Apiaceae). conjunctiva – the *mucous membrane lining the inner eyelid and front of eyeball; *inflammation of this membrane is named *conjunctivitis. conjunctivitis – contaginous disease in the eye caused by *bacteria or *virus; *inflammation of the *mucous membrane which lines the inner surface of the eyelids; among plants used to relieve this condition are *Abrus precatorius (*coral pea, Fabaceae), *Abutilon grandiflorum (Malvaceae), *Acacia arabica (*babul, Fabaceae), *Acalypha fruticosa (Euphorbiaceae), *Aloë secundiflora (Aloëaceae), *Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), *Bothriocline longipes (Asteraceae), *Cajanus cajan (*pigeon pea, Fabaceae), *Capsicum frutescens (*Cayenne or *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), *Cleome gynandra (*spiderwort, Capparidaceae), *Conyza bonariensis (Asteraceae), *Cordia sinensis (Boraginaceae), *Crossopteryx febrifuga (Rubiaceae), *Dichrotachys cinerea (Fabaceae), Euphrasia spp. (*eyebright, Orobanchaceae), Foeniculum vulgare (*fennel, Apiaceae), *Helichrysum odoratissimum (Asteraceae), Hibiscus sabdariffa 108 (*roselle, Malvaceae), *Lantana camara & trifolia (Verbenaceae), *Markhamia lutea (Bignonaceae), *Ocimum basilicum (*basil or *sweet basil, Lamiaceae), *Phaseolus lunatus (*lima bean, Fabaceae), Rubus idaeus (*raspberry, Rosaceae), *Sarcocephalus latifolius (Rubiaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae), *Synedrella nodiflora (Asteraceae) and *Tetradenia riparia (Lamiaceae). Connaraceae – a family of about 20 genera and 380 species of trees, shrubs or lianes widely distributed in tropical regions; several genera contain species of medicinal value. e.g. Agelaea, Cnestus and Rourea. Conopharyngia (Apocynaceae) – a genus now included in Tabernaemontana. Conostomium (Rubiaceae) – a genus of 9 species of perennial herbs or shrublets confined to tropical and South Africa (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of C. quadrangulare are boiled and the *decoction drunk as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976). constipation – condition of bowels in which defecation is irregular and difficult; a large number of medicinal plants are used to alleviate this condition, e.g. *Acacia senegal (Fabaceae), *Acalypha fruticosa (Euphorbiaceae), *Achyranthes aspera (Amaranthaceae), *Astripomoea malvacea (Convolvulaceae), *Cucumis figarei (Cucurbitaceae), *Echinops amplexicaulis (Asteraceae), *Ficus capensis (Moraceae), *Leonotis nepetifolia (Lamiaceae), *Ocimum basilicum (Lamiaceae), *Steganotaenia araliacea (Apiaceae), *Tabernaemontana holstii (Apocynaceae), *Tephrosia vogelii (Fabaceae), *Warburgia salutaria (Canellaceae) and *Withania somnifera (Solanaceae); see also medicinal herbs mentioned under *indigestion and *laxative. contagion – the transmission of disease from the sick to the healthy by contact. contraception – birth control; many plants and plant substances are used in birth control; see *contraceptive. contraceptive – which prevents conception; many plants are used as effective contraceptives, e.g. a 20 % concentration of lemon juice (Citrus × limon, Rutaceae) in fresh human ejaculate irreversibly immobilises 100 % of sperm in under 30 seconds; the method of inserting a sponge moistened with dilute lemon juice in the *vagina after coitus has been used for hundreds of years in America, Africa and Asia, nowadays perhaps mainly by poor prostitutes; other plants used as contraceptives include *Abrus precatorius (*coral pea, Fabaceae; very dangerous), *Azidarachta indica (*margosa tree or *neem, Meliaceae), Caulophyllum thalictroides (*blue cohosh, *papoose root ot *squaw root, Berberidaceae), Citrus × aurantium (*bitter orange, Rutaceae), *Dioscorea villosa (*yam, Dioscoreaceae), Embelia ribes (*embelia, Myrsinaceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllanthaceae), *Gossypium herbaceum (*cotton, Malvaceae), *Lithospermum ruderale (*gromwell, Boraginaceae), *Momoerdica charantia (*cerasee or *kerala, Cucurbitaceae), Veratrum californicum (*California false hellebore, Melianthiaceae) and Verbena officinalis (*Juno’s tears or *vervain, Verbenaceae or Lamiaceae). contraceptive pill – a pill used by women to prevent conception; wild yam (Dioscorea villosa) contains *dioscin, a steroidal saponin, which was the base (through *diosgenin) for the synthesis of *progesterone (one of the female sex hormones) and the first *contraceptive pill. contrayerva – Dorstenia contrayerva (Urticaceae) is a tropical American herb traditionally used as an *antidote (’contrayerva’ means ’antidote’ in Spanish) in the treatment of *poisoning and *venomous bites; the root of the plant has also been used for serious *fevers and *gastrointestinal problems, and as a *poultice to draw *pus. convalescence – the gradual recovery of health and strength after having been sick or disabled; the stage of recovery following an attack of disease; some plants are recommended as excellent food for encouraging weight gain during this period, e.g. Avena sativa (*oats, Poaceae), Hordeum distichon & vulgare (*barley, Poaceae), Fagopyrum esculentum (*buckwheat, Polygonaceae), Mannihot usitatissima (*cassava or *manioc, Euphorbiaceae), Ulmus americana (*white elm) & glabra (*Wych elm) & rubra (*slippery elm, Ulmaceae); other useful plants are Trigonella foenum-graecum (*fenugreek, Fabaceae) and Withania somnifera (*withania, Solanaceae). 109 Convolvulaceae – a family of about 80 genera and 1800 species of annual or perennial herbs (often climbing or creeping), more rarely shrubs widely distributed throughout the world (in East Africa 23 genera and 160 species, in Uganda 16 genera and 77 species); vernacular names for this family are: *bindweed family, convolvulus family and *morning glory family; several genera have species of medicinal value, e.g. *Astripomoea, *Bonamia, *Evolvulus, *Hewittia, *Ipomoea, Jacquemontia, *Merremia and *Seddera. convolvulus family – *Convolvulaceae; see above for medicinal use etc.; alternative names: *bindweed family and *morning glory family. convulsions – violent irregular motion of limb or body due to involuntary contractions of muscles (especially as a disorder in infants); a violent involuntary muscular contraction: for medicinal plants used to alleviate this condition see *cramps. Conyza (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 60 species of annual or perennial herbs (rarely shrubs or small trees) widespread in both hot and temperate countries, with several weedy and widespread species (in East Africa 22 species, 20 in Uganda); in East Africa the root of C. attenuata is taken for *headache while the laeves are used for *snake bites (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves (and roots) of C. bonariensis (= C. sumatrensis & Erigeron floribundus) are used to treat *amoebiasis, *boils, *conjunctivitis, fungal infection, *insanity, *pityriasis vesicolor and *poisonings (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti et al. 2003), and to promote *labour (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda this herb is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves and roots of this species are used to treat *gonorrhoea and *syphilis (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Kenya the leaves are given to small children as a *laxative and as a wash for *pimples (probably *chicken-pox or *smallpox); in Tanzania the plant is crushed and applied to the nipples to get the baby to suckle if it does not want to (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the roots of C. newii are used as an *emetic while the leaves are chewed for *chest troubles; in East Africa the roots of C. pyrrhopappa (including Microglossa angolensis) are used to cure *influenza, *stomach troubles, *tonsilitis and throat swellings of *tonsils, while an infusion of the leaves is drunk for *indigestion and *malaria, as an *emetic and as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of C. pyrrhopappa are used to treat *chest pain and *abdominal pain associated with *vomiting and *diarrhoea, and is also used to treat fang fragments in *snakebite wounds (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in West Uganda the leaves of C. steudelii are steamed or squeezeded and eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005) and to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamate-nesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006). copaiba – Copaifera officinalis (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a tropical American timber tree producing a hard *resin and *oleoresins (*copal) used in industry and in medicine; copaiba is *antiseptic, *diuretic and *stimulant and it is mainly used to counter *mucus in the chest and the *genito-urinary system; it irritates the *mucous membranes and thus promotes the coughing up of *mucus; other species of the genus Copaifera, some from Africa, also produce this resin. copal – an *oleoresins found in *copaiba (Copaifera officinalis,, Fabaceae); it is an *antiseptic, *diuretic and *stimulant, and it is mainly used to counter *mucus in the chest and the *genitourinary system; it irritates the *mucous membranes and thus promotes the coughing up of *mucus. copra – the dried oil-bearing meat of the coconut; for medicinal use see *Cocos. Corallocarpus (Cucurbitaceae) – a genus of 13 species of climbing or trailing herbs native to tropical Africa with a few reaching India (8 species in East Africa, 1 in Uganda); in Tanzania the tuberous rootstock of C. boehmii is used to treat *snake bite (Kokwaro 1976). coral pea – Abrus precatorius (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a deciduous climber with attractive red and black seeds in pods; the seeds are deadly poisonous (toxin: *abrin) but have been used as a contraceptive and abortifacient to induce a miscarriage; alternative names: *crab’s eye, *Indian liquorice, *jequirity, *lucky beans, and *paternoster beans; for medicinal use see *Abrus. 110 coral plant – Jatropha multifida (*Euphorbiaceae) is an American shrub or small tree widely cultivated as an ornamental in Africa; it is strongly *purgative; in Uganda the leaves or the sap are used to treat fresh *wounds and the root used as an *antidote and as a treatment of *hernia (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). Corchoris (Tiliaceae) – a genus of about 60 species of annual or perennial herbs widely distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics (13 species in East Africa, 5 in Uganda); some produce useful fibres while others are widespread weeds; in Uganda the leaves of C. olitorius are used to treat *fungal infections and (crushed in paraffin) muscular *spasms, while the whole plant is squeezed and rubbed on *warts (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in coastal Kenya the Dogo use scraping of the roots of this plant are put in hollow teeth to stop them from aching (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of C. trilocularis are boiled or squeezed and eaten or inserted in vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005). Cordia (Boraginaceae) – a genus of about 250-300 species of shrubs or trees widely distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics of both hemispheres (22-28 species in East Africa, 8 in Uganda); in East Africa the the fresh juicy bark of C. africana is used to tie a *broken bone and changed occasionally with a fresh one until the bone is healed (Kokwaro 1976); Masai women use the boiled roots of Cordia monoica (including C. ovalis & C. quarensis) to secure *abortion, while elsewhere in East Africa the leaves are used for *eye-ache and for the treatment of *leprosy (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the Gogo boil the roots of C. sinensis with milk and drink the liquid as a treatment for *malaria, but the plant may cause *abortion; a decoction of the roots and bark is used for *conjunctivitis in cattle (Kokwaro 1976). coriander – Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae) is a strongly aromatic annual herb widely cultivated as a spice throughout the world; the leaves are used in soups and the seeds in curri powder; an infusion of the plant is a gentle remedy for *flatulence, *bloating, griping, *spasms within the gut, *rheumatic pain and *nervous tension; in Europe it has traditionally been thought to have *aphrodisiac properties; chewing the plant will sweeten the breath particularly after having eaten *garlic; alternative name: *cilantro. corn (American) – maize, Zea mays (the grass family, Poaceae) is an annual tall American grass producing *cobs with grains used as a staple food for at least 4000 years; different parts of the maize plant is widely used as medicine: the *cornsilk is of particular value for almost all problems of the *urinary system; maize meal is taken (as a *decoction) for *dysentery and to increase *breast-milk production, and externally to treat *bruises and other *skin problems like *boils, *sores and *swellings; alternative name: *maize; see also *cornsilk. corn (medicinal) – horny induration (hardening) of the cuticle (epidermis; outer part of skin); it has been treated by *Anacardium occidentale (*cashew gum, Anacardiaceae), Melaleuca alternifolia (*tea tree, Myrtaceae), Prunus mume (*Japanese apricot or *wu mei, Rosaceae), and Sempervivum tectorum (*houseleek, Crassulaceae). cornea – a transparent membrane forming the outer covering of the front of the eyeball. corneal – petaining to the *cornea (the outer covering of the eyeball). corneitis – inflammation of the *cornea (the outer covering of the eyeball); for other inflammation of the eye see *blepharitis and *conjunctivitis. cornel – species of the genera Cornus and Chamaepericlymenum (Cornaceae), e.g. *dwarf cornel (Chamaepericlymenum suecicum); for medicial use see *cornelian cherry. cornelian cherry – Cornus mas (the dogwood family, Cornaceae) is a shrub from southern Europe and adjacent Asia; its fruit and bark are used as *astringent and to relieve *fever. corn flag – species of the genus Gladiolus (Iridaceae) sometimes growing as weeds in corn fields, e.g. G. segetum and G. vulgaris; a decoction of the corm of G. psittacinus has been used as a remedy for *colds and *dysentery, while other species have been used as an *enema to relieve dysmenorrhoea and *impotence (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). 111 cornflower or corn flower – kornblom, Centaurea cyanus (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is an annual or biennial weed native to the Near East, but also widely cultivated as a garden plant; one of its constituents, the sesquiterpene lactone *cnicin, is somewhat *antibiotic; according to the *Doctrine of Signatures (because of its deep blue colour) it has in the past been much used for *eye ailments (the strained infusion used as eye wash); mountain cornflower is C. montana. corn mint – Mentha haplocalyx (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial herb cultivated as a medicinal plant in China; it is a popular treatment for *colds, sore mouth, tongue and throats, and also a lot of other diseases and conditions ranging from *dysentery and *diarrhoea to *measles and *toothache; the juice has been used to treat *earache; it helps to lower the temperature and has *anticatarrhal properties; corn poppy – kornvalmue, Papaver rhoeas (valmuefamily, Papaveraceae) is an annual herb native to the Mediterranean and adjacent Asia, but has spread to most temperate and warm parts of the world, and is now a troublesome weed in some countries, but it is also cultivated as a garden plant; this poppy contains similar *alkaloids as the *opium poppy (P. somniferum), but are much milder; the flowers are mildly *analgesic and *sedative, and have long been used as a mild *pain reliever and as a treatment for *asthma, *insomnia, irritable *coughs and general irritability; alternative names: *field *poppy and *red poppy. cornsilk – the silky hairs surrounding the cob in Zea mays (the grass family, Poaceae), is a useful diuretic for almost all problems of the *urinary system; it relieves irritation and improves urinary flow; it is also thought to be beneficial for the *kidneys, reducing kidney stone formation, *cystitis and *jaundice; it lowers *blood pressure and reduces *blood-clotting time. Combined with other herbs such as *agrimony (Agromonia eupatoria) it is used to treat urinary problems, kidney stones, *cystitis, *rheumatism, *arthritis, sore throats and hoarseness. corn smut – Ustilago zeae is a smut fungus (Ustilaginales) attacking maize; in Mexico it is used to speed childbirth and stop *uterine *haemorrhage. coronary – which has to do with with the major *arteries from *aorta; if the coronary circulation is poor the result can be *arteriosclerosis; certain plants can improve *coronary *circulation and thus useful to treat *arteriosclerosis, e.g. Chinese ginseng, Panax notoginseng (the ivy family, Araliaceae). corydalis – Corydalis ambigua (Papaveraceae-Fumaroideae) is an East Asian perennial herb widely cultivated as a medicinal plant in China for its *analgesic, *antispasmodic and *sedative properties; it is believed to relieve almost any painful condition, but is particularly effective in relieving *menstrual pain and *abdominal pain; the corm has up to one-tenth of the *analgesic potency of *morphine, and is thus an effective *pain killer. Corymborkis (Orchidaceae) – a genus with 6-7 species of terrestrial orchids widespread in tropical regions with 1 species in Africa (also in Uganda); in Tanzania a boiled root decoction of C. corymbis (= C. corymbosa) is drunk as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976) Corynanthe (Rubiaceae) – a genus of evergreen trees from West Africa; C. yohimbe (= Pausinystalia yohimbe) has a reddish brown toxic bark, which in small dosis stimulates the brain and is widely used as a medicine for *erectile dysfunction. coryza – common cold; a cold in the head; *inflammation of the *mucous membranes of the *nose and *sinuses. cosmetic bark – Murraya paniculata (the orange family, Rutaceae) is an Asian deciduous shrub or small tree with very bitter leaves; the leaves increase sweating and are taken to reduce *fevers; in China they have been taken to speed childbirth. Costaceae – a family usually included in the *Zingiberaceae. Costus (Costaceae or Zingiberaceae) – a genus of about about 150 species of tall forest herbs native to all tropical regions (9 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda); in Uganda the rhizome of C. afer (*ginger lily) is used to treat *helminthiasis, i.e. to expel *intestinal worms (Adjanohoun 112 et al. 1993); in Kenya the green leaves of C. spectabilis are chewed and the leaves swallowed to cure *fever (Kokwaro 1976). cotton1 – Gossypium herbaceum (the mallow family, Malvaceae) is a perennial herb native to southwest Asia from India to Arabia; it is widely cultivated for its fibre, while the root bark and the seeds are used for their medicinal properties; cotton seed oil is *contraceptive, and men eating food cooked in cotton oil may become *infertile; the seed oil is used to treat heavy *menstrual bleeding and *endometriosis; cotton root bark is *labour-inducing as it stimulates *uterine contractions and hastening a difficult labour; it also promotes *abortion , the onset of a period and reduces menstrual flow; the root bark also encourages the blood to clot and the production of *breast milk; alternative name: Levant cotton. cotton2 – Gossypium hirsutum (the mallow family, Malvaceae) is a perennial herb native to America; it was widely used as a medicinal herb by the Maya and Aztecs, and was also cultivated for its fibre; the bark was mainly used to ease pain of *childbirth, but later it has been used to induce *menstruation and *abortion. cotton grass – Imperata cylindrica (Poaceae); in East Uganda the roots of this grass are chewed to ease *snakebite (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves of the same grass is used in *dental care (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in coastal Kenya the Digo use the fluff from the flower heads as a substitute for cotton-wool for treating *sores (Kokwaro 1976). Cotyledon (Crassulaceae) – a genus with 24 species of herbs or shrubs mainly in South Africa, but one species reaching East Africa, Ethiopia and Arabia (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of C. barbeyi are heated and placed on various parts of the body to relieve *fatigue pains and *rheumatism (Kokwaro 1976); in South Africa medicinal use and poisoning of goats and sheep by the many species of the genus Cotyledon is dealt with by Watt & BreyerBrandwijk (1962). couch (grass) – Elymus repens (the grass family, Poaceae) is a widespread invasive weed in most temperate countries; in times of famine the stolons have been used as a substitute for flour and coffee; couch grass is an effective *diuretic and *demulcent; it is most commonly used for *urinary tract *infections such as *cystitis and *urethritis as it increases the volume of urine and protects the urinary *tubules against infections and irritants; couch grass has also been used to treat *kidney stones, *peptic ulcers, *jaundice and other *liver complaints; in compounds the name ’couch grass’ is also used about other species of grasses, particularly from the genus Elymus; alternative names: *quack-grass, *quickgrass, quitchgrass, *scutch(grass) and *twitchgrass. coumarins – *shikimate-derived metabolites formed when phenylalanine is deaminated and hydroxylated to trans-hydroxycinnamic acid; different kinds of coumarines with widely different action are found in many plant species, e.g. *furanocoumarins , such as *bergapten, found in *celery (Apium graveolens), stimulate skin tanning, while *khellin, found in Ammi visnaga (*visnaga) is a powerful smooth muscle relaxant; the coumarins found in Aesculus hippocastanum (*horse chestnut) and Melilotus officinalis (*melilot) help to keep the blood thin. counter-irritant – superficial irritant used to relieve more deep-seated pain or discomfort; some plants are used to relieve this condition, e.g. *Capsicum frutescens (*chilli fruits, Solanaceae), Cinnamomum camphora (*camphor tree, Lauraceae) and Daphne mesereum (*mezereum, Thymelaeaceae). cowbane – Cicuta virosa (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is one of the most toxic plants in Norway. cowberry – Vaccinium vitis-idaea (the heather family, Ericaceae); alternative names: mountain *cranberry and red *whortleberry; it has fruits very rich in *vitamin C and and *oxidants, and is thus an important plant for a general protection against diseases. cow pea – Vigna unguiculata in the pea family (Fabaceae); like other peas and beans the seeds are rich in proteins and thus a useful protection against *kwashiorkor. 113 cowslip – Primula veris (Primulaceae) is a perennial herb from temperate regions in Eurasia; the root is strongly *expectorant easing the clearance of *phlegm; it is especially used for *chronic *bronchitis and *coughs; the root is also believed to be mildly *diuretic and *antirheumatic and to slow*blood clotting; the flowers are *antispasmodic and *anti-inflammatory and are used to treat *asthma and other *allergic conditions; alternative name: *primavera; *blue cowslip is Pulmonaria angustifolia (Boraginaceae); Cape cowslips are species from the genus Lachenalia (Hyacinthaceae). Crabbea (Acanthaceae) – a genus of 12 species of herbs in tropical Africa and South Africa; in Uganda the tops of of C. reticulata are used to treat *dermatoses (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Uganda the leaves of C. velutina are used to expel *intestinal worms and as a charm (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); the Luo in Kenya use the leaves and roots to treat *scabies (Geissler et al. 2002); in Tanzania the leaves are used as a remedy for *headache, the roots are used for eye treatment, while the whole plant is used for *skin rash (Kokwaro 1976). crab’s eye – *Abrus precatorius (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a deciduous climber with attractive red and black seeds in pods; the seeds are deadly *poisonous (toxin: *abrin) but have been used as a *contraceptive and *abortifacient to induce a miscarriage; alternative names: *coral pea, *Indian liquorice, *jequirity, *lucky beans and *paternoster beans. Corrections up to here are in my first comments to med-gloserUgandaA-K crack willow – Salix fragilis (the willow family, Salicaceae) is a tall deciduous tree native to Europe and parts of Asia; the bark (stripped from branches 2-5 years old) contains *salicylic acid, which relieves *pain and soothes *fever, and is used in the same way as *aspirin (the commercial product) for *headaches and fever; crack willow is a good remedy for *arthritic and *rheumatic pain; the bark is also *astringent and was formerly used to staunch internal *bleeding; see also *black willow (S. nigra) and *white willow (S. alba). cramp – *spasms; sudden involutary contractions of muscles; a painful tonic muscular contraction; many different herbs are used to alleviate this condition, e.g. *Abutilon mauritianum (Malvaceae), Alchemilla spp. (*Lady’s mantle, Rosaceae), Angelica atropurpurea (*American angelica) & chinensis (*Chinese angelica, Apiaceae), Chamaemelum nobile (*Roman chamomile), Cymbopogon citratus (*lemon grass, Poaceae), *Dioscorea spp. (*yams, Dioscoreaceae), *Hibiscus fuscus (Malvaceae), *Leonotis ocymifolia (Lamiaceae), *Ocimum basilicum (*basil or *sweet basil, Lamiaceae), Paeonia lactiflora (*white peony, Paeoniaceae), Passiflora incarnata (*apricot vine or *Maypop, Passifloraceae), Pulsatilla pratensis (*meadow anemone or *pasque flower, Ranunculaceae), *Tetradenia riparia (Lamiaceae), Valeriana hardwickii (*Chinese valerian) & uliginosa (*American valerian, Valerianaceae) and Viburnum opulus (*cramp bark or guelder rose, Caprifoliaceae). cramp bark – Viburnum opulus (the honeysuckle family, Caprifoliaceae) is a fairly large shrub from Europe and North America; it is frequently cultivated in gardens; the bark is often used to relieve *cramps (including *colic and painful *menstruation) and aching muscles (including *arthritis); it is *antispasmodic in the treatment of *asthma and a *sedative remedy for nervous conditions; alternative name: *guelder rose; see also *black haw (Viburnum prunifolium). cranberry – Vaccinium oxycoccum and some related species in the genus Vaccinium (the heather family, Ericaceae), e.g. *American cranberry (V. macrocarpon); *mountain cranberry is *red whortleberry, Vaccinium vitis-idaea; all these species are rich in *vitamin C and *antioxidants and thus useful as a general defense against diseases. cranesbill family – *Geraniaceae is a large family with about 11 genera and about 750 species widely distributed in all continents; alternative name: *geranium family. Crassocephalum (Asteraceae) – a genus of 24 species of annual or perennial herbs native to Africa including Yemen, Madagascar and the Mascarenes (12 species in East Africa, 8 in Uganda); in East Africa the leaf of C. crepidioides is used to cure *wounds and stop *nose bleeding (Kokwaro 1976; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Uganda the leaves are sometimes used to prevent 114 disturbances in tooth eruptions (Adjanahoun et al. 1993); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in West Uganda C. crepidioides is used by herbalists (Cunningham 1996), and near Mt. Rwenzori the leaves are used to treat *prolapsed uterus and to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Kenya the leaves of C. picridifolium are used in *wound-healing, and in Uganda the leaves of C. rubens are used as an *antidote against any form of *poisoning (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of C. vitellinum are used to cure fresh *wounds, *febrile *convulsion in children, *elephantiasis as well as male and female *sterility (Adjanohoun 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in East Africa this herb has been used to treat a diseased eye, and the flowers (the capitulum) used to brush the eye to remove tiny particles (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of C. vitellinum are steamed or squeezed and eaten or inserted in*vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005). Crassulaceae – a family of about 33 genera and 1500 species of annual or perennial often succulent herbs, or rarely shrubs (in East Africa 7 genera and 46 species; in Uganda 7 genera and 26 species); some genera contain species of medicinal value, e.g. *Cotyledon, *Kalanchoe, Rhodiola (*rose-root or *midsummer-men ) and Sedum (*stonecrop, *lifelong). Craterispermum (Rubiaceae) – a genus of 15-20 species of shrubs or trees confined to tropical Africa and also in the Seychelles and Madagascar (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of C. schweinfurthii are chewed or the juice drunk as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves or bark of C. schweinfurthii are boiled or steamed and eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005). Craterostigma (Scrophulariaceae) – a genus with about 15 species of rosette perennial herbs in tropical and South Africa extending to Madagascar and India; in East Africa C. plantagineum is occasionally used for the treatment of *toothache (Kokwaro 1976). Crateva (Capparidaceae) – a genus with about 10 species of small trees widely distributed in tropical countries of both hemispereres, but with only one species in Uganda and Africa; in East Africa a decoction of either the roots or leaves of C. adansonii are used to treat *rheumatism (Kokwaro 1976). cream – a mixture of water and fat or oil which is applied to the skin; it can contain medicine or herbal extract. creeping sorrel – *Oxalis corniculata (the sorrel family, Oxalidaceae), is a troublesome weed in some countries; alternative names: *procumbent sorrel, *sheep sorrel and *yellow (wood) sorrel; for medicinal use see *Oxalis. Cremaspora (Rubiaceae) – a genus of 3-4 species of shrubs or small trees confined to tropical Africa including Madagascar (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of C. triflora (including C. coffeoides auct.) are used for the treatment of *fever, *gland disorders and *rheumatism (Kokwaro 1976). creosote – an oily poisonous liquid made from wood tar used to destroy *germs and for preventing wood from rotting. creosote bush (Am) – Larrea tridentata (Zygophyllaceae) is a very abundant bush in some American deserts and semi-deserts; for medicinal uses see *chaparral; alternative name: *chaparral. Crepis (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 200 species of annual or perennial herbs widely distributed in temperate and warm regions (6 species in East Africa, 4 in Uganda); a decoction of the flowers of C. carbonaria is given to women to assist *parturition (Kokwaro 1976). cress – Lepidium sativum in the cabbage family (Brassicaceae); the seeds are often sown on wet cotton in window sills (in cold countries especially in the winter) and the first green leaves eaten as a vitamin kick. cress family – Brassicaceae (earlier Cruciferae); a family comprising about 390 genera and 3000 species of annual or perennial herbs, rarely shrubby, and widely distributed in both hot and cold countries; for genera with useful medicinal herbs see *Brassicaceae; alternative vernacular names of family: *mustard family and *wallflower family; the family Capparidaceae is 115 sometimes included in Brassicaceae, and this extended family comprises 425 genera and 3700 species. Creuzfeldt-Jakobs disease – a deadly disease which attacks the brain in mammals; the disease is believed to be caused by mutations in a protein (and not by bacteria or viruses); in humans it is probably contracted by eating improperly cooked meat from cows with this disease (in cows the disease is named *BSE or *boviform spongiform encefalopati); see also *scrapie; no plants are known to cure this deadly disease, but plants improving the immune defense may be protective. Crinum (Amaryllidaceae) – a genus of more than 100 species widely distributed in tropical and warm regions (21 species in South Africa; 4 species in Uganda); in East Africa a *decoction of C. macowanii (C. kirkii auct.) is used for the treatment of *sores (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of C. zeylanicum are used to *poisonings (Adjanohoun et al. 2000); for *antiinflamma-tory and *antibacterial activities of Amaryllidaceae *alkaloids see Elgorashi et al. (2003). crocus1 – species of the genus Crocus (the iris family, Iridaceae), e.g. the red stigmas of ??? Dutch crocus (C. vernus) and saffron crocus (C. sativus) are used as a spice; for medicinal use see *saffron (crocus). crocus2 – in compound words about species from species of genera other than Crocus (the iris family, Iridaceae), e.g. *autumn crocus, Colchicum autumnalis (Colchicaceae) and Chilean crocus, Tecophilaea cyanocrocus (Tecophil-aeaceae); for medicinal use see *autumn crocus. Crossandra (Acanthaceae) – a genus of about 50 species of herbs and shrubs native to tropical Africa and Asia; in Kenya C. nilotica is used for the treatment of *cobra bite; the leaves are chewed and then spat on the place where the *venom has been injected or sprayed (Kokwaro 1976); the Luo in Kenya use the leaves of C. massaica to treat *syphilis (Geissler et al. 2002). Crossopteryx (Rubiaceae) – a genus of 1 species, which is a shrub or small tree confined to tropical Africa and Transvaal; in East Africa the roots of C. febrifuga are used for the treatment of *venereal diseases, while the leaves are used to treat *conjunctivitis (Kokwaro 1976); for active substances see Maiga et al. (2006). Crotalaria (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of about 550 species of herbs or shrubs widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, but most abundant in Aftrica (200 species in East Africa, 58 species in Uganda); in East Uganda powdered roots and leaves of C. aculeata are applied to *incisions to treat *pyomyositis and the plant smoked as a charm to ward off evil spirits and divorce wife (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Kenya C. axillaris is used to treat *kidney trouble and *opthalmia, while C. brevidens is used as a vegetable and acts as a remedy for general *stomach pains and *swellings (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the leaves of C. cleomifolia are applied to fire-*burns, while those of C. deserticola are applied to to all kinds of *wounds; in coastal Kenya an infusion of the crushed-up leaves of C. emarginata is used as a remedy for *sore eyes, while in Tanzania the roots of C. goodiiformis are used to treat *stomach problems and expel *hookworms; in East Africa an easy *delivery is ensured if the woman eats the leaves of C. goreensis as a vegetable every day for nine months (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda the whole plant of C. glauca is smoked as a charm to protect the job, while an infusion of the leaves of C. incana is drunk to treat *syphilis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Uganda the leaves of C. laburnifolia are used to treat *septic *dermatitis and *rectal *prolapse (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), while elsewhere in East Africa the root extract is used for *gonorrhoea, severe *dysuric ailments and as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of C. mesopontica are used to treat *stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Tanzania the roots of C. natalitia are used for the treatment of *boils, the leaves of C. pallida are applied to *wounds, and the roots of C. quartiniana are used for *snake bites and for *magic (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal Kenya the Giriama use the roots of C. retusa for *chest diseases, while in West Tanzania the Bende use the roots and leaves of C. spinosa for general *poisoning (Kokwaro 1976). 116 Croton (Euphorbiaceea) – a genus of about 800 species of trees or shrubs, rarely herbs or lianes native to all tropical regions (5 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of C. dichogamus are used as a remedy for *chest ailments, *fever and *stomach diseases (Kokwaro 1976), in Tanzania the strongly scented roots of C. jatrophoides are used to treat *colds and *stomachache (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa C. macrostachyus (C. zambesicus auct.) is an important medicinal plant: a boiled *decoction of the leaves are drunk for *coughs, while the juice from fresh leaves is applied to *wounds to hasten *blood clotting; the roots are used as a *purgative and *anthelmintic to expel *tapeworms, while juice from boiled roots is drunk for *malaria and *venereal diseases; in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda C. macrostachyus is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe use a root and leaf decoction of C. macrostachyus for *fever (Masinde 1996); in West Uganda the young leaves of C. macrostachyus is used to treat *bloody stools (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the roots to treat a disease which cause the urine to become white, and also for fever or ”cold body” (Heine & König 1988); in East Africa the bark of C. megalocarpus is taken as a remedy for *intestinal worms and *whooping cough (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe licks ash from bark C. megalocarpus for *colds, *coughs and irritated throat (Masinde 1996); a root decoction of C. menyartii is drunk as a remedy for *influenza and *malaria, while the roots of C. polytrichus are used for *headaches and *labour pain (Kokwaro 1976); different parts of C. pseudopulchellus have been used to treat *anthrax, *asthma, *colds and *gonorrhoea, while C. sylvaticus (forest croton) is used as a *purgative, to reduce *swellings, and as a remedy for *tuberculosis (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of this treet is taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006). croton – species of the genus *Croton (Euphorbiaceae), e.g. broad-leaved croton (C. macrostachyus) and forest croton (C. sylvaticus); for medicinal use see Croton (Euphorbiaceae). croup – any condition of the *larynx or *trachea characterized by a hoarse cough and difficult breathing. crowberry – Empetrum nigrum and other species of the genus Empetrum (the *crowberry family, Empetraceae, but now often included in the heather family, Ericaceae); mountain crowberry is Empetrum hermaphroditum; the fruits of crowberry has very high levels of *vitamin C and *antioxidants and are thus important for the general defence against diseases. crowberry family – Empetraceae; a very small family of 3 genera and 4-6 species mainly distributed in the northern temperate regions; for medicinal use see *crowberry; the family is now often included in *Ericaceae. crow foot – buttercup, species of the genus Ranunculus (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae), e.g. scarlet crowfoot (R. asiaticus) and corn crowfoot (R. arvensis); for medicinal use see the genus *Ranunculus. Cruciferae – an old name for a plant family now named *Brassicaceae. Cryptocarya (Lauraceae) – a genus of perhaps 300 species of trees or shrubs native to the old world tropics, but mostly in Malaysia (1 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in Tanzania the Shambaa use a decoction of the roots of C. libertiana as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976). Cryptolepis (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) – a genus of 12 species of climbers native to the old world tropics; in Uganda the roots of C. sanguinolenta (the whole plant has blood-red juice) are used to treat *malaria and *measles (Adjanohoun 1993), *colic pain in babies, *diarrhoea, *hernia, premature *ejaculation and *snake bite (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Tanzania the woody rootstock of C. hypoglauca is chewed as an *aphrodisiac by the Mambwe (Kokwaro 1976). cubeb – Piper cubeba (the pepper family, Piperaceae) from Indonesia is an evergreen perennial climber widely cultivated in Asia; the fruit is *antiseptic and *antiflatulent and used to counter 117 *infections of the *urinary tract and to relieve *digestive problems such as *bloating and *flatulence; it has also been used to treat *gonorrhoea. cucumber family – the melon family, Cucurbitaceae, is a large family with about 120 genera and 750 species widely distributed in all continents except the coldest regions; alternative names: *gourd family, *melon family and *pumpkin family. Cucumella (the melon family, Cucurbitaceae) – a genus of 7 species of climbing or trailing herbs native to tropical Africa (6 species) and India (1 species); in Kenya an infusion of the roots of C. engleri is drunk for the treatment of *malaria, but it causes acute *diarrhoea (Kokwaro 1976). Cucumis (the melon family, Cucurbitaceae) – a genus of about 23 species of climbing or trailing herbs widespread in tropical and warm parts of the old world (13 species in East Africa, 9 species in Uganda, but two of these are cultivated vegetables); the most widely cultivated species are Cucumis melo (melon or sweet melon), which is native to East Africa, and C. sativus (cucumber); in Uganda the leaf of C. aculeata is used to treat *epilepsy and *functional psychosis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); elsewhere in East Africa the juice of the plant is used to treat eye troubles in cattle (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the fruits of C. dipsaceus are boiled in water and the liquid drunk to treat *stomach pains (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam drink the liquid inside the fruit of C. dipsaceus (or C. prophetarum) as an *emetic and to treat stomach trouble and also applied to *tick wounds of cattle (Heine & König 1988); in East Africa the seeds and roots of C. ficifolius are known to be poisonous, but used in small quantities as an *emetic (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the leaves and fruits of C. figarei are taken as a remedy for *constipation and *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976); Cucurbita (Cucurbitaceae) – a genus of 27 annual or perennial often climbing herbs native to tropical and warm parts of America, but many species are cultivated as vegetables worldwide; in East Uganda the leaves of C. maxima (winter squashes) are used to treat *boils, *diarrhoea, *toothache and *vertigo (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves of C. pepo (*marrows, *pumpkins, summer squashes) are used to treat *headache and expel *hookworms, while the flowers are believed to treat prolapsed *uterus (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in the southern part of the Rwenzori region all parts of the plant are boiled or squeezed and eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005) and taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006). Cucurbitaceae – a family of about 120 genera and 750 species of annual or perennial herbs (often climbing or trailing), rarely woody widely distributed in all continents (28 genera and 126 species in East Africa; 22 genera and 55 species in Uganda); vernacular names: *cucumber family, *gourd family, *melon family and *pumpkin family; many genera contain species of medicinal value, e.g. *Coccinia, *Corallo-carpus, *Cucumella, *Cucumis, *Kedrostis, *Lagenaria, *Momordica, *Mukia, *Peponium, *Telfairia and *Zehneria. Culcasia (Araceae) – a genus of about 20 species of creeping or liane-like herbs native to tropical Africa (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in lowland Kenya the ash of C. falcifolia (= C. scandens) is mixed with porridge and taken as a *tonic; it is said to cause *perspiration and to make people very strong (Kokwaro 1976). Culpeper, Nicholas (1616-1654) – famous English scientist who wrote the herbal ”The English Physitian” (1652) that contained ”a Complete Method of Physick, whereby a Man may preserve his Body in Health, or Cure himself, being Sick, for three pence Charge, with such things only as grow in England, they being most fit for English Bodies”. cumin (seeds) – Cuminum cyminum (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is an annual herb from Egypt widely cultivated for its fruits which are used in cheese and other food; the fruits are also used for illnesses in the *digestive system, for *coughs and other *chest problems, as a *painkiller and for rotten teeth. Cupressaceae – a family of 17 genera and 114 species of trees and shrubs widely distributed in cold as well as in warm countries (only 1 genus and 1 species native to East Africa and Uganda), but 118 many foreign species are introduced as timber or ornamental trees; species of the genera *Cupressus, *Juniperus, Libocedrus and Thuja are of medicinal value. Cupressus (Cupressaceae) – a genus of 13 species of timber trees native to temperate and warm regions of the northern hemisphere; in East Africa C. lusitanica (Mexican cypress), C. macrocarpa (Monterey cypress) and C. sempervirens (Italian or Mediterranean cypress) are widely planted for timber; in Uganda the smoke of C. lusitanica is used to ward off evil spirits (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). curare – a group of alkaloids, e.g. *tubocurarine chloride, which is mainly extracted from *pareira, Chondrodendron tomentosum (the *curare family, Menispermaceae); it is a strong muscle relaxant and is now used as an *anaestetic to paralyse the muscles during operations; curare is also the paralysing arrow poison used by South American indians to catch their prey; the word curare is also applied to other arrow poisons used by South American indians, e.g. from Anamirta cocculus (Menispermaceae) and species of the genus Strychnos (Loganiaceae). curare family – *Menispermaceae; it is a medium sized family with about 65 genera and 350 species widely distributed in all tropical and warm regions; for medicinal use see *Menispermaceae. Curcuma (the ginger family, Zingiberaceae) – a genus of about 40 species native to tropical Asia, but many species widely cultivated as spices or medicinal herbs in many tropical regions, e.g. *Indian arrowroot (C. aromatica), *mango-ginger (C. amada), *turmeric (C. longa) and *zedoary (C. zedoaria). cure-all (plants) – plants, which occasionally, usually for a short period, get a reputation of curing virtually all diseases, e.g. *boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum) in America and *ash (Fraxinus excelsior) in Europe were both once upon a time virtual *cure-all (plants); such popular beliefs, when proven incorrect, will reduce the popularity and belief in effectiveness of plant medicines. curled dock – Rumex crispus (the knotweed family, Polygonaceae) is a perennial herb native to European sea-shores, but widely distributed as a weed throughout the world; the root is a gentle *laxative used for *constipation and also has *detoxifying activity; it is believed to increase the flow of *bile; it has also been taken for *arthritis and skin conditions (*acne, *eczema and *fungal infections), alternative names: *sour dock and *yellow dock. currant(s) – some species of the genus Ribes (Ribesiaceae), e.g. alpine currants (R. alpinum), *black currants (Ribes nigrum), buffalo-currants (Ribes aureum) and *red currants (Ribes rubrum). curry-leaf tree – Murraya koenigii (the orange family, Rutaceae) is an aromatic deciduous shrub or small tree widely spread in tropical Asia; the leaves are used in Indian curry; the leaves increase *digestive secretions and relieve *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *indigestion, *nausea and *vomiting; they are also used in a hair tonic and are believed to prevent greying; the berry juice may be mixed with lime juice to soothe *insect bites and stings; alternative name: *curry patta. curry patta – Murraya koenigii (the orange family, Rutaceae); see *curry-leaf tree. curry powder – it consists of about ¼ *turmeric (Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae), much *coriander (Coriander sativum) and also cumin (Cuminum cyminum) seeds (both in the carrot family, Apiaceae). curse of India – Lantana camara (the teak family, Verbenaceae), is an American shrub widely cultivated and naturalised as a troublesome weed in many tropical and warm countries; alternative name: *prickly lantana, *red-flowered sage, *tick berry, *white sage and *wild sage; for medicinal use see *Verbena. Cussonia (Araliaceae) – a genus of 25 species of trees or shrubs native to Africa and Madagascar (7 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of C. arborea are taken to treat *gonorrhoea, while the leaves are used as a general *antidote to any *poison; in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam drink a *decoction of the roots to treat *diarrhoea (Heine & König 1988); in Tanzania the Sukuma use the root as an ingredient in a vapour bath (Bally 1938); the root is also used as a *gonorrhoea remedy (Brenan & Greenway 1949) and as an *emmenagogue; in East Africa the bark of C. holstii is boiled in water and the *infusion taken by 119 women after *parturition in order to clean the *uterus; in Tanzania the bark of C. kirkii is used as a remedy for *gonorrhoea, while the leaves of C. spicata are used for *indigestion; in coastal Kenya the Digo use an infusion of the leaves of C. zimmermannii as a wash for people suffering from *fever or *ague, and the roots as a remedy for *gonorrhoea (Kokwaro 1976). custard apple1 – Annona squamosa (Annonaceae) is an American tree with edible fruits widely cultivated throughout the tropics; the bark, leaves and unripe fruits are strongly *astringent and are used to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery and to reduce *uric acid levels; the crushed seeds have been used as an insecticide; alternative names: *sugar apple and *sweetsop. custard apple2 – Annona reticulata (Annonaceae); the fruits are edible and has some medicinal efficacy because of the content of *vitmin C and *antioxidants; alternative names: *bullock’s heart and *sugar apple. cutaneous – pertaining to the skin; see also *subcutaneous (situated below the skin). cutch – shiny, black-brown extract of leaves and young shoots from *black catechu, *Acacia catechu (the pea family, Fabaceae-Mimosoideae); it is a medicinal extract and is sold as a brittle solid; it is a strongly *astringent and *clotting agent helping to reduce excess *mucus in the nose, the large *bowel or *vagina; it is also used to treat *eczema, *haemorrhages, *diarrhoea and *dysentery. cyanidin glucoside – a secondary metabolic substance (*phenolic) with a deep red colour: it is found in species of Chrysanthemum spp. s.lat. (the sunflower family, Asteraceae). cyanogenic glycosides – *glycosides based on the very potent poison cyanide; in small doses cyanogenic glycosides have a *sedative and *relaxant effect on the *heart and muscles; many seeds of drupes (in fruit kernels) contain high levels of cyanogenic glycosides, e.g. those of *apricot (Prunus armeniaca) and *plum (Prunus domesticus); the bark of Prunus africana, Prunus padus (*bird cherry), Prunus serotina (*wild cherry) as well as the leaves of Sambucus nigra (*elder); cyanogenic glycosides help to suppress and soothe irritant dry coughs. cyanosis – a bluish or purplish colouration of the skin and mucous membranes usually due to lack of oxygen. Cyanotis (Commelinaceae) – a genus of about 30 species of somewhat succulent herbs native to the old world tropics (3 species in Uganda); in Kenya the roots of C. arachnoidea are boilded and used for the treatment of *pneumonia; in West Kenya the Marachi tribe chews leaves of C. arachnoidea for *headache (Masinde 1996); in Kenya a root extract of C. lanata is used for the treatment of *pneumonia (Kokwaro 1976). Cyathea (Cyatheaceae) – a genus of more than 600 species of mostly tree-like ferns widespread in the wet tropics; in Tanzania the Shambaa drink and infusion of the broken and steeped stems of C. humilis (C. stuhlmannii) as an *anthelminthic (Kokwaro 1976). Cyathogyne (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus of 4-5 species of herbs or subshrubs native to Africa and Madagascar (1 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of C. bussei are chewed to treat *snakebite and *tonsilitis in children; roots are also soaked in water and the juice drunk for cure of *rupture or *hernia (Kokwaro 1976). Cyathula (Amaranthaceae) – a genus of about 20 species of erect or climbing herbs widespread in the Old World tropics; in East Uganda the whole plant of C. prostrata is used to treat *leucorrhoea in *pregnancy, while the leaves of C. uncinulata are used to treat oozing *eczema (Adjanohoun et al. (1993); in Central Uganda barren Baganda women drink a root decoction of this plant 2-3 times a day to induce *pregnancy (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in West Uganda the leaves of this plant is taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006). Cycnium (Orobanchaceae; or previously Scrophulariaceae) – a genus with 15 species of annual or perennial hemiparasitic herbs native to tropical East Africa and extending to South Africa (in East Africa 14 species, in Uganda 7 species); in Kenya a decoction of the leaves of C. adonense is given to newly-hatched chicks to open their eyes when they are gummed up; in East Africa the 120 leaves of C. herzfeldiana (= Rhamphicarpa herzfeldiana) are crushed or pounded and the juice squeezed on a *bleeding wound as a *styptic; in Tanzania the flowers of C. tubulosum (= Rhamphicarpa tubulosa & R. heuglinii, including R. montana) are used to cure *stomach-ache and the roots as an *abortifacient, while in Ethiopia burnt roots has been used for *vaginal fumigation to treat *antifertility and *uterotonic activity (Desta 1994); the roots of C. veronicifolium (Rhamphicarpa veronici-folia, including R. suffruticosa) are used to treat or cure *pneumonia and to provoke *abortion (Kokwaro 1976). Cylicomorpha (the pawpaw family, Caricaceae) – a genus of 2 species of trees armed with prickles native to Africa, in Tanzania the bark of C. parviflora is taken for *abdominal pain, *venereal diseases and as an *anthelmintic (Kokwaro 1976). Cymbopogon (the grass family, Poaceae) – a genus of about 40 grass species in tropical and warm regions of the old world (7 native species in East Africa, 5 in Uganda); in East Uganda the leaves of C. citratus are used to treat *influenza (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves of C. limon are used to treat *cough, while the leaves and roots of C. nardus are used for *cough and *flatulence (Kakudidi et al. 2000). Cynodon (the grass family, Poaceae) – a genus of 8 grass species in tropical and warm regions (5 species in East Africa and Uganda); C. dactylon (Bermuda grass or kweek grass) is a widespread and troublesome weed in many tropical countries; in Uganda the tops of this species are used to treat *scabies and pain due to *trauma or injury (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Uganda the leaves are used to treat *diarrhoea and *fever and applied as a *tonic (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). Cynoglossum (Boraginaceae) – a genus of about 50 species of annual or perennial herbs native to most warm and temperate regions (9 species in East Africa, 5 species in Uganda); in East Africa the Bukusu and Kakamega prenant women drink a root *decoction of C. coeruleum (including C. geometricum) to treat *pain in the *abdomen, while a decoction of the leaves is drunk by delivering mothers for quick removal of the *placenta; vapour from the crushed leaves is inhaled for treatment of *fever and *influenza, and crushed leaves are rubbed on *scorpion bites (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaf of C. lanceolatum is used to treat *ringworm, also named *taenia corporis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Cyperaceae – a family of about 110 genera and perhaps 4000 species of mostly small to giant herbs, rarely climbing or woody (400 species in East Africa, 250 species in Uganda); the genera *Abildgaardia, *Cyperus (including Kylinga and Mariscus) and *Schoenoplectiella contain some species of medicinal value. Cyperus (the sedge family, Cyperaceae) – a genus of about 600 species of small to tall annual or perennial herbs (named *sedges) native to all tropical and warm temperate regions (200 species in East Africa, 100 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the rhizome of C. alternifolius is put in water and used as a wash in cases of *rash and *pimples on the body (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the elders among the So of Mt. Kadam chew the rootstock of C. alternifolius and spit the liquid on a sick person (Heine & König 1988); in East Africa the rhizomes of C. articulatus are chewed as a treatment for *headaches (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of C. digitatus are used to treat *cough (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Karamoja in East Uganda the elders among the So of Mt. Kadam chew the rootstock of C. digitatus and spit the liquid in the direction of a sick person suffering from *headache (Heine & König 1988);in Uganda the leaves of C. distans are used to treat *retrosternal pain (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); C. esculentus (*chufa or *tiger-nut) has small edible tubers regarded as a *digestive tonic easing *flatulence and promoting urine production and *menstruation; it is also belived to be *aphrodisiac, and the juice is taken to heal *ulcers of the mouth and gum; in Kenya a decoction of the corm of C. niveus subsp. obtusiflorus is taken as a *cough remedy, while the leaves of C. papyrus mixed with the roots of Ficus and Tylosema are used for the treatment of *oedema (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the inflorescence of C. papyrus is used to treat *ano-rectal 121 *prolapse as well as *utero-vaginal prolapse (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Kenya the rhizome of C. rotundus is used for *colic, *coughs, *indigestion and *heart troubles (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the entire plant of C. squarrosus (= Mariscus squarrosus) is pounded, dried and the powder mixed in porridge to treat *impotence in males (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Cyphostemma (the grape family, Vitaceae) – a genus of more than 200 species of perennial often climbing herbs in tropical and subtropical Africa and SW Asia to India (about 100 species in East Africa and 16 in Uganda); in Uganda the leaves of C. adenocaule is used to treat *asthma, to turn a *foetus from transverse position and to expel retained *placenta, while the roots together with leaves are used to expel *tapeworms and the tubers for *ascariasis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Central Uganda the Baganda put pounded roots of this plant on a very hot stone for *pregnant mother to squat over for the steam to enter through the *vagina to expand the *pelvic birth canal (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in East Uganda the leaves are taken to treat *amoebiasis and is also used in rituals (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves or roots of C. adenocaule are boiled or pounded and eaten or inserted in vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005), while the leaves and roots are used to treat menstrual problems such as *dysmenorrhoea and excessive bleeding or *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam grind the whole plant of C. adenocaule and mix with fat and apply to *abscesses and *ulcers (Heine & König 1988); elsewhere in East Africa it is used as a *purgative and taken as a remedy for *pneumonia, *stomach ache, *swellings, swollen *abdomen, pain during *pregnancy and *syphilis (Kokwaro 1976, Geissler et al. 2002); in West Uganda the leaves of C. cyphopetala are used to remove *ear wax, and in Kenya they are applied to *itchy rash and for *enlarged glands (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania C. engleri is used to treat *boils and *gonorrhoea, while the roots of C. knittelii are pounded for washing the body in cases of *pimples and *pustules; in East Africa C. serpens (= C. orondo) are used for the treatment of *abscesses and *boils, and used as a *tonic, while the roots of C. pachyanthum are used for baby diseases (Kokwaro 1976). cypress1 – species of the genera Cupressus and Chamaecyparis in the cypress family (Cupressaceae; Gymnospermae), e.g. Bhutan or Himalayan cypress (Cupressus torulosa), Italian or Mediterranean cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), Kashmir cypress (Cupressus cashmeriana), Lawson’s cypress (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), Mexican cypress (Cupressus lusitanica) and Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa); see also *African cypress, *swamp cypress and *summer cypress. cypress2 – Cupressus sempervirens (cypress family, Cupressaceae; Gymnospermae) is a tall tree from Turkey widely cultivated in southern Europe and elsewhere as an ornamental and timber tree; its volatile oil from cones and branches is used externally to tighten up blood vessels and astringes haemorrhoids and varicose veins; a footbath of the crushed cones is used to cleanse the feet and counter excessive sweating; used internally it is *antispasmodic and a *tonic, and has been used to treat *asthma, *colds, *coughs, *flu, *rheumatic pains, *coughing and spitting up of blood; alternative names: *Italian or *Mediterranean cypress. cypress family – Cypressaceae (Gymnospermae) is a medium sized family with about 16 genera and 140 species widely distributed in all continents, and it is dominating the vegetation in many parts of the northern hemisphere. cyst – a closed bladder-like sac formed in animal tissue containing fluid or semifluid matter or a stage in the life-cycle of a *parasite. cystic – with closed bladder-like sac (*cyst) formed in animal tissue containing fluid or semifluid matter or concerning a stage in the life-cycle of a parasite. Cysticercus – a cystic or bladder worm stage in the life of a tapeworm; Cysticercus bovis (the larva lives in the ox) this is stage of the tapeworm Taenia saginata, which lives in the human intestines; Cysticercus cellulosae (the larva lives in the pig) this is the stage of the tapeworm Taenia solium, which also lives in the human intestines. 122 cystitis – inflammation of a bladder, especially the urinary bladder; many plants have been used to treat this disease, e.g. *Abrus precatorius (*coral pea, Fabaceae), *Agathosma betulina (*buchu, Rutaceae), Agrimonia eupatoria (*agrimony, Rosaceae), Althaea officinalis (*marshmallow, Malvaceae), Aphanes arvensis (*parsley piert, Rosaceae), Apium graveolens (*celery, Apiaceae), Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (*bearberry or *uva-ursi, Ericaceae), Arbutus unedo (*strawberry tree, Ericaceae), *Aspilia mossambicensis (Asteraceae), Cedrus spp. (*cedar, Pinaceae), Elymus repens (*couch grass, Poaceae), Eryngium maritimum (*sea holly, Apiaceae), Gardenia jasminoides (*Chinese gardenia or *zhi zi, Rubiaceae), Herniaria glabra (*rupture-wort, Caryophyllaceae), Hydrangea arborescens (*wild hydrangea, Hydrangeaceae), Larix decidua (*larch, Pinaceae), *Olea europaea (*olive, Oleaceae), Ononis spinosa (*spiny restharrow, Fabaceae), Parietaria officinalis (*pellitory of the wall, Urticaceae), Petroselinum crispum var. tuberosum (*parsley root or *turnip-rooted parsley, Apiaceae), Prunus avium (*sweet cherry ot *wild cherry, Rosaceae), Santalum album (*sandalwood tree, Santalaceae), Tsuga canadensis (*hemlock spruce, Pinaceae) and Zea mays (*cornsilk of *maize, Poaceae). daffodils – species of the genus Narcissus (the *daffodil family, Amaryllidaceae); see also *seadaffodil (Pancratium maritimum). daffodil family – Amaryllidaceae; for medicinal plants see *Amaryllidaceae. dagga (South Africa) – marijuana, Cannabis sativa (the hemp family, Cannabaceae) is a tall annual herb native to southern Asia but now widely cultivated, often illegally, throughout the world; it was previously cultivated world-wide as a fiber plant (var. sativa), but is now mainly used as a drug and medicinal herb (var. indica); the female inflorescences of dagga contains a large number of *cannabinoids including *delta 9-*tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), a major psychoactive chemical, which is widely misused by millions of people worldwide; it has a pleasantly exciting effect, relieves pain and induces sleep, but reduces *fertility and can cause *delirium; the seeds are a strong *laxative; dagga is a powerful *analgesic as effective as *codeine but mainly used in patients having *chemotherapy; it has been used to treat *glaucoma as it reduces the pressure within the eye; this herb is also an *anti-inflammatory and *sedative; it is believed to relieve symptoms in *epilepsy, *multiple sclerosis and *spinal cord injuries; alternative name: *marijuana and pot (USA); see also *bhang and *hashish. dahl – *Cajanus cajan (the pea family, Fabaceae); for medicinal use see *Cajanus. daisy family – Asteraceae; this is the largest plant family with about 1100 genera and 25000 species widely distributed in all continents; alternative name: *sunflower family. da ji (Chinese) – Euphorbia pekinensis (the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae) is a Chinese herb widely cultivated in China as a medicinal plant; it contains a *toxic substance *euphorbon; the root is applied externally to inflamed *sores to reduce swellings; internally it is used to *purge excess fluid in severe illnesses, e.g. *ascites (excess fluid in the *abdomen), *nephritis and other *kidney problems; alternative name: *Peking spurge. Dalbergia (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of some 100 species of trees, scandent shrubs or woody lianes widespread in tropical countries (15 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Sukuma drink a root *decoction of D. boehmii as an *emetic, while the Shambaa use the leaves and roots of D. lactea to treat *abdominal pain, or use the roots externally for *rheumatism (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa a bark decoction of D. melanoxylon is used for cleaning *wounds, while a decoction of the roots is drunk as an *anthelmintic and to alleviate *abdominal pains and *gonorrhoea, and leaves boiled in soup is taken to relieve pain in *joints (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa sap of D. nitidula is used for closing *wounds, and the roots are used to make a patient *vomit and believed to cure a person suffering from *fits, and in coastal Kenya a decoction of D. vacciniifolia is used as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976). Dalbergiella (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of 3 species of trees or scandent shrubs confined to tropical Africa (3 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in southern Tanzania the Yao drink a decoction of the roots from D. nyasae for the treatment of bloody *diarrhoea (Kokwaro 1976). 123 Dalechampia (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus of about 110 species widespread in the tropics of both hemispheres (4 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of D. scandens are reported to be a medicine for children (no use given), while the roots are used for magic (Kokwaro 1976); in West Africa plant pulp of D. ipomoeifolia (occurs also in Uganda) is applied to treat *intercostal pain and *rheumatism (Bouquet & Debray 1974). damiana – Turnera diffusa (Turneraceae) is a strongly aromatic American shrub widely used as an *aphrodisiac; the leaves are used to flavour liqueurs and used as a substitute for tea; damiana is a general *tonic and a *stimulant; it is a valuable remedy for *depressions particularly when *anxiety and depresssions occur together; it is a mild *laxative and *urinary *antiseptic; it is used for painful and delayed periods, and is much used to treat *headaches connected to *menstruation; it is *testergenic and useful in treating premature *ejaculation and *impotence. Danais (Rubiaceae) – a genus of about 40 species of shrubs or lianes confined to Madagascar with one species in Tanzania; in Tanzania the roots of D. xanthorrhoea are used as a *purgative and to treat *infertility (Kokwaro 1976). dandelion – species of the genus Taraxacum (Taraxacum officinale s. lat., the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is considered a terrible weed by gardeners, but its leaves are eaten in salads and it has many medicinal uses; dandelion leaves are most widely used for their *diuretic properties reducing high *blood pressure by reducing the volume of fluid in the body; the root is considered one of the most effective *detoxifying herbs working on the *liver, *gallbladder and *kidneys to remove *toxins and waste products; it is also believed to be good for *constipation and *skin problems such as *acne, *eczema and *psoriasis as well as *arthritis (including *osteoarthritis and *gout); the dandelion root also has *antitumour qualities and may be useful in treating *cancer; see also *Mongolian dandelion (T. mongolicum). dandruff – scurf; dead skin in small scales among the hair. daphne family – Thymelaeaceae; it is a fairly large family with about 45 genera and 500 species widely distributed in all continents; for medicinal plants see *Thymelaeaceae. date palm – Phoenix dactylifera in the palm family (Arecaceae); in compounds words referes also to African wild date palm (P. reclinata), Canary Island date palm (P. canariensis) and pygmy date palm (P. roebelenii); for medicinal use see *Phoenix. dasheen – Colocasia esculenta (Araceae) a tuberous herbs native to Asia, but it has edible starchrich corms or tubers and is cultivated in all wet tropical regions; a root decoction is used an *enema to treat *stomach problems, while the leaf pulp is used as a dressing to treat *insect bites, *rheumatism and *snakebites; the sap of the leaves together with that of Crassocephalum montuosum is drunk as an abortifacient (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Neuwinger 2000); alternative names: *cocoyam, * and *taro. Datura (Solanaceae) – a genus of 8 species of *toxic herbs and shrubs native to the Americas, but particularly D. stramonium (*thorn-apple; apple of Peru) widely distributed worldwide as a weed; in East Africa the roots of D. metel are chewed for *snakebite treatment, the flowers are used to treat *asthma, while roots and leaves are dried and smoked for the treatment of *consumption and *cough (Kokwaro 1976), and the plant is also widely used for criminal poisoning; in coastal East Africa the leaves and flowers are dried and used to relieve respiratory congestion, being either rolled in rough cigarettes or placed on embers and the smoke inhaled (Weiss 1979); in Uganda the leaves of D. stramonium have been used to treat *epilepsy and *functional psychosis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Uganda seeds are added to drinks to get people to stop drinking (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), and in West Uganda the leaves are used to treat *scabies (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Kenya the juice of the fruit is used for serious *earache, and the leaves are used as a *poultice for *rheumatism and other *swellings; the very poisonous seeds are sometimes mixed with leaves and *ghee and used externally for the treatment of *ringworm (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of D. suaveolens (= 124 *Brugmansia suaveolens; *angel’s trumpet) are used to treat pain of any origin resulting in *sleeplessness (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). deadly nightshade – Atropa belladonna (the potato family, Solanaceae) is a deadly *poisonous Eurasian herb; for medicinal use see under belladonna; alternative name: *belladonna. deadnettle or dead-nettle – species of the genus Lamium (the mint family, Lamiaceae), e.g. henbit deadnettle (L. amplexicaule), red deadnettle (L. purpureum), spotted deadnettle (L. maculatum) and *white deadnettle (L. album); for medicinal use see *white deadnettle. Dead Sea fruit – Calotropias procera (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae); for medicinal use see *Calotropis. death cap (mushroom) – Amanita phalloides (Basidiomycetes: Agaricales, Pluteaceae/ Amanitaceae) is a deadly poisonous mushroom; false death cap (A. citrina) is not poisonous; see also *destroying angle (Amanita virosa). death cap poisoning – severe damage to the liver due to eating *death cap mushrooms (or tetrachlorides) can to a certain extent be avoided by taking *silymarin immediately before or within 48 hours after the ingestion of the mushroom; silymarin is found in the fruits of *milk thistle (*Mary thistle, Silybum marianum); silymarin has a highly protective effect on the *liver, maintaining its function, renewing its cells and preventing damage from compounds that are normally *toxic. See also *amanita mushroom poisoning. debility – weakness of health; many different plants are used to alleviate general health-weaknesses, and especially those accompanying *ageing, e.g. *Allium sativum (*garlic, Alliaceae), Avena sativa (*oats, Poaceae), Embelia ribes (*embelia, Myrsinaceae), Emblica officinalis (*Indian gooseberry, Phyllanthaceae or Euphorbiaceae), Montia portulaca (*miner’s lettuce, Portulacaceae), Panax ginseng (*ginseng, Araliaceae), Serenoa repens (*saw palmetto, Arecaceae), Smilax sp. (*sarsaparilla, Smilacaceae), Thymus vulgaris (*thyme, Lamiaceae), * Withania somnifera (*withania, Solanaceae) and Ziziphus jujuba (*jujube, Rhamnaceae). decoction – water-based preparation of roots, bark, fruits or seeds simmered in boiling water; a preparation made by boiling crude vegetable drugs and then straining; the active substance is extracted in the water. decongestant – an agent or plant that reduces *congestion; in herbal as well as *convential medicine the plant *desert tea, Ephedra sinica (Ephedraceae; Gymnospermae) is used to relieve this condition; all species of the genus Ephedra contains a protoalkaloid *ephedrine, which is decongestant and *antiasthmatic. decongestive – (an agent or plant) that reduces *congestion; many plants relieve this condition, see *congestion and *decongestant. deglutition – swallowing. Deinbollia (Sapindaceae) – a genus of about 40 species of trees native to tropical Africa including Madagascar (3 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of D. borbonica are used to treat *abdominal pain and *stomach complaints, while the roots of D. kilimandscharica are used to clear the *bowels and as an *anthelmintic (Kokwaro 1976). delirium – a temporary disorder of the mental faculties, characterised by violent excitement or delusions, in which a person is confused with regards to time, places, and other people around him or her; this condition can be caused by taking *Cannabis sativa drugs (*bhang, *dagga, *hashish, *marijuana, *pot), and the disorder is sometimes treated by *Clerodendrum (*Rotheca) myricoides (Verbenaceae or Lamiaceae). delirium tremens – a violent restlessness due to excessive use of alcohol, characterised by trembling; certain plants are used to treat *alcoholism and *hangovers and may also alleviate delirium tremens, e.g. *ge gen, Pueraria lobata (the pea family, Fabaceae), *florist’s chrysanthemum, Dendranthema-hybrids and *Mary thistle, Silybum marianum (both the sunflower family, Asteraceae). 125 delivery (med) – childbirth or *parturition; a large number of plants are used in connection with delivery, see *childbirth. Delonix (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae) – a genus of 3 or 8 tree species native to tropical Africa including Madagascar (2 species native to East Africa, 1 species native to Uganda, but the flame tree or flamboyant, D. regia, is widely cultivated as an ornamental tree); in Tanzania an infusion of the bark of D. elata is drunk for the treatment of *bilharzia and *diarrhoea, while the young stems are used as tooth brushes, and are believed to cure *gum bleeding and other mouth diseases (Kokwaro 1976). dementia – a condition or disease causing loss of memory; many plants are believed to have the ability to alleviate this condition, but foremost among these is *maidenhair tree or *ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgophyta, Gymnospermae) as this plant improves the blood circulation to the brain; see also *senile dementia. demented – mentally ill; suffering from dementia or loss of reason. demulcent – a soothing agent; which soothes, coats and protects body surfaces such as gastric mucous membranes; a large number of plants are used as demulcents, e.g. Aphanes arvensis (*parsley piert, Rosaceae), Borago officinalis (*borage, Boraginaceae), Elymus repens (*couch grass, Poaceae), Epilobium angustifolium (*fireweed or Rose Bay willow herb, Onagraceae), Lamium album (*white deadnettle, Lamiaceae), Lippia dulcis (*yerba dulce or sweet herb, Verbenaceae), Lobaria pulmonaria (*tree lungwort, Lobariaceae, lichens), Malva sylvestris (*common mallow or *mallow, Malvaceae), Parietaria officinalis (*pellitory of the wall, Urticaceae), Peymus boldus (*boldo, Apiaceae), Polygonatum multiflorum (*Solomon’s seal, Convallariaceae), Viola odorata (*sweet violet) & tricolor (*hearts ease or *pansy, Violaceae). depilatory – (an agent or plant) which removes or destroys the hairs; certain drugs and treatments for *cancer have this effect. depurative – *detoxifying agent; (an agent or plant) which induces the excretion and removal of waste material; a large number of plants are used to treat this condition, e.g. *Anacardium occidentale (*acajou or *cashew nut, Anacardiaceae), Aralia nudicaulis (*wild sarsaparilla) & racemosa (American spikenard, Araliaceae), Apium graveolens var. dulce (*celery, Apiaceae), Arctium lappa (*burdock, Asteraceae), Calendula officinalis (*marigold or *pot marigold, Asteraceae), Chelidonium majus (*greater celandine, Papaveraceae), *Daucus carota (*carrot, Apiaceae), Iris versicolor (*blue flag, Iridaceae), Lepidium virginicum (*Virginia peppergrass, Brassicaceae), Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (*watercress, Brasicaceae), Rumex acetosa (*sorrel) & acetosella (*sheep’s sorrel) & crispus (*curled dock or *sour dock, Polygonaceae), Scrophularia aquatica (*water figwort) & nodosa (*figwort) & marilandica (*American figwort, Scrophulariaceae), Taraxacum officinale (*dandelion, Asteraceae), *Urtica dioica (*common nettle or *nettle) & pilulifera (*Roman nettle, Urticaceae). dermatitis – *inflammation of the skin causing discomfort such as *eczema; a large number of plants are used to treat this condition, see *eczema. dermatomycosis – a superficial infection of the skin by fungi. dermatosis – *skin disease; a large number of plants are used to treat this condition, e.g. *Indigofera arrecta (Fabaceae), *Khaya senegalensis (Meliaceae), *Plectranthus amboinicus (Lamiaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae); see also *eczema and *psoriasis. Derris (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of about 50 species of trees, shrubs and climbers native to tropical regions (1 species native to the East African coast, none in Uganda); rotenoid derivatives from the roots and seeds of D. trifoliata have been studied by Yenesew et al. (2005 & 2006). Descartes, René (1596-1650) – French mathematician and philosopher, who divided the world into body and mind, nature and ideas; he maintained that *vital force (that maintains life and governs good health) was the province of religion rather than science. desert date – *Balanites aegyptiaca (Balanitaceae); for medicinal use of this tree see *Balanites. 126 desert rose – *Adenium obesum (Apocynaceae) is a *toxic shrub or small tree with beautiful red flowers native to dry regions in Africa and Arabia; the species contain *cardiac glycosides and are used as arrow, fish or ordeal *poison; in Kenya the Pokot used the roots to kill *lice (Kokwaro 1976); alternative name: *elephant’s foot. desert tea – species of the genus Ephedra (Ephedraceae; Gymnospermae), and particularly E. sinica, a small evergreen shrub native to dry regions of China and Mongolia (other species of the same genus are used similarly in all continents of the northern hemisphere); it is a strong *stimulant and *diuretic herb raising *blood pressure and mimicing the effect of *adrenaline; it dilates the *bronchioles and is widely used to treat *asthma and relieve the aches and pains of *rheumatism; in China it is also used to disperse *colds and *fevers, and to treat *kidney energy deficiency; in convential medicine it is used as a *decongestant; alternative names: *ephedra and *joint-pine. Desmodium (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of more than 300 species of herbs and shrubs widespread in tropical and warm countries (21 species in East Africa, 13 species in Uganda); in Uganda the roots of D. gangeticum are chewed to treat premature *ejaculation and sexual *asthenia in male and female (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves of D. repandum is used to treat *diarrhoea, *dysentery and *constipation (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 1996 & 2000); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda this herb is used by herbalists and midwives (Cunningham 1996); in Tanzania the Shambaa use the roots of D. repandum to treat large *sores, while a spoonful of juice is given to babies for *abdominal pains (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the Ngoni use the pounded leaves of D. salicifolium mixed with a little water to treat eye trouble (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda D. tortuosum is used to treat premature *ejaculation and *uterine fibroids (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), D. triflorum is taken to treat *cataract, *vertigo and to promote *labour, and a *decoction of the roots of D. velutinum is drunk to treat *sterility (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), or the roots together with the leaves of this herb are used to treat *anasarca (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). destroying angle – Amanita virosa (Basidiomycetes: Agaricales, Pluteaceae/Amanitaceae) is a deadly toxic mushroom; see also *death cap. detersive – a detergent or cleansing agent; herbs which aid removal of toxins and waste products from the body, e.g. *Anacardium occidentale (*acajou or *cashew nut, Anacardiaceae), Aralia nudicaulis (*wild sarsaparilla) & racemosa (American spikenard, Araliaceae), Apium graveolens var. dulce (*celery, Apiaceae), Arctium lappa (*burdock, Asteraceae), Calendula officinalis (*marigold or *pot marigold, Asteraceae), Chelidonium majus (*greater celandine, Papaveraceae), *Daucus carota (*carrot, Apiaceae), Iris versicolor (*blue flag, Iridaceae), Lepidium virginicum (*Virginia peppergrass, Brassicaceae), Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (*watercress, Brasica-ceae), Rumex acetosa (*sorrel) & acetosella (*sheep’s sorrel) & crispus (*curled dock or *sour dock, Polygonaceae), Scrophularia aquatica (*water figwort) & nodosa (*figwort) & mari-landica (*American figwort, Scrophulariaceae), Taraxacum officinale (*dandelion, Asteraceae), *Urtica dioica (*common nettle or *nettle) & pilulifera (*Roman nettle, Urticaceae). detoxification – the process of aiding removal of toxins and waste products from the body; see *detoxifying herbs.. detoxifying herbs – herbs which aid removal of toxins and waste products from the body, e.g. *Anacardium occidentale (*acajou or *cashew nut, Anacardiaceae), Aralia nudicaulis (*wild sarsaparilla) & racemosa (American spikenard, Araliaceae), Apium graveolens var. dulce (*celery, Apiaceae), Arctium lappa (*burdock, Asteraceae), Calendula officinalis (*marigold or *pot marigold, Asteraceae), Chelidonium majus (*greater celandine, Papaveraceae), *Daucus carota (*carrot, Apiaceae), Iris versicolor (*blue flag, Iridaceae), Lepidium virginicum (*Virginia peppergrass, Brassicaceae), Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (*watercress, Brasicaceae), Rumex acetosa (*sorrel) & acetosella (*sheep’s sorrel) & crispus (*curled dock or *sour 127 dock, Polygonaceae), Scrophularia aquatica (*water figwort) & nodosa (*figwort) & marilandica (*American figwort, Scrophulariaceae), Taraxacum officinale (*dandelion, Asteraceae), *Urtica dioica (*common nettle or *nettle) & pilulifera (*Roman nettle, Urticaceae). devil’s-claw – Harpagophytum procumbens (the sesame family, Pedaliaceae) is a southern African creeping perennial herb; its tuber is used in many *anti-arthritic preparations; it is *analgesic as it seems to ease symptoms of *joint pain, *gout, *back pain, *fibrositis and *rheumatism, and is used to reduce *fevers; it also stimulates and tones the *digestive system. devils dung – Ferula assa-foetida (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is an important Indian and Middle East medicinal plant; it is used for simple*digestive problems such as *wind, *bloating, *indigestion and *constipation; it has a volatile oil, like that of *garlic, and?? aids the *coughing up of congested *mucus; it is taken for *bronchitis, bronchial *asthma, *whooping cough and other *chest problems; it also lowers *blood pressure and thins the blood; alternative name: *asafoetida. devil’s guts – species of the genus Cuscuta (the bindweed family, Convolvulaceae); they are leafless climbing parasitic herbs without chlorophyll; they have a mildly *laxative effect and are often taken for *urinary problems; they are traditionally used to *purge *black bile, and are used for *jaundice and problems affecting the *liver and *gallbladder; alternative names: *dodder and *hellweed. diabetes – diseases causing strong thirst and excessive discharge of urine; two different diseases are named diabetis, viz. *diabetes insipidus and *diabetes mellitus. diabetes insipidus – a rare type of diabetes in which the patient is constantly thirsty and discharges vast amounts of urine (up to 15-10 liters per day). diabetes mellitus – a metabolic disorder, which impairs the ability of the body to use sugar and cause sugar to appear abnormally in the urine; the disease is accompanied by thirst, hunger, progressive loss of weight and weakness; there are two forms, viz. diabetes type 1, which is the most severe form of diabetes and people are often attacked when young; they will usually need daily injection of insulin; diabetes type 2 is common among elderly people, but is less severe and can often be controlled by a diet using more protein, and less fat and carbohydrates; a large number of plants are used to treat this disease, e.g. Caesalpinia bonducella (*nikkar nut, Fabaceae), Cynara scolymus (*artichoke, Asteraceae), *Dioscorea dumetorum tuber (*yam, Dioscoreaceae), *Gardenia ternifolia (Rubiaceae), Hordeum vulgare (*bran of barley, Poaceae), Momordica charantia (*cerasee or *kerala), Morinda citrifolia (*Indian mulberry or *noni, Moraceae), Ocimum sanctum (*holy basil or *tulsi, Lamiaceae), *Olea europaea (*olive, Oleaceae), *Opuntia vulgaris (Cactaceae), Pfaffia paniculata (*Brazilian ginseng or *pfaffia, Amaranthaceae), *Phaseolus vulgaris (*French beans, Fabaceae), Plantago indica & P. psyllium (*flea seeds, Plantaginaceae), *Rauvolfia vomitoria (Apocynaceae), Scutellaria baicalensis (*Baical skullcap, Lamiaceae) & S. lateriflora (*mad dog or *Virginia skullcap), *Sida cordifolia (Malvaceae) and Vaccinium myrtillus (*bilberry or *blueberry, Ericaceae). diabetic – (a person) which has the disease *diabetes. Dialium (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae) – a genus of about 40 species of trees and large shrubs widespread in tropical regions, but most species in Africa (1 species in Uganda); in Zimbabwe the roots of D. englerianum are taken to treat *dysentery and an infusion of the bark is used as eye lotion; D. guineense (*velvet tamarind) has orange-red edible fruit pulp; in the Central African Republic a decoction of the bark of this species is drunk for *coughs, and in vinegar is used as an *aphrodisiac; in the Congo the leaves of D. pachyphyllum are used for *coughs. Diaphananthe (Orchidaceae) – a genus of about 45 species of epiphytic orchids native to Africa (in Uganda 20 species); in East Uganda an incision of the leaves of D. fragrantissima is used to treat *migraine (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). diaphoretic – which induces sweating; an agent which causes perspiration, e.g. *Achyrospermum radicans (Lamiaceae), *Adansonia digitata (Bombacaceae), Allium fistulosum (*scallion, 128 Alliaceae), *Ancyclobotrys petersiana (Apocynaceae), Aralia nudicaulis (*wild sarsaparilla) & recemosa (*American spikenard, Araliaceae), Borago officinalis (*borage, Boraginaceae), Bupleurum chinense (*bupleurum, Apiaceae), Calamintha officinalis (*common calamint, Lamiaceae), Chimaphila umbellata (*pipsissewa, Ericaceae), Eupatorium perfoliatum (*boneset, Asteraceae) & teucrifolium (*wild horehound), Guaiacum officinale (*lignum vitae, Zygophyllaceae), Murraya paniculata (*cosmetic bark, Rutaceae), Nepeta cataria (*catmint, Lamiaceae), *Plumbago zeylanica (*Ceylon leadwort, Plumbaginaceae), Sambucus nigra (*elder, Sambucaceae), *Solanum terminale (Solanaceae), *Tinnea aethiopica (Lamiaceae) and Zingiber officinalis (*ginger, Zingiberaceae). diarrhoea (diarrhea) – excessive looseness of bowels; an abnormal frequent discharge of more or less fluid fecal matter from the bowel; a very large number of plants have been used to alleviate this condition, e.g. *Abutilon guineensis & mauritianum (Malvaceae), *Acacia arabica (*babul) & catechu (*black catechu or *cutch) & elatior & farnesiana (*apopanax & *sweet acacia) & hockii (*white thorn acacia) & macrostachya & mellifera & religiosa (*bo-tree) & senegal (Fabaceae), *Acalypha ornata (Euphorbiaceae), *Acmella caulirhiza (Asteraceae), *Adenia gummifera (Passifloraceae), Aegle marmelos (*bael, Bengal quince & *golden apple, Rutaceae), *Agathisanthemum bojeri (Rubiaceae), *Agave americana (*century plant, Agavaceae), Agrimonia eupatoria (*agrimony) & pilosa (*Chinese agrimony, Rosaceae), Ailanthus altissima (*tree of heaven, Sapotaceae), *Albizia coriaria & zygia (Fabaceae), Alchemilla spp. (*Lady’s mantle, Rosaceae), *Alectra sessiliflora (Orobanchaceae), Allium ursinum (*ramsons, Alliaceae), *Allophylus rubifolius (Sapindaceae), *Aloë rabaiensis (Aloëaceae), Alpinia officinarum (*galangal, Zingiberaceae), Amaranthus hypochondrius (*Indian amaranth, Amaranthaceae), *Annona senegalensis (*wild custard apple) & squamosa (*custard apple, Annonaceae), *Anthocleista grandiflora (*cabbage tree, Loganiaceae), Arbutus unedo (*strawberry tree, Ericaceae), *Artabotrys modestus (Annonaceae), *Artemisia afra (*African wormwood, Asteraceae), Asclepias tuberosus (*pleurisy root, Apocynaceae, Asclepidoideae), Atractylodes macrocephala (*bai zhu, Asteraceae), *Balanites aegyptiaca (Balanitaceae), *Bauhinia variegata (Fabaceae), *Bidens pilosa (*black Jack, Asteraceae), Bistorta major (*bistort, Polygonaceae), *Borassus aethiopum (*borassus palm, Arecaceae), *Boscia salicifolia (Capparidaceae), *Bothriocline longipes (Asteraceae), *Breonadia salicina (Rubiaceae), *Bridelia micrantha (Euphorbiaceae), Butea monosperma (*Bengal kino or *flame of the forest, Fabaceae), *Cajanus cajan (*pigeon pea, Fabaceae), *Cannabis sativa (*marijuana, Cannabaceae), *Capparis tomentosa (Capparidaceae), Capsella bursa-pastoris (*shephard’s purse, Brassicaceae), *Capsicum frutescens (*Cayenne or chilli pepper, Solanaceae), *Carica papaya (*melon tree, *papaya or *pawpaw, Caricaceae), *Carissa spinarum (Apocynaceae), Castanea sativa (*sweet chestnut, Fagaceae), Ceanothus americanus (*New Jersey tea, Rhamnaceae), *Celtis australis (*southern nestle tree) & phillippensis (Celtidaceae), Ceratonia siliqua (*algarroba, *carob or *locust tree, Fabaceae), *Chamaecrista mimosoides (Fabaceae), Cinnamomum aromaticum (Chinese cinnamon) & verum (*cinnamon, Lauraceae), *Cissampeos mucronata (Menispermaceae), Citrus × aurantium (*orange, Rutaceae), *Cleistopholis patens (Annonaceae), *Clematis simensis (Ranunculaceae), *Clerodendrum fuscum & myricoides (Verbenaceae), Codonopsis pilosula (*codonopsis, Campanulaceae), *Coffea canephora (*robusta coffee, Rubiaceae), *Cola acuminata (Sterculiaceae), *Combretum apiculatum & collinum (Combretaceae), Conyza canadensis (*Canadian fleabane) & pyrrhopappa (Asteraceae), Corylus avellana & maxima (*hazel, Corylaceae), *Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Cucumella engleri (Cucurbitaceae), *Cucurbita maxima (winter squashes, Cucurbitaceae), *Cussonia arborea (Araliaceae), Cydonia vulgaris (*quince, Rosaceae), *Cynodon dactylon (*Bermuda grass, Poaceae), *Dalbergiella nyassae (Fabaceae), Dipsacus fullonum (*wild teasel, Dipsacaceae), *Dodonaea viscosa (Sapindaceae), *Dombeya rotundifolia (Sterculiaceae), *Dregea abyssinica (Apocynaceae, Asclepidoideae), 129 *Elaeodendron buchananii (Celastraceae), *Epilobium angustifolium (*fireweed & *Rose Bay willow herb, Onagraceae), *Eriocoelum microspermum (Sapindaceae), *Eucalyptus camaldulensis (*red river gum, Myrtaceae), *Euclea racemosa (Ebenaceae), *Euphorbia crotonoides & hirta & tirucalli (Euphorbiaceae), Evodia rutaecarpa (*evodia, Rutaceae), *Faurea saligna (Proteaceae), Ficus benghalensis (*banyan tree) & glumosa & religiosa (*pipal) & sur (Moraceae), *Flueggea virosa (*Phyllanthaceae), Fragaria vesca (*alpine & *wild strawberry, Rosaceae), *Funtumia africana (Apocynaceae), *Galinsoga parvifolia (Asteraceae), *Garcinia buchananii (Clusiaceae), *Geranium canescens (Geraniaceae), *Gisekia pharnaceoïdes (Aizoaceae), *Glyphaea brevis (Tiliaceae), *Gnidia kraussiana (Thymelaeaceae), *Gomphocarpus stenophyllus (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Guizotia scabra (Asteraceae), *Hagenia abyssinica (Rosaceae), *Harungana madagascariensis (Clusiaceae), *Hibiscus surattensis (Malvaceae), Hordeum distichon & vulgare (*barley, Poaceae), *Indigofera subulata (Fabaceae), *Jasminium grandiflorum (Oleaceae), Justicia flava (Acanthaceae), *Kigelia pinnata (*sausage tree, Bignoniaceae), Krameria triandra (*rhatany, Krameriaceae), *Laggera crispata (Asteraceae), *Landophia owariensis (Apocynaceae), *Lannea schimperi (Anacardiaceae), Larrea tridentata (*chaparral or *creosote bush, Zygophyllaceae), *Leonotis nepetifolia (Lamiaceae), Limonia acidissima (*elephant apple or *wood apple, Rutaceae), *Lippia abyssinica (Verbenaceae), Liriosma ovata (*muira or *puama, Oleaceae), *Lysimachia vulgaris (*yellow loosestrife, Primulaceae), *Lythrum salicaria (*purple loosestrife, Lythraceae), *Maesa lanceolata (Maesaceae), Magnolia officinalis (*magnolia or *tree magnolia, Magnoliaceae), *Mangifera indica (*mango, Anacardiaceae), *Mannihot usitatissima (*cassava & *manioc, Euphorbiaceae), *Markhamia lutea (Bignoniaceae), *Melhania velutina (Sterculiaceae), Mentha aquatica (*watermint), & haplocalyx (*corn mint) & × piperata (*peppermint) & spicata (*spearmint, Lamiaceae), *Microglossa pyrifolia (Asteraceae), Mitchella repens (*squaw vine, Rubiaceae), *Momordica friesiorum & foetida (Cucurbitaceae), *Monsonia ovata (Geraniaceae), *Musa spp. (*banana & *plantain, Musaceae), Murraya koenigii (*curry-leaf tree, Rutaceae), *Myrica kandtiana (Myricaceae), *Myristica fragrans (*mace & *nutmeg, Myristicaceae), *Nymphaea alba (*white water lily) & odorata (*white pond lily, Nymphaeaceae), *Ocimum gratissimum & kilimandscharicum (Lamiaceae), *Oldenlandia johnstonii (Rubiaceae), *Opuntia ficus-indica (*berbary fig, Cactaceae), *Osyris lanceolata (Santalaceae), *Ozoroa insignis & obovata (Anacardiaceae), *Passiflora edulis (*passion fruit, Passifloraceae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae), *Pelargonium quinquelobatum (Geraniaceae), *Pentanisia schweinfurthii (Rubiaceae), Persea americana (*avocado seed, Lauraceae), *Phyllanthus sacleuxii (Phyllanthaceae), *Piliostigma thonningii (Fabaceae), Pimenta dioica (*allspice or *Jamaica pepper, Myrtaceae), Pistacia lentiscus (*lentisc or *mastic tree, Anacardiaceae), Pisum sativum (*garden pea, Fabaceae), Plantago indica (*flea seed) & major (*broad-leaved plantain) & psyllium (*psyllium, Plantaginaceae), Plumeria rubra (*frangipani, Apocynaceae), *Pollichia campestris (Caryophyllaceae), *Polygala senega (*senega snakeroot, Polygalaceae), Polygonum aviculare (*knotgrass, Polygonaceae), Populus tremuloides (*American aspen & *quaking aspen, Salicaceae), Potentilla anserina (*silverweed) & erecta (*tormentil, Rosaceae), *Priva flabelliformis (Verbenaceae), Prunella vulgaris (*selfheal, Lamiaceae), *Prunus mume (*Japanese apricot) & serotina (*American cherry, Rosaceae), *Pseuarthria hookeri (Fabaceae), *Psidium guajava (*guava, Myrtaceae), *Psorospermum febrifugum (Clusiaceae), Pueraria lobata (*ge gen & *kudzu, Fabaceae), *Rauvolfia vomitoria (Apocynaceae), Rheum palmatum (*Chinese rhubarb, Polygonaceae), Rhus aromatica (*sweet sumach) & glabra (*smooth sumach) & natalensis & vulgaris (Anacardiaceae), *Riccinus communis (*castor oil plant, Euphorbiaceae), Rosa canina (*dogrose, Rosaceae), *Rothmannia longiflora (Rubiaceae), *Rourea orientalis (Connaraceae), *Rubia cordifolia (Rubiaceae), Rubus fruticosus (*blackberries) & idaeus (*raspberry, Rosaceae), Sambucus nigra (*elder, Sambucaceae), 130 Sanicula europaea (*sanicle, Apiaceae), *Sansevieria trifascia (Agavaceae), *Sarcocephalus latifolius (Rubiaceae), Scutellaria baicalensis (*Baical skullcap) & lateriflora (*mad dog & *Virginia skullcap, Lamiaceae), *Securidaca longepedunculata (*violet tree, Polygalaceae), *Senna didymobotrya & sieberiana & singueana (Fabaceae), *Sesamum angustifolium (Pedaliaceae), *Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae), *Setaria verticillata (Poaceae), *Sida cordifolia (Malvaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae), Sorbus aucuparia (*mountain ash or *rowan, Rosaceae), *Spathodea campanulata (*African tulip tree, Bignoniaceae), *Steganotaenia araliacea (Apiaceae), Stellaria media (*chickweed, Caryophyllaceae), *Tamarindus indica (*tamarind, Fabaceae), Terminalia belerica (*Beleric myrobalan, Combretaceae), *Thunbergia alata (*black-eyed Susan, Acanthaceae), *Trichodesma physaloides (Boraginaceae), Tsuga canadensis (*hemlock spruce, Pinaceae), *Turraea robusta (Meliaceae), *Tylosema fassoglensis (Fabaceae), Ulmus americana (*white elm) & glabra (*Wych elm) & rubra (*slippery elm, Ulmaceae), *Urena lobata (Malvaceae), Vaccinium myrtillus (*bilberry or *blueberry, Ericaceae), *Vernonia adoënsis & amygdalina (Asteraceae), *Vitellaria paradoxa (Sapotaceae), *Warburgia salutaris (Canellaceae), *Watsonia densiflora (Iridaceae), *Zehneria scabra (Cucurbitaceae), *Ziziphus abyssinica & mauritiana (Rhamnaceae). diastole – relaxation of the *cardiac muscle; the period of dilation of the heart. Dichapetalaceae – a family with 3 genera and 126 species of trees, shrubs or lianes widely distributed throughout the tropics with its main centre of diversity in central Africa (2 genera and 17 species in East Africa, 2 genera and 4 species in Uganda); many species of the genus Dichapetalum are used as medicine. Dichapetalum (Dichapetalaceae) – a genus of 124 species of lianes, shrubs or small trees widespread in tropical regions (86 species in tropical Africa; 3 species in Uganda); in Congo a *decoction of the leaves of D. angolense, D. glabriusculum and D. lujaei is used to treat *bronchitis (Neuwinger 1996); in Tanzania the leaves of D. braunii are dried, powdered and used to treat sore throats (Kokwaro 1976); in Togo a leaf decoction of D. madagascariensis is given with Rauvolfia vomitoria against *malaria; in Cameroun an extract of the leaves of D. patentihirsutum is used as an *enema in serious forms of *dysentery; in Kenya a decoction of the tuber of D. ruhlandii is drunk or the leaves chewed to treat *sore throats; in Sierra Leone the very *toxic seeds of D. toxicarium are used as rat poison and to kill head *lice, and the leaves for heart *palpitations. Dichondra (Convolvulaceae) – a genus of about 5 species of prostrate perennial herbs in most tropical and warm regions (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Uganda the leaves of D. repens are used to treat *foetal malposition (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Dichostemma (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus of 3 species of trees native to tropical Africa; in Congo the leaves of D. glaucescens are used for stomach problems and liver disorders, and the sap for toothache; in Cameroon and Gabon the bark is considered an *emetic used as an *enema for *pregnancy problems and a good *tonic for nursing mothers (Neuwinger 1996). Dichrocephala (Asteraceae) – a genus of 4 species of herbs in the old world tropics (2 species in Uganda); in Uganda the leaf of D. integrifolia is used to treat *epilepsy, *functional psychosis, ill-defined *heart disease and *psychotic excitement (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), in West Uganda the Bamba use this herb to chase away evil spirits (Kakudidi et al. 1996); in East Uganda it is used to promote *labour and the leaves taken to treat *amoebiasis and *insanity (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves of the same species are used to treat *coughs, skin *warts and to stop *sneezing (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Kenya the Kakamega use the seeds of this plant (ground up and mixed with cow’s ghee) to heal *sores which may appear as a result of cuts made during local treatment of *headache (Kokwaro 1976). Dichrostachys (Fabaceae, Mimosoideae) – a genus of about 20 species of shrubs or small trees native to the Old World tropics (1 or 2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa leaves of D. cinerea are pounded for local *anaesthesia, or used for the treatment of 131 *ulcers and *gonorrhoea, and an extract of the leaves used as a treatment of *conjunctivitis and *stomach-ache; the roots are put on *snakebites to remove poison, or a decoction is used as an *astringent for *scorpion bite, or roots eaten as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal East Africa a pod infusion was drunk or boiled pods were applied to ease the pain of *scorpion stings and *snakebites (Weiss 1979); in Uganda the roots together with the leaves are used to treat *epilepsy (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in western Uganda the bark of D. cinerea is used to treat sexual *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005). Dicliptera (Acanthaceae) – a genus of about 150 species of herbs widespread in tropical and warm regions; in Kenya the Kipsigis chew the roots of D. laxata as a *cough remedy (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda a species of this genus is used in spiritual medicine in order to reconcile with wife (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). Dicoma (Asteraceae) – a genus with about 35 species of herbs or shrubs native to Africa and Madagascar with one species extending to tropical Asia (7 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Hehe use the roots of D. anomala as a medicine for *stomach complaints, while the Mwera in coastal Tanzania use the roots of D. sessiliflora for similar complaints (Kokwaro 1976). digestion – the process of breaking down food into their simple components that can be absorbed.; a large number of medicinal plants are *tonic herbs used to aid digestion, e.g. Agrimonia eupatoria (*agrimony) & pilosa (*Chinese agrimony or *xian he cao, Rosaceae), Allium ursinum (*ramsons, Alliaceae), *Ananas comosus (*pineapple, Bromeliaceae), Angelica archangelica (*angelica, Apiaceae), Artemisia abrotanum (*southernwood) & absinthum (*absinthe plant or *wormwood, Asteraceae), *Bauhinia variegata (*purple orchid tree or *purple camel’s foot, Fabaceae), Bupleurum chinense (*bupleurum or *hare’s ear root, Apiaceae), Carum carvi (*caraway, Apiaceae), *Centella asiatica (*Indian pennywort or *shan zhu yu, Apiaceae), Cichorium intybus (*chicory, Asteraceae), Dioscorea opposita (*Chinese yam or *shan yao, Dioscoreaceae), *Cyperus esculentus (*chufa, *yellow nut sedge) & longus (*galangale, Cyperaceae), Dictamnus albus (*burning bush, Rutaceae), Galipea officinalis (*angostura, Rutaceae), Gentiana lutea (*yellow gentian) & purpurea (*purple gentian, Gentianaceae), Iberis amara (*wild candytuft, Brassicaceae), Inula helenium (*elecampane, Asteraceae), Juglans cinerea (*butternut) & nigra (*black walnut, Juglandaceae), Marrubium vulgare (*white horehound, Lamiaceae), Marsdenia condurango (*condurango, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), Melissa officinalis (*balm, *bee balm or *lemon balm, Lamiaceae), *Morella (*Myrica) salicifolia (Myricaceae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae) and Verbena hastata (*blue vervain, Verbenaceae); see also *indigestion. digitalin – a secondary metabolic substance (*terpenoid), which is a cardiac poison similar to oleandrin; digitalin occurs in *red foxglove, Digitalis purpurea (Scrophulariaceae); it is used as a medicine to stimulate heart function. Digitaria (Poaceae) – a genus of about 230 grass species widely distributed in tropical and warm countries (18 species in Uganda); in West Uganda the leaves of D. scalarum are used to treat *stomach-ache and the underground parts taken for *snakebite (Kakudidi et al. 2000). digitoxine – a toxic substance which stimulates heart function and urination (*diuretic); digitoxin is extracted from red *foxglove, Digitalis purpurea (Scrophulariaceae); see also *digoxine. dill – Anethum graveolens (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is an aromatic annual Eurasian herb widely cultivated as a culinary herb; the leaves are used to flavour foods and the fruits are used in currypowder and as a spice in food; in the Middle Ages it was used as a charm against witchcraft; dill has always been considered a remedy for the *stomach, relieving *wind, *colic pains, *intestinal *spasms and calming the *digestion; dill is believed to increase *milk production, and when taken regularly by nursing mothers, help to prevent *colic in their babies; chewing the fruits improves bad breath. 132 Dilleniaceae – a family of 12 genera and about 300 species of trees, shrubs and climbers (rarely herbs) native to all tropical regions (1 genus and 5 species in East Africa, 1 genus and 1 species in Uganda); a few species of the genus Tetracera are used as medicines. Diodia (Rubiaceae) – a genus of about 30 species widely distributed in tropical regions, but most species in the Americas; in Uganda the leaf of D. sarmentosa (often wrongly identified as D. scandens) is used to treat *lymphogranuloma venerum, fresh *wounds and skin lacerations (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania the leaf juice of D. sarmentosa is taken as an *expectorant and a root decoction or the leaf juice for *abscesses and to increase *milk production for nursing mothers; in Congo a leaf *decoction is taken for *stomach-ache and *tuberculosis; in Burundi the fresh leaf sap is used as a compress for *rheumatism and drunk for the treatment of *insanity (Baerts & Lehmann 1989); in the Ivory Coast the leaves are used for *amenorrhoea and *jaundice, and the sap for decaying teeth, *headache, *smallpox and *stomatitis; in Benin a decoction of the plant is taken for arterial *hypertension, female *infertility and *vomiting; in Nigeria a leaf extract is used to treat *abdominal pain, *colic, *dysentery, *gastritis, *gastrointestinal disorders, *snakebite and *ulcers (Neuwinger 1996). dioscin – a steroidal saponin, which was the base (through *diosgenin) for the synthesis of *progesterone (one of the female sex hormones) and the first *contraceptive pill as well as *corticosteroid hormones such as *cortisone; dioscin has *anti-inflammatory action and has been used to relieve pain especially in connection with *arthritis, *rheumatism, labour and painful *menstrual periods; it also relieves *cramps, muscle tension and *colic; dioscin was first discovered in *wild yam, Dioscorea villosa (the yam family, Dioscoreaceae); see *yam. Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae) – a genus of about 600 species of climbing herbs native to all tropical regions (in Uganda 13 species); many species are cultivated for their edible tubers or bulbils; D. villosa, an American species, contains *dioscin, a steroidal *saponin, which was the base (through *diosgenin) for the synthesis of *progesterone (one of the female sex hormones) and the first *contraceptive pill as well as *corticosteroid hormones such as *cortisone; dioscin has *anti-inflammatory action and has been used to relieve pain especially in connection with *arthritis, *rheumatism, labour and painful *menstrual periods; it also relieves *cramps, muscle tension and *colic (Chevallier 2001); in parts of East African the roots of D. asteriscus are considered a powerful medicine, while the leaves are used to treat sore eyes (Kokwaro 1976); in traditional medicine D. bulbifera is mainly used for external application for *skin diseases, *boils and *ulcers as well as *lice and *rheumatism, but in Congo the plant juice is occasionally drunk as a medication for *snakebite and suppurating eye *inflammations, and in the Ivory Coast three drops of leaf juice a day is inserted into the eyes to keep awake (Neuwinger 1996); in Uganda and Tanzania the tuber of D. dumetorum is used to expel *intestinal worms (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Tanzania this medicine is used to cure *bilharzia (Kokwaro 1976), ease pain and *suppurating and hardened *abscesses; in the Sudan root tubers are used to treat *rheumatoid *arthritis, and in Burundi a *wound salve is made from tuber ash; in Congo an extract from the tuber is taken for *pneumonia and *ulcers, and children inhale the smoke of burnt leaves for *respiratory disorders (Disengomoka & Delaveau 1983); in the Ivory Coast the tuber is used for *jaundice and in Nigeria for diabetes mellitus; in Tanzania the tuberous roots of D. quartiniana are used to treat *fever and the *plague (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the leaf juice of D. sansibarensis is used to treat *epilepsy; the tubers of D. smilacifolia are considered as extremely toxic, but in Cameroun a little is taken in the mouth to relieve *colic; in West Africa the leaves have been used to treat *epilepsy and *headaches, and a twig decoction drunk for dizzi spells and *hernia; see *yam. Dioscoreaceae – a family of 5-8 genera and about about 630 species of twining herbs or lianes with annual or perennial stems arising from tubers, widespread in all tropical regions, but with highest diversity in tropical Asia (19 species in East Africa, 13 species in Uganda); species of the genus *Dioscorea are important medicinal plants. 133 Dioscoreophyllum (Menispermaceae) – a genus of 10 species of herbaceous or woody climbers native to Africa (1 species in East Africa); D. cumminsii from West Africa is a source of a sweetener, a protein 800-1500 times as sweet as sucrose; In Gabon and Nigeria the grated leaves, which cause a stinging sensation, are applied to *wounds, and the viscous juice of the bark is used as a *poultice for *abscesses and to facilitate the removal of foreign bodies; twig extract is used to treat *venereal diseases; in Tanzania leaf juice of D. volkensii is drunk to treat *convulsions (Haerdi 1964). Dioscorides (AD 40-90) – Greek-born Roman army surgeon, who wrote the classical world’s most comprehensive book on herbal medicine, ”De Materia Medica”, based on observations of nearly 600 plants. diosgenin – a breakdown product of *dioscin, a steroidal *saponin; diosgenin was the base for the synthesis of *progesterone (one of the female sex hormones) and the first *contraceptive pill as well as *corticosteroid hormones such as *cortisone; diosgenin was first discovered from *wild yam, Dioscorea villosa (the yam family, Dioscoreaceae). Diospyros (Ebenaceae) – a genus of about 475 species of trees and shrubs widely distributed in all tropical and warm regions (6 species in Uganda); some species have edible fruits cultivated for export, e.g. D. kaki (Japanese persimmon, *kaki); many species are used as medicinal herbs, especially as chewing sticks and against *leprosy, but medication must be carried out with care as most parts of the plants are very *toxic; in Mali the *decoction of leaves of D. abyssinica is used against *malaria and in *wound healing, and the roots against *dysentery (Maiga et al. 2006); in Tanzania the roots of D. fischeri are used in the treatment of *chest complaints, *gonorrhoea and chewed for dry tongue during high *fever (Kokwaro 1976); in Zimbabwe the bark of D. kirkii is used for *abdominal pain and as an *aphrodisiac; in East Africa the fresh roots of D. loureiriana (D. usambarensis & Royena macrocalyx) are used to treat *snakebites (Kokwaro 1976, Weiss 1979); in Zimbabwe the roots of D. lycioides are used for body pains, *epilepsy, heart pain, *infertility in women, painful *menstruation, *pneumonia, sore throat and as an *antidote to *snakebite (Gelfand et al. 1985); in East Africa the roots of D. mespiliformis mixed with those of Asparagus are used as part of a medicine against *wizards (Kokwaro 1976); in Malawi D. zombensis is used for *schistosomiasis (Gafner et al. 1987). diospyros – species of the genus Diospyros (Ebenaceae), e.g. giant diospyros (D. abyssinica); alternative name for genus: *ebony; see also *persimmons. diphtheria – acute infectious disease with inflammation of a mucous membrane, especially of throat, and exudation forming a false membrane; plants used to alleviate this condition include Allium cepa (*onion, Alliaceae), *Indigofera arrecta (Fabaceae), *Senna occidentalis (Fabaceae), *Sida schimperiana (Malvaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae) and *Sonchus schweinfurthii (Asteraceae). Diplocyclos (Cucurbitaceae) – a genus of 4-5 species of perennial climbers mostly confined to tropical Africa (4 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in Uganda the leaves of D. palmatus are used in general *antenatal care (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Diplolophium (Apiaceae) – a small genus of four species of herbs or shrubs native to tropical Africa (in East Africa 2 species, 1 species in Uganda); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe rub leaf ash of D. africanum into scarification cuts to stop persons from having bad dreams and hallucinations (Masinde 1996). Diplorhynchus (Apocynaceae) – a genus of a single species (shrub or tree) native to tropical and South Africa (in East Africa 1 species, none in Uganda); in Tanzania a decoction of the the root of D. condylocarpon is drunk for *dysentery, *gonorrhoea and *testicle inflammation; it is also a remedy for *sore eyes and *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976). disinfectant – (an agent or plant) that destroys harmful *germs, thus cleanses from infection; many plants have disinfectant properties, e.g. *Agave sisalana (*century plant, Agavaceae), *Aloë secundiflora (Aloëaceae), Calluna vulgaris (*heather or *ling, Ericaceae), Eucalyptus smithii 134 (*eucalyptus, Myrtaceae), *Ocimum gratissimum (Lamiaceae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae) and Tropaeolum majus (*common nasturtium or *nasturtium, Tropaeolaceae). dislocation – limb out of joint; displacement of an organ or any part. dismenorrhoea – see *dysmenorrhoea (difficult and painful *menstruation) and *menstruation. Dissotis (Melastomataceae) – a genus of about 100 species of herbs and shrubs in tropical and South Africa (10 species in Uganda); in West Uganda the leaves of D. canescens are used to treat *febrile convulsions (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe use a leaf infusion of D. canescens for *colds and *coughs (Masinde 1996); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda this herb is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in Kenya the Luo use the root of D. senegambiensis as a *purgative for the treatment of *dysentery and *stomach-ache, while the leaves are used to treat *epilepsy and *ringworm; in coastal Kenya the Digo use the leaves or roots of D. rotundifolia as a *diuretic and to treat *bilharzia, *chest problems, *constipation, *ear-ache and to expel *hookworms (Kokwaro 1976), while in coastal East Africa the leaves are chewed to relieve coughing (Weiss 1979); in West Uganda the leaves of D. senegambiensis are used to treat *febrile convulsions (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); the Kipkorrwe use the leaves of D. speciosa as a *cough remedy (Kokwaro 1976). distoma – a group of trematode *worms. distomatosis – infection with *distoma, a group of trematode *worms. dittany – Dictamnus albus (the orange family, Rutaceae) is a Mediterranean-Asian strongly aromatic bushy herb widely grown in gardens; in past European folk medicine it was used as an *antidote to *poison, *pestilence, and the bites of all poisonous animals, but is not much used today; dittany strongly stimulates the muscles of the *uterus, starting *menstruation and can cause *abortion; it relaxes the gut and acts as a mild *tonic for the *stomach; it has also been used as a treatment for nervous conditions; alternative name: *burning bush. diuretic – which stimulates urine flow; a medium increasing the flow of urine, e.g. Abutilon indicum (*Indian mallow, Malvaceae), *Acacia drepanolobium (Fabaceae), *Acalypha neptunica (Euphorbiaceae), *Aeollanthus zanzibaricus (Lamiaceae), *Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (Styracaceae), *Agathosma betulina (Rutaceae), Ajuga chamaepitys (*ground-pine, *Lamiaceae), Allium cepa (*onion, Alliaceae), Anagallis arvensis (*common pimpernel or *pimpernel, Primulaceae), *Ananas comosus (*pineapple, Bromeliaceae), *Anchomanes difformis (Araceae), *Annona senegalensis (*wild custard apple, Annonaceae), Anthriscus cerefolium (*chervil, Apiaceae), Aphanes arvensis (*parsley piert, Rosaceae), Apium graveolus (*celery, Apiaceae), Arctium lappa (*burdock, Asteraceae), Arenaria serpyllifolia (*sandwort, Caryophyllaceae), Artemisia capillaris (*liver wormwood, Asteraceae), Asparagus officinalis (*asparagus, Asparagaceae), Astragalus membranaceus (*Chinese milk-vetch, Fabaceae), Bambusa brevifolia (*black bamboo, Poaceae), Betula pendula (*silver birch, Betulaceae), Borago officinalis (*borage, Boraginaceae), *Borassus aethiopum (Arecaceae), *Boswellia neglecta (Burseraceae), Bidens tripartita (*bur marigold, Asteraceae), *Calvoa orientalis (Melastomataceae), *Catunaregam nilotica (Rubiaceae), Cedrus spp. (*cedar, Pinaceae), Cheiranthus cheiri (*wall flower, Brassicaceae), Chenopodium bonus-henricus (*Good-King-Henry, Chenopodiaceae), Chimaphila umbellata (*pipsissewa, Ericaceae), Clematis vitalba (*old man’s beard, Ranunculaceae), Cochlearia officinalis (*scurvy grass, Brassicaceae), *Coffea arabica (*coffee, Rubiaceae), Collinsonia canadensis (*stone root, Lamiaceae), Convallaria majalis (*lily-of-thevalley, Convallariaceae), Copaifera officinalis (*copaiba, Fabaceae), Crithmum maritimum (*rock samphire, Apiaceae), Cucurbita pepo (*pumpkin, Cucurbitaceae), Cyperus longus (*galingale, Cyperaceae), Cytisus scoparius (*broom, Fabaceae), Daucus carota (*carrot, Apiaceae), Dianthus superbus (*fringed pink, Caryophyllaceae), Digitalis purpurea (*common foxglove, Scrophulariaceae), Dipsacus fullonum (*wild teasel, Dipsacaceae), *Dissotis rotundifolius (Melastomataceae), Echium vulgare (*viper’s bugloss, Boraginaceae), Elymus repens (*couch grass, Poaceae), *Endostemon tereticaulis (Lamiaceae), Ephedra spp. (*desert 135 tea, Ephedraceae), Eryngium maritimum (*sea-holly, Apiaceae), Euonymus atropurpureus (*wahoo bark, Celasteraceae), Ficus indica (*Indian fig, Moraceae), *Flacourtia indica (Flacourtiaceae), Foeniculum vulgare (*fennel, Apiaceae), Fraxinus excelsior (*ash, Oleaceae), Fumaria officinalis (*common fumitory, Fumariaceae or Papaveraceae), Galium aparine (*catchweed or *cleavers, Rubiaceae) & odoratum (*sweet woodruff) & verum (*Lady’s bedstraw), Guaiacum officinale & sanctum (*lignum vitae, Zygophyllaceae), Hydrangea arborescens (*wild hydrangea, Hydrangeaceae), Ilex paraguensis (*maté, Aquifoliaceae), Illicium verum (*Chinese or *star anise, Illiciaceae), Iris versicolor (*blue flag, Iridaceae), *Juniperus communis (*juniper, Cupressaceae), Larix decidua (*larch, Pinaceae), Lepidium virginicum (*Virginia peppergrass), Levisticum officinale (*lovage, Cyperaceae), *Lonchocarpus bussei (Fabaceae), Lysimachia christinae (*Chinese loosestrife, Primulaceae), Lycopodium clavatum (*clubmoss, Lycopodiaceae), *Maclura africana (Moraceae), Montia perfoliata (*miner’s lettuce, Portulacaceae), Nymphaea nouchali (*blue waterlily, Nymphaeaceae), Ocimum basilicum (*basil, Lamiaceae), *Olea europaea (*olive, Oleaceae), Ononis spinosa (*spiny restharrow, Fabaceae), *Osteospermum vaillantii (Asteraceae), Parietaria officinalis (*pellitory of the wall, Urticaceae), Petroselinum crispum (*parsley, Apiaceae), *Phaseolus vulgaris (*French beans, Fabaceae), *Phyllanthus amarus (*phyllanthus, Phyllanthaceae), Piper methysticum (*kava-kava, Piperaceae), Plantago asiatica (*Asian plantain, Plantaginaceae) & P. major (*broad-leaved plantain), Polygonum aviculare (*knotgrass, Polygonaceae), *Portulaca oleracea (*common purslane, *pigweed or *purslane, Portulacaceae), Primula veris (*cowslip or *primavera, Primulaceae), *Prunus avium (*cherry or *sweet cherry, Rosaceae), Rhus aromatica (*sweet sumach) & glabra (*smooth sumach, Anacardiaceae), Ribes nigrum (*black currants, Grossulariaceae), Rosa canina (*dog rose, Rosaceae), Rubia tinctoria (*madder, Rubiaceae), Rumex acetosa (*sorrel, Polygonaceae) & acetosella (*sheep’s sorrel, Polygonaceae), Schinus molle (*American mastic tree, Californian pepper tree or *pepper tree, Anacardiaceae), Scrophularia aquatica (*water figwort) & marilandica (*American figwort, Scrophulariaceae) & nodosa (*figwort), Solanum dulcamara (*bittersweet, Solanaceae) & S. melongena (*aubergine), Strophanthus komba (*strophanthus, Apocynaceae), Taraxacum officinale (*dandelion, Asteraceae), Theobroma cacao (*cacao or *cocoa, Sterculiaceae), *Trichilia emetica (Meliaceae), *Trimeria grandiflora (Flacourtiaceae), *Urera rigida (Urticaceae), Urginea maritima (*sea onion, Hyacinthaceae), *Uvaria leptocladon (Annonaceae), *Vernonia amygdalina (Asteraceae), Widdringtonia cupressoides (*African cypress, Cupressaceae), the hairs wrapped around the cob in *maize, Zea mays (Poaceae), *Zehneria scabra (Cucurbitaceae) and *Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae). dizziness – a condition of feeling giddy or unsteady; plants used to improve this condition include *Albizia adianthifolia (Fabaceae), *Lycium chinense (*Chinese matrimony-vine or *Chinese wolfberry, Solanaceae), *Clerodendrum myricoides or *Rotheca myricoides (Verbenaceae), *Dendranthema hybrids (*florist’s chrysanthemum), *Hyptis pectinata (Lamiaceae), *Ipomoea cairica (Convolvulaceae), *Landolphia owariensis (Apocynaceae), *Morus alba (*white mulberry, Moraceae), Pueraria lobata (*ge gen or *kudzu, Fabaceae), *Rauvolfia vomitoria (Apocynaceae), *Sesamum indicum (*sesame or *simsim, Pedaliaceae), *Sida rhombifolia (Malvaceae), *Vernonia adoënsis (Asteraceae) and *Zanthoxylum chalybaeum (Rutaceae). Dobera (Salvadoraceae) – a genus with only 2 species of shrubs or small evergreen trees both native to East Africa (1 species in Uganda); in coastal East Africa the young twigs of D. glabra are used as toothbrushes, and together with those of Salvadora persica are the most popular (Weiss 1979). dock – species of the genus Rumex in the knotgrass family (Polygonaceae), e.g. *broad-leaved dock (R. obtusifolius) *curled dock (R. crispus), fiddle dock (R. pulcher), golden dock (R. maritimus), great water-dock (R. hydrolapathum), marsh dock (R. palustris), red-veined dock (R. sangui- 136 neus), shore dock (R. rupestris) and sharp dock (R. conglomeratus); for medicinal use see *curled dock.. dock family – the knotgrass family, Polygonaceae, is a large family with 30 genera and about 750 species widely distributed in all continents; alternative name: * sorrel family. Doctrine of Signature – the theory that the appearance of a plant reveals its medicinal properties, e.g. a plant with red root, bark or fruit is good for the blood. dodder – species of the genus Cuscuta (the bindweed family, Convolvulaceae), e.g. (common) dodder (C. epithymum) and large dodder (C. europaeum); they are leafless climbing parasitic herbs without chlorophyll; dodder has a mildly *laxative effect and is often taken for *urinary problems; it is traditionally used to *purge *black bile, and is used for *jaundice and problems affecting the *liver and *gallbladder; alternative names: *hellweed and *devils guts. Dodonaea (Sapindaceae) – a genus of about 50 species of shrubs or small evergreen trees native to Australia with 1 species reaching tropical Africa and 1 species native to Madagascar; in East Africa the roots of D. viscosa (including D. angustifolia) are boiled in water and the *decoction given to women to stimulate *milk production after childbirth, and also given to cows to increase milk production, while the leaves are used to stop *diarrhoea and used as a *styptic (Kokwaro 1976). dogbane family – the periwinkle family – Apocynaceae is a large family with about 180 genera and 1500 species widely distributed in all hot and warm continents; if the family Asclepiadaceae is included the family will consist of about 430 genera and 3400 species; alternative name: *periwinkle family. dog rose – Rosa canina (the rose family, Rosaceae) is an Eurasian shrub or scrambler with curved thorns and small nutlets produced inside *hips; dog rose hips contain high amounts of *vitamin C and made into a drink or a soup is a very useful food for babies and young children; the tannin contents of rose hips makes them a gentle remedy for *diarrhoea; the hips are also mildly *diuretic and they reduce thirst and alleviate *gastric inflammation; many related species of rose hips are used similarly; see also *rose (Rosa gallica). Dolichos (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of about 60 species of herbs and shrubs widespread in tropical and warm countries of the Old World (18-20 species in East Africa, 5 species in Uganda); in southern Tanzania the Yao use the roots of D. kilimandscharicus in native beer to treat *dysentery, while in Kenya the Marakwet drink a root decoction of D. sericeus to treat *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976). Dombeya (Sterculiaceae) – a genus with perhaps 50 species of shrubs and trees confined to Africa, Arabia, Madagascar and the Mascarenes with 29 species in mainland Africa (10 species in East Africa, 6 in Uganda); in Tanzania the leaves and roots of D. acutangula are used in *witchcraft, while in Uganda the roots of D. burgessiae are used for *stomach pains and the bark either chewed or a *decoction drunk as an *aphrodisiac; in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda D. kilimandscharica is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in East Africa the fresh roots of D. kirkii are boiled and the decoction drunk to treat *yaws and *abdominal pains, while root pieces of D. quinqueseta are boiled and the decoction drunk for *stomach-ache; in East Africa boiled roots of D. rotundifolia are used to treat *rheumatism and the juice of these roots given to children suffereing from *diarrhoea (Kokwaro 1976); a decoction of boiled roots of D. taylorii (= D. praetermissa) is drunk to expel *hookworms; in East Africa a decoction of the bark of D. torrida (= D. goetzenii) is drunk to treat *indigestion especially after a large meal of meat; in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda D. torrida is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996). dombeya – species of the genus Dombeya (Sterculiaceae), e.g. forest dombeya (D. goetzenii) and white dombeya (D. rotundifolia). dooryard plantain – Plantago major (Plantaginaceae); for medicinal uses see under *common plantain. 137 dopamine – a substance promoting communication between cells in the brain; it is formed in the black substance of the brain, and is lacking in patients with *Parkinson’s disease; dopamine is found in ripe yellow *banana, *Musa paradisiaca. subsp. sapientum (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Dorstenia (Moraceae) – a genus of about 105 species of herbs, sometimes succulent (very juicy) or shrubby widespread in tropical regions (about 60 species in Africa, 24 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Shambaa use the latex of D. holstii for the treatment of *sore eyes, and the roots of D. zanzibarica as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976). Dovyalis (Flacourtiaceae or Salicaceae) – a genus of about 15 species of shrubs or trees mostly confined to tropical Africa (6 species in East Africa and 4 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of D. abyssinica are pounded, soaked in water and the infusion drunk for *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the roots of D. macrocalyx to accelerate *childbirth when a woman is having a difficult *pregnancy (Heine & König 1988). Dregea (Apocynaceae - Asclepiadoideae) – a genus with about 15 species of perennial climbing herbs or woody lianes native to the Old World tropics and subtropics; in Tanzania the Shambaa chew the fresh roots of D. abyssinica for *snakebite treatment and as an *aphrodisiac, while an infusion of the bark is given to children as a remedy for *diarrhoea; the Shambaa also chew the roots of D. rubicunda as an *aphrodisiac and drink a boiled root infusion of it for *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976). Dracaena (Agavaceae or Dracaenaceae) – a genus of about 60 species of shrubs and trees in the old world tropics; in North Uganda a decoction from the roots of D. afromontana is drunk in cases of *chest pain or pounded roots are rubbed in fresh cuts in the chest (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the Bwamba use D. afromontana to stimulate sexual potency in men (Kakudidi et al. 1996); in East Africa the roots of D. deremensis are used for the treatment of *malaria (in infants) and *rheumatism, and to quicken birth once labour has started (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of D. fragrans are used to treat *osteomyelitis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), while in Tanzania the leaves and roots of D. fragrans are used to treat *stomach pains and to alleviate pains during *childbirth, while the boiled roots of D. laxissima are boiled and the liquid drunk to cure *venereal diseases (Kokwaro 1976); in Central Uganda the Baganda use boiled bark of D. steudneri in water to bathe a newborn baby with skin *rash (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in East Uganda the ash from leaves is licked to treat *cough (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves of this species are used to treat *whooping cough (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), the sap is used to remove ear wax, while the stem is taken to increase *milk production (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Rakai district in Uganda the stem bark is boiled in water and given orally to chickens to treat *NCD (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007); in coastal East Africa a decoction of the roots of D. usambarensis is taken as a remedy for *gonorrhoea, *stomach-ache and *chest-pain, and is also used to protect bewitched people and animals. dracaena – species of the genus *Dracaena (Agavaceae), e.g. Steudner’s dracaena (D. steudneri). Dracaenaceae – a family often included in *Agavaceae; some genera include species with important medicinal value, e.g. *Dracaena and *Sansevieria. drepanocytosis – ???*skin disease; a few plants have been used to treat this disease, e.g. *Khaya senegalensis (Meliaceae) in combination with *Securidaca longepedunculata (Polygalaceae). dermatosis – A skin disease commonly accompanied by inflammation; plants used to treat dermatosis include *Plectranthus amboinicus (Lamiaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae); see also *eczema and *psoriasis. Drimia (Hyacinthaceae) – a genus of about 115 species of herbs with bulbs native to Africa and from the Mediterranean to India (5 species in Uganda); in South Africa the bulb of D. sanguinea 138 is used to treat *circulation problems, *rheumatism and as an *abortifacient; in Zimbabwe the same species is used to treat *pneumonia and *paralysis. dropsy – *oedema; an excessive accumulation of clear watery fluid effecting the whole body or a large part of it; a leaking of the watery part of the blood into any of the tissues or cavities of the body. drumstick tree – Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae); alternative name: *horseradish tree; for medicinal use see *Moringa. Drymaria (Caryophyllaceae) – a genus of about 50 species of annual or perennial herbs in most tropical and warm regions, but with high diversity in the Americas only (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Uganda the leaves of D. cordata are used to treat *corneal opacity (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania the leaves are dried, powdered and smoked like a cigarette to treat *chest complaints and *headache (Koyama 1976). Dryopteris (Dryopteridaceae) – a genus of about 150 species of ferns widely distributed in both tropical and temperate regions of both hemispheres; in Tanzania the roots of D. aequalis are used for the treatment of *intestinal worms, especially the *tapeworm; the roots are also taken to treat *ear infections and *malaria (Kokwaro 1976). Duke of Argyll’s tea-plant – Lycium halimifolium (the potato family, Solanaceae); alternative names: *boxthorn, *matrimony-vine and *wolfberry; see also *Chinese matrimony-vine (Lycium chinense) and *tea-plant. duodenum – the first part of the *intestine or small *bowel. durian – Durio zibethinus (Bombacaceae) an Asian tree with edible fruits; . Dutchman’s pipe – species of the genus *Aristolochia (the birthwort family, Aristolochiaceae), e.g. the widely cultivated species A. durior (in temperate countries), A. labiata and A. elegans (both in tropical countries); in East Uganda the leaves of A. elegans are used to treat migraine and *insanity, the stem *hernia and the root *snakebite (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); alternative name: pipe vine; see also *birthwort and *Virginia snakeroot. Dyschoriste (Acanthaceae) – a genus of about 65 species of herbs and shrubs widespread in tropical and warm regions; in Tanzania the root of D. hildebrandtii is used in the treatment of *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of D. radicans are used to treat *psychotic excitement; (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in West Uganda the leaves of D. radicans are squeezeded and eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005). dysentery – a painful *diarrhoea; a disease marked by *inflammation of the *intestines and frequent watery stools, often with blood, *mucus and pain; numerous plants are used to relieve this condition, e.g. *Abrus precatorius (*coral pea, Fabaceae), *Acacia catechu (*black catechu or *cutch, Fabaceae), *A. farnesiana (*opopanax or *sweet acacia), *A. hockii (*white thorn acacia), *Acalypha villicaulis (Euphorbiaceae), Aegle marmelos (*bael fruit, *Bengal quince or *golden apple, Rutaceae), *Aframomum angustifolium (Zingiberaceae), *Agave spp. (*century plant, Agavaceae), Ailanthus altissima (*tree of heaven, Simaroubaceae), *Ajuga remota (Lamiaceae), *Amaranthus hypochondrius (*Indian amaranth, Amaranthaceae), *Annona senegalensis & squamosa (*custard apple, Annonaceae), Arbutus unedo (*strawberry tree, Ericaceae), Asclepias tuberosa (*pleurisy root, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Bauhinia variegata (purple *camel’s foot, Fabaceae), *Berkheya spekeana (Asteraceae), *Bersama abyssinica (Melianthaceae), Betula utilis (*Himalayan silverbirch, Betulaceae), Bistorta major (*bistort, Polygonaceae), *Bixa orellata (*annatto, Bixaceae), *Brucea antidysenterica (Simaroubaceae), Butea monosperma (*Bengal kino, Fabaceae), *Canarium schweinfurthii (*African elemi, Burseraceae), Capsella bursa-pastoris (*shephard’s purse, Brassicaceae), *Cardiospermum grandiflorum (Sapindaceae), Carica papaya (*melon tree or *pawpaw, Caricaceae), Ceanothus americanus (*New Jersey tea, Rhamnaceae), Celtis australis (*southern nettle tree, Celtidiaceae), *Cissampelos mucronata (Menispermaceae), *Combretum collinum & molle & zeyheri (Combretaceae), *Commiphora edulis (Burseraceae), *Conyza (Erigeron) 139 canadensis (*Canadian fleabane, Asteraceae), Coptis chinensis (*Chinese goldthread, Ranunculaceae), *Desmodium repandum (Fabaceae), *Diodia sarmentosa (Rubiaceae), *Diospyros abyssinica (Ebenaceae), *Dolichos kilimandscharica (Fabaceae), Dissotis senegambiensis (Melastomataceae), *Erythrina abyssinica (Fabaceae), Ficus benghalensis (*banyan tree) & natalensis (*bark cloth tree) & religiosa (*bo-tree or *peepal, Moraceae), Fragaria vesca var. vesca (*wild strawberry) & var. semperflorens (*alpine strawberry, Rosaceae), *Gladiolus psittacinus (*corn flag, Iridaceae), *Grewia micrantha (Tiliaceae), *Harungana madagascariensis (Clusiaceae or Hypericaceae), *Hibiscus fuscus & physaloides (Malvaceae), *Hoslundia opposita (Lamiaceae), *Hydnora abyssinica (Hydnoraceae), *Indigofera arrecta (Fabaceae), *Ipomoea batatas (*sweet potato, Convolvulaceae), Jateorhiza palmata (*calumba, Menispermaceae), Jatropha curcas (*physic nut & *purging nut, Euphorbiaceae), Juglans cinerea (*butternut) & nigra (*black walnut tree, Juglandaceae), *Kigelia pinnata (*sausage tree, Bignoniaceae), Krameria triandra (*rhatany, Krameriaceae), *Leonotis ocymifolia (Lamiaceae), Limonia acidissima (*elephant apple or *wood apple, Rutaceae), Liriosma ovata (*muira puama, Oleaceae), Lythrum salicaria (*purple loosestrife, Lythraceae), Lysimachia vulgaris (*yellow loosestrife, Primulaceae), Magnolia officinalis (*magnolia or *tree magnolia, Magnoliaceae), *Mangifera indica (*mango, Anacardiacaeae), *Manihot utilissima (*cassava, Euphorbiaceae), Mentha haplocalyx (*corn mint, Lamiaceae), *Monsonia ovata (Geraniaceae), Murraya koenigii (*curry-leaf tree, Rutaceae), *Nymphaea alba (*white water lily) & lotus (*white lotus) & odorata (*white pond lily), *Ozoroa obovata (Anacardiaceae), Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae), *Pelargonium quinquelobatum (Geraniaceae), *Pentas bussei (Rubiaceae), Picrasma excelsa (*quassia, Simaroubaceae), Plantago major (*broad-leaved plantain), & indica & psyllium (*flea seeds, Plantaginaceae), *Plumbago zeylanica (*Ceylon leadwort, Plumbaginaceae), Polygonum aviculare (*knotgrass, Polygonaceae), *Portulaca oleracea (*common purslane, *pigweed or *purslane, Portulacaceae), Potentilla erecta (*tormentil, Rosaceae), *Premna angolensis & chrysoclada (Verbenaceae), Prunus mume (*Japanese apricot, Rosaceae), *Pseuderanthemum hildebrandtii (Acanthaceae), *Psidium guajava (*guava, Myrtaceae), *Psychotria lauracea (Rubiaceae), Pueraria lobata (*ge gen, Fabaceae), Pulsatilla chinensis (*Chinese anemone, Ranunculaceae), *Rauvolfia vomitoria (Apocynaceae), *Rhus aromatica (*sweet sumach) & glabra (*smooth sumach) & natalensis (Anacardiaceae), Sanicula europaea (*sanicle, Apiaceae), *Sclerocarya birrea (Anacardiaceae), Scutellaria baicalense (*Baical skullcap) & lateriflora (*mad dog or *Virginia skullcap, Lamiaceae), *Senna sieberiana (Fabaceae), *Solanecio mannii (Asteraceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae), *Steganotaenia araliacea (Apiaceae), *Tamarindus indica (*tamarind, Fabaceae), *Terminalia myrobalan (*Chebulic myrobalan, Combretaceae), *Uvaria acuminata & leptocladon (Annonaceae), *Zea mays (*maize-meal, Poaceae), *Zingiber officinalis (*ginger, Zingiberaceae) and *Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae). dysmenorrhoea – difficult and painful *menstruation; plants used to alleviate this condition include *Aerva lanata (Amaranthaceae), *Afzelia africana (Sapindaceae), *Aloë spp. (Aloëaceae), *Cassia occidentalis (Fabaceae), *Chenopodium opulifolium (Chenopodiaceae), *Cyphostemma adenocaule (Vitaceae), Daucus carota (*carrots, Apiaceae), *Erythrina abyssinica (Fabaceae), *Eucalyptus citriodora & globulus & grandis (Myrtaceae), *Euclea racemosa (Ebenaceae), *Ficus natalensis (Moraceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllanthaceae or Euphorbiaceae), Gladiolus spp. (*corn flag, Iridaceae), *Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae), *Helichrysum globosum (Asteraceae), *Indigofera arrecta (Fabaceae), *Ipomoea batatas (*sweet potato, Convolvulaceae), *Lonchocarpus laxiflorus (Fabaceae), *Manihot esculenta (*cassava, Euphorbiaceae), *Markhamia lutea (Bignoniaceae), *Pavonia patens (Malvaceae), *Peponium vogelii (Cucurbitaceae), *Pseudarthria hookeri (Fabaceae), *Rothmannia whitfieldii (Rubiaceae), *Vernonia amygdalina & myriantha (Asteraceae) and Zingiber officinale (*ginger, Zingiberaceae); see also Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006 and *menstruation. 140 dyspepsia – *indigestion; impaired *digestion; difficult and painful digestion; several plants are used to relieve this condition, e.g. Alpinia officinarum (*galangal, Zingiberaceae), unripe *pineapple, *Ananas comosus (Bromeliaceae), *Hymenocardia acida (Euphorbiaceae), Inula helenium (*elecampane, Asteraceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae) and *Tetradenia riparia (Lamiaceae); for other herbs used see *indigestion. dysphagia – difficulty in swallowing. dyspnoea – difficult breathing; feeling of discomfort or distress associated with difficult breathing. dystoc(h)ia – difficult birth; abnormal and uncoordinated contraction of the womb during labour; in Benin the leaf juice of Dioscorea bulbifera is sometimes given orally to ease this condition. dysuric – relating to or suffering from difficult or painful *urination; a root extract of Crotalaria laburnifolia (Fabaceae) has been used to alleviate this ailment; other plants used are *Euadenia trifoliolata (Capparidaceae), Gardenia jasminoides (*Chinese gardenia, Rubiaceae) and *Glyphaea brevis (Tiliaceae); see also *prostate (gland). dwarf cherry – Prunus cerasus (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a deciduous shrub native to Europe and Asia; it has slightly sour fruits that are either eaten raw or used in conservatives; the bark is *astringent and may be used as a treatment for chronic dry and irritable *coughs; it is also used to treat *colds, *indigestion and *bowel problems; the bark contains a *cyanogenic glycoside (*prunastin) that yields the very toxic *prussic acid or *hydrocyanic acid (HCN); prunastin reduces the cough reflex. E- – without; which lacks. eaglewood – wood from the genus Aquilaria (Thymelaeaceae) from China to Malaysia; it has a hard, dense, resiniferous *heartwood, yielding a valueable oil for medical use and incense; alternative name: *aloëswood. ear (of corn) – the infructescence (cob) of *maize (*Zea mays, Poaceae). earthnut – *Arachis hypogaea (*Fabaceae, Faboideae) from South America is widely cultivated for food in all tropical regions; in western Uganda the seeds of A. hypogaea are used as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); alternative names: *groundnut and *peanut. East African prickly ash – *Zanthoxylum chalybeum (the orange family, Rutaceae) is a deciduous tree or shrub to10 m tall native to bushland and wooded grassland in eastern Africa; in Uganda it has been used as a substitute for *quinine and to treat *cold and *fever; in Kenya the leaves are taken for *colds, *headache and *snakebite; in Central Africa (e.g. Congo) the root is used for *blennorrhagia, *colic, *fever, *intestinal worms and *stomach and *urinary complaints East Coast fever – a *febrile tick-borne parasitic disease of cattle most common in eastern and southern Africa; it is characterised by massive destruction of red blood cells, skin and *lung *oedema, swollen *lymph nodes, wasting and high mortality. East Indian rosebay – Ervatamia coronaria (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae) is an aromatic South Asian shrub with strongly perfumed white flowers; in *Ayurvedic medicine the root and *latex are used to expel *intestinal worms; the latex is also used to treat *cataracts, eye *inflammations and poor eyesight, and the root is chewed to to relieve *toothache; the leaf juice makes a soothing treatment for skin irritations and *wounds; alternative name: *grape jasmine. East Indian walnut – Albizia lebbeck (the pea family, Fabaceae- Mimosoideae) is a deciduous Asian tree also spread to Africa and Central America; in Indian (*Ayurvedic) medicine its bark has been used for several thousands years to treat *allergies such as *asthma, *eczema, *hay fever and *urticaria, the flowers are taken for *bronchitis and *coughs, and the seeds for skin problems; research has shown that this plant helps to reduce *allergic sensitivity and it may help to lower *cholesterol; alternative names: *pit shirish and *siris (tree). Ebenaceae – a family of 2 genera and about 500 species of trees or shrubs widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of both hemispheres (2 genera and 34 species in East Africa, 2 141 genera and 8 species in Uganda); some species of the genera Diospyros and Euclea are used as medicines. ebony – trees or wood from the genus Diospyros (the ebony family, Ebenaceae), e.g. D. ebenum from Sri Lanka and D. reticulata from Mauritius; for medicinal use see *Diospyros; African ebony or Dalbergia melanoxylon (the pea family, Fabaceae). ebony family – Ebenaceae is a rather large family with 2 genera and 400-500 species widely distributed in tropical and warm countries. ecbolic – a drug which causes *abortion. Ecbolium (Acanthaceae) – a genus now often included in the genus Justicia; in Kenya the Turkana use E. revolutum as a medicine to stop *stomach-ache in babies, while in Tanzania the Sukuma use the root of E. viride for the treatment of *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976). echinacea – species of the genus Echinacea (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), and particularly the three species E. angustifolia, E. pallida and E. purpurea, which are some of the world’s most widely used medicinal herbs today (Bauer 1998); these perennial herbs are native to North America, but are at present widely cultivated throughout the world; they contain *alkamides which have the ability to raise the body’s resistance to *bacterial, *fungal and *viral infections by stimulating the *immune system; they can thus prevent or reduce *colds and *flu, and help to heal *acne, *boils and *wounds; native Americans used these herbs to treat *rabies, *septic conditions, *snake bites, *sore throats and *toothache; today it is still a very important immune stimulant used to prevent infections of all kinds, and also used to treat *skin problems, *asthma and other *allergies; alternative name: *purple coneflower. Echinops (Asteraceae) – a genus with about 120 species of perennial spiny herbs native to Africa and Eurasia (12 species in East Africa, 8 species in Uganda); in North Uganda the Acholi drink an infusion from the roots of E. amplexicaulis in cases of *constipation and for *sterility (Kokwaro 1976); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots of this species are used to treat *hernia and hasten expulsion of the placenta (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in other parts of Uganda the roots of E. amplexicaulis are used to treat *hepatic megaly and *splenomegaly (Adjanohoun e al. 1993); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam boil the roots of this plant and drink the decoction to treat *stomach trouble and children’s diseases (Heine & König 1988); a root maceration of E. giganteus is drunk or used as a *vaginal wash to reduce *fertility (Neuwinger 2000); a decoction of leafy twigs of E. longifolius has been dropped into the ear to alleviate *suppurating *otitis (Adjanohoun et al. 1989). Ectadiopsis (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) – a genus of 2 species native to tropical and South Africa; in West Uganda the leaves of E. oblongifolia are used for *febrile convulsions (Kakudidi et al. 2000). eczema – a non-contagious inflammation of the skin with much itching and burning frequently associated with *allergic response; an irritant condition of the skin; plants used to alleviate this condition include *Acacia arabica (*babul, Fabaceae) & A. catechu (*black catechu or *cutch, Fabaceae), *Albizia lebbeck (*East Indian walnut or *siris, Fabaceae), Anthriscus cerefolium (*chervil, Apiaceae), Aralia nudicaulis (*wild sarsaparilla) & A. racemosa (*American spikenard, Araliaceae), Asclepias tuberosa (*pleurisy root, Apocynaceae), *Azadirachta indica (*neem, Meliaceae), *Berberis vulgaris (*barberry, Berberidaceae), Betula pendula (*silver birch, Betulaceae), Borago officinalis (*borage, Boraginaceae), *Boscia senegalensis (Capparidaceae), Chamomilla recutita (*German chamomile, Asteraceae), *Citrullus lanatus (*water melon, Cucurbitaceae), Cnidium monnieri (*she chuang zi, Apiaceae), *Cyathula uncinulata (Amaranthaceae), *Euclea racemosa (Ebenaceae), Euonymus atropurpureus (*wahoo bark, Celastraceae), *Galium aparine (*catchweed or *goosegrass, Rubiaceae), *Indigofera arrecta (Fabaceae), Iris versicolor (*blue flag, Iridaceae), Lythrum salicaria (*purple loosestrife, Lythraceae), Madhuca spp. (*butter tree, Sapotaceae), Oenothera biennis (*evening primrose, Oenotheraceae), Phaseolus vulgaris (*French beans, Fabaceae), Quercus 142 robur (*common oak or *pedunculate oak, Fagaceae), *Rubus rigidus (Rosaceae), Rumex crispus (*curled dock, Polygonaceae), Scrophularia marylandica (American figwort) and S. nodosa (*figwort, Scrophulariaceae), Scutellaria aquatica (*water figwort, Scrophulariaceae), S. baicalensis (*Baical skullcap), S. lateriflora (*Virginia skullcap or *mad dog), Smilax spp. (*sarsaparilla, Smilacaceae), Stellaria media (*chickweed or *satin flower, Caryophyllaceae), Stillingia sylvatica (*queens delight, Euphorbiaceae), Taraxacum officinalis (*dandelion, Asteraceae) and Tylophora asmatica (*asmatica, Apocynaceae). edema (oedema) – *dropsy; fluid retention, usually fluid concentration in a restricted area; if the heart is not pumping adequately fluid usually accumulates in the ankles and legs; in India this condition is treated with a decoction or tincture of the bark of the tree *arjuna (Terminalia arjuna); an infusion of silk of maize (Zea mays) is often used as a remedy for edema in connection with pregnancy; other plants used to treat edema include *Capsicum frutescens (*cayenne or *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), *Combretum schumannii (Combretaceae), *Cyperus papyrus (Cyperaceae), *Gardenia ternifolia var. jovis-tonanthes (Rubiaceae), *Icacina mannii (Icacinaceae), *Ormocarpum kirkii (Fabaceae), *Oxyanthus speciosus (Rubiaceae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae), *Piptadeniastrum africanum (Fabaceae), *Securidaca longepedunculata (*violet tree Polygalaceae), *Solanum aethiopicum (S. gilo, Solanaceae), *Uapaca guinensis (Euphorbiaceae), *Tylosema fassoglensis (Fabaceae), Widdringtonia cupressoides (*African cypress, Cupressaceae) and *Zanthoxylum chalybaeum (*East African prickly ash, Rutaceae). eggplant – *aubergine, Solanum melongena (the potato family, Solanaceae) is widely cultivated as a vegetable in tropical and warm regions; for medicinal use see *aubergine. Egyptian paper rush – *papyrus, Cyperus papyrus (Cyperaceae) is widely used for building huts, fishing traps and boats, and more recently as fiber for paper and cardboard (Simpson & Inglis 2001); in Uganda the ash from burnt inflorescences are used to treat *rectal *prolapse and *wounds (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania it is used to treat *genito-urinary system disorders and female *sterility (Burkill 1985); alternative name: *papyrus. Ehretia (Boraginaceae) – a genus of about 75 species of trees or shrubs native to most tropical regions (6 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in East Africa bark, juice and fruits of E. amoena are pounded and the juice drunk for the treatment of painful *menstruation, while roots are used in the treatment of *gonorrhoea and the leaves applied to *wounds (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal Kenya the Digo take a decoction of the roots of E. bakeri as a remedy for *gonorrhoea, and also to induce?? *vaginal *spasms in cases of adultery (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the roots and leaves of E. cymosa are used as an *aphrodisiac, but are *toxic; the leaf juice is *styptic and used for healing *wounds (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves and root bark are used as a treatment for *fever (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania the Sukuma boil the roots of E. obtusifolia (including E. coerulea) and drink the decoction for *spleen pains (Kokwaro 1976). einkorn (wheat) – primitive diploid species of *wheat, viz. Triticum aegilopsoides (wild einkorn) and T. monococcum (cultivated einkorn) ejaculation – sudden ejection of fluids from the body, especially sperm; some plant medicines are used to promote ejaculation, e.g. the root of Senna septentrionalis (Fabaceae); other plants are used to prevent *premature ejaculation, e.g. *Abrus precatorius (*coral pea, Fabaceae), *Acacia arabica (*babul, Fabaceae), *Acalypha villicaulis (Euphorbiaceae), *Aframomum alboviolaceum (Zingiberaceae), Bacoba monnieri (*water hyssop, Scrophulariaceae), Cornus officinalis (*Chinese dogwood, Cornaceae), *Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Desmodium gangeticum & tortuosum (Fabaceae), *Eriosema glomeratum (Fabaceae), *Indigofera garckeana (Fabaceae), *Kalanchoe densiflora (Crassulaceae), *Kigelia pinnata (*sausage tree, Bignoniaceae), *Microglossa pyrifolia (Asteraceae), *Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae), *Mondia whitei (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), Morinda officinalis (*ba ji tian, Rubiaceae), *Obetia radula (Urticaceae), *Oxalis corniculata (Oxalidaceae), *Oxygonum sinuatum (Polygonaceae), Panax ginseng (*ginseng, Araliaceae), *Phyllanthus nummularifolius 143 (Euphorbiaceae or Phyllanthaceae), *Priva flabelliformis (Verbenaceae), Psoralea corylifolia (*bu gu zhi, Fabaceae), *Ricinus communis (*castor oil plant, Euphorbiaceae), *Sarcocephalus latifolius (Rubiaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae), *Tephrosia linearis (Fabaceae), *Thunbergia alata (Acanthaceae), Turneria diffusa (*damonia, Turneraceae), *Vigna mungo (Fabaceae), *Withania somnifera (Solanaceae) and *Zehneria scabra (Cucurbitaceae). Ekebergia (Meliaceae) – a genus with 4 species of trees or shrubs native to tropical Africa (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in different parts of Africa the bark and root of E. capensis have been used as an *emetic and *expectorant and to treat a number of diseases such as *dysentery, *heartburn and for the relief of *headache (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Neuwinger 2000); for *limonoids and *uterotonic activity of compounds from this species see Mulholland & Iourine 1998 and Sewram et al. (2000). Elaeis (Arecaceae) – a genus with 2 species of tree-like palms native to tropical Africa and East Madagascar (in East Africa and Uganda 1 species); oil from this palm is frequently used as an ingredient of various types of local herbal medicines, especially those to be made and applied in paste form (Kokwaro 1976). Elaeodendron (Celastraceae) – a genus with 15 species of trees and shrubs widely distributed in tropical regions (4 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); the leaves of E. buchananii are chewed for *diarrhoea, and the powdered root is applied to wounds and used for the primary symptoms of *syphilis, and a decoction of root powder mixed with milk is drunk by those *coughing blood (Kokwaro 1976); E. schweinfurthianum is used much in the same way as E. buchananii (Kokwaro 1976). elder – Sambucus nigra (the elder family, Sambucaceae) is a widespread large European shrub or tree widely used in European folklore particularly for *flu, *colds and all *chest problems; elderberries are rich in *vitamins A and C and have been taken for *rheumatism and *erysipelas (a *skin infection); they are also mildly *laxative and used to treat *diarrhoea; research has shown that patients suffering from *flu recover more quickly after eating elderberries; flowers and inflorescences (flower tops) reduce *fevers and ease *colds, *coughs and *flu; they also tone the *mucous linings of the nose and throat, increasing their resistance to*infection; the flower tops are also taken for *allergies, hay fever, *chronic infections, ear infections and *candidiasis; since flower tops encourage sweating and urine production waste products are removed more quickly easing some *arthritic conditions; yellow elder is Tecoma stans (Bignoniaceae), a widely cultivated ornamental shrub in tropical regions. elecampane – Inula helenium (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a perennial plant widely used as a medicinal herb since Roman times; its roots contains *inulin, a jelly-like substance that soothes and relieves *coughing; elecampane is particularly useful for the *respiratory system such as *chronic *bronchitis and other *chest problems; research has shown that it is *antiseptic and effective against *tuberculosis mycobacterium; it has also been taken as a *tonic herb for the *digestion as it stimulates the appetite and relieves *dyspepsia. elephant apple – Limonia acidissima (the orange family, Rutaceae) is a spiny tree with a useful timber native to southern India, but widely cultivated in tropical Asia; the fruit contains fruit acids, *vitamins and minerals, and are used to stimulate the *digestive system; the leaves are *astringent and used to treat *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *flatulence, *haemorrhoids and *indigestion; alternative name; *wood apple. elephant grass – *Pennisetum purpureum (the grass family, Poaceae) is a good and important fodder grass native to tropical Africa; the young stems are used in dental care (Kakudidi et al. 2000); alternative name: *Napier grass. elephantiasis – persistent swelling of the limbs or other organs due to obstructed *circulation in the blood or *lympatic vessels (lymphatic *oedema); in cases of the legs with the overall appearance of an elephant’s foot; in the tropics this condition is usually due to presence of *filaria; plants used to alleviate this disease include *Crassocephalum vitellinum (Asteraceae), *Kigelia pinnata 144 (*sausage tree, Bignoniaceae), *Neoboutonia melleri (Euphorbiaceae), *Morus alba (*white mulberry), *Oxygonum sinuatum (Polygonaceae), *Psychotria tanganyikensis (Rubiaceae) and *Xeroderris stuhlmannii (Fabaceae). elephant’s foot – *Adenium obesum (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae) is a toxic shrub or small tree with beautiful red flowers native to dry regions in Africa and Arabia; the species contain *cardiac glycosides and are used as arrow, fish or ordeal *poison; in Kenya the Pokot used the roots to kill lice (Kokwaro 1976); alternative name: *desert rose. eleptic embrocation – a *pharmacopeial preparation consisting of a medicament in alcohol, oil or water applied by friction to the skin. Eleusine (Poaceae) – a genus of 9 species of grasses of which 8 species are native to Africa and 1 species to South America (7 species in East Africa, 5 species in Uganda); E. corocana (*finger millet) is widely cultivated as a grain crop particularly in Africa and India; in East Uganda a porridge made from the grain of this species is drunk to treat *haemorrhoids and *pyomyositis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the grains of E. corocana are boiled and eaten as a poridge to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); in Kenya the flour of finger millet is used for the treatment of *chicken-pox and itchy *rash (Kokwaro 1976). elixir – a liquid herbal preparation with a pleasant taste, due to the adding of honey or sugar. elm – species of the genus Ulmus (the elm family, Ulmaceae) are small to large trees widespread in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; they are all of medicinal value; see *slippery elm (U. rubra) and *white elm (U. americana) from North America and *Wych elm (U. glabra) from Europe. elm family – Ulmaceae is a rather small family of trees and shrubs with about 5 genera and 150 species widely distributed in both temperate and warm countries; most African species previously assigned to Ulmaceae are now transferred to Celtidaceae or Cannabaceae; the genus Ulmus has many species of medicinal value. emaciation – being made or becoming very thin, such as in conection with malnutrition. Embelia (Myrsinaceae) – a genus of about 130 species of lianes, shrubs or small trees native to the old world tropics (in East Africa 4 species; in Uganda 2 species); the fruit of E. ribes from south Asia is used to relieve *constipation, *colic, *debility and *flatulence and to expel *intestinal worms; it may have a *contraceptive effect due to its content of *embelin; in West Uganda the Bwamba use E. schimperi to treat muscular pain (Kakudidi et al. 1996); also in West Uganda the seeds of E. schimperi are taken to expel *tapeworms (Kakudidi et al. 2003), and in Tanzania fruits are used as both *purgative and *anthelmintic to expel *intestinal worms, while the leaves are used as *linament for swollen breasts of mothers, or by women having difficulties with birth (Kokwaro 1976); for change in the concentration of sex hormones associated with administration of *embelin see Githui et al. (1991). embelia – Embelia ribes (Myrsinaceae) is a climber from south Asia cultivated in hilly areas for its fruit which is used to relieve *constipation, *colic, *debility and *flatulence and to expel *intestinal worms; it may have a *contraceptive effect due to its content of *embelin. embelin – a naphthaquinone, which stimulates the production of *oestrogen and *progesterone; it may have a *contraceptive effect; embelin is found in the climber *embelia (Embelia ribes, Myrsinaceae); for change in the concentration of sex hormones associated with administration of *embelin see Githui et al. (1991). embryo – the youngest stages of development of any plant or animal; strong chemicals and medicines (e.g. *colchicine and *thalodomine), including some herbal medicines, such as the root of the plant blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides), may cause malformation of the embryo when taken by the mother during *pregnancy. emesis – vomiting. emetic – which causes vomiting; a drug, plant or substance which causes vomiting; a large number of plants will cause vomiting, e.g. *Acalypha racemosa (Euphorbiaceae), *Aloë wilsonii 145 (Aloëaceae), *Antidesmaa venosum (Euphorbiaceae), *Artemisia afra (Asteraceae), *Balanites aegyptiaca (Balanitaceae), Ballota nigra (*black horehound, Lamiaceae), *Calotropis procera (*Dead Sea apple, Apocynaceae, Ascleiadoideae), *Capparis sepiaria (Capparidaceae), *Caralluma speciosa (Apocynaceae, Ascleiadoideae), *Carissa spinarum (Apocynaceae), *Combretum molle (Combretaceae), *Conyza newii & pyrrhopappa (Asteraceae), *Cucumis dipsaceus & ficifolia (Cucurbitaceae), *Dalbergia boehmii (Fabaceae), *Erythronium americanum (*adder’s tongue, Liliaceae), *Erythrophleum suaveolens (Fabaceae), *Euclea natalensis (Ebenaceae), *Euphorbia grantii & tirucalli (Euphorbiaceae), *Gnidia kraussiana (Thymelaeaceae), Guarea rusbyi (*cocillana, Meliaceae), *Gutenbergia cordifolia & rueppellii (Asteraceae), *Helichrysum forskahlii (Asteraceae), *Ipomoea jaegeri (Convolvulaceae), *Iris versicolor (*blue flag, Iridaceae), *Jatropha curcas (*physic nut & *purging nut), *Justicia flava (Acanthaceae), *Lactuca inermis (Asteraceae), *Microglossa pyrifolia (Asteraceae), *Olax dissitifolia (Olacaceae), *Phyllanthus fraternus & hutchinsonianus & leucocalyx & maderaspatensis (Phyllanthaceae or Euphorbiaceae), *Pittosprum abyssinicum & viridiflorum (Pittosporaceae), *Podophyllum peltatum (*American mandrake or *May apple, Berberidaceae or Podophyllaceae), *Pollichia campestris (Caryophyllaceae), *Psychotria tanganyikensis (Rubiaceae), *Ranunculus multifidus (Ranunculaceae), *Rourea coccinea (Connaraceae), *Sarcostemma viminalis (Apocynaceae, Asclepidoideae), *Senecio lyratus & syringifolius (Asteraceae), *Senna didymobotrya (Fabaceae), *Sesamum angustifolium (Pedaliaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae), *Sonchus schweinfurthii (Asteraceae), *Spigelia marilandica (*pink root, Loganiaceae), *Strophanthus eminii (Apocynaceae), *Tephrosia noctiflora (Fabaceae), *Terminalia brownii & mollis (Combretaceae), *Toddalia asiatica (Rutaceae), *Trichilia emetica (Meliaceae), *Turraea floribunda & mombassana (Meliaceae), Urginea maritima (*sea onion or *sea squill, Hyacinthaceae), *Vernonia hildebrandtii & zanzibarensis (Asteraceae), Viola odorata (*sweet violet, Violaceae), *Zehneria scabra (Cucurbitaceae) and *Ziziphus spina-christi (Rhamnaceae); see also *anti-emetic. Emilia (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 100 species of annual or perennial herbs widely distributed in tropical regions (12 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of E. coccinea are used for *nose infections, for *sores, and as a *poultice, and sometimes the leaves are mixed with those of Ipomoea eriocarpa, pounded, soaked in water and the liquid used as eye drop for *eye infections; a boiled root decoction is drunk three times a day for the treatment of *syphilis (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda the sap is taken to treat *sterility, and the leaves are used to treat *jaundice, *septic ears and to promote *labour (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves of this plant are taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in East Africa a decoction of the whole plant (leaf and root) of E. discifolius (= Senecio discifolius) is drunk by *pregnant women for *stomach-ache and by mothers to stimulate *milk production; to alleviate *sore eyes the warm juice from shortly roasted leaves is pressed into the sore eye (Kokwaro 1976); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves of this species are used to treat *gastrointestinal problems (Okello & Ssegawa 2007). emmenagogue – (a drug or plant or substance) which stimulates *menstrual flow. emmer (wheat) – Triticum dicoccum, a primitive species of *wheat (the grass family, Poaceae), also named cultivated emmer; T. dicoccoides is wild emmer; for medicinal use see *wheat. emollient – which softens or soothes the skin or internal surfaces of the body; plants which are considered as emollient include *Acanthus mollis (*bears breaches, Acanthaceae), *Calendula officinalis (*marigold, Asteraceae), *Chondrus crispus (*carragheen or *Irish moss, Rhodophyta), *Ficus spp. (*figs, Moraceae), *Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (*blacking plant, Malvaceae), *Luffa cylindrica (Cucurbitaceae), *Malva sylvestris (*common mallow or *mallow, Malvaceae), *Nymphaea mouchalii (*blue waterlily, Nymphaeaceae), *Solanum melongena 146 (*aubergine, Solanaceae), *Stellaria media (*chickweed or *starweed, Caryophyllaceae) and Tilia spp. (*linden or *lime tree, Tiliaceae). emphysema – presence of air in the cellular tissue; plants used to treat tis condition include Ammi visnaga (*visnaga, Apiaceae), Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco (*quebracho, Apocynaceae), Lobaria pulmonaria (*tree lungwort, lichens) and Myroxylon pereirae (*Peruvian balsam, Fabaceae). Enantia (Annonaceae) – a genus of 7-10 species of trees with yellow wood and sap confined to tropical Africa (1 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in Tanzania the Shambaa use E. kummeriae as a medicine for cuts and fresh *wounds (Kokwaro 1976). Encephalartos (Cycadaceae or Zamiaceae - Gymnospermae) – a genus of about 35 species of large rosette plants or small trees native to tropical and South Africa; in Tanzania the roots of E. poggei are widely used by *witch doctors (Kokwaro 1976). endometriosis – inflammation of lining membrane of womb; the root of Chamaelirium luteum (*blazing star, *false unicorn root or *helonias, Liliaceae) and the seeds of Gossypium herbaceum (*cotton, Malvaceae) have been used to treat this condition; see also *endomitritis. endomitritis – inflammation of lining membrane of womb; plants used to treat this condition include *Adenia cissampeloides (Passifloraceae), *Aloë wollastonii (Aloëaceae), *Capparis tomentosa (Capparidaceae), *Cardiospermum halicacabum (*balloon vine, Sapindaceae), Chamaelirium luteum (*blazing star, *false unicorn root or *helonias, Liliaceae), *Erythrina abyssinica (Fabaceae), *Gossypium herbaceum (*cotton, Malvaceae), *Maytenus senegalensis (Celastraceae) and *Steganotaenia araliacea (Apiaceae); see also *endometriosis. endomorphins – powerful painkillers that occur naturally within the body; they are found in small amounts in certain plants, e.g. cacao or cocoa, Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae). Endostemon (Lamiaceae) – a genus with 17 species of herbs or subshrubs native to tropical and South Africa reaching India; in coastal Kenya the Digo use the roots of E. tereticaulis as a *diuretic and medicine for *kidney trouble (Kokwaro 1976). enema – medicine in liquid form to be injected into rectum for the purpose of clearing out the bowel. Englerina (Loranthaceae) – a genus of 25 species of shrubby hemiparasites native to tropical Africa (14 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in East Africa a decoction of the leaves and bark of E. woodfordioides is drunk for *liver problems, and heated twigs are used as a *poultice on the chest for treating *pneumonia (Kokwaro 1976). Enicostema (Gentianaceae) – a genus of 3 species of annual or perennial herbs (1 species native to East Africa, none in Uganda); in Tanzania the root of E. axillare (E. hyssopifolia) is used to remove *intestinal worms. Ensete (Musaceae) – a genus of 7 tree-like hapaxanthic herbs native to the old world tropics (1 species native to East Africa and Uganda); in southern Ethiopia the trunk-like corm of E. ventricosum (*Abyssinian banana) is harvested just before flowering and the starch extracted for food; in East Africa the pseudostem is boiled and the decoction drunk for the treatment of *liver problems, and cold water extract of leaves is drunk by women who have had a?? *miscarriage; the juice resting between the leaf sheaths around the trunk is also collected and drunk by women after birth as a protection against, or as a cure for, any *afterbirth problems (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the Bwamba use E. ventricosum to treat lameness in children (Kakudidi et al. 1996); in Central Uganda the Baganda drink the water collected between the leaf sheaths to treat afterbirth complications (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in West Uganda the leaf-sheaths are eaten to increase *lactation; in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam drink the juice from the stem of E. ventricosum to treat pain in back and belly, while the roots are used for ”white tongue disease” (Heine & König 1988). Entada (Fabaceae, Mimosoideae) – a genus of about 30 species of trees, shrubs or lianes widely distributed in tropical regions (10 species in East Africa, 5 species in Uganda); in Africa the root of E. africana is used for *wound healing, and its biologically active *polysaccharides have 147 been studied by Diallo et al. (2001), in Mali a decoction of the root of E. africana mixed with the powdered fruit of Tamarindus indica is drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); in East Africa a decoction of the roots of E. abyssinica is drunk to alleviate *rheumatic pains (Kokwaro 1976), while in West Uganda the bark of E. abyssinica is used to treat *cough (Kakudidi et al. 2005); in Kenya the roots of E. leptostachya are mixed with those of *Harrisonia abyssinica and used for the treatment of *tuberculosis or consumption, and other *chest pains, while in Tanzania the roots of E. stuhlmannii are used as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976). Entandrophragma (Meliaceae) – a genus with 11 tree species native to tropical Africa (6 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the bark of E. bussei is soaked in cold water for 24 hours and given to suckling mothers if their milk is reddish (Kokwaro 1976); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda E. excelsum is used by herbalists (Cunningham 1996). enteritis – inflammation of the bowels; plants used to alleviate this condition include Ulmus americana (*white elm), U. glabra (*Wych elm), U. rubra (*slippery elm) and *Vitellaria paradoxa (*shea butter tree, Sapotaceae); alternative name: *gastroenteritis. enterorrhagia – gastric bleeding. ephedra – species of the genus Ephedra (Ephedraceae; Gymnospermae), and particularly E. sinica, a small evergreen shrub native to dry regions of China and Mongolia (other species of the same genus are used similarly in all continents of the northern hemisphere); it is a strongly *stimulant and *diuretic herb raising *blood pressure and mimicing the effect of *adrenaline; it dilates the *bronchioles and is widely used to treat *asthma and relieve the aches and pains of *rheumatism; in China it is also used to disperse *colds and *fevers, and to treat *kidney energy deficiency; in convential medicine it is used as a *decongestant; alternative names: *desert tea and *joint-pine. ephedrine – a toxic protoalkaloid, which is *decongestant and *antiasthmatic; in herbal as well as convential medicine it is used to relieve this condition and low *blood pressure; all species of the genus Ephedra, *desert tea (Ephedraceae; Gymnospermae) contain *ephedrine. epigastrium – upper, fore part of the *abdomen. epilepsy – a chronic nervous disease characterized by periods of unconciousness (when the patient falls to ground) or *convulsions or both, and sometimes associated with the later stage of mental disturbance; many plants are used to alleviate this condition, e.g. *Acacia amythethophylla & seyal (Fabaceae), *Acalypha villicaulis (Euphorbiaceae), *Acanthus pubescens (Acantha-ceae), *Albizia adianthifolia (Fabaceae), Anagallis arvensis (*common pimpernel, *pimpernel, *red chickweed or *scarlet pimpernel, Primulaceae), Bacoba monnieri (*water hyssop, Scrophulariaceae), *Bersama abyssinica (Melianthaceae), *Bixa orellata (*annatto, Bixaceae), *Cannabis sativa (*dagga, *hashish, *marijuana or *pot, Cannabaceae), *Carissa spinarum (Apocynaceae), *Clerodendrum capitatum (Verbenaceae), *Combretum collinum (Combretaceae), *Cucumis aculeata (Cucurbitaceae), *Datura stramonium (*thornapple, Solanaceae), *Dichrocephala integrifolia (Asteraceae), *Dichrostachys cinerea (Fabaceae), *Dioscorea sansibarensis & smilacifolia (Smilacaceae), *Diospyros lycioides (Ebenaceae), *Dissotis senegambiensis (Melastomataceae), *Erythrina abyssinica (Fabaceae), *Euclea racemosa (Ebenaceae), *Euphorbia grantii & tirucalli (Euphorbiaceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllantha-ceae), Galium verum (*Lady’s bedstraw, Rubiaceae), *Harungana madagascariensis (Hypericaceae or Clusiaceae), *Hoslundia opposita (Lamiaceae), *Kalanchoe densiflora (Crassulaceae), *Landolphia owariensis (Apocynaceae), *Lonchocarpus laxiflorus (Fabaceae), *Morella (Myrica) salicifolia (Myricaceae), *Ocimum basilicum (*basil or sweet basil, Lamiaceae), *Oliverella hildebrandtii (Loranthaceae), *Oncoba spinosa (Flacourtiaceae or Salicaceae), *Passiflora incarnata (*apricot vine, *maypop or *passion flower, Passifloraceae), *Pentaclethra macrophylla (Fabaceae), *Plumbago zeylanica (*Ceylon leadwort, Plumbaginaceae), *Rauvolfia vomitoria (*snakeroot, Apocynaceae), Ruta graveolens (*rue, Rutaceae), Scutellaria lateriflora (*mad dog or *Virginia skullcap, Lamiaceae), *Solanum 148 aculeastrum & macrocarpon var. dasyphyllum (Solanaceae), *Steganotaenia araliacea (Apiaceae), *Terminalia schimperiana (Combretaceae), *Valeriana capensis (*Cape valerian, Valerianaceae), *Vernonia hochstetteri (Asteraceae) and Viscum album (*mistletoe, Viscaceae). Epilobium (Onagraceae) – a genus with about 200 species widely distributed in temperate and cold regions; in Africa only in the uplands above 1100 m (4 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the roots of E. hirsutum are used as a *styptic. epispastic – (an agent or plant) with blistering action. epitaxis – nose-bleed. epithelial – of or concerning the *thelium. epithelium – any tissue that covers a surface or lines a cavity. erect – upright (or stiff in connection with the *penis). erectile dysfunction – lacking the power to obtain an erect *penis; many plants are used to treat this condition, e.g. *Acacia sieberiana (Fabaceae), *Allium sativum (Alliaceae), *Arachis hypogaea (Fabaceae), *Cannabis sativa (*hashish or *marijuana, Cannabaceae), *Capsicum frutescens (*Cayenne or *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), *Catha edulis (Celastraceae), *Citropsis articulata (Rutaceae), *Cleome gynandra (Capparidaceae), *Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae), *Cola acuminata (Sterculiaceae), *Corynanthe yohimbe (Rubiaceae), *Dichrostachys cinerea (Fabaceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllantheaceae or Euphorbiaceae), *Grewia similis (Tiliaceae), *Hallea rubrostipulata (Rubiaceae), *Impatiens walleriana (Balsaminaceae), *Macrotyloma axillare (Fabaceae), *Mondia whitei (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Myrica (Morella) salicifolia (Myricaceae), Pausinystalia yohimbe (*yohimbe Rubiaceae) *Phoenix reclinata (Arecaceae), *Phytolacca dodecandra (Phytolaccaceae), *Rhus vulgaris (Anacardiaceae), *Rumex abyssinicus (Polygonaceae), *Senna didymobotrya & occidentalis (Fabaceae), *Sida tenuicarpa (Malvaceae), *Tarenna graveolens (Rubiaceae), *Tragia brevipes (Euphorbiaceae), *Urtica massaica (Urticaceae), *Vernonia cinerea (Asteraceae), *Warburgia salutaris (Canellaceae) and *Zingiber officinalis (*ginger, Zingiberaceae). ergot – Claviceps purpurea (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales, Clavicipitaceae) is a very *toxic fungus (see *ergotamin) attacking the grains of corn and other grasses; the disease (the blackish grains) of the grasses caused by this fungus. ergotamin – a very toxic *alkaloid (heterocyclic compound with nitrogen in the ring), e.g. in *ergot (Claviceps purpurea). ergotism – the disease on humans caused by eating grain polluted by *ergot. Erianthemum (Loranthaceae) – a genus of 16 species of shrubby hemiparasites native to eastern and southern Africa (12 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the bark of E. dregei is used for *snakebite treatment; for quick action the patient is given the bark to chew; a decoction of the bark is used to wash the *wound and some is drunk (Kokwaro 1976). Erica (Ericaceae) – a genus with about 650 species of dwarf-shrubs, shrubs or small trees widely distributed in temperate and cold regions, but with the main centre of diversity in the Cape region of South Africa (580 species), in tropical Africa only in the uplands (5 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Shambaa boil the roots of Erica benguelensis (Philippia benguelensis) and drink a *decoction three times a day as a *styptic for difficult *menstruation (Kokwaro 1976). Ericaceae – a family of about 103 genera and 3350 species of trees, shrubs and dwarf-shrubs widely distributed in both cold and hot regions, but in tropical Africa only at higher altitudes; species of some genera, e.g. Arbutus (*strawberry tree), Arctostaphylos (*bearberry), *Erica (including Philippia) and Vaccinium (*bilberry, *cranberry and *red whortleberry) are used as medicines. Eriocoelum (Sapindaceae) – a genus of about 10 species of trees or shrubs restricted to tropical Africa, only 1 species in Uganda; in Congo the bark of E. microcarpum is used to treat *constipation, *coughing fits and *stomach pain, E. microspermum is used to treat *gonorrhoea 149 and *diarrhoea; in the Ivory Coast the leaves of E. racemosum are used with Paulinia pinnata as an *aphrodisiac. Eriosema (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of about 130 species of herbs and subshrubs widely distributed in tropical and warm regions throughout the world (44 species in East Africa, 26 species in Uganda); in East Uganda the root of E. glomeratum is chewed to treat premature *ejaculation (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in West Uganda E. montanum is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996), while around Kibale forest the root bark of this herb is used to treat *cough (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in coastal Kenya the Digo give an infusion of E. parviflorum to their dogs to make them very fierce (Kokwaro 1976); in North Uganda the root of E. psoraleoides is used to treat lower *abdominal pain (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a root and leaf decoction of E. psoraleoides for stomach-ache (Masinde 1996);. Erlangea (Asteraceae) – a genus of 6 species of annual or perennial herbs confined to Africa (5 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); the widespread East African medicinal plants Erlangea cordifolia and E. tomentosa are now named Gutenbergia cordifolia and Bothriocline longipes respectively. Erucastrum (Brassicaceae) – a genus of 18 species of herbs native to the Mediterranean region, Macaronesia and African mountains, with one species widely dispersed throughout the world as a weed; in West Uganda the leaves of E. arabicum are used to treat *constipation and *ringworm (Kakudidi et al. 2000). eructation – the act of belching; the emitting violently (belching forth) of gas mostly from the stomach through the mouth (often with a burning feeling just below the heart caused by *indigestion; a burning sensation of the *oesophagus and *stomach results in sour eructation) erysipelas – an acute infection of the *skin and *subcutaneous tissues characterized by serious toxic symptoms of high *fever and great *prostration (St. Anthony’s Fire); in Europe *elderberries (Sambucus nigra, Sambucaceae) are sometimes taken to relieve this condition. erythema – redness of the skin. Erythrina (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of about 130 species of trees or shrubs widely distributed in tropical regions throughout the world (in Uganda 5 native species; others are cultivated as ornamental trees); in Uganda the young leaves of E. abyssinica are used to treat *arthralgia and *tropical ulcer, the leaves and roots together for ulcer, the bark is taken to treat *abdominal pain, *amoebiasis, chronic *endomitritis and *vomiting, the roots are used to treat *bubo, deafness, *epilepsy, *sterility and *uterine fibroids, while the flowers are used to treat *dysentery (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam boil the bark of E. abyssinica and give the liquid to children who suffer from a disease which causes a yellow stool (Heine & König 1988); in Toro in West Uganda the bark of the same species is used to treat *cough, *splenomegally and *stomach-ache, the leaves are taken for *tonsilitis, while the flowers are employed to remove ear wax (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in West Uganda this plant is used to treat painful menstruation, *dysmenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Apac district in North Uganda the stem bark and roots of this species are used to treat *toothache and *wounds (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in East Africa is also used for many other diseases, e.g. *anthrax, *malaria, *snakebite, *syphilis and *trachoma (Kokwaro 1976); for *anti-plasmodial flavonoids in the stem bark see Yenesew et al. (2004); in Kenya and Tanzania E. burttii is antimicrobial and is used as alleviate infections (Yenesew et al. 1998b, 2002, 2003 & 2005); for isoflavones in the stem bark of E. sacleuxii see Yenesew et al. 1998c & 2000). Erythrococca (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus of about 50 species native to Africa and the Arabian peninsula (5 species in Uganda); in East Africa the juice from pounded leaves of E. bongensis is taken as a *cough cure, while leaves mixed with groundnuts are cooked and eaten for *stomach troubles; a decoction of the leaves is further used for the treatment of *black quarter in cattle 150 (Kokwaro 1976); the Luo in Kenya use an infusion or decoction of the leaves and roots to treat *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the leaves of E. bongensis to treat *tapeworms (Heine & König 1988); in East Uganda a powder of roots and leaves is eaten with porridge to treat *tonsilitis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Tanzania the powdered roots of E. fischeri are used to cure *chest complaints, while boiled roots are taken as an *anthelmintic, for *infertility, and for the treatment of *gonorrhoea (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of E. trichogyne are taken to treat *snakebite (Kakudidi et al. 2000). erythrocyte – one of the red cells of the blood that contain *hemoglobin and carry oxygen to the cells and tissues. Erythrophleum (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae) – a genus of about 10 species of trees in the old world tropics (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in Kenya the pounded roots of E. africanum are soaked in water and the infusion drunk as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976); in Africa E. suaveolens is widely used as fish and arrow poison; in Kenya a root decoction in weak concentration is used as an *anthelmintic (especially for *tapeworm) and *emetic (Kokwaro 1976); in Congo the bark is used to treat *leprosy, *rheumatism, *scabies, *skin disease,*snakebite, *swellings, and *syphilis, and to expel *Guinea-worms; it is also introduced vaginally to treat *urinogenital problems and to induce *arbortions; in Cameroon bark ash is applied to *abscesses, *back pain, *dermatoses, *varicose veins, and *venous inflammations (Neuwinger 1996). Erythroxylaceae – a family with 4 genera of about 260 species of trees or shrubs in tropical and warm countries, species of the genus *Erythroxylum are used as medicines. Erythroxylum (Erythroxylaceae) – a genus with more than 200 species of trees or shrubs in tropical and warm countries, but particularly abundant in America and Madagascar (4 species native to East Africa, 1 species in Uganda, but the *coca plant, E. coca, is sometimes cultivated as a hedge or for a source of *cocaine); in West Africa a leaf infusion of E. ferrugineum is drunk for *digestive disorders, while a decoction of the leafy twigs of E. mannii is drunk for *fever, and the bark pulp mixed with lemon and Aframomum melegueta pepper is rubbed on parts suffering from *intercostal pain (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950); in America E. coca is the oldest *anaestetic, a debilitating narcotic causing *euphoria and enhancing sexual desire in girls; the Indians maintain *blood glucose levels despite poor diets by chewing coca leaves. escharotic – a corrosive or *caustic agent or drug. esophagus (*oesophagus ) – the tube connecting the mouth with the stomach. essential oil – volatile oils from aromatic plants; these are often used in herbal medicine. Ethulia (Asteraceae) – a genus with 19 species of annual or less often perennial herbs native to Africa, some in Asia and one species widespread as a weed (13 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in East Africa boiled leaves of E. scheffleri are rubbed over the body to treat *malaria (Kokwaro 1976), while a decoction of the roots of E. vernonioides (= Hoehnelia vernonioides) is mixed with milk and drunk by women to remove the *afterbirth (Kokwaro 1976). etrog – a variety of Citrus medica (the orange family, Rutaceae) important in Jewish religious traditions in connection with the feast of the Tabernacles; see also *citron. Euadenia (Capparidaceae) – a genus of 3 closely related species of trees or shrubs restricted to tropical Africa (only 1 species in Uganda); the fruit pulp of E. trifoliolata has a high reputation as an *aphrodisiac; in Ghana a root decoction is used for *earache, and in Sierra Leone for *eye diseases; in the Ivory Coast it is used for *anaemia, *chest and *kidney pain, *heart problems, *otitis and painful *urination (Neuwinger 1996). Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae) – an Australian genus of about 450 species of evergreen trees widely cultivated throughout tropical and warm countries for their rapid growth and useful timber; many species are used as medicines; in East Africa leaves are used for *cough and *fever (Kokwaro 151 1976; Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi 2000), and in East Uganda for *cough and *migraine (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Kenya the shoots together with leaves of E. bicostata are boiled in water and the *decoction used for bathing a child suffering from *chicken-pox (Kokwaro 1976); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves of E. camaldulensis are chewed or drunk in tea to treat *cough (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in West Uganda the leaves of E. citriodora, E. globulus and E. grandis are used to treat menstrual problems such as *dysmenorrhoea and excessive bleeding or *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & OryemOriga 2006); E. globulus (blue gum) is a powerful *antiseptic and *expectorant used all over the world for relieving *bronchitis, *colds, *coughs, *fevers, *pneumonia, *sore throats and other *infections; the oil applied externally will relieve *rheumatic joints and stiffness. eucalyptus – any member of the genus Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae), an Australian genus of mostly large fast-growing trees, widely planted in hot countries for timber or firewood; they cause strong reduction in biodiversity as the trees absorb huge quantities of water and cover the ground with only slowly degenerating thick leaves, which prevent germination and seedling establishment of most plants; all species contail essential oils which can be used medicinally; alternative name: *gum (trees); Eucalyptus smithii is a large aromatic Australian tree planted in many warm countries; while many species of Eucalyptus are used medicinally for their content of *volatile oil, this species has an oil better tolerated by the skin; its oil is used as a *disinfectant and *antiseptic for the treatment of *viral conditions, *skin and other infections; it is also a *decongestant and is used in aromatherapy. Euclea (Ebenaceae) – a genus of about 12 species of trees or shrubs restricted to tropical Africa and the Arabian peninsula (2 species in Uganda); in East Africa a soup made from the bark and root of E. divinorum is taken as a *purgative or as a *tonic, and the roots boiled together with those of Croton megalocarpus are used as a *concoction to treat *chest pain, internal body swellings and *pneumonia (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a root decoction of E. divinorum for constipation, while roots are chewed for painful gums and teeth (Masinde 1996); in East Uganda roots of E. divinorum are used to treat *arthritis, *jaundice, *salpingitis and *snakebite, and to prevent *miscarriage (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); the roots of E. natalensis cause *vomiting and are used in East Africa they as an *emetic medicine for *gastric disturbances; pounded and boiled roots are also used as an *anthelmintic, against *ague, *stomatitis and *ulcers in general (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in Uganda the root of E. racemosa subsp. schimperi is chewed for *toothache and the cold decoction drunk for *malaria (Neuwinger 1996); the Luo in Kenya use the bark and roots to treat bloody *diarrhoea, *constipation and *stomach-ache (Geissler et al. 2002); in Tanzania a root decoction is drunk as a *purgative and for *cancer, *diarrhoea, *epilepsy, infestation of *hook-worms, malaria, *spasmodic *dysmenorrhoea, and *stomach-pain (Kokwaro 1976, Neuwinger 1996); in Ethiopia the roots are used for chest pain in children, *constipation and *diarrhoea, and the leaf for *constipation, *eczema and *gonorrhoea; in Rwanda the leaves are used to expel *intestinal worms (Neuwinger 1996). Eugenia (Myrtaceae) – a genus estimated at almost 1000 species of trees or shrubs widespread in tropical regions, but with the highest diversity in America (11 native species in East Africa, 1 in Uganda); in Uganda the bark and leaves of E. bukobensis are pounded together, mixed with *ghee and applied all over body to treat *scabies (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); note that the *clove, previously named Eugenia caryophyllata or E. caryophyllus, is now transferred to the genus *Syzygium as S. aromaticum. Eulophia (Orchidaceae) – a genus with about 250 species of terrestrial orchids widespread in tropical regions (66 species in East Africa, 30 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of E. galeoides are boiled and the liquid given to children with *stomach troubles, while a decoction of the roots of E. petersii is drunk warm as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976). 152 Euphorbia (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus of possibly more than 2000 species of herbs, shrubs and trees widely distributed in both warm and temperate countries, but the large shrubs and trees from the tropics only; in East Africa the wood of E. abyssinica (= E. obovalifolia) is boiled and the liquid given to women for *stomach pains in childbirth (Kokwaro 1976); in Senegal the latex of E. balsamifera is applied to *wounds as an *antiseptic, *haemostatic and *antidote for *snakebite and insect stings, and the roots are used externally for *gonorrhoea, *leprosy and *syphilis, and internally against *intestinal parasites, while the leaves are used for *fever and *malaria; in East Africa a *decoction of the stem of E. candelabrum is given to women after childbirth to to hasten expulsion of the *afterbirth (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the roots of E. candelabrum to treat *breast pains (Heine & König 1988); in West Uganda the stem of E. candelabrum is used to treat *mastitis and *mumps (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Kenya it is taken to treat infertility, general *stomach problems and severe *constipation; in Zimbabwe it is used to treat *asthma; in East Africa the bark of the roots of E. crotonoides is chewed and the juice swallowed once a week to cause *diarrhoea as a remedy for serious cases of *obesity; the latex is used with other ingredients for *malaria or applied to skin outgrowths like *warts (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Taita put a drop of E. espinosa in milk or porridge to cause *vomiting or *purging in case of suspected poisoning, over-feeding or *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Kamba use the sap of E. gossypina to remove *warts; this plant is also used for treating *laryngitis by making the patient drink diluted latex from small branches (Kokwaro 1976); E. grantii is a drastic *purgative and is in East Africa used to treat *earache, *epilepsy, and as an *emetic for *poisoning, *snakebite and *stomach problems; the fresh milky sap is also applied to *wounds and fresh cuts where it causes *blood clotting and stops further bleeding (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda the succulent stem of E. heterochroma is taken for *insanity, *migraine and *syphilis, and the sap for *pyomyositis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Uganda the leaves of E. heterophylla (including E. geniculata) are taken for *intestinal worms (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), and used to treat *abdominal swellings, *constipation and throat *wound (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania the Shambaa use the roots of this plant as a treatment for *gonorrhoea, and is also said to be used by mothers to increase their *milk production (Kokwaro 1976); E. hirta is an important herbal medicine used in many parts of the world for the treatment of a variety of diseases; E. hirta was validated as a dysentery medication and was included in the African pharmacopoeia of the Organisation of the African Unity; in East Africa fresh leaves of E. hirta applied to *wounds are believed to speed up healing, a *decoction of the leaves is used to treat *asthma, the juice from the leaves and stems is used for *eye complants, *swellings or *boils on the throat or under the arms, and the leaves are chewed and the juice swallowed in cases of *heart-burn; this herb is also used to increase *lactation in sheep, goats and cattle, and to cure *fever in goats (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the whole herb of is used to treat skin *abscess (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), *diarrhoea and *sterility (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Mali a decoction of the whole plant of E. hirta alone is drunk to treat *urinary *schistomiasis or mixed with the whole plant of Cissus quadrangularis and drunk to treat *intestinal *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); in East Africa the powdered plant of E. inaequilatera is applied to *wounds and *sores , and used by women in* labour to relieve *pain; also the leaves and stems are chewed to treat *gonorrhoea (Kokwaro 1976); in Senegal the highly poisonous latex of E. paganorum is used externally to ease *leprosy; in East Uganda the Basoga use the whole plant of E. prostrata for *insanity and tropical *splenomegaly (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Tanzania the Hehe rub the white sap of E. quadrangularis into a cut in the side of the brow to alleviate general *headache (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the sap of E. quinquecostata is burnt and rubbed into the skin in cases of pain in the ribs, while the leaves of E. schimperiana are used as a remedy for *colds and *coughs (Kokwaro 1976); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda this herb is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in East Africa E. tirucalli is a native succulent widely planted as 153 a hedge to protect gardens and is a much used medicinal plant; the juice or latex of root or stem is used to treat *bilharzia, *colic, *constipation, *diarrhoea, *epilepsy, *gonorrhoea, *otitis, *sore throat, *sterility in women, stomach complaints and *taenia, and as an *antidote or *emetic in cases of poisoning and *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976; Neuwinger 1996); in West Uganda E. tirucalli is taken to treat dry cough (Adjanohoun et al. 1993) and quicken labour (Kakudidi et al. 2000); the latex of E. trigona is a powerful *purgative only used as a medicine in persistent cases of *constipation; in Benin the twig ash of E. unispina is used against *asthma; in Tanzania the Shambaa use the root of E. usambarica for children’s diseases (Kokwaro 1976). euphorbia – (mainly) tree-like species of the genus Euphorbia (the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae), e.g. candelabria euphorbia or tree euphorbia (E. candelabria), finger euphorbia or pencil euphorbia (E. tirucalli), red euphorbia (E. cotinifolia) and white lace euphorbia (E. leucocephala); smaller species of the genus are often named *spurge. MEuphorbiaceae – a family usually considered to consist of about 300 genera and 5000 species of herbs, shrubs and trees (many succulent), but recently the families *Phyllanthaceae and Putranjivaceae were split off; many genera have species used as medicines, e.g. *Acalypha, *Alchornea, *Antidesma, *Bridelia, *Clutia, *Croton, *Cyathogyne, *Dalechampia, *Erythrococca, *Euphorbia, *Hymenocardia, *Jatropha, *Macaranga, *Mallotus, *Maprounea, *Mildbraedia, *Oldfieldia, *Pseudolachnostylis, *Ricinus, *Shirakiopsis (*Sapium), *Suregada, *Synadenium, *Tragia and *Uapaca. European skullcap – Scutellaria galericulata (the mint family – Lamiaceae) is a widespread European herb used as a medicine in the same way as *Virginia skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora), but like *lesser skullcap (Scutellaria minor) today is not much used. Euryops (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 100 species of perennial herbs or shrubs mostly native to South Africa but extending to NE tropical Africa and the Arabian peninsula (5 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in Kenya a decoction of the flowers of E. jacksonii is given to women to assist in childbirth (Kokwaro 1976). evening primrose – species of the genus Oenothera (Onagraceae) and particularly O. biennis; this herb is native to North America, but is now widely dispersed as a weed in many parts of the world; the plant is rich in essential fatty acids; the flowers, leaves and stem bark have *astringent and *sedative properties and are used for *whooping cough; the plant has also been used for *asthma and *digestive problems; the oil, applied externally, is useful to treat *eczema and other itchy *skin conditions and *breast tenderness; taken internally the oil lowers *blood pressure and prevent clumping of platelets; the oil is also taken for *premenstrual problems and for *multiple sclerosis. evodia – Evodia rutaecarpa (the orange family, Rutaceae) is a deciduous Asian tree with white flowers and greenish-red fruits; the fruit has a marked warming effect on the body, helping to relieve *headaches and a wide range of *digestive problems, such as *diarrhoea and *vomiting; it is also used to treat *abdominal pains and a weak pulse. Evolvulus (Convolvulaceae) – a genus with about 100 species of annual or perennial herbs or subshrubs confined to tropical America, except for two widespread species (2 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Kenya E. alsinoïdes is used as a *vermifuge (to expel *intestinal worms), it is widely used by *witchdoctors for *magic (Kokwaro 1976), but the Luo in Kenya use the leaves and roots to treat *bleeding *wounds and *diarrhoea (Geissler et al. 2002). exanthema – a disease accompanied by *eruptions of the skin, such as *measles and *scarlet fever. exanthematoss – pertaining to eruptions of the skin. Excoecaria (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with about 40 species of trees, shrubs or subshrubs in the Old World tropics (2 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in coastal East Africa a preparation of the bark and latex of E. madagascariensis is used together with that of Acokanthera as poison on hunting arrows (Weiss 1979). 154 exfoliation – scaling off (med); leaves falling off (bot). expectorant – a substance which stimulates *coughing and helps to clear *phlegm (*mucus) from the throat and chest, usually removed by spitting, many plants are used as expectorants, e.g. Anagallis arvensis (*common pimpernel, *pimpernel, *scarlet pimpernel, Primulaceae), *Argemone mexicana (*Mexican poppy or *prickly poppy, Papaveraceae), Allium cepa (*onion, Alliaceae), Calamintha officinalis (*calamint, Lamiaceae), *Capsicum frutescens (*Cayenne or *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), Carum carvi (*caraway, Apiaceae), Cedrus spp. (*cedar, Pinaceae), Cephaëlis ipecacuanha (*ipecacuanha, Rubiaceae), Ceanothus americanus (*New Jersey tea, Rhamnaceae), *Diodia sarmentosa (Rubiaceae), Dorema ammoniacum (*ammoniacum, Apiaceae), *Eucalyptus globulus (*blue gum, Myrtaceae), *Euphorbia hirta (*asthma weed, Euphorbiaceae), Ferula gummosa (*galbanum, Apiaceae), Ficus carica (cultivated *fig, Moraceae), Guarea rusbyi (*cocillana, Meliaceae), Hibiscus trionum (*bladder hibiscus, Malvaceae), *Icacina mannii (Icacinaceae), Inula helenium (*elecampane, Asteraceae), Justicia adhatoda or Adhatoda vascia (*Malabar nut, Acanthaceae), Lippia dulcis (*yerba dulce, Verbenaceae), Liquidambar orientalis (*balm-of-Gilead or *Levant storax, Hamameliaceae), Lobaria pulmonaria (*tree lungwort, Lobariaceae; lichens), *Luffa cylindrica (*loofah gourd or *vegetable sponge, Cucurbitaceae), Madhuca spp. (*butter tree, Sapotaceae), Marrubium vulgare (*white horehound, Lamiaceae), Morus albus (*white mulberry, Moraceae), *Piptadeniastrum africanum (Fabaceae), Pistacia lentiscus (*lentisc or *mastic tree, Anacardiaceae), Plantago major (*broad-leaved or *common plantain, Plantaginaceae), Polypodium vulgare (*polypody, Polypodiaceae; Pteridophyta), Populus balsamifera & × candicans (*balm-of-Gilead, Salicaceae), Primula veris (*cowslip or *primavera, Primulaceae), Quillaja saponaria (*soapbark, Rosaceae), Sanguinaria canadensis (*blood root, Papaveraceae), Thuja occidentalis (*arbor-vitae, Cupressaceae), Tropaeolum majus (*common nasturtium or *nasturtium, Tropaeolaceae), *Uapaca guinensis (*sugar plum, Euphorbiaceae), Viola odorata (*sweet violet) & tricolor (*heartsease, Violaceae). eyebright – species of the genus Euphrasia (Orobanchaceae) are all annual semi-parasitic herbs from temperate regions; eybright’s use for eye problems was in part due to the *Doctrine of Signatures; eyebright relieves *inflammation and tightens *mucous membranes and is used to counter *catarrh and treat *conjunctivitis and *blepharitis; it is often used for *allergic conditions affecting the eyes, ear, *sinuses and nasal passages. Fabaceae – a family usually considered to consist of about 660 genera and 16500 species of herbs, climbers, shrubs, lianes and trees widely distributed throughout tropical as well as cold regions (160 genera and 1202 species in East Africa, 110 genera and 474 species in Uganda); the family consists of 3 subfamiles sometimes considered as separate families: Fabaceae subfam. Caesalpinoideae with 162 genera and 2000 species of herbs, climbers, shrubs, lianes and trees widely distributed throughout tropical regions (40 genera and 150 species in East Africa, 20 genera and 42 species in Uganda); many genera have species used as medicines, e.g. *Afzelia, *Bauhinia, *Caesalpinia, *Cassia, *Chamaecrista, *Delonix, *Erythrophleum, *Piliostigma, *Pterolobium, *Scorodophloeus, *Tamarindus and *Tylosema (*Bauhinia). Fabaceae subfam. Faboideae (Papilionoideae) with about 440 genera and 11500 species of herbs, climbers, shrubs, lianes and trees widely distributed throughout tropical as well as cold regions (102 genera and 932 species in East Africa, 76 genera and 369 species in Uganda); many genera have species used as medicines, e.g. *Abrus, *Adenocarpus, *Aeschynomene, *Alysicarpus, *Astragalus, *Cajanus, *Calpurnia, *Canavalia, *Crotalaria, *Dalbergia, *Desmodium, *Dolichos, *Eriosema, *Erythrina, *Glycine, *Indigofera, *Kotschya, *Lablab, *Lathyrus, *Leptoderris, *Lonchocarpus, *Lotus, *Millettia, *Mucuna, *Mundulea, *Neorautanenia, *Ormocarpum, *Pericopsis, *Phaseolus, *Pisum, *Pseudarthria, *Pseudovigna, 155 *Psophocarpus, *Pterocarpus, *Rhynchosia, *Sesbania, *Stylosanthes, *Tephrosia, *Vigna, *Xeroderris and *Zornia. Fabaceae subfam. Mimosoideae with 58 genera and about 3100 species of herbs, climbers, shrubs, lianes and trees widely distributed throughout tropical regions (18 genera and 120 species in East Africa, 14 genera and 63 species in Uganda); many genera include species which are used as medicines, e.g. *Acacia, *Albizia, *Dichrostachys, *Entada, *Faidherbia, *Leucaena, *Mimosa, *Newtonia and Tetrapleura. facial – of or from the face, e.g. facial nerve; see *trigeminal neuralgia. Fadogia (Rubiaceae) – a genus of about 40-50 species of herbs, shrubs or small trees confined to tropical Africa (about 14 species in east Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the juice of the roots of F. ancylantha (= Temnocalyx obovatus) is rubbed into wounds as an antidote for any general poisoning, while in Kenya the root juice of F. cienkowskii is used in the same way to treat Acokanthera poisoning (Kokwaro 1976). Fagara (Rutaceae) – a genus now included in *Zanthoxylum. Fagaropsis (Rutaceae) – a genus with 2 species of deciduous shrubs or trees native to tropical Africa (2 species in East Africa, 1 in Uganda); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the bark of F. angolensis to treat general weakness, ill-feeling and *impotence in men (Heine & König 1988); in Kenya the roots of F. hildebrandtii are mixed with those of Zanthoxylum chalybeum in the treatment of *chest pains (Kokwaro 1976). Fagonia (Zygophyllaceae) – a genus of about 30 species of annual or perennial herbs or shrubs widespread in hot and dry regions (3 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in East Africa the bark of F. paulayana (= F. bruguieri auct.) is scratched and the exudate is used as a dressing for *wounds, but it smarts on application (Kokwaro 1976). Fagopyrum (Polygonaceae) – a genus with about 6 species of annual or perennial herbs widely distributed in temperate Europe and Asia; F. esculentum (*buckwheat) is cultivated as a grain crop; in East Africa the leaf is chewed and eaten or only the juice taken as a remedy for *fever and morning sickness during *pregnancy (Koyama 1976). falling person – a person suffering from *epilepsy or *convulsion. false daisy – Eclipta prostata (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is an annual or short-lived perennial creeping herb widespread as a weed throughout the tropics of the old world; the leaves have been eaten as a vegetable, and contain a black pigment that in India has been used to colour the hair or as an ink for tattooing; both in Chinese and Indian herbal medicine it is used to invigorate the *liver, staunch *bleeding (especially from the *uterus), and to prevent premature greying of the hair; alternative names: *trailing eclipta and *white eclipta (syn. E. alba). false helleborine1 – species of the genus Veratrum (Melanthiaceae); all species of this genus are very toxic. false helleborine2 – Adonis vernalis (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae) is a perennial Eurasian herb sometimes cultivated in gardens for its bright yellow spring flowers; it contains *cardiac glycosides similar to those found in *foxglove (Digitalis purpurea); these substances improve the heart’s efficiancy, increasing its output while at the same time slowing its rate; it is mainly used to treat *low blood pressure and too fast or irregularly beating hearts; alternative name: *yellow pheasant’s eye. false unicorn root (Am) – Chamaelirium luteum (the lily family, Liliaceae) is an important medicinal plant in Eastern North America, its root has long been used for women’s complaints, especially for *menstrual problems encouraging a regular menstrual cycle, *menopausal symptoms, ovarian *cysts, *uterine infections and *endometriosis; alternative names: *blazing star and *helonias. farmer’s tobacco – Nicotiana rustica (Solanaceae); for medicinal use see *Nicotiana. fatigue – weariness; the state of being very tired. fauces (pl.: fauces) – the cavity at the back of the mouth leading into the pharynx; *inflammatory *affection (disorder) of the fauces is named *angina; see also *croup and *quincy. 156 Faurea (Proteaceae) – a genus with about 15 species of trees and shrubs native to Africa and Madagascar (6 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in East Africa bark of F. saligna and related species is boiled in broth and taken as a *tonic, while the roots are boiled and the liquid drunk for *diarrhoea and *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976). febrifuge – (a substance or plant) which reduces or prevent *fever; many plants reduce fever by encouraging sweating; for such plants see *fever; alternative names: *antifebrile and *antipyretic. febrile – feverish; with *fever; relating to fever; for plants used to treat this condition see *fever. felon – *whitlow; localized supporation in finger or toe in one of several situations, e.g. in the nail fold or beneath the *periosteum; many plants are used to treat this condition, e. g. *Acacia hockii (*white thorn bark, Fabaceae), *Asystasia gangetica (Acanthaceae), *Citrullus lanatus (Cucurbitaceae), *Ipomoea batatas (*sweet potato) & cairica (Convolvulaceae), *Penianthus zenkeri (Menispermaceae), *Polygala erioptera (Polygalaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae) and *Swartzia madagascariensis (Fabaceae); see also *paronychia. felwort – Gentianella amarella (Gentianaceae). fennel – Foeniculum vulgare (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is an aromatic perennial herb native to the Mediterranean region, but now widely cultivated in most temperate regions; the dry fruits contain 8% *volatile oil, which is *antispasmodic and relieves *bloating and *wind; fennel seeds are also *anti-inflammatory, *diuretic, settle *stomach pain, help to treat *kidney stones and stimulate the appetite; fennel is safe for children and can be given for *colic and painful *teething in babies; fennel increases *breast-milk production, and the herb is still used as an eyewash for *sore eyes and *conjunctivitis; the seeds have a long-standing reputation as an aid to weight loss and to *longevity. fenugreek – Trigonella foenum-graecum (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a strongly aromatic annual native to the Mediterranean region and widely cultivated in India and elsewhere; 2000 years ago the Greek physician Dioscorides recommended fenugreek as a remedy for all manner of *gynaecological problems, including infection of the *uterus and *inflammation of the *vagina and *vulva; today the seeds are given during *convalescence and to encourage weight gain, especially in *anorexia; they also lower *fever and blood *cholesterol levels and are used to induce child birth and to increase *breast-milk production; in China fenugreek is used as a *pessary to treat *cervical cancer; in animal experiments, fenugreek has indeed been shown to inhibit *liver *cancer. Fernandoa (Bignoniaceae) – a genus with 13 tree species native to the Old World tropics (1 genus in East Africa, none in Uganda); in East Africa a decoction of the roots of F. magnifica is used as a remedy for *chest diseases and as a *laxative for *constipation (Kokwaro 1976). fertile – being able to reproduce. fever – an abnormal condition of the body, characterised by undue rise in temperature; many plants are used to treat fever, e.g. *Acacia hockii (*white thorn acacia) & nilotica & seyal & sieberiana (Fabaceae, Mimosoideae), *Acalypha fruticosa (Euphorbiaceae), Achillea millefolium (*yarrow, Asteraceae), *Acmella caulirhiza (Asteraceae), *Adansonia digitata (*baobab tree, Bombacaceae), *Afzelia africana (Sapindaceae), *Agelaea pentagyna & trifolia (Connaraceae), *Ajuga remota (Lamiaceae), *Albizia adianthifolia (Fabaceae) & lebbeck (*East Indian walnut), *Alepidea peduncularis (Apiaceae), Anemarrhena asphodeloides (*zhi mu, Liliaceae), *Annona senegalensis (*wild custard apple, Annonaceae), *Aoranthe penduliflora (Rubiaceae), *Allophylus rubifolius (Sapindaceae), *Artemisia afra (Asteraceae) & annua (*Chinese wormwood), Asclepias tuberosa (*pleurisy root, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco (*quebracho, Apocynaceae), *Azadirachta indica (*margosa tree or *neem, Meliaceae), Bambusa brevifolia (*black bamboo), *Barringtonia racemosa (Lecythiaceae), Benincasa hispida (*petha or *wax gourd, Cucurbitaceae), *Biophytum petersianum (Oxalidaceae), *Blighia unijugata (Sapindaceae), Boswellia serrata (*sallaki, Burseraceae), 157 *Brachiaria brizantha (Poaceae), Bupleurum chinense (*bupleurum, Apiaceae), Butea monosperma (*flame of the forest, Fabaceae), *Caesalpinia bonducella (*nikkar nut) & pulcherrima (*Barbados flower fence & *Barbados pride, Fabaceae), *Cajanus cajan (*pigeon pea, Fabaceae), Calamintha officinalis (*common *calamint, Lamiaceae), *Cannabis sativa (*hashish, *marijuana, *pot, Cannabaceae), Capsella bursa-pastoris (*shepherd’s purse, Brassicaceae), *Capsicum frutescens (*Cayenne or *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), *Cardiospermum graniflorum (Sapindaceae), *Celtis africana (Celtidiaceae), *Chenopodium ambrosioides & opulifolium (Chenopodiaceae), Chimaphila umbellata (*pipsissewa, Ericaceae), Cinchoma officinalis (*fever bark tree or *quinine, Rubiaceae), Cinnamomum verum (*cinnamon, Lauraceae), *Citrullus lanatus (*water melon, Cucurbitaceae), *Citrus × limon (*lemon, Rutaceae), Clerodendrum incisum (Verben-aceae), *Clutia abyssinica (Euphorbiaceae), *Combretum molle & paniculatum & racemosum (Combretaceae), *Commelina africana & forskalaei, Commelinaceae), *Commiphora africana & madagascariensis (Burseraceae), Coptis chinensis (*Chinese goldthread, Ranunculaceae), Cornus sanguinea (*common dogwood) & mas (*cornelian cherry, Cornaceae), *Costus spectablis (Zingiberaceae), Crateva nurvula (*three-leaved caper or *varuna, Capparidaceae), *Cremaspora triflora (Rubiaceae), *Croton dichogamus & macrostachyus (Euphorbiaceae), *Cusonia zimmermannii (Araliaceae), *Cymbopogon citratus (*lemon grass, Poaceae), *Cynodon dactylon (*Bermeda grass, Poaceae), *Cynoglossum coeruleum (Boraginaceae), *Dioscorea quartiniana (Dioscoreaceae), *Dorstenia contrayerva (*contrayerva, Urticaceae), *Ehretia cymosa (Boraginaceae), *Ephedra spp. (*desert tea, Ephedraceae, Gymnospermae), Eriodictyon californicum (*yerba sancta, Hydrophyllaceae), *Erythroxylum mannii (Erythroxylaceae), *Eucalyptus globulosus (*blue gum) & other Eucalyptus species (Myrtaceae), Eupatorium perfoliatum (*boneset, Asteraceae) & teucrifolium (*white horehound), Euphorbia balsamifera & hirta (Euphorbiaceae), *Fagopyrum esculentum (*buckwheat, Polygonaceae), Filipendula ulmaria (*meadowsweet, Rosaceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllanthaceae or Euphorbiaceae), Forsythia suspensa (*weeping forsythia, Oleaceae), *Gardenia jasminoides (*Chinese gardenia) & ternifolia (Rubiaceae), Geum urbanum (*avens, Rosaceae), *Glinus oppositifolius (Aizoaceae & Molluginaceae), *Glycine max (*soybean, Fabaceae), *Gutenbergia cordifolia (Asteraceae), *Gynura scandens (Asteraceae), Harpagophytum procumbens (*devil’s claw, Pedaliaceae), *Harrisonia abyssinica (Simaroubaceae), *Harungana madagascariensis (Clusiaceae or Hypericaceae), *Hibiscus fuscus & ludwigii (Malvaceae), *Hordeum distichon & vulgare (*barley, Poaceae), *Hoslundia opposita (Lamiaceae), *Indigofera arrecta (Fabaceae), *Ipomoea batatas (*sweet potato, Convolvulaceae), *Khaya spp. (Meliaceae), *Landolphia owariensis (Apocynaceae), *Lefebvrea longipedicellata (Apiaceae), *Leonotis nepetifolia (Lamiaceae), *Leucas martinicensis (Lamiaceae), *Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae), Lophophora williamsii (*mescal or *peyote, Cactaceae), *Lycium chinense (*Chinese matrimony vine or *Chinese wolfberry, Solanaceae), Lycopus europaeus (*gipsy wort, Lamiaceae), *Mangifera indica (*mango, Anacardiaceae), Manihot esculenta (*cassava, Euphorbiaceae), *Maytenus senegalensis (Celastraceae), Menyanthes trifoliata (*bogbean or *buckbean, Menyanthaceae), *Merremia kentrocaulos (Convolvulaceae), *Momordica charantia (*cerasee or *kerala) & foetida (Cucurbitaceae), *Morinda morindoides (Rubiaceae), Morus alba (*white mulberry, Moraceae), Murraya paniculata (*cosmic bark, Rutaceae), Myrica (Morella) salicifolia (Myricaceae), *Neoboutonia melleri (Euphorbiaceae), Nepeta cataria (*catmint, Lamiaceae), Notopterygium incisium (*qiang huo, Apiaceae), *Ocimum gratissimum & sanctum (*holy basil or *tulsi, Lamiaceae), *Oenanthe palustris (Apiaceae), *Olinia usambarensis (Oliniaceae), *Opilia celtidifolia (Opiliaceae), *Osyris lanceolata (Santalaceae), *Oxyanthus speciosus (Rubiaceae), Paeonia lactiflora (*white peony, Paeoniaceae), *Pavetta crassipes (Rubiaceae), *Pentas longiflora (Rubiaceae), Pogostemon cablin (*patchouli, Lamiaceae), Populus alba (*abele, Salicaceae) & 158 tremuloides (*quaking aspen), Picrorrhiza kurrooa (*picrorrhiza, Scrophulariaceae), *Pittosporum viridiflorum (Pittosporaceae), *Plectranthus cyanus & cylindraceus (Lamiaceae), Prunus africana (*pygeum, Rosaceae), *Pseudarthria hookeri (Fabaceae), Pulsatilla dunensis (*Chinese anemone), *Rauvolfia vomitoria (*snakeroot, Apocynaceae), Rehmannia glutinosa (*Chinese foxglove, Scrophulariaceae), *Rhus aromatica (*sweet sumach) & glabra (*smooth sumach) & natalensis (Anacardiaceae), *Rothmannia longiflora (Rubiaceae), *Salix alba *white willow) & fragilis (*crack willow) & nigra (*black willow) & subserrata (Salicaceae), *Salvadora persica (Salvadoraceae), Sambucus nigra (*elder, Sambucaceae), *Sarcocephalus latifolius (Rubiaceae), *Sarcostemma viminale (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), Schizonepeta tenuifolia (*jung jie, Lamiaceae), *Schoenoplectiella articulata (Cyperaceae), *Senna didymobotrya & occidentalis (Fabaceae), *Securidaca longipedunculata (Polygalaceae), Smilax anceps (Smilacaceae), Solanecio angulatus & mannii (Asteraceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae), *Sonchus luxurians (Asteraceae), *Sterculia africana (Sterculiaceae), *Strophanthus eminii (Apocynaceae), Swertia chirata (*chiretta, Gentianaceae), *Tamarindus indica (*tamarind, Fabaceae), Tanacetum parthenium (*feverfew), *Teclea nobilis (Rutaceae), Tecomaria capense (Cape honeysuckle, Bignoniaceae), *Terminalia brownii & mollis (Combretaceae), Teucrium chamaedrys (*wall germander) & scorodonia (*wood sage, Lamiaceae), Thuja occidentalis (*arborvitae, Cupressaceae), Thymus sepyllum (*wild thyme) & vulgaris (*garden thyme), Trigonella foenum-graecum (*fenugreek, Fabaceae), *Triticum aestivum (*wheat, Poaceae), *Turraea mombassana (Meliaceae), Tylophora asmatica (*asmatica, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Usteria guineensis (Loganiaceae), *Uvaria scheffleri (Annonaceae), *Vernonia amygdalina & theophrastifolia (Asteraceae), *Warburgia salutaris (Canellaceae), *Zanthoxylum chalybaeum (*East African prickly ash, Rutaceae), *Zehneria scabra (Cucurbitaceae), *Zingiber officinalis (*ginger or *singabera, Zingiberaceae) and *Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae); see also *acetylsalicylic acid, *aspirin, *antifebrile, *antipyretic, *febrifuge, *feverish, *malaria and *salicin. fever bark – Alstonia constricta and A. scholaris (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae) are evergreen trees from Australia and South-East Asia; fever bark has been taken to treat *malarial fever (and has been called Australian *quinine), but its efficacy against malaria is uncertain; the bark contains indole alkaloids and is *antispasmodic and lowers *blood pressure; today fever bark is mainly taken to reduce high blood pressure. fever bark tree – Cinchona officinalis (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is an evergreen tree native to mountainous tropical regions of South America, but now grown in many tropical regions; it is the source of *quinine, for centuries the most widely taken antimalarial remedy in the world; it is also *antibacterial and increases stomach secretions thus stimulating *digestion; it is also prescribed to treat other *feverish conditions; other species of the genus Cinchona are used in the same way, e.g. C. calisaya and C. ledgeriana; alternative name: *Peruvian bark. feverfew – Tanacetum parthenium (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a perennial herb native to southeastern Europe, but widely cultivated as a garden plant in all temperate countries; this is believed to be the most effective plant to treat *migraine (particularly when related to *menstruation), it is also *analgesic, *antirheumatic and reduces *fever; see also *parthenolide. feverish – having a *fever; for plants used to treat this condition see *fever. fever tree – Acacia xanthophloea (Fabaceae, Mimosoideae). fibrillation of the heart – uncontrolled twitching or quivering of cardiac muscles. fibroid – resembling or composed of fibrous tissue, as a tumour. fibroma – a fibroid non-dangerous tumour. Ficus (Moraceae) – a genus of about 800 species of trees, shrubs or lianes widely distributed throughout the tropical and warm regions of the world (in Uganda 43 species); some species are cultivated as ornamentals, others are used for barkcloth, for their edible receptacles (’fruits’) or for religious purposes; the most famous species, F. carica, the cultivated *fig, is widely 159 consumed particularly from North Africa and adjacent parts of Asia from where it is exported to the international markets; the fruit sugars of figs (particularly when dried) have a pronounced but gentle *laxative effect, and is thus a useful remedy for mild *constipation; figs are also *emollient (relieve pain and *inflammation) and mildly *expectorant; the milky *latex from leaves and stems is believed to be *analgesic, and has long been used to treat *warts, insect bites and stings; the latex of all species can be applied to *haemorrhoids, warts and aching *joints; in Central Uganda the Baganda drink a leaf *decoction of F. carica together with fruits of Solanum aethiopicum (including S. gilo) to increase *lactation (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in East Africa the figs of F. cyathistipula (F. rhynchocarpa) are used as a *purgative by boiling or pounding and soaking them in water and the decoction drunk warm (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the bark of F. exasperata is used to treat *febrile convulsions (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Tanzania the root bark decoction is drunk for *asthma, and the stem bark is applied to *wounds for rapid healing (Chhabra et al. 1990a); in Congo the leaf pulp is applied to *leprosy sores and swellings and is rubbed in for *intercostal pain, *pruritis, and *rheumatism; in Cameroon the leaves are rubbed on the head for *headaches and as a *liniment for *cancer tumours, and also for *leprosy sores and *scabies, while the bark extract is used for *gonorrhoea, *nausea and severe fits of *coughing; in Nigeria the stem bark is used for *intestinal worms and the roots are chewed for cough; in Sierra Leone a leaf decoction is used as an *abortifacient in early *pregnancy, and the powdered dry leaves for *vaginal rash (Neuwinger 1996); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam drink a *decoction of the bark of F. glumosa to treat *diarrhoea and to soothe the *stomach (Heine & König 1988); in Uganda the leaves of F. natalensis (*bark cloth tree) are used to treat *dysentery, *septic ears and *snakebite, while the root is used to ease *cataract, *hiccup and to promote *labour and expel retained *placenta (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Central Uganda the Baganda chew baked hanging roots of this tree to induce *uterine contraction and to expel retained *placenta, and to increase *lactation (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in West Uganda this tree is used to treat painful menstruation, *dysmenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe direct smoke from burning sticks of G. ternifolia into ailing eyes (Masinde 1996); also elsewhere in East Africa the bark is chewed and the juice swallowed to induce *lactation, or an extract is drunk as a cure for *influenza (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the stem latex of F. ovata is used to treat *ring worm (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania roots of F. stuhlmannii are boiled and the liquid given to woemen to increase lactation (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya F. sur is used for *aching teeth, *colds and *stomach problems; in Tanzania a root decoction is taken as a *cough remedy (Kokwaro 1976) and a root bark decoction (with Strychnos) is drunk to treat *convulsions, *hernia and *psychiatric problems; in Congo the fruit is used to treat *abscesses and *leprosy ulcers (Bouquet 1969); in southern tropical Africa the root extract is a medication for *uterine problems and male and female *sterility; in South Africa the fruit *infusion is drunk to treat *tuberculosis, and the root decoction for *diarrhoea; in West Africa it is used in much the same way (Neuwinger 1996); in East Africa the bark of F. sycomorus (*mulberry fig) has been used to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery; in East Africa the bark of F. thonningii is used for the treatment of *influenza, while the root or bark is used to increase *lactation (Kokwaro 1976); in Mali a decoction of the leaves of this plant is drunk to treat *intestinal *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); in Apac district in North Uganda the stem bark and roots of F. vallis-choudae are used to treat *diarrhoea (Okello & Ssegawa 2007). field horsetail – Equisetum arvense (Equisetaceae; Pteridophyta); for medicinal use see *common horsetail; field horsetail is more commonly used about E. pratense. field poppy – Papaver rhoeas (the poppy family, Papaveraceae) is an annual herb native to the Mediterranean and adjacent Asia, but has spread to most temperate and warm parts of the world, and is now a troublesome weed in some countries, but it is also cultivated as a garden plant; this poppy contains similar *alkaloids as the *opium poppy (P. somniferum), but are much milder; 160 the flowers are mildly *analgesic and *sedative, and have long been used as a mild pain reliever and as a treatment for *asthma, *insomnia, irritable *coughs and general irritability; alternative names: *corn *poppy and *red poppy. fig1 – species of the genus Ficus in the fig family (Moraceae); cultivated fig is Ficus carica (common fig); the edible part is a receptacle; other species are: bark cloth fig (F. natalensis), Cape fig (F. sur), climbing fig (F. pumila), fiddle-leaf fig (F. lyrata), *Indian fig (F. indica), Java fig (F. benjamina), Moreton Bay fig (F. macrophylla), mistletoe fig (F. diversifolia), mulberry fig (F. sycomorus), rooting fig (F. radicans), strangler fig or wild fig (F. thonningii), sycamore fig (F. sycomorus), and weeping fig (F. benjamina); see also *banyan (F. benghalensis), Indian *rubber plant/tree (F. elastica) and *peepal or *pipaal (F. religiosa); the latex of all species can be applied to *haemorrhoids, *warts and aching *joints. fig2 – Ficus carica (the fig family, Moraceae) is a shrub or small tree to 4 m tall native to western Asia, but now widely cultivated in many warm and temperate countries; the fruit sugars of figs (particularly when dried) have a pronounced but gentle *laxative effect, and is thus a useful remedy for mild *constipation; figs are also *emollient (relieve pain and *inflammation) and mildly *expectorant; the milky *latex from leaves and stems is believed to be *analgesic, and has long been used to treat *warts, *insect bites and stings. 4 fig – species from other genera or families than *Ficus or the *fig family (Moraceae), e.g. Hottentot fig (Carpobrotus edulis, Aizoaceae) and *Indian fig (species from the genus *Opuntia in Cactaceae); for medicinal use see *Opuntia. fig family – Moraceae; it is a large family with 75 genera and 3000 species; alternative name: *mulberry family. figwort – Scrophularia nodosa (the figwort or foxglove family, Scrophulariaceae) is a perennial herb from the northern temperate region; the Latin generic name alludes to the plant’s age-long use to treat the disease *scrofula; figwort is *diuretic and helps to *detoxify the body and expel *intestinal worms; it is also helpful in treating chronic *skin diseases such as *eczema and *psoriasis; it will also speed the healings of *wounds, *burns, *ulcers and *haemorrhoids; alternative name: *common figwort; see also *American figwort (S. marylandica), *Chinese figwort (S. ningopoensis) and *water figwort (S. aquatica). figwort family – Scrophulariaceae is a large family previously considered to contain about 220 genera and 3000 species, but now much smaller since many species are transferred to other families, e.g. Orobanchaceae and Veronicaceae; alternative name: foxglove family. filbert – the hazel Corylus maxima (Corylaceae); the nutritious fruit is *astringent and has been used to treat *diarrhoea. filiaria – tiny roundworms causing the disease *filiariasis; three genera of filaria roundworms cause diseases in man, viz. Loa, Onchocerca and Wuchereria; in West Africa Loa loa is spread by mangrove flies and cause a filiariasis that is more common to monkeys than to man; filiariasis due to Onchocerca (*onchocerciasis or *river blindness) is spread by small gnats or midges (e.g. Simulium damnosum) and is most widespread in fertile agricultural areas; filiariasis due to Wuchereria worms is spread by a mosquito; these worms produce an irritant toxin which cause thickening and fibrosis of the walls of the *lymphatics and may cause *elephantiasis; plants used to alleviate these parsites include *Crassocephalum vitellinum (Asteraceae), *Kigelia pinnata (*sausage tree, Bignoniaceae), *Neoboutonia melleri (Euphorbiaceae), *Morus alba (*white mulberry), *Oxygonum sinuatum (Polygonaceae), *Psychotria tanganyikensis (Rubiaceae) and *Xeroderris stuhlmannii (Fabaceae). filiariasis – a tropical disease caused by tiny worms called *filaria; in Indonesia it is treated by *water hyssop, Bacoba monnieri (the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae); for other plants used see *filaria. finger millet – *Eleusine corocana (Poaceae); for medicinal use see *Eleusine; alternative name: *African millet. 161 fireweed – Epilobium angustifolium (the willowherb family, Onagraceae) is a perennial herb widespread throughout the north temperate regions; it is *astringent and *demulcent and has been used to treat *diarrhoea, irritable *bowel syndrome, mucous *colitis and *prostate problems; in Siberia an alcoholic drink has been made from this herb and the *fly agaric (Amanita muscaria); alternative name: *Rose Bay willow herb. fish berry – Anamirta cocculus (Menispermaceae); this species produces drupes which contain *curare, *tubocurarine chloride, an arrow poison used by South American Indians. fistulae – abnormal passage between an internal organ and the skin; they are sometimes treated with herbal medicines, e.g. *wild teasel, Dipsacus fullonum (the teasel family, Dipsacaceae). fit – a sudden attack of an acute disease or the sudden appearance of some symptom, such as *coughing. fixed oil – a non-volatile oil (e.g. in a plant); an oil produced by hot or dry *infusion. Flacourtia (Flacourtiaceae or Salicaceae) – a genus of 10 species of shrubs or trees widely distributed in the Old World tropics (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa a root *decoction of F. indica is considered as a *diuretic and used to treat *indigestion and general *stomach pain (Kokwaro 1976). Flacourtiaceae – a family traditionally considered to consist of 85 genera and about 1100 species of trees and shrubs widely distributed in tropical and warm regions (21 genera and 43 species in East Africa, 11 genera and 20 species in Uganda); however, recent research places the type genus *Flacourtia (with *Dovyalis, *Oncoba and *Trimeria) in *Salicaceae, while *Xylotheca is placed in the family *Achariaceae; species of the genera *Aphloia, *Flacourtia, *Dovyalis, *Oncoba, *Trimeria and *Xylotheca are used as medicines. Flagellaria (Flagellariaceae) – a genus of 3-4 species of grass-like herbs or subshrubs widely distributed in the Old World Tropics (2 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in Kenya the hot burnt leaves of F. guineensis are applied to *hernia, while in Tanzania the fruits are taken as a medicine for *venereal diseases, and the ash of burnt plants placed on a rupture to cure it (Kokwaro 1976, Weiss 1979). Flagellariaceae – a family of a single genus and 3-4 species of grass-like herbs or subshrubs widely distributed in the Old World Tropics (2 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); two families, Hanguanaceae and Joinvilleaceae, have sometimes been included in Flagellariaceae; species of *Flagellaria are occasionally used as medicine. flame of the forests – Butea monosperma (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a deciduous South Asian tree; a decoction of the *astringent leaves and flowers is taken for *diarrhoea, *fever and heavy *menstrual bleeding, and is used to treat *haemorrhoids and skin conditions; the gum of this tree is known as *Bengal kino; it is taken for acid *indigestion, *diarrhoea and *dysentery, and used as a gargle for *sore throats and as a douche for *vaginitis; alternative name: *palas. flame tree – Erythrina abyssinica (the pea family, Fabaceae); alternative name: *red-hot poker tree; see also Australian flame tree (Brachychiton acerifolium, Sterculiaceae), *Indian coral tree (Erythrina variegata) and South African flame tree (Erythrina lysistemon); for medicinal use see *Erythrina. flatulence – the presence of excessive amount of gas in the *stomach and *intestines. flatus – wind generated from gas in the *stomach and *intestines. flatworm – a worm that is flattened, most important are *tapeworms or *taenia (tenia) and *schistosomes; tapeworms are parasitic worms of the class Cestoidea, they are segmented ribbon-like worms that develop in the *alimentary canal of vertebrates; schistosomes live in the large veins of the portal system and cause the disease * bilharzia (bilharziasis). flavonoids – *polyphenolic compounds that act as pigments imparting color (often yellow or white) to flowers and fruits; they are *antioxidant and especially useful in maintaining a healthy *circulation; some flavonoids also have *anti-inflammatory, *antiviral and *liver-protective activity; flavonoids such as *hesperidin and *rutin strengthen capillaries and prevent leakage into 162 surrounding tissues; *isoflavones are *oestrogenic and are valuable in treating *menopausal symptons. flax – Linum usitatissimum (the flax family, Linaceae); in compounds also other species of the genus Linum, e.g. alpine flax (L. alpinum) and yellow flax (L. flavum); yellow flax is also used about Reinwardtia trigyna (Linaceae), a richly flowering ornamental shrub from India; see *flaxseed and *linseed for medicinal values. flax family – Linaceae; a medium sized family with 13 genera and about 300 species widely distributed in all continents. flaxseed – Linum usitatissimum (the flax family, Linaceae) is a slender Eurasian annual herb widely cultivated for its strong fibers and seeds used as both food and medicine; the seeds have very high levels of essential fatty acids (including *Omega-3 fatty acid), making them valuable in maintaining a healthy heart and *circulation, and in preventing *cancer (especially *breast cancer) and chronic inflammatory diseases; alternative names: *flax and *linseed. fleabane1 – Pulicaria dysenterica (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a medicinal herb. fleabane2 – species of the genus Erigeron (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), e.g. alpine fleabane (E. alpinus), boreal fleabane (E. borealis) and blue fleabane (E. acer); *Canadian fleabane is Erigeron or Conyza canadensis; for medicinal use see *Canadian fleabane. flea seed – Plantago indica and P. psyllium (the plantain family, Plantaginaceae) are annual herbs used as a safe and effective *laxative for thousands of years in Asia, Europe and North Africa; the seeds swell when moistened, and have a jelly-like consistency in the mouth; the seeds are mainly used for relieving *constipation and other *bowel problems such as acid *indigestion, *Crohn’s disease, *dysentery, *haemorrhoids, irritable *bowel syndrome, *stomach ulcers, *ulcerative colitis and unexpectantly *diarrhoea; the seeds will also absorb *toxins in the large bowel and it will help to lower blood-fat and *blood-glucose levels in people with late-onset *diabetes; alternative name: *psyllium. Fleming, Alexander (1881-1955) – famous scientist who rediscovered the use of penicillin as an effective anti-bacterial substance; it was extracted from the fungus Penicillium notatum; penicillin is particularly effective against *gram-positive bacteria. flesh flies – grey flies with dark grey markings from the genus Sarcophaga; the larvae of a few species feed in the living flesh of man, especially in wounds and sores; infestation with larvae of flies is called *myiasis; other species will like the *house fly transmit diseases like *dysentery, *tuberculosis, *typhoid and *yaws. Florence fennel – Foeniculum vulgare var. dulce (the carrot family, Apiaceae); for medicinal use see *fennel. florists’ chrysanthemum – Dendranthema-hybrids (the sunflower family, Asteraceae); often hybrids between D. indicum and D. zawadskii or D. erubescens, e.g. D. × grandiflorum (previously named Chrysanthemum × morifolium or C. × hortorum); in China these plants are popular medicinal herbs used to relieve *headaches, improve the eyesight, soothe *sore eyes and counter infections such as *colds and *flu; research has shown these plants to be most effective at lowering *blood pressure relieving associated symptoms such as *headaches, *dizziness, *insomnia and *angina pain; the plants are also *antiseptic and *antibiotic against a range of *pathogens, and some of their *flavonoids have been found to have *anti-HIV activity; see also *wild chrysanthemum. flowering mistletoe family – Loranthaceae is a large family with about 35 genera and 1300 species widely distributed in all tropical and warm regions. If the family Viscaceae is considered a separate family the Loranthaceae will consist of about 24 generaa and 850 species. flowery knotweed – Polygonum multiflorum (the knotgrass family, Polygonaceae) is an East Asian perennial climber; it is a Chinese *tonic herb with a bitter-sweet taste taken regularly by millions of people; the root is believed to give vitality to the body helping to prevent *ageing and encouraging longevity; research has shown that this plant significantly reduce raised blood 163 *cholesterol levels and increase the levels of sugar in the blood; it also has the ability to counter the *tuberculosis bacillus, it has been much used as a remedy for the *liver and *kidneys, and it may be helpful in the treatment of *malaria. Flueggea (Phyllanthaceae; earlier Euphorbiaceae) – a genus of 13 species of trees or shrubs widespread in the tropics, but only one species in tropical Africa, i.e. F. virosa (common in Uganda); in Central Uganda the Baganda mothers use a leaf infusion of this plant for bathing to give them general strength (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in East Uganda the root is used to treat *gonorrhoea, *hernia, *hydrocele in children, suspected *tuberculosis, and to prevent *abortion (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the fruit is taken for *scabies (Kakudidi et al. 2000), while the leaves and roots are used to treat sexual *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves of this species are used to treat fire *burns (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Kenya the root is used for *dysmenorrhoea, *snakebite and *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe use a leaf concoction of F. virosa for *gonorrhoea (Masinde 1996); in Tanzania it is taken for *abdominal pain, *convulsions, *diarrhoea, *dysmenorrhoea, *epilepsy, *headaches, *gonorrhoea, *hernia, infertility in women, *rectal and *uterine *prolapse and *stomach pains; in Burundi it is used for *colic, *fever, *insanity and *liver pain; in Zimbabwe it is used for *abdominal pain, *backache, *bronchitis, *coughs, diarrhoea, infertility in women, *menstruation problems, *pneumonia and snakebite, and as an *aphrodisiac, to prevent *miscarriage and as a *contraceptive before intercourse (Neuwinger 1996); in West Africa the stem bark is a remedy for *abscesses, *coughs, *diarrhoea, *febrile conditions, *malaria, *pneumonia and *venereal diseases; in Benin and in Senegal it is used as a *pancrease treating almost any disease (Adjanohoun et al. 1989); in Taiwan the whole plant is used in the treatment of *cancer. fluellin – Kickxia elatine (the foxglove family, Scrophulariaceae) is a European *astringent herb used to staunch *wounds and *bleeding. flu (influenza) – infectious disorder with *fever, usually with severe *catarrh and rapid *prostration; for the many medicinal herbs used to treat this disease see *influenza. fly – see *blow flies, *flesh flies, *tsetse flies. fly agaric – Amanita muscaria (Basidiomycetes: Agaricales, Pluteaceae/ Amanitaceae) is a toxic, but not deadly mushroom; see also *blusher, *Caesar’s mushroom, *death cap, *destroying angel, *grisette and *panther. Foeniculum (Apiaceae) – a genus with a single species, viz. a biennial or perennial herb native to the Mediterranean region and SW Asia, but widely cultivated as a condiment worldwide; in East Africa the boiled or roasted roots of F. vulgare (*fennel) are used in the treatment of *gonorrhoea (Kokwaro 1976); the dry fruits contain 8% volatile oil, which is *antispasmodic and relieves *bloating and *wind; fennel seeds are also *anti-inflammatory, *diuretic, settle *stomach pain, help to treat *kidney stones and stimulate the appetite; fennel is safe for children and can be given for *colic and painful *teething in babies; fennel increases *breast-milk production, and the herb is still used as an eyewash for *sore eyes and *conjunctivitis; the seeds have a long-standing reputation as an aid to weight loss and to longevity (Chevallier 2001). foetus – a young animal (including man) in the womb or egg; the baby which is still in the womb; strong medicines, including some herbal medicines, such as the root of the plant blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides), may cause malformation of the foetus when taken by the mother during pregnancy (in the same way as the artificially produced *thalidomide). fomentatin – treatment by warm and moist applications; also the substance thus applied. fontanelle – one of the several membranous intervals at the angles of the cranial bones in the infant; in coastal Kenya the Digo apply the ash of Orthosiphon roseus (Lamiaceae) with coconut oil to the fontanelle of babies to hasten its healing (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Luo use leaves and 164 roots of *Ormocarpum trachycarpum (Fabaceae) and the leaves of Sida rhombifolia (Malvaceae) to treat a sunken fontanelle (Geissler et al. 2002). forensic medicine – the application of medicinal knowledge to the investigation of crime, particularly in establishing the causes of injury or death. forget-me-not – species of the genus Myosotis (Boraginaceae), e.g. alpine forget-me-not (M. alpestris), common forget-me-not (M. arvensis), early forget-me-not (M. ramosissima), water forget-me-not (M. scorpioides) and wood forget-me-not (M. sylvatica); in some European countries species from this genus have been believed to give luck or happiness. formic acid – HCOOH, is a common saturated fatty acid; it is found in many plants, including nettle and pine needles. formication – a sensation of ants crawling over the body; this condition is sometimes alleviated by using *pennyroyal, Mentha pulegium (the mint family, Lamiaceae) externally. foxglove – Digitalis purpurea (the foxglove family, Scrophulariaceae) is a native European plant also cultivated in gardens; it is a very poisonous plant feared by parents, but it also contains a life-saving heart medicine; foxglove contains *cardiac glycosides (*digoxine, *digitoxine and lanatosides), which enable the heart to beat more strongly, slowly and regularly without requiring more oxygen; at the same time foxglove stimulates urine production (is *diuretic), which lowers the volume of blood, and thus lessens the load on the heart; note that an overdose is fatal; alternative names: *common foxglove and *purple foxglove; see also *woolly foxglove (D. lanata); *Chinese foxglove belongs to a separate genus. frangipani – species of the genus Plumeria (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae); they are American trees with copious white stem juice widely grown as ornamental in all tropical countries; the bark of P. rubra is used as a *purgative, for intermittent *fever, *diarrhoea, *gonorrhoea and to expel intestinal *parasites; the juice is applied to *itch and *warts; alternative name: *temple tree. frankincense – fragrant resin used in incense, esp. from Boswellia sacra (Burseraceae) from North Africa and B. carteri and B. frereana from Somalia; for medicinal use see *Boswellia. freckles – spotted pigmentation of skin. French beans – Phaseolus vulgaris (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a South American annual herb widely cultivated as a vegetable throughout warm and temperate parts of the world; the pods are *diuretic, stimulating urine flow and thereby the flushing of *toxins from the body; French beans reduce *blood glucose levels (are *hypoglycaemic) in the treatment of *diabetes; powdered beans have been dusted onto *eczema to ease *itching and dry the skin; because of the beans’ resemblance to *testicles they were the an object of sacred worship by the ancient Egyptians; alternative names: *haricot bean and *kidney bean. French marigold – Tagetes patula (the sunflower family, Asteraceae); a native South American herb subject to horticultural research in France. frigidity – impotence; without sexual power; sexual coldness, usually applied to the female; certain plants are sometimes taken to improve this condition, e.g. Pimpinella anisum (*anise, Apiaceae), *Sida urens (Malvaceae), *Solanum aethiopicum (including S. gilo) and *S. macrocarpon (Solanaceae). fringed pink – Dianthus superbus (the pink family, Caryophyllaceae) is a bitter-tasting perennial Eurasian plant in China cultivated as a *diuretic herb; it has been used to treat hot, painful conditions of the *kidneys and *urinary *tubules, e.g. *kidney stones, urinary tract infections, and blood in the urine. fringed tree – Chionanthus virginicus (the olive family, Oleaceae) is a North American shrub or tree with white flowers and dark blue fruits; its bark has been used to treat a large variety of diseases and problems, e.g. cuts, bruises, *inflammation of the eye, mouth *ulcers, spongy gums, *toothache and as a bitter *tonic to aid recovery from long-term illnesses; the root bark is a *laxative and liver tonic and mainly prescribed for *gallbladder pain, *gallstones and chronic weakness; it is also believed to strengthen the function of the *pancreas and *spleen. 165 fructose – fruit sugar; a sugar (monosaccharide) occurring in many fruits and in honey; it is the sweetest of all sugars, and is an isomer of *glucose, C6H12O6. fruit salad vine – Monstera deliciosa (Araceae); a robust climber from tropical America widely grown as an ornamental; the large leaves have characteristic holes; the spadix with its fruits is edible and taste of *pineapple, and may have some medicinal value as an *oxidant; alternative names: ceriman and *cheeseplant. Fuerstia (Lamiaceae) – a genus with 6 species of herbs or subshrubs native to tropical Africa; in East Africa the leaves and young parts of F. africana are used to treat stomach *ulcers and tongue infection; it is an *anthelmintic particularly for *tapeworm, a *purgative, a remedy for *malaria, while the juice from the leaves is squeezed into the eyes to relieve *ophthalmia (Kokwaro 1976). fumitory – Fumaria officinalis (the fumitory family, Fumariaceae) is a widespread annual bittertasting weed in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; it is *diuretic, mildly *laxative and has a cleansing action on the *liver and *gallbladder; it is mainly prescribed to treat chronic *itchy skin problems such as *exzema; alternative name: common fumitory. functional psychosis – a term used to describe any major or severe form of *mental disorder which has not occurred as a result of disease; the thinking and behaviour of the affected person becomes highly disturbed; there is no awareness of being ill, and contact with reality is disrupted; the term includes *psychotic depression and *schizophrenia. funeral cypress – Cupressus sempervirens, particularly the columnar form var. pyramidalis, is widely planted in Mediterranean gardens and cemeteries; for medicinal use see *cypress. fungal – which has to do with *fungi (including mushrooms); see *fungal infection. fungal infection – infection caused by a *fungus, often resulting in *skin-diseases or *inflammation of *mucous membranes; see *candidiasis and *ringworm. fungi – plural of *fungus. fungicide – a chemical which kills *fungi or reduces the growth of fungi. fungus (pl.: fungi) – a group of living organisms previously considered as plants; they comprise the mushrooms, mildews, molds, rusts and smuts as well as many parasites attacking animals and man (see *candidiasis and *ringworm). Funtumia (Apocynaceae) – a genus of 2 species of trees native to African rainforests (both in Uganda); F. elastica has been used for production of rubber and arrow poison, in Congo the bark is considered *astringent and is given to *asthmatic children in palm oil; F. africana or both species are used to treat *burns, *coughs, *diarrhoea, *gonorrhoea, *jaundice and *wounds; the latex in water is considered an *aphrodisiac and *laxative and *anthelmintic. furanocoumarins – different kinds of *coumarines that stimulate skin tanning, e.g. *bergapten, which is found in *celery (Apium graveolens). furuncle – a *boil that usually is the result of an *infection of a hair folliicle. Gabon nut – Coula edulis (Olacaceae) is a timber tree with edible fruits; its bark has been widely used to treat *anemia, *dysentery, female *sterility, *skin damage, *stomach pain, *wounds and *ulcers, and as an appetite stimulant (Neuwinger 2000); alternative names: *African walnut and wood *almond. gages – a wild species of plum with small green or yellowish plums, sometimes named Prunus italica (the rose family – Rosaceae); it has some value as an *antioxidant. galactogogue – an agent, drug or plant, that induces or increases the secretion of milk; a large number of plants are used to induce or increase breast milk production (*lactation) in mothers, e.g. *Aspilia mossambicensis, *Clausena anisata, *Conyza bonariensis, *Dodonaea viscosa, *Emilia discifolia, *Ficus thonningii, *Hoslundia opposita, and *Telfairia pedata. galangal – Alpinia officinarum (the ginger family, Zingiberaceae) is a perennial aromatic Asian herb, that is now widely cultivated as a spice and as a medicine throughout much of tropical 166 Asia; the rhizome is used as a warming *digestive tonic and *stimulant used for *abdominal and stomach pain, *dyspepsia, hiccups, vomiting, wind, *diarrhoea due to internal cold, intermittent *fever and rheumatoid *arthritis; it has also been used to treat seasickness and travel sickness; it has an *antibacterial and *antifungal action against a number of *pathogens, e.g. *anthrax and *candidiasis (Candida albicans) galbanum – Ferula gummosa (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is a perennial Asian herb that produces an oleo-gum-resin from its roots; this substance is a *digestive stimulant, *expectorant and *antispasmodic, reducing *colic, *flatulence and *griping pains; applied as an *ointment the gum-resin may help heal wounds. Galen (AD 131-201) – a physician to the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius; parts of his medical practice was to care for the gladiators, which gave him unique opportunity to learn about anatomy and the remedies best suited to healing wounds; Galen wrote a large number of books and had a profound influence on European medicine for over 1500 years; to this day plant medicines are sometimes called *galenicals to distinguish them from *synthesized drugs. galenical – a medicine (in a standard formula) prepared from plants; see *Galen. galingale – Cyperus longus (the sedge family, Cyperaceae); the rhizome mucilage has *tonic and *stomachic properties and has been widely used to enhance digestion and for children with stomach problems (Simpson & Inglis 2001); it has been taken to treat colds and as a febrifuge for easing *labour; in Egypt it has been used as a *diuretic (Täckholm & Drar 1950); the name galingale is also used about other species in the genus Cyperus. Galinsoga (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) – a genus of 13 species of annual herbs native to the Americas, but two species distributed worldwide as weeds (2 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa the stems and leaves of G. parviflora are chewed to cure *colds and *sores, while in Uganda the leaves are used to treat *diarrhoea (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Galium (Rubiaceae) – a genus of about 300 species of annual or perennial herbs widely distributed in temperate and warm regions, in the tropics mainly in upland areas (about 16 species in East Africa, 8 species in Uganda); the Masai use G. aparinoides to cure throat *cancer in cattle; roots and fruits of G. ruwenzoriense are used to treat skin *rashes and spots, while the plant G. spurium is mixed with *Rubia cordifolia, burned and the ash used on *sores in the mouth (Kokwaro 1976). gallant weed – Galinsoga parviflora (the sunflower family Asteraceae) from South America is a troublesome weed in many countries; for medicinal use see *Galinsaga; alternative name: *chickweed, *Kew weed, *macdonaldi and *small-flowered galinsoga. gallic acid – a secondary metabolic product (*phenolic) which is a major component in certain *tannins; it is found in the shell of walnut, i.e. species of the genus Juglans (the walnut family, Juglandaceae). gambier – Uncaria gambir (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a dye- and medicinal plant in Asia. gan cao – Glycyrrhiza uralensis (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a Chinese medicinal herb widely used for more than 2000 years; it is used in the same way as *liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra). ganglion – a group of nerve cells forming a centre for reception and transmission of impulses. gangrene – death and *putrefaction of a part. Garcinia (Clusiaceae) – a genus with about 200 species of shrubs and trees widespread in tropical regions (11 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in East Africa an infusion made from the roots of G. livingstonei is mixed with milk and drunk by women for pains in the *abdomen during *pregnancy or shortly after childbirth (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the bark of G. livingstonei to treat *spleen disease (Heine & König 1988); in Uganda the leaves of G. buchananii (as G. afzelii) are used to treat *diarrhoea (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). 167 garden cress – Lepidium sativum in the cabbage family (Brassicaceae); a herb usually eaten at the seedling stage with only a few leaves out; it is rich in vitamins and minerals and useful for the general defence against diseases. garden huckleberry – Solanum scabrum (the potato family (Solanaceae); it is widely cultivated as a vegetable in some tropical countries, especially in West Africa; leaves are cooked and eaten as a vegetable and to treat *convulsions. garden lettuce – Lactuca sativa (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a biennial herb native to Europe; it is widely cultivated as a green vegetable and is an important herb for preventing iron and vitamin C deficiancy in humans; it contains *sesquiterpene lactones, which have a sedative effect, but less strong than in wild lettuce (L. virosa); alternative name: *lettuce. Gardenia (Rubiaceae) – a genus of about 200 species of trees or shrubs native to Africa and Asia (11 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda); some species are cultivated as ornamentals (e.g. G. florida; Cape jasmine), others are important medicinal plants; in East Africa a decoction of the roots of G. posoquerioides is taken as a remedy for *syphilis, while the leaves of G. subacaulis is used together with Canthium latescens for ear-ache (Kokwaro 1976); in Busoga in Uganda the root of Gardenia ternifolia var. jovis-tonantis is used for *migraine, *insanity and as an *antidote especially for *snakebite as it causes violent *vomiting (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), while the leaves together with the bark are used to treat fever and snake bite (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the root or seed of G. ternifolia to induce vomiting (Heine & König 1988); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe use a root concoction of G. ternifolia for *gonorrhoea and *syphilis, while smoke from sticks is directed into ailing eyes (Masinde 1996); in Rwanda the leaf extract is used for *malaria; in Benin a decoction is used to treat *oedemas, and in Togo the plant is used to treat *diabetes and high *blood pressure; in West Africa the root is considered *aphrodisiac and used to treat female *sterility and to increase *potency; in Uganda cultivated G. sokotensis is used to treat *febrile convulsion in children (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Africa the roots of G. volkensii (= G. jovis-tonantis) are used to treat *snakebite by causing heavy vomiting, while a decoction of the fruits is used to treat *malaria and is usually taken as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976). *Chinese gardenia (G. jasminoides) is widely used to traet *insomnia. gardenia – species of the genus Gardenia (the coffee family, Rubiaceae), e.g. *Chinese gardenia (G. jasminoides), *Indian gardenia (G. campanulata), *large-leaved gardenia (G. ternifolia var. jovis-tonantis) from tropical Africa, *Pacific gardenia (G. taitensis) from western North America, and *rubber gardenia (G. gummifera) from India; for medicinal use see *Gardenia. garden nasturtium – Tropaeolum majus (Tropaeolaceae); for medicinal use see *common nasturtium. garden nasturtium family – (Tropaeolaceae) is a rather small family of herbs and climbers with 2 genera and about 90 species in Central and South America; the genus Tropaeolum has species used as medicinal herbs. garden pea – Pisum sativum var. sativum (Fabaceae, Faboideae) is an annual herb native to western Asia and the Mediterranean region, but is widely cultivated in temperate regions worldwide, in the tropics mainly above 1500 m; in West Uganda the leaves are taken to treat *diarrhoea (Kakudidi et al. 2000). garden spurge – Euphorbia hirta (the spurge family, Asteraceae) is a troublesome weed in many countries; is Asia it is widely used to treat asthma (bronchial asthma and other respiratory tract conditions); alternative names: *asthma plant/weed, *hairy spurge and *pill-bearing spurge. garden thyme – Thymus vulgaris (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial aromatic herb native to southern Europe, but is now grown worldwideas a medicinal plant and culinary herb; a volatile oil (including *thymol) is strongly *antiseptic and a most effective *antifungal, but also expels *intestinal worms, and has shown strong *antibacterial activity against Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium often associated with stomach *ulcers; it is also believed to relieve muscle *spasms 168 and counter the effects of ageing; it is also an effective remedy for *asthma and *hay fever, and throat and chest infections such as *bronchitis, *pleurisy and *whooping cough; alternative name: *thyme. garlic – Allium sativum (the garlic family, Alliaceae) is a perennial herb with a pungent odour and taste; it is native to Central Asia, but now widely cultivated throughout the world for its edible bulb; it is considered an ideal herbal medicine being safe for home use and useful for the treatment of many health problems; research has shown that garlic helps to lower raised *cholesterol (and other blood fat) levels, to keep the blood thin and protect against *blood clots, to lower raised *blood pressure and raised *blood sugar levels and to have *antibiotic activity; before the development of antibiotics garlic was a general treatment for all infections, from chest and ear *infections to *tuberculosis and *typhoid; because it keeps the blood thin, it prevents circulatory problems and strokes; garlic contains *alliin, which is broken down by *alliinase into a strong *anticeptic named *allicin; in combinations the name garlic is also used about many other species of the genus Allium, e.g. crow garlic (A. vineale), field garlic (A. oleraceum), rose garlic (A. roseum) and Naples garlic (A. neapolitanum); see also *onion (A. cepa) and ramsons (A. ursinum). gastralgia – *gastric pains. gastric – relating to the stomach. gastroenteritis – *inflammation of the bowels; plants used to alleviate this condition include Ulmus americana (*white elm), U. glabra (*Wych elm), U. rubra (*slippery elm) and *Vitellaria paradoxa (*shea butter tree, Sapotaceae); alternative name: *enteritis. gastrointestinal – relating to the stomach and the intestines. gastroprotective – which protects the stomach and intestines, e.g. *cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), *ginger (Zingerber officinale) and *turmeric (Curcuma longa). gean – Prunus avium (the rose family, Rosaceae); alternative name: (wild) cherry; for medicinal use see *Prunus. geb – Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae) is a shrub or small tree with edible fruits; for medicinal use see *Ziziphus; alternative name: *Indian jujube. ge gen – Pueraria lobata (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a Chinese deciduous climber whose root is used to treat *alcoholism and *hangover; it has also been used as a remedy for measles and muscular pain; ge gen is also taken to treat *diarrhoea, *dysentery and *headache, *dizziness and *numbness caused by high *blood pressure; alternative name: *kudzu. Geniosporum (Lamiaceae) – a genus of about 25 species of herbs or subshrubs native to tropical Africa and Asia; in West Uganda the leaves of G. rotundifolium are steamed or squeezed and eaten or inserted in *vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005). genital – relating to reproduction or the sexual organs. genitals (pl.: genitalia) – the sexual organs. genito-urinary – that relates to the *urinary tract and the sexual organs. genito-urinary bilharzia – a disease in man caused by the *flatworm (schistosome) Schistosoma haematobia that live in the large veins of the portal system; there is no good plant medicine that kills the parasite in man, but several plants such as *Phytolacca dodecandra will kill the *parasite in water before it can enter man; see *bilharzias and *schistosomiasis. gentian1 – species of the genera Gentiana and Gentianella (the gentian family, Gentianaceae), e.g. (in the genus Gentiana): (great) yellow gentian (G. lutea), marsh gentian (G. pneumonanthe), purple gentian (G. purpurea), snow gentian (G. nivalis), spotted gentian (G. punctata), spring gentian (G. verna), trumpet gentian (G. clusea & G. kochiana), willow gentian (G. asclepiadea) and in the genus Gentianella: field gentian (G. campestris), and slender gentian (G. tenella); for medicinal use see gentian2. gentian2 – Gentiana lutea (the gentian family, Gentianaceae) is a robust perennial very bitter herb from European alpine regions; it is an attractive garden plant and an important medicinal herb; it 169 contains a substance named *amarogentin, which is possibly the most bitter substance on the earth – it can be tasted at dilutions of 1: 50 000; gentian stimulates the appetite and improve the action of the whole *digestive system by increasing stomach secretions; gentian also acts as a *stimulant on the *gallbladder and *liver, and it aids the absorption of many nutrients including *iron and *vitamin B12; it is particularly useful as a *digestive tonic in old age, for *irondeficiency anaemia and for women with heavy menstrual bleeding; alternative name: (great) yellow gentian; purple gentian (G. purpurea) can be used in the same way as *yellow gentian. gentian3 – species of the genus Chirita (Gesneriaceae), e.g. Hindustan gentian (C. lavandulacea). Gentianaceae – a large family of about 80 genera and 900 species widely distributed in both hot and cold countries (12 genera and 53 species in East Africa, 7 genera and 27 species in Uganda); some genera have species of medicinal value, e.g. *Enicostema, Gentiana (*gentian) and Swertia (*chiretta); vernacular name: *gentian family. gentian family – Gentianaceae; for description see under Gentianaceae. Geraniaceae – a large family of 11 genera and about 750 species widely distibuted in both warm and temperate regions of both hemispheres (in East Africa 3 genera and 17 species, in Uganda 3 genera and 9 species); species of some genera are used as medicines, e.g. Erodium (storksbill), Geranium (*American cranesbill & *herb Robert), *Monsonia and *Pelargonium; vernacular names: *cranesbill family or *Geranium family. Geranium (Geraniaceae) – a genus with about 400 species of annual or perennial herbs or (rarely) subshrubs widely distributed in both warm and cold countries; in the tropics mainly at higher altitudes (7 species in East Africa, 5 species in Uganda); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda G. arabicum is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in South Africa the Sotho use G. canescens as a remedy for *colic, *diarrhoea, *dysentery and *fever, while G. incanum is used as an *anthelmintic, and an infusion from this plant was taken by people of European origin to treat *venereal diseases (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); for American and European uses of this genus see *American cramesbill and *herb Robert. geranium family – a family of 11 genera and about 750 species widely distibuted in both warm and temperate regions of both hemisspheres; in East Africa 3 genera and 17 species, in Uganda 3 genera and 9 species; species of some genera are used as medicines, e.g. Geranium, *Monsonia and *Pelargonium; alternative name: *cranesbill family. Gerard, John – British botanist, who in 1597 published an influential book ”The Herball” describing a large number of plants and their uses. Gerbera (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 35 species of perennial herbs native to South Africa and the Old World tropics; in Tanzania fresh roots of G. viridifolia are chewed and the juice swallowed as a *cough remedy, especially in children (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the burnt leaves of G. hirsuta (= Piloselloides hirsuta) are mixed with *ghee and given to babies as a *tonic (Kokwaro 1976). germ – microorganism, especially when disease-producing. German chamomile – kamomille, Chamomilla recutita (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is an Eurasian annual medicinal herb widely used by herbal tea drinkers; it is a useful herb for many *digestive disorders such as acidity, *bloating and *wind, *colic, *Crohn’s disease, *hiatus hernia, *indigestion and irritable *bowel syndrome; it is a relaxant for over-tired children and useful for nervous tension and disorders; it also relieves eyestrain; it contains a strong *antispasmodic (*spiroether) which eases tense muscles and period pain; a cream of this plant has been shown to be effective in treating *eczema, *wounds, *sore and inflamed skin and nipples; the flowerheads contain a volatile oil, which contains *anti-allergenic compounds; alternative name: *chamomile; *Roman chamomile is Chamaemelum nobile. germander – species from the genus Teucrium (the mint family, Lamiaceae); for medicinal use see *Cape germander (T. capense), *wall germander (T. chamaedrys) and wood-sage (T. scorodonia). 170 ghee – a form of butter. giant granadilla – Passiflora quadrangularis (Passifloraceae) is a large climber with edible fruits rich in *antioxidants; for medicinal use see *passion flower. giant hyssop – Agastache rugosa (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is an aromatic Asian herb cultivated in China as a medicinal herb; it is widely used for digestive disorders such as *indigestion, *nausea, *stomach-ache and *vomiting; it is effective against *fungal infections and has been used to treat fungal conditions such as *ringworm. giant pine-apple flower – Eucomis autumnalis (Liliaceae s.lat.); the bulb of this and related species are in South Africa used to treat *abdominal pain and *urinary and *venereal diseases; the *toxic bulbs are also widely used in *witchcraft (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). gillyflower – Dianthus caryophyllus (the carnation family, Caryophyllaceae) is a Mediterranean herb widely cultivated as a garden plant and much used for decoration as a cut-flower; it is sometimes prescribed for *coronary and nervous disorders; alternative name: *carnation. gin – flavour due to *juniper, Juniperus communis (the cypress family, Juniperaceae); an alcoholic liquour made by distilling grain mash with juniper berries; for medicinal effect see *juniper. ginger – Zingiber officinalis (the ginger family, Zingiberaceae) is an Asian herb. a spice or flavouring is made from rhizomes of this plant; fresh ginger has a pungent, slight lemony taste; it is also one of the world’s best stimulating and *anti-emetic medicines; it is particularly useful in the relief of *digestion troubled by *colic, *wind, travel sickness, morning sickness and *nausea; ginger is also *antiseptic relieving *dysentery and other *gastro-intestinal infections, including some types of food poisoning; ginger is warming and soothing for *respiratory problems such as *colds, *coughs and *flu; ginger helps the blood to flow to the surface, making it an important remedy for *chilblains and poor *circulation to the hands and feet, and by improving circulation it eases high *blood pressure; it also increases sweating, and thus helps reduce *fever; alternative name: *singabera (sanskrit); see also *mango-ginger. ginger family – Zingiberaceae is a large family with 49 genera and about 1300 species widely distributed in all tropical regions (in East Africa 4 genera and 35 species, in Uganda 4 genera with 25 native or naturalized species); many species are of medicinal value, e.g. *cardamon (Elettaria cardamomum), *galangal (Alpinia officinarum), and *ginger (Zingiber officinalis);. ginger lily – Costus afer (Zingiberaceae) is a tall African forest herb; the root is used to expel *intestinal worms (*helminthiasis). gingivitis – *inflammation of the gums; this condition is sometimes alleviated using Citrus × limon (*lemon, Rutaceae), Vinca major (*greater periwinkle, Apocynaceae) or V. minor (lesser periwinkle). ginkgo – Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgophyta, Gymnospermae) is a coniferous deciduous tree with fanshaped leaves native to China, but widely cultivated as an ornamental or medicinal tree throughout the warm and temperate parts of the world, and is used by millions of people every day; the leaves are used to treat poor *circulation and to maintain a plentiful blood flow to the central nervous system; it thus aids memory and concentration, and is also believed to help treat *depressions, *glaucoma, *dementia and *Alzheimer’s disease; ginkgo is also valuable for *asthma and other *allergic problems; it is also useful when nerve tissue is damaged by *inflammation, e.g. *multiple sclerosis; ginkgo is also useful in preventing *blood-clotting as it inhibits *PAF; in Chinese medicine it is also used to treat *incontinence, a week bladder, *vaginal discharge, and to lessen *phlegm and *wheezing; alternative name: *maidenhair tree. ginseng1 – species of the genera Panax and Eleutherococcus (the ivy family, Araliaceae), e.g. *American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), *Asiatic ginseng (P. ginseng), *Chinese ginseng (P. notoginseng) and *Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus) are all very popular medicinal herbs. ginseng2 – Panax ginseng (the ivy family, Araliaceae) is a perennial East Asian herb, which root has been used as a medicine for at least 7000 years; it is particularly useful to improve *stamina and 171 resistance to cold, fatique and stress (both mental stress such as taking exams and physical stress for athletes), and as a life-enhancing *tonic; it is widely used as a male *aphrodisiac to alleviate *impotence and premature *ejaculation; ginseng increases *immune function and resistance to infection and improves *liver function; alternative name: *Asiatic ginseng. gipsywort – Lycopus europaeus (the mint family, Lamiaceae) has *astringent and *cardiotonic properties; it is taken for anxiety and *palpitations, and has been used to lower *fever; it is sometimes used to treat an overactive *thyroid gland, but its American relative, *bugleweed, (L. virginicus) is considered more effective for this condition. Gisekia (Aizoaceae or Gisekiaceae) – a genus of 4 species of annual or short-lived perennial herbs native to Africa and southwestern Asia as far east as India (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in coastal Kenya the Giriama use the roots of G. pharnaceoïdes as a *chest medicine, while the dried powdered plant is soaked in water and the infusion drunk to stop *diarrhoea (Kokwaro 1976). Gladiolus (Iridaceae) – a large genus of about 250 species of perennial herbs with corms widespread in Africa and the Mediterranean, but with most species in South Africa (34 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe licked ash from the tuber of G. dalenii (G. newii) for *colds, *coughs and *sore throat (Masinde 1996). glaucoma – excess pressure within the eye, which, if untreated, can result in loss of vision; some plants can counteract this condition, e.g. *Cannabis sativa (*bhang, *hashish *marijuana or *pot, Cannabaceae), Ginkgo biloba (*maidenhair tree or *ginkgo, Ginkgoaceae, Gymnospermae), and Plectranthus forskohlii or P. barbatus (*coleus, Lamiaceae). Glinus (Aizoaceae or Molluginaceae) – a genus of about 6 species of herbs widespread throughout the tropics and subtropics (3 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in coastal Kenya the Giriama use the leaves of G. oppositifolius for *headache and *stomach problems (Kokwaro 1976); in Mali it is used against various types of illnesses related to the *immune response, like *jont pains, *inflammation, *fever, *malaria and *wounds; the *bioactive *polysaccharides of G. oppositifolius are well known (Inngjerdingen et al. 2005). globe amaranth – Gomphrena globosa (the amaranth family, Amaranthaceae); this herb contains triterpenoids and in tropical America has been taken to alleviate *cough. globe artichoke – Cynara scolymus in the sunflower family (Asteraceae); the young inflorescences are eaten as a vegetable; for medicinal uses see *artichoke. globe thistle – species of the genus Echinops (the sunflower family, Asteraceae); every capitulum consists of a single flower congested into a secondary inflorescence; for different species and medicinal uses see *Echinops. Gloriosa (Colchicaceae) – a genus of 1 very variable species, G. superba, either short and stiffly erect or climbing to several meters long; it is widespread in Africa and Asia, and elsewhere cultivated as a garden or indoor plant; the tuber is poisonous and used in arrow poisons, as an *abortifacient, for murder and to kill head *lice, but in lower doses it is used to treat *arthritis, female *sterility, *indigestion, *stomach-ache and as an *aphrodisiac; a leaf *decoction eases *coughs and general pain; the plant juice is drunk for *malaria, and the root juice is put in the ear for *earache (Kokwaro 1976; Neuwinger 1996); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda G. superba is used by herbalists (Cunningham 1996); popular name: *glory lily. glossitis – inflammation of the tongue. Glossonema (Apocynaceae - Asclepiadeae) – a genus with 4 species of perennial herbs in Africa bordering the Sahara and reaching India; in Mali the powdered leaves of G. boveanum is mixed with the spike of maize and the leaves of Opilia celtidifolia and taken as a porridge to treat *intestinal *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006). glucose – a sugar (monosaccharide, C6H12O6) occurring in many fruits (grape sugar) and in maize (corn sugar); it has a sweetness about one half that of ordinary sugar (sucrose); a thick syrup made from cornstarch and used for making candies; small quantities of glucose are normally 172 present in human blood and urine, but the urine of patients with *diabetes mellitus may contain over 8% of the sugar; see also *blood sugar. glucosinolates – a group of substances found exclusively in the family *Brassicaceae (*cabbage or *mustard family); on eating, glucosinolates are broken down and produce a strong pungent taste; glucosinolates have an irritant effect on the skin causing *blistering and *inflammation; when applied as a *poultice to a painful joint, glucosinolates increase blood flow to the affected area, and thus helping to remove waste products responsible for the pain; typical plants rich in glucosinolates include *radish (Raphanus sativus) and *watercress (Rorippa nasturtiumaquaticum). Glycine (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of 9 species of herbs and climbers native to the old world tropics (1 species in Uganda), but with soya bean (G. max) widely cultivated worldwide as an important protein-rich food crop; in western Uganda the stem of G. wightii is used for stomachache (Kakudidi et al. 2000). Glyphaea (Tiliaceae) – a genus of 2 species of shrubs or trees native to tropical Africa (1 species in Uganda); the flowers and buds of G. brevis are considered an *aphrodisiac and are used to prevent *sterility; the leaf juice or leaves in food are used to treat *coughs and *venereal disease; the whole plant is used as an *analgesic for *snakebite and *inflammation of the chest, eyes and throat, and for painful defecation and urination; in Sierra Leone the root or root bark *decoction is taken against *diarrhoea, *paralysis, *sleeping sickness and as a *gastric medicine. Gnaphalium (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 150 species of herbs widespread both in warm and cold countries, but the genus is now split into many smaller genera, e.g. *Filaginella and *Pseudognaphalium; for medicinal plants see *marsh cudweed and Pseudognaphalium. Gnidia (Thymelaeaceae) – a genus of about 140 species of shrubs, trees and perennial herbs native to Africa with a few species extending eastwards to India (15 species in East Africa, 9 species in Uganda); in East Africa G. glauca are used for *indigestion, the roots of G. goetzeana are chewed for *cough, the roots of G. involucrata (= G. buchananii) is used in the treatment of *bronchitis and *abdominal pains, while the roots of G. kraussiana are used for *abdominal pains (Kokwaro 1976); the root of G. kraussiana is *emetic and *toxic and elsewhere in Africa is used to treat many different diseases, e.g. *abdominal pain, *boils, *colic, *constipation, *coughs, *diarrhoea, *earache, *jaundice, *madness, *malaria, *measles, and *stomach troubles; it has also been used as a fish poison and for murder (Neuwinger 1996); in East Africa the boiled bark or root of G. latifolia acts as a *purgative and the plant boiled in water is taken as an *antidote to poisons, while the roots of G. microcephala are chewed as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976). goats-beard – Tragopgon porrifolius (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is sometimes cultivated for its edible succulent taproot with a high content of *inulin; inulin has *mucilaginous qualities that help soothe the *bronchial linings; alternative names: *salsify and *vegetable oyster. goats beard or goat’s beard – geitskjegg; Tragopogon pratensis (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), alternative names: yellow goatsbeard, *Jack-og-to-bed-at-noon and meadow *salsify; in compound words also used about other species of the genus Tragopogon, e.g. purple goats beard (T. porrifolius); the name is also used about the genus Aruncus in the rose family (Rosaceae). goat weed – Ageratum conyzoides (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a troublesome weed in many warm countries; for medicinal use see *Ageratum; alternative names: *billy goat weed, *blue top, *tropic ageratum and *winter weed. goiter or goitre – a swelling of the *thyroid gland (in the neck), sometimes reaching a great size; people suffer from this disease mostly in regions far from the sea due to lack of *iodine in the food; goitre can be prevented by eating *seaweed food or salt with added iodine. golden apple1 – Aegle marmelos (the orange family, Rutaceae) is a holy tree for Hindus and is commonly planted near temples; the half-ripe bael fruits reduces irritation in the *digestive tract and is much used to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery; the ripe fruit is *demulent and *laxative, 173 and it eases *stomach pain, the leaves are taken to treat *peptic ulcers; alternative names: *bael (fruit) and *Bengal quince. golden apple2 – Spondias cytheria (Anacardiaceae); is a Pacific tree with edible drupes; the fruits have some medicinal value due to their content of vitamins and minerals; alternative names: *ambarella, *golden apple jew’s plum, *otaheite apple; see also *jobo, *mombin, red mombin *Spanish plum and *yellow mombin. golden pothos – Scindapsus aureus (Araceae); alternative name: *devil’s ivy. goldenrain – species of the genus Laburnum in the pea family (Fabaceae); the seeds are deadly poisonous. goldenrod – Solidago virgaurea (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) and in compound words other species of the genus Solidago, e.g. S. canadensis (Canadian goldenrod) and S. odora (sweet goldenrod); all these species have been widely used to treat *urinary infections, *intestinal disorders and *dropsy; goldenrod contains *saponins which are *fungicidal and kills the Candida fungus in the mouth or vagina. goldenseal – Hydrastis canadensis (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae); the rhizome and roots give a yellow dye and contain hydrastin, which is used to treat inflammations in mucous membranes including inflamed eyes. golden trumpet – Allamanda cathartica (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae) is a beautiful climber widely cultivated in tropical and warm countries; the leaves are used as a *catharthic (strong *purgative); alternative name: common allamanda. gold tree – species of the genus Tabebuia (the jacaranda family, Bignoniaceae) is a beautiful tree with good timber; for medicinal use see *lapacho. Gomphocarpus (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) – a genus of 20 species of shrubby or pyrophytic perennial herbs native to Africa and the Arabian Peninsula (11 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in East Africa a boiled root decoction of G. fruticosus is drunk for *abdominal pain and *liver troubles (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda G. physocarpus is eaten with groundnut paste to treat *hypertension (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); the roots or bark is chewed by the Baganda to stop *vomiting, while the Masai give the leaves to their cows when calving to cause the *uterus to contract (Kokwaro 1976; Adjanohoun et al. 1993); the Luo in Kenya snuff the dried and pounded leaves to treat *congested nose and *worms (Geissler et al. 2002); in Kenya a decoction from the roots of G. semilunatus is drunk as a cure for *intestinal worms, while the roots of G. stenophyllus are used by the Kiamboi for infantile *diarrhoea (Kokwaro 1976). Gomphrena (Amaranthaceae) – a genus of about 100 species widely distributed in tropical and warm countries; Gomphrena globosa (globe amaranth) contains triterpenoids and in tropical America has been taken to alleviate *cough. Gonatopus (Araceae) – a genus of 5 species of tuberous herbs native to Africa (all 5 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in East Africa the root or stem of G. boivinii is boiled and the warm juice dropped into the ear to treat *ear-ache (Kokwaro 1976). gonococcal – pertaining to gonococci (a type of bacteria); see *gonococcus. gonococcus (pl.: gonococci) – the bacterium that causes *gonorrhoea. gonorrhoea – a contaginous *venereal disease causing *inflammatory discharge of *mucus from *urethrea or *vagina; it is due to Neisseria gonorrhoea and is mainly transmitted through coitus; a large number of plants are used to alleviate this condition, e.g. *Abrus precatorius (*coral pea, Fabaceae), *Acacia etbaica & nilotica & senegal (Fabaceae), *Acalypha fruticosa & volkensii (Euphorbiaceae), *Adenia gummifera (Passifloraceae), Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae), *Aeschynomene rubrofarinacea (Fabaceae), *Albizia anthelminthica & ferruginea & lebbeck (Fabaceae), *Allophylus rubifolius (Sapindaceae), *Anchomanes difformis (Araceae), *Aporrhiza paniculata (Sapindaceae), *Asparagus africanus & falcatus & racemosus (Asparagaceae), *Aspilia mossambicensis (Asteraceae), *Barleria amanensis (Acanthaceae), *Blumea axillaris (Asteraceae), *Boscia coriacea (Capparidaceae), *Boswellia neglecta 174 (Burseraceae), *Cadaba farinosa (Capparidaceae), *Canarium schweinfurthii (*African elemi, Burseraceae), *Capsicum frutescens (Solanaceae), *Cassia abbreviata (Fabaceae), *Catha edulis (*khat, Celastraceae), *Conyza canadensis (Canadian fleabane, Asteraceae), *Catunaregam spinosa (Rubiaceae), *Chasmanthera dependens (Menispermaceae), *Clematis hirsuta (Ranunculaceae), *Clerodendrum (*Rotheca) myricoides (Verbenaceae), *Combretum collinum (Combretaceae), *Crotalaria laburnifolia (Fabaceae), *Croton pseudopulchellus (Euphorbiaceae), *Cussonia arborea & kirkii & zimmermannii (Araliaceae), *Cyphostemma engleri (Vitaceae), *Dalbergia lactea & melanoxylon (Fabaceae), *Dichrostachys cinerea (Fabaceae), *Diospyros fischeri (Ebenaceae), *Diplorhynchus condylocarpon (Apocynaceae), *Dracaena usambarensis (Agavaceae), *Ehretia amoena & bakeri (Boraginaceae), *Eriocoelum microcarpum (Sapindaceae), *Erythrococca fischeri (Euphorbiaceae), *Euclea racemosa & schimperi (Ebenaceae), *Euphorbia balsamifera & heterophylla & inaequilatera & tirucalli (Euphorbiaceae), *Ficus exasperata & indica (*Indian fig, Moraceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllanthaceae), Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae), *Funtumia africana (Apocynaceae), *Grewia plagiophylla (Tiliaceae), *Indigofera lapatana & paniculata (Fabaceae), *Jatropha curcas (*physic nut or *purging nut, Euphorbiaceae), *Kigelia pinnata (*sausage tree, Bignoniaceae), *Lactuca inermis (Asteraceae), *Landolphia owariensis (Apocynaceae), *Leonotis nepetifolia (Lamiaceae), *Lonchocarpus bussei (Fabaceae), *Maerua edulis (Capparidaceae), *Manilkara sansibarensis (Sapotaceae), *Markhamia lutea (Bignoniaceae), *Mondia whitei (Apocynaceae, Asclepidoideae), *Morinda lucida (Rubiaceae), *Olea welwitschii (Oleaceae), *Osyris lanceolata (Santalaceae), *Ozoroa obovata (Anacardiaceae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae), *Pedalium murex (Pedaliaceae), *Pentas bussei & longiflora & zanzibarica (Rubiaceae), *Phyllanthus reticulatus (Phyllanthaceae), *Piper cubeba (*cubeb) & methysticum (*kava-kava, Piperaceae), *Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae), *Pterocarpus angolensis (*bleedwood tree, Fabaceae), *Rauvolfia mannii (Apocynaceae), *Rhamnus prinoïdes (Rhamnaceae), *Rhipsalis baccifera (Cactaceae), *Rhoicissus tridentata (Vitaceae), *Rhus natalensis & vulgaris (Anacardiaceae), *Rourea coccinea (Connaraceae), *Salvadora persica (Salvadoraceae), Santalum album (Santalaceae), *Sarcostemma viminale (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Schumanniophyton magnificum (Rubiaceae), *Senna bicapsularis & italica & singueana, *Sesbania sesban, *Solanum aculeastrum & incanum, *Strychnos cocculoides & innocua (Loganiaceae), *Tephrosia nana (Fabaceae), *Terminalia kaiserana (Combretaceae), *Thespesia danis (Malvaceae), *Trimeria grandifolia (Flacourtiaceae), *Uvaria leptocladon (Annonaceae), *Vangueria infausta (Rubiaceae), *Withania somnifera (Solanaceae), *Zanthoxylum gillettii (*large-leaved prickly ash, Rutaceae), *Zehneria scabra (Cucurbitaceae) and *Ziziphus mauritiana & mucronata (Rhamnaceae). Good-King-Henry – Chenopodium bonus-henricus (the goosefootfamily, Chenopodiaceae) is an annual herb native to Europe; it was previously sometimes cultivated as a leafy vegetable rich in iron, and also used medicinally to treat iron-deficiency *anaemia and painful *joints; it has also been used as a *diuretic and *laxative. gooseberry – Ribes uva-crispa (Grossulariaceae); gooseberries are rich in *vitamin C and useful *antioxidants; Barbados gooseberry is Pereskia aculeata (the cactus family, Cactaceae); Cape gooseberry is Physalis peruviana (the potato family, Solanaceae). goosefoot – Chenopodium album (the goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae) is one of the world’s worst weeds; the leaves have been used in soup and as stew and may have had some medicinal effect in providing minerals, iron and vitamins; alternative name: *fat hen, *lambs quarter and *pigweed. goosegrass – Galium aparine (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a troublesome annual weed in many temperate countries; shepheards have used the stems to make sieves for straining milk; it is a mild laxative and *diuretic taken for swollen *lymph glands, *kidney stones, *urinary problems 175 and *skin diseases such as *eczema, *psoriasis and *seboohoea, alternative names: *catchweed, *cleavers, *hairif, *robin-run-over-the-hedge, *scratch grass, *sticky Willie; see also *bedstraw. Gossypioides (Malvaceae) – a genus of 2 species of herbs or shrubs native to tropical Africa and Madagascar; in coastal East Africa the leaves of G. kirkii are used as a *cough remedy (Kokwaro 1976). Gossypium (Malvaceae) – a genus of about 40 species of herbs or shrubs (*cotton) widely distributed in tropical and warm temperate regions; some species are cultivated for the production of cotton; in coastal East Africa the cotton from the seeds of G. barbadense is used as padding and bandages for *sores, while the Giriama from coastal Kenya use the roots of G. hirsutum for *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the roots of this plant is used to treat painful menstruation, *dysmenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); Gouania (Rhamnaceae) – a genus of about 25 species of climbing shrubs or lianes widely distributed in tropical and warm regions (2 species in east Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda G. longispicata is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996). gourd family – the melon family, Cucurbitaceae, is a large family with about 120 genera and 750 species widely distributed in all continents except the coldest regions; alternative names: *cucumber family, *melon family and *pumpkin family. gout – *paroxysmal disease with painful *inflammation of smaller joints due to excessive *uric acid in the blood and formation of chalk-stones; many different plants have been used to treat gout, e.g. Aegopodium podograria (*goutweed or *bishop’s weed, Apiaceae), Apium graveolens (*celery, Apiaceae), Arctium lappa (*burdock, Asteraceae), Betula pendula (*silver birch, Betulaceae), Boswellia serrata (*Indian olibanum or *sallaki, Burseraceae), Cichorium intybus (*chicory, Asteraceae), Colchicum autumnale (*autumn crocus or *meadow saffron, Colchicaceae), Erythronium americanum (*adder’s tongue, Liliaceae), Harpagophytum procumbens (*devil’s claw, Pedaliaceae), Iberis amara (*candytuft or *wild candytuft, Brassicaceae), Jatropha curcas (*fig nut, *physic nut or *purging nut, Euphorbiaceae), Jumiperus communis (*juniper, Cupressaceae), Ononis spinosa (*spiny restharrow, Fabaceae), Petroselinum crispum (*parsley, Apiaceae), Prunus avium (*cherry or *wild cherry, Rosaceae), Schinus molle (*American mastic tree, *Californian pepper tree or *pepper tree, Anacardiaceae), Smilax spp. (*sarsaparilla, Smilacaceae), Taraxacum officinale (*dandelion, Asteraceae), Teucrium chamaedrys (*wall germander, Lamiaceae) & scorodonia (*wood sage) and Widdringtonia cupressoides (*African cupress, Cupressaceae); for other plants see *arthritis. goutweed – Aegopodium podograria (the carrot family, Apiaceae); this European forest herb was previously cultivated as a vegetable and medicinal herb to treat *gout, but is now a troublesome weed; alternative names: *ashweed, *bishop’s weed, *ground elder, *herb Gerard. Gramineae – an old name for a family now named *Poaceae. gram(s) – beans from the genus Vigna (the pea family Fabaceae); ’black gram’ is Vigna mungo and ’green gram’ is Vigna aureus; since beans are rich in proteins they are useful food to prevent the disease *kwashiorkor. granadilla – species of the genus Passiflora (Passifloraceae), e.g. giant granadilla (P. quadrangularis), purple granadilla (P. edulis) and yellow granadilla (P. laurifolia); for medicinal use see *Passiflora; alternative name: *passion fruit. granny-bonnets – Aquilegia vulgaris; in compound words also other species of the genus Aquilegia (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae); for medicinal use see alternative name: *columbine. grape – the fruit of Vitis vinifera in the grape family (Vitaceae); the fruit as well as juice or wine from the fruits are rich in *antioxidants and thus useful for the general defence against diseases; seaside grape is Coccoloba uvifera (the knotgrass family, Polygonaceae) from tropical America while rose grape is Medinilla magnifica (Melastomataceae); alternative name, grapevine. grape family – Vitaceae; a fairly large family with 12 genera and about 700 species widely distributed in all continents except in the coldest regions; for medicinal plants see *Vitaceae. 176 grapefruit – earlier named Citrus paradisi (the orange family, Rutaceae), but is now considered a variant of orange (Citrus × aurantium), or as a hybrid between Citrus reticulata (*mandarin) and C. maxima (*pomelo). grape jasmine – Ervatamia coronaria (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae) is an aromatic South Asian shrub with strongly perfumed white flowers; in *Ayurvedic medicine the root and latex are used to expel intestinal worms; the latex is also used to treat *cataracts, eye inflammations and poor eyesight, and the root is chewed to relieve toothache; the leaf juice makes a soothing treatment for skin irritations and wounds; alternative name: *Indian rosebay. grapevine – Vitis vinifera (the grape family, Vitaceae); for medicinal use see *grape. greater celandine – Chelidonium majus (the poppy family, Papaveraceae) is a widespread herb in Europe, western Asia and North Africa; it contains *isoquinoline alkaloids, including *berberine, *chelidonine and *sparteine; some of the alkaloids are *analgesic; chelidonine is *antispasmodic and also lowers *blood pressure, while sparteine raises blood pressure; in folk-medicine this herb has often been considered as a *cure-all; it is a mild *sedative, relaxing the muscles of the *bronchial tubes, *intestines and other organs; it is often used to treat *asthma, *bronchitis and *whooping cough; it is considered a *detoxifying herb, and has been used to treat *jaundice, *gallstones and *gallbladder pain; the orange *latex is applied to *warts, *ringworm areas and *malignant skin *tumours, which are slowly broken down by the effect of its protein-dissolving enzymes; see also *celandine (Ranunculus ficaria). greater galangal – Alpinia galanga (the ginger family, Zingiberaceae) is a tall perennial herb native to southeastern Asia; it seems to have *anti-ulcer action; it has inferior taste and oil content compared to *galangal (Alpinia officinalis); alternative name: *Siamese ginger. greater periwinkle – Vinca major (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae) is a European creeping evergreen plant sometimes cultivated in gardens; it has similar *astringent activity as lesser periwinkle (Vinca minor) and is thus useful as mouthwash for *gingivitis, mouth *ulcers and for *sore throats. great plantain – Plantago major (the plantain family, Plantaginaceae); this widespread healing plant is in temperate countries widely used to treat *wounds and *bruises; it quickly staunches blood flow and encourages the repair of damaged tissue; a lotion or ointment is sometimes used to treat *fistulae, *haemorrhoids and *ulcers; used internally it is *diuretic, *expectorant and *anticatarrhal and is commonly prescribed for *gastritis, *peptic ulcers, *diarrhoea, *dysentery, respiratory *catarrh and urinary tract bleeding; alternative names: *broad-leaved plantain, *common plantain, *dooryard plantain and *whiteman’s foot. greenbrier – species from the genus Smilax (Smilacaceae); for medicinal use see *Smilax. green gram – Vigna radiata (aureus) (the pea family Fabaceae); alternative names: *mung bean and golden gram; ’black gram’ is Vigna mungo; for medicinal use see *gram. green heart – the East African green heart is Warburgia salutaris (ugandensis) in the cinnamon family (Canellaceae); for medicinal use see *Warburgia. green hellebore – Veratrum viride (Melianthiaceae), is a very toxic plant native to Europe and North America; it is an effective *insecticide (*de-lousing agent), but can cause damage to human skin; it has also been used to ease *rheumatic pain; it is used in *homeopathic preparations to slow heart rate; alternative name: * American green hellebore. green pepper – Capsicum annuum forms (the potato family, Solanaceae) with green fruits; for medicinal use see *Capsicum. green pepper – fruits (peppercorns) of Piper nigrum (the pepper family, Piperaceae) collected unripe and pickled; pepper has a stimulant and antiseptic effect on the digestive and circulatory systems; see *black pepper, *pepper, *red pepper and *white pepper. Grewia (Tiliaceae) – a genus of about 150 species of trees and shrubs in tropical and warm parts of the old world (59 species in East Africa, 17 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of G. arborea (= G. fallax) are use to treat *snakebite, the roots of G. bicolor are used to treat *chest 177 complaints, *colds and *snakebite, a decoction of the roots of G. forbesii is drunk against *lumbago and stiffness in the neck, a decoction of the roots of G. glandulosa is taken as a remedy for *flatulence, roots of G. goetzeana are used for *glandular disorders, roots of G. holstii are used to treat a sore throat and to expel *intestinal worms, a decoction of the roots of G. micrantha is taken as a remedy for *dysentery, and an infusion of the bark is drunk to treat *pneumonia, the leaves of G. mollis are pounded and mixed with water as a medicine to help ”loosen up the stomach” and to cure animals which have become constipated as a result of taking too much salt, a decoction of the roots of G. plagiophylla is taken as a remedy for *gonorrhoea and *kidney trouble, an infusion of the leaves is taken for *stomach-ache, and fibers immersed in water to form a foam used to wash eyes affected by any irritating substance such as pepper, the bark of G. similis (including G. occidentalis) is used as cure for *sores (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves together with the flowers of G. similis are used to treat *prurigo; in western Uganda the leaves and bark are taken as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); among the Kamba in Kenya the roots of G. tenax (= G. tembensis) are the chief constituent in a remedy for *typhoid (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda the roots of G. trichocarpa are tied around a child to treat *amoebiasis, while the leaves are crushed and used to pull to lengthen the labia minora (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); the Luo in Kenya drink a decoction of the roots of G. trichocarpa to treat *diarrhoea (Geissler et al. 2002); in East Africa the roots of G. truncata are used to treat *snakebite, while the roots of G. villosa are used to treat pain in the lower *abdomen and for *stomach-ache, and the leaves are used for *eyeache and for *spleen troubles (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the pounded bark of G. villosa soaked in water to expel retained *placenta in cows (Heine & König 1988); in coastal East Africa a compress of leaves was used to reduce facial swellings, and was said to be especially good for sore and swollen eyes (Weiss 1979). griping pain – sudden abdominal pain; this pain is sometimes alleviated using various plants , e.g. Carum carvi (*caraway, Apiaceae), Elettaria cardamomum (*cardamom, Zingiberaceae), Ferula gummosa (*galbanum, Apiaceae), Lavandula officinalis (*lavender, Lamiaceae), Peucedanum ostruthium (*masterwort, Apiaceae), Mentha aquatica (watermint) & x piperita (*peppermint) & spicata (*spearmint, Lamiaceae) and Styrax benzoin (*benzoin gum, Styracaceae). groin – the fold where either thigh joins the abdomen; here there are *lymphatic glands, which enlarges in connection with certain severe diseases such as the *bubonic plague; the adjective *inguinal means ‘of or situated in the groin’. gromwell – Lithospermum officinale (Boraginaceae); in the past the white stone-like seeds have been taken to treat *gallbladder and *kidney stones; in compound words also other species of the genus Lithospermum, e.g. blue gromwell (L. purpurocaeruleum) and corn gromwell (L. arvense); the American species L. ruderale has been used as an oral *contraceptive. ground burnut – Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae) regnes som et farlig ugras i mange varme og tørre land; alternative name: *land caltrop, *Malta cross, *puncture vine og *sandbur; et fellesname for denne arten og T cistoides (false puncture vine) er *burnut og *caltrop(s). ground elder – Aegopodium podograria (the carrot family, Apiaceae); this herb was in the past cultivated as a green vegetable and also used to treat *gout; alternative names: * ashweed, *bishop’s weed, *goutweed, *herb Gerard. ground ivy – Glechoma hederacea (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a widespread herb in temperate parts of Eurasia and introduced into North America; this herb is now mainly prescribed as a tea for persistent *coughs, but was previously widely used for many diseases and conditions, e.g. *asthma, *colic, *consumption, *eye ailments, *sciatica, *scurvy and *ulcers. ground nut – *Arachis hypogaea (*Fabaceae, Faboideae) from South America is widely cultivated for food in all tropical regions; in western Uganda the seeds of A. hypogaea are used as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); alternative names: *earthnut and *peanut. 178 ground-pine – Ajuga chamaepitus (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is an annual plant smelling of pine when crushed; it is common in Mediterranean countries; it is *diuretic, stimulates *menstruation and has been used to treat *arthritis and *rheumatic pains. groundsel – Senecio vulgaris (the sunflower family, Asteraceae); this herb has been prescribed as a *purgative for various *intestinal complaints and painful menstruation, but its toxic substances may cause *cancer; alternative names: *common groundsel and *ragwort; other species in the genus Senecio e.g. S. jacobaea (common ragwort), S. sylvaticus (wood or heath groundsel) and S. viscosus (stinking groundsel) are also toxic. guava – Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae) from tropical America is widely cultivated in all tropical regions and often naturalized in Africa and Asia; for medicinal use see *Psidium; Chilean guava or Myrtus ugni (Myrtaceae). guelder rose – Viburnum opulus (the honeysuckle family, Caprifoliaceae) is a fairly large shrub from Europe and North America; it is frequently cultivated in gardens; the bark is often used to relieve cramps (including *colic and painful *menstruation) and aching muscles (including *arthritis); it is *antispasmodic in the treatment of *asthma and a *sedative remedy for nervous conditions; alternative name: *cramp bark; see also *black haw (Viburnum prunifolium). Guinea grains – Aframomum melegueta (the ginger family, Zingiberaceae); for medicinal use see *Aframomum. Guinea peach – Sarcocephalus latifolius (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is an important medicinal plant in parts of Africa; for medicinal uses see *Sarcocephalus. Guinea pepper – *Xylopia aethiopica (Annonaceae); the seed of this plant contains a volatile oil with the odour of cinnamon; it is also said to contain an alkaloid resembling *morphine in action (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); alternative name: * African pepper. Guinea yam – Dioscorea × cayenensis (the yam family, Dioscoreaceae); for medicinal use see *Dioscorea. Guizotia (Asteraceae) – a genus of 6 species of annual or perennial herbs or shrubs native to Africa (4 species in Uganda); G. abyssinica (Niger seed or ramtil) is sometimes cultivated as an oil crop (Niger oil); in Uganda the flowering tops of G. scabra are used to treat *jaundice and *abdominal pain asociated with *vomiting and *diarrhoea (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Uganda it is used to treat *amoebiasis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), while in West Uganda the leaves are used to treat fresh cuts and fire *burns (Kakudidi et al. 2000); the Padhola in East Uganda are supposed to use the plant for *abortion (Kokwaro 1976). gum1 (tree) – certain members of the genus Eucalyptus (myrtefamily, Myrtaceae), an Australian genus of mostly large fast-growing trees, widely planted in hot countries for timber or firewood; they cause strong reduction in biodiversity as the trees absorb huge quantities of water and cover the ground with only slowly degenerating thick leaves, which prevent germination and seedling establishment of most plants; commonly planted trees are *blue gum (E. globulus), grey ironbark gum (E. paniculata), lemon-scented gum (E. citriodora), manna gum (E. viminalis), redflowering gum (E. ficifolia), red gum (E. rostrata), spotted gum (E. citriodora & E. maculata), Sydney blue gum (E. saligna), Tasmanian blue gum (E. globulus) and yellow gum (E. leucoxylon); other species of the genus Eucalyptus are: coolibah tree (E. microtheca), karri (E. diversicolor), mess-mate (E. obliqua) and tuart (E. gomphocephala); alternative name: *Eucalyptus. gum2 (tree) – also used about certain species not belonging to the genus Eucalyptus or the myrtle family (Myrtaceae), e.g. almond gum (Prunus dulcis), amrad gum (Acacia nilotica), gum arabic (Acacia senegal), Cape gum (A. karroo), carob seed gum (Ceratonia siliqua), cashew gum (Anacardium occidentale), cherry gum (Prunus cerasus), East African gum (Acacia drepanolobium), gatty gum (Anogeissus latifolia), khair gum (Acacia catechu), locust gum (Ceratonia siliqua), mesquite gum (Prosopis glandulosa), sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua), talh gum (Acacia seyal) and Tartar gum (Sterculia cinerea). 179 gum arabic – an edible resin of high quality extracted from the tree Acacia senegal (Fabaceae, Mimosoideae); alternative name (also for the tree): Sudan gum Arabic; for medicinal use see *Acacia. gum storax – resin obtained from *storax, Styrax officinalis (the storax family, Styracaceae), a small deciduous tree or large shub native to the Mediterranean area; the resin is antiseptic and used to treat coughs and other respiratory problems; *liquid storax is the resin of *Levant storax (Liquidambar orientalis). gum olibanum – fragrant resins or frankincense obtained from Boswellia sacra (Burseraceae) from NE Africa; for medicinal use see Boswellia. Gutenbergia (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 20 species of annual or perennial herbs confined to Africa (14 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of G. cordifolia (= Erlangea cordifolia) are used to wash *sore and infected eyes, or crushed and rubbed on *swollen joints, or soaked in water and drunk to cure *stomach-ache; the roots mixed with water act as an *emetic (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam chew the leaves and flowers of G. cordifolia to treat *fever (Heine & König 1988); in coastal Kenya the Digo rub the ash of G. pembensis (= G. petersii auct.) on the chest for *pneumonia, and at the same time the ash is mixed with porridge and eaten by the patient, the Masai use a decoction of the roots of G. rueppellii (including G. fischeri) as an *emetic, while the leaves are used to cure sores (Kokwaro 1976). gutta-percha – latex from Palaquium gutta (Sapotaceae) from Sumatra and closely related species; previously much used for electric insulation and dentures. gutta-percha family – Sapotaceae is a large family with 35-75 genera (generic limits difficult) and about 800 species; many are important timber trees in tropical rain forests; for medicinal plants see *Sapotaceae. Guttiferae – old name for a plant family now named *Clusiaceae. Gynandropsis (Capparidaceae) – a genus now included in *Cleome Gynura (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 40 species of perennial erect or climbing herbs widespread in the Old world tropics and subtropics (6 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of G. scandens are crushed and mixed with butter and rubbed onto the whole body, to cause perspiration and are therefore used to treat high *fever in babies and adults; a hot decoction is used for *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976). Habenaria (Orchidaceae) – a genus with about 600 species of terrestrial orchids widespread in tropical and warm regions (113 species in East Africa, 44 species in Uganda); in East Africa the boiled roots of H. cirrhata are used for *indigestion, the fresh or dry roots of H. macrandra are boiled and the decoction drunk as a *purgative, while the roots of H. walleri (Ugandan snowdrop) are used for *stomach diseases (Kokwaro 1976). Haemanthus (Amaryllidaceae) – East African species previously included in this South African genus are now transferred to the genus *Scadoxus. haematuria – blood in the urine; certain plants have been used to treat haematuria, e.g. *Harungana madagascariensis (Hypericaceae or Clusiaceae) and Lophira lanceolata (*African oak, Ochnaceae). haemoglobin – the protein colouring matter of the red blood corpuscles that serves to convey oxygen to the tissues. haemoglobinuria – blood colouring matter in the urine. haemolytic – causing the breaking up of red cells. haemoptysis – spitting of blood from the *bronchi, *larynx, *lungs or *trachea. haemorrhage – bleeding; abnormal loss of blood, especially if it is very profuse; it may be external or internal; for useful medicinal plants which staunch *haemorrhage or bleeding see *bleeding. 180 haemorrhoid – pile; extension of blood vessels around anus; it can be very painful and cause bleeding; many plants are used to alleviate this condition, e.g. *Aframomum alboviolaceum (Zingiberaceae), *Bersama abyssinica (Melianthaceae), *Boscia senegalensis (Capparidaceae), *Butea monosperma (*flame of the forest or *palas, Fabaceae), *Capparis tomentosa (Capparidaceae), *Conyza canadensis (Asteraceae), *Capsicum frutescens (*Cayenne or chilli pepper), *Cupressus sempervirens (*Italian or Mediterranean cypress, Cupressaceae), *Eleusine corocana (*finger millet, Poaceae), *Ficus carica (cultivated fig) & religiosa (*bo-tree, peepal or *pipal, Moraceae), Geranium maculatum (*American cranesbill, Geraniaceae), Hamamelis virginiana (*American witchhazel, Hamamelidaceae), *Harungana madagascariensis (Clusiaceae), *Hoslundia opposita (Lamiaceae), *Kigelia pinnata (*sausage tree, Bignoniaceae), Lamium album (*white deadnettle, Lamiaceae), *Lannea velutina (Anacardiaceae), Madhuca spp. (*butter tree, Sapotaceae), *Morinda morindoides (Rubiaceae), *Nicotiana rusticana (*wild tobacco, Solanaceae), Leptandra virginica (*black root, Scrophulariaceae), Limonia acidissima (*elephant apple or *woodapple, Rutaceae), Linaria canadensis (*blue toadflax) & vulgaris (*common toadflax, Scrophulariaceae), *Oldenlandia monanthos (Rubiaceae), *Oxyanthus speciosus (Rubiaceae), Piper angustifolia (*matico, Piperaceae), *Piptadeniastrum africanum (Fabaceae), Plantago indica (*flea seed) & major (*broad-leaved plantain) & psyllium (*flea seed, Plantaginaceae), Potentilla anserina (*silverweed) & erecta (*tormentil, Rosaceae), Quercus robur (*common or *pedunculate oak, Fagaceae), Ranunculus ficaria (*celandine, *lesser celandine or pilewort, Ranunculaceae), *Rauvolfia vomitoria (Apocynaceae), *Riccinus communis (*castor oil plant, Euphorbiaceae), Rubus fruticosus s. lat. (Rosaceae), Ruscus aculeatus (*box-holly or *butcher’s broom, Ruscaceae), *Sarcocephalus latifolius (Rubiaceae), Scrophularia aquatica (*water figwort) &? marylandica (*American figwort) & nodosa (*figwort, Scrophulariaceae), *Solanum tuberosum (*potato, Solanaceae), *Sorbus aucuparia (*mountain ash or *rowan tree, Rosaceae), *Spermacoce senensis (Rubiaceae), *Steganotaenia araliacea (Apiaceae), Stillingia sylvatica (*queen’s delight, Euphorbiaceae), Teucrium capense (*Cape germander, Lamiaceae), *Tylosema fassoglensis (Fabaceae), *Uapaca guineensis (Euphorbiaceae) and *Vaccinium myrtillus (*bilberry or blueberry, Ericaceae). haemostatic – which stops or reduces *h(a)emorrhage or bleeding; for useful medicinal plants which staunch *haemorrhage or bleeding see *bleeding. Hagenia (Rosaceae) – a genus of only 1 tree species native to montane regions in tropical Africa (often dominant in East African montane forests); in East Africa the roots of H. abyssinica are cooked with meat and the soup drunk for *malaria and general illness; female inflorescences (flowers) are *anthelmintic and are used to expel *tapeworms, while the bark is used as a remedy for *diarrhoea and *stomach-ache, but may cause *abortion (Kokwaro 1976). Hahnemann, Samuel (1755-1843) – a German chemist-physician who founded *homeopathic medicine; he published two important works, viz. “Organon of Medicine” (1810) and “Materia Medica Pura”, the latter comprising detailed proofs of effectiveness for many plant substances. He discovered that Cinchona peruviana (*Peruvian bark) was effective in treating *malaria, and developed the theory “like cures like” (*homeopathy). hairif – Galium aparine (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a troublesome annual weed in many temperate countries; it is a mild laxative and *diuretic taken for swollen *lymph glands, *kidney stones, *urinary problems and *skin diseases such as *eczema, *psoriasis and *seboohoea, alternative names: *catchweed, *cleavers, *goosegrass, *robin-run-over-the-hedge, *scratch grass, *sticky Willie; see also *bedstraw. hair tonic – a herb or substance which strengthens the growth of hair or prevents greying; in India the *curry-leaf tree or curry patta (Murraya koenigii, Rutaceae) is used as a hair tonic. hairy spurge – Euphorbia hirta (the spurge family, Asteraceae) is a troublesome weed in many warm countries; in Asia it is widely used to alleviate asthma (bronchial asthma and other respiratory 181 tract conditions); alternative names: *asthma plant/weed, *garden spurge and *pill-bearing spurge. hairy strophanthus – Strophanthus hispidus (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae) is a very toxic West African woody forest vine; it has been shown to delay *blood clotting and is used to treat *snake bites; S. gratus is used in the same way; see also *strophanthus (S. kombe). Hallea (Rubiaceae) – a genus of 3 species of trees native to tropical Africa (2 species in East Africa and Uganda); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda H. rubrostipulata is used by herbalists (Cunningham 1996); in Uganda this tree is used in the treatment of *malaria (Ssegawa 2005), while the root or bark is taken as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005). hallucinogenic – (an agent, plant or drug) which causes hallucinations or visions; see *coca. Hamamelidaceae – *witch hazel family; a family of about 28 genera and less than 100 species widespread in both tropical and warm temperate regions (in East Africa 1 genus and 3 species, in Uganda 1 genus and 1 species); some species of the genera Hamamelis (*witch hazel) and *Trichocladus are used as medicine. hangover – general feeling of illbeing after drinking too much alcohol; certain plants are used to treat hangovers, e.g. *ge gen, Pueraria lobata (the pea family, Fabaceae) and *florist’s chrysanthemum, Dendranthema-hybrids (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), previously named Chrysanthemum × morifolium or C. × hortorum), or a mixture of these two herbs. hares-ear – species of the genus Bupleurum (the carrot family, Apiaceae); for medicinal use see below; bastard hare’s ear is Asplenium (Phyllitis) scolopendrium (Aspleniaceae). hare’s ear root – Bupleurum chinense (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is one of China’s ancient ”harmony” herbs balancing different organs and energies within the body; it is used as a *tonic, strengthening the action of the *digestive tract, improving the *liver function and helping to push blood to the surface of the body; the root is used as a *tonic and *anti-inflammatory; it also induces *sweating, and in addition to strenthening the *liver, it is taken to reduce *fever (Chevallier 2001); alternative name: *bupleurum. haricot bean – Phaseolus vulgaris (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a South American annual herb widely cultivated as a vegetable throughout warm and temperate parts of the world; the pods are *diuretic, stimulating urine flow and thereby the flushing of *toxins from the body; French beans reduce *blood glucose levels (are *hypoglycaemic) in the treatment of *diabetes; powdered beans have been dusted onto *eczema to ease itching and dry the skin; because of the beans resemblance to testicles they were an object of sacred worship by the ancient Egyptians; alternative names: *French bean and *kidney bean. harmala – Peganum harmala (Zygophyllaceae) is a medicinal plant from North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia and southern Europe; it contains up to 4% indole *alkaloides (see *harmaline, harmalol and harmine) and is used as an intoxicant and to help alleviate the tremors of *Parkinsonism; in Asia the root is used to treat *rheumatism and nervous conditions; it also has a long history as an *euphoric and *aphrodisiac herb; alternative name: *African rue. harmaline, harmalol and harmine – indole alkaloides (up to 4%) found in *harmala or *African rue (Peganum harmala, Zygophyllaceae), which is a poisonous medicinal plant from North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia and southern Europe. Harrisonia (Simaroubaceae) – a genus of 3 species of shrubs or small trees native to the old world tropics (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Uganda H. abyssinica the leaves are used to treat *fever and *wounds, the root is taken for *hernia, failure to sweat, *insanity, *migraine, *palpitations and *syphilis, and as an *antidote for *snakebite (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots of this species are used to expel retained *placenta (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); elsewhere in East Africa a decoction from boiled roots of H. abyssinica is drunk as a remedy for *bubonic plague, *fever, *insomnia, *nausea, swelling of the *testicles, *tuberculosis and *vomiting, while leaf extract alone or 182 together with roots is used to treat *snakebite; extract from the whole plant is used for *abdominal pain and *stomach-ache, while a decoction from the bark and roots is taken in cases of blood in the *faeces (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a root decoction of H. abyssinica for stomach problems (Masinde 1996); the Luo in Kenya drink a decoction or infusion of the roots to treat *diarrhoea, *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002); for terpenoids in this species see Rajab et al. (1999). Harungana (Hypericaceae or Clusiaceae) – a genus of a single species, H. madagascariensis, widespread in Madagascar and tropical Africa; it is widely taken to treat a number of diseases, e.g. *anaemia, *coughs, *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *epilepsy, *fever, *flatulence, *haematuria, *haemorrhoids, *inflammation, *jaundice, *malaria, *scabies, *tapeworms, *tuberculosis, and *urinogenital infections (Akendenggue 1992, Baerts & Lehmann 1989, Hakizamungu et al. 1992) the orange or yellow sap or stem bark decoction is applied to *wounds as an *antiseptic and *cicatrizant (Neuwinger 1996); in East Africa the leaves are rubbed on the head as a remedy for *headache, a decoction of the bark is drunk as a remedy for malaria, roots and bark are used to interrupt *menses, and the roots are used to hasten development of the breasts in young women (Kokwaro 1976). harvest mite – tiny animal less than 1 mm long of the genus Trombicula; it is related to spiders and resembles *ticks in having four pairs of legs; it is parasitic on man and may carry *typhus (*scrub typhus); the eggs are laid on the earth or grass, and the larvae attack man; the mites are sometimes exterminated using *pyrethrum powder from the flower heads of the small shrub or herb Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Asteraceae), sometimes cultivated in East Africa. Harvey, William (1578-1657) – British physician who in 1628 published a study on the function of the heart; for the first time it was shown that the heart pumped blood around the body. hashish – an *intoxicating liquid formed from the leaves of *marijuana plants, Cannabis sativa var. indica (the hemp family, Cannabaceae); marijuana contains a large number of *cannabinoids including *delta 9-*tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), a major psychoactive chemical; it has a pleasantly exciting effect, relieves pain and induces sleep, but reduces fertility and can cause *delirium; see also *bhang, *dagga, *marijuana and *pot. Hausa groundnut – Kerstingiella geocarpa (Fabaceae) is cultivated mainly in West Africa; the seeds are rich in protein and are thus a useful food preventing *kwashiorkor. hawthorn – species from the genus Crataegus (the rose family, Rosaceae), e.g. C. monogyna and C. laevigata; hawthorn leaves and fruits have been much used to slow *heartbeat in an enlarged or overactive heart and to diminish *blood pressure; they may also be effective for *insomnia. hay fever – hypersensitive (*allergic) to pollen (of certain plants) or spores (of certain fungi); the result is characterized by difficult breathing, skin rashes, sore eyes, nose and ears. hazel – Corylus avellana (the *hazel family Corylaceae) is a large European shrub producing very tasty, nutritious fruits; hazel has been used as an *astringent to treat *diarrhoea. hazel family – Corylaceae is a small family with 2 genera and 17 species widely distributed in temperate and warm regions in the northern hemisphere; the family is often included in the birch family (Betulaceae); species of the genus Corylus are used as medicine. HDL (high density lipoproteins) – *cholesterols that occur in blood and tissues of the animal organism; HDL transport cholesterol away from the walls of the veins (”good cholesterol”); see also *LDL and *VLDL. headache – a pain in the head; for medicinal plants used to treat this condition see *migraine. headlice – a small wingless insect, Pediculus humanus; it feeds by sucking man’s blood and usually lives among head hairs and lay its eggs on the hairs; it can transmit *typhus (fever); a number of plants are used to kill lice or reduce the spread of lice, e.g. *Adenium obesum (*desert rose or *elephant foot, Apocynaceae), *Albizia ferruginea (Fabaceae), *Anamirta cocculus (*cocculus, Menispermaceae), *Azadirachta indica (*margosa tree or neem, Meliaceae), *Clerodendrum rotundifolium (Verbenaceae), *Dichapetalum toxicarium (Dichapetalaceae), *Dioscorea 183 bulbifera (Dioscoreaceae), *Gloriosa superba (*glory lily, Colchicaceae), *Loesneriella africana (Celastraceae), *Sclerocarya birrea ssp. caffra (Anacardiaceae) and *Tagetes minuta (Asteraceae). heart – for problems with the heart see *angina pectoris and *heartbeat. heart attack – a sudden inability of the heat to function, usually due to an *embolism or increased *blood pressure; plants used to offset tendencies to heart attack include *onion (Allium cepa, Alliaceae) and *red sage (Salvia miltiorhiza, Lamiaceae). heartbeat – the movements of the heart (normal: about 70 heartbeats a minute); many different plants will regulate this, e.g. broom, Cytisus scoparius (the pea family, Fabaceae) is used for an irregular, rapid heart beat; broom acts on the electrical conductivity of the heart, slowing and regulating the transmission of the impulses; several plants are used to regulate or lower the heart beat, viz. Adonis vernalis (*yellow pheasnth’s eye, Ranunculaceae), Cananga odorata (*ylangylang, Annonaceae), Marrubium vulgare (*white horehound, Lamiaceae), Rauvolfia serpentina (*Indian snakeroot, Apocynaceae), Selenicereus grandiflorus (*night blooming cereus, Cactaceae), Strophanthus kombe (*snakeroot, Apocynaceae), Viscum album (*mistletoe, Viscaceae) and *Withania somnifera (*Indian ginseng, Solanaceae); *white false hellebore Veratrum album (Melianthiaceae) is used in *homeopathic preparations to slow *heart rate; plants used to increase heartbeat include Digitalis lutea (*yellow foxglove) & purpurea (*purple foxglove, Scrophulariaceae). heartburn or heart-burn – a burning feeling just below the heart caused by *indigestion; a burning sensation of the *oesophagus and stomach with sour *eructation; it has been treated by *Ormocarpum trichocarpum (Fabaceae), *Senna singuena (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae) and Terminalia myrobalan (*Chebulic myrobalan, Combretaceae). heart disease – plants used to treat various heart problems and stimulate and strengthen a weakened heart include *Acacia hockii (*white thorn acacia, Fabaceae), Aconitum carmichaelii (*Chinese aconite) & napellus (*monkshood, Ranuncula-ceae), Atropa belladonna (*belladonna, Solanaceae), Cheiranthus cheiri (*wallflower, Brassicaceae), Convallaria majalis (*lily-of-the-valley, Convallariaceae), Hyoscyamus niger (*henbane, Solanaceae), *Indigofera ambelacensis (Fabaceae), Leonurus cardiaca (*motherwort, Lamiaceae), Linum usitatissimum (*linseed or flax, Linaceae), Morinda citrifolia (*Indian mulberry or *noni, Moraceae), Salvia miltiorhiza (*red sage, Lamiaceae), Urginea maritima (*sea onion, Hyacinthaceae) and *Vepris glomerata (Rutaceae); see *angina pectoris, *cardiodynia, *cardiotonic, *heartbeat and *heart palpitations. heart palpitations – the strong pulsating (beating) with unnatural rapidity or irregularity of the heart; an awareness of one’s own heart beats, usually caused by *anxiety; plants used to treat this condition include *Ludwigia jussiaeoides (Onagraceae), *Markhamia lutea (Bignoniaceae), *Nymphaea nouchalii (*blue waterlily, Nymphaecaeae) and *Pedianthus tithymaloides (*devil’s backbone, Euphorbiaceae). heart rate – see *heartbeat. heartsease – pansy, Viola tricolor (the violet family, Violaceae); the flowers or the whole plant has been widely used externally to treat *skin problems; it has also been taken as a *demulcent and *expectorant for loosening *phlegm from the *respiratory tract; see also *violet. heather – Calluna vulgaris in the heather family (Ericaceae); tea from the flower tops is recommended to suppress *coughing fits and as a *sedative for sleeplessness; in the past it was used to break *kidney stones and as an *antidote against the stings or bites of any creature; in compound words also used about other dwarf shrubs with needle-shaped leaves in the heather family, e.g. bell-heather (Erica cinerea), bog heather (Erica tetralix) and Christmas heather (Erica canaliculata). heath family – the *heather family, Ericaceae, is a large family with about 100 genera and 3000 species widely distributed in all continents, but less common in the tropics; the families Empetraceae and Pyrolaceae are sometimes included in the heath family. 184 heather family – the heath family, Ericaceae; see above. hecogenin – the substance that is the starting point in the production of *corticosteroids (*steroid hormones); sisal agave is often cultivated for production of hecogenin. hedge mustard – Sisymbrium officinale in the cabbage family (Brassicaceae); the green plant as well as the seeds contains poisonous *glycosides, but despite of this the plant was in the past recommended for *hoarseness and *laryngitis. Heinsia (Rubiaceae) – a genus of 4-5 species of shrubs, small trees or climbers native to tropical and subtropical Africa (3 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in East Africa ash of H. crinita is rubbed into cuts on the neck as a remedy for an injured neck (Kokwaro 1976). Helichrysum (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 600 species of annual or perennial herbs or small shrubs widely distributed, but with most species in Africa (45 species in East Africa, 22 species in Uganda); in West Uganda the leaves of H. forskahlii (often named H. cymosum) are used to treat *cough and *flu (Kakudidi 2003), while in Tanzania the root is used as a *purgative and as an *emetic (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the Shambaa use the roots of H. foetidum for *eye trouble, while the leaves are used for *influenza (Kokwaro 1976); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda this herb is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in East Africa the dried leaves of H. formosissimum are ground and the powder sprinkled onto *sores in cattle to kill *maggots in the sores (Kokwaro 1976); in North Uganda the Acholi drink an infusion of the roots of H. globosum in cases of *dysmenorrhoea and to remove the retained *placenta (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the root of H. nudifolium (including H. gerberae-folium & H. rhodolepis) is used to treat *urinary tract infection in children, while ash from burnt leaves is mixed with *ghee and given to babies as a *tonic; the leaves are used to cure goat diseases and *fever in calves (Kokwaro 1976; Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Africa the roots of H. odoratissimum are used as a *purgative and an extract drunk as a cure for *coughs; leaves are used as an *anthelmintic, and pounded leaves are applied over *wounds resulting from *burns; juice from leaves and young branches is used as eye drops for *conjunctivitis (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of H. odoratissimum and H. panduratum are used to treat *febrile convulsion in children (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania the leaves and roots of H. schimperi are mixed with cow fat as a *cough remedy (Kokwaro 1976). Helinus (Rhamnaceae) – a genus of 5 species in Africa, Madagascar and India; in Uganda the leaves of H. mystacinus are used to treat *coma (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003) and cracked nipples (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Africa the roots are used as a cure for *stomach-ache and *headache, while the leaves are chewed for headache and given to goats as a cure for *fever (Koyama 1976). heliotrope – species of the genus Heliotropium (the borage family, Boraginaceae); see below. Heliotropium (Boraginaceae) – a genus of about 280 species of annual or perennial herbs or subshrubs widely distributed throughout the tropics and warm temperate regions of both hemispheres (20 species in East Africa, 5 in Uganda); in southern Tanzania the Ngoni drink the extract of the roots of H. indicum 2-3 times a day for the treatment of *yaws (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Turkana use H. zeylanicum (including H. subulatum) as a medicine for post*parturition diseases (Kokwaro 1976). hellebore – species of the genus Helleborus (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae), e.g. black hellebore (H. niger), green hellebore (H. viridis) and stinking hellebore (H. foetidus); for medicinal use see *Christmas rose (H. niger). hellweed – species of the genus Cuscuta (the bindweed family, Convolvulaceae); they are leafless climbing parasitic herbs without chlorophyll; they have a mildly *laxative effect and are often taken for *urinary problems; they are traditionally used to *purge black *bile, and are used for *jaundice and problems affecting the *liver and *gallbladder; alternative names: *devil’s guts and *dodder. 185 helminthiasis – having parasitic worms in the intestines or elsewhere; many different plants are used to expel intestinal worms, e.g. the root of Costus afer (ginger lily), and the tuber of Dioscorea dumetorum (a wild *yam). helonias (Am) – species of the genus Chamaelirium, previously Helonias (the lily family, Liliaceae s.lat.); some are important medicinal plants in Eastern North America; see *blazing star and *false unicorn root (both are C. luteum) . hematuria – blood in the urine. hemiparesis – partial muscular *paralysis of one half of the body. hemlock1 – species of the tree genus Tsuga (the pine family, Pinaceae). Tsuga canadensis (the pine family, Pinaceae) is a large and important timber tree from eastern Nortrh America; native North American people used the *astringent and *antiseptic bark to treat *wounds; a decoction of leaves and bark is taken to prevent or treat *scurvy; a decoction of the bark may help to treat *diarrhoea, *diverticulitis, *colitis and *cystitis; externally hemlock spruce can be employed as a douche to treat excessive *vaginal discharge, *thrush and a prolapsed *uterus. hemlock2 – the deadly toxic herb Conium maculatum (the carrot family, Apiaceae). hemo- – see haemo- (having to do with blood). hemoglobin – the coloured protein of the red blood corpuscles that serves to convey oxygen to the tissues. hemoglobinuria – blood colouring matter in the urine. hemolytic – causing the breaking up of red cells. hemoptysis – spitting of blood from the *bronchi, *larynx, *lungs or *trachea. hemorrhage (*haemorrhage) – bleeding; abnormal loss of blood, especially if it is very profuse; it may be external or internal; for useful medicinal plants which staunch *hemorrhage or bleeding see *bleeding. hemorrhoid (*haemorrhoid) – pile; extension of blood vessels around anus; it can be very painful and cause bleeding. hemostatic – which stops or reduces *h(a)emorrhage or bleeding; see *haemostatic; for useful medicinal plants which staunch *haemorrhage or bleeding see *bleeding. hemp1 – Cannabis sativa (the hemp family, Cannabiaceae) has a stem with very strong fibres; subsp. sativa was previously much used for rope; today subsp. indica is widely cultivated as a psychotropic drug; alternative names: *bhang (India), *dagga (S.Africa), *hashish, *kif (Morocco), *marihuana (Mexico) and *pot (US); for medicinal use see *Cannabis. hemp2 – used in compound words to refer to species not belonging to the genus Cannabis, e.g. African hemp (Sparmannia africana in the linden family, Tiliaceae), bowstring hemp (species of the genus Sansevieria in Agavaceae), Manila hemp (Musa textilis in the banana family, Musaceae) and Sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea in the pea family, Fabaceae). hemp agrimony – Eupatorium cannabinum (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a European herb which has been widely used to treat *colds, *fever and as a *diuretic; it has been shown to be particularly useful in treating *virus infections, but contains toxic alkaloids. hempvine – species of the genus Mikania (Asteraceae); for medicinal use see *Mikania; alternative name: * climbing hempvine. henbane – species of the genus Hyoscyamus (the potato family, Solanaceae); black henbane (H. niger) is poisonous but was previously an importont medicinal plant; in the past it was used as a *sedative to ease pain and *spasms, but because the plant is extremely toxic, providing a safe dose has been difficult; other species are golden henbane (H. aureus) and white henbane (H. albus); see *hyoscyamine, a *narcotic present in henbane. hepatic – which affects the liver; relating to the liver. hepatitis – inflammation of the liver characterised by *jaundice;; disease caused by obstruction of *bile (galle), and marked by yellowness of skin, fluids and tissue, *constipation and loss of appetite; some people (especially Italians and Jews develop hepatitis if they eat much of *broad 186 beans (Vicia faba); plants used to treat this disease include Acacia hockii (*white thorn acacia, Fabaceae), *Agave sp. (*century plant, Agavaceae), Alafia lucida & scandens (Apocynaceae), Aloë wollastonii (Aloëaceae), Artemisia capillaris (*liver wormwood or *yin chen hao, Asteraceae), *Asparagus officinalis (*asparagus, Asparagaceae), *Berberis vulgaris (*barberry, Berberidaceae), *Boscia senegalensis (Capparidaceae), *Bussea occidentalis (Fabaceae), Camellia sinensis (*China tea bush or *tea bush, Theaceae), *Capsicum frutescens (*cayenne or *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), Chelidonium majus (*greater celandine, Papaveraceae), *Chrysanthellum indicum (Asteraceae), *Cleistopholis patens (Annonaceae), Citrullus lanatus (*water melon, Cucurbitaceae), Coffea arabica (*coffee, Rubiaceae), *Cuscuta spp. (*devil’s guts, *dodder or *hellweed, Convolvulaceae), *Diodia sarmentosa (Rubiaceae), *Dioscorea dumetorum (*yam, Dioscoreaceae), Dipsacus fullonum (*wild teasel, Dipsacaceae), Elymus repens (*couch grass, Poaceae), Emilia coccinea (Asteraceae), *Euclea divinorum (Ebenaceae), *Funtumia africana (Apocynaceae), Gardenia jasminoides (*Chinese gardenia, Rubiaceae), Glycyrrhiza glabra (*liquorice, Fabaceae), *Gnidia kraussiana (Thymelaeaceae), *Guizotia scabra (Asteraceae), *Harungana madagascariensis (Hypericaceae), Hordeum distichum & vulgare (*barley, Poaceae), *Hoslundia opposita (Lamiaceae), Hypericum perforatum (*common St. John’s wort or *St. John’s wort, Hypericaceae), *Jatropha curcas (*physic nut & *purging nut, Euphorbiaceae), *Kalanchoe densiflora (Crassulaceae), *Lonchocarpus laxiflorus (Fabaceae), *Morinda lucida (Rubiaceae), *Orthosiphon suffrutescens (Lamiaceae), *Pseudarthria hookeri (Fabaceae), *Phyllanthus amarus (*phyllanthus, Phyllanthaceae), Polypodium vulgare (*polypody, Polypodiaceae), *Rauvolfia vomitoria (Apocynaceae), Rehmannia glutinosa (*Chinese foxglove or *rehmannia, Scrophulariaceae), *Rothmannia longiflora (Rubiaceae), *Rourea coccinea (Connaraceae), *Sarcocephalus latifolius (Rubiaceae), Scutellaria baicalensis (*Baical skullcap, Scrophulariaceae) & lateriflora (*mad dog or *Virginia skullcap), *Senna didymobotrya (Fabaceae), Silybum marianum (*Mary thistle or *milk thistle, Asteraceae), *Spathodea campanulata (African tulip tree, Bignoniaceae), *Tricalysia pallens (Rubiaceae), *Tylosema fassoglensis (Fabaceae) and Zea mays (maize, Poaceae). hepatomegaly – enlargement of the liver. hepatoprotective – which protects the liver. herb Bennet (herba benedicta) – Geum urbanum (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a widespread Eurasian herb credited with magical powers in the Middle Ages, e.g. if the root of this plant is in the house, the devil is powerless; occasionally used as an *astringent and is mainly used for problems affecting the mouth, throat and *gastro-intestinal tract; alternative name: wood *avens. herb Paris – Paris quadrifolia (Trilliaceae); this plant is toxic with a black poisonous berry. herb Paris family – Trilliaceae is a small family with 2 genera and about 35 species fairly widely distributed in temperate parts of the northern hemisphere; the plant is sometimes included in Liliaceae; for medicinal plants see *beth root (Trillium erectum) . herb Gerard – Aegopodium podograria (the carrot family, Apiaceae); this European forest herb was previously cultivated as a vegetable and medicinal herb to treat *gout, but is now a troublesome weed; alternative names: *ashweed, *bishop’s weed, *goutweed, *ground elder, *herb Gerard. herb Robert – Geranium robertianum (the cranesbill family, Geraniaceae) is a widespread foul smelling Eurasian herb occasionally used as an *astringent and *wound healer. hernia – *rupture; a condition characterised by the weakening of (muscular) tissue around an organ in such a way that part of the organ protrudes through the wall of the cavity that normally contains it; hernia is commonly used to refer to a weakening of the abdomen wall; many plants have been used to treat this condition, e.g. *Acalypha racemosa (Euphorbiaceae), *Aerangis thomsonii (Orchidaceae), *Anchomanes difformis (Araceae), *Aristolochia elegans (*dutchman’s pipe, Aristolochiaceae), *Aspilia africana (Asteraceae), *Bridelia scleroneura (Euphorbiaceae), *Capparis tomentosa (Capparidaceae), *Capsicum frutescens (*Cayenne or 187 *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), Chamomilla recutita (*German chamomile, Asteraceae), *Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Cyathogyne bussei (Euphorbiaceae), *Dioscorea smilacifolia (*yams, Dioscoreaceae), *Ficus sur (Moraceae), *Flagellaria guineensis (Flagellaraiaceae), *Flueggea virosa (Euphorbiaceae), *Harrisonia abyssinica (Simaroubaceae), Herniaria glabra (*rupture-wort, Caryophyllaceae), *Hoslundia opposita (Lamiaceae), *Hyptis pectinata (Lamiaceae), *Icacina oliviformis (Icacinaceae), Illicium verum (*Chinese anise or *star anise, Illiciaceae), *Indigofera arrecta & garckeana (Fabaceae), *Jaeteorrhiza palmata (Menispermaceae), *Jasminium parvifolium (Oleaceae), *Jatropha curcas (fig nut, *physic nut or *purging nut) & multifida (*coral plant, Euphorbiaceae), *Maytenus heterophylla (Celastraceae), *Penianthus longifolius (Menispermaceae), *Picralima nitida (Apocynaceae), *Protoasparagus falcatus (Asparagaceae), *Salacia lehmbachii (Celastraceae), *Sarcocephalus latifolius (Rubiaceae), *Securidaca longepedunculata (*violet tree, Polygalaceae), *Senna occidentalis & singueana (Fabaceae), *Sesamum indicum (*sesame or simsim, Pedaliaceae), *Solanum macrocarpon var. dasyphyllum (Solanaceae), *Thevetia peruviana (Apocynaceae), *Vernonia amygdalina & hildebrandtii & zanzibarensis (Asteraceae) and *Zehneria scabra (Cucurbitaceae). heroin – an addictive narcotic alkaloid derived from *morphine and *opium from the sap of certain poppies, mainly the *opium poppy, Papaver somniferum. herpes – an inflammation of the skin, characterized by clusters of tiny blisters. herpes simplex – the cold sore *virus; some plants have antiviral qualities and are believed to relieve this condition, e.g. *white peony Paeonia lactiflora (the peony family, Paeoniaceae). herpes zoster – shingles; a painful disease of the skin and nerves, caused by a virus, that produces clusters of blisters. Heritiera (Sterculiaceae) – a genus of about 30 tree species widely distributed in the old world tropics; in Kenya the Luo drink or gurgle a decoction of H. littoralis to treat *mouth infection, *stomach ache and *toothache (Geissler et al. 2002). hesperidin – a *flavonoid that strengthens capillaries and prevent leakage into surrounding tissues; hesperidin is found in many plants, e.g. *lemon (Citrus × limon) and *buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum). Heteromorpha (Apiaceae) – a genus of about 6 species of perennial herbs native to southern and tropical Africa (in East Africa 2 species, in Uganda 1 species); in East Africa the roots of H. trifoliata acts as a *purgative and are also used to treat *syphilis, while the leaves are used to treat *snakebite; the Masai give ground stems mixed with fat to babies and small children as a *tonic (Kokwaro 1976). Hewittia (Convolvulaceae) – a genus of 1 or 2 twining species widely distributed in the old world tropics; in West Uganda the leaves of H. scandens (H. sublobata) are used to treat *premenstrual pain and as an *antenatal remedy (Kakudidi et al. 2000). Hibiscus (Malvaceae) – a genus of about 200 species of herbs, shrubs and small trees widely distribution in tropical and warm temperate regions; some species are cultivated as ornamentals, e.g. H. rosa-sinensis (*blacking plant, *rose of China or *shoe flower), H. schizopetalus and H. syriacus (Rose-of-Sharon), other species are used for their fibres, e.g. H. cannabinus (Deccan hemp), H. elatus (Cuban bast), H. macrophyllus and H. tiliaceus, or they have edible parts, e.g. H. esculentus (Lady’s fingers, okra) and H. sabdariffa (Jamaica sorrel, roselle); in East Africa the leaves of H. acetosella are used in a body wash for children aching, while in Uganda the leaves or whole plant are used to treat *anaemia, *asthenia, *functional psychosis and general weakness (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in East Africa the leaves of H. aethiopicus are crushed, mixed with water and the extract given to children as a remedy for *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Kakamega use the roots of H. aponeurus to cure *indigestion, while ash from burned stem and leaves is mixed with *ghee and applied to *burns (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of H. calophyllus are steamed or squeezeded and 188 eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); in coastal Kenya the Digo use the roots of H. calophyllus to treat *pneumonia, and the underside of the leaves applied to sores (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the roots of H. cannabinus are pounded and applied on the spot of a *spider bite, while the leaves are used for *stomach diseases (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa ash from burned leaves and roots of H. flavifolius is mixed with fat or *ghee and applied to burns (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the roots of H. fuscus are chewed and the liquid swallowed as an *aphrodisiac and to cure *coughs, while a root decoction is drunk as a general *antidote for any *poisoning; in Uganda this plant is taken to treat *cholera, *cramps, *dysentery and fever (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda this herb is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in West Uganda the leaves, roots and bark of H. fuscus are boiled or squeezed and eaten to improve sexuality in women (KamatenesiMugisha 2005); in Uganda H. ludwigii is used to treat *malaria fever (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in East Africa the roots of H. lunarifolius are used to treat *birth problems, while the roots of H. micranthus are boiled and taken to treat *bronchitis, and the leaves used to treat *ear-ache (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa an infusion of the leaves of H. physaloides is taken as a remedy for *dysentery and the roots are used as a *styptic (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda a decoction of the leaves of H. sabdariffa is drunk to treat *anaemia (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in East Africa the ash from H. surattensis is rubbed into cuts on the abdomen to relieve *rupture, and an infusion of the leaves, stem and flower is used as a wash for itching caused by *chicken pox (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the whole plant is used to treat *diarrhoea (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves of this species are used to treat *mouth sores (Okello & Ssegawa 2007). hibiscus – species of the genus Hibiscus (Malvaceae), e.g. coral hibiscus or fringed hibiscus (H. schizopetalus); see also *rose of China and *shoe flower (H. rosa-sinensis). hiccup – involuntary spasm of respiratory organs, with sudden closure of glottis and a characteristic sound; some plants are used to alleviate this condition, e.g. Alpinia officinarum (*galangal, Zingiberaceae), Curcuma amada (*mango-ginger, Zingiberaceae), *Ficus natalensis (*bark cloth tree, Moraceae), *Laggera (*Blumea) crispata (Asteraceae), *Saccharum officinarum (*sugar cane, Poaceae) and *Solanum scabrum (*wonderberry, Solanaceae). hidrosis – excessive sweating. high fever – for plants used to lower high fever see *fever. Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179) – abbess of a convent in Rhineland, a medieval pioneer in natural science who added her own broad knowledge of folk medicine in her writings. Himalayan silver birch – Betula utilis (the birch family, Betulaceae) is a close relative to the *silver birch (B. pendula); it is prescribed to treat *convulsions, *dysentery, *haemorrhages and skin diseases. Himalayan valerian – Valeriana wallichii (the valerian family, Valerianaceae) is a perennial herb native to the Himalaya region; it is used in the same way as *valerian (V. officinalis), i.e. to reduce *anxiety, *nervous tension and *stress and promote a restful sleep. Hindustan gentian – Chirita lavandulacea (Gesneriaceae); se også *silver chirita (C. sinensis) hip – the receptacle (’fruit’) of species of the genus Rosa (the rose family, Rosaceae); it is very rich in vitamin C; hip is a very useful supplementary food for babies, usually taken in the form of a soup, juice or mashed; in adults it will prevent *scurvy; alternative name: *rosehip. Hippocratea (Celastraceae) – the East African species of this genus are transferred to *Pristimera. Hippocrates (460-377 BC) – Greek physcician and philosopher, who expanded on the early belief that the world was made up of the elements fire, air, earth and water, and classified herbs as having hot, dry, cold and moist properties. HIV – human immunodeficiency virus; it is a retrovirus that causes the immune system to fail (a condition known as AIDS) leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections; many plants have been postulated to prevent patients with this virus to develop *aids (AIDS), e.g. *cat’s claw 189 (Uncaria tomentosa), *lapacho (Tabebuia spp.), *lemon (Citrus limon), *purple coneflower (Echinacea spp.), and *St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum); see also *lemon juice. hoarseness – the state of having a rough and husky voice, somtimes caused by a disease or infection. Hoehnelia (Asteraceae) – the East African medicinal plant previously named Hoehnelia vernonioides is now transferred to the genus *Ethulia under the name *Ethulia vernonioides. hog plum – species of the genus *Ximenia (Olacaceae); their fruits are very bitter; for medicinal use see *Ximenia. hog plum family – Olacaceae is a medium sized family with about 25 genera and 250 species widely distributed in all tropical regions; some species of the genera *Olax and *Ximenia (*hog plum) are used as medicinal plants; see *Olacaceae. Holarrhena (Apocynaceae) – a genus with 4 species of shrubs or trees native to tropical Africa and Asia (in East Africa 1 species, none in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of H. pubescens (H. febrifuga) are used for *stomach pain, while the roots are used to treat *influenza and to wash children with *fever, and for stimulating *lactation in women (Koyama 1976). hollyhock – species of the genus Althaea (the mallow family, Malvaceae), e.g.*common hollyhock (A. rosea); Antwerp hollyhock (A. ficifolia); *marshmallow is A. officinalis. holy basil – Ocimum sanctum (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is an annual aromatic herb native to tropical Asia; this herb has the ability to reduce blood sugar levels and is thus helpful for some types of *diabetes; it also has *anti-inflammatory, *fever-reducing and *pain-relieving properties; in Indian medicine it is chiefly used to reduce fever, but is also prescribed for *asthma, *mouth ulcers, *stress and respiratory infections, especially *bronchitis, *colds, *coughs and *pleurisy; the juice is applied to *insect bites, *ring worm and *skin diseases; the herb seems to inhibit *sperm production; alternative name: *tulsi (Hindi). homeopathy – a medical treatment for certain diseases using very small doses of drugs which in a healthy person and in large doses would produce symptoms like those of the disease; this treatment was founded by Samuel *Hahnemann. honeysuckle – Lonicera periclymenum (the honeysuckle family, Caprifoliaceae); the bark of this climber has been used as a *diuretic and to alleviate *arthritis and *liver problems, while the flowers have been taken to alleviate *asthma, *cough and *cramp; see also *fly honeysuckle; Australian honeysuckle is species of the genus Banksia (Proteaceae); Cape honeysuckle is *Tecomaria capensis (Bignoniaceae); Jamaica honeysuckle is Passiflora laurifolia (Passifloraceae). honeysuckle family – the honeysuckle family, Caprifoliaceae is a medium sized family with about 18 genera and 450 species, but the placing of genera in this family is subject to disagreement. honeysuckle tree – Turraea robusta (mahogany family, Meliaceae); for medicinal use see *Turraea. Hoodia (Apocynaceae, Asclepioideae) – a genus of about 17 succulent species in Namibia and southern Africa; Hoodia currorii is an important plant used to treat obesity (Jansen, 2004); H. parviflora is very toxic and used as hunting poison in bait hookworms – *ankylostoma; a group of worms, which attach themselves to the intestines or other internal organs and suck blood; they give rise to the disease *ankylostomiasis (hookworm disease), which is an almost universal disease among people living in warm tropical conditions; if food is plentiful hookworms may produce no symptoms, but if food is restricted the worms by sucking blood produce pallor, breathlessness, wasting, swelling of the feet and mental *lethargy; many medicinal plants are taken to expel hookworms, e.g. *Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae), *Combretum molle & padoides (Combretaceae), *Crotalaria goodiiformis (Fabaceae), *Cucurbita pepo (*marrows or *pumpkins, Cucurbitaceae), *Dioscorea bulbifera (*yams, Dioscoreaceae), *Dissotis rotundifolia (Melastomataceae), *Dombeya taylorii (Sterculiaceae), *Maytenus putterlickioides (Celastraceae), *Morella (*Myrica) salicifolia (Myricaceae), *Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae), Polygonum aviculare (*knotgrass, Polygonaceae), *Portulaca oleracea (*common purslane, *purslane or *pigweed, Portulacaceae), *Rhus 190 natalensis (Anacardiaceae), Vangueria infausta (Rubiaceae) and *Ximenia caffra (Olacaceae); for other plants used see *anthelmintic. hop – humle, Humulus lupulus i hampefamily (Cannabiaceae); Australian hop or Daviesia alata (the pea family, Fabaceae). horehound – arter av slekta Marrubium (the mint family, Lamiaceae), e.g. white horehound (borremynte, M. vulgare); for medicinal use see *white horehound. hormone (med) – an internally secreted compound formed in endocrine organs which affects the functions of specific receptive organs or tissues when carried to them by the body fluids, e.g. sex hormones like *oestrogen and *testerone. hormone-dependent cancer – cancer which depends on the levels of hormones or balance between hormones; this disease is sometimes treated using *Glycine soya (*soya or *soybean, Fabaceae). horse-brush – Tetradymia (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a North American plant toxic to sheep grazing in sunlight because eating the plant leads to ‘bighead’ swelling, *liver damage and *photosensitization. horse-chestnut – Aesculus hippocastanum and other species of the genus Aesculus (the horse chestnut family, Hippocastanaceae), e.g. Indian horse-chestnut (A. indica) and red horsechestnut (A. pavia); alternative name under *buckeye; the nuts of horse-chestnut may have *antiinflammatory properties, and extracts or *decoctions from the nuts and the bark have been used to treat *haemorrhoids and *varicose veins. horse-chestnut family – Hippocastanaceae is a small family with 2 genera and 15 species distributed in America, Europe and East-Asia; the genus Aesculus have species of medicinal value. horsepipes – Equisetum arvense (Equisetaceae; Pteridophyta); for medicinal use see *common horsetail. horseradish – Armoracia rusticana (the cabbage family Brassicaceae) or the hot sauce made from the root of this plant; the sharp taste is caused by *sinigrin; a secondary nitrogen-containing metabolic product. horseradish tree – Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae); the nut (*ben nut) contains an oil widely used for food, paints and soap; for medicinal use see *Moringa. horsetail – species of the genus Equisetum (Equisetaceae; Pteridophyta), e.g. *common horsetail (E. arvense), *field horsetail (E. pratense), marsh horsetail (E. palustre), variegated horsetail (E. variegatum), water horsetail (E. fluviatile) and wood horsetail (E. sylvaticum); see also *catwhistle (E. palustre), *Dutch rush (E. hyemale) and *paddock pipe (E. palustre); for medicinal use see *common horsetail. Hoslundia (Lamiaceae) – a genus of 2-3 species of perennial herbs native to tropical Africa (1 species in Uganda); in East Africa a decoction of the roots of H. opposita is taken as a *cough remedy or the roots are boiled with beans and eaten for *stomach pains, leaves are chewed and sprayed over a fresh *wound to accelerate healing, an infusion of the leaves is used as a cooling wash for feverish children or the roots and leaves more generally used for *fever and *colds; the plant is also mixed with Indigofera emarginella for treating *fits in children; in Uganda H. opposita is used as an insect repellant and the leaves (and roots) are used to treat *cholera, *epilepsy and *dysentery (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the root of H. opposita to treat *abdominal pain in women (Heine & König 1988); in Central Uganda the Baganda drink a leaf decoction of this plant mixed with that of *Bothriocline tomentosa as an *antibiotic, and mixed with leaves of Microglossa pyrrhopappa as an antiseptic for afterbirth wounds (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in East Uganda the root of H. opposita is taken to treat *hernia and *snakebite, the leaves are used to treat *haemorrhoids and *jaundice, and the sap of the fruit is squeezed into the eye to treat *sty (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves and roots of H. opposita are steamed or squeezeded and eaten or inserted in *vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves of this species are used 191 to treat *fresh wounds (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Rakai district in Uganda the leaves are crushed, ash and water added and given orally to chickens to treat *NCD (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007). hottentot fig – Carpobrotus edulis (Aizoaceae), a South African succulent species widely cultivated and escaped in other continents; the leaf sap is gargled for sore throat and drunk to treat digestive problems like *diarrhoea and *dysentery; theplant has also been used to treat *allergies, *diabetes, *diphtheria and *eczema. hottentot fig family – Aizoaceae is a large family with about 143 genera and 2300 species widely distributed in warm countries, but most species endemic to South Africa. houseleek – Sempervivum tectorum (the stonecrop family, Crassulaceae); a European succulent widely used externally to treat *wounds, *burns and *corns. huckleberry – *bilberry or *blueberry, Vaccinium myrtillus (the heather family, Ericaceae); *garden huckleberry is Solanum scabrum (the potato family, Solanaceae). Huernia (Apocynaceae, Asclepiaceae) – a genus of about 70 species of succulent herbs native to Arabia and tropical and southern Africa; in Kenya the sap of H. keniensis is used to treat wounds, which dry up and therefore heal (Kokwaro 1976). Hugonia (Linaceae) – a genus of about 40 species of trees, shrubs or woody climbers native to the Old World tropics (5 species native to East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in coastal Kenya (Kilifi) the the roots of H. castaneifolia are ground and eaten as a cure for *intestinal worms (Kokwaro 1976). huisache – Acacia farnesiana (the pea family, Fabaceae, Mimosoideae) is a small tree or spiny shrub native to Australia, but widely cultivated elsewhere; it is used for *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *skin diseases and *wounds; the pulp surrounding the seeds has been used to treat *tumours; a perfume oil (cassie) is obtained from this species; alternative name: *opopanax, *popinac and *sweet acacia. humble plant – Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae, Mimosoideae) is a pantropical herb sometimes cultivated as a pot plant, but in some countries a weed; alternative name: *dead-and-awake, *humble plant, *sensitive plant, *shame bush, *shame-lady, *shamer and *touch-me-not; for medicinal use see *Mimosa. humour – an important body fluid in traditional Indian and European medicine. Hungarian pepper – the fruit or red powder made from the fruit of cultivated forms of Capsicum annuum (the tomato family, Solanaceae); the plant is native to tropical America, but widely cultivated in all tropical and subtropical countries, and also in South and East Europe; this plant is classified as a medicinal food, but it is used less often used as a medicine than *chilli (pepper), Capsicum frutescens; alternative name: *paprika. Hunteria (Apocynaceae) – a genus with 12 species of shrubs or trees native to tropical Africa and with 1 species reaching Southeast Asia (in East Africa 2 species, none in Uganda); in coastal Kenya the Digo give the leaves of H. zeylanica to cows to increase *lactation. Hyacinthaceae – a family of about 40 genera and some 900 species of herbs with bulbs widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions (9 genera and 31 species in East Africa, 7 genera and 14 species in Uganda); species of some genera are used as medicines, e.g. *Albuca, *Ledebouria and *Ornithogalum. Hydnora (*Hydnoraceae) – a genus with 17 species of parasitic succulent herbs native to Africa and Madagascar (2 species in East Africa and 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa the rootstock of H. abyssinica is boiled and the infusion drunk as a cure for *throat complaints, as an *astringent in *dysentery, for the treatment of *palpitations, *stomach trouble, and for removing retained *placenta (Kokwaro 1976; Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Hydnoraceae – a family of 2 genera and 17 species of root parasites native to Africa (*Hydnora) and South America (Prosopanche); some species of Hydnora are used as medicines. hydragogue – a *cathartic which causes watery *purgation. 192 hydrastine – a substance extracted from the rhizome and roots of Hydrastis canadensis (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae); hydrastine gives a yellow colour and is used as a medicine for inflammation of *mucous membranes. hydrocele – gathering of water or serous fluid in testicles (scrotum) or other sacculated cavity; the testicles may become as big as an orange; some plants are used to alleviate hydrocele, e.g. *Capsicum frutescens (*cayenne or *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), *Combretum collinum (Combretaceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllanthaceae), *Microglossa pyrifolia (Asteraceae), *Protoasparagus (Asparagus) racemosus (Asparagaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae), *Thunbergia alata (Acanthaceae), *Zehneria scabra (Cucurbitaceae) and *Ziziphus abyssinica (Rhamnaceae). MHydrocharitaceae – a family of 16 genera and over 70 species of wetland herbs widespread throughout tropical and temperate regions (9 genera and 22 species in East Africa, 5 genera and 9 species in Uganda); occasionally species of the genus *Ottelia are used as medicine. Hydrocotyle (Apiaceae) – a genus of about 70 species of perennial wetland herbs widespread in tropical as well as temperate regions (in East Africa and Uganda 4 species); in East Africa the leaves of H. mannii are boiled and the juice drunk for headache (Kokwaro 1976) and to treat *inflammatory diseases, particularly of the ear (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). hydropsy – see *dropsy. hydrothorax – an accumulation of fluid in the chest. Hygrophila (Acanthaceae) – a genus of about 100 species of herbs in wet habitats in tropical and warm regions; submerged aquatics are cultivated in herbaria, e.g. H. difformis (water wisteria); in East Africa the whole plant of H. auriculata is used as a body wash, or crushed leaves are placed in the nostrils to treat *headache; in the form of fumigation the plant is used for *corneal ulcer (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the whole plant of H. auriculata is used to treat *asthma and *tuberculosis, and the leaves for palpitations and sleep disturbances (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), while the roots of H. odora are taken for *salpingitis, and the leaves for general *abdominal pain and *sterility (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Hymenocardia (Euphorbiaceae or Hymenocardiaceae) – a genus of 7-8 species of deciduous shrubs or trees native to Africa, and with one species in Asia (1 species in Uganda); in Uganda the leaf of H. acida is taken to treat *abdominal pain and *dyspepsia (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), and used in spiritual medicine to remove spells (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in southern Tanzania the Makua use the dried powdered bark as a treatment of *wounds (Kokwaro 1976). Hymenocardiaceae – a family now included in *Euphorbiaceae (1 genus and 1 species in East Africa and Uganda). Hymenodictyon (Rubiaceae) – a genus with about 20 species of shrubs, trees or lianes native to the Old World tropics; in Tanzania roots of H. parvifolium are used for kidney trouble, snake-bite and as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976). hyoscyamine – a toxic alkaloid with important medicinal function; hyoscyamin and the related *atropine stimulates the heart, widens the pupils and is an *antidote for organic phosphate poisoning; hyoscyamine is found in e.g. *belladonna (Atropa belladonna) and *henbane, (Hyoscyamus niger). hyperaemia (hyperemia) – congestion; the state of having increased movement of blood to any part of the body (which reddens the skin); see *rubefacient. hyperaestethic – increased sensibility of an organ. hyperhidrosis – very excessive sweating. Hypericaceae – a family now usually included in the *Clusiaceae (= *Guttiferae). Hypericum (Clusiaceae or Hypericaceae) – a genus with about 370 species of herbs, shrubs and small trees native to temperate and warm regions, in the tropic only upland (in East Africa and Uganda 12 species); in Europe a medicine from H. perforatum has been sold in enormous amounts as a cure for *unhappiness and *mental depression; in East Africa the roots and bark of 193 H. peplidifolium are chewed and the juice swallowed to cure *indigestion, while the roots of H. roeperanum are boiled and the juice drunk by women to cure *infertility (Kokwaro 1976). hypermenorrhoea (hypermenorrhea) – menstruation with excessive bleeding; in west Uganda a large number of herbs are used to alleviate this condition (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006), viz. *Achyranthes aspera (Amaranthaceae), *Aloë spp. (*aloe, Aloëaceae), *Aerva lanata (Amaranthaceae), *Ananas comosus (*pineapple, Bromeliaceae), *Asparagus flagellaris (Asparagaceae), *Barleria splendens (Acanthaceae), *Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), *Carica papaya (*pawpaw or *papaya, Caricaceae), *Chenopodium opulifolium (Chenopodiaceae), *Conyza steudelii (Asteraceae), *Clerodendrum (Rotheca) myricoides (Verbenaceae), *Crassocephalum crepidioides (Asteraceae), *Croton sylvaticus (Euphorbiaceae), *Cucurbita pepo (*marrows & *pumpkins, Cucurbitaceae), *Cyathula uncinulata (Amaranthaceae), *Cyphostemma adenocaule (Vitaceae), *Emilia coccinea (Asteraceae), *Eucalyptus citriodora & globulus (*blue gum) & grandis (Myrtaceae), *Indigofera arrecta (Fabaceae), *Kalanchoe crenata (Crassulaceae), *Laggera crispata (Asteraceae), *Leonotis nepetifolia (Lamiaceae), *Lycopersicon esculentum (*tomato, Solanaceae), *Maesa lanceolata (Maesaceae or Myrsinaceae), *Mangifera indica (*mango, Anacardiaceae), *Microglossa pyrifolia (Asteraceae), *Ocimum gratissimum (Lamiaceae), *Pavonia patens (Malvaceae), *Physalis lagascae (Solanaceae), *Pseudarthria hookeri (Fabaceae), *Psidium guajava (*guava, Myrtaceae), *Rubia cordifolia (Rubiaceae), *Rumex abyssinica (Polygonaceae), *Senecio hadiensis (Asteraceae), *Solanum terminale (Solanaceae), *Tagetes minuta (Asteraceae), *Vernonia lasiopus (Asteraceae), *Warburgia salutaris (Canellaceae) and *Cyphostemma adenocaule (Vitaceae). hypertension (arterial) – abnormal high blood pressure; many different plants are used to treat high blood pressure; for such plants see *blood pressure. hypertensive – which causes high blood pressure; many medicines and some plants cause high blood pressure; for such plants see *blood pressure. hypertrophy – an abnormal increase in the size of an organ or tissue. hyperuricernia – high concentration of uric acid in the body or joints causing *gout or rheumatic *arthritis; for plants used to alleviate this condition see *arthritis and *gout. hypnotic – which induces sleep. Hypoëstis (Acanthaceae) – a genus of about 40 species of herbs or small shrubs widespread in the Old World tropics; in East Africa the roots of H. aristata are chewed as a remedy for *colds, *cough and *sore throat, while boiled in water the plant is used to treat diseases of the breast; in Kenya the Kipsigis chew the root of H. verticillaris to treat *coughs and *influenza (Kokwaro 1976). hypoglyc(a)emic – which lowers blood glucose levels, e.g. Arctium lappa (*burdock, Asteraceae), *Azadirachta indica (*margosa tree or *neem, Meliaceae), Cynara scolymus (*artichoke, Asteraceae), Lythrum salicaria (*purple loosestrife, Lythraceae), Ocimum sanctum (*basil or *tulsi, Lamiaceae), *Olea europaea (*olive, Oleaceae) and *Phyllanthus amarus (*phyllanthus, Phyllanthaceae) hypoadenia – lowered activity of the glands. hypotension – low blood pressure; see *blood pressure.. hypotensive – which lowers blood pressure; a large number of plants have this effect, e.g. *white peony, Paeonia lactiflora (the peony family, Paeoniaceae). hypothermy – fall in the temperature of the body. Hyptis (Lamiaceae) – a genus of about 400 species of herbs, shrubs or small trees native to tropical and warm America and Africa, but some more widespread as weeds; in East Africa the roots and leaves of H. pectinata are chewed or pounded and mixed with water and drunk for *stomach pain, while the leaves are used to cure *congestion of the lungs or mixed with the leaves of Chenopodium opulifolium and Leonotis nepetifolia and to ease painful *menstruation (Kokwaro 194 1976); in Uganda the leaves of H. pectinata are used to treat *malaria and *psychotic excitement, while the tops are used to treat *dizziness, *inguinial *hernia and *palpitations (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Uganda the leaves of H. suaveolens are used to treat *malaria (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). hyssop – Hyssopus officinalis (the mint family, Lamiaceae); in old times this herb was considered one of the best medicinal herbs useful for a large number of diseases, but is today mainly used respiratory ailments: *coughs, *hoarseness and sore throat; it acts as a *demulcent soothing the nucous membranes; bastard hyssop is Teucrium pseudo-hyssopus. Mhysteria – functional disturbance of the nervous system; an uncontrollable outburst of emotion or fear; a psychiatric disorder characterized by violent emotional outbreaks, and disturbances of sensory and motor function. Iboza (Lamiaceae) – an African genus now included in *Tetradenia. Icacina (Icacinaceae) – a genus of 6 species native to tropical Africa; in Congo I. mannii is an *expectorant and *purgative used to treat *bronchial diaseses and *coughs as well as *dysentery and *gastrointestinal complaints (Bouquet 1969); in the Ivory Coast it is taken for *oedema and female *sterility; in Senegal I. oliviformis is used to treat *colds, *colic, *fatigue, *snakebite and *stomach-ache; in Togo it is used for *hernia. Icacinaceae – a family of about 60 genera and 350 species of shrubs and trees mostly native to tropical regions (6 genera and 12 species in East Africa, 4 genera nd 7 species in Uganda); species of some genera are used as medicines, e.g. *Apodytes and *Icacina. icteric – jaundiced; having *jaundice. immunomodulating – which stimulates the body’s immune defence to counter infection. immune stimulant – stimulates the body’s immune defence to counter infection. Impatiens (Balsaminaceae) – a genus of about 900 species of annual or perennial herbs widely distributed in both hot and cold regions, but most species in the tropical and subtropical montane forests of the old world (in East Africa more than 70 species; in Uganda 19 species); in Tanzania the roots of I. digitata are used as a remedy for *gastric disturbances in babies, while the roots of I. pseudoviola are used for the treatment of goat’s diseases; in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda I. schimperiana is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in Tanzania the roots of I. walleriana are used as an *abortifacient (Kokwaro 1976); in western Uganda the whole plant of a species of Impatiens is used to treat sexual *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (KamatenesiMugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005). Imperata (Poaceae) – a genus of 8 grass species native to tropical and warm countries (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Uganda the roots of Imperata cylindrica (*cotton grass) are chewed to ease *snakebite (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves of the same grass is used in *dental care (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in coastal Kenya the Digo use the fluff from the flower heads as a substitute for cotton-wool for treating *sores (Kokwaro 1976). impotence – lack of sexual power; inability to engage in sexual intercourse; many plants are used to treat this condition, e.g. *Acacia sieberiana (Fabaceae), *Allium sativum (Alliaceae), *Arachis hypogaea (Fabaceae), *Cannabis sativa (*hashish or *marijuana, Cannabaceae), *Capsicum frutescens (*Cayenne or *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), *Catha edulis (Celastraceae), *Citropsis articulata (Rutaceae), *Cleome gynandra (Capparidaceae), *Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae), *Cola acuminata (Sterculiaceae), *Corynanthe yohimbe (Rubiaceae), *Dichrostachys cinerea (Fabaceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllantheaceae or Euphorbiaceae), *Grewia similis (Tiliaceae), *Hallea rubrostipulata (Rubiaceae), *Impatiens walleriana (Balsaminaceae), *Macrotyloma axillare (Fabaceae), *Mondia whitei (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Myrica (Morella) salicifolia (Myricaceae), Pausinystalia yohimbe (*yohimbe Rubiaceae) *Phoenix reclinata (Arecaceae), *Phytolacca dodecandra (Phytolaccaceae), *Rhus vulgaris (Anacardiaceae), *Rumex abyssinicus (Polygonaceae), *Senna didymobotrya & occidentalis (Fabaceae), *Sida tenuicarpa (Malvaceae), *Tarenna graveolens (Rubiaceae), *Tragia brevipes (Euphorbiaceae), 195 *Urtica massaica (Urticaceae), *Vernonia cinerea (Asteraceae), *Warburgia salutaris (Canellaceae) and *Zingiber officinalis (*ginger, Zingiberaceae). inanition – exhaustion. Inca wheat – Amaranthus caudatus, an American species of amaranth, it is used as an ornamental garden herb and the grain (*Andean grain) is used to make bread and is eaten in salads; a leaf tea has been used as an *abortifacient and to alleviate *lung problems; alternative name: *quinoa. incontinence – very frequent urination, especially common in old people; plants prescribed to lessen this problem include the Chinese plants *ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgophyta, Gymnospermae) and *ba ji tian, Morinda officinalis (Rubiaceae). Indian amaranth – Amaranthus hypochondrius (the amaranth family, Amaranthaceae) is used both as an ornamental garden herb and as a medicinal plant; it is an *astringent herb used to reduce blood loss and to treat *diarrhoea, heavy menstrual bleeding, excessive *vaginal discharge and *dysentery; it contains a red pigment used to dye foods and medicines; alternative name: *amaranth; see also *Amaranthus. Indian bead tree – Melia azedarach (the mahogany family, Meliaceae); alternative name: *Indian lilac, *Persian lilac, *Pride of India; for medicinal use see *Melia. Indian date – Tamarindus indica (the pea family, Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae) is an evergreen tree possibly native to Africa, but today widely grown and naturalized throughout tropical regions of the world, and particularly India; the acid pulpy part of the pods is edible and also used for jams, sweets and other preserves as well as a refreshing drink; also the seeds are edible; the fruit and seeds are cleansing and beneficial to the *digestion; they improve the appetite, acts as a mild *laxative, relieve *constipation and strengten the stomach; alternative name: *tamarind. Indian fig – Ficus indica (the fig family, Moraceae) is an Indian tree in *Ayurvedic medicine used as a tonic, diuretic and treatment for *gonorrhoea. Indian gardenia – Gardenia campanulata (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a shrub native to northern India; it is *cathartic and is used to expel *intestinal worms. Indian ginseng – Withania somnifera (the potato family, Solanaceae) is a shrub native to India, the Middle East, the Mediterranean and parts of Africa; it contains alkaloids that are sedative, reduce blood pressure and lower the heart beat rate; Indian ginseng also contains *steroidal lactones (withanolides) which are similar to the body’s own *steroid hormones; these are *antiinflammatory and inhibit the growth of *cancer cells; the plant may be used in chronic inflammatory diseases such as *lupus and *rheumatoid arthritis, and as a *cancer-preventative; Indian ginseng increases *heamoglobin levels, reduces greying of hair and improve sexual performance; it has a high *iron content and is used for *anaemia; it is particularly useful for restoring vitality for sufferers of stress and overwork; alternative name: *withania. Indian gooseberry – Emblica (Phyllanthus) officinalis (Phyllanthaceae or Euphorbiaceae) is widely used to treat *ageing and *debility. Indian jalap – Operculina turpethum (Convolvulaceae) is a perennial twining climber native to tropical India; the root contains about 4% *turpethin resin and has been used as a *purgative to clear the bowels for thousands of years; alternative name: *turpeth. Indian lilac – *Melia azedarach (the mahogany family, Meliaceae); for medicinal use see *Melia; alternative names: *Indian bead tree, *Persian lilac, *Pride of India, Indian jujube – Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae) is a shrub or small tree with edible fruits; for medicinal use see *Ziziphus; alternative name: *geb. Indian liquorice – Abrus precatorius (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a deciduous climber with attractive red and black seeds in pods; the seeds are deadly poisonous (toxin: *abrin) but have been used as a *contraceptive and *abortifacient to induce abortions; alternative names: *coral pea, *crab’s eye, *jequirity, *lucky beans, and *paternoster beans. Indian mallow – Abutilon indicum (Malvaceae) is used in Asia in the same way as marshmallow in Europe, i.e. to soothe and protect the *mucous membranes of the *respiratory and *urinary 196 systems, e.g. it is used to treat *bronchitis; it is *diuretic and the seeds are *laxative and kill *threadworms; alternative name: *kanghi. Indian mulberry – Morinda citrifolia (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a southeast Asian shrub or small tree now also spread to India and the Pacific; this plant and especially its fruit has many therapeutic values, e.g. to treat *diabetes, *cancer, *depression, *heart disease, *high blood pressure, *lowered immunity, *obesity and *pain; the fruit contains the alkaloid *proxeronine which the body needs to produce *xeronine; it appears that the alkaloid xeronine enters the cells enabling them to counter inflammation and support normal cellular divisions; alternative name: *noni. Indian olibanum – Boswellia serrata (Burseraceae) is an Indian deciduous tree used for thousands of years as an *astringemt and *anti-inflammatory; the useful part is the bark, which contains a golden transparent gum resin; it has been widely prescribed for *rheumatoid arthritis reducing pain and stiffness; it makes an effective mouthwash and gargle and will benefit gum disease, *laryngitis, mouth *ulcers and *sore throat; it may also be used to treat *asthma, *gout, *hay fever and *nettle rash; alternative name: *sallaki; see also *Boswellia and *frankincense (B. sacra). Indian pennywort – *Centella asiatica (Apiaceae) is an important medicinal plant in Asia; in *Ayurvedic medicine it was a useful *tonic and cleansing herb for *skin problems and digestive disorders; in India it is used to treat *leprosy and *wounds, but is valued chiefly as a revitalizing herb that strengthens *nervous function and memory; one of its constituents, *asiaticoside (a triterpenoid *saponin) may reduce *fertility, but stimulates wound healing by speeding up *collagen formation and the laying down of new blood vessels and increasing *antioxidant levels within the wound; in Europe it is mainly used for *skin problems, *wounds, *rheumatoid arthritis, *rheumatism and poor venous circulation (Chevallier 2001). Indian snakeroot – Rauvolfia serpentina (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae) is an evergreen shrub native to tropical Asia; it is also cultivated for medicinal use; it contains a mixture of *indole alkaloids, including *ajmaline, which has been used to regulate *heart beat, but it is most important in lowering high *blood pressure and lessening the symptoms of mental illness; it has also been used to treat *anxiety and *insomnia. Indian spinach – Basella alba (Basellaceae) is sometimes cultivated as a potherb; alternative names: *Ceylon spinach, *Malabar nightshade and *Malabar spinach; for medicinal use see *Basella. Indian turnip – Arisaema triphyllum (the lords-and-ladies family, Araceae) is a perennial very toxic herb native to North America; the dried rhizome is used for *chest problems; alternative name: *Jack-in-the-pulpit. indigestion – dyspepsia; failure of proper digestion; difficulty in digesting food; the state of not being digested; severe pain below the heart caused by indigestion is named *heart-burn; many different plants will help to treat indigestion; e.g. *Acacia nilotica (Fabaceae), Agastache rugosa (*giant hyssop, Lamiaceae), Aletris farinosa (*colic root, *star grass or *true unicorn root, Liliaceae s.lat.), Allium ursinum (*ramsons, Alliaceae), Alpinia officinarum (*galangal, Zingiberaceae), *Ananas comosus (unripe *pineapple, Bromeliaceae), Angelica archangelica (*angelica, Apiaceae), *Ardisiandra sibthorpioides (Primulaceae), *Artemisia afra (Asteraceae), Bacoba monnieri (*water hyssop, Scrophulariaceae), Bambusa arundinacea (*spiny bamboo. Poaceae), *Berkheya spekeana (Asteraceae), *Bonatea steudneri (Orchidaceae), *Brucea antidysenterica (Simaroubaceae), *Butea monosperma (*Bengal kino, *flame of the forest, *palas, Fabaceae), Calamintha officinalis (*calamint, Lamiaceae), *Capparis cartilaginea (Capparidaceae), *Capsicum frutescens (*Cayenne or *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), *Carissa spinarum (Apocynaceae), Chamaemelum nobile (*Roman chamomile, Asteraceae), *Celtis africana (Celtidaceae), Chamomilla recutita (*German chamomile, Asteraceae), *Chondrus crispus (*carragheen or *Irish moss, Rhodophyta), *Clausena anisata (Rutaceae), *Clerodendrum (*Rotheca) myricoides (Verbenaceae), *Commiphora edulis & zimmermannii 197 (Burseraceae), *Conyza pyrrhopappa (Asteraceae), Crocus sativus (*saffron crocus, Iridaceae), *Cucumis figarei (Cucurbitaceae), Curcuma amada (*mango-ginger, Zingiberaceae), *Cussonia spicata (Araliaceae), Cynara scolymus (*artichoke, Asteraceae), *Cyperus rotundus (Cyperaceae), *Dolichos sericeus (Fabaceae), *Dombeya torrida (Sterculiaceae), *Dovyalis abyssinica (Flacourtiaceae or Salicaceae), *Dregea rubicunda (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), Entada phaseoloides (*matchbox bean, Fabaceae), *Euphorbia espinosa (Euphorbiaceae), *Faurea saligna (Proteaceae), Ferula assa-foetida (*asafoetida or *devil’s dung, Apiaceae), Filipendula ulmaria (*meadowsweet, Rosaceae), *Flacourtia indica (Flacourtiaceae or Salicaceae), *Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae), *Gnidia glauca (Thymelaeaceae), *Gynura scandens (Asteraceae), *Habenaria cirrhata (Orchidaceae), *Hibiscus aponeurus (Malvaceae), *Hymenocardia acida (Euphorbiaceae), *Hypericum peplidifolium (Hypericaceae), Illicium verum (*Chinese anise or *star anise, Illiciaceae), Inula helenium (*elecampane, Asteraceae), Iris versicolor (*blue flag, Iridaceae), *Kleinia petraea (Asteraceae), *Lantana trifolia (Verbenaceae), *Leonotis ocymifolia (Lamiaceae), Levisticum officinale (*lovage, Apiaceae), Limonia acidissima (*elephant apple or *wood apple, Rutaceae), *Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae), *Lonchocarpus laxiflorus (Fabaceae), Lycopodium clavatum (*clubmoss, Lycopodiaceae; Pteridophyta), Magnolia officinalis (*magnolia or *tree magnolia, Magnoliaceae), Maranta arundinacea (*arrowroot, Marantaceae), Marsdenia condurango (*condurango, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Melanthera scandens (Asteraceae), Melilotus officinalis (*melilot, Fabaceae), Melissa officinalis (*balm, *bee balm or *lemon balm, Lamiaceae), *Momordica foetida (Cucurbitaceae), *Morella (*Myrica) salicifolia (Myricaceae), Murraya koenigii (*curry-leaf-tree, Rutaceae), Nepeta cataria (*catmint, Lamiaceae), *Nymphaea lotus (*white lotus, Nymphaeaceae), *Nuxia congesta (Stilbaceae), *Ocimum basilicum (*basil or *sweet basil, Lamiaceae), *Olinia rochetiana (Oliniaceae), *Pappea capensis (Sapindaceae), *Pavetta abyssinica (Rubiaceae), Peucedanum ostruthium (*masterwort, Apiaceae), Pimenta dioica (*allspice or *Jamaica pepper, Myrtaceae), *Pittosporum viridiflorum (Pittosporaceae), Plantago indica (*flea seed) & psyllium (*flea seed or *psyllium, Plantaginaceae), Polymnia uvedalia (*bearsfoot, Asteraceae), Polypodium vulgare (*polypody, Polypodiaceae; Pteridophyta), *Protoasparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), Prunus cerasus (*dwarf cherry) & padus (*bird cherry) & serotina (*wild cherry, Rosaceae), *Psydrax schimperiana (Rubiaceae), *Rhoicissus tridentata (Vitaceae), *Rhus longipes (Anacardiaceae), Rorippa microphylla & nasturtium-aquaticum (*watercress, Brassicaceae), Rubus steudneri (Rosaceae), Salvia sclarea (*clary sage, Lamiaceae), *Satureja abyssinica (Lamiaceae), Sinapis alba (*white mustard, Brassicaceae), *Solanecio mannii (Asteraceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae), *Sterculia mhosya (Sterculiaceae), *Syzygium cordatum (Myrtaceae), Terminalia belerica (*Beleric myrobalan) & myrobalan (*Chebulic myrobalan, Combretaceae), *Tetradenia riparia (Lamiaceae), *Tithonia diversifolia (Asteraceae), Vaccinium myrtillus (*bilberry or *blueberry, Ericaceae), Vernonia lasiopus & myriantha (Asteraceae) and *Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae); see also *digestion. indigo – species of the genus Indigofera (the pea family, Fabaceae), e.g. Java indigo (I. arrecta and I. tinctoria; bastard indigo is Amorpha fruticosa; Chinese green indigo is species from the genus Rhamnus (Rhamnaceae); for medicinal use see *Indigofera. Indigofera (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus with more than 700 species of annual or perennial herbs or small shrubs (145 species in East Africa, 53 species in Uganda) widely distributed in all tropical and warm regions; in East Uganda the Padhola take the root of I. ambelacensis to treat *heart troubles (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the roots of I. arrecta are widely used to treat *stomach-ache and other stomach disorders, while the leaves are pounded and mixed with oil and used in massaging dislocated *joints (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the rootbark is used to ease *cough and quicken *labour, the leaves are taken to expel retained *placenta, and the stem is used in dental care (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Central Uganda the leaf of I. arrecta is used 198 to treat *dermatosis, *lympho-gronuloma venerum and *pruritus (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Uganda the root is taken to treat*diphtheria, *dysentery, *snake bite and to promote labour, the whole plant is taken to treat *pyomyositis, and the leaves to treat *vertigo (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves and roots of I. arrecta are used to treat menstrual problems such as *dysmenorrhoea and excessive bleeding or *hypermenorrhoea (KamatenesiMugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots of this species are used to treat *stomach-ache and nose blockage (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Tanzania I. arrecta is taken to treat *hernia and *mental illness, and in Rwanda to treat *abscesses, *eczema, *malarial fever, *scabies, sprains and *stomach pain (Chagnon 1984); in East Africa raw roots of I. circinella are chewed as a cough remedy (Kokwaro 1976), while in East Uganda the root is taken for suspected *tuberculosis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a root and leaf decoction of I. circinella for intestinal worms (Masinde 1996); in Kenya Kakamega women drink a decoction of the roots of I. conjugata to expel retained placenta (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda I. dendroïdes is used as an *antidote and to treat muscular *spasms and *pyomyositis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves of I. emarginella are used as a *sedative to induce sleep (Kakudidi et al. 2000) and in North Uganda the Acholi give an infusion of the roots together with those of Hoslundia opposita to children suffering from fits (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda I. emarginella is used to treat *coma; also in East Uganda the root of I. garckeana is taken to treat *hernia, *snake bite and premature *ejaculation (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots of this species are used to prevent harmful lightning/thunder and expel evil spirits (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in coastal Kenya the Giriama use the leaves of I. hirsuta for *chest diseases and the plant generally for *stomach troubles (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the roots of I. lupatana are used for *gonorrhoea and *pleurisy, while the Digo in coastal Kenya take a decoction of the roots of I. paniculata for *gonorrhoea (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the Iraqw use the roots of I. rhynchocarpa to treat *abdominal pains around the *kidney region (Kokwaro 1976); in West Africa I. simplicifolia is used as a strong *purgative; in East Africa roots of I. spicata are crushed in water and drunk for *coughs and *sore throat and given to mothers delivering a baby to give strength to force the baby to come out; leaves and roots are also used for treating *stomach-ache and other stomach disorders (Koyama 1976); in Uganda the whole plant is used to treat foreign body in the throat (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Uganda the leaf of I. subulata is used to treat *diarrhoea (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania the Iraqw use the roots of I. swaziensis to relieve general body *pains as it is believed to purify the blood and stimulate the whole body (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the roots of I. tenuis are used for *headache, while the roots of I. tinctoria are used to treat *syphilis and the leaves to alleviate *stomach troubles (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the leaves of I. trita is used to cure *headache, while the Padhola in East Uganda take a root or leaf decoction of I. vohemarensis to treat *coughs (Kokwaro 1976). inebriant – an intoxicant; a drink or substance that intoxicates, as an alcoholic liquor. inflammation – morbid process affecting a part of the body with heat, swelling, pain and (in light complexioned people) redness; the condition into which tissue enters after injury or infection; there are many types of inflammations in different organs, e.g. *allergic rhinitis, *coryza and *rhinitis are inflammations of the nose and *sinuses; *appendicitis is inflammation of the *vermiform appendix; *arthritis, *gout and *rheumatism are inflammations of joints, *blennorhagia and *catarrh are inflammations of mucous linings and membranes; *blepharitis and *conjunctivitis are inflammations of the eyelids; *bronchitis is inflammation of the *bronchial tubes; *cellulitis is inflammation of *connective tissues; *cervical lymphadenitis is inflammation of *lymph glands; *cystitis is inflammation of the bladder; *dermatitis, *eczema and *herpes are inflammations of the skin; *dysentery is inflammation of the intestines; *endometriosis or *endometritis is inflammation of the lining membranes of the womb; 199 *enteritis or *gastroenteritis (*gastric inflammation) is inflammation of the bowels; *gingivitis is inflammation of the gums; *glossitis is inflammation of the tongue; *hepatitis is inflammation of the liver; *laryngitis is inflammation of the mucous membranes of the *larynx; *lymphangitis is inflammation of the *lymphatic vessels; *mastitis is inflammation of the breast tissue or *mammary glands; *meningitis is inflammation of the *meninges (membrane covering of the brain and *spinal cord); *metritis is inflammation of the *uterus; *multiple sclerosis is inflammation of nerve tissue; *myositis and *pyomyositis are inflammations of muscles; *nephritis and *pyelitis are inflammations of the *kidneys; *neuralgia is inflammation of a nerve; *ophthalmia is inflammation of the deeper structures of the eye; *orchitis is inflammation of the *testicles (testis); *otitis is inflammation of the ear; *periostitis is inflammation of the bone cover (*periosteum); *peritonitis is inflammation of the lining of the *abdominal cavity (*peritoneum); *pleuritis is inflammation of the membrane that covers the lungs and lines the chest; *pneumonia is inflammation of the lungs; *prostatitis is inflammation of the *prostate gland; *quinsy and *tonsillitis are inflammations of the *tonsils; *salpingitis is inflammation of one or both *oviducts (*fallopian tubes); *sinusitis is inflammation of the *sinus; *splenomegaly is inflammation of the *spleen; *stomatitis is inflammation of the mucous membranes of the mouth; *trachoma is chronic inflammation of the eye; *urethritis is inflammation of the *urethrea (the passage where urine flows); *vaginitis is inflammation of the *vagina. influenza (flu) – infectious illness with fever, usually with severe *catarrh and rapid *prostration; a large number of plants are used to alleviate this disease, e.g. *Ancyclobotrys petersiana (Apocynaceae), *Bonatea steudneri (Orchidaceae), *Catha edulis (*khat, Celastraceae), (leaves of) *Citrus × aurantifolia (*lime tree, Rutaceae) & × limon (*lemon tree, Rutaceae), *Clausena anisata (Rutaceae), *Clematis hirsuta (Ranunculaceae), *Conyza pyrrhopappa (Asteraceae), *Croton menyartii (Euphorbiaceae), *Cymbopogon citratus (*lemon grass, Poaceae), *Cynoglossum coeruleum (Boraginaceae), *Ficus natalensis (*bark cloth tree, Moraceae), *Helichrysum foetidum (Asteraceae), *Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae), *Hypoëstis verticillaris (Acanthaceae), Lomatium dissectum (*lomatium, Apiaceae), *Maerua angolensis (Capparidaceae), *Nuxia floribunda (Stilbaceae), *Opilia celtidifolia (Opiliaceae), *Psydrax parviflora (Rubiaceae), *Rhus longipes & natalensis (Anacardiaceae), *Securidaca longipedunculata (*violet tree, Polygalaceae), *Spirostachya africana (Euphorbiaceae), *Sterculia africana (Sterculiaceae), *Tetracera boiviniana (Dilleniaceae), *Vernonia myriantha (Asteraceae) and *Vitex strickeri (Verbenaceae). infusion – water-based preparation in which flowers, leaves, stems, bark or roots are brewed in a similar way to tea in order to extract its soluble principles; the steeping of a substance in hot water in order to extract its active ingredients. inguinal – of or situated in the groin, e.g. inguinal *hernia; see *Aspilia (Asteraceae). inhalation – breathing of medicinally infused steam or liquid through the nasal passages. inkberry – Phytolacca americana (the pokeweed family, Phytolaccaceae) and other species of the genus Phytolacca; P. americana is an American perennial herb spread to many other warm and tropical regions; dye from the berries of this plant has been used to colour ink, sweets and wine; it has been used to treat *skin diseases, *sores, *tumours and *ulcers as well as *arthritic and *rheumatic conditions, to relieve pain and induce *vomiting; it has also been used to treat *respiratory tract infections (e.g. *sore throats and *tonsillitis); however, today inkroot is valued mostly because of its power to kill snails which carry *bilharzia; alternative names: *pigeonberry, *poke root and *pokeweed. insanity – madness; plants taken to improve this condition include *Adenia cissampeloides (Passifloraceae), *Aristolochia elegans (*Dutchman’s pipe, Aristolochiaceae), *Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), *Bridelia scleroneura (Euphorbiaceae), *Cardiospermum halicacabum (*balloon vine, Sapindaceae), *Carissa spinarum (Apocynaceae), *Clematis hirsuta (Ranunculaceae), *Commelina benghalensis (Commelinaceae), *Conyza bonariensis (Asteraceae), *Datura 200 stramonium (*thornapple, Solanaceae), *Dichrocephala integrifolia (Asteraceae), *Diodia sarmentosa (Rubiaceae), *Euphorbia heterochroma & prostrata (Euphorbiaceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllanthaceae), *Gardenia ternifolia var. jovis-tonanthes (Rubiaceae), *Harrisonia abyssinica (Simaroubaceae), Mandragora officinalis (*love apple or *mandrake, Solanaceae), *Markhamia lutea (Bignoniaceae), *Piliostigma thonningii (Fabaceae), *Piptadeniastrum africanum (Fabaceae), *Polyscias fulva (*parasol tree, Araliaceae), *Securidaca longipedunculata (*violet tree, Polygalaceae) and *Spathodea campanulata (*African tulip tree, Bignoniaceae). insect bites or stings – can be treated with an infusion of *nettle (*Urtica dioica) or *purple coneflower (Echinacea spp.), or applied externally use the juice of (or gel, lotion or tincture of) *Aloe vera, Calendula officinalis (*marigold), Hypericum perforatum (*St. John’s wort), Lavandula officinalis (*lavender), Ocimum basilicum (*sweet basil), O. sanctum (*holy basil), Salvia officinalis (*sage) or Thymus vulgaris (*thyme); neat lemon juice; bites or stings in the throat or if prone to allergic reaction need immediate medical attention. insecticidal – that which kills insects; many plant substances have such effect, e.g. sesquiterpene lactones (artabsin and anabsinthin are found in Artemisia absinthum); since many insects transfer diseases, insecticidal plants or substances are of great benefit to health. insecticide – a substance which kills insects; many plant substances have such effect, e.g. sesquiterpene lactones (artabsin and anabsinthin are found in Artemisia absinthum); since many insects transfer diseases, insecticides are of great benefit to health. insomnia – inability to sleep, often as a result of nervous trouble; many plants are used to treat insomnia, e.g. Annona muricata (*soursop, Annonaceae), Crataegus monogyna & laevigata (*hawthorn, Rosaceae), Cypripedium pubescens (*Lady’s slipper, Orchidaceae), Dendranthema hybrids (*florists’ chrysanthemum, Asteraceae), Galium odoratum (*sweet woodruff, Rubiaceae), *Gardenia jasminoides (*Chinese gardenia, Rubiaceae), Gelsemine sempervirens (*yellow jasmine or *zhizi, Loganiaceae), *Harrisonia abyssinica (Simaroubaceae), Lavandula officinalis (*lavender, Malvaceae), Melilotus officinalis (*melilot, Fabaceae), Morus alba (*white mulberry, Moraceae), Nymphaea alba (*white waterlily) & odorata (*white pond lily, Nymphaeaceae), Ocimum basilicum (*basil or *sweet basil, Lamiaceae), Origanum majorana (*sweet marjoram, Lamiaceae), Papaver rhoeas (*corn poppy, *field poppy or *red poppy, Papaveraceae), Passiflora incarnata (*apricot vine or *maypop, Passifloraceae), *Rauvolfia serpentina (*Indian snakeroot) & vomitoria (Apocynaceae). insulin – a substance prepared from the *pancrease of animals, it enables the body to use sugar; people suffering from *diabetes need regular insulin injections; some medicinal plants will stimulate the production of insulin in the human body, e.g. *cerasee or *kerala (Momordica charantia, the melon family, Cucurbitaceae). intercostal neuralgia – pain resulting from damage, irritation or inflammation of a nerve between the ribs; it is sometimes treated by *yellow jasmine, Gelsemium sempervirens (Loganiaceae) or *St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum). intercourse – see *sexual intercourse. intestinal – that relates to the *intestines. intestinal bilharzia – a disease in man caused by the *flatworms (schistosome) Schistosoma monsoni that live in the large veins of the portal system; there is no good plant medicine that kills the parasite in man, but several plants such as *Phytolacca dodecandra will kill the *parasite in water before it can enter man; see *bilharzias and *schistosomiasis. intestine – the lower part of the *alimentary canal, extending from the *duodenum to the *anus and consisting of a long and narrow part. intermittent fever – a fever that recurs regularly, e.g. *malaria fever. intraperitoneal – in the abdominal cavity. 201 inulin – a jelly-like substance which soothes and relieves *coughing and helps to clear *phlegm from the throat and chest; inulin was first isolated from Inula helenium (*elecampane) in 1804 and took its name from this herb. iodine – a non-metallic chemical element used in medicine and dyes; lack of iodine in humans will cause the disease *goitre; the seaweed *bladderwrack, Fucus vesiculosus (brown seaweeds, Fucaceae) is useful as a source of *iodine and as an *anti-goitre remedy. ipecacuanha – Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Rubiaceae); a strong *expectorant from tropical America. Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) – a genus with about 500 species of herbs, shrubs or climbers native to tropical and warm regions (85 species in East Africa, 40 species in Uganda); many species are cultivated as ornamentals, while I. batatas (*sweet potato) is widely cultivated as a major starch crop througout the tropics; in Uganda the leaves of I. alba are used to treat *abdominal pain and poor *foetal activity in early pregnancy, while the seeds are used to treat *poisonings; in East Uganda the leaves and seeds of I. alba are used to protect against ill luck (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Africa the leaves of I. asarifolia are used to treat *abscesses, *convulsions, *eye diseases, *headache, *joint pain, *neuralgia, *syphilitic sores, and is also an *abortifacient; in western Uganda the leaves of *sweet potato (I. batatas) are used to treat *constipation, *cough, *dysentery, *fever and *whitlow (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000), in West Uganda the leaves and roots of this plant are used to treat painful menstruation, *dysmenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Central Uganda an infusion of crushed leaves of *sweet potato is said to expand the *pelvic canal during *delivery (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in East Uganda the tubers are chewed to treat *snake bite, and the leaves a tonic against general *fatigue (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Uganda Anokbonggo (1972) tested nine cultivars of I. batatas for *hypoglycaemic effects on rabbits, but with poor results; in West Uganda the leaves of I. cairica are used for *dizziness and *whitlow (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Uganda the leaves of I. hildebrandtii are used to treat general pain, *psychotic excitement and for *pain of any origin resulting in *sleeplessness; the seeds are used to treat *functional psychosis, while the roots mixed with the leaves are used to treat *snakebite (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Africa the pounded roots of I. jaegeri are boiled in water and the liquid drunk as an *emetic (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Luo drink a decoction of I. kituensis to treat *stomach-ache (Geissler 2002); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam pound the root of I. longituba and add to water drunk by cows to improve lactation (Heine & König 1988); in Tanzania the Hehe women use I. longituba to increase milk production, while the Ngoni use the roots of I. obscura to treat *dysentery (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal East Africa I. pes-caprae is used externally for *colic, *dropsy and *rheumatism (Kpkwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam apply the juice of I. spathulata to swellings on eyes (Heine & König 1988), while in Kenya the Luo use this plant to treat *diarrhoea and *ringworm (Geissler 2002); the Kakamega in Kenya crush the leaves of I. tenuirostris and rub them into the skin to cure rheumatism (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the roots of I. wightii are chewed or boiled and the decoction drunk for severe *coughs (Kokwaro 1976). Iridaceae – iris family is a large family with about 70 genera and 1800 species widely distributed in all continents; species of the genera Crocus (*saffron crocus), Gladiolus (*corn flag), Iris (*blue flag) and *Watsonia (*bugle lily) are of medicinal value. iris family – Iridaceae is a large family with about 70 genera and 1800 species widely distributed in all continents; for medicinal genera see *Iridaceae. Irish moss – krusflik, Chondrus crispus (Rhodophyta) is a red alga widely distributed along the Atlantic coasts; it contains large amounts of *polysaccharides and is used widely in the food and pharmaceutical industries as an *emulsifying and binding agent; Irish moss is used for *bronchitis, *coughs, acid *indigestion, *gastritis and *urinary infections; it can also be taken to thin the blood; taken externally this *emollient alga soothes inflamed skin; alternative name: *carragheen. 202 Irish potato – Solanum tuberosum in the potato family (Solanaceae); the tuber contains large amounts of *vitamin A, B1, B2, C and K and *potassium as well as small amounts of atropinalkaloids; it is useful alleviating *gastric ulcers since it reduces the amounts of gastric acid; the juice has been used externally on painful *joints, *headache and *back pain; in India the peel has been used to heal *burns and painful gums; alternative name: *potato. iron (Fe) – an essential metallic element needed for man and animals to develop a good blood supply; iron deficiency *anemia can be alleviated by eating green vegetables like amaranth (Amaranthus spp., Amaranthaceae), *lettuce (*Lactuca sativa, Asteraceae), *pumpkin seeds (*Cucurbita pepo, Cucurbitaceae) and *spinach (*Spinacia oleracea, Chenopodiaceae); *purple gentian (Gentiana purpurea, Gentianaceae) aids the absorption of iron. ironbark (tree) – some species of the genus Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae), e.g. grey ironbark (E. paniculata) and red ironbark (E. crebra); alternative name: *gum (tree); see also *stringibark tree; for medicinal use see *Eucalyptus. Isoberlinia (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae) – a genus of 5 tree species widely distributed througout tropical Africa (1 species in Uganda); in Benin a decoction of the leafy twigs of I. doka is taken for *convulsions, and the dried resin is applied locally in the treatment of *abscesses and *phlegmon; in Ghana the bark of I. tomentosa is used in washing of cuts, sores and *wounds. isoflavones – type of *flavonoids (*polyphenolic compounds which impart colour to flowers and fruits); isoflavones are *oestrogenic and valuable in treating *menopausal symptons; isoflavones are found in numerous plants, e.g. Trifolium pratense (*red clover). Isoglossa (Acanthaceae) – a genus of about 50 species of herbs or small shrubs widespread in the Old World tropics, but with the highest diversity in Africa; in East Africa the roots of I. lactea are used as a remedy for *syphilis, or chewed as a remedy for *cough (Kokwaro 1976). Italian cypress – Cupressus sempervirens (Cypressfamily, Cupressaceae; Gymnospermae) is a tall tree from Turkey widely cultivated in southern Europe as an ornamental and timber tree; its volatile oil from cones and branches is used externally to tighten up blood vessels and astringes *haemorrhoids and *varicose veins; a footbath of the crushed cones is used to cleanse the feet and counter excessive *sweating; used internally it is *antispasmodic and a *tonic, and has been used to treat *asthma, *colds, *coughs, *flu, *rheumatic pains, *coughing and spitting up of blood; alternative names: *cypress or *Mediterranean cypress. itch – to feel an irritating sensation on the skin with a desire to scratch; many diseases may cause itching. ivy1 – Hedera helix and other species of the genus Hedera (the ivy family, Araliaceae); a *poultice from the leaves may be applied to cuts, *sores and *skin eruptions, but the plant was more widely used in the past. ivy family – *Araliaceae is a large family with about 55 genera and 700 species widely distributed in all warm and temperate regions except the driest and coldest places; the family is sometimes included in the carrot family (Apiaceae); for medicinal plants see *Araliaceae. ivy-leaved toadflax – Cymbalaria muralis (Scrophulariaceae s.lat.) is a southern European *astringent herb sometimes crushed and used on *wounds. Ixora (Rubiaceae) – a genus of about 300 species of shrubs or small trees widely distributed througout the tropics (30 species in Africa; 7 species in East Aftrica, 2 species in Uganda); many species have been introduced as ornamentals; in Tanzania I. narcissodora is taken for *dropsy, *malaria and *rheumatism (Neuwinger 1996). Jackfruit – *Artocarpus heterophyllus (Moraceae), an attractive evergreen tree with edible large aggregate fruits growing directly from the trunk or branches (cauliflorous); for medicinal use see *Artocarpus. Jack-in-the-bush – Chromolaena (Eupatorium) odoratum (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a troublesome weed in many warm countries; the fresh plant is sometimes rubbed into the skin to 203 prevent *mosquito bites and alleviate *hypothermia; a decoction is drunk to treat *metrorrhagia and *mycosis; alternative name: *bitter bush and *siam weed. Jack-in-the-pulpit – Arisaema triphyllum (the lords-and-ladies family, Araceae) is a perennial very toxic herb native to North America; the dried rhizome is used for chest problems; alternative name: *Indian turnip. Jacquemontia (Convolvulaceae) – a genus with about 120 species of herbs or widespread in tropical regions, but with most species in America (3 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots or leaves of J. tamnifolia are used as an *antidote for the bite of a large green snake; an infusion is drunk and also used for washing the wound (Kokwaro 1976). Jateorhiza (Menispermaceae) – a genus with 2 species of somewahat woody lianes confined to tropical Africa (1 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in coastal Tanzania the Zigua use the roots of J. palmata as a strong stomach medicine and for cases of *hernia and *rupture (Kokwaro 1976). jalap – Ipomoea purga (the bindweed family, Convolvulaceae) is a medicinal herb mainly used as a *purgative. Jamaica pepper – (spice from) Pimenta dioica (Myrtaceae); a tree where the unripe fruits are widely used as spice; as a medicine it is a *stimulant, stomach-settling and *antiseptic, it is mainly used to relieve *indigestion and *flatulence, and to treat *diarrhoea; alternative name: *allspice and *pimento; Carolina allspice is Calycanthus floridus (Calycanthaceae). jambolan – *Syzygium cuminii (Myrtaceae) has edible purple fruits rich in *antioxidants thus improving resistance to diseases; alternative name: *Java plum. Japanese apricot – Prunus mume (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a tall deciduous tree native to China; the fruit is very sour, but is *antibiotic and *astringent and widely used in Chinese medicine to alleviate *coughs, *diarrhoea and *dysentery and stop bleeding; externally the fruit is applied as a plaster to sites of removed *corns and *warts; alternative name: *wu mei. Japanese juniper – Juniperus rigida (the cypress family, Cupressaceae) is used in the same way as J. communis as a diuretic. Japanese medlar – Eriobotrya japonica (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a small oriental tree widely cultivated (or sometimes grows naturally outside its native region in Japan; the fruit is eaten raw or made into jam; the fruits are rich in antioxidants and are thus useful improving resistance to diseases; alternative name: *loquat. jasmine – species of the genus Jasminium (the olive family, Oleaceae); for medicinal use see *Jasminium. Jasminium (Oleaceae) – a genus with about 450 species of generally scrambling or climbing shrubs native to tropical and subtropical regions, only few in temperate regions (20 species in East Africa, 8 species in Uganda); in Uganda the leaves of J. dichotomum are used to treat *asthenia (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania the roots of J. eminii or J. fluminense are chewed as a remedy for snakebite (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the powdered rootstock of J. fluminense to treat lice on calves (Heine & König 1988); in Kenya the Luo use this plant to treat a disease named ‘wuoyo’ (Geissler et al. 2002); in Kenya a decoction from boiled roots of J. grandiflorum subsp. floribundum is mixed with milk and drunk for the treatment of *diarrhoea, *liver troubles and *stomach-ache, and the roots are also chewed for *tonsilitis, and the leaves used as an *anthelmintic (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Digo rub the ash of J. parvifolium into cuts on the side of the *abdomen as a remedy for *rupture or to relieve *hernia (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use twigs of species of Jasminium as toothbrush (Heine & König 1988). Jatropha (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus of about 175 species of trees, shrubs or herbs native to America and Africa (70 species; 22 species in East Africa); in Uganda only 2 native and 2 naturalized/cultivated species; J. curcas (fig nut, *physic nut, pig nut & *purging nut) is an American shrub widely planted as a hedge and medicinal plant in tropical Africa; the plant is 204 *abortifacient, *anthelmintic, *emetic and strongly *purgative; it is widely used to cure a large number of diseases and conditions, e.g. the seeds are poisonous and used as an *abortifacient and to treat *arthritis, *gout, *jaundice, *leprosy and *syphilis; a root decoction is used to treat *dysentery, *gonorrhoea, *jaundice, *malaria, *pneumonia, *spermatorhoea, and *syphilis; the leaves are sometimes used for the same illnesses, but also for releasing *bile and cleansing the *kidneys, the crushed dry leaves are applied to *abscesses and *wounds (Neuwinger 1996); in East Africa the juice is squeezed from the leaf or stem and applied on *wounds, while the roots are used to treat *chest disease, or may be cooked with gruel and given to patients suffering from *kidney disease (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda J. curcas is used to treat *boils, *constipation, *fatigue, *hernia, *wounds, painful *menstruation, and to promote *labour and expel retained *placenta (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves are used against *cough and the sap applied to fresh *wounds (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Kenya the Somali use J. dichtar as eye-drops for affected eyes (Kokwaro 1976); J. multifida (*coral plant), an American shrub or small tree widely cultivated in Africa, is also strongly *purgative; in Uganda the leaves are used to treat fresh *wounds (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), and in East Uganda the sap is applied to *wounds and the root used as an *antidote and as a treatment of *hernia (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Kenya the Kamba use the roots of J. spicata as a medicine (Kokwaro 1976). jatropha oil – oil extracted from Jatropha curcas (see above); for medicinal use see *Jatropha; alternative names: Barbados nut oil and physic nut oil. jaundice – *hepatitis; disease caused by obstruction of *bile (gall), and marked by yellowness of skin, fluids and tissue, *constipation and loss of appetite; a state in which there is an excessive quantity of a bile substance called *bilirubin in the blood circulating in the body and being deposited in certain parts of the body like the skin and the eyes which appear yellow; this state can be caused by different diseases; for useful plants see *hepatitis. Java plum – Syzygium cuminii (Myrtaceae) has edible purple fruits rich in *antioxidants thus improving resistance to diseases; alternative name: *jambolan. jequirity – Abrus precatorius (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a deciduous climber with attractive red and black seeds in pods; the seeds are deadly poisonous (toxin: *abrin) but have been used as a contraceptive and abortifacient to induce abortions; in Eastern Uganda the species is used to treat conjunctivitis, abdominal pain, gonorrhoea, and as prophylaxis against measles, and to control premature ejaculation alternative names: *coral pea, *crab’s eye, * Indian liquorice, *lucky beans, and *paternoster beans. jew’s plum – Spondias cytheria (Anacardiaceae); is a Pacific tree with edible drupes; the fruits have some medicinal value due to their content of vitamins and minerals; alternative names: *ambarella, *golden apple, *otaheite apple; see also *jobo, *mombin, red mombin *Spanish plum and *yellow mombin. jigger – sand flea, chigger or chigoe, which lay eggs under the skin of man or animals causing boils and inflammation; the seeds of *Trichilia emetica (Meliaceae) are fried and the oil thus extracted is applied to sores from which *jiggers have been removed, and also applied on toes to prevent *jigger infection (Kokwaro 1976). Trichilia (Meliaceae) – a genus with 88 tree species with 18 species native to tropical Africa (6 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in East Africa an infusion of the pounded bark of T. emetica acts as an *emetic that cause profuse perspiration and is used to treat *pneumonia; a *decoction of the roots is taken as a remedy for *colds, as a *diuretic or to induce *labour in pregnant women, and a decoction of the bark is used as a *purgative, oil from the seeds is used to treat to sores from which *jiggers have been removed; in Mali the leaves are used as a *wound- 205 Jimson weed – Datura stramonium (the potato family, Solanaceae) is a robust toxic annual American herb widely established as a weed throughout the world; for medicinal uses see *Datura. jing jie – Schizonepeta tenuifolia (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a Chinese medicinal plant valued as an aromatic and warming herb; it is used to treat skin conditions such as boils and itchiness, and to treat chills, fever and measles. ji xue teng – Milletta reticulata (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a Chinese medicinal plant used to invigorate the blood, and is mainly used to treat menstrual problems such as period pain and to normalize an irregular or absent cycle. *jobo – Spondias mombin, also named S. lutea (Anacardiaceae); is a medicinal tree with edible drupes; in West Africa the fruit juice is taken for *fever and as a *diuretic; a bark decoction is drunk to alleviate severe *cough, while dry pulverized bark is applied as a dressing on circumcision wounds; a root extract is drunk to treat *colic and *stomach pain, but for children the sap of young leaves is used; ground leaves mixed with lemon are given to childrena as *anthelmintic; a leaf maceration is drunk to trat *anuria, *blennorrhagia and *metrorrhagia in pregnant women (Neuwinger 2000); alternative names: *mombin and *yellow mombin; see also *ambarella, *golden apple, *jew’s plum, *Otaheite apple, *red mombin and *Spanish plum. joint-pine – species of the genus Ephedra (Ephedraceae; Gymnospermae), and particularly E. sinica, a small evergreen shrub native to dry regions of China and Mongolia (other species of the same genus are named similarly in all continents of the northern hemisphere); it is a strong *stimulant and *diuretic herb raising blood pressure and mimicing the effect of *adrenaline; it dilates the *bronchioles and is widely used to treat *asthma and relieve the aches and pains of *rheumatism; in China it is also used to disperse colds and fevers, and to treat kidney energy deficiency; in convential medicine it is used as a *decongestant; alternative names: *desert tea and *ephedra. Josephinia (Pedaliaceae) – a genus with 4 species of herbs or small shrubs native to the Old World tropics (1 genus and 1 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in coastal Kenya the Boni use the powdered root of J. africana for external dressing of sore skin (Kokwaro 1976). jujube1 – species of the genus Ziziphus (Rhamnaceae); Chinese jujube is Z. spinosa; common jujube (Z. jujube) has edible fruits; Indian jujube is Z. mauritiana. jujube2 – Ziziphus jujube (the buckthorn family, Rhamnaceae) is a widespread Asian tree with edible fruits with a sweet taste and high nutritional value; the fruit is also a herbal remedy aiding weight gain, improving muscular strength, increasing stamina and strengthening liver function; this fruit is also used to improve the taste of unpalatable medicines. Juncaceae – a family of 8 genera and about 325 species widely distributed in cold as well as hot regions, but with highest diversity in temperate countries (2 genera and 8 species in East Africa, 2 genera and 6 species in Uganda); sometimes species of the genus *Juncus are used as medicine. Juncus (Juncaceae) – a genus of about 225 species of wetland herbs widely distributed in cold as well as hot regions, but with highest diversity in temperate countries (5 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in East African uplands the crushed flower heads of J. oxycarpus are mixed with honey and then chewed as a remedy for colds and chest pain (Kokwaro 1976). juniper – species of the genus Juniperus or (in Europe) commonly Juniperus communis (the cypress family, Cupressaceae); J. communis is a very widespread species in the northern hemisphere; it is rich in volatile oil and tannins, and is a diuretic and strongly antiseptic within the urinary tract; it stimulates menstruation and tends to increase menstrual bleeding; applied externally juniper is a useful treatment for *arthritis, *gout and *rheumatic conditions; Juniperus (Cupressaceae - Gymnospermae) – a genus of about 50 species of shrubs and trees native to temperate and warm regions of the northern hemisphere and upland regions in Africa; in East Africa young twigs and buds of J. procera (*African pencil cedar) are ground, soaked in water, and the infusion drunk to expel *intestinal *worms (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East 206 Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the bark of J. procera to treat children’s *malaria and ”white urine disease” (Heine & König 1988); species of this genus are important medicinal plants in the northern and temperate regions in Eurasia, see *juniper; see also *savin (J. sabina) and *Japanese juniper (J. rigida). Juno’s tears – vervain, Verbena officinalis (the teak family, Verbenaceae); a widely used medicinal herb in temperate Eurasia and in medieval Europe it was used for almost any disease or problem (a *panacea); recent research has shown it to be effective as a *diuretic and *gout remedy and to suppress appetite, but not for use as a *contraceptive and *antispasmodic or to treat *fever, *dysentery and *skin infections. MJusticia (Acanthaceae) – a genus of about 420 species of herbs or small shrubs in tropical and warm countries; in East Africa an infusion of the green leaves of J. betonica is drunk by a person bitten by a snake (particularly cobra), and the root used as a *cough remedy (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda an infusion of J. exigua is drunk to treat *salpingitis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), and in central Uganda the whole plant is taken to treat *syphilis and the fresh leaves or a leaf infusion for *headache and difficult *labour during child birth (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in East Africa the leaves of J. flava are used as an *emetic and a decoction as an *eye lotion, while the roots are used as a medicine for *coughs, *diarrhoea and *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of J. flava is used to treat *scabies (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Kenya an extract of the green leaves of J. pinguior is taken as a cure for *intestinal worms or used as a charm; in Tanzania the roots of J. salvioides are boiled and the gruel given to babies with *intestinal disorders; also the leaves of J. uncinulata are used for *intestinal treatment (Kokwaro 1976). jute – herbs from the genus Corchorus spp. (the linden family, Tiliaceae) or fiber from these plants; for medicinal use see *Corchorus. Kaffir lily – species of the South African genus Clivia (the daffodil family, Amaryllidaceae); particularly C. miniata is a popular pot plant; in South Africa it has been used as a snakebite remedy and to treat *fever and facilitate delivery at child-birth (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). kaki – Diospyros kaki (Ebenaceae) has edible juicy fruits; alternative names *Chinese date plum and *persimmon: for uses see *Diospyros. Kalanchoë (Crassulaceae) – a genus with about 125 succulent species native to the old world tropics and particularly common in Africa (in Uganda 10 species); in Uganda the fresh leaves of K. crenata are used to treat *helminthiasis, febrile convulsions and whooping cough in children and in antenatal care to facilite *labour (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in West Uganda the leaves of K. crenata are steamed or squeezed and eaten or inserted in vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005) and taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in East Uganda the leaves of K. densiflora are used to treat *dermatitis, *epilepsy, *jaundice, premature *ejaculation and *pyomyositis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Tanzania the Shambaa use roots and leaves as an *abortifacient or the juice of the leaves applied to *septic wounds (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Kipsigis heat the leaves of K. lanceolata and rub them over the body as a treatment for stiff joints and *rheumatism (Glover et al. 1967; Kokwaro 1976). kale – winter cabbage; certain cold-resistant variants of Brassica oleracea (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae), which in England is cultivated during winter; for medicinal use see *Brassica. Kanahia (Apocynaceae - Asclepiadoideae) – a genus with 2 species native to eastern tropical Africa and Arabia; in Karamoja in East Uganda the So of Mt. Kadam use the root of K. lanifolia to treat *headache, *malaria and *stomachache (Heine & König 1988); kanghi – Abutilon indicum (Malvaceae) is used in Asia in the same way as marshmallow in Europe, i.e. used to soothe and protect the *mucous membranes of the *respiratory and *urinary systems, e.g. useful for *bronchitis; it is *diuretic and the seeds are *laxative and kill *threadworms; alternative name: *Indian mallow. 207 kapha – one of the three basic forces formed from the five elements (ether, air, fire, water, earth) in Indian *Ayurvedic medicinal philosophy; kapha is the water principle created from water and earth; the other elements are *pitta and *vata. kava-kava – Piper methysticum (the pepper family, Piperaceae) is an important evergreen scrambling shrub to peoples of the Pacific Islands; its roots have calming and stimulating qualities, but at large doses produce *intoxication and *euphoria; kava-kava is a relaxing remedy for *anxiety, it relieves pain and is beneficial for *arthritic conditions (*analgesic and cleansing *diuretic effect); it makes a useful analgesic mouthwash for *toothache and mouth *ulcers, and has been widely used to treat *urinary infections and *venereal diseases, particularly *gonorrhoea. Kedrostis (Cucurbitaceae) – a genus with 23 species of climbers or subshrubs native to the old world tropics (in Uganda 2 species); in East Uganda a decoction of the leaves of K. foetidissima is drunk to treat *measles, and to improve appetite (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Kenya it is used to cure *small-pox and other diseases (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Turkana use K. gijef as a medicine for *coughs and *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976). Keetia (Rubiaceae) – a genus with about 40 species of climbers and scandent shrubs confined to tropical and South Africa (16 species in East Africa, 7 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of K. gueinzii (= Canthium hispidum) are used as an *antidote for general poisoning, while the roots of K. venosa (= Canthium venosum & C. zanzibaricum) are used for *stomach-ache and as a *vermifuge to expel *intestinal worms (Kokwaro 1976). kei apple – Dovyalis caffra (Flacourtiaceae) has edible very acid fruits resembling *apricot; the fresh mature fruit contains 83 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g and thus have some medicinal effect. kelp (Am) – bladderwrack, Fucus vesiculosus (a brown seaweed, Fucaceae) is a very widespread and abundant seaweed along the shores of the North Atlantic Ocean; it has been widely used as winter feed for domestic animals and as a source of *iodine and *potash; it is used as an *antigoitre remedy and is considered to relieve *rheumatic conditions; it may have *antiviral and *anti-HIV activity; alternative name: *bladderwrack. kerala – Momordica charantia (the melon family, Cucurbitaceae) is an annual Asian climber now fairly widespread in most tropical regions; a *decoction of the leaves is used to treat *skin- and *liver problems and colites; the fruit or its juice has been used as a *purgative and to treat *colic, *fever, *worms and *urinary stones; the unripe fruit is used to treat late-onset *diabetes as the fruit juice stimulates production of the *pancreatic cells, which secrete *insulin; the seeds are *androgenic and inhibit sperm production, it has been tested as a *contraceptive in China; alternative name: *cerasee. keratolysis – separation or peeling of the horny layer of *epidermis; see *corn. keratolytic – pertaining to or producing *keratolysis. khat (tree) – *Catha edulis (Bittersweet Family, Celastraceae) is a tree or large shrub native to the Middle East and Horn of Africa; it contains *alkaloids similar to those of *Ephedra; they stimulate the central nervous system, are *antiallergenic and suppress the appetite; in Africa the leaves are mostly chewed to alleviate hungriness, but khat produces an effect somewhat similar to that of *coca leaves (Erythroxylum coca), but is less *addictive; however withdrawal can produce *lethargy; it is sometimes taken in old age to stimulate and improve mental function, and in Europe it has been used to counter *obesy; it has also been taken to treat *malaria, but it must not be taken during *pregnancy or while breast-feeding. Khaya (Meliaceae) – a genus with 6 species (3 species native to Uganda) of large trees (African mahoganies) native to tropical Africa and Madagascar; the timber is very valuable and useful for high-class cabinet work and for the production of veneers; the stem bark of K. senegalensis is used as a *bitter tonic and *purgative, and is taken as a *fever and *malaria remedy; it has also been used for *dermatosis, *drepanocytosis (with *Securidaca longipedunculata), *haemorrhoids, *intestinal worms, *nettle-rash and *skin diseases; in Mali crushed leaves are 208 applied to *circumcission wounds (Neuwinger 1996); in Ugnada the seeds of K. grandifoliola were found to contain limnoids toxic to the fresh water snails Biomphalaria pfeifferi, B. sudanica and Bulinus forskalii, the intermediate hosts of species of Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium, the cause of urinary *bilharziasis and Lymnaea natalensis the intermediate host of Fasciola gigantica, the liver fluke for cattle and sheep (Odyek et al. 1990). khellin - a *coumarine found in Ammi visnaga (*visnaga); it is a powerful smooth muscle relaxant. kidney – either of a pair of small oval glandular organs in the back part of the *abdominal cavity that excretes urine; certain plants are effective detoxifying herbs working on the kidneys, *liver and *gallbladder to remove *toxins and waste products, e.g. Apium graveolens var. dulce (celery, Apiaceae), Daucus carota (*carrot, Apiaceae) and *Taraxacum officinalis (*dandelion, Asteraceae); see also *kidney pain, *kidney stone and *kidney tonic. kidney pain or kidney problems (including kidney disease) – this disease is treated by many different medicinal herbs, e.g. *Acalypha racemosa (Euphorbiaceae), Asparagus officinalis (*asparagus, Asparagaceae), Aphanes arvensis (*parsley piert, Rosaceaea), Bidens tripartita (*bur-marigold, Asteraceae), Chimaphila umbellata (*pipsissewa, Ericaceae or Pyrolaceae), *Crotalaria axillaris (Fabaceae), Dianthus superbus (*fringed pink, Caryophyllaceae), *Endostemon tereticaulis (Lamiaceae), *Euadenia trifoliata (Capparidaceae), Euphorbia pekinensis (*da ji or *Peking spurge, Euphorbiaceae), Grewia plagiophylla (Tiliaceae), *Hymenodictyon parvifolium (Rubiaceae), *Impatiens rhynchocarpa (Balsaminaceae), *Jatropha curcas (*fig nut, *physic nut or *purging nut, Euphorbiaceae), *Lophira lanceolata (*African oak, Ochnaceae), *Nymphaea alba (*white waterlily) & nouchalii (*blue waterlily, Nymphaeaceae), *Ochna holstii (Ochnaceae), *Palisota schweinfurthii (Commelinaceae), Parietaria officinalis (*pellitory of the wall, Urticaceae), Polygonum multiflorum (*flowery knotweed, Polygonaceae), *Premna chrysoclada (Verbenaceae), *Senna occidentalis (Fabaceae), *Sphaeranthus kirkii (Asteraceae), *Triclisia sacleuxii (Rubiaceae), *Vernonia zanzibarensis (Asteraceae) and *Zanthoxylum gillettii (*large-leaved prickly ash, Rutaceae). kidney stone – a concretian abnormally formed in the kidney; many plants are used to expel or alleviate the pain of kidney stones, e.g. Agrimonia eupatoria (*agrimony, Rosaceae), Ammi visnaga (*visnaga, Apiaceae), Aphanes arvensis (*parsley piert, Rosaceaea), Arctium lappa (*burdock, Asteraceae), Betula pendula (*silver birch, Betulaceae), Calluna vulgaris (*heather, Ericaceae), Colinsonia canadensis (*stone root, Lamiaceae), Crateva nurvula (*three-leaved caper or *varuna, Capparidaceae), Dianthus superbus (*fringed pink, Caryophyllaceae), Elettaria cardamomum (*cardamom, Zingiberaceae), Elymus repens (*couch grass, Poaceae), Eryngium maritimum (*sea holly, Apiaceae), Foeniculum vulgare (*fennel, Apiaceae), Galium aparine (*catchweed, *cleavers or *scratchgrass, Rubiaceae), Herniaria glabra (*rupture wort, Caryophyllaceae), Hydrangea arborescens (*wild hydrangea, Hydrangeaceae), Lithospermum officinale (*gromwell, Boraginaceae), *Lycopodium clavatum (*clubmoss, Lycopodiaceae; Pteridophyta), Lysimachia christinae (*Chinese loosestrife, Primulaceae), Ononis spinosa (*spiny restharrow, Fabaceae), Physalis alkekengi (*Chinese lantern or *winter cherry, Solanaceae), Prosopis africana (Fabaceae), Rubia tinctoria (*madder, Rubiaceae) and *Zea mays (*cornsilk of *maize, Poaceae). kidney tonic – a herb or substance which cleanses and strengthens the function of the kidneys; kidney tonic herbs include *Citrullus lanatus (*watermelon, Cucurbitaceae), Ephedra spp. (desert tea, *ephedra or *joint pine, Ephedraceae), *Jatropha curcas (*fig nut, *physic nut or *purging nut, Euphorbiaceae), Juglans regia (*walnut, Juglandaceae), Morinda officinalis (*ba ji tian, Rubiaceae), Rehmannia glutinosa (*Chinese foxglove, Scrophulariaceae) and *Theobroma cacao (*cacao, *cocoa and *chocolate, Sterculiaceae). kidney bean – Phaseolus vulgaris (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a South American annual herb widely cultivated as a vegetable throughout warm and temperate parts of the world; the pods are *diuretic, stimulating urine flow and thereby the flushing of toxins from the body; kidney beans 209 reduce *blood glucose levels (are *hypoglycaemic) in the treatment of *diabetes; powdered beans have been dusted onto *eczema to ease *itching and dry the skin; because of the beans resemblance to testicles they were the object of sacred worship by the ancient Egyptians; alternative names: *French beans, *Haricot bean and *kidney bean. Kigelia (Bignoniaceae) – a genus with 1-2 species of trees native to tropical Africa (both widespread in Uganda); K. pinnata (K. africana) is is the sausage tree dispersed by elephants; it is often conserved around houses for medicinal purposes; particularly the stem bark is used to treat a number of diseses and conditions; in Uganda the stem bark is used to treat *haemorrhoids and infertility in male and female, the root bark is used for male *impotence, and the leaf to treat difficult labour (Adjanahoun et al. 1993); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam treat *liver, *spleen and stomach problems with a decoction of the bark (Heine & König 1988); in Busoga (Uganda) root or fruit is used for *anaemia, *cough, *diarrhoea, *hypertension, *measles, *premature ejaculation, *sterility, suspected TB and as an *antidote (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the fruit is used to treat *scabies (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Apac district in North Uganda a root extract is drunk to treat *diarrhoea and the inner fruit tissue is plastered on *wounds (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Kenya the Luo drink a decoction of the bark of this plant to treat *stomach ache (Geissler 2002); elsewhere in East Africa the plant has been used for *abortion, a decoction from the leaves is drunk to cure *malaria and a decoction from the bark to cure *headache, the fruit or seeds in beer are believed to cure *measles, and the roasted seeds are mixed with beer and drunk to cause the sexual organs to enlarge (Kokwaro 1976); in other countries it is used for almost any disease, e.g. *cancerous tumours, *colic, *convulsions, *dysentery, *elephantiasis of the *scrotum, *gonorrhoea, *rheumatic pain, *snake bite, *stomach pain, *syphilis, *ulcers and *wounds (Neuwinger 1996); in Senegal the flesh of ripe fruit is boiled in water and rubbed into the breasts of young girls to enlarge them, and in South Africa the fruit juice is rubbed into cuts in the skin of the penis to enlarge it. kino – Pterocarpus marsupium (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a tropical Asian tree with a strongly *astringent sap (kino) that tightens the *mucous membranes of the gastro-intestinal tract; kino relieves chronic diarhoea and the the irritation caused by intestinal infection and *colitis; it is also widely used as a douche for excessive vaginal discharge. kiwi – Actinidia chinensis (Actinidiaceae) from China is now extensively cultivated in Italy and New Zealand for the export of its edible tasty fruits; the fruits contain vitamin C and *antioxidants and are thus useful as a general defence against diseases. Kleinia (Asteraceae) – a genus with about 40 species of often succulent perennial herbs or shrubs mostly native to tropical Africa (22 species in East Africa, 5 species in Uganda); in East Africa a decoction of the whole plant of K. petraea (= *Notonia petraea) is drunk for indigestion, while the leaves of other species of the genus are applied to *wounds (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda So women dig up the roots of plants of the genus Kleinia for treating problems related to female reproduction (Heine & König 1988). knapweed – species of the genus Centaurea (the sunflower family, Asteraceae); for medicinal use see *cornflower (C. cyanus). knitbone – species of the genus Symphytum and particularly S. officinale (the borage family, Boraginaceae); S. officinale is a native European herb known as a medicinal plant for 2000 years; it was believed to heal all inward *wounds and ruptures including bones and the *hymen; the leaves and inflorescences are still used to heal injuries and *skin problems like *acne and *boils and to relieve *psoriasis; the name Symphytum is derived from Greek meaning ”to unite”; the plant contains *allantoin (a cell-proliferant that helps repair damaged tissue), *rosmarinic acid (*anti-inflammatory) and other *phenolic acids, but also *pyrrolizidine alkaloids that damage the *liver (mostly found in the root); alternative name: *comfrey. knotgrass – Polygonum aviculare (the knotgrass family, Polygonaceae) is a widespread weed throughout the temperate regions of the world; it has been used as a *diuretic in China as well as 210 in Europe for more than 2000 years; it has *astringent properties and has been used to staunch bleeding wounds, reduce heavy *menstrual bleeding and stop *nosebleeds; it has also been taken for *pulmonary complaints, since its high content of silicic acid is believed to strengthen connective tissue within the lungs; in China it has also been used to expel *hookworms and *tapeworms, and to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery. Kohautia (Rubiaceae) – a genus with about 60 species of annual or perennial herbs native to the Old World tropics (12 species in East Africa, 5 species in Uganda); in coastal Kenya the Boni use the powdered roots of K. caespitosa externally for swellings and *inflammations (Kokwaro 1976). kohlrabi – Brassica oleracea var. caulorapa (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae) is a vegetable rich in vitamins and thus useful as a general defence against diseases. kola nut – Cola acuminata (Sterculiaceae) is an evergreen tropical tree native to West Africa, but widely cultivated in the tropics of both hemispheres for its edible seeds; the seeds contain more *caffeine (up to 2.5 %) than coffee; kola nuts stimulates the central nervous system and the body as a whole; it is a useful *antidepressant and it increases *alertness and muscular strength; it is also used to treat *headaches and *migraine; alternative name: *cola nut. Kotschya (Fabaceae, Faboïdeae) – a genus with about 30 species of herbs or shrubs restricted to tropical Africa and Madagascar (17 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the roots of K. africana are rubbed on the skin for *skin troubles (Kokwaro 1976). kudzu – Pueraria lobata (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a Chinese deciduous climber whose root is used to treat *alcoholism and *hangover; it has also been used as a remedy for *measles and *muscular pain; kudzu is also taken to treat *diarrhoea, *dysentery and *headache, *dizziness and *numbness caused by high *blood pressure; alternative name: *ge gen. kumarhou – Pomaderris elliptica (the buckthorn family, Rhamnaceae) is a tree from New Zealand widely used by the *Maori to treat a wide range of diseases, including problems of the *respiratory tract, e.g. *asthma and *bronchitis. kuth – Saussurea lappa (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a perennial herb from highland Asia used in Kashmir for its *tonic, *stimulant and *antiseptic properties; the fragrant root is used to treat problems of the *respiratory tract, e.g. *asthma, *bronchitis and *coughs. kwashiorkor – protein-calorie-malnutrition (PCM); a nutritional disease of infants and children associated with lack of protein resulting in skin changes, enlarged liver and chronic *diarrhoea; it is most widespread in Africa; the hair turns from black to reddish or rather golden; the name is West African and means ”golden boy” or ”red boy”; the condition disappears with the intake of food rich in proteins (animal food or beans or peas). kyphosis – hunchback. Labiatae – an old name for a family now named *Lamiaceae. Lablab (Fabaceae, Faboïdeae) – a genus with a single climbing herb native to Africa, but now widely cultivated throughout the tropics (widespread in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of L. purpureus are used to accelerate *birth and as a snuff for *headaches, while the roots used for *stomach troubles (Kokwaro 1976). labour pain – pain immediately before and during childbirth. lactation – the production of milk in mammals, including humans; a large number of different plants are taken to increase lactation in humans, e.g. *Brassica carinata (Brassicaceae), *Clausena anisata (Rutaceae), *Ensete ventricosum (*Abyssinian banana, Musaceae), *Ficus carica, F. natalensis & F. thonningii (*fig trees, Moraceae), *Holorrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae), *Lonchocarpus bussei (Fabaceae), *Ricinus communis (*castor oil, Euphorbiaceae), *Solanum aethiopicum (Solanaceae), *Thunbergia battiscombei (Acanthaceae), *Vernonia myriantha (Asteraceae) and *Zanha golungensis (Sapindaceae). lachrymation – the secretion of tears. 211 Lactuca (Asteraceae) – a genus with about 75 species of annual or perennial herbs or subshrubs, sometimes scrambling; the genus is native to Africa, Asia, Europe and North America, but in the tropics mainly at higher altitudes (13 species in East Africa, 5 species in Uganda); in Uganda the whole plant of L. inermis (L. capensis) is used to treat skin *abscesses, the leaf alone is used for *cervical lymphadenitis and *palpitations (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), and the root is eaten to increase sexual potency (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the roots as an *emetic and to alleviate *pains in the body from head to feet (Heine & König 1988); in Kenya the roots are boiled and given to patients suffering from *gonorrhoea and *syphilis (Kokwaro 1976). lactone – lactose – a sweet, white crystalline sugar present in milk lactucarium – lactucerin – a sesquiterpene lactone, which has *sedative effect and will encourage a sound night’s sleep and calms overactivity and overstimulation; lactucerin is found in the genus Lactuca, e.g. L. virosa (*wild lettuce). lactucin – lactucopicrin – a sesquiterpene lactone, which has sedative effect and will encourage a sound night’s sleep and calms overactivity and overstimulation; lactucopicrin is found in the genus Lactuca, e.g. L. virosa (*wild lettuce). lactupicrin – Lady’s bedstraw – Galium verum (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a European herb mainly used as a *diuretic and for *skin problems; crushed flowers applied to *burns and *wounds are believed to have beneficial effect, and in the past the plant was a remedy for *epilepsy. Lady’s mantle – species of the genus Alchemilla (the rose family, Rosaceae) are widespread throughout temperate regions of mainly the northern hemisphere; it is an *astringent herb used for *diarrhoea, and for internal and external *wounds as it reduces blood viscosity. However, it is mainly a plant for women taken to reduce heavy *menstrual bleeding, to relieve menstrual *cramps, to improve regularity of the cycle and to facilitate *childbirth; it was also believed to reverse *sterility due to ”slipperiness” of the womb. Lady’s slipper (orchid) – species of the genera Cypripedium and Paphiopedilum (the orchid family, Orchidaceae); Cypripedium pubescens (Orchid family, Orchidaceae) is a beautiful American herb used by native Americans as a *sedative and *antispasmodic, to reduce *insomnia, and was commonly taken to ease *menstrual and labour pains. However due to its rarity wild plants should no longer be used for any purpose; alternative name: *slipper orchid. Lagenaria (Cucurbitaceae) – a genus with 6 species of climbers or trailers mainly native to tropical Africa (4 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Tanzania the Shambaa drink a decoction of the roots of L. brevifolia as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976); the Zulu use an infusion of the root or of the leaf of L. mascarena for *stomach-ache; elsewhere the green fruit of L. siceraria (*calabash gourd) made into a syrup is used as a *pectiral, and its seeds are *anthelminthic; in West Uganda the Bwamba use L. sphaerica to treat stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 1996). Laggera (Asteraceae) – a genus with 17 species of annual or perennial herbs in the old world tropics (3 species in East Africa and Uganda); the genus is usually included in Blumea, but is kept separate in FTEA Asteraceae part 2 (2002); in West Uganda the leaves of L. crispata (also named L. alata, Blumea crispata or B. alata) are taken to ease *diarrhoea (Kakudidi et al. 2000), while near Mt. Rwenzori the leaves are used to treat prolapsed uterus and menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Tanzania the roots of this herb are used to treat *hiccups and *colds in the head (Kokwaro 1976). Lamiaceae – a family of about 220 genera and 5600 species or if Verbenaceae is included about 310 genera and 7500 species; many genera have plants with medicinal value, e.g. *Achyrospermum, *Aeolanthus, *Ajuga, *Endostemon, *Fuerstia, *Hoslundia, *Hyptis, *Iboza, *Leonotis, 212 *Leucas, *Mentha (*mint), *Ocimum, *Orthosiphon, *Platostoma, *Plectranthus, *Pycnostachys, *Satureja and *Tinnea. land caltrop – Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae) is a troublesome weed in many warm and dry countries; alternative name: *ground burnut, *Malta cross, *puncture vine and *sandbur; *burnut and *caltrop(s) are common names for this species and T. cistoides (false puncture vine); for medicinal use see *Tribulus. Landolphia (Apocynaceae) – a genus with about 60 toxic woody climbers from tropical America and Africa (6-7 species in Uganda); L. owariensis is used as arrow poison and as a lime to catch birds; the plant, its latex or root bark is a purgative and is used to expel intestinal worms, and as a remedy for *diarrhoea, *dizziness, *epilepsy, *feverish stiffness, *gonorrhoea, *rheumatism, *stomach pain and *swellings. Lannea (Anacardiaceae) – a genus with about 40 species of trees and shrubs in Africa and southwest Asia (17 species in East Africa, 9 species in Uganda); in Tanzania Hehe women drink a *decoction of the roots of L. edulis when they are in *labour (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a root decoction of L. edulis for *diarrhoea and for mothers in *labour to ease expulsion of *placenta (Masinde 1996); the Seria boil the roots of L. fulva and use them as an *astringent or for *chest problems (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the bark of L. humilis for *stomach ache (Heine & König 1988); in Tanzania the Nyamwezi use the powdered root of L. humilis to stop *nausea, or for general weakness of the body (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa a root decoction of L. schimperi is used for *toothache and for cleaning the mouth, boiled roots or bark is used for *chest troubles and *colds, while juice from pounded and soaked leaves is drunk to stop *diarrhoea (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda a decoction of the bark of L. schweinfurthii (including L. stuhlmannii) is drunk to treat *sterility (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Kenya a decoction of the bark is taken as a remedy for *headache and for *stomach pain (Kokwaro 1976; Geissler 2002), an infusion of the leaves is used as a wash for *polio, or given to pregnant women to relieve *abdominal pains, while a poultice of the leaves is applied to the abdomen to hasten *childbirth (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the bark of L. triphylla for *stomach-ache (Heine & König 1988); in Mali the bark or leaves of L. velutina are used to treat *boils, *convulsions, *dermatitis, *dysenteria, *infertility, *inflammation, *gastric ulcer, *haemorrhoids and *wounds (Maiga et al. 2006); in Uganda the Baganda has used the bark of L. welwitschii together with another tree as a remedy for *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976). Lantana (Verbenaceae) – a genus with about 150 species of herbs or shrubs widespread in tropical regions, but with most species in the Americas (11 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); L. camara is an American shrub widely grown as an ornamental, but now naturalized and becoming a pest in Africa and Asia; in East Africa the ash of the burnt leaves together with a little salt is a good remedy for *conjunctivitis, *coughs and *sore throat, or as an *inhalent to treat colds and headache, sometimes the leaves are chewed to treat toothache (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe use a root concoction of L. camara for *gonorrhoea (Masinde 1996); in Kenya the Luo drink a decoction or infusion of the leaves and roots of this plant to treat *cold, *cough and *sore throat (Geissler 2002); in Uganda the leaves together with the bark of L. camara are used to treat acute *asthmatic attacks (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Central Uganda the Baganda use a leaf infusion of this plant as a *tonic (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in East Uganda the leaves are used to treat *measles, *migraine and *wounds (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 20003), and in West Uganda the leaves are used to treat *conjunctivitis, *cough and *flu, and also used in *dental care (Kakudidi et al. 2003); in East Africa the roots L. trifolia are used as a remedy for *rheumatism, the leaves are used to treat *gland disorders, and the plant is also used for white spot in the eye and for *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves are used to treat *cataract, *measles, *tonsilitis and as a charm to chase away evil spirits (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda this plant is used by midwives (Cunningham 213 1996); in East Uganda the leaves are used to treat *amoebiasis and *cough (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), and in West Uganda to treat *cough and *conjunctivitis, and also used in *dental care (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in East Africa the roots of L. ukambensis (= L. rhodesiensis) are boiled in water and the decoction drunk for *rheumatism, while the leaves are chewed for the treatment of *gland disorders, *sore throat and *tongue troubles (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam apply the liquid of the leaves of L. ukambensis to ears to alleviate *ear pains (Heine & König 1988);. lapacho – species of Tabebuia (the jacaranda family, Bignoniaceae); the bark from these trees is given as a remedy for inflammatory and infectious problems, including HIV and ME (post-viral fatigue syndrome); it also has *anti-tumour properties and is reputed to be beneficial in the treatment of *cancer (including *leukaemia); among native South American people lapacho is a *cure-all; alternative name: *pau d’arco (Portuguese). lapachol – napthaquinones found in species of Tabebuia (the jacaranda family, Bignoniaceae); lapachol inhibits the growth of *tumours by preventing them from metabolizing oxygen; it also has *antifungal and *antibacterial activity, e.g. against Candida albicans and *penicillinresistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus. Laportea (Urticaceae) – a genus with about 50 species of herbs or shrubs widespread in tropical and warm regions of the world (7 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the roots and leaves of L. aestuans (= Fleurya eastuans) are boiled and the *decoction drunk as an *antidote to any kind of poisoning, while the leaf juice of L. lanceolata (= Fleurya lanceolata) is used to alleviate *toothache and also used as an *antidote to poisoning (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of L. ovalifolia (= Fleurya ovalifolia) are used to alleviate *menstrual and *postnatal pains (Kakudidi et al. 2000) or to help to expel retained *placentas (Kokwaro 1976). larch2 – Larix decidua (the pine family, Pinaceae) is a tall European tree with good timber; its inner bark has a *resin which has *astringent, *diuretic and *antiseptic properties; it is used to treat *bladder and *urinary tubule infections such as *cystitis and *urethritis, and *respiratory problems such as *bronchitis; the resin is also applied to *wounds to counter infections. large cranberry – Vaccinium macrocarpon (the heather family, Ericaceae); an American species with large berries rich in *vitamin C and thus useful in the general defence against diseases. large-leaved prickly ash – Zanthoxylum gillettii (the orange family, Rutaceae) is a deciduous tree 1035 m tall native to the rain forests of tropical Africa; it is used for *blennorrhagia, *colic, *coughs, *enlarged spleen, *gonorrhoea, *internal parasites, *kidney pains, *rheumatism, *snakebite, *syphilis, *toothache and *venereal diseases. larvicidal – which kills the larvae of various insects. laryngitis – inflammation of the mucous membranes of the *larynx; some plants have been used to alleviate such inflammations, e.g. Boswellia serrata (*Indian olibanum or *salliki, Burseraceae), *Euphorbia gossypina (Euphorbiaceae) and Sisymbrium officinale (*hedge mustard, Brassicaceae). larynx – the muscular structure at the upper part of the *trachea in which the vocal cords are located; inflammation of the mucous membranes of the *larynx is called *laryngitis. lassitude – exhaustion; weariness, *lethargy. Lathyrus (Fabaceae, Faboïdeae) – a genus with about 130 species of annual or perennial herbs widely distributed in temperate and warm regions; in the tropics mainly at high altitudes (2 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Tanzania the Fipa use L. hygrophilus as a *stomach medicine (Kokwaro 1976). Launaea (Asteraceae) – a genus with about 50 species of herbs or spiny shrubs native to Africa, South Europe and Asia (10-11 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in East Africa the fresh roots of L. cornuta are chewed to cure swollen *testicles; a decoction of the roots is drunk to treat *typhoid, while for *measles the whole plant is boiled and the warm water used for washing the infected body (Kokwaro 1976). 214 Lauraceae – a family with about 50 genera and more than 2500 species of evergreen trees or shrubs (rarely a parasitic twiner; Casssytha) widespread in tropical and warm regions (4 genera and 8 species native to East Africa, 3 genera and 5 species in Uganda); species of many genera are used as medicine, e.g. *Cassytha, *Cryptocarya, Laurus (*laurel) *Ocotea and Persea (*avocado); vernacular names: *bay laurel family or *laurel family. laurel – laurbær, Laurus nobilis (the laurel family, Lauraceae) is an evergreen tree or shrub from the Mediterranean widely used as spice, medicine and for decoration; the leaves are used mainly to stimulate the appetite, promote the *digestion and absorption of food, treat disorders of the upper digestive tract and to ease *arthritic pains; it has also been used to promote the onset of *menstrual periods; alternative name: *bay laurel. laurel family – Lauraceae is a large family with about 50 genera and 2500 species widely distributed in all tropical regions, but most common in America and Southeast Asia; see Lauraceae. lavender – species of the genus Lavandula (the mint family, Lamiaceae); fLavandula officinalis (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is in southern Europe widely cultivated as a medicinal plant and for production of perfume; its flowers contain high levels of a volatile oil (with about 40 constituents), which has a very low toxicity and significant *antiseptic and *antibacterial action helping to heal *burns, *sores and *wounds and is therefore widely used in soaps; they also calm the nerves, reduce muscle tension and relieve *insomnia, *irritability, *headaches, *migraine, *griping pain and *wind; sea lavender are species of the genus Limonium (Plumbaginaceae). laxative – an agent (drug, plant or medicine) which promotes the emptying of bowels, i.e. stimulating *defecation; there are very many laxative herbs, e.g. *Abutilon indicum (*Indian mallow, Malvaceae), *Adhatoda schimperiana (Acanthaceae), Aegle marmelos (*bael fruit, *Bengal quince & *golden apple), *Aframomum giganteum (Zingiberaceae), Ajuga reptans (*bugle, Lamiaceae), *Albizia coriaria (Fabaceae), *Aloë spp. (Aloëaceae), Althaea officinalis (*marshmallow, Malvaceae), *Balanitis aegyptiaca (Balanitaceae), *Cannabis sativa (hashish or marijuana, Cannabiaceae), *Capparis spinosa (Capparidaceae), *Carissa spinarum (Apocynaceae), Ceratonia siliqua (carob or locust tree, Fabaceae), Chelone glabra (*balmory, Scrophulariaceae), *Chenopodium bonus-henricus (*Good-King-henry, Chenopodiaceae), Chichorium intybus (*chicory, Asteraceae), Chionanthus virginicus (*fringed tree, Oleaceae), Cochlearia officinalis (*scurvy grass, Brassicaceae), *Combretum molle (Combretaceae), Conyza bonariensis (Asteraceae), Cuscuta spp. (*devil’s guts, *dodder & *hellweed, Convolvulaceae), Cydonia vulgaris (*quince, Rosaceae), Euonymus atropurpureus (*wahoo bark, Celastraceae), *Fernandoa magnifica (Bignoniaceae), Ficus benghalensis (*banyan, Moraceae), Frangula alnus (*alder buckthorn, Rhamnaceae), Fraxinus excelsior (*ash) & ornata (*manna ash, Oleaceae), Fumaria officinals (*fumitory, Fumariaceae), *Funtumia africana (Apocynaceae), Galium aparine (*catchweed, *cleavers & *dodder, Rubiaceae), Gelidium amansii (*agar-agar, Rhodophyta), Guaiacum officinale & sanctum (*lignum vitae, Zygophyllaceae), Iris versicolor (*blue flag, Iridaceae), Juglans cinerea (*butterwort) & nigra (*black walnut, Juglandaceae), Leptandra virginica (*black root, Scrophulariaceae), Linaria canadensis (*blue toadflax, Scrophulariaceae), Malva sylvestris (*common mallow or *mallow, Malvaceae), Maranta arundinacea (*arrow root, Marantaceae), *Maerua subcordata (Capparidaceae), Morus alba (*white mulberry, Moraceae), *Pittosporum viridiflorum (Pittosporaceae), Plantago indica (*flea seed) & psyllium (*psyllium, Plantaginaceae), Polymnia uvedalia (*bearsfoot, Asteraceae), Polypodium vulgare (*polypody), Prunus avium (*sweet cherry) & dulcis (*apricot, Rosaceae), *Punica granatum (*pomegranate, Punicaceae), Rhamnus catharticus (Rhamnaceae), *Ricinus communis (*castor oil plant, Euphorbiaceae), Rumex acetosa (*sorrel) & acetosella (*sheep’s sorrel) & crispus (*curled dock, Polygonaceae), Sambucus nigra (*elder, Sambucaceae), *Senna alexandrina (*senna or *Alexandrian senna) & angustifolia (*Tinnevalia senna, Fabaceae), *Tamarindus indica (*Indian date or *tamarind, Fabaceae), Terminalia belerica (*Beleric myrobalan) & mollis & myrobalan (*Chebulic 215 myrobalan, Combretaceae), Turnera diffusa (*damiana, Turneraceae), Vaccinium myrtillus (*bilberry or *blueberry, Ericaceae), *Zehneria scabra (Cucurbitaceae) and *Ziziphus spinachisti (Rhamnaceae). LDL (low density lipoproteins) – *cholesterols that occur in blood and tissues of the animal organisms; high concentrations of cholesterol in the blood may result in *arteriosclerosis; LDL transport cholesterol to the walls of the veins (”dangerous cholesterol”); see also *HDL and *VLDL. leadwort – species of the genus Plumbago (Plumbaginaceae), e.g. blue or Cape leadwort (P. capensis) and scarlet leadwort (P. indica); for medicinal use see *Plumbago. lectin – a protein found in plants that has *antibody activities in man and animals, e.g. *abrin (in *Abrus precatorius) and *ricin (in *Ricinus communis). Lecaniodiscus (Sapindaceae) – a genus of 3 species of small to medium-sized trees native to tropical Africa (2 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa the bark of L. fraxinifolia is soaked in water and then worked up to produce a froth which is rubbed into the breasts for three days or more to increase the flow of milk and to assist in purifying the milk in the breast (Kokwaro 1976). Lecythiaceae – a family (formerly included in *Myrtaceae) with about 20 genera and 280 species of trees or shrubs widely distributed in tropical regions, but most widespread in South American rainforests; species of the genus *Barringtonia are of medicinal use. Ledebouria (Hyacinthaceae) – a genus of about 30 species of herbs with bulbs native to Africa south of the Sahara and in India (5 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Uganda the bulbs of L. revoluta (= Scilla indica) are pounded, soaked in water and the liquid used as *eardrops to cure *ear-ache (Kokwaro 1976). leek – Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum (the onion family, Alliaceae), and a few other species of the genus Allium, e.g. round-headed leek (A. sphaerocephalum) and alpine leek (A. victorialis); for medicinal use see *Allium. Lefebvrea (Apiaceae) – a genus of about 6 species of biennial or perennial herbs native to tropical an South Africa (in East Africa 5 species, in Uganda 3 species); in East Africa the roots (and perhaps leaves and seeds) of L. longipedicellata (including L. brevipes) are boiled or pounded and soaked in water and used for fever or as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976). Leguminosae – old name for a plant family now named *Fabaceae. lemon – Citrus × limon (the orange family, Rutaceae), is at present considered a hybrid between Citrus medica (*citron) and Citrus × aurantium (*orange); it is a shrub or small tree (probably originating from India) with very sour fruits used in food and tea; it is a valuable medicine used as an *antibacterial, *antioxidant, *antirheumatic, *antiseptic and reduces fever; the volatile oil (e.g. *citral and *limonene) mostly found in the peel (ca. 2.5 %) is antibacterial and antiseptic; the peel is also rich in *bioflavonoids, which are *antioxidant and strengthen the inner lining of blood vessels, especially *veins and *capillaries, and thus help counter *varicose veins and easy bruising; the fruit contains twice as much vitamin C as *oranges and is helpful in the treatment of *chest infections, *colds and *flu and to improve the appetite; a gargle of lemon juice is good for *gingivitis, *mouth ulcers and *sore throats; despite its acid contents, once digested, lemon has an alkaline effect within the body, making it useful for *rheumatic conditions where acidity is a contributory factor; lemon juice immobilizes human sperm and has been used as a *contraceptive, and recently lemon juice has been postulated as a cure for *aids (see *lemon juice) . lemon balm – Melissa officinalis (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a mediterranean scented medicinal herb containing *flavonoids, polyphenols, tannins, triterpenes and volatile oil (caryophyllene oxide, *citral, *citronellal and linalool); the polyphenols are *antiviral and can combat the *herpes simplex virus, which produces *cold sores; the volatile oil is strongly *antispasmodic and calm the central nervous system and is thus a medicine for *anxiety and *depression; it can 216 be used as a modern relaxing tonic when over-anxiety cause digestive problems such as acidity, *bloating, *colic, indigestion and *nausea; it also inhibits *thyroid function and is given to people with an over-active thyroid; alternative name: *balm. lemon grass – Cymbopogon citratus (the grass family, Poaceae) is a grass native to India and neighbouring areas, but now widely cultivated in all tropical areas; it is used as a medicinal cure and to impart a citronella scent to food, soap and perfume; the leaves contain a volatile oil with *citral and *citronellal, both with a *sedative effect. Lemon grass is chiefly taken as a tea to alleviate digestive problems and to reduce fever in connection with *catarrh; it relieves *cramping pains and flatulence and relaxes the muscles of the stomach and gut; a *poultice or paste is applied externally to patches of ringworm and to ease *arthritic pains. lemon juice – the juice of *lemon (Citrus × limon) has been postulated as a cure for aids (www.aids.net.au/lemons-lemonaids.htm); at concentrations of 5 % and above infections seems to be inhibited; it appears that citric acid causes surface proteins in the envelope of the virus to be altered such that no binding and subsequent infection can occur (Mabberley 2004). lemon-scented gum – Eucalyptus citriodora (the eucalyptus family, Myrtaceae) is a small tree from Australia sometimes cultivated as a pot plant in temperate regions; for medicinal use see *eucalyptus. lemon thyme – Thymus× citriodorus (the mint family, Lamiaceae); for medicinal use see *Thymus. lemon verbena – Aloysia (or Lippia) citriodora (the verbena family, Verbenaceae) is a small South American shrub occasionally cultivated as a pot plant and used to make herbal tea; it is also used as flavouring in French liqueurs; as a medicine it has similar values as *lemon balm; it has a gentle sedative action soothing abdominal discomfort, improving digestion and counter depression; species of Lippia are used in a similar way. lemonwood – Xymalos monospora (Monimiaceae); in Kenya the leaves of this species are softened by folding and twisting and placed on *sores for quick healing, while the root is used to alleviate aching parts of the body (Kokwaro 1976). lenitive – (an agent) with soothing effect. lentil – Lens culinaris (the pea family, Fabaceae); the seeds are rich in proteins and the plant is thus useful as a food for preventing *kwashiorkor. lentisc – Pistacia lentiscus (Anacardiaceae) is a small tree native to the Mediterranean; mastic resin was used by the ancient Egyptians for embalming the dead; it has also been used to treat *boils, *diarrhoea and *ulcers, and as an *expectorant for *bronchial troubles and *coughs; alternative name: *mastic tree. Leonotis (Lamiaceae) – a genus with 9 species of herbs native to Africa (6 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); L. nepetifolia has is almost distributed worldwide as a weed; in East Africa the leaves of L. nepetifolia the leaves are used for *stomach-troubles and *stomach-ache; also an infusion of the roots is used to treat stomach disorders (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Luo drink a decoction of the leaves and roots of this plant to treat *diarrhoea, *gonorrhoea, intestinal *worms and *stomach ache (Geissler 2002); in Uganda the leaves are used to treat *amoebiasis, a broken *urethrea, *convulsion in children, *diarrhoea, *fever, *gonorrhoea and for heat *palpitations, while the roots are taken against *migraine (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda this herb is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in Central Uganda the Baganda apply pounded leaves of this plant on swollen breast until it heals (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in West Uganda the leaves of this plant are taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in East Africa the roots of L. ocymifolia (= L. mollissima) are used to treat *dysentery, festering *sores, *wounds, *intestinal worms and disorders; the plant is also used for *indigestion, while the leaves are chewed to treat *cramps in the stomach (Kokwaro 1976). 217 Lepisanthes (Sapindaceae) – a genus with 24 species of trees or shrubs mainly in Malaysia but one species extending to Africa and Uganda; in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam use L. senegalensis to treat *tuberculosis (Heine & König 1988). lepra bacillus – a bacillus (Mycobacterium leprae) causing the disease *leprosy; for medicinal treatment by plants see *leprosy. leprosy – a disease that slowly eats away the body by causing silvery scales on the skin due to the infection with the lepra bacillus; it is sometimes treated by oil from the *chaulmoogra tree, Hydnocarpus kurzii (Flacourtiaceae); other plants used to treat this disease include *Acalypha ornata (Euphorbiaceae), *Ampelocissus africanus (Vitaceae), *Anacardium occidentale (*cashew nut, Anacardiaceae), *Annona senegalensis (*wild custard apple, Annonaceae), *Azadirachta indica (*margosa tree or *neem, Meliaceae), *Bauhinia variegata (purple *camel’s foot, Fabaceae), *Brucea antidysenterica (Simaroubaceae), *Caloncoba echinata (Flacourtiaceae), *Centella asiatica (*Indian pennywort, Apiaceae), *Combretum apiculatum & molle (Combretaceae), *Cordia monoica (Boraginaceae), *Diospyros kaki (*kaki or *Japanese persimmon, Ebenaceae), *Erythrophleum suaveolens (Fabaceae), *Euphorbia balsamifera & paganorum, Euphorbiaceae), *Ficus exasperata & stuhlmannii (Moraceae), *Jatropha curcas (*physic nut or *purging nut, Euphorbiaceae), *Lophira lanceolata (African oak, Ochnaceae), *Neoboutonia melleri (Euphorbiaceae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae), *Pentaclethra macrophylla (Fabaceae), *Prosopis africana (Fabaceae), *Psorospermum febrifugum (Clusiaceae), *Rauvolfia vomitoria (Apocynaceae), *Rhoicissus tridentata (Vitaceae) and *Swartzia madagascariensis (Fabaceae). Leptadenia (Apocynaceae, Asclepioïdeae) – a genus with 4 species of shrubs or woody twiners native to the Old World tropics; in Mali a decoction of the aerial parts of L. hastata mixed with fruits of Tamarindus indica or Citrus aurantifolia is drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006). Leptoderris (Fabaceae, Faboïdeae) – a genus with about 20 species of woody climbers (rarely trees or shrubs) confined to tropical Africa (4 species native to East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Shambaa use a liquid extract from the roots of L. harmsiana to treat *sterility in women (Kokwaro 1976). lesser celandine – Ranunculus ficaria (the buttercup family – Ranunculaceae) is a widespread herb in Europe and adjacent parts of Asia and Africa; it contains *anemonin, *protoanemonin, *saponins, *tannins and *vitamin C; this herb has been widely used as a medicine for the relief of *haemorrhoids and *ulcers; alternative names: *celandine and *pilewort; see also *greater celandine (Chelidonium majus). lesser periwinkle – Vinca minor (the periwinkle family – Apocynaceae) is a widespread European creeping evergreen plant frequently cultivated in gardens; it contains indole *alkaloids (including *vincamine), a bisindole alkaloid and tannins; vincamine increases blood flow and oxygen supply to the brain; lesser periwinkle is mainly used as an *astringent and blood-staunching plant for *gingivitis, mouth *ulcers, *sore throats, internal *bleeding, *nosebleeds and heavy *menstrual bleeding; it has also been used to treat *arteriosclerosis and for *dementia due to insufficient blood flow to the brain; see also *greater periwinkle and *Madagascar periwinkle. lesser skullcap – Scutellaria minor (the mint family – Lamiaceae) is a European herb used as a medicine in the same way as *Virginia skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora), but like *European skullcap (Scutellaria europaea) today it is not in much use. lethal – deadly; used both about diseases and external conditions such as temperature, e.g. ’lethal temperature’ is the temperature which will kill a plant or other organism. lethargy – lack of energy and interest; the state of being drowsy and lacking interest; some plants will induce lethargy, e.g. *khat, while other plants are true *stimulants and will reduce lethargy. lettuce – Lactuca sativa (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a biennial herb native to Europe; it is widely cultivated as a green vegetable and is an important herb for preventing iron and vitamin C 218 deficiancy in humans; it contains *sesquiterpene lactones which have a *sedative effect, but less strong than in wild lettuce (L. virosa); alternative name: *garden lettuce. Leucaena (Fabaceae, Mimosoidea) – a genus with about 50 species of trees or shrubs mostly native to America, but L. leucocephala widely cultivated and naturalized throughout the tropics; in Kenya a decoction of the roots of L. leucocephala is taken as a remedy for chest pains (Kokwaro 1976). Leucas (Lamiaceae) – a genus with about 150 species of herbs and shrubs widespread in Africa and Asia; in Kenya the leaves of L. calostachys are chewed and the juice swallowed as a cure for *pneumonia and for serious *stomach-ache, and also used as a medicine for domestic fowls; in Tanzania the roots of L. concinna are used for pains in the *prostate glands (Kokwaro 1976); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda L. deflexa is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in Uganda the leaves of L. martinicensis are taken to treat *fever and fresh *wounds, *marital conflict, *migraine, *prolapsed uterus, skin *abscess, *syphilis, to ensure a healthy *pregnancy and to stop *vomiting (Kokwaro 1976; Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Mali a decoction of the whole plant of L. martinicensis is drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006). In Kenya the Kakamega use a decoction of the leaves of L. oligocephala to treat *sore eyes (Kokwaro 1976). leucoderma (leukoderma) – a skin condition characterized by defective whitish pigmentation, especially a congenital absence of pigments in spots or bands. leucoma (leukoma) – milky-white opacity of the *cornea. leucorrhagia – excessive discharge of whitish fluid from the *uterus (womb) and *vagina. leucorrhoea – discharge of whitish fluid from the *uterus (womb) and *vagina. leucocyte (*leukocyte) – white blood cell; one of the white or colourless nucleate cells of the blood that help maintain immunity to infection. leukaemia (*leukaemia) – an often fatal *cancerous disease characterized by excessive production of white blood cells (*leukocytes). Levant storax – Liquidambar orientalis (the witchhazel family, Hamamelidaceae) is a small deciduous tree from Turkey and adjacent Greece; an extract from its bark (liquid storax) acts both as an irritant and an expectorant within the respiratory tract; it is also applied externally to encourage the healing of skin diseases, scabies, ulcers and wounds. Levant wormwood – Artemisia cina (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is native from the eastern Mediterranean to Siberia; it contains *artemisin, *santonin and a volatile oil; santonin is toxic to roundworms and somewhat toxic to *threadworms; the plant has been used almost exclusively to expel worms, but it also has a stimulant effect on the digestion. Liberian coffee – Coffea liberica (the coffee family, Rubiaceae); for medicinal use see *Coffea and *coffee. libido – the sexual instinct; some plants has the power to increase libido, e.g. Abrus precatorius, Acacia nilotica, Acalypha villicaulis, Aframomum angustifolium, Albizia anthelmintica, Bersama abyssinica, Coffea bukobensis, Craterispermum schweinfurthii, Dichrostachys cinerea, Dombeya dawei, Gloriosa superba, Harungana madagascariensis, Hibiscus fuscus, Kigelia africana, Maerua triphylla, Mallotus oppositifolius, Marantochloa leucantha, Piper umbellatum, Pseudarthria hookeri, Stephania abyssinica and Vernonia lasiopus (Kokwaro 1976). lice – small whitish wingless insects, a few of which live on the human body and clothes; see *headlice. life root – Senecio aureus (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a North American herb, which has been used to treat *gynaecological problems such as to relieve *labour pain and induce *menstrual periods; however, the plant contains *pyrrolizidine alkaloids that are highly toxic to the *liver and are now only taken for external use, as a douche for excessive vaginal discharge; alternative name: *squaw weed. ligament – a band of fibrous tissue that connects bones or holds organs in place. 219 lignum vitae – Guaiacum officinale and G. sanctum (and related species, Zygophyllaceae) from America are important timber trees and medicinal plants; the wood contains *lignans, resins, saponins and volatile oil; it has been considered an important cure for *venereal diseases such as *syphilis; it has anti-inflammatory properties and is *diuretic, *laxative and induce heavy *sweating; today it is mainly used to alleviate *arthritis and *rheumatic pains. Liliaceae – a family with 12 genera and 350-400 species native to temperate and warm regions of the northern hemisphere, but some species of Lilium are cultivated and naturalized in forest margins in tropical Africa. The family Liliaceae is often circumscribed in a wider sense, and then includes a number of families from tropical Africa containing important medicinal plants, e.g. Colchicaceae, Anthericaceae, Alliaceae, Hyacinthaceae, Aloëaceae and Asparagaceae (such families not occurring in tropical Africa are: Trilliaceae, Melanthiaceae, Nartheciaceae, Tofieldiaceae, Convallariaceae, Hemerocallidaceae and Funkiaceae). lily family – Liliaceae; see above. lily-of-the-valley – Convallaria majalis (Convallariaceae) is a widespread herb in the northern temperate region; the orange berries are deadly poisonous, while the leaves and flowers are used as a herbal medicine; they contain *cardiac glycosides (which strengthen a weakened heart) and flavonoid *glycosides; they are *diuretic, lower *blood pressure and encourage the heart to beat more slowly and regularly and to pump more efficiently. lima bean – Phaseolus lunatus (Fabaceae) is a climbing herb widely cultivated as a vegetable; in Uganda the leaves are used to treat *conjunctivitis and *measles (Kakudidi et al. 2000). lime1 – Citrus × aurantiifolia (the orange family, Rutaceae) is a small tree with globose or pearshaped very acid fruits; it is considered as a cross between a Citrus medica (*citron) hybrid and a C. maxima (*pomelo) hybrid, perhaps C. japonica (*kumquat) is also involved; it has nutritional values similar to bitter lemon; the juice helps the body to eliminate waste products, and being rich in vitamin C, helps the immune system to resist infections; the strongly acidic fruit stimulates the digestion and relieves flatulence lime2 – linden; species of the genus Tilia (the linden family, Tiliaceae), e.g. American lime T. americana), small-leaved lime (T. cordata) and large-leaved lime (T. platyphyllos); they are trees native to the north temperate regions, and are often cultivated in gardens and as street trees; flowers and bracts contain flavonoids which improve circulation; the flowers are also *emollient and have been used to make a lotion for *itchy skin; lime is an *antispasmodic, sweat-inducing and *sedative remedy soothing *fever and easing *colds and *flu by reducing nasal *catarrh; alternative name: *linden. lime family – the linden family, Tiliaceae, is a medium sized family with about 41 genera and 400 species widely distributed in all continents; the family is sometimes included in Malvaceae; for medicinal plants see *Tiliaceae. limonene – a substance of the volatile oil mostly found in the peel (ca. 2.5 %) of lemon, Citrus × limon (the orange family, Rutaceae); it is *antibacterial and *antiseptic. limonin – a secondary metabolic product (*phenolic), which is the bitter substance in *grapefruit, Citrus paradisi (the orange family, Rutaceae). Linaceae – a family with about 15 genera and 300 species of herbs, shrubs, lianes or trees widely distributed in both warm and temperate countries (3 genera and 9 species in East Africa, 2 genera and 3 species in Uganda, but Linum usitatissimum is cultivated and occasionally escaped); the genera *Hugonia and *Linum contain species used as medicines. linalool – a volatile oil found in e.g. (lemon) balm, Melissa officinalis (the mint family, Lamiaceae); it is strongly *antispasmodic and calm the central nervous system; it is thus a medicine for *anxiety and *depression; *citral and *citronellal have similar functions. Lind, James (1716-1794) – British naval surgeon, who in 1753 published ”A Treatise of the Scurvy” documenting conclusively that the disease *scurvy could be prevented by eating fresh greens, veetables and fruit, and that it was caused by their lack in the diet. 220 linden – lime; species of the genus Tilia (the linden family, Tiliaceae), e.g. American lime T. americana), small-leaved lime (T. cordata) and large-leaved lime (T. platyphyllos); they are trees native to the north temperate regions, and are often cultivated in gardens and as street trees; flowers and bracts contain *flavonoids which improve *circulation; the flowers are also *emollient and have been used to make a lotion for *itchy skin; lime is an *antispasmodic, sweat-inducing and *sedative remedy soothing *fever and improving *colds and *flu by reducing nasal *catarrh; alternative name: *lime; window linden is Sparmannia africana (Tiliaceae). linden family – the linden family – Tiliaceae er en middels stor family med 41 slekter og 400 arter, den blir undertiden inkludert i Malvaceae. ling – heather, Calluna vulgaris (the heather family, Ericaceae) is a widespread and locally dominant dwarf shrub in the northern temperate regions; the flowers are the base for a delicate honey, and the flower-tips are also used as a herbal medicine; ling has a strongly disinfectant effect within the bladder and urinary tubules; alternative name: *heather. liniment – external medication applied by rubbing. Linnaeus, Carolus or Karl von Linné (1707-1778) is considered the founder of plant classification, but he also wrote and lectured on medicinal plants. Linociera (Oleaceae) – a genus now named *Chionanthus. linseed – flax, Linum usitatissimum (the flax family, Linaceae) is a slender Eurasian annual herb widely cultivated for its strong fibers and seeds used as both food and medicine; the seeds have very high levels of essential fatty acids (including *omega-3 fatty acid), making them valuable in maintaining a healthy heart and circulation, and in preventing *cancer (especially breast cancer) and chronic *inflammatory diseases; alternative names: *flax and *flaxseed. Linum (Linaceae) – a genus with about 230 species of annual or perennial herbs (often woody at the base) widely distributed in north temperate regions, in the tropics only native at high altitudes (3 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda, but L. usitatissimum is cultivated and occasionally escaped; the seeds of L. usitatissimum (*flax or *linseed) have very high levels of essential fatty acids (including *omega-3 fatty acid), making them valuable in maintaining a healthy heart and *circulation, and in preventing *cancer (especially breast cancer) and chronic *inflammatory diseases. Lippia (Verbenaceae) – a genus with about 200 species of shrubs and perennial herbs native to tropical regions, but with most species native to tropical America (11 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in Uganda the leaves of L. abyssinica (= L. grandifolia) are used to treat *diarrhoea in children, *polio and *bone setting (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Africa the leaves of L. javanica are used to treat *fever, *indigestion, *malaria and *tapeworm, while the pounded leaves are applied to *wounds; leaves and flowers are rubbed between the hands and sniffed to clear a stuffy nose (Kokwaro 1976). liquid storax – resin obtained from *Levant storax, Liquidambar orientalis (the witch hazel family, Hamamelidaceae), a small deciduous tree native to western Turkey; the resin acts both as an irritant and an *expectorant within the *respiratory tract; it is also applied externally to encourage the healing of skin diseases, *scabies, *ulcers and wounds. see also *gum storax. liquorice – Glycyrrhiza glabra (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a subwoody perennial native to eastern Europe and southwestern Asia; it is widely cultivated for its roots and rhizomes, which has a high content of glycyrrhizic acid that is 50 times sweeter than sugar. However, liquorice is also one of the most valuable of all herbal medicines; when broken down in the gut, *glycyrrhizin has an *anti-inflammatory and *anti-arthritic action smilar to hydrocortisone; it stimulates production of *hormones by the *adrenal glands and reduces the breakdown of *steroids by the *liver and *kidneys; it has been shown to be effective in the treatment of chronic *hepatitis and liver *cirrhosis; this herb contains isoflavones known to be *oestrogenic; it has been taken for 221 *arthritis, inflamed *joints and eyes, *asthma, *chest problems, mouth *ulcers and other *inflammatory conditions of the *digestive system for centuries. litchi – Litchi chinensis (Sapindaceae); a Southeast Asian tree with edible fruits rich in vitamin C and thus useful for the general defence against diseases. litchi family – Sapindaceae is a large family with about 150 genera and 2000 species widely distributed in all tropical and warm regions; the family is sometimes inclued in Aceraceae. lithium (Li) – an element which is believed to reduce the sickly changes in mood in manicdepressive patients. live-forever – Sedum telephium (Crassulaceae); the juice of fresh leaves has been used as an *astringent to heal *wounds; alternative name: *livelong and *orpine. livelong – smørbukk, Sedum telephium (bergknappfamily, Crassulaceae); the juice of fresh leaves has been used as an *astringent to heal *wounds; alternative name: *live-forever, *orpine. liver – a large, reddish-brown, glandular organ in the human body, functioning in the secretion of *bile and various metabolic processes; for inflammion of the liver see *hepatitis. liver cancer – this disease has been treated using Trigonella foenum-graecum (*fenugreek, Fabaceae). liver cirrhosis – disease of *liver characterised by increase of *connective tissue and chiefly caused by high alcoholic consumption; for useful plants see *alcoholism and *delirium tremens; some plants have been used to alleviate this disease, e.g. Glyceria glabra (*liquorice, Fabaceae), *Pseudocedrela kotschyi (Meliaceae), Silybum marianum (*Mary thistle or *milk thistle, Asteraceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae) and Ziziphus jujube (*jujube). liver disease, liver pain and liver problems – many different plants are used to alleviate various liver troubles, e.g. *Agave americana & spp. (*century plant, Agavaceae), Annona muricata (*soursop, Annonaceae), *Antidesma venosum (Euphorbiaceae), Artemisia capillaris (*liver wormwood or *yin chen hao, Asteraceae), Chionanthus virginicus (*fringed tree, Oleaceae), Cichorium intybus (*chicory, Asteraceae), *Clerodendrum umbellatum (Verbenaceae), *Clutia abyssinica (Euphorbiaceae), Curcuma longa (*turmeric, Zingiberaceae), *Cuscuta spp. (*devil’s guts, *dodder or *hellweed, Convolvulaceae), *Dichostemma glaucescens (Euphorbiaceae), Dipsacus fullonum (*wild teasel, Dipsacaceae), Elymus repens (*couch grass, Poaceae), *Englerina woodfordioides (Loranthaceae), *Ensete ventricosa (*Abyssinian banana, Musaceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllanthaceae), Fumaria officinalis (*fumitory, Fumariaceae), Glycyrrhiza glabra (*liquorice, Fabaceae), *Gomphocarpus fruticosus (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Jasminium grandiflorum ssp. floribundum (Oleaceae), *Kigelia pinnata (*sausage tree, Bignoniaceae), Leptandra virginica (*black root, Scrophulariaceae), Lonicera periclymenum (*honeysuckle, Caprifoliaceae), Momordica charantia (*cerasee or *kerala, Cucurbitaceae), Peymus boldus (*boldo, Apiaceae), *Phyllanthus amarus (*phyllanthus, Phyllanthaceae), Physalis alkekengi (*Chinese lantern, Solanaceae), Picrorrhiza kurrooa (*picrorrhiza, Scrophulariaceae), Polygonum multiflorum (*flowery knotweed, Polygonaceae), Polymnia uvedalia (*bearsfoot, Asteraceae), Ononis spinosa (*spiny restharrow, Fabaceae), Rehmannia glutinosa (*Chinese foxglove or *rehmannia, Scrophulariaceae), Rubia tinctoria (*madder, Rubiaceae), Silybum marianum (*Mary thistle or *milk thistle, Asteraceae), *Tephrosia villosa (Fabaceae), *Tithonia diversifolia (Asteraceae), *Viscum fischeri & tuberculatum (Viscaceae); see also (*liver) *cirrhosis and *hepatitis (*jaundice). liver protection – many different medicinal plants are taken to strengthen the liver and prevent poisoning, e.g. the roots of Bupleurum chinense (*hare’s ear root, Apiaceae) and Rehmannia glutinosa (*Chinese foxglove or *rehmannia, Scrophulariaceae) as well as the berrry of Lycium chinense (*Chinese matrimony-vine or *Chinese wolfberry, Solanaceae); other plants used include Beta vulgaris (*sugar beet & *white beet, Chenopodiaceae), Calendula officinalis (*marigold, Asteraceae), Cynara scolymus (*artichoke, Asteraceae), Daucus carota (*carrot, Apiaceae), Euonymus atropurpureus (*wahoo bark, Celastraceae), Glycyrrhiza glabra 222 (*liquorice, Fabaceae), Panax ginseng (*ginseng, Araliaceae) and Silybum marianum (*Mary thistle or *milk thistle, Asteraceae). liver tonics – many different medicinal plants are taken as a tonic to strengthen the liver, see *liver protection. liver wormwood – Artemisia capillaris (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a perennial aromatic herb native to eastern Asia; it contains a volatile oil which is *antifungal; this herb is also *antiinflammatory and *diuretic; it has a strengthening effect on the *liver, *gallbladder and *digestive system; in Chinese medicine it is mainly used for treating liver problems, and particularly *hepatitis with *jaundice; alternative name: *yin chen hao (Chinese). Lobelia (Lobeliaceae or Campanulaceae) – a genus of some 300 species of annual or perennial herbs, subshrubs or trees widely distributed in all continents, but most abundant in the tropics and subtropics (40 species in East Africa, 18 species in Uganda); in East Africa crushed leaves of L. fervens (L. anceps auct.) are mixed with coconut oil and applied to swellings of the body (Kokwaro 1976, Weiss 1979), and in Tanzania the Shambaa drink a liquid from boiled roots of L. holstii to treat *coughs and *stomach complaints in children (Kokwaro 1976). locust (tree) – Ceratonia siliqua (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a *Mediterranean tree cultivated for its edible fruit pods; the sugary young fruits are eaten raw; they are sweet-tasting and mildly *laxative and *antidiarrhoeal; They are also believed to expel intestinal worms and treating poor eysight and eye infections; carob seeds are very equally sized and are the original *carats of jewellers; alternative name: *carob tree. Loesneriella (Celastraceae) – a genus of 16 species of tall lianes or scandent shrubs native to the Old World tropics (4 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam use the root of L. africana (Hippocratea africana) to treat ”white urine” disease, while the ground seeds are mixed with fat and applied to hair to expel *lice (Heine & König 1988). loganberry – Rubus loganobaccus (the rose family, Rosaceae); a widely cultivated plant with edible juicy fruits rich in vitamin C and thus useful for the general protection against diseases. Loganiaceae – a family traditionally believed to consist of about 30 genera and 600 species of trees, shrubs, lianes and herbs, but recent molecular studies have transferred many genera to other families, e.g. Nuxia to Stilbaceae and Buddleja to Buddlejaceae or Scrophulariaceae; some genera have species with medicinal use, e.g. *Strychnos. lomatium – Lomatium dissectum (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is a perennial herb native to western North America; the herb was a very important medicinal herb for native Americans; it was widely used for respiratory infections such as *colds, *coughs, *flu and sexually transmitted diseases; lomatium has been shown to have significant *antimicrobial and *antiviral activity, and will thus be beneficial for a broad range of *viral infections ranging from *chronic fatigue syndrome to *influenza and *herpes infections. Lonchocarpus (Fabaceae, Faboïdeae) – a genus with about 75 species of trees, shrubs and (rarely) lianes mainly native to tropical America, but with 12 species native to Africa (6 species native to East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa a paste of the ground root and bark of L. bussei is applied to the back and breasts for 3 days to improve *lactation, a *decoction of the roots is taken by the Digo as a remedy for *cough and *gonorrhoea, while an infusion of the bark and roots is taken as a *diuretic (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the Luguru boil the roots of L. capassa and drink the infusion as part of a medicine for *hookworm, while the Haya use the powdered roots of L. eriocalyx in water for *pimples (Kokwaro 1976); in Africa the roots or bark of L. laxiflorus (widespread in Uganda) is used for a number of diseases and conditions, e.g. *epilepsy, *headache, *indigestion, *intestinal disorders and worms, *jaundice, and *mental illness (Neuwinger 2000); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves of this species are used to chase evil spirits away from homes (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Mali a decoction of the bark of 223 L. laxiflorus mixed with the aerial parts of Tamarindus indica and Cissus quadrangularis is drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006). long pepper – pepper from the Indian plant Piper longum (the pepper family, Piperaceae); this is probably the pepper which was imported to Europe in Roman times; for medicinal use see *Piper. loofah (gourd) – Luffa cylindrica (Cucurbitaceae) is a large climber from Asia and Africa with a fruit which dried content (fibrous skeleton) is often used as a vegetable sponge; it is ocasionally cultivated as a pot plant in temperate countries; the loofah fruit is *expectorant and used to clear congested *mucus and to alleviate *chest infections; it is also prescribed for pain in the abdomen, chest, joints and muscles; alternative name: *vegetable sponge. loosestrife – species of the genera Lysimachia (Primulaceae), e.g. *yellow loosestrife (L. vulgaris) and tufted loosestrife (L. thyrsiflora) and Lythrum (Lythraceae), e.g. *purple loosestrife (L. salicaria); for medicinal use see *purple loosestrife and *yellow loosestrife. Lophira (Ochnaceae) – a genus of 2 species restricted to tropical Africa (1 species in Uganda and East Africa); African oak or L. lanceolata (*African oak, previously L. alata) is widely used to treat a number of diseases and disorders, e.g. *cardiac pain, *gastrointestinal disorders, *haematuria, *headache, *jaundice, *kidney pain, *leprosy, *post partum pain, *rheumatism, *snakebite, *tapeworm and *trypanosomiasis (Neuwinger 2000). loquat – Eriobotrya japonica (Rosaceae) is a small oriental tree widely cultivated (and somtimes escaped) outside its native region in Japan; the fruit is eaten raw or made into jam; the fruits are rich in antioxidants thus improving resistance to diseases; alternative name: *Japanese medlar. Loranthaceae – a family with 77 genera and about 950 species of stem hemiparasites widely distributed from the tropics to temperate regions (16 genera and 108 species in East Africa, 11 genera and 29 species in Uganda); many genera have species with medicinal uses, e.g. *Agelanthus, *Englerina, *Erianthemum, *Oliverella, *Oncocalyx, *Phragmanthera and *Plicosepalus. Loranthus (Loranthaceae) – all African species of this hemiparasitic genus are now transferred to the genera *Agelanthus, *Englerina, *Erianthemum, Globimetula, Helixanthera, Oedina, *Oliverella, Oncella, *Oncocalyx, *Phragmanthera *Plicosepalus, Spragueanella, Tapinanthus, Taxillus and Vanwykia. loss of appetite – many different medicinal plants are taken to improve the appetite; foremost among these is Codonopsis pilosula (Chinese *codonopsis); other species are +++ lotions – water-based herbal preparations such as *infusions, *decoctions or diluted *tinctures that are used to bathe inflamed or irritated skin. Lotus (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus with about 100 species of herbs or softlywoody shrublets widely distributed in temperate and warm regions of the Old World; in the tropics mostly above 1500 m (6 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in southern Tanzania the Shambaa drink a decoction of the roots of L. goetzei for the treatment of bilharzia (Kokwaro 1976). lotus – species of the genus Nelumbo (Nelumboaceae); ’sacred lotus’ or ’sacred Indian lotus’ is Nelumbo nucifera; *blue lotus of Egypt is Nymphaea caerulea (Nymphaeaceae); for medicinal use see *blue waterlily. lovage – Levisticum officinale (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is a perennial herb native to southern Europe and southwestern Asia; lovage contains a volatile oil (mainly *phthalides), *coumarins and resins; the phthalides are *sedative and *anticonvulsant; this herb is beneficial for *colic, *bronchitis, *indigestion, poor appetite and *wind; it is also *diuretic and *antimicrobial and is commonly taken for *urinary tract complaints, *periodic pain and poor *circulation. love apple – mandrake, Mandragora officinalis and other species of the genus Mandragora (the potato family, Solanaceae) is a rosette herb from the Mediterranian region; the root contains *tropane *alkaloids and has *narcotic-like properties and has been used as an *anaesthetic and 224 *analgesic, and as a treatment for *insanity; the root has been used as a *talisman for thousands of years, especially to aid *fertility in women; alternative name: *mandrake. love-in-a-mist – Nigella damascana (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae) is a Mediterranean plant often cultivated as an ornamental garden herb; for medicinal use see *black cumin (N. sativa). LSD – a hallucinogenic substance with a similar effect as *mescaline, but 10,000 times stronger. lubowa (luganda) – Adenia rumicifolia (Passifloraceae) is a woody forest climber; in Buganda it is used to treat neurotic illness marked by *somatisation (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). lucerne – Medicago sativa (Fabaceae) is widely cultivated as a fodder plant improving soil conditions (increasing nitrogen content in soil), but it is also used in medical treatments; it contains *oestrogenic isoflavones and *coumarins and could possibly be useful in treating problems relating to *menstruation and the *menopause, but is most often given to *convalescents, who require easily assimilated nutrients; alternative name: *alfalfa. lucky bean tree – species from the genus Erythrina (the pea family, Fabaceae); for medicinal use see *Erythrina. lucky beans – Abrus precatorius (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a deciduous climber with attractive red and black seeds in pods; the seeds are deadly poisonous (toxin: *abrin) but have been used as a contraceptive and abortifacient to induce a miscarriage; alternative names: *coral pea, *crab’s eye, *jequirity, *Indian liquorice, and *paternoster beans. Ludwigia (Onagraceae) – a genus with about 75 species of annual or perennial herbs or slightly shrubby widely distributed in tropical and warm regions (8 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda); in East Africa an infusion of the leaves and stem of L. jussiaeoides is taken as a remedy for heart *palpitation; it is also poured over the head to stop noises in the head, while roots are usd to treat *rheumatism (Kokwaro 1976); the Somali use a species of Ludwigia (? L. erecta) for the treatment of malaria (Kokwaro 1976). Luffa (Cucurbitaceae) – a genus with 6 tropical climbers (1 species widlely spread in Uganda); L. cylindrica (*loofah, *vegetable sponge) is an annual climber used as a sponge for washing; the seeds are used as an *emollient and to repel *intestinal worms; the leaves can be used as a plaster on *abscesses, swellings and *wounds; the roots are a strong *purgative, while the leaf juice is regarded as effective against *filaria. lumbago – rheumatic pain in the lower back or lumbar region; *rheumatism of the muscles of the lumbar region causing great pain and rigidity; some plants are taken to alleviate lumbago, e.g. *Amorphophallus dracontioides (Araceae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae), *Sida cordifolia (Malvaceae) and *Smilax anceps (Smilacaceae). lumbar – of the loin or loins. lungwort – Pulmonaria officinalis (the borage family, Boraginaceae) is a perennial herb native to Europe and adjacent parts of Asia; as its name indicate it has been widely used to treat *chest conditions and particularly chronic *bronchitis and *tubercular infection, but also for *sore throats and *catarrh; the leaves are *astringent and have been applied externally to stop *bleeding. lupus – ++++++; Indian ginseng Withania somnifera (the potato family, Solanaceae) is sometimes used to alleviate this disease. Lycium (Solanaceae) – a genus with about 100 species of shrubs or small trees (often thorny) widely distributed in warm temperate and hot regions; L. chinense (*Chinese wolfberry; *Chinese matrimony-vine (Am) and *Chinese tea-plant) is an important Chinese tonic herb traditionally believed to promote long life; the berries are shown to protect the *liver from damage caused by *toxins; they improve blood *circulation and absorption of nutrients, and are believed to improve blurred vision, failing eysight, *dizziness, *tinnitus and wasting conditions; the root relaxes the artery muscles thereby lowering *blood pressure; it also reduce *fever (including *malaria fever) and help to control involuntary bodily functions; the Somali boil the roots of L. europaeum and 225 use it as a *cough medicine (Kokwaro 1976); see *boxthorn, *Duke of Argyll’s tea-plant (Lycium halimifolium), *matrimony-vine and *wolfberry. lycopene – a secondary metabolic product (*terpenoid), which is the red-orange dye in tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum/Solanum lycopersicon (the potato family, Solanaceae). Lycopersicon (Solanaceae) – a genus with 7 species of herbs native to the Americas; the genus is often included in Solanum; L. esculentum (tomato) is cultivated worldwide and used as a fresh, cooked or tinned vegetable, or as puree or ketchup, soup or juice; in Uganda the leaves of tomato are used to treat *lymphadenitis, *ringworm and *vomiting (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003) and applied to fresh *wounds (Kakudidi 2000); in West Uganda the leaves and roots of tomato is taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006). lymph – a yellowish fluid containing white blood cells that surrounds body cells and carries their wastes to the bloodstream. lymphangitis – inflammation of the *lymphatic vessels. lymphatic – of or containing *lymph. lymphogranuloma venereum – a virus infection of the *genetalia in adults transmitted through sexual intercourse; it is characterised by sores and enlargement of *lymph nodes in the *groin area (may later *supporate); later *strictures may develop in the *anus, *rectum and *vagina. Lysimachia (Primulaceae) – a genus with about 150 species of perennial herbs or shrubs widespread in temperate regions, in Africa above 900 m only (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in Uganda the fruits of L. ruhmeriana (*African loosetrife) are used to treat burns (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda this herb is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996). lysine – aminoacid with polar (hydrophile) alkaline R group. Lythraceae – a family with 26 genera and about 580 species widely distributed in both hot and cold countries (8 genera and 45 species native to East Africa, 6 genera and 19 species native to Uganda); in East Africa a species of *Ammannia is of medicinal use. Macaranga (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with about 280 species of trees and shrubs widely distributed in the tropics (8 species in East Africa, 7 in Uganda); in East Africa a decoction of the leaves of M. kilimandscharica is used to cure *stomach problems, and the roots to treat *bilharzia and *cough (Kokwaro 1976); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda M. schweinfurthii is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996). mace – a spice made from the bright red (dries yellowish) *aril (seed covering) of the seed of Myristica fragrans (the nutmeg family, Myristicaceae); the mace has an *anaesthetic and stimulating effect on the stomach and *intestines. increasing appetite and reducing *nausea, *vomiting and *diarrhoea; see *nutmeg tree; for medicinal use see *Myristica. maceration – a substance separated into parts by steeping (soaking) in a liquid; when heat destroys an active constitutent cold macerations is an appropriate method of preparing a herbal medicine. Maclura (Moraceae) – a genus with 11 species of shrubs or small trees widely distributed in Asia and America (earlier named Cardiogyne), but only 1 species in Africa including lowland parts of East Africa (below 750 m); in Tanzania the roots and leaves of M. africana are chewed to treat *snakebite, and the roots are *diuretic and used for *yaws (Kokwaro 1976). Macrotyloma (Fabaceae - Faboideae) – a genus with about 24 species of annual or perennial usually climbing or trailing herbs native to Africa and Asia, but now spread throughout the tropics (14 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda); in West Uganda the rootstock of M. axillare is used to treat sexual *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005), while the leaves and rootstock are boiled or squeezed and eaten or inserted in *vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005;. 226 Madagscar cardamon – Aframomum angustifolium (Zingiberaceae) is a perennial African herb most common in forest regions; it is used to treat ’heat’ in the *abdomen (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Madagascan (rosy) periwinkle – Catharanthus roseus (or Vinca rosea) in the periwinkle family (Apocynaceae) is an important medicinal herb now widespread as a weed in all tropical regions and cultivated worldwide as a garden plant; it contains a large number of different *indole alkaloids including *vincristin and *vinblastin, which are both powerful *anti-cancer agents and used in the treatment of *leukaemia, *Hodgkins disease and other types of *cancer; alternative name: *rosy periwinkle. madder – Rubia tinctoria (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) and other species of the genus Rubia; R. tinctoria is a scrambling perennial herb from the Mediterranean area; the root has been used mainly as a red dye, but is occasionally used to treat *kidney and *bladder stones; in the past it was more widely used as a *diuretic and to treat *jaundice, *sciatia and *paralysis; wild madder is Rubia peregrina; African madder is Rubia cordifolia. madder family – the coffee family, Rubiaceae, is a large family with about 500 genera and 7000 species in all continents; see also *coffee family. mad dog – Scutellaria lateriflora (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is an American herb earlier used as a treatment for *rabies; it is widely used for ”hot and damp” conditions, such as *dysentery and *diarrhoea; the plant is *anti-allergenic, *antibacterial *anti-inflammatory and *sedative; it is used for *asthma, *hay fever (*allergic rhinitis), *eczema, *nettle rash, *bronchitis, chronic *hepatitis, high *blood pressure and *diabetes; it has also been used as a *nervine to treat *convulsions, *epilepsy, and *hysteria; alternative name: * Virginia skullcap. Madeira vine family – Basellaceae is a small family with 4 genera and 22 species mainly from tropical Africa and America. Madras thorn – Pithecellobium dulce (the pea family, Fabaceae, Mimosoideae) is a tropical American thorny shrub or tree today widely grown as a hedge or shade tree throughout most tropical regions of the world; the fruit pulp is edible; the seed oil has been used for soap and the bark for tanning; alternative name: *Manila tamarind. Maerua (Capparidaceae) – a genus with about 50 species of shrubs, scramblers or small trees native to Africa and southwestern Asia (about 30 species in East Africa, 10 species in Uganda); in coastal East Africa and in Tanzania the roots of M. angolensis are used to treat *influenza, *toothache and for the relief of cold (Weiss 1979), and the roots of M. bussei for *chest complaints (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the leaves of M. edulis are used as a *poultice for *rheumatic swellings, the fruit is used for cooling aching parts and a *decoction of the root is drunk as an *emetic and to cure *gonorrhoea and *syphilis; in Tanzania a root decoction of M. kirkii is used for stomach disorders, and the leaves of M. parvifolia used for *throat-ache (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the roots of M. subcordata are used as a *laxative (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the rootstock of M. subcordata to treat *rheumatism and ”cold body” (Heine & König 1988); in East Africa the roots of M. triphylla are used for curing *headache, *snake bite, *vertigo, and as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the root of M. triphylla is smoked as a charm to protect the home (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Kenya the Luo drink a decoction or infusion of M. triphylla var. calophylla to treat *diarrhoea and *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002). Maesa (Maesaceae or previously Myrsinaceae) – a genus with more than 100 species of trees or shrubs in the old world tropics (in East Africa and Uganda 2 species); in East Africa the fruits of M. lanceolata are used as a *purgative, as a remedy for *sore throat or eaten to expel *tapeworms, and a *decoction of boiled roots taken for *abdominal pain during *pregnancy, *infantile *convulsions and *stomach problems in children (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the root is used to treat *diarrhoea, *psychotic excitement, *ulcers and *vomiting, while the leaves are commonly used for *febrile *convulsions in children (Adjanohoun 1993); in West Uganda the Bwamba use M. lanceolata to treat stomach-ache and muscular pain (Kakudidi et al. 1996); in 227 the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda this shrub is used by herbalists and midwives (Cunningham 1996); in West Uganda the leaves and fruits of this plant are used to treat *scabies (Kakudidi et al. 2000), while the leaves and bark are boiled and eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005), while leaves and bark are taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006). Maesaceae – a family previously included in Myrsinaceae, but recently found to be more closely related to Primulaceae and therefore now accepted as a separate family; it consists of the genus Maesa only; the family thus consists of more than 100 species of trees or shrubs in the old world tropics (in East Africa and Uganda 2 species); some species of Maesa are of medicinal value. Maesopsis (Rhamnaceae) – a genus with a single tree species native to Africa; in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda M. eminii is used by herbalists (Cunningham 1996). maggot – a soft-bodied, legless larvae of certain species of flies; the word maggot is also popularly used about various life stages of insects who lay their eggs under the skin of humans; the *Congo floor maggot suck the blood of people sleeping. maggot skin – infection of wounds with the larvae of certain species of flies. magical herbs – herbs used in connection with *superstition; in all American native cultures herbs are thought to have spiritual energy and many of them are invested with great magical power. magnesium (Mg) – magnolia – species and hybrids of the genus Magnolia (the magnolia family, Magnoliaceae); many are important garden shrubs, e.g. *bull-bay (M. grandiflora), while *tree magnolia, M. officinalis (hou po) from China is an up to 25 m tall ornamental tree frequently used as a medicine; its bark is mildly antimicrobial and used to treat amoebic dysentery, *diarrhoea, *flatulence, griping pain, *indigestion and vomiting; see *tree magnolia. magnolia family – magnoliafamily, Magnoliaceae er en liten primitiv family med 12 slekter og omkring 220 arter. Artene er viltvoksende i Amerikaa og Asia, men dyrkes my som prydplanter i andre verdensdeler. mahogany family – Meliaceae is a medium sized family with about 50 genera and 550 species widely distributed in all tropical regions. maidenhair fern – Adiantum capillus-veneris (Adiantaceae; Pteridophyta) is native to the warmer parts of Europe as well as in the tropics; it has been used to treat *asthma, *bronchitis, *catarrh, *coughs, shortness of breath and *sore throat; its name points to its reputation as a remedy for condition of the hair and scalp; it is also cultivated in gardens together with other species of maidenhair ferns, e.g. delta maidenhair fern (A. raddianum) and giant maidenhair fern (A. trapeziforme); alternative name: common maidenhair fern. maidenhair tree – Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgophyta, Gymnospermae) is a coniferous deciduous tree with fanshaped leaves native to China, but widely cultivated as an ornamental or medicinal tree throughout the warm and temperate parts of the world, and is used by millions of people every day; the leaves are used to treat poor *circulation and to maintain a plentiful blood flow to the central nervous system; it thus aids memory and concentration, and is also believed to help treat *depressions, *glaucoma, *dementia and *Alzheimer’s disease; ginkgo is also valuable for *asthma and other *allergic problems; it is also useful when nerve tissue is damaged by *inflammation, e.g. *multiple sclerosis; ginkgo is also useful in preventing *blood-clotting as it inhibits *PAF; in Chinese medicine it is also used to treat *incontinence, a week bladder, *vaginal discharge, and to lessen *phlegm and *wheezing; alternative name: *ginkgo. maize – Zea mays (the grass family, Poaceae) is an annual tall American grass producing *cobs with grains used as a staple food for at least 4000 years; different parts of the maize plant is widely used as medicine: the *cornsilk is of particular value for almost all problems of the *urinary system; maize meal is taken (as a *decoction) for *dysentery and to increase *breast-milk production, and externally to treat bruises and other *skin problems like *boils, *sores and *swellings; alternative name (in America): *corn; see also *cornsilk. 228 Malabar nightshade – Basella alba (Basellaceae); for medicinal use see *Basella. Malabar nut – Justicia adhatoda or Adhatoda vascia (Acanthaceae) is a small Indian tree to 3 m tall; the bitter-tasting fruit is *expectorant and a traditional *Ayurvedic remedy for chest problems such as *bronchitis; all parts of the plants are used to expel *worms. Malabar spinach – Basella alba (Basellaceae); for medicinal use see *Basella. malaria – an illness in which there are periods of severe fever; it is caused by the bite of mosquitoes of the genus Anophelis which introduce a minute parasite (generally known as *plasmodium) into the blood, and which is transmitted from one person to another by mosquitoes; in the past malaria was tried cured by the Himalayan plant *chiretta (Swertia chirata) until *Peruvian bark (species of Cinhona) became available in Europe and Asia; now *annual wormwort (Artemisia annua) is frequently used; other plants which have been used to treat malaria are *Acacia clavigera & mellifera & seyal (Fabaceae), *Afzelia quanzensis (Fabaceae), *Ailanthus altissima (*tree of heaven, Simaroubaceae), *Albizia adianthifolia & anthelmintica & ferruginea & zygia (Fabaceae), *Alchornea cordifolia (Euphorbiaceae), *Aloë lateritica & wollastonii & secundiflora (Aloëaceae), *Alstonia scholaris (*fever bark, Apocynaceae), Anthocleista grandiflora (*cabbage tree, Loganiaceae), *Aristolochia elegans (*dutchman’s pipe, Aristolochiaceae), *Artemisia vulgaris (*mugwort, Asteraceae), Aspilia pluriseta (Asteraceae), *Azadirachta indica (*margosa tree & neem, Meliaceae), Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), *Boscia angustifolia (Capparidaceae), *Caesalpinia volkensii (Fabaceae), *Camellia sinensis (*tea plant, Rutaceae), *Carissa spinarum (Apocynaceae), *Catha edulis (*khat, Celastraceae), *Cissus aralioides (Vitaceae), *Citrullus lanatus (*water melon, Cucurbitaceae), Clausena anisata (Rutaceae), *Clematis hirsuta & simensis (*old man’s beard, Ranunculaceae), *Clerodendrum eriophyllum & myricoides (Verbenaceae), *Clutia abyssinica (Euphorbiaceae), *Cnestis corniculata (Connaraceae), *Combretum recemosum (Combretaceae), *Conyza pyrrhopappa (Asteraceae), *Cordia sinensis (Boraginaceae), *Croton macrostachys & menyartii (Euphorbiaceae), *Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Cucumella engleri (Cucurbitaceae), *Dichapetalum braunii (Dichapetalaceae), *Diospyros abyssinica (Ebenaceae), *Dracaena deremensis (Agavaceae), *Dryopteris aequalis (Dryopteridaceae, Pterophyta), *Erythrina abyssinica (Fabaceae), *Ethulia scheffleri (Asteraceae), *Euclea racemosa (Ebenaceae), *Euphorbia balsamifera & crotonoides (Euphorbiaceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllanthaceae), *Fuerstia africana (Lamiaceae), *Gardenia ternifolia & volkensii (Rubiaceae), *Glinus oppositifolius (Aizoaceae), *Gloriosa superba (*glory lily, Colchicaceae), *Hagenia abyssinica (Rosaceae), *Hallea rubrostipulata (Rubiaceae), *Harungana madagascariensis (Hypericaceae), *Hibiscus ludwigii (Malvaceae), *Hyptis pectinata & suaveolens (Lamiaceae), *Indigofera arrecta (Fabaceae), *Ixora narcissodora (Rubiaceae), *Jatropha curcas (*physic nut or *purging nut, Euphorbiaceae), *Juniperus procera (*African pencil cedar, Cupressaceae), *Kanahia laurifolia (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Khaya senegalensis (Meliaceae), *Kigelia pinnata (*sausage tree, Bignoniaceae), *Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae), *Ludwigia jussiaeoides (Onagraceae), *Lycium chinense (*Chinese matrimony-vine & *Chinese wolfberry, Solanaceae), *manihot esculenta (*cassava or *manioc, Euphorbiaceae), *Microglossa pyrifolia (Asteraceae), *Momordica foetida & friesiorum (Cucurbitaceae), *Morinda lucida (Rubiaceae), *Neoboutonia melleri (Euphorbiaceae), *Ocotea usambarensis (Lauraceae), *Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (olive, Oleaceae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae), *Pavetta crassipes (Rubiaceae), *Pentas longiflora (Rubiaceae), Picrasma excelsa (*quassia, Simaroubaceae), *Pittosporum abyssinicum & viridiflorum (Pittosporaceae), *Pollichia campestris (Caryophyllaceae), Polygonum multiflorum (*flowering knotweed, Polygonaceae), *Pseudarthria hookeri (Fabaceae), *Psychotria obtusifolia (Rubiaceae), *Pulsatilla chinensis (*Chinese anemone, Ranunculaceae), *Rauvolfia mombasiana (Apocynaceae), *Rhus natalensis (Anacardiaceae), *Sacciolepis curvata (Poaceae), *Sarcocephalus latifolius (Rubiaceae), *Schkuhria pinnata (Asteraceae), 229 *Senna didymobotrya & septentrionalis (Fabaceae), *Solanecio cydonifolius (Asteraceae), *Sphaeranthus suaveolens (Asteraceae), *Steganotaenia araliacea (Apiaceae), *Syzygium aromaticum (*clove, Myrtaceae), *Tagetes minuta (Asteraceae), *Tetradenia riparia (Lamiaceae), *Trichilia emetica (Meliaceae), *Tridax procumbens (Asteraceae), *Turraea mombassana (Meliaceae), *Usteria guineensis (Loganiaceae), *Vangueria madagascariensis (Rubiaceae), *Vernonia amygdalina & brachycalyx & lasiopus (Asteraceae), *Warburgia salutaris (*pepper bark tree, Canellaceae) and *Zanthoxylum chalybaeum (Rutaceae). malarial – having to do with *malaria, e.g. a malarial patient. male fern – Dryopteris filix-mas (the fern family Dryopteridaceae, Pteridophyta) is a widespread fern throughout the north temperate regions; its *rhizome (rootstock) contains an *oleoresin which is particularly effective in paralysing *tapeworms; male fern is highly toxic causing blindness and liver damage in high doses. Mallotus (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with about 140 species mainly in the Indo-pacific region, but with 2 species in Africa (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in coastal Kenya the Digo take a *decoction of the roots of M. oppositifolius as a remedy for *chest pain and *vomiting, and also used as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976). mallow1 – species of the genera Althaea, Lavatera, Malva, Malvastrum og Sphaeralcea (all in the mallow family, Malvaceae), e.g. common mallow or mallow (Malva sylvestris), dwarf mallow (M. neglecta), false mallow (Malvastrum spp.), globe mallow (Spaeralcea spp.), hairy mallow (Althaea hirsuta and Malvastrum scabrosum), musk mallow (M. moshata) and tree nallow (Lavatera arborea). mallow2 – Malva sylvestris (the mallow family, Malvaceae) is a native European herb from which the young leaves and shoots have been eaten as a ”sufficient medicine at home” for at least the last thousand years (a *panacea); the plant is *demulcent and *emollient good for sensitive areas of the skin; it is believed to reduce *swellings and draw out *toxins, is *laxative and reduces gut irritation; combined with *eucalyptus it makes a good remedy for *cough and other *chest ailments; the root has been given to children to ease *teething; alternative name: *common mallow; see also *marshmallow (Althaea officinalis). mallow family – the mallow family, Malvaceae is a large family with about 116 genera and 1550 species. If the families Tiliaceae, Sterculiaceae and Bombacaceae are included, Malvaceae will consist of about 200 genera and 2300 species. Malpighiaceae – a family of about 60 genera and 800 species of mostly woody climbers, more rarely shrubs or small trees native to tropical and subtropical regions, but most abundant in the New World (in East Africa 6 genera and 18 species in East Africa, 4 genera and 4 species in Uganda); some genera have species used as medicines, e.g. *Triaspis. malposition – abnormal position or alignment of the baby in the womb. malpresentation – abnormal position or alignment of the baby in the womb. Malta cross – Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae); for medicinal use see *Tribulus; alternative name: *ground burnut, *land caltrop, *puncture vine and *sandbur; a common name for this species and T. cistoides (false puncture vine) is *burnut og *caltrop(s). Malvaceae – a family with about 116 genera and 1550 species of herbs, shrubs or small trees native to all hot and temperate regions, but most abundant in the tropics; if the closely related families *Tiliaceae, *Sterculiaceae and *Bombacaceae are included in Malvaceae, the family will consist of about 230 genera and 2800 species; many genera have species used as medicines, e.g. *Abutilon, *Azanza, *Gossypioides, *Gossypium, *Hibiscus, *Pavonia, *Sida and *Thespesia. mammary glands – the milk secreting glands in female breasts; inflammation of the *mammary glands is named *mastitis. mandarin – C. reticulata, previously named Citrus nobilis (the orange family, Rutaceae); mandarin is an orange-like tree with small sweet fruits and many seeds and a loose peel; it is no longer sold as an export crop; the commercial crop (*tangarine and *clementine) is hybrids between 230 mandarin and orange without or with few seeds; both mandarin and its hybrids have some medicinal value due to its content of vitamins. mandrake – Mandragora officinalis and other species of the genus Mandragora (the potato family, Solanaceae) is a rosette herb from the Mediterranian region; the root contains *tropane *alkaloids and has narcotic-like properties and has been used as an *anaesthetic and *analgesic, and as a treatment for *insanity; the root has been used as a *talisman for thousands of years, especially to aid *fertility in women; alternative name: *love apple. manganese (Mn) – mangan (Mn); Mangifera (Anacardiaceae) – a genus with about 60 species of evergreen trees native to SE Asia reaching New Guinea, but M. indica is widely planted througout tropical regions becoming naturalized; in Uganda the bark is used to treat *cough, *diarrhoea and *muscular spasms, *prolapsed uterus and *syphilis, the leaves are used to cure *cough, *diarrhoea, *fever, *pertusis and *prolapsed uterus, while the roots are taken to cure *diarrhoea and *dysentery (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves of this plant is taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Apac district in North Uganda this species is used to treat *cough and *diarrhoea (Okello & Ssegawa 2007). mango – Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) or its edible fruits; for medicinal use see *Mangifera; in East Asia also other species are eaten, e.g. ’horse-mango’ (Mangifera foetida) and ’kuini’ (Mangifera odorata). mango-ginger – Curcuma amada (Zingiberaceae) is a perennial herb found throughout most of the Indian subcontinent; it is cultivated for its rhizome, which is food as well as medicine; it is used to treat *bronchitis, *coughs, *colic, *constipation, bad breath, *flatulence, *hiccups, *indigestion, loss of appetite and *stomach pain; externally it is applied to the skin to treat bruises, *sprains, *ulcers and *wounds; see also *zedoaria and *ginger. mania – excessive enthusiasm or desire; a form of *insanity characterized by great excitement, and often great violence; for plants used see *insanity. Manihot (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with about 100 species of shrubs or trees (rarely herbs) native to tropical America, but several species cultivated in the tropics elsewhere; in West Uganda the leaves of M. esculenta (*cassava) are taken to treat *malaria fever (Kakudidi et al. 2000) and painful menstruation, *dysmenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Busoga in East Uganda cassava leaves are used for *fatigue, while the root tuber is eaten raw to treat *puerperal sepsis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 20003). Manila tamarind – Pithecellobium dulce (the pea family, Fabaceae - Mimosoideae) is a tropical American thorny shrub or tree today widely grown as a hedge or shade tree throughout most tropical regions of the world; the fruit pulp is edible and of some medicinal value for its content of vitamins and antioxidants; the seed oil has been used for soap and the bark for tanning; alternative name: *Madras thorn; *tamarind is Tamarindus indica; *velvet tamarind is Dialium guineense. Manilkara (Sapotacaceae) – a genus of about 50 species of trees or rarely shrubs widely distributed in tropical regions, and with some 15 species in Africa (8 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of M. obovata are used medically, but specific details are lacking; in coastal Kenya a decoction of the roots of M. sansibarensis is taken as a remedy for *constipation, *gonorrhoea and *syphilis, while the bark is used for *pneumonia; in Tanzania the roots of M. sulcata are used as a remedy for *snakebite, while leaves and roots are pounded and the paste applied on itching *rashes (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal East Africa it was believed that fruit extract of M. sulcata could reduce the pain and swelling resulting from stings and *snakebite (Weiss 1979). manioc – cassava, Mannihot usitatissima (the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae) is a shrub from tropical America nowadays widely cultivated as a food crop throughout the tropics; it has large 231 tuberous roots rich in starch (*tapioca) rather immune to insect attack due to high levels of cyanide (or rather *cyanogenic *glycosides) in wild forms (bitter manioc), but some cultivated forms (sweet manioc) have little cyanide and can be eaten without special washing out of the poisons; the water in which bitter manioc is washed can be used as a fish poison, and it has been used to treat *scabies; manioc root is easily digestible and makes a suitable food for *convalescence; bitter manioc may be used to treat *diarrhoea, *dysentery and *scabies; manioc flour has been used to dry out *weeping skin; alternative name: *cassava. manna ash – Fraxinus ornatus (the olive family, Oleaceae) is a Mediterranean tree often cultivated as an ornamental tree and sometimes for its high yield of a nutritious sap it exudes (named manna); manna is used as a *laxative for children. Mansonia (Sterculiaceae) – a genus with 5 species of shrubs and trees native to the Old World tropics; in East Africa the bark of M. diatomanthera is used in a treatment for *scabies (Kokwaro 1976). Maori remedies – herbal medicines used by the Maori people in New Zealand, e.g. Pomaderris elliptica (*kumarhou). maple – lønn; arter av slekta Acer (lønnefamily, Aceraceae); de viktigste artene er: bird’s eye maple og sugar maple (sukkerlønn, A. saccharum), black maple (A. nigrum), common og hedge maple (naverlønn, A. campestre), coral bark maple (A. palmatum), Cretan maple (A. orientale), eagle’s claw og Norway spruce (spisslønn, A. platanoides), hornbeam maple (A. carpinifolium), Japanese maple (A. japonicum og A. palmatum), Montpelier maple (A. mons-passulanum), mountain maple (A. spicatum), Norway spruce og purple Norway maple (spisslønn, A. platanoides), Oregon maple (A. macrophyllum), paper-bark maple (A. grizeum), red og scarlet Canadian maple (A. rubrum), rock og sugar maple (A. saccharum), silver og white maple (A. saccharinum), snake-bark maple (A. pennsylvanicum), sycamore (platanlønn, A. pseudoplatanus), Tatarian maple (tatarlønn, A. tartaricum), vine maple (A. circinnatum) og white maple (A. saccharinum). See also *flowering maple (Abutilon in Malvaceae). maple family – Aceraceae is a rather small family with 2 genera and 100-150 species widely distributed in temperate and warm parts of the northern hemisphere; if the family Sapindaceae is included Aceraceae contains more than 150 genera and 2000 specis. Maprounea (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with 4 species of trees or shrubs native to tropical South America (2 species) and tropical Africa (2 species), and 1 species in East Africa; in Tanzania the roots of M. africana are used to cure *syphilis (Kokwaro 1976). Marantaceae – a family with 31 genera and about 550 species of robust perennial herbs native to all tropical regions, but the majority of species in tropical America (in East Africa 5 genera and 8 species – all in Uganda); some genera have species of medicinal use, e.g. *Marantochloa. maranta starch – starch from the rootstock of West Indian *arrowroot, Maranta arundinacea (Marantaceae); for medicinal use see *arrowroot. Marantochloa (Marantaceae) – a genus with 15 species of erect perennial forest herbs to 4 m tall native to tropical Africa and Madagascar (4 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Tanzania the roots of M. leucantha are boiled and the decoction drunk as an aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976). marasmus – a type of malnutrition resulting in *emaciation (make very thin) and *wasting. Marattia (Marattiaceae) – a fern genus with about 60 species in wet tropical regions; in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda M. fraxinea is used by herbalists and midwives (Cunningham 1996). Marco Polo (c. 1254-1324) – Italian explorer; in connections with his travels from Europe to China in the 14th century he brought Chinese medicinal herbs to Europe. mare’s tail – Equisetum arvense (Equisetaceae; Pteridophyta); for medicinal use see *common horsetail. Margaritaria (Euphorbiaceae or Phyllanthaceae) – a genus with 13 species of trees or shrubs widespread in tropical regions (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Karamoja in East 232 Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam beat people with twigs or sticks of M. discoidea to drive out diseases (Heine & König 1988); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots of this species are used to treat *headache and general body swelling and pain (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Kenya the roots of M. discoidea are used as a slowly acting remedy for stomach disorders (Kokwaro 1976). margosa tree – neem, Azadirachta indica (the mahogany family, Meliaceae) is a south Asian tree widely planted throughout the dry tropics; it is an *insecticidal with *antimalarial activity; neem oil from seeds is both *anti-inflammatory, *antifungal, *antiviral and *anti-bacterial and promotes wound healing, preventing *scabies and *ringworm; it somewhat reduce *fever and lowers *blood sugar levels; the oil is also used to treat *headlice; the sap of the tree as well as the oil has been used to treat skin conditions like *eczema, *psoriasis and *leprosy; the leaves are used to treat *skin rashes; margosa tree is a potential *contraceptive for both men and women; alternative name: *neem. marigold – Calendula officinalis (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is an annual herb native to southern Europe, but widely cultivated as a garden plant throughout the world; the bright orange flowers are antiseptic and anti-inflammatory and widely used to treat cuts, inflamed and angry skin, rashes, *ringworm, sunburn, *varicose veins and *wounds; taken internally it helps *inflammatory problems of the *digestive system, e.g. *collitis, *gastritis and *peptic ulcers; marigold is also believed to be a detoxifying herb, and has been considered cleansing for the *liver and *gallbladder; alternative name: *pot marigold; field marigold, C. arvensis, has similar medicinal properties as C. officinalis; see also *African marigold, *corn marigold, *French marigold and *marsh marigold. marijuana – Cannabis sativa (the hemp family, Cannabaceae) is a tall annual herb native to southern Asia but now widely cultivated, often illegally, throughout the world; it was previously cultivated world-wide as a fiber plant (var. sativa), but is now mainly used as a drug and medicinal herb (var. indica); the female inflorescences of marijuana contains a large number of *cannabinoids including *delta 9-*tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), a major psycho-active chemical, which is widely misused by millions of people worldwide; it has a pleasantly exciting effect, relieves pain and induces sleep, but reduces fertility and can cause *delirium; the seeds are a strong laxative; marijuana is a powerful *analgesic as effective as *codeine but mainly used in patients having *chemotherapy; marijuana has been used to treat *glaucoma as it reduces the pressure within the eye; this herb is also an *anti-inflammatory and *sedative; it is believed to relieve symptoms in *epilepsy, *multiple sclerosis and *spinal cord injuries; alternative name: *dagga (South Africa) and pot (USA); see also *bhang and *hashish. marjoram – Origanum vulgare (the mint family, Lamiaceae); for medicinal use see *wild marjoram; see also *sweet marjoram (O. majorana). Markhamia (Bignoniaceae) – a genus with 13 species of trees in tropical Africa and Asia; in Uganda the stem bark of M. lutea (= M. platycalyx) is used to treat *cough, the flowers are for *heart burn, while the root and root bark is used for *asthma, and the leaves or root bark for blocked *urethra, *diarrhoea, *gonorrhoea, *insanity and to increase *sexual potency (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the bark of this tree is used to treat painful menstruation, *dysmenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Kenya the Luo drink a decoction of the bark of this plant to treat *stomach ache (Geissler 2002); also in Kenya the leaves and young shoots are used to relieve *conjunctivitis and *throat diseases (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the leaves of M. obtusifolia are used to treat *snakebite, the chewed roots are given to children with *convulsions, and the plant is also used for *stomach troubles (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal East Africa the roots of M. zanzibarica (including M. acuminata) are used as an *anthelmintic, while the bark is used as a cure for *coughs, *toothache and as part of a medicine for *syphilis (Kokwaro 1976). 233 marsh cudweed – Gnaphalium uliginosum or Filaginella uliginosa (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a small annual weed widely spread in all northern temperate regions; it has *anticatarrhal, *antiseptic and *astringent properties, and is occasionally used for *catarrh in the throat and nose, *hoarseness, *sore throat and *tonsillitis; it is believed to be *aphrodisiac and *antidepressant; in Russia it is taken to reduce *blood pressure. marshmallow – Althaea officinalis (the mallow family, Malvaceae) is a tall European herb widely used as a soothing agent for the mucous membranes and bringing relief to coughs; it is also mildly *laxative and the root counters excess stomach acid and thus useful for many intestinal problems; the leaves are used to treat *cystitis and frequent urination. Mary thistle – Silybum marianum (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), native to the Mediterranean and the Middle East, is an important medicinal plant; damage to the liver due to excessive drinking (*alcoholic poisoning) or *death cap mushroom poisoning can to a certain extent be avoided by eating the fruits or the flower heads of mary thistle in the same way as *artichoke; the fruits of milk thistle contain *silymarin, a substance that has a highly protective effect on the *liver, maintaining its function, renewing its cells and preventing damage from compounds that are normally toxic; it has also been used successfully to treat *hepatitis and liver *cirrhosis; it has also been used for *depressions and to increase *breast-milk production: ; for alternative name see also *milk thistle. masterwort – Peucedanum ostruthium (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is a native herb to Europe and Asia; the aromatic rhizome was considered a very important medicine in the past, but is less used today; it has a strong action within the stomach and gut, settling indigestion and relieving griping pain and *wind; it is also believed to be beneficial for chest conditions, and used for *asthma, *bronchitis and *colds; the name ’masterwort’ is also used about the genus Astrantia. masticatory – an agent (substance, drug or plant) chewed to increase *salivation; alternative name: *sialogogue. mastic tree – Pistacia lentiscus (Anacardiaceae) is a small tree native to the Mediterranean; mastic resin was used by the ancient Egyptians for embalming the dead; it has also been used to treat *boils, *diarrhoea and *ulcers, and as an *expectorant for *bronchial troubles and *coughs; alternative name: *lentisc. mastitis – inflammation of the breast or mammary glands; some plants are used to alleviate such inflammation, e.g. *Euphorbia candelabrum, Polymnia uvedalia (*bearsfoot, Asteraceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae) and *Stephania abyssinica (Menispermaceae). matchbox bean – Entada phaseoloides (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a liane native to the tropics of the old world; it contains *saponins and have been used to wash the hair because it foams; fibre from the stem is made into fishing nets and ropes; Australian aborigines have used the seeds to treat *indigestion and female sterility, and as a *painkiller. maté – Ilex paraguensis (the holly family, Aquifoliaceae); a small tree from South America used for tea; it has a high content of *tannins (up to 16 %) and contains 1.5 % *caffeine and 0.2 % *theobromine; maté has properties similar to tea and coffee increasing the short-term physical and mental energy levels; it stimulates the nervous system and is mildly *analgesic and *diuretic; it is used to treat mild *depression, fatigue, *headaches, *neuralgic and *rheumatic pain and. *migraine; maté is cultivated in Spain and Portugal. matico – Piper angustifolia (the pepper family, Piperaceae) is a South American shrub; the leaves are used as a *wound-healing remedy for sore and inflamed skin, minor wounds and stings; it is a urinary *antiseptic and is widely used for internal *bleeding in the *digestive tract, e.g. for *rectal bleeding and *haemorrhoids. matrimony-vine (Am) – arter av slekta Lycium (the potato family, Solanaceae), a genus of about 100 species in temperate and subtropical regions of both hemispheres; alternative names: *boxthorn and *wolfberry; see also *Chinese matrimony-vine (Lycium chinense), *Duke of Argyll’s teaplant (Lycium halimifolium), and *tea-plant. 234 Mattioli, Pierandrea (1501-1577) – well known Italian physician who in 1548 wrote a ”Materia Medica” based on Dioscorides work with the same title. mawworms – worms which infect the intestinal system ?; many different plants are used to expel these worms, e.g. Dioscorea bulbifera (in the Cameroons), May apple1 – Podophyllum peltatum (Podophyllaceae or Berberidaceae) is an North American herb which contains a purgative lignan *podophyllotoxin, and long used as an *emetic and wormexpelling herb and to treat *venerial warts, and more recently to treat *tumours and *testicular cancer in particular; it should not be taken internally because of its cell-killing (*cytotoxic) action; alternative name: *American mandrake. May apple2 – Passiflora incarnata (passion fruit family, Passifloraceae) is a tall American climbing vine; for medicinal uses see *Maypop; alternative name: *apricot vine and *maypop; see also *passiflora and *passion flower. Maypop – Passiflora incarnata (passion fruit family, Passifloraceae) is a tall American climbing vine with valuable sedative and tranquillizing properties; in Mexico it is taken for *epilepsy, *hysteria and *insomnia; this passion flower is a *painkiller and is given for *headaches and perodic pain; it has been used to treat *asthma, high *blood pressure, muscle *cramps and *palpitations, but its major effect may be to reduce over-activity responsible for the disorders; alternative name: *apricot vine and *may apple; see also *passiflora and *passion flower. Maytenus (Celastraceae) – a genus with about 200 species of trees and shrubs widespread in warm parts of both hemispheres (15 species in East Africa, 10 species in Uganda); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda M. acuminata is used by herbalists (Cunningham 1996); in Uganda the bark and roots of M. buchananii are used together to treat headache (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), and also used as a cure for *stomach upsets, and also believed to cure *leukaemia (Kokwaro 1976); the roots of M. heterophylla are used as an *anthelmintic and also to cure *hernia and *syphilis (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the leaves of M. obscura are used to treat internal injuries and *cancer and *tumours, while the roots of M. putterlickioides are taken for *laziness (with loss of appetite) and internal body injuries, as well as used as an *aphrodisiac, and the leaves used to expel hookworms (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the roots of M. senegalensis are used to treat *anaemia, *chronic endomitritis, *headache, *intestinal worms, *migraine, *pyomyositis, *sterility, *syphilis and *uterine fibroids, and to promote *labour and improve male *impotence, while an infusion of the leaves is drunk for *convulsions (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves and roots of this species are used to treat *boils and general body pain (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in other parts of East Africa the roots of M. senegalensis are used for *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002), *diarrhoea, *fever, *rheumatism and snakebite, and the leaves in eyedrops (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a root decoction of this plant for stomach problems (Masinde 1996); in Tanzania a decoction of the bark of M. undata is taken as a tonic, while a decoction of the bark is drunk to treat *syphilis and other diseases affecting the *urethrea (Kokwaro 1976). ME – post-viral fatigue syndrome: some plants are belived to be a remedy for this condition, e.g. *lapacho, species of Tabebuia (Bignoniaceae). meadow anemone – Pulsatilla pratensis or Anemone pratensis (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae) is a European herb used as a remedy for *cramping pain (especially in the reproductive system of both male and female), emotional distress and menstrual problems; it has also been used for *coughs and as a *sedative for sleep difficulties; see also *pasque flower. meadow saffron – Colchicum autumnale (Colchicaceae) is an attractive Mediterranean herb; it contains the very toxic alkaloid *colchicine, which is widely used in the laboratory to create new generic strain with double chromosome numbers; colchicine is anti-inflammatory and has been used in conventional medicine for acute gout pain and *laekaemia; it has also been used with some success to treat *Behcet’s syndrome; alternative name: *autumn crocus. 235 meadowsweet – Filipendula ulmaria (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a widespread tall herb in temperate parts of Europe and adjacent Asia; in the Middle Ages it was named ’meadwort’ because it was used to flavour mead; the flowering tops and leaves contain *salicylates (*phenolic glycosides), which are *aspirin-type substances, which help to reduce *inflammation and relieve pain; meadow-sweet is particularly taken for painful *joints and *arthritic conditions; it is also a remedy for acid *indigestion and *colics; the salicylates of meadowsweet do not have the negative effects of *aspirin, i.e. they are not blood-thinning and do not cause *gastric ulceration even in high doses (as does aspirin); alternative name: *queen of the meadow. measles – morbilli; infectious disease caused by a virus and marked by red pustules, *fever and other constitutional disturbances; a number of plants are used to alleviate this disease, e.g. *Asparagus africanus (Asparagaceae), *Balanites aegyptiaca (Balanitaceae), *Basella alba (Basellaceae), *Cannabis sativa (*marijuana, Cannabaceae), *Cardiospermum halicacabum (*balloon vine, Sapindaceae), *Chenopodium opulifolium (Chenopodiaceae), *Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Apocynaceae, Asclepidoideae), *Gnidia kraussiana (Thymelaeaceae), *Kedrostis foetissima (Cucurbitaceae), *Kigelia pinnata (*sausage tree, Bignoniaceae), *Lantana camara & trifolia (Verbenaceae), *Launaea cornuta (Asteraceae), *Mentha haplocalyx (*corn mint, Lamiaceae), *Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae), *Momordica foetida (Cucurbitaceae), *Musa × paradisiaca (Musaceae), *Ocimum kilimandscharica (Lamiaceae), *Ocotea usambarensis (Lauraceae), *Passiflora edulis (*passion fruit, Passifloraceae), *Phaseolus lunatus (*Lima bean, Fabaceae), *Phyllanthus nummulariifolius & ovalifolius (Phyllanthaceae), *Physalis lagascae (Solanaceae), *Plectranthus barbatus (Lamiaceae), Pueraria lobata (*ge gen or *kudzu, Fabaceae), *Rhus vulgaris (Anacardiaceae), *Rothmannia longiflora (Rubiaceae), Schizonepeta tenuifolia (*jing jie, Lamiaceae), *Securidaca longipedunculata (*violet tree, Polygalaceae), *Vernonia amygdalina (Asteraceae) and Wahlenbergia abyssinica (Campanulaceae). medical schools – there are many different medical schools throughout the world, e.g. Arabic, Ayurvedic (*Ayurveda), Aztec, Chinese, Greek, Indian, Inca, Islamic, Maori and Maya. medicinal plants – plants which are or have been used to cure a disease or unfavourable condition; such plants often contain one or more of the following chemical substances: *alkaloids, *anthraquinones, *bitters, *cardiac glycosides, *coumarins, *cyanogenic glycosides, *flavonoids, glucosilinates, *minerals, *phenols, *polysaccharides, *protanthocyanins, *saponins, *tannins, *vitamins and *volatile oils. medicine man – see *shamanistic medicine medick – species of the genus Medicago (the pea family, Fabaceae), e.g. black medick (M. lupulina) and *alfalfa (M. sativa); for medicinal use see *alfalfa and *luzerne. Mediterranean cypress – Cupressus sempervirens (the cypress family, Cupressaceae; Gymnospermae) is a tall tree from Turkey widely cultivated in southern Europe as an ornamental and timber tree; its volatile oil from cones and branches is used externally to tighten up blood vessels and astringes *haemorrhoids and *varicose veins; a footbath of the crushed cones is used to cleanse the feet and counter excessive *sweating; used internally it is *antispasmodic and a *tonic, and has been used to treat *asthma, *colds, *coughs, *flu, *rheumatic pains, *coughing and spitting up of blood; alternative names: *cypress or *Italian cypress. Mediterranean medlar – Crataegus azarolus (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a South European hawthorn with edible ’fruits’ widely used for jam; since they are rich in *vitamin C they will help to improve general resistance to diseases; alternative name: *azarole. medlar – Mespilus germanica (the rose family, Rosaceae) a small South European tree with edible ’fruits’ used for jam after removing the seeds; since they are rich in *vitamin C they will help to improve general resistance to diseases. medulla – back (hind) part of brain. megalomania – a mental illness marked by *delusions of greatness or richness; se also *mania. 236 melanin – a dark pigment in the body of humans and certain animals, as that occurring in the hair; ultraviolet light increases the production of melanin in the skin. melanoderma – an abnormal deposit of *melanin in the skin. melanoma (pl.: melanomata or melanomas) – a darkly pigmented *tumor, especially of the skin or eye. Melanthera (Asteraceae) – a genus with 35 species of annual or perennial (sometimes scandent) herbs native to Africa, Central America and the Pacific Islands (5 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the leaves of M. biflora are used for *bronchitis, and for easing *respiration, while in Kenya the ash of the burnt plant of M. scandens is licked for *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976). Melastomataceae – a family with about 215 genera and 4750 species widely distributed i tropical and warm regions, but most abundant in South America (17 genera and 77 species in East Africa, 12 genera and 24 species in Uganda); species of some genera are used as medicines, e.g. *Calvoa, *Dissotis and *Memecylon. melegueta pepper – seeds from Aframomum melegueta (Zingiberaceae); in West Africa seeds and other parts of the plant are used for many different diseases and conditions, e.g. seeds are taken for *caries, *colds, *hemorrhoids, *migraine and *toothache, a root extracts is drunk to expel *tapeworms (Neuwinger 2000); see also *Aframomum. Melhania (Sterculiaceae) – a genus with about 60 species of annual or perennial herbs native to the Old World tropics, but with highest diversity in tropical Africa; in East Uganda the Padhola use the leaves of M. velutina in the treatment of *diarrhoea (Kokwaro 1976). melon – Cucumis melo (the melon family, Cucurbitaceae); for medicinal use see *Cucumis.. Melia (Meliaceae) – a genus with 3 tree species, 2 are native to Africa (1 in East Africa, none in Uganda) and 1 (M. azedarach) native from India to Australia, but widely planted elsewhere and sometimes naturalized; in Kenya the Luo drink a decoction or infusion of Melia azedarach to treat *diarrhoea, *measles and *stomach ache; in Kenya the bark of M. volkensii is boiled and a very small amount is taken to cure pain and aches in the body (Kokwaro 1976). Meliaceae – a family of 50 genera and about 800 species of trees and shrubs widespread in tropical and subtropical regions (in East Africa 14 genera and 47 native species, in Uganda 11 genera and 29 native species); many genera contain species used as medicines, e.g. *Azadirachta, *Entandrophragma, *Melia, *Pseudocedrela, *Trichilia, *Turraea and *Xylocarpus. Melianthaceae – a family with 2 genera and 8 species of trees and shrubs native to tropical and South Africa (1 genus and 2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); species of the genera *Bersama and *Melianthus contain species of medicinal use. Melianthus (Melianthaceae) – a genus with 6 species of trees or shrubs native to South Africa; some species are locally used as medicine, e.g. M. comosus is a traditional *snakebite remedy and also used to treat septic wounds and other wounds which are healing slowly; a leaf decoction of M. major is applied to treat *scalp mycosis (Tinea capitis), *necrosis and severe *ulcers (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962). melilot – Melilotus officinalis (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a herb of temperate regions of the northern hemisphere of the Old World, but now widespread as a weed even in North America; melilot is mildly *antispasmodic and *sedative; it is taken for *anxiety, *bronchitis, *flatulence, *indigestion and *insomnia; it is also believed to help reduce the risk of *phlebitis and *thrombosis. Melinus (Poaceae) – a genus of 26 grass species (when including Rhynchelytrum) native to Africa (13 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda) with a few species widespread as weeds in all continents; in Tanzania the roots of M. minutiflora are used as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976). Melochia (Sterculiaceae) – a genus with about 50 species of annual or perennial herbs or subshrubs native to the tropics, but with highest diversity in tropical America and only 3 species in Africa; in East Africa the leaves of M. corchorifolia are used in the treatment of *stomach problems 237 (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of M. corchorifolia are steamed or boiled and eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005). melon family – Cucurbitaceae, is a large family with about 120 genera and 750 species widely distributed in all continents except the coldest regions; alternative names: *cucumber family, *gourd family and *pumpkin family. melon tree – Carica papaya (Caricaceae) is a slender tree with large edible fruits native to tropical America, but widely cultivated throughout all tropical countries; the unripe fruits improve digestion and the latex from the trunk is applied externally to heal boils, wounds, *ulcers, warts and *tumours; the seeds and latex are used to expel worms; a decoction of the ripe fruit is used to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery in children; alternative names: *pawpaw and *papaya. Memecylon (Melastomataceae) – a genus with 150-300 species of trees or shrubs widely distributed in the Old World tropics (in East Africa about 25 species, in Uganda 3 species); a species from coastal Kenya (M. amaniensis, M. fragrans, M. mouririifolium or M. sansibaricum) is used by the Digo as a remedy for *asthma or *pneumonia, and is also believed to help for certain stomach troubles (Kokwaro 1976 as M. flavovirens). memory failing – this condition often arising through aging is believed to be alleviated taking the leaves of *ginkgo, a Chinese tree widely cultivated in many temperate countries. meninges – membrane covering the brain and spinal cord. meningitis – inflammation of the *meninges; the leaves of Tetradenia riparia (Lamiaceae) are sometimes taken to treat *cerebrospinal meningitis. Menispermaceae – a family of 78 genera and about 520 species of herbaceous climbers or lianes, scrambling shrubs or more rarely trees widely distributed in tropical and warm regions (11 genera and 30 species in East Africa, 8 genera and 14 species in Uganda); many genera have medicinal species, e.g. *Cissampelos, *Jateorhiza, *Stephania, *Tinospora and *Triclisia. menopause – the period of permanent cessation of *menstruation; it usually takes place between the ages of 45 and 55; problems are treated by Hypericum perforatum (*St. John’s wort), or Avena sativa (*oats) for *depression and decreased vitality, Salvia officinalis (*sage), Salix alba *white willow), Cimifuga racemosa (*black cohosh) and Paeonia lactiflora (*white peony) for hot flushes and night sweats; plants taken to treat decreased *oestrogen and *progesterone levels include Vitex agnus-castus (*Agnus castus), Chamaelirium luteum (*helonias) and Cimifuga racemosa (*black cohosh). menorrhagia – excessively profuse or prolonged *menstruation; medicinal plants used to treat this condition are e.g. a mixture of Capsella bursa-pastoris (*shepherd’s purse) and Urtica dioica (*nettle), or a mixture of Angelica sinensis (*Chinese angelica), Ligusticum wallachii (*chuang xiong), Paeonia lactiflora (*white peony) and Rehmannia glutinosa (*rehmannia) [four thing soup]; other plants sometimes taken to treat menorrhagia include *Albizia coriaria (Fabaceae), *Ampelocissus africanus (Vitaceae), *Pericopsis angolensis (Fabaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae) and *Tamarindus indica (*tamarind, Fabaceae); see also *menstrual problems. menorrhalgia – distress associated with *menstruation, including premenstrual tension, *pelvic vascular conjection and *dysmenorrhoea. menoxenia – any menstrual irregularity; for useful medicinal plants see *menstrual problems. menses – the normal periodic discharge of blood and bloody fluid from the *uterus; it occurs approximately every four weeks from puberty to *menopause in women while not pregnant. menstrual problems – many different plants have been used to treat such problems, e.g. for irregular cycle Vitex agnus-castus (*Agnus castus) and Leonurus cardiaca (*motherwort), for premenstrual tension Rosmarinus officinalis (*rosemary), Valeriana officinalis (*valerian) and Verbena officinalis (*vervain), for breast tenderness and sore nipples Calendula officinalis (*marigold) and Chamomilla recutita (*German chamomile), for fluid retention Taraxacum officinale (*dandelion), for heavy menstrual bleeding a mixture of Capsella bursa-pastoris (*shepherd’s purse) and Urtica dioica (*nettle), or a mixture of Angelica sinensis (*Chinese 238 angelica), Ligusticum wallachii (*chuang xiong), Paeonia lactiflora (*white peony) and Rehmannia glutinosa (*rehmannia) [four thing soup], and for period pain Paeonia lactiflora (*white peony) or a mixture of Carum carvi (*caraway), Dioscorea villosa (*wild yam), Viburnum prunifolius (*black haw) and V. opulus (*cramp bark). menstruation – the normal periodic discharge of blood and bloody fluid from the *uterus; it occurs approximately every four weeks from puberty to *menopause in women while not pregnant; for painful menstruation see *dysmenorrhoea, for excessive bleeding see *hypermenorrhoea; see also Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa (2006). mental illness – disorder of the mind; for plants used to treat mental illnesses see *functional psychosis, *neurotic disorders, *paranoid psychosis and *schizophrenia. Mentha (Lamiaceae) – a genus with 25 species (and many hybrids) of aromatic herbs widely distributed in temperate regions of the old world (only 1 species in tropical uplands); in Toro in West Uganda the leaves of M. aquatica (*water mint) are used to treat *syphilis (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Europe many species and hybrids of Mentha are considered as useful medicinal herbs, e.g. M. arvensis (corn or field mint), M. longifolia (horse mint), M. × piperita (*pepper mint), M. spicata (spear mint) and M. suaveolens (woolly mint). menthol – a secondary metabolic product (*terpenoid) with very strong aroma; menthol is used particularly in coughing medicine and as aroma added to other products; menthol is found in different species of the mint genus Mentha (the mint family, Lamiaceae) and in Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae); see *peppermint, *spearmint and *watermint. mercury – a toxic metal once used as a medicine ++++++; it has up to the present day been widely used in dental care causing a lot of problems to many allergic patients. Merremia (Convolvulaceae) – a genus with about 80 species of herbs or shrubs widely distributed in the tropics of both hemispheres (16-18 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda); in coastal Tanzania the Bondei boil the roots of M. kentrocaulos in water and drink the decoction to cure *fever (Kokwaro 1976). mescal1 – Mexican spirit destilled from *pulque, a Mexican national drink obtained from Agave americana (Agavaceae); see also *tequila; it has been used to treat *nervous conditions; alternative spelling: *mezcal. mescal2 – Lophophora williamsii (the cactus family, Cactaceae) is a small round (hemispheric) stone-like cactus; it contains the *alkaloid *mescaline, which is a powerful *hallucinogen; it has been used in American religious ceremonies for over 3000 years; it is a *painkiller for *rheumatism, and has been used to treat *fevers, *paralysis and to induce *vomiting; peyote is applied externally as a *poultice for fractures, *snake bites and *wounds; alternative name: *peyote (cactus). mescaline – an alkaloid obtained from *peyote, a mainly Mexican cactus, Lophophora williamsii (Cactaceae); mescaline is a powerful *hallucinogen but not *addictive; the *hangover comes before the *intoxication; the most noticeable physical symptoms are *vomiting and *dilation of the pupils (they do not contract any more in light); after consuming mescaline continuously changing visions appear, during which the senses of hearing, taste and touch can also be confused, and emotional feelings destabilized; LSD has a similar effect but is 10,000 times stronger. mesembryanthemum family – Aizoaceae; a large family with about 143 genera and 2300 species most common in South Africa, but also found in eastern and northern Africa, Australia and America; for medicinal plants see *Aizoaceae. mesquite (Am) – Prosopis julifolia and P. glandulosa (the pea family, Fabaceae) are valuable fastgrowing *agro-forestry trees (timber, firewood and fodder) for dry regions; Argentine mesquite is P. alba and honey mesquite is P. julifolia; P. julifolia was used as an eye lotion by the Mexican Aztec long before the arrival of Europeans; see also *algaroba. 239 metabolism – the sum of the processes in an organism (man, animal, plant or bacterium) by which protoplasm is produced, maintained and destroyed, and by means of which energy is made available; a weakened metabolism is sometimes treated by Rehmannia glutinosa (*rehmannia). Metaporana (Convolvulaceae) – a genus with 4 species of shrubby climbers confined to East Africa and Madagascar (1 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in coastal Tanzania the Zaramo use the roots of M. poranoïdes as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976). metritis – *inflammation of the *uterus. metrorrhagia – abnormal bleeding from the *uterus, especially during the period in between the menstrual periods; for useful medicinal plants see *bleeding. Mexican flame leaf – Euphorbia pulcherrima (the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae) is a widely cultivated ornamental, particularly as a pot plant for Christmas in temperate and cold regions; the white juice is toxic and is occasionally used to treat skin diseases; alternative name: *poinsettia. Mexican fleabane – Conyza affinis (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is an American herb used to make a tooth powder and to treat toothache; see also Canadian fleabane (C. canadensis and *Philadelphia fleabane (C. philadelphicus). Mexican (prickly) poppy – Argemone mexicana (the poppy family, Papaveraceae) is a beautiful spiny American annual herb now widely dispersed as a troublesome weed in cultivations throughout all tropical and subtropical regions; it contains alkaloids similar to those of the *opium poppy; the whole plant acts as a mild *painkiller; the latex is used to treat *cataracts, cold sores and *blemishes on the lips and *warts; the flowers are *expectorant and used to treat *coughs and other chest conditions; the seeds have been used as a *sedative for children suffering from *asthma; alternative name: *prickly poppy and *yellow (prickly) poppy. Mexican sage – Salvia divinorum (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial herb native to America; in Mexican herbal medicine it is used as a *hallucinogen; see also *red sage (S. miltiorhiza) and *sage (S. officinalis). mezcal – Mexican spirit destilled from *pulque, a Mexican national drink obtained from Agave americana (Agavaceae). mezereon – Daphne mezereum (the daphne family, Thymelaeaceae) is a small Eurasian shrub with attractive flowers in early spring; it is frequently cultivated in gardens; mezereon contains *diterpenes (including *dapnetoxin and *mezerein) which are highly toxic, but may counter *leucaemia; the bark has been applied to the bites of poisonous reptiles and rabid dogs; it is also an external counter-irritant and is effective on rheumatic joints; the plant should never be taken internally, and people have reportedly died simply from eating birds that have eaten the poisonous berries; see also *garland flower (Daphne cneorum). Micrococca (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with 12 species of annual or perennial herbs, shrubs or small trees widespread in the tropics of the old world (4 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Uganda powdered roots and leaves of M. mercurialis are placed in love gifts (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). Microglossa (Asteraceae) – a genus with 9 species of shrubs or climbers native to tropical Africa And Asia (4 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in Tanzania leaves of M. densiflora are used for treatment of unspecified children’s diseases (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply ash or powder from dried leaves of M. densiflora on *wounds and cuts (Masinde 1996); in Uganda the leaves of M. pyrifolia are used to treat *diarrhoea, *migraine, and used in *antenatal care, while the root is taken for *amoebiasis, *hydrocele, *migraine, premature *ejaculation, *snakebite, *syphilis, and to promote *labour (Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves and roots of this plant is taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); elsewhere in East Africa the leaves have been used for the treatment of *malaria and *limb fractures, but is bitter and acts as an *emetic, and the roots are used for *colds and *headache (Kokwaro 1976); in Central Uganda the Baganda mix the leaves of M. pyrrhopappa 240 (M. angolensis) with those of Hoslundia opposita and boil and bathe as an *antiseptic for *afterbirth wounds (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999). midsummer-men – Rhodiola rosea or Sedum roseum (the stonecrop family, Crassulaceae); in recent years this plant has become a very popular aphrodisiac to improve sexual performance and a large number of pills is being sold as a Nordic ginseng; alternative name: *roseroot. midwife – a woman who assists women in childbirth. migraine – periodic occurrence of *headache, often with sight-disturbance, *dizziness and *nausea; migraine often occurs in connection with *menstruation; certain plants are particularly effective in treating *migraine, e.g. *feverfew, Tanacetum parthenium (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), which contains a substance *parthenolide, which inhibit the release of the hormone *serotonin, which is thought to trigger migraine; other plants which have been used to treat migraine are *Acacia senegal (Fabaceae), *Aframomum melegueta (*melegueta pepper, Zingiberaceae), *Aristolochia elegans (*dutchman’s pipe, Aristolochiaceae), *Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), *Aspilia kotschyi (Asteraceae), *Capparis tomentosa (Capparidaceae), *Capsicum frutescens (*cayenne or *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), *Carica papaya (*melon tree, *papaya & *pawpaw, Caricaceae), Chamaemelum nobile (*Roman chamomile), Clematis vitalba (*old man’s beard & *traveller’s joy, Ranunculaceae), *Cola acuminata (*cola nut or *kola nut, Sterculiaceae), *Diaphananthe fragrantissima (Orchidaceae), *Eucalyptus spp. (*gum trees, Myrtaceae), *Euphorbia heterochroma (Euphorbiaceae), *Gardenia ternifolia (Rubiaceae), *Gelsemium sempervirens (*yellow jasmine, Loganiaceae), *Harrisonia abyssinica (Simaroubaceae), Ilex paraguensis (*maté, Aquifoliaceae), Lavandula officinalis (*lavender, Lamiaceae), *Leonotis nepetifolia (Lamiaceae), *Leucas martinicensis (Lamiaceae), *Maytenus senegalensis (Celastraceae), *Microglossa pyrifolia (Asteraceae), *Mimosa pigra (Fabaceae), *Nicotiana tabacum (*tobacco, Solanaceae), *Ocimum basilicum (*basil & *sweet basil, Lamiaceae), *Phragmanthera usuiensis (Loranthaceae), *Sporobolus pyramidalis (Poaceae), Verbena hastata (*blue vervain) & officinalis (*vervain, Verbenaceae) and *Withania somnifera (Solanaceae). Mikania (Asteraceae) – a genus with about 430 species of climbing shrubs or subshrubs with the majority of species in the Americas (3 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Tanzania the shambaa drink a decoction of boiled leaves of M. chenopodioides (= C. cordata) three times a day for headache (Kokwaro 1976). Mildbraedia (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with 3-4 species of shrubs or small trees confined to tropical Africa (2 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in East Africa the powdered root of M. carpi-nifolia is eaten to cure *chest complaints (Kokwaro 1976). milfoil – Achillea millefolium (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a widespread perennial herb in Europe and western Asia; it has *alkaloids (e.g. *achilleine) and *flavonoids which help stop external and internal bleeding, *sesquiterpene *lactones which are bitter and have *anti-tumour activity, and *volatile oils which are *anti-inflammatory and *anti-allergenic; milfoil is first and foremost a herb for staunching *wounds; it also helps to recover from *colds and *flu and regulate the *menstrual cycle; it may also be useful for *hay fever, weak digestion and *colic; alternative name: *yarrow. Milicia (Moraceae) – a genus of 2 species of trees native to tropical Africa (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Uganda the sap of M. excelsa (= Chlorophora excelsa) is applied to *wounds and eaten with Arachis hypogaea or Sesamum indicum to treat *hypertension (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). milk bush – Euphorbia tirucalli (the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae) is widely cultivated as a hedge and medicinal plant in tropical countries; for medicinal use see *Euphorbia; alternative names: finger and pencil *euphorbia. milk production (in humans) – for plants used to increase breast milk production see *lactation. 241 milk thistle – Silybum marianum (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), native to the *Mediterranean and the Middle East, is an important medicinal plant; damage to the liver due to excessive drinking (*alcoholic poisoning) or *death cap mushroom poisoning can to a certain extent be avoided by eating the fruits or the flower heads of mary thistle in the same way as *artichoke; the fruits of milk thistle contain *silymarin, a substance that has a highly protective effect on the *liver, maintaining its function, renewing its cells and preventing damage from compounds that are normally toxic; it has also been used successfully to treat *hepatitis and liver *cirrhosis; for alternative name see also *Mary thistle. milk-vetch – Astragalus glycyphyllus (the pea family, Fabaceae); in compounds also other species of the genus Astragalus, e.g. alpine milk-vetch (A. alpinus), *Chinese milk-vetch (A. membranaceus) and purple milk-vetch (A. danicus); particularly Chinese milk-vetch is an important medicinal herb particularly important as an energy *tonic. milkweed – species of the genus Asclepias (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae); for medicinal use see *pleurisy root (A. tuberosa). milkweed family – Apocynaceae subfamily Asclepiadoideae; a large subfamily with about 250 genera and almost 2000 species; the family *Apocynaceae contains about 430 genera and 4400 species. milkwort – species of the genus Polygala (the milkwort family, Polygalaceae), e.g. common milkwort (P. vulgaris and P. serpyllifolia) and bitter milkwort (P. amarella); P. vulgaris is a widespread perennial herb in temperate parts of Europe; it has been used to treat chest problems such as *cough and *pleurisy; see also *seneca snakeroot (Polygala senega). milkwort family – Polygalaceae is a large family with about 17 genera and 1000 species widely distributed in all continents whether hot or temperate. Milletia (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus with about 200 species of trees, shrubs or lianes widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of the old world (24 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda M. dura is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996), while around Kibale forest in West Uganda the leaves of M. dura are used to treat *syphilis, and the leaves and stems are used as insect repellant (Kakudidi et al. 2000); for isoflavones in seed pods of M. dura see Yenesew et al. 1996; in Tanzania the roots of M. lasiantha are used as an *aphrodisiac, while the leaves of M. makondensis are used against *toothache; the bark of M. oblata is taken for *cough and *stomach-ache, and the roots used as a treatment for swollen parts of the body and for *bladder troubles, while the roots of M. usaramensis is used for *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976); for chalcones, isoflavones and rotenoids in M. usaramensis see Yenesew et al. 1998. Mimosa (Fabaceae, Mimosoideae) – a genus with about 450 species of herbs, shrubs or trees widely distributed in the tropics, but the vast majority of species in South America (5 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in Tanzania a decoction of boiled roots of M. latispinosa is drunk and used for bathing swollen testicles (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda roots of M. pigra are used to treat *migraine, *syphilis, and smeared on the body as an *antidote, while an infusion of the leaves of M. pudica is drunk to treat *measles and premature *ejaculation (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a leaf concoction of M. pudica for stomach ache (Masinde 1996). mimosa – species of the genera Acacia and Albizia (Fabaceae, Minosoideae); for medicinal uses see Albizia and Acacia. Mimosaceae – an old name for a family now placed in Fabaceae as subfamily Mimosoideae. Mimulopsis (Acanthaceae) – a genus of about 30 species of large herbs, shrubs or small trees native to tropical Africa and Madagascar; in Kenya the Kipsigis associate M. solmsii with magic, and certain rites, such as *circumscission, which must not take place when this plant is flowering (Kokwaro 1976). 242 mineral – an inorganic substance occurring in nature (e.g. feldspar or quartz), but in health literature also used about chemical elements; intake of sufficient levels of minerals is needed for good health; these minerals can come from e.g. food or medicinal plants, such as bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus) rich in iodine (I), dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) and nettle (Urtica dioica) with high levels of potassium (K); horsetails (e.g. Equisetum arvense) are rich in silica (Si), while cabbage (Brassica oleracea) has high levels of sulphur (S). miner’s lettuce – Montia (Claytonia) perfoliata (the purslane family, Portulacaceae) is a small annual herb native to North America, but widespread as a weed in temperate regions througout the world; it is rich in *vitamin C and used as a salad; it can also be taken as an effective *diuretic and invigorating spring *tonic; alternative name: *winter purslane. mint – species of the genus Mentha (the mint family, Lamiaceae), e.g. corn mint (M. arvensis), horse mint (M. longifolia), spear mint (M. spicata), water mint (M. aquatica); Australian mint is species of the genus Prostanthera (Lamiaceae). mint family – Lamiaceae is a large family with about 200 genera and 3000 species widely distributed in all continents; the teak family (Verbenaceae) is now often included in this family. Mirabilis (Nyctaginaceae) – a genus with 54 species of herbs native to the Americas, but with one species now widely naturalised throughout the tropics; in Uganda the roots and plant tops of M. jalapa are used to treat painful swellings of the leg believed to be caused by *bewitchment (Adjanohoun et al. 1993) or the leaves applied to fresh *wounds (Kakudidi et al. 2000). mistletoe – Viscum album and other species of the genus Viscum (the mistletoe family, Viscaceae or Loranthaceae) are all evergreen shrubs growing parasitic on their host trees; the plant and especially the berries are highly *toxic; mistletoe is mainly used to lower *blood pressure and *heart rate and improve the ability to concentrate; it has also been used relieve attacks of panic, *hyperactivity in children and to promote sleep; it has been prescribed for *tinnitus and *epilepsy; certain constituents, e.g. *viscotoxins, has *anticancer activity. mistletoe cactus – Rhipsalis baccifera (R. cassutha) in the cactus family (Cactaceae) is the only species of the cactus family native to continents outside America; is is widespread in African rainforests; for medicinal use see *Rhipsalis. mistletoe family – Viscaceae is amedium sized famly with about 11 genera and 450 species widely distributed in all continents; the family is often included in Loranthaceae, which is then a large family with about 35 genera and 1300 species. mite – tiny animal less than 1 mm long related to spiders; they resemble *ticks in having four pairs of legs, and some are parasitic on man, viz. Sarcoptes (see *scabies) and Trombicula (*harvest mite); the mites can carry various forms of *typhus. Mollugo (Molluginaceae) – a genus with about 12 species of annual herbs widespread in tropical as well as warm temperate regions (2 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Kenya the Luo snuff the pounded leaves of M. nudicaulis to treat ‘headworms’ and *madness (Geissler et al. 2002). molybdenum (Mo) – mombin – some species of the genus Spondias (Anacardiaceae); they are trees with edible drupes, e.g. *red mombin (S. purpurea) and *yellow mombin (S. lutea or S. mombin); for medicinal use see *ambarella, *golden apple, *jew’s plum, *jobo, *Otaheite apple, *red mombin, *Spanish plum and *yellow mombin. Momordica (Cucurbitaceae) – a genus with 42 species of climbers or trailers native to the old world tropics with the majority of species in Africa (22 species in East Africa, 12 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of M. foetida are used as a *purgative and to expel *intestinal *worms similar to the *trematode Enterobius vermicularis, while the entire plant with roots is taken to provoke *abortion; leaves are crushed and rubbed into wounds or stuck into the ear to alleviate *ear-ache (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves are used to treat bad *breath, dry *cough, *diarrhoea, *fever, *indigestion, *malaria, *measles, *stomach-ache, *tonsilitis and to treat disturbances in *tooth eruption, the tops of the plants are taken for *tuberculosis, and the entire 243 plant for promoting *labour (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the Bwamba use M. foetida to treat fever and stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 1996); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots of this species are used to treat *diarrhoea, *gonorrhoea and *syphilis (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Rakai district in Uganda the leaves are crushed, water added and given orally to chickens to treat *NCD (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007); in Uganda Waako et al. (2005) did only find weak *antimalarial activity in this plant; in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a root concoction of M. foetida for *boils (Masinde 1996); in Kenya the root tubers of M. friesiorum are collected by the Dorobo and sold in the market as a remedy for *malaria; this medicin will cause *vomiting and *diarrhoea; in West Uganda the Bwamba use M. pterocarpa to treat stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 1996); the Somali eat the fruits (4-5 at a time) of M. spinosa for *headache (Kokwaro 1976). Monanthotaxis (Annonaceae) – a genus with nearly 60 species of shrubs, woody climbers or small trees native to Africa and Madagascar (15 species in East Africa, 8 species in Uganda); in coastal Kenya the Digo take a *decoction of the aromatic leaves of either M. trichantha or M. trichocarpa as a remedy for *headache (Kokwaro 1976). Mondia (Apocynaceae or Asclepiadoideae) – a genus with 2 species native to tropical Africa; in West Kenya the Marachi tribe chew the bark of the root of M. ecornuta as appetiser and as *aphrodisiac (Masinde 1996); in West Uganda the rootstock or tuber of M. whitei is used to treat soft stools and *flatulence (Kakudidi et al. 2000) and to treat sexual *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); in West Uganda the Bwamba use M. whitei to stimulate sexual potency in men (Kakudidi et al. 1996); in East Uganda it is taken to treat *abdominal pain, premature *ejaculation (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003) and to stop vomiting (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania the rootstock is used as a cure for *gonorrhoea and also used as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976). Mongolian dandelion – Taraxacum mongolicum (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is used in Chinese herbal medicine to ”clear heat” and relieve *toxicity, particularly of the *liver. Monimiaceae – a family with about 35 genera and 450 species of trees, shrubs or climbers widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics, but mainly in the southern hemisphere (1 genus and 1 species in East Africa and Uganda); the genus *Xymalos has species with medicinal use. monkshood – Aconitum napellus and other species of the genus Aconitum (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae); Aconitum napellus is a south and central European herb widely cultivated as a garden plant; it contains *aconitine, a very poisonous *terpenoid *alkaloid; because it is extremely poisonous monkshood can only be used in the smallest doses; it is principally applied to unbroken skin to relieve pain from bruises or neurological conditions; in India (*Ayurvedic medicine) monkshood has been used to treat *asthma, heart weakness and *neuralgia; in China *Chinese aconite, A. carmichaelii, has been used for shock and congestive heart failure; alternative name: *aconite. monks’ pepper tree – Vitex agnus-castus (the teak family, Verbenaceae/Lamiaceae); for medicinal use see *chaste tree. Monodora (Annonaceae) – a genus with about 15 species of trees or shrubs native to tropical Africa, with 6-7 species in East Africa (2 species in Uganda); in coastal East Africa an extract from the roots of A. grandidiera is used as *anthelmintic (Weiss 1979). Monopsis (Lobeliaceae) – a genus with 20 species mostly native to South Africa, but with 2 species reaching East Africa (1 species in Uganda); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda M. stellarioides is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996). Monsonia (Geraniaceae) – a genus with about 40 species of annual or perennial herbs widely distributed in tropical and warm countries of the Old World, but most common in semi-dry regions in Africa (4 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa the dried leaves of M. angustifolia are pounded, mixed with hot ashes and given to cattle as a treatment for *black quarter, while an infusion from the roots of M. ovata is used as a wash to kill flies on 244 calves (Kokwaro 1976); M. ovata has *astringent properties and act to tighten and protect the inner linings of the intestinal tract; in South Africa it is used as an *abortifacient and to treat *colitis, *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *snakebites and *typhoid fever (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Neuwinger 1996). monsonia – Monsonia ovata (the cranesbill family, Geraniaceae) is an African herb used to treat *colitis, *diarrhoea, *dysentery and *snake bites; it has *astringent properties and act to tighten and protect the inner linings of the intestinal tract. moon-fern – Botrychium lunaria (Ophioglossaceae; Pteridophyta) and other species in the fern genus Botrychium; in parts of Scandinavia young plants of B. lunaria were eaten early in spring, and were thus an important source of vitamins to prevent diseases. moon-fern family – Ophioglossaceae, is a small family with about 3 genear and 90 species widely distributed in all continents; species of the genus Botrychium have some medicinal value. moonflower – Brugmansia suaveolens (the potato family, Solanaceae) is an American ornamental shrub widely cultivated and naturalized in other warm parts of the world; for medicinal use see *Brugmansia; alternative name: *angel’s trumpet. moonwort – Botrychium lunaria (Ophioglossaceae; Pteridophyta) and other species in the fern genus Botrychium; in parts of Scandinavia young plants of B. lunaria were eaten early in spring, and were thus an important source of vitamins to prevent diseases. Moraceae – a family with about 50 genera and 1200 species of trees, shrubs, scramblers and herbs widely distributed in tropical and warm regions; in Africa about 200 species (11 genera and 83 species in East Africa, 7 genera and 55 species in Uganda); many genera have species of medicinal use, e.g. *Antiaris, *Artocarpus, *Dorstenia, *Ficus, *Maclura, *Milicia (Chlorophora), *Morus and *Sloetiopis (Neosloetiopsis). Morella (Myricaceae) – a genus with about 40 species of shrubs or trees widespread in both warm and temperate regions; in central Uganda an infusion of the root of M. kandtiana is taken as a cure for stomach problems (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the bark of M. salicifolia is used for stubborn cough, as a cure for toothache, and mixed with milk given to children as a tonic; while the root bark or roots are used for *abdominal pains, *convulsions, *epilepsy, *fever, *headaches, *indigestion, *stomach problems, *whooping cough and used as a *vermifuge to expel *hookworms (Kokwaro 1976; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in West Uganda the rootstock of M. salicifolia is used to treat sexual *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); previously this genus was included in *Myrica. Morinda (Rubiaceae) – a genus of about 80 species of trees, shrubs or lianes widely distributed throughout the tropics (3 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Uganda the root of M. lucida is used to treat *jaundice and *malaria (Adjanohoun et al. 1993, as M. morindoides); in West Africa the root or leaf of M. morindoides is used to treat *fever, feverish stiffness of the limbs, general *fatigue, *gonorrhoea, *scabies and *wounds, while the ash of the fruit is used to treat scabies and wounds; in Congo M. morindoides is one of the most popular medicinal plants, the leaves or leaf decoction is used for *amoebiasis, *gonorrhoea, *haemorrhoids, *intestinal worms, *malaria and *rheumatism, *scabies, *syphilis and *ulcers (Neuwinger 1996). Moringa (Moringaceae) – a genus with 14 species of trees or shrubs native to semi-arid parts of Africa, Madagascar and from Israel to India (7 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); ben oil is obtained from the seeds of M. oleifera and is used in salad oil, paints and soap; in Rakai district in Uganda the flowers are crushed, the juice extracted and applied to swollen eyes of chickens to treat fowl pox (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007); the species of Moringa contain mustard-oil glucosides with some medicinal value. Moringaceae – a family with a single genus (*Moringa) and 14 species of trees or shrubs native to Africa, Madagascar and from Israel to India (7 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); some species of the genus Moringa are of medicinal use. 245 mormon tea – tea made from species of the genus Ephedra (Ephedraceae, Gymnospermae); these plants contain *ephedrine, a *toxin sused as a medicine to treat *asthma and low *blood pressure. morning glory – Ipomoea purpurea (the bindweed family, Convolvulaceae) is a very beautiful climber from Mexico much used as a garden plant in warm countries; the seeds contains substances similar to *LSD, and were taken ritually by native Indians. morning glory family – the bindweed family, Convolvulaceae is a large family with about 100 genera and 2000 species widely distributed in all continents; alternative name: *bindweed family and *convolvulus family. morning sickness – *nausea in the morning in connection with *pregnancy; the following plants are recommended by Chevallier (2001): German chamomile, Chamomilla recutita (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), ginger, Zingiber officinale (the ginger family, Zingiberaceae) and fennel, Foeniculum vulgare (the carrot family, Apiaceae). morphine – a toxic alkaloid which is a powerful *analgesic and *narcotic used extensively in conventional medicine to relieve pain, especially in terminal illness; morphine is extracted from *opium, i.e. the dried latex of the *opium poppy, Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae), which is widely cultivated in Asia and elswhere. Morus (Moraceae) – a genus with 10-15 species of trees widely distributed in temperate and warm regions, only 1 species native to the tropics ( 1 species native to East Africa and Uganda, but the cultivated *mulberry, M. australis is widely grown for its edible fruits); in West Kenya the root of M. mesozygia (M. lactea) is used as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976). mosquitocidal – which kills mosquitoes; see Joseph et al. (2004). Mostuea (Loganiaceae) – a genus with about 8 species of small shrubs mostly found in tropical Africa (4-7 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in West Africa several species of this genus are used to treat many different diseases, see Neuwinger (2000). mother-in-law’s tongue – Sansevieria trifasciata (Agavaceae) and other species of the genus Sansevieria are often cultivated as pot plants; for medicinal use see *Sansevieria; alternative name: *snake plant. motherwort – Leonurus cardiaca (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial herb native to Asia, and widely naturalized in much of Europe and North America; as the Latin name ’cardiaca’ indicates, this herb has long been considered a remedy for the heart; it strengthens heart function, is *antispasmodic and *sedative and promotes relaxation; it stimulates the muscles of the *uterus, and is particularly suitable for delayed periods, period pain and *premenstrual tension. mountain ash – rowan, Sorbus aucuparia (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a widespread tree native to north temperate regions; in Scotland this tree was believed to be an antidote to *witchcraft; it is *astringent and often taken as a jam to treat *diarrhoea and *haemorrhoids and as a wash to treat *heamorrhoids and excessive *vaginal discharge; the seeds contain *cyanogenic glycosides, which upon contact with water produce the extremely poisonous *prussic acid; alternative name: *rowan (tree). mountain cranberry – Vaccinium vitis-idaea (the heather family, Ericaceae); for medicinal use see *red whortleberry. mouse-ear hawkweed – Hieracium pilosella (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a perennial herb widespread throughout much of the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; it is used to treat respiratory problems like *asthma, *bronchitis, *catarrh and *coughs; the herb has also been used to control heavy *menstrual bleeding and to ease the coughing up of blood. . mouthwashes – an *infusion of (usually *astringent and *antiseptic) herbs is allowed to stand for 1520 minutes before use (Chevallier 2001); mouthwashes are used to soothe sore throats, gums and mouth ulcers by tightening the mucous membranes; plants used for mouthwashes include Capsicum frutescens (*Cayenne pepper), Commiphora molmol (*myrrh), Glycyrrhiza glabra (*liquorice), Krameria triandra (*rhatany) and Salvia officinalis (*sage). 246 mouth ulcers – open sore on surface inside the mouth, often containing *pus; they are often treated by *mouthwashes, especially using Salvia officinalis (*sage, Lamiaceae), or by taking equal parts of tinctures of Commiphora molmol (*myrrh, Burseraceae), Echinacea spp. (*purple coneflower, Asteraceae) and Glycyrrhiza glabra (*liquorice, Fabaceae); other plants sometimes taken to treat mouth ulcers include *Citrus × limon (*lemon, Rutaceae), Ocimum sanctum (*holy basil or *tulsi, Lamiaceae), Polymnia uvedalia (*bearsfoot, Asteraceae) and Potentilla erecta (*tormentil, Rosaceae). moxa – a herbal substance used in connection with *acupuncture; its principal ingredient is *mugwort, Artemisia vulgaris (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), and is used in *moxibustion. moxibustion – a process in *acupuncture where heat from a burning, cigar-shaped roll of chopped leaves (moxa) is applied to acupuncture points. mucilage – *polysaccharides that can soak up large quantities of water producing a sticky, jelly-like mass (slime) that can be used to soothe and protect irritated tissue; certain plants are very rich in mucilage, e.g. the bark of *elm (e.g. Ulmus glabra) and the seeds of *flax (Linum usitatissimum). mucilaginous – which produces *mucilage. mucous membranes – the moist skin or lubricating membrane that lines certain internal surfaces, such as in the nose, mouth, throat and food canal. Mucuna (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus with about 100 species of climbing herbs, lianes or shrubs widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions (7 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the root of M. poggei to treat *back pain, while the seeds are used to treat *sore throat and body swellings (Heine & König 1988); in Uganda the leaves of M. pruriens (*buffalo bean) are used to treat nervousness believed to be due to spirits (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania the leaves are pounded, boiled and the decoction drunk as a *styptic for *nose bleeding and other types of bleeding (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa Tragia furialis (including T. scheffleri) is used to counteract the effects of the poisonous seeds of this plant (Kokwaro 1976). mucus – slim i hals eller bryst; the thick, slimy substance (viscid secretions) that comes from the mucous *membranes, e.g. the substance (*phlegm) which forms in the nose, throat or chest when one has a bad cold or flue. mugwort – Artemisia vulgaris (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a perennial herb widely distributed in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; it is *antiseptic, and has been used in the treatment of *malaria; it is a *digestive and *tonic herb taken to improve appetite and absorption of nutrients and to eliminate worms; in Europe this herb is considered as a uterine stimulant (but see *Chinese mugwort); it has also been used in connection with *acupuncture (see *moxa); in compounds ’mugwort’ is also used about other species of the genus Artemisia, e.g. *annual mugwort (A. annua), *Chinese mugwort (A. verlotiorum), *hoary mugwort (A. stelleriana) and Norwegian mugwort (A. norvegica); see also *southernwood (A. abrotanum), *tarragon (A. dracunculus) and *wormwood (A. absinthium). muira puama – Liriosma ovata (the olive family, Oleaceae) is a tree from the Brazilian rainforest long used as a *tonic and remedy for *impotence; the bark is strongly *astringent and used as a gargle for *sore throats; it is also used to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery. Mukia (Cucurbitaceae) – a genus with 4 species of climbers native to the old world tropics, but only one of these extend to Africa and Uganda; in East Africa the leaves of M. maderaspatana are cooked like vegetable and eaten by women in *labour to hasten birth, but is also used to cause *abortion (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the shoots of this plant is used to treat *infertility (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). mulberry1 – species of the genus Morus (the fig family, Moraceae), e.g. African mulberry (M. mesozygia), black or common mulberry (M. nigra), red mulberry (M. rubra) and white mulberry (M. alba); for medicinal use see *Morus. 247 mulberry2 – also used about species from other genera in the fig family (Moraceae) and from other families, e.g. *giant yellow mulberry (Myrianthus holstii, Moraceae), *mulberry fig (Ficus sycomorus, Moraceae), Indian mulberry (Morinda citrifolia, Rubiaceae) and *paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera, Moraceae). mulberry family – Moraceae is a large family with about 75 genera and 3000 species; for medicinal plants see *Moraceae; alternative name: *fig family. mulberry fig – Ficus sycomorus (the fig family, Moraceae); in East Africa the bark has been used to treat *diarrhoea and dysentery. mullein – Verbascum thapsus (the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae) is a common and widely distributed plant in Europe; it is mainly used treat *bronchitis, *coughs and *catarrh; applied externally this herb is a good *wound healer; alternative name: *aaron’s rood; in compounds also other species of the genus Verbascum, e.g. dark mullein (V. nigrum), hoary mullein (V. pulverulentum) and white mullein (V. lychnitis). multiple sclerosis – a severe disease in which nerve tissue is damaged by inflammation causing *paralysis; certain plants have the ability to reduce inflammation in nerve tissue, and are therefore used to treat *multiple sclerosis, e.g. *maidenhair tree or *ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgophyta, Gymnospermae). mumps – an infectious disease characterized by inflammatory swelling of the *salivary glands, and especially the *parotid gland; alternative name: epidemic *parotitis; the plant has been treated by the following plants: *Euphorbia candelabrum (Euphorbiaceae), *Forsythia suspensa (*weeping forsythia, Oleaceae), *Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (*blacking plant, Malvaceae) and *Shirakiopsis (Sapium) elliptica (Euphorbiaceae). Mundulea (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus with about 15 species of shrubs or small trees native to Madagascar with one species extending to Africa (including Uganda), but widespread elsewhere in the tropics due to its cultivation as a fish poison (rotenone); in East Africa the fresh roots of M. sericea are chewed as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976). Murdannia (Commelinaceae) – a genus with about 50 species of somewhat succulent herbs widely distributed in tropical regions; in West Kenya the Marachi tribe rub a jelly from flowers of M. simplex on sites with *athletes’ foot infections (Masinde 1996). Musa (Musaceae) – the banana-genus with about 35 species of robust, often tree-like, herbs are native to SE Asia and the Pacific Islands, but many hybrids and horticultural variants are cultivated elsewhere in the tropics for food; the edible yellow banana Musa × paradisiaca var. paradisiaca (sweet banana) is antiscorbutic because of its content of *ascorbic acid, and the fruit also contains *vitamins A, B, E and G as well as *dopamine, a substance lacking in patients with *Parkinson’s disease (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); in East Uganda the sap is taken to cure *measles, while a decoction of the inflorescence of Musa × paradisiaca var. sapientum (cooking banana; *matoke) is drunk to alleviate *cough (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the juice of banana is drunk to treat *thread worms (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), while the leaf sheaths are used to treat *scabies (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Kenya the Kamba use the terminal parts of the banana-inflorescence (the male part) as a cure for high *blood pressure (Kokwaro 1976); some bananas may soothe or prevent *gastric ulcer. Musaceae – a family with 2 genera and about 40 species of often tree-like herbs native to the old world tropics, but the majority of species in SE Asia; in East Africa only the genus *Ensete is native, but many horticultural variants of the genus *Musa are cultivated for food; species of Ensete as well as Musa are used as medicine. muscle cramps (or spasms) – excessive muscular contractions; it is sometimes alleviated by taking a tincture from the plant *cramp bark (Viburnum opulus) or other plants (see *cramp); see also *muscular spasms. muscular spasms – excessive muscular contractions; it is sometimes alleviated by taking a tincture from the plant *cramp bark (Viburnum opulus); see also *muscle cramps. 248 mushroom – fleshy fungus with dome-shaped cap, especially an edible species; the amino acid composition in some species may have valuable nutritional aspects, see Mdachi et al. (2004). Mussaenda (Rubiaceae) – a genus with about 100 species of shrubs or lianes native to the Old World tropics an with about 35 species in Africa (5 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Shambaa boil the roots of M. microdonta and drink the decoction three times a day for *intestinal disorders (Kokwaro 1976). mustard – species of the genus Sinapis (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae); see *black mustard and *white mustard. mustard family – Brassicaceae (earlier Cruciferae); a family comprising about 390 genera and 3000 species of annual or perennial herbs, rarely shrubby, and widely distributed in both hot and cold countries; for genera with useful medicinal herbs see *Brassicaceae; alternative vernacular names of family: *cress family and *wallflower family; the family Capparidaceae is sometimes included in Brassicaceae, and this extended family comprises 425 families and 3700 species. myddfai – an old 12th century Welsh herbal is referred to as ”Physicians of Myddfai”. mydriasis – dilation of the pupil of the eye, see *mydriatic. mydriatic – which enlargens (dilates) the pupil of the eye, e.g. the extremely toxic plant deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna in Solanaceae) has this effect. myelitis – muscle; having to do with muscle(s). myiasis – infestation with larvae of flies burying under the skin and feeding in the living flesh of man, especially in wounds and sores; see *blowflies, *bluebottles and *flesh flies. myo- – inflammation in the spinal cord or bone marrow; see *poliomyelitis. myositis – inflammation of muscle; the muscle loses strength and become stiff. Myrianthus (Cecropiaceae; earlier Moraceae) – a genus with 7 species of trees or shrubs all native to tropical Africa (3 species in East Africa and 2 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the roots of M. arboreus are used as a cure for sore throat (Kokwaro 1976); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda M. holstii is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996). Myrica (Myricaceae) – a genus with 40-50 species of shrubs or trees widespread in both warm and temperate regions; the widespread north temperate species M. gale (*bog myrtle or sweet gale) is a widely used medicinal plant; in Uganda the root or root bark of M. kandtiana is taken as a cure for *asthenia (also leaf used), *diarrhoea, *stomach pains, *ulcers and *vomiting (Adjano-houn 1993); in East Africa the bark of M. salicifolia is used for stubborn *cough, as a cure for *toothache, and mixed with milk given to children as a tonic; while the root bark or roots are used for *abdominal pains, *convulsions, *epilepsy, *fever, *headaches, *indigestion, *stomach problems, *whooping cough and used as a *vermifuge to expel *hookworms (Kokwaro 1976; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda M. salicifolia is used by herbalists and midwives (Cunningham 1996); in West Uganda the roots and bark of M. salicifolia are used to treat sexual *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); in Flora of Tropical East Africa the African species of the genus Myrica are transferred to the genus *Morella. Myricaceae – a family with 3-4 genera and 40-50 species of shrubs or trees widespread in both warm and temperate regions; in the tropics in upland areas only (in East Africa 4 species, in Uganda 2 species); species of the genera *Morella and *Myrica have species of medicinal value. Myristica (Myristicaceae) – a genus with about 80 tree species native to tropical Asia and Australia, but M. fragrans (*nutmeg tree) is widely cultivated in the tropics; *nutmeg is the seed kernel of the fruit; the red aril (seed-covering) is named *mace; the nutmeg has an *anaesthetic and *stimulating effect on the stomach and *intestines, increasing appetite and reducing *nausea, vomiting and *diarrhoea; in India it has a long reputation as an *aphrodisiac believed to increase sexual stamina; the oil (nutmeg butter) is used externally to treat *rheumatic conditions. 249 Myristicaceae – a family with 16-19 genera and 250-400 species of trees or lianes widespread in tropical regions and most commonly found in lowland rainforest (3 genera and 3 species in East Africa, 2 genera and 2 species in Uganda); species of the genus *Myristica are of medicinal use. myristicin – a secondary metabolic product (*phenolic) which gives the major taste to *nutmeg; it is extracted from Myristica fragrans (Myristichaceae), a tree from East Asia. myrobalan – some Asian trees of the genus Terminalia (the myrobalan family, Combretaceae) used as medicinal herbs; see *Beleric myrobalan (T. belerica) and *Chebulic myrobalan (T. chebula). Myrothamnaceae – a family of a single genus, Myrothamnus, comprising 2 species of strongly resinous shrubs from Africa and Madagascar; they have both medicinal use. Myrothamnus (Myrothamnaceae) – a genus with 2 species of shrubs, one species native to Africa south of the Sahara and one from Madagascar; in Songea district in Tanzania the leaves of M. flabellifolius are mixed with tobacco and smoked as a cure for bronchial diseases (Kokwaro 1976). myrrh – Commiphora myrrha (the myrrh family, Burseraceae) or the resin exuded from this tree from northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia; it has been widely used as a gargle for mouth and throat problems helping to counter *infection and *inflammations; it is *antimicrobial, *antiseptic and *astringent and has an *anti-inflammatory, *antioxidant, *anti-ulcer and *thyroid-stimulating activity; it is also used externally treating *acne, *boils and other skin problems; myrrh is collected from many other species of the genus Commiphora, but the best quality is obtained from C. myrrha; *Mecca myrrh is the source of balm of Gilead and obtained from Commiphora gileadensis; see also *opoponax and *bdellium. myrrh family – Burseraceae is a rather large family with 17 genera and about 500 species widely distributed in tropical and hot regions. Myrsinaceae – a family with about 40 genera and species of trees, shrubs or scramblers widespread in tropical and warm regions (4 genera and 10 species in East Africa; 4 genera and 7 species in Uganda); the family is most closely related to Primulaceae (Maesaceae with the genus Maesa is now accepted as a separate family); some genera have species of medicinal use, e.g. *Embelia, *Myrsine and *Rapanea. Myrsine (Myrsinaceae) – a genus with 7 species of shrubs or small trees distributed from the Azores and tropical Africa to China (1 genus and 1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa the fruits of M. africana (*African boxwood) are eaten to expel *roundworms and *tapeworms, and as a remedy for *chest pains and stiff *joints (Kokwaro 1976). Myrtaceae – a family with about 130 genera and 3850 species in the tropics and warm temperate regions, but particularly well represented in Australia (2 native genera with 18 native species in East Africa, 2 native genera with 5 native species in Uganda), but a large number of species from the genera *Eucalyptus and Psidium are cultivated and occasionally becoming naturalized; many species of the genera *Eucalyptus and *Syzygium are of medicinal use. myrtle – Myrtus communis (the myrtle family, Myrtaceae), is an evergreen shrub from the Mediterranean region; myrtle leaves are *anticatarrhal, *antiseptic, *astringent and *tonic; an infusion can be used to improve disorders of the *digestive and *urinary systems; in Spain the essential oil has been used to treat *bronchial and *lung infections; used externally myrtle can heal *wounds and *ulcers; other species of the genus are Chilean guava (M. ugni) and ramarama (M. bullata). myrtle family – Myrtaceae is a fairly large family with about 100 genera and 300 species widely distributed in all warm and tropical regions, but most abundant in Australia because of many dominating species of the genus Eucalyptus. Mystroxylon (Celastraceae) – a genus with 3 species of trees or shrubs native to Africa including Madagascar and the Mascarenes (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa the bark of M. aethiopicum is used in making a tea drunk as a *stomach medicine, particularly for 250 children (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the pounded bark of M. aethiopicum to treat *stomach troubles (Heine & König 1988). naked ladies – species from the genus Colchicum (Colchicaceae); for medicinal use see *meadow saffron (C. autumnale). nam-nam – Cynometra cauliflora (Fabaceae); an Indomalesian tree where unripe pods are eaten raw, cooked or pickled; they have some medicinal value due to their content of vitamins. nappy rash – red and sore skin under nappies; Chevallier (2001) reccommends *chickweed (Stellaria media), *marigold (Calendula officinalis) and *nettle (Urtica dioica) to alleviate this condition. narcotic – (a substance such as a drug or plant) which causes *drowsiness or *stupor and relieves pain; narcotic herbs include *kava kava (Piper methysticum, Piperaceae), *marijuana (Cannabis sativa var. indica), *opium poppy (Papaver somniferum, Papaveraceae) and *peyote (Lophophora williamsii). narcotine – an alkaloid found in the *opium poppy Papaver somniferum (the poppy family, Papaveraceae); its latex (*opium) contains about 1 % narcotine; it is *analgesic and *narcotic, but *addictive and is therefore mainly used after less powerful analgesics have failed to bring relief. narrow-leaved paper bark tree – Melaleuca lineariifolia (Myrtaceae) is an evergreen tree from Australia grown for its timber and essential oil; it has *antiseptic properties and is used to treat *colds, *coughs, *sore throats and *chest infections; it stimulates the *circulation and is *antispasmodic and may be used as a friction rub for rheumatic *joints and *neuralgia; see also *cajaput (M. leucadendron), *broad-leaved paperbark tree (M. viridifolia) and *tea tree (M. alternifolia). narrow-leaved plantain – Plantago lanceolata (the plantain family, Plantaginaceae) is a troublesome weed in some countries; amedicinally it is used in the same way as *broad-leaved or *common plantain (P. major); alternative names: *buckthorn plantain, *ribgrass and *ribwort. nasal – concerning the nose, e.g. *nasal cancer. nasal cancer – cancer in the nose; in Africa this disease is sometimes treated using *Uapaca guineensis (*sugar plum, Euphorbiaceae). nasturtium – Tropaeolum majus (Tropaeolaceae) is an Andean straggling annual with large showy flowers; it is often cultivated as a garden plant; as a herbal medicine it is *disinfectant, *antiseptic, *wound healing, and an *expectorant to relieve *chest conditions; an infusion of the leaves may be used to increase resistance to to *bacterial infections and to clear *nasal and *bronchial catarrh; the juice has been taken internally for te treatment of *scrophula (tubercular infection of the lymph nodes); alternative name: *common nasturtium, but note that the Latin genus Nasturtium is *watercress in Brassicaceae. Natal plum – Carissa macrocarpa (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae) has an edible fruit used for jam; both the leaf and fruit have given positive *haemolytic tests (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk as C. grandiflora). naturopathy – therapeutic system in which ill health is treated with naturally grown food, sunlight, fresh air and natural medicines. nausea – sickness at the stomach often accompanied by an involuntary impulse to *vomit; a feeling that one is about to vomit; the following plants are recommended by Chevallier (2001) to improve on this condition: *German chamomile, Chamomilla recutita (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), *ginger, Zingiber officinale (the ginger family, Zingiberaceae), *fennel, Foeniculum vulgare (the carrot family, Apiaceae) and *lemon, Citrus × limon (the orange family, Rutaceae). NCD – Newcastle chicken disease; many plants are used to treat this disease in chicken, e.g. species of *Aloë (Aloëaceae), *Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), *Cannabis sativa (*hashish, Cannabaceae), *Capsicum frutescens (*Cayenne or *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), *Dracaena steudneri (Agava- 251 ceae or Dracaenaceae), *Hoslundia opposita (Lamiaceae), *Momordica foetida (Cucurbitaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae) and *Vernonia amygdalina (Asteraceae); see Bukenya-Ziraba et al. 2007). necrosis – death of a group of cells; ’local death’. nectarine – Prunus persica var. nectaria (the rose family, Rosaceae); a variety of *peach without hairs on the skin. needle bur – Amaranthus spinosus (the amaranth family, Amaranthaceae) is one of the world’s worst weeds, but is also used as a medicine; in Indian (Ayurvedic) medicine it is taken to reduce heavy *menstrual bleeding and excessive *vaginal discharge, and to arrest the coughing up of blood; in Uganda it has been applied for *functional psychosis (Adjanohoun 1993); alternative name: *prickly amaranth, *spiny amaranth and *thorny pigweed. neem (tree) – Azadirachta indica (the mahogany family, Meliaceae) is a south Asian tree widely planted throughout the dry tropics; it is an *insecticidal with *antimalarial activity; neem oil from seeds is both *anti-inflammatory, *antifungal, *antiviral and *anti-bacterial and promotes *wound healing, preventing *scabies and *ringworm; it somewhat reduce *fever and lowers *blood sugar levels; the oil is also used to treat *headlice; the sap of the tree as well as the oil has been used to treat skin conditions like *eczema, *psoriasis and *leprosy; the leaves are used to treat *skin rashes; neem is a potential *contraceptive for both men and women; in East Uganda it is used to ease *cough and reduce *fever (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion), and in West Uganda the seeds are used for almost any disease (Kakudidi 2000); alternative name: *margosa tree and *neem; a related species, Melia azedarach, is often used as a substitute for neem. Neoboutonia (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with 3 species of trees and shrubs native to tropical Africa (2 species native to Uganda); around Kibale Forest in West Uganda the leaves and bark of N. melleri is used to treat *stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Kenya a root decoction is drunk for *coughs and in Tanzania for *malaria; in Tanzania leaves or leaf extract is used to treat *abdominal swellings, eye diseases, *maggoty wounds as well as pain in the back, chest, head and shoulders; in the Ivory Coast the tree is regarded as dreadful poison plant and very drastic *purgative taken to treat *ascitis and *leprosy, and externally against *Guinea-worm; in Zambia the root is used to treat enlarged *spleen in small children; in Burundi leaf and stem bark is taken to treat *anaemia, *colic, *elephantiasis, *fever, *headache and *rheumatism (Neuwinger 1996); it is alleged to kill bilharzias-carrying snails (Mabberley1990); for *larvicidal and *mosquitocidal extracts see Joseph et al. (2004). neoplasm – any new growth of cells or tissue. Neorautanenia (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus with 3 species of trailers, lianes or shrubs confined to tropical Africa (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Tanzania a boiled root *decoction of N. mitis is drunk twice a day to treat *syphilis, but the plant is toxic and contains a poison which can kill *bilharzia-carrying fresh-water snails (Kokwaro 1976). Neosloetiopsis (Moraceae) – a genus now included in the genus *Streblus. Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae) – a genus with about 70 species of insect-eating plants native from Madagascar through Asia to New Caledonia; the fluid in the pitchers have been considered to constitute a good and nourishing drink, but contains the alkaloid *coniine, which numbs life. nephritic – pertaining to or occurring in the *kidney; for useful herbs see *kidney pains and kidney problems. nephritis – *inflammation of the *kidney; plants taken to treat nephritis include *Agathosma betulina (*buchu, Rutaceae), Euphorbia pekinensis (*da ji or *peking spurge, Euphorbiaceae), Parietaria officinalis (*pellitory of the wall, Urticaceae) and Prunus avium (*sweet cherry or *wild cherry, Rosaceae); for other herbs used see *kidney pains or kidney problems. Nerium (Apocynaceae) – a genus with 2 species of shrubs native to the Mediterranean region (including North Africa) and extending to East Asia, but widely cultivated as ornamentals else- 252 where; in Uganda the leaf of the poisonous plant N. oleander (*oleander; rose-bay) is used to treat *flu and *headache (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). neroli (oil) – *linalool oil from the flowers of bitter orange, Citrus × aurantium (the orange family, Rutaceae); it is widely used in perfumery, to flavour biscuits and sweets and in medicine. nerve and stress – many herbal medicines are effective for nourishing the nervous system, calming and relaxing the the mind and body, e.g. general remedies are Cornus officinalis (*Chinese dogwood or *shan zhu yu, Cornaceae), Hypericum perforatum (*St. John’s wort), Melissa officinalis (*lemon balm), Rosmarinus officinalis (*rosemary), Salvia officinalis (*sage), Scutellaria lateriflora (*Virginian skullcap) and Turnera diffusa (*damiana); for nervous exhaustion use Avena sativa (*oats), Codonopsis pilosula (*codonopsis) and Verbena officinalis (*vervain); for chronic anxiety and hyperactivity use Valeriana officinalis (*valerian); for shortterm stress use Eleutherococcus senticosus (*Siberian ginseng) or Panax ginseng (*ginseng), and for long-term stress use *Withania somnifera. nerve tonics – see *nervine tonics. nervine – which restores the nerves and relaxes the nervous system; nervines (or nervine herbs) include *lemon balm (Melissa officinalis), *oats (Avena sativa), *rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), Salvia officinalis (*sage) and Scutellaria lateriflora (*Virginian skullcap). nervine tonics – plants which are important tonics for the nervous system include e.g. the root of Acorus calamus (*sweet flag; but use the American variety, which does not contain the *carcinogenic constituent *asarone), and the aerial parts of Salvia officinalis (*sage), Scutellaria lateriflora (*Virginian skullcap) or Verbena officinalis (*vervain, Verbenaceae). nervous exhaustion – a feeling of powerlessness, often developed into anxiety, stress and tension; it is sometimes treated by Avena sativa (*oats) or Codonopsis pilosula (*codonopsis). nettle – Urtica dioica (the nettle family, Urticaceae) is a perennial herb from temperate regions worldwide; it is cleansing and *detoxifying increasing urine production and thus promoting the elimination of more waste products; it is *astringent and stops or slows *bleeding from *wounds, *nosebleeds and heavy *menstrual bleeding; nettle leaves also have *anti-inflammatory action on *arthritis; nettle is *anti-allergenic and can treat *asthma, *hay fever, *itchy skin and *insect bites; the juice is used to treat nettle stings; nettle leaves are rich in *iron and is used to counter *anaemia and improve *breast-milk production; the root is used to treat enlarged *prostate (*benign prostate hypertrophy); alternative name: *common nettle; in compounds also other species of the genus Urtica, e.g. annual nettle (U. urens), Ethiopian nettle (U. simensis), Masai nettle (U. massaica) and *Roman nettle (U. pilulifera). nettle family – the nettle family, Urticaceae, is a large family with about 45 genera and 1000 species widely distributed in both hot and temperate countries. nettle rash – *urticaria; sore and *itching skin usually caused by an *allergic reaction (often caused by species of the nettle family) or triggered by cold, heat or sunlight; it can be relieved by applying *chickweed cream, or simply use the juice from *chickweed (Stellaria media), *common plantain (Plantago major) or even from *nettle (Urtica dioica); other herbs sometimes recommended are: *heartsease (Viola tricolor) and *marigold (Calendula officinalis). neuralgia – pain resulting from damage, irritation or *inflammation of a nerve; it is sometimes treated by Aconitum napellus (*aconite or *monkshood, Ranunculaceae), *Capsicum frutescens (*cayenne or *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), Cinnamomum camphora (*camphor tree, Lauraceae), *Cola acuminata (*cola nut, Sterculiaceae), Gaultheria procumbens (*wintergreen, Ericaceae), Gelsemium sempervirens (*yellow jasmine, Loganiaceae), Hypericum perforatum (*St. John’s wort, Hypericaceae), Melaleuca leucodendron (*cajaput) & linearifolia (narrow-leaved paperbark tree) & viridiflora (*broad-leaved paperbark tree or *niaouli, Myrtaceae), Mentha × piperita (*peppermint, Lamiaceae), *Ipomoea asarifolia (Convolvulaceae) and *Pentaclethra macrophylla (Fabaceae). neurasthenia – nervous exhaustion characterized by abnormal fatigability. 253 neuritis – *inflammatation of nerves. neurosis – an emotional disorder in which *anxieties, fear, *phobias, and *obsessions dominate the personality; a minor disorder of mental functioning without any demonstrable organic abnormality of the brain; it is less incapacitating and usually not as disintegrating to the personality as the *psychoses; the person affected is usually aware of something wrong. Newcastle chicken disease (NCD) – many plants are used to treat this disease in chicken, e.g. species of *Aloë (Aloëaceae), *Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), *Cannabis sativa (*hashish, Cannabaceae), *Capsicum frutescens (*Cayenne or *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), *Dracaena steudneri (Agavaceae or Dracaenaceae), *Hoslundia opposita (Lamiaceae), *Momordica foetida (Cucurbitaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae) and *Vernonia amygdalina (Asteraceae); see Bukenya-Ziraba et al. 2007). New Jersey tea – Ceanothus americanus (Rhamnaceae) is a deciduous shrub native to North America; it contains a lot of tannins and is therefore used to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery; it is *antispasmodic, *astringent and *expectorant and employed to treat *asthma, *bronchitis, *coughs and *sore throats; native Americans have used this plant to treat *fever and *skin cancer; during the American War of Independence this herb was used as a substitute for tea. Newtonia (Fabaceae, Mimosoidea) – a genus with about 15 species of trees widely distributed in Africa and South America (3 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa a *decoction of boiled roots of N. hildebrandtii is drunk to expel *intestinal worms (Kokwaro 1976). niaouli – Melaleuca viridiflora (Myrtaceae) is an evergreen tree from New Caledonia grown for its timber and essential oil; it has *antiseptic properties and is used to treat *colds, *coughs, *sore throats and *chest infections; niaouli stimulates the *circulation and is *antispasmodic and may be used as a friction rub for *rheumatic joints and *neuralgia; alternative name: *broad-leaved paper bark tree; see also *cajaput (M. leucadendron), *narrow-leaved paperbark tree (M. linearifolia) and *tea tree (M. alternifolia). nickel (Ni) – Nicotiana (Solanaceae) – a genus with about 70 species of herbs widely distributed in tropical regions, but the majority of species are native to the Americas; N. tabacum (*Virginia tobacco) is the main source of snuff, chewing and smoking tobacco, while N. rustica (*farmer’s tobacco) is mainly cultivated in Turkey and North and West Africa and mostly used for pesticides; this species has the highest content of the very poisonous alkaloid *nicotine; *tobacco and nicotine is mainly used as a *sedative and *stimulant, but in conventional medicine it is also used to improve *senile dementia; in the Ivory Coast leaf juice of N. rustica is sprinkled on the egglaying orifice of the *Guinea-worm; in Gabon and the Congo the plant juice is a medication to treat eye *thread worms; in the Central African Republic the extract of leaves and a leaf is put into the *anus to combat *pin-worms; the leaf-juice is widely used for *haemorrhoids, decaying teeth and *rheumatism; in veterinary medicine it is used to combat *nasal worms, *ophthalmia in animals and given to animals which have swallowed *leeches (Neuwinger 1996); in East Uganda the leaves of N. tabacum is used to treat *migraine and *snakebite (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), and in West Uganda to treat *cough, *febrile convulsions and *stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Rakai district in Uganda fresh leaves are spread in poultry house to expel mites (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007). nicotine – a very poisonous *alkaloid, which in low concentrations is used as a *sedative medicine and to alleviate *senility; nicotine affects mainly certain groups of veins in the brain, e.g. by increasing the production of *adrenaline, the puls and blood pressure, the liver liberates sugar in the blood; nicotine is also a laxative; in the short term it gives a feeling of well-being, but in the long term it causes stress, the blood pressure increases further and the risk of *peptic ulcer increases; in the brain nicotine gives a feeling of well-being with addictive effect as strong as 254 that of *morphine; nicotine is extracted from the tobacco plants Nicotiana rusticana (*farmer’s tobacco) and N. tobacco (*tobacco, the potato family, Solanaceae). Niger seed – the fruit (achene) of Guizotia abyssinica (the sunflower family, Asteraceae); it is used as a nourishing food oil. night-blooming cereus – Selenicereus grandiflorus (the cactus family, Cactaceae) from Central America is an attractive cactus widely cultivated as an indoor plant; its flowers and young stems contain *cardiac glycosides and are a valuable remedy for the *heart increasing the atrength of contractions, while slowing heart rate; it is prescribed for *angina and low *blood pressure; in the Caribbean the juice of the plant is believed to expel *worms and the stems and flowers are used in the treatment of *rheumatism. nightshade – some species of the potato family (Solanaceae), e.g. *black nightshade (Solanum nigrum), *deadly nightshade (*belladonna, Atropa belladonna) and wood nightshade (Solanum dulcamara). nightshade family – the potato family (Solanaceae) is a large family with about 150 genera and 3000 species widely distributed in all continents, but most diversified in America; alternative name: potato family. night sweats (in connection with menopause) – this condition can be improved by taking an infusion of *sage, Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae) or a decoction of *white peony (Paeonia lactiflora (Paeoniaceae). nikkar nut – Caesalpinia bonducella (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a thorny bush from India and other tropical regions of the world; the seeds are used to treat *diabetes, *fevers and *arthritis, and are taken as a *tonic and *aphrodisiac. nipple sores – nipple sores from breast-feeding may be soothed by a cream or ointment made from the flowers of *marigold (Calendula officinalis, Asteraceae); see also *sore nipples. nitrogen (N) – niu xi – Achyranthes bidentata (the amaranth family, Amaranthaceae) is a perennial herb from eastern Asia; its root is very effective to bring on *menstruation when the period is delayed or scanty; it is also given to relieve pain, and as a treatment for *bleeding gums, mouth *ulcers, *toothache and *nosebleeds noni – Morinda citrifolia (Rubiaceae) is a southeast Asian shrub or small tree now also spread to India and the Pacific; this plant and especially its fruit has been maintained to have many different therapeutic values, e.g. to treat *diabetes, *cancer, *depression, *heart disease, high *blood pressure, *lowered immunity, *obesity and *pain; the fruit contains the alkaloid *proxeronine which the body needs to produce *xeronine; it appears that the alkaloid xeronine enters the cells enabling them to counter *inflammation and support normal cellular divisions; alternative name: *Indian mulberry. nordihydroguaiauretic acid – a *lignan in 1996 found to be harmful to the *lymph glands and *kidneys; it was found in *creosote bush or *chaparral, Larrea tridentata (Zygophyllaceae), an American medicinal plant until recently consumed in large amounts in America, but its use is now banned. nosebleed – a large number of plants have been used to prevent or reduce nosebleeds, e.g. Achillea millefolium (*yarrow or *milfoil, Asteraceae), Achyranthes bidentata (*niu xi, Amaranthaceae), Capsella bursa-pastoris (*shephard’s purse, Brassicaceae), Gardenia jasminoides (*Chinese gardenia or *zhizi, Rubiaceae), Geranium maculatum (American cranesbill, Geraniaceae), Polygonum aviculare (*knotgrass, Polygonaceae), Sanicula europaea (*sanicle, Apiaceae), *Urtica dioica (*nettle, Urticaceae) and Vinca minor (*lesser periwinkle, Apocynaceae). notoginseng – Panax notoginseng (the ivy family, Araliaceae) is a Chinese species of ginseng, which root has been used as a medicine for centuries; it is particularly useful to improve *stamina and arrest both external and internal *bleeding; it supports the function of the *adrenal glands (especially the production of *corticosteroids and male sex hormones); it is thus used as a 255 male *aphrodisiac; it improves blood flow through the *coronary arteries, and can be used as a treatment for *arteriosclerosis; it also reduces *blood pressure and lessens the symptoms of *angina; alternative name: *san qi. Notonia (Asteraceae) – East African species asigned to this genus are now transferred to *Kleinia. nut grass1 – Cyperus rotundus (the sedge family, Cyperaceae) is one of the world’s worst weeds; for medicinal use see *Cyperus; alternative names: *nut sedge, *purple nutsedge, *red grass og *water grass. nut grass2 – Cyperus esculentus (the sedge family, Cyperaceae) is one of the world’s worst weeds; for medicinal use see *Cyperus; alternative names: *water grass, *yellow nutsedge og *yellow nutgrass. nutmeg – the seed kernel of the fruit of the *nutmeg tree, Myristica fragrans (the nutmeg family, Myristichaceae); the red aril (seed-covering) is named *mace; the nutmeg has an *anaesthetic and stimulating effect on the *stomach and *intestines. increasing appetite and reducing *nausea, *vomiting and *diarrhoea; in India it has a long reputation as an *aphrodisiac believed to increase sexual stamina; the oil (nutmeg butter) is used externally to treat *rheumatic conditions; see *nutmeg tree. nutmeg family – Myristichaceae is a medium sized family with 16 genear and about 380 species widely distributed in all tropical regions. nutmeg tree – Myristica fragrans (the nutmeg family, Myristichaceae) is an evergreen tree from the Molucca Islands, but widely cultivated throughout the tropics; its fruit contains *nutmeg and *mace, both wellknown spices; they are not extensively used in Europe and America because they are *toxic and *hallucinogenic in high dosages; nutmeg has an *anaesthetic and stimulating effect on the *stomach and *intestines. increasing appetite and reducing *nausea, *vomiting and *diarrhoea; in India it has a long reputation as an *aphrodisiac believed to increase sexual stamina; the oil (nutmeg butter) is used externally to treat *rheumatic conditions. nutsedge – Cyperus rotundus (the sedge family, Cyperaceae) is one of the world’s worst weeds; for medicinal use see *Cyperus; alternative names: *nut grass, *purple nutsedge, *red grass og *water grass. Nuxia (Stilbaceae) – a genus with 15 species of shrubs or small trees native to tropical and South Africa, Arabia, Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands (3 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa the bark or leaves of N. congesta are chewed or a decoction boiled and drunk to treat *indigestion; the roots of N. floribunda are used to treat *influenza, the whole shoots are put under beds to keep off *mosquitoes (Kokwaro 1976), and the stem bark is used to treat *tooth ache and sexual *impotence (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). nux vomica – Strychnos nux-vomica (Strychnaceae) is a small evergreen tree from southeastern Asia; it contains 3 % *indole alkaloids, mainly *strychnine, a lethal poison producing intense muscle *spasms and often used as arrow poison; the seeds have been used externally to relieve pain and treat *tumours and *paralysis, especially *Bell’s palsy; this herb is widely used in *homeopathic preparations. Nyctaginaceae – a family with about 34 genera and 350 species of herbs, climbers, shrubs and trees widespread in the tropics, but with the majority of species in America (4 genera and 15 species in East Africa, 4 genera and 10 species in Uganda); species of some genera are medicinal, e.g. *Boerhavia and *Mirabilis. Nymphaea (Nymphaeaceae) – a genus with about 40 species of aquatic herbs widely distributed in lakes and ponds in both hot, temperate and cold regions(3 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Kenya the Digo take a decoction of the rootstock of N. nouchali var. caerulea (*blue waterlily = N. capensis, including N. maculata) as a remedy for heart *palpitations, and a mixture of flowers and rootstock for *kidney trouble; and in southern Tanzania (Tunduru district) an extract of the uncooked leaves is used to cure *pulmonary disorders (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal East Africa underwater stems are used for stomach ailments, while the juice of raw 256 leaves is taken to ease chest conditions (Weiss 1979); an infusion of the root and stem is emollient and *diuretic and is used in treating *blennorrhagia and affections of the urinary passages, while a decoction of the flowers is said to be *narcotic and *anaphrodisiac (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); popular names: *blue *water lily, *Cape blue waterlily; in Mali a decoction of the whole plant (as N. micrantha) mixed with the whole plant of Citrus aurantifolia is drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006). Nymphaeaceae – a family with 3-6 genera and about 50 species of aquatic herbs, often with floating leaves, widely distributed in both hot, temperate and cold regions (1 genus in East Africa and Uganda); species of the genus Nymphaea are used as medicine. oak – species of the genus Quercus (the beech family, Fagaceae); for medicinal plants see *common oak or *pedunculate oak (Q. robur). oat(s) – Avena sativa (the grass family, Poaceae) is a European grain crop widely cultivated in temperate regions, especially in regions too cold for wheat; eating grains of oats (often in porridge) as a morning meal is believed to maintain vitality and counter stress, especially in old age; formerly the straw was used in mattresses believed to be beneficial to those suffering from *rheumatism; the grains and straw are mildly anti-depressant and gently raising stamina (energy levels); oats are a major herbal aid to *convalescence after a long disease; in compounds the name ’oat’ is also used about other species of the genus Avena, e.g. *bristle oat (A. strigosa), slender oat (A. barbata), winter wild oat (A. sterilis), wild oat (Avena fatua); obesity – the state of being excessively fat; an increase of fat in subcutaneous connective tissue; some plants, which reduce appetite, are sometimes used to treat this disease-like state, e.g. *khat (Catha edulis, Celastraceae); other plants used are *Euphorbia crotonoides (Euphorbiaceae), Morinda citrifolia (*Indian mulberry, Rubiaceae) and *Stevia rebaudiana (Asteraceae). Obetia (Urticaceae) – a genus with 8 species of trees or shrubs with stinging hairs native to Africa, Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands (1 species in Uganda); in Uganda the leaves of O. radula (= O. pinnatifida) are used to treat *cough (Adjanohoun et al. 1993) or the powder or ash from leaves or roots is licked to treat cough, while the boiled root is chewed to treat premature *ejaculation (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Kenya the leaves are pounded, soaked in water and the infusion used as a gargle for *toothache (Kokwaro 1976). Ochna (Ochnaceae) – a genus with about 80 species of trees, shrubs or pyrophytic shrublets almost entirely confined to Africa and Madagascar (40-50 species in East Africa, 12 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the roots of O. holstii (= O. prunifolia) is used as a medicine for *stomach and *kidney diseases, while O. schweinfurthiana is used for the reduction of swellings (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal Kenya the Digo take a decoction of the root of O. mossambicensis as a remedy for *stomach-ache, and a paste of the bark is applied to *wounds and for *bushland sores; it is also said to cure chronic tropical *ulcer (Kokwaro 1976). ochna – species of the genus Ochna (Ochnaceae), e.g. forest ochna (O. holstii). Ochnaceae – a family with 26 genera and about 360 species of trees, shrubs, geophytic shrublets or herbs (5 genera and about 60 species in East Africa, 4 genera and 20 species in Uganda); some genera have species used as medicines, e.g. *Brackenridgea and *Ochna. Ocimum (Lamiaceae) – a genus of about 150 species (if including Becium) of herbs or small shrubs native to tropical and warm temperate regions and especially Africa; Ocimum basilicum *basil or *sweet basil) is probably native to India, but now widely grown throughout the world; since Roman times basil has been used to relieve *flatulence, to counteract *poisoning, as a *diuretic and to stimulate *breast-milk production; basil acts mainly on the *digestive and nervous systems, easing flatulence, stomach *cramps, *colic and *indigestion; it can be used to relieve *nausea and *vomiting and kill *intestinal worms; it has a mild *sedative action helping to treat nervous *irritability, *depression, *epilepsy, *migraine, *anxiety and difficulty in sleeping; the juice from the leaves brings relief to *insect bites and stings (Chevallier 2000); in East Africa a 257 decoction of the roots is drunk by *pregnant women for *stomach pains, and used as an *enema in *constipation; vapour from boiling plants is inhaled to treat both *nasal and *bronchial *catarrh; plants in the house are believed to drive away *mosquitoes (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a root decoction of O. basilicum for *gonorrhoea (Masinde 1996); in West Uganda the leaves of this species have been used to treat acute *conjunctivitis and *asthma (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in West Uganda the leaves of O. basilicum are steamed or squeezed and eaten or inserted in vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves of O, basilicum are used to treat *diarrhoea and in combination with Sida ovata also *sickle cell anaemia and *fever (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in East Africa the leaves of O. gratissimum (= O. suave) are used to treat *abdominal pain, blocked nostrils, *coughs, *ear troubles, *sore eyes, and also as a *disinfectant and *insecticide (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Luo use this herb to treat *diarrhoea and *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002); in Uganda the leaves are used to treat *constipation, *fever, *flatulence, *itching pain in throat, *jaundice, *peptic ulcer, *stomachache, *toothache and as a flavouring for traditional medicines (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the bark of the stem of O. gratissima to treat *diarrhoea and *stomach ache, while the juice of the stem is applied to *scorpion stings (Heine & König 1988); in West Uganda the leaves of O. gratissimum are steamed or squeezed and eaten or inserted in vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005) or taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in East Africa the leaves of O. kilimandscharicum are used to treat *abdominal pains, serious *colds, *coughs, *diarrhoea and *measles (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of O. kilimandscharicum are steamed or squeezed and eaten or inserted in vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); in West Uganda the leaves of O. lamiifolium are also used for stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 2000) and are steamed or squeezed and eaten or inserted in vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); leaves of species of Ocimum are often burnt in huts as mosquito repellent (Weiss 1979). Ocotea (Lauraceae) – a genus of about 400 species of trees or shrubs widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, but with highest diversity in America (3 species in East Africa, 2 species Uganda); in East Africa the bark or the root of O. usambarensis is used to treat *swellings (swollen glands in the throat as well as *cancer and *tumours); the juice of the roots is taken for *backache and *malaria, and the powdered bark used as a dressing on *wounds, mixed with other plants (Brucea and Myrica salicifolia) also used as a remedy for *abscess, *measles, *swellings and *whooping cough (Kokwaro 1976). odontalgic – pertaining to or marked by toothache. oedema (edema) – *dropsy; fluid retention, usually fluid concentration in a restricted area; if the heart is not pumping adequately fluid usually accumulates in the ankles and legs; this condition is in India treated with the a decoction or tincture of the bark of the tree *arjuna (Terminalia arjuna, Combretaceae); an infusion of silk of maize (*cornsilk, Zea mays, Poaceae) is often used as a remedy for oedema in connection with pregnancy; other plants used to treat oedema include *Capsicum frutescens (*cayenne or *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), *Combretum schumannii (Combretaceae), *Cyperus papyrus (Cyperaceae), *Gardenia ternifolia var. jovistonanthes (Rubiaceae), *Icacina mannii (Icacinaceae), *Ormocarpum kirkii (Fabaceae), *Oxyanthus speciosus (Rubiaceae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae), *Piptadeniastrum africanum (Fabaceae), *Securidaca longepedunculata (*violet tree Polygalaceae), *Solanum aethiopicum (S. gilo, Solanaceae), *Uapaca guinensis (Euphorbiaceae), *Tylosema fassoglensis (Fabaceae), Widdringtonia cupressoides (*African cypress, Cupressaceae) and *Zanthoxylum chalybaeum (*East African prickly ash, Rutaceae). 258 Oenanthe (Apiaceae) – a genus of about 40 species of perennial toxic herbs widespread in north temperate regions and at higher altitudes in the tropics (3 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Uganda the leaves of O. palustris are used to treat *fever and *nausea (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Africa the fruits of O. procumbens are chewed as a *cough remedy, but they are very bitter and burn the throat (Kokwaro 1976). oesophagus – the tube connecting the mouth with the stomach; alternative writing: *esophagus. oestrogen – female sex hormone which also helps to maintain bone density; when oestrogen levels decline in connection with the *menopause the result is often decreased *vitality, *depression, nervous *exhaustion, night sweats and *fragile bones (see *osteoporosis); plants which improve health during periods of low oestrogen levels include e.g. *agnus castus (Vitex agnus-castus), *black cohosh (Cimifuga racemosa), *helonias (Chamaelirium luteum), *St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum), *oats (Avena sativa), *sage (Salvia officinalis), *white willow (Salix alba) and *white peony (Paeonia lactiflora); see *menopausal problems. oestrogenic – with a similar action to oestrogen in the body, i.e. supporting and maintaining the female reproductive organs; some plants have oestrogenic action, e,g. Aletris farinosa (*colic root, *star grass or *unicorn root, Liliaceae s-lat.), Glycyrrhiza glabra (*liquorice, Fabaceae), Medicago sativa (*alfalfa or *lucerne, Fabaceae), Pimpinella anisum (*anise, Apiaceae), Salvia officinalis (*sage, Lamiaceae), *Smilax spp. (*sarsaparilla, Smilacaceae) and Verbena officinalis (*vervain, Verbenaceae). oil – any of numerous greasy liquids obtained from animals, minerals or plants; they are insoluble in water and many are used in herbal medicine; essential oils are often used in massage to soothe minor aches and pains; infused oils are oils in which a herb has been infused to allow its active fat-soluable ingredients to be extracted. oil of Cade – oil extracted from Juniperus oxycedrus (the juniper family, Cupressaceae), an evergreen shrub native to the Mediterranean region; it is applied to treat skin rashes. oil palm – Elaeis guineensis (the palm family, Arecaceae); for medicinal use see *Elaeis. ointment – a cream-like substance that contains oils or fats heated with herbs, but unlike creams it does not contain water; it is used to protect against injury or *inflammation of damaged skin. okra/okro – a vegetable, which is the immature capsules of Hibiscus esculentus (the mallow family, Malvaceae); it has some medicinal value due to its contents of vitamins. Olacaceae – a family of about 29 genera and some 200 species of trees, shrubs and lianes widespread in the tropics and subtropics, including South Africa (6 genera and 10 species in East Africa, 5 genera and 6 species in Uganda); species of the genera *Olax and *Ximenia are used as medicines. Olax (Olacaceae) – a genus with about 50 species of shrubs and small trees widely distributed in the tropics with 10 species native to Africa (4 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the leaves of O. dissitiflora are crushed and the liquid strained, mixed with coconut oil and used as an *emetic (Kokwaro 1976). old age ailments – as a general remedy is recommended *thyme, Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceae); for failing concentration and memory take *ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba (Conifera); for poor circulation and high blood pressure is prescribed *garlic (Allium sativum) or *buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum); for *convalescence and stress take *ginseng, Panax ginseng (Araliaceae) or *withania, Withania somnifera (Solanaceae) or simply eat *oat-porridge; for weakened digestion is recommended *yellow gentian (Gentiana lutea), and for *rheumatism and *arthritic pain take *lemon juice, *St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) or *white willow (Salix alba) Oldenlandia (Rubiaceae) – a genus with about 200 species of annual or perennial herbs or rarely subshrubs widely distributed throughout the tropics (37 species in East Africa, 12 species in Uganda); in Tanzania a decoction of the leaves of O. capensis is drunk as a remedy for *typhoid fever; the roots of O. herbacea are used to treat *syphilis and as a medicine for *sores and as a *snakebite *antidote; in Uganda the sap of this plant is used for *eye problems (Kokwaro 1976); 259 in East Africa a decoction of the leaves of O. johnstonii is drunk to stop *diarrhoea, while O. monanthos is used for the treatment of *haemorrhoids (Kokwaro 1976). Oldfieldia (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with 4 species of trees or shrubs native to tropical Africa (2 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in coastal Kenya a decoction of the roots of O. somaliensis is taken as a remedy for *colds in the chest, and also given to *sterile women to make them fertile (Kokwaro 1976). old man’s beard – Clematis vitalba (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae) is a robust, slightly woody toxic vine native to temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; the leaves are strongly *analgesic and *diuretic, and were in the past applied to *arthritic joints to help relieve pain and encourage the removal of waste products, but the leaves will irritate the skin causing it to redden and blister; the juice is supposed to relieve *headaches and *migraine if sniffed, but is not recommended since it may destroy the *mucous linings of the nose; it is also a remedy for emotional disorders and will help absent-mindedness; alternative name: *traveller’s joy. old woman – Artemisia stelleriana (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is an Asian perennial herb grown in gardens for its white foliage; alternative names: beach sagewort, *dusty miller and *hoary mugwort; see also *mugwort, *southernwood and *wormwood. Olea (Oleaceae) – a genus with about 20 species of evergreen trees or shrubs in warm countries (2-3 species native to Uganda); O. europaea (*olive) has been used as medicine for thousands of years; clinical trials have shown that the leaves lower *blood pressure and thus help to improve the function of the *circulatory system, but they are also mildly *diuretic and lower *blood sugar levels and have been taken for *cystitis and *diabetes; in Kenya an infusion of the bark of O. europaea ssp. cuspidata (including O. africana & O. chrysophylla) is drunk to expel *tapeworms (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam use the bark of this tree to treat *headache, *malaria, *stomach trouble and to expel intestinal *worms (Heine & König 1988); in West Uganda the bark of O. capensis (including O. hochstetteri) has been used to treat *scabies (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in East Africa a decoction of the bark of this species is also used to cure *venereal diseases and *sterility in women; the bark is also drunk as a *vermifuge, especially for *tapeworm, and the ash of burnt bark is applied to *wounds, and in Tanzania a decoction of the bark of O. welwitschii is drunk to cure *gonorrhoea (Kokwaro 1976); see also *olive and *olive oil. Oleaceae – a family with about 24 genera and 900 species of trees, shrubs or lianes widespread in both hot and temperate countries (6 genera and 36 species in East Africa, 5 genera and 16 species in Uganda); several genera have species of medicinal use, e.g. *Jasminium, *Linociera, *Olea and *Schrebera; popular name: *olive family. oleander – Nerium oleander (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae), is a beautiful but toxic ornamental, which contains a secondary metabolic product (*terpenoid), which is a *cardiac poison similar to *digitalin; yellow oleander (Am) is Thevetia peruviana (Apocynaceae); oleander allamanda (or golden trumpet bush) is Allamanda neriifolia (Apocynaceae). oleandrin – a secondary metabolic product (*terpenoid), which is a *cardiac poison similar to *digitalin; oleandrin is found in the ornamental plant *oleander, Nerium oleander (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae). oligomenorrhoea – abnormally infrequent or scanty *menstruation. Olinia (Oliniaceae) – a genus with 5-6 species of shrubs or trees native to tropical and South Africa (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa the roots of O. rochetiana (including O. usambarensis) are used to cure *fever, and a decoction from the bark is drunk to treat *bronchitis, *cough, *indigestion and *rheumatism and to expel *tapeworms; young shooting red leaves are bitter and chewed as a *stimulant, but may cause a sharp burn in the mouth and throat if *saliva is swallowed (Kokwaro 1976). Oliniaceae – a family with a single genus *Olinia containing 5-6 species of shrubs or trees native to tropical and South Africa; some species of Olinia are used as medicine. 260 olive – the plant Olea europaea or its fruit; species or subspecies of the genis Olea e.g. brown or wild olive (O. europaea ssp. africana); some species, e.g. O. welwitschii are named *ironwood. Olive has been used as medicine for thousands of years; clinical trials have shown that the leaves lower *blood pressure and thus help to improve the function of the *circulatory system, but they are also mildly *diuretic and lower *blood sugar levels and have been taken for *cystitis and *diabetes; see also *olive oil. olive family – Oleaceae is a family with about 24 genera and 900 species of trees, shrubs or lianes widespread in both hot and temperate countries; for medicinal plants see *Oleaceae. olive oil – oil extracted from the fruit of the tree Olea europaea (the olive family, Oleaceae); it is nourishing and is an important constituent in food; the oil has a protective action on the *digestive tract and is useful for dry skin, and the oil also improves the balance of fats within the blood; it has also been taken to treat *gallstones. Oliverella (Loranthaceae) – a genus of 3 species of shrubby hemiparasites native to tropical Africa (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa an infusion of the leaves of E. hildebrandtii is poured over the heads of children suffering from *epilepsy, and some of the liquid is also blown into their ears and nostrils (Kokwaro 1976). omasum – third compartment of the stomach of ruminants. omega-3 fatty acids – polyunsaturated fatty acids similar to those most commonly found in fish oils; this acid is valuable in maintaining a healthy *heart and *circulation, and in preventing *cancer (especially breast cancer) and chronic *inflammatory diseases; *flaxseed, Linum usitatissimum (the flax family, Linaceae) has very high levels of an omega-3 acid named alpha-linolenic acid. Onagraceae – a family with 24 genera and about 650 species of herbs and shrubs (rarely small trees) widespread in warm as well as cold regions, but most common in the Americas (2 genera and 12 species, in Uganda 2 genera and 9 species); some genera have species with medicinal use, e.g. *Epilobium and *Ludwigia (earlier Jussiaea). onchocerciasis – *river blindness; a disease (*filiariasis) caused by tiny roundworms (filiaria) of the genus Onchocerca; this filiariasis is spread by small gnats (e.g. the buffalo-gnat Simulium damnosum) and the disease is most widespread near streames and rivers in fertile agricultural areas; the parasites are found in the skin and not in the blood; they produce swellings under the skin and damage to the eyes, which may result in blindness. Oncoba (Flacourtiaceae or Salicaceae) – a genus with 4 species of shrubs or small trees native to tropical Africa (2 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa the roots of O. spinosa are pounded, steeped in hot water and the extract drunk cold as a treatment for *headaches, and also used in magic ceremonies (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the root of O. spinosa to treat ”white urine” disease (Heine & König 1988); in East Uganda the roots of O. spinosa are used to treat *epilepsy (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). Oncocalyx (Loranthaceae) – a genus of 13 species of shrubby hemiparasites native to tropical Africa an Arabia (6 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in East Africa heated twigs of O. fischeri are applied to parts of body where pain is felt (Kokwaro 1976). onion – Allium cepa (the onion family, Alliaceae); in compounds also used about some other species of the genus Allium, e.g. yellow onion (A. flavum). Onions are taken all over the world for *colds, *flue and *coughs, tooth decay and *oral infection; it is believed to offset tendencies to *angina,*arteriosclerosis and *heart attack; baked onion is used as a poultice to drain *pus from *sores; warmed juice is dropped into the ear for *earache; onion boasts a long list of medicinal actions, e.g. *analgesic, *antibiotic, *anti-inflammatory, *anti-rheumatic, *aphrodisiac, *diuretic and *expectorant. ophthalmia – *inflammation of the deeper structures of the eye; in coastal Kenya the juice from leaves of Priva curtisiae is squeezed into the eyes as a remedy for ophthalmia (Kokwaro 1976). ophthalmic – of or pertaining to he eye; Physostigma venenosum (Calabar or ordeal bean, Fabaceae) contains a poisonous alkaloid (physostigmine) which is used in ophthalmic medicine. 261 Opilia (Opiliaceae) – a genus with 25 species of trees, shrubs and woody climbers widely distributed in the tropics (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa a root decoction of O. celtidifolia is drunk for fever and influenza (Kokwaro 1976); in Mali the leaves of Opilia celtidifolia is mixed with the spike of maize and the powdered leaves of Glossonema boveanum and and taken as a porridge to treat *intestinal *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006). Opiliaceae – a family with 9 genera and 28 species of trees, shrubs and lianes widely distributed in the tropics (2 genera and 3 species in East Africa, 1 genus and 1 species in Uganda); the genus *Opilia contains a species used as a medicine. opium – the dried latex of the *opium poppy, Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae); it contains more than 40 alkaloids, including *morphine (up to 20 %), *narcotine (4 %), *codeine(1 %), and *narcotine (1 %); opium is *analgesic and *narcotic, but strongly addictive and is therefore mainly used after less powerful *analgesics have failed to bring relief; opium has been misused for centuries as a stimulant and *painkiller, but due to its strongly *addictive nature it has destroyed and shortened the lives of millions of people worldwide. opium lettuce – Lactuca virosa (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a European herb, which is used to treay cough and has also sedative properties (see *lactucarium, *lactucin og *lactupicrin). opium poppy – Papaver somniferum (the poppy family, Papaveraceae) is an annual herb native to western Asia, but now widely cultivated worldwide as an ornamental garden plant and as a medicinal herb, partly as an illegal crop in regions around the Himalayas especially; its latex (*opium) contains more than 40 alkaloids, including *morphine (up to 20 %), *narcotine (4 %), *codeine(1 %), and *narcotine (1 %); opium is *analgesic and *narcotic, but strongly *addictive and is therefore mainly used after less powerful *analgesics have failed to bring relief; in local herbal medicine this herb has been widely used to relieve pain of all kinds, suppressing *coughs and nervous activity; see also *Californian poppy (Eschscholzia californica), *Mexican poppy (Argemone mexicana) and red poppy (Papaver rhoeas). opopanax1 – Acacia farnesiana (the pea family, Fabaceae, Mimosoideae) is a small tree or spiny shrub native to Australia, but widely cultivated elsewhere; it is used for *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *skin diseases and *wounds; the pulp surrounding the seeds has been used to treat *tumours; a perfume oil (cassie) is obtained from this species; alternative name: *huisache, *popinac and *sweet acacia. opoponax2 – an article of commerce (but thought of less value than *myrrh) is obtained from the resin of species of Commiphora in section Hemprichia (the myrrh family, Burseraceae), Opuntia (Cactaceae) – a genus with about 300 robust, succulent species native to the Americas from Canada to the Strait of Magellan, but widely planted as a fence in hot and dry regions elsewhere and widely naturalized becoming noxious weeds; in some countries O. ficus-indica is cultivated for its edible fruits; the mucilage from species of Opuntia is widely used as a poultice on painful swellings and *wounds; in Jamaica a shampoo believed to promote hair growth is made from the pulp; the pulp or a watery mixture is used to remove *blemishes or drunk to stop *diarrhoea; in South Africa the pulp from O. vulgaris is used on *boils, *tumours and open *sores, a *decoction is drunk for mild *diabetes and the juice is rubbed into cut *warts to make them disappear; a *hallucinogenic alkaloid named *mescaline is present (Neuwinger 1996); in Uganda the stem of Opuntia is used to treat sleep disturbances; the stem is cut to small pieces, boiled in water and the extract applied to three scarifications on each major joint of the body (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); vernacular name for genus: *barbary fig.. oral – having to do with the mouth or administered through the mouth; oral medicine is medicine taken through the mouth. oral thrush – having strong growth of the fungus Candida albicans in the mouth (oral cavity); the disease is most common in infants and characterized by white spots in the mouth; it can be reduced by mouthwash using a tincture of the herbs *echinacea (Echinacea sp.), *liquorice 262 (Glycyrrhiza glabra) and myrrh (Commiphora myrrha); see also *candidiasis and *vaginal thrush. orange – Citrus × aurantium, previously known as Citrus sinensis (the orange family, Rutaceae); this plant is now considered a hybrid between *mandarine (Citrus reticulatus) and *pomelo (Citrus maxima); see *bergamot, *bitter orange, *Sevilla orange and *sour orange; these are all variations of the same hybrid. Sweet oranges are very important as a major world fruit and an important source of *vitamin C for many people (previously very important for sailors) thus preventing the disease *scurvy; other varieties are used mainly as medicines or for their aromatic substances, e.g. *bitter orange and *bergamot; alternative name: *sweet orange. orange family – Rutaceae is a large family with about 150 genera and 900 aspecies widely distributed in all topicala nd warm regions; alternative name: *citrus fruit family and *rue family. Orchidaceae – a family with about 800 genera and 18000 species widely distributed in both hot and cold regions, but most species epiphytic in tropical rainforests (75 genera and 660 species in East Africa, 54 genera and 300 species in Uganda); many genera contain species with medicinal use, e.g. *Aerangis, *Angraecum, *Ansellia, *Bonatea, *Corymborkis, *Eulophia and *Habenaria. orchid tree – Bauhinia variegata (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae); alternative name: *purple camel’s foot og purple orchid tree; for medicinal use see *Bauhinia. orchitis – *inflammation of the *testis (*testicle); swollen testicles; many different plants are used to treat orchitis, e.g. Acacia reficiens, Adenia cissampeloides, Barleria prionitis, Cassia occidentalis, Commiphora africana and Harrisonia abyssinica (Kokwaro 1976). Oregon grape – Mahonia aquifolium (the barberry family, Berberidaceae) is a North American evergreen shrub widely cultivated as an ornamental garden plant in temperate regions; its root is used for general *digestive weakness and *gastritis; it has also been show to be effective in relieving *psoriasis and certain other skin problems; oregon grape is, however, weaker in its action than its relative *barberry (Berberis vulgaris). oregano – Origanum vulgaris (the mint family, Lamiaceae); for medicinal use see *wild marjoram. Oreosyce (Cucurbitaceae) – a genus with 7 species (6 in Africa, 1 in India) which are all fairly small climbers; O. africana is the only species in Uganda; in Tanzania it is taken by women together with Justicia heterocarpa to induce the birth process. Ormocarpum (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus with about 20 species of trees or shrubs widespread in the old world tropics (8 species in East Africa; 2 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the roots of O. flavum is boiled with Lagenaria sphaerica and the liquid drunk to procure abortion, while the roots of O. kirkii are used for *rheumatism and *stomach problems; ash of O. kirkii is rubbed into cuts on swellings to reduce *oedema; in the northeastern province of Kenya the leaves of O. muricatum are crushed and rubbed into the head for *headache; in East Africa the bark of O. trachycarpum is taken by women during *pregnancy to prevent a *miscarriage (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the root of O. trachycarpum to treat *stomach troubles (Heine & König 1988); in Kenya the Luo use this plant to treat *diarrhoea, *swellings and sunken *fontanelle (Geissler et al. 2002); in East Africa the leaves and young stems of O. trichocarpum are used to treat *typhoid, while a root decoction of O. trichocarpum is used for *heartburn, or mixed with milk and drunk by women in the early stages of pregnancy (Kokwaro 1976). Ornithogalum (Hyacinthaceae) – a genus of about 200 species of herbs with bulbs native to Africa, Europe and western Asia (in East Africa 3 species, in Uganda 2 species); in Uganda a paste is prepared from the bulbs of O. tenuifolium (= O. longibracteatum) and used to dress *wounds (Kokwaro 1976). Orobanchaceae – a family of herbs parasitic on roots on vascular plants; traditionally the family was considered to consist of 17 genera and about 230 species mainly in the northern hemisphere. including such genera as Orobanche and Cistanche. However, more recent research places all 263 hemi- and holo-parasitic genera of traditional Scrophulariaceae in Orobanchaceae, including many African genera containing species with medicinal uses, e.g. *Alectra, *Buchnera, *Cycnium, *Rhamphicarpa and *Striga. orpine – Sedum telephium (the stonecrop family, Crassulaceae); the juice of fresh leaves has been used as an *astringent to heal *wounds; alternative name: *live-forever and *livelong. Orthosiphon (Lamiaceae) – a genus of about 40 species of herbs or small shrubs native to the Old World tropics; in coastal Kenya the Digo apply the ash of O. roseus with coconut oil to the *fontanelle of babies to hasten its healing (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of O. suffrutescens are used to treat *jaundice (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Oryza (Poaceae) – a genus of 19 grass species widespread in wet habitats throughout the tropics with one species (O. sativa) widely cultivated as a major crop (*rice) in most tropical regions; in West Uganda the grains of O. sativa are boiled and eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005). osteomyelitis – *inflammatory infection of the bone, particularly the bone marrow. osteopath – a *therapeutic practitioner adhering to *osteopathy. osteopathy – a *therapeutic system based upon the premise that health can best be improved or restored by manipulation of the bones and muscles. osteoporosis – a condition or disease where bones turn fragile; it often occurs when *oestrogen and progesterone levels decline in connection with the *menopause, since these hormones help to maintain bone density and reduce the risk of osteoporosis; plants which benefits this condition include e.g. Bambusa arundinacea (*spiny bamboo, Poaceae), Chamaelirium luteum (*helonias, Liliaceae s.lat.); Cimifuga racemosa, (*black cohosh, Ranunculaceae), *Glycine mas (*soya or *soybean, Fabaceae) and Vitex agnus-castus (*agnus castus, Verbenaceae), Osteospermum (Asteraceae) – a genus of some 70 species of annual or perennial herbs native to Africa and Arabia (3 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the roots of O. vaillantii are boiled and the liquid drunk twice a day as a diuretic (Kokwaro 1976). Oswego tea – Monarda didyma (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a North American herb; in 19th century America this plant was considered a tonic for young mothers, and was traditionally given to brides; it is thought to be a mild menstrual regulator and an appetite stimulant; alternative names: *bee balm and *bergamot. Osyris (Santalaceae) – a genus with 4 species of shrubs or small evergreen trees native to tropical Africa, southern Europe and southern Asia (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa a decoction of the root of O. lanceolata (O. abyssinica & O. compressa auct.) is used for the treatment of *fever and *gonorrhoea, a decoction of the bark is used as a *purgative, and the leaves used to stop *diarrhoea or given to goats suffering from *stomach diseases (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the root of O. lanceolata to treat *back pain (Heine & König 1988). otaheite apple – Spondias cytheria (Anacardiaceae); is a Pacific tree with edible drupes; the fruits have some medicinal value due to their content of *vitamins and minerals; alternative names: *ambarella, *golden apple, *jew’s plum; see also *jobo, *mombin, red mombin *Spanish plum and *yellow mombin. otitis – *inflammation in the ear (usually the middle area, otitis media); it is caused by bacterial infection; in the Ivory Coast the ash of the roots of Raphia hookeri is mixed with palm oil and given as ear-drops to alleviate *otitis (Neuwinger 1996). Ottelia (Hydrocharitaceae) – a genus with 21 species of aquatic herbs widespread throughout the warmer regions of the world (7 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in East Africa leaves of O. ulvifolia are used by women with *stomach problems (Kokwaro 1976). overactivity – for an overactive mind is recommended a tincture of Humulus lupulus (*hops). 264 over-the-counter medicines – medicines bought in herbal shops; these are not always of the required quality due to various reasons, e.g. poorly harvested plants, poorly dried or stored, based on old and decayed material, or being made from the wrong herb. owak (Lango) – Albizia lebbeck (Fabaceae, Mimosoideae) is in Lango used to treat *gonorrhoea and *conjuctivitis; alternative name: *abata acol. Oxalidaceae – a family with 7 genera and bout 900 species of annual or perennial herbs, rarely shrubs or small trees widely distributed in both hot and cold countries (2 genera and and 20 species in East Africa, 2 genera and 9 species in Uganda); some genera have species with medicinal use, e.g. *Biophytum and *Oxalis. Oxalis (Oxalidaceae) – a genus of about 500 species of herb, subshrubs or succulents widely distributed throughout the world (except in the coldest places), but particularly many species are native to South America and South Africa (6 species in Uganda); in East Uganda an infusion of O. corniculata is drunk to treat premature *ejaculation (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), while in West Uganda this herb is used to treat *cellulitis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993) and profuse *menstruation (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda O. corniculata is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); elsewhere in East Africa this herb is used to treat *coughs, *diarrhoea, inflamed eye-lids, *ringworm-affected head and *stomach trouble (Kokwaro 1976); in South Africa the raw bulb of O. pes-caprae is used as an *anthelmintic and *taenifuge. oxidant – a chemical agent that oxidizes, i.e. that combines with oxygen; plants rich in oxidants, such as the fruits of *pomegranate (Punica granatum) are important in preventing free radicals to damage the body. Oxyanthus (Rubiaceae) – a genus of about 40 species of shrubs or small trees native to tropical Africa (6 species in Uganda); in the Central African Republic the bitter leaves and bark of O. speciosus are taken for *coughs and *fever, or rubbed into the skin for *scabies; in Togo a leaf decoction is used for *haemorrhoids; species of Oxyanthus are also used for *abscesses, *feverish stiffness of the limbs, *fractures and *oedema (Neuwinger 1996); in Kenya the Kakamega have obtained an *antidote for arrow poison from O. speciosus (Kokwaro 1976). Oxygonum (Polygonaceae) – a genus of about 30 species of annual or perennial herbs or shrubs native to Africa and Madagascar (in East Africa 16 species, Uganda only 1 species); in Tanzania the leaves of O. atriplicifolium is macerated in water and applied to wounds, and the leaf juice is swallowed as *cough cure (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda the root of O. sinuatum is used to treat premature *ejaculation (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), the leaf is used to treat *peptic *ulcer and the tops of the plant are taken to treat *elephantiasis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Central Uganda the Baganda apply steamed leaves of this plant on the baby’s tongue to clean it (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in Kenya the root is used to treat *gonorrhoea, and the juice of the leaves to treat sick *eyes (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a leaf ointment of O. sinuatum to treat *boils (Masinde 1996); the Luo use the whole plant to treat infected *wounds, *skin infection and *swellings (Geissler 2002). oxytocic – which induces contractions of the *uterus, e.g. the herb Paeonia lactiflora (*white peony, Paeoniaceae). oxytocin – the hormone that induces contractions of the uterus; it is found in e.g. *white peony Paeonia lactiflora (the peony family, Paeoniaceae), which is primarily a women’s herb. Ozoroa (Anacardiaceae) – a genus of about 40 trees and shrubs native to tropical Africa (2 species in Uganda); in Uganda and Kenya O. insignis subsp. reticulata is used to treat *diarrhoea and *stomach pains (Kokwaro 1976; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam use the bark of this tree to treat *stomach upset, while the inside of the stem is taken to treat swollen *spleen (Heine & König 1988); in Kenya and Tanzania a *decoction of the roots of O. obovata (including O. mucronata auct.) is used as a remedy for *bilharzia, *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *gonorrhoea, *intestinal parsites and *stomach trouble, the bark is used for *dysentery and the leaves as an *antidote for *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976, Weiss 1979). 265 Pachycarpus (Apocynaceae - Asclepiadoideae) – a genus with 37 species of perennial herbs native to tropical and South Africa (12 species in East Africa, 5 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of P. bisacculatus (P. lineolatus auct.) are chewed and the juice swallowed to cure *sore throat or used as an *aphrodisiac or as an *abortifacient (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya and Tanzania the roots of P. concolor (= P. rhinophyllus) are pounded and a paste applied to cattle sores caused by skin *maggots (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the tuber of P. eximius is used to treat *helminthiasis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Africa the roots of P. lineolatus (P. schweinfurthii) are chewed and the juice swallowed to cure *sore throat or used as an *aphrodisiac or as an *abortifacient (Kokwaro 1976);. Pachypodanthium (Annonaceae) – a genus of 4 trees in tropical West Africa; the bark of P. staudtii is a powerful purgative used as an *anthelmintic, *aphrodisiac and to treat *colds, *coughs, *gastrointestinal pain and general body pain (Neuwinger 2000). Pacific gardenia – Gardenia taitensis (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a shrub native to western North America; it is used to relieve *headaches. Pacific yew – Taxus brevifolia (the yew family, Taxaceae) is the West American counterpart of *yew; it contains *taxol, and is a preferred plant for an *anti-cancer drug based on taxol. Paeoniaceae – the peony family is a small family of herbs, shrubs or small trees with 1 genus and 33 species mainly native to temperate and summer warm parts of Eurasia; several species of the genus *Paeonia are of medicinal value. PAF – platelet activating factor; a substance released by a range of blood cells that causes the blood to become stickier and more likely to produce clots; plants which inhibs PAF are useful in preventing *blood clotting, e.g. *maidenhair tree or *ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgophyta, Gymnospermae). paigle – Primula veris, Primula elatior and their hybrids (Primulaceae); for medicinal use see *cowslip. painkiller – which reduces pain; many different plants are effective painkillers, but some of these are very strong and dangerous to use, e.g. *opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), *marijuana (Cannabis sativa var. indica), and *henbane (Hyoscyamus niger). palas – Butea monosperma (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a deciduous South Asian tree; a decoction of the *astringent leaves and flowers is taken for *diarrhoea, *fever and heavy *menstrual *bleeding, and is used to treat *haemorrhoids and skin conditions; the gum of this tree is known as *Bengal kino; it is taken for acid *indigestion, *diarrhoea and *dysentery, and used as a gargle for *sore throats and as a douche for *vaginitis; alternative name: *flame of the forest. pale catechu – Uncaria gambier (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) contains a constituent that lowers *blood pressure; see also cat’s claw (Uncaria tomentosa) and gou teng (U. rhynchophylla). Palisota (Commelinaceae) – an African genus of about 25 herbs forming dense leafy rosettes on the ground or on the top of a stem; a leaf decoction of P. schweinfurthii is drunk as an anthelmintic and to treat *stomach and *kidney problems and female *sterility, while pounded shoots are formed to small balls and inseted into the vagina to treat *colpitis and *metritis; a tampon of leaves is inserted in the vagina daily to dilate the vaginal canal in the 9th month of pregnancy (Neuwinger 2000). palm – an often tree-like plant belonging to the plant family *Arecaceae; the palms often have a trunk and large leaves clustered at the top of the trunk, but many palms are smaller and shrubby, or lianes climbing by hooks or thorns. Palmae – an old name for a family now named *Arecaceae. Palmyra palm – Borassus flabellifera (the palm family, Arecaceae) is an Indian palm (reaching Burma) with edible fruits and 801 uses, some of which are medicinal. 266 palo verde (Am) – species of the genus Parkinsonia (the pea family, Fabaceae), e.g. blue palo verde (P. florida) and Mexican palo verde (P. aculeata); in West Africa a decoction or maceration of *P. aculeata is drunk to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery (Neuwinger 2000). palpitations – the process of strong pulsating (beating) with unnatural rapidity or irregularity (especially about the heart); an awareness of one’s own heart beats, usually caused by *anxiety, rapid beating of the heart or irregularity in the beating of the heart; this condition is sometimes relieved taking an infusion of *lime (Tilia sp.) and/or *valerian (Valeriana officinalis); other plants used to treat this condition include *Aeschynomene schimperi (Fabaceae), *Annona muricata (*soursop, Annonaceae), *Brachiaria brizantha (Poaceae), *Citrus × aurantium (*bitter orange, Rutaceae), *Clerodendrum incisum (Verbenaceae), *Dichapetalum toxicarium (Dichapetalaceae), *Harrisonia abyssinica (Simaroubaceae), *Hydnora abyssinica (Hydnoraceae), *Hygrophila auriculata (Acanthaceae), *Hyptis pectinata (Lamiaceae), *Lactuca inermis (Asteraceae), *Leonotis nepetifolia (Lamiaceae), *Lycopus europaeus (*gipsywort, Lamiaceae), *Ludwigia jussiaeoides (Onagraceae), *Markhamia lutea (Bignoniaceae), *Nymphaea nouchalii var caerulea (*blue waterlily, Nymphaecaeae) Passiflora incarnata (*apricot vine and *Maypop, Passifloraceae), *Pedianthus tithymaloides (*devil’s backbone, Euphorbiaceae), *Platycerium elephantotis (Polypodiaceae; Pterophyta), *Sesamum indicum (*simsim, Pedaliaceae) and *Thunbergia alata (Acanthaceae). see also *heart palpitations. palsy – a form of paralysis, usually accompanied by shaking; lack of muscle coordination. panacea – a remedy for everything, e.g. in Europe the plants *common mallow (Malva sylvestris) and *ash (Fraxinus excelsior), in India and southeast Asia *clove (Eugenia caryophyllata), in South America lapacho (species of Tabebuia) and in China ++. Pancovia (Sapindaceae) – a genus with about 13 species of trees and shrubs widely distributed in Africa (about 5 species in East Africa, only 1 species in Uganda); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots and stem of P. turbinata are used to treat *diarrhoea, heart related problems, *intestinal worms and *impotence (Okello & Ssegawa 2007). pancreas – a gland near the stomach; it produces a juice (including *insulin) which helps *digestion; some plants contain substances that stimulate production of the pancreatic cells, e.g. the fruit juice of *cerasee or *kerala (Momordica charantia, the melon family, Cucurbitaceae) and the root bark of *fringed tree (Chionanthus virginicus, the olive family, Oleaceae). panic attacks – panicing with the heart beating with unnatural rapidity or irregularity; this condition is sometimes relieved taking an infusion of *lime (Tilia sp.) and *valerian (Valeriana officinalis) or *lime and *motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca). Panicum (Poaceae) – a genus with about 470 species of annual or perennial grasses widely distributed in all tropical and warm regions; in East Uganda the sap of the leaves of P. maximum is applied to *wounds, and the grain is used to treat *sterility (Tabutu, Lye & Dhillion 2003). pansy – species of the genus Viola (the *pansy or *violet family, Violaceae), e.g. alpine pansy (V. alpina), horned pansy (V. cornuta) and mountain pansy (V. lutea); see also *heartsease and *violet. pansy family – Violaceae is a large family with 22 genera and 900 såecies widely distributed in all continents; alternative name: *violet family. Papaver (Papaveraceae) – a genus of about 50 species of annual or perennial herbs native to warm, temperate and cold regions of the northern hemisphere; in East Africa P. somniferum (the *opium poppy) is sometimes cultivated in gardens; the dry latex of this plant contains more than 40 alkaloids, including *morphine (up to 20 %), *narcotine (4 %), *codeine(1 %), and *narcotine (1 %); opium is *analgesic and *narcotic, but strongly *addictive and is therefore mainly used after less powerful *analgesics have failed to bring relief; opium has been misused for centuries as a stimulant and *painkiller, but due to its strongly addictive nature it has destroyed and shortened the lives of millions of people worldwide. 267 Papaveraceae – a family with 23 genera and 210 species of annual or perennial herbs widely distributed in warm, temperate and cold regions (in East Africa no native species, but with a troublesome American weed and some species cultivated); many genera have species with medicinal use, e.g. *Argemone and *Papaver. papaya – Carica papaya (Caricaceae) is a slender tree with large edible fruits native to tropical America, but widely cultivated throughout all tropical countries; the unripe fruits improve *digestion and the latex from the trunk is applied externally to heal *boils, *wounds, *ulcers, *warts and *tumours; the seeds and latex are used to expel *worms; a decoction of the ripe fruit is used to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery in children; alternative names: *melon tree and *pawpaw. papaya family – Caricaceae is a small family with 4 genera and about 30 species, which are native almost exclusively to tropical America; for medicinal use see *Caricaceae; alternative name: pawpaw family. Papilionaceae – an old name for a plant family (the pea family) now named Fabaceae subfam. Faboideae. papoose root (Am) – Caulophyllum thalictroides (the barberry family, Berberidaceae) is an important medicinal plant in Eastern North America, its root has long been used for women’s complaints, especially for *menstrual problems encouraging a regular menstrual cycle, help to reduce heavy menstrual *bleeding and periodic (*uterine and *ovarian) pain, and improve contradictions during *labour; it has been used as a *contraceptive by native Americans by both sexes, but may cause malformation of the *embryo and *foetus in the womb; alternative names: *blue cohosh and *squaw root. Pappea (Sapindaceae) – a genus with a single species of tree or shrub native to tropical and South Africa (also in Uganda); in East Africa the bark of P. capensis is boiled to make a kind of soup which is taken for *stomach disorders, or mixed with other species (Aloë spp. and Zanthoxylum chalybeum) and used to treat internal *swellings; the bark is also mixed with water and the juice given to goats for *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976). paprika – the fruit or red powder made from the fruit of culture forms of Capsicum annuum (the tomato family, Solanaceae); the plant is native to tropical America, but widely cultivated in all tropical and subtropical countries, and also in South and East Europe; paprika is classified as a medicinal food, but less often used as a medicine than *chilli (pepper), Capsicum frutescens; alternative name: *Hungarian pepper. papyrus – Cyperus papyrus (Cyperaceae); a tall sedge widely used for building huts, fishing traps and boats, and more recently as fiber for paper and cardboard (Simpson & Inglis 2001); in Uganda the ash from burnt inflorescences are used to treat *rectal *prolapse and *wounds (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania it is used to treat *genitor-urinary system disorders and female *sterility (Burkill 1985); alternative name: *Egyptian paper rush. Paracelsius (1493-1541) – an influencial doctor of the 16th century; Paracelsius paid much attention to the right dosage of the medicine; he is also known as the father of chemistry. paralysis – loss of power of movement or feeling in any part of the body; if the paralysis is caused by *inflammation in the nerve tissue (e.g. *multiple sclerosis) it can be treated by certain plants, which have the ability to reduce such inflammation, e.g. *maidenhair tree or *ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgophyta, Gymnospermae). paraplegia – paralysis of the legs. parasites – different kinds of organisms parasitize different organs; some live on the outside of hosts and suck blood, e.g. *fleas, *lice and *mites; others make their way into the intestines and either absorb some of the food which the host has digested, e.g. *roundworms and *tapeworms, or attach themselves to the intestines or other internal organs and suck blood, e.g. *hookworms. parasiticide – which kills parasites. 268 parasol tree – Polyscias fulva (Araliaceae) is an African tree with *purgative bark; twig bark is used to treat *abdominal pain during *pregnancy, *colic, *cough, *insanity and *tuberculosis; pounded leaves are used for *peptic ulcers, while a leaf decoction is drunk to expel intestinal *parasites (Neuwinger 2000). parasympathic nervous system – part of the nervous system mainly involved in *digestion; see *sympathetic nervous system. parasympatholytic – producing effects resembling those of interruption of the *parasympathetic nerve supply to a part. pareira – Chondrodendron tometosum (Menispermaceae) is large tropical American vine climbing to 30 m; it contains *curare in the form of delta-tubocurarine and L-curarine, especially tubocurarine is a strong muscle relaxant; it is now used as an *anaestetic to paralyse the muscles during operations; in Brazil it is also used to treat *snake bites; pareira and other species of the same genus are best known as the source of curare, the paralysing arrow poison used by South American Indians to catch their prey. parenchymatous – relating to the cellular tissue of an organ. paresis – insanity with general paralysis, associated with chronic *syphilis; for plants used see *syphilis. Parinari (Chrysobalanaceae) – a genus of 44 species widely distributed in tropical regions; in Uganda the bark of P. excelsa is used to treat *swellings (Kakudidi et al. 2000). Parkinson’s disease – a nerve disease characterized by tremors of fingers and hands and rigidity of muscles; *belladonna or *deadly nightshade, Atropa belladonna (the potato family, Solanaceae) has been used to treat the symptoms of this disease by reducing tremors and rigidity and improving speech and mobility; other plants used include Datura stramonium (*thornapple, Solanaceae), Peganum harmala (*African rue or *harmala, Zygophyllaceae) and Parkinsonia spp. (*palo verde, Fabaceae); the substance *dopamine is lacking in patients with Parkinson’s disease, and since dopamine is found in ripe yellow *banana, *Musa paradisiaca. subsp. sapientum eating banana may be beneficial for patients with Parkinson’s disease. paronychia – *whitlow; an inflammatory infection of the tissue around the nail or around the distal end of the finger or toe; it often develops to form *pus; many plants are used to treat this condition, e. g. *Acacia hockii (*white thorn bark, Fabaceae), *Asystasia gangetica (Acanthaceae), *Bridelia scleroneura (Euphorbiaceae), *Citrullus lanatus (Cucurbitaceae), *Ipomoea batatas (*sweet potato) & cairica (Convolvulaceae), *Penianthus zenkeri (Menispermaceae), *Polygala erioptera (Polygalaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae) and *Swartzia madagascariensis (Fabaceae); see also *felon and *whitlow. parotid (gland) – parotitis – paroxysmal – a severe outbreak of a disease, often with a sudden outburst and usually recurring periodically; see *gout. paroxysmal tachycardia – a sudden attack of increase in the rate of beating of the heart Parquetina (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) – a genus with 1 climbing species native to tropical Africa; in Tanzania the Shambaa drink a decocton of P. nigrescens as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976); in Sierra Leone the Temne bathe rachitic and weak children with a cold-water macerate of leaves with the sap (latex) removed (Neuwinger 1996). parsley – Petroselinum crispum (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is a fairly small annual herb native to the Miditerranean and cultivated throughout the world as a vegetable; the fresh leaves are highly nutritious and can be considered a natural *vitamin and *mineral supplement in their own right; the seeds are *diuretic and can be used in the same way as those of *celery (Apium graveolens) for the treatment of *arthritis, *gout and *rheumatism as they encourage the flushing out of waste products from the inflamed *joints; parsley also relieves *menstrual pain. 269 parsley piert – Aphanes arvensis (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a very small annual herb native to the north temperate region; it contains *tannins and is *astringent, *demulcent and *diuretic; it is usually taken as an infusion to treat *bladder and *kidney problems (including stones), *cystitis and *urinary infections. parsley root – Petroselinum crispum var. tuberosum (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is similar to *parsley except for its swollen turnip-like root; like parsley it is *diuretic and rich in *vitamins; parsley root is taken as a treatment for *cystitis, *flatulence and *rheumatic conditions; alternative name: *turnip-rooted parsley. parthenolide – a sesquiterpene lactone, which appears to inhibit the release of the hormone *serotonin, which is thought to trigger *migraine; parthenolide is found in *feverfew, Tanacetum parthenium (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), a plant which is particularly useful in treating migraine. parturition – childbirth; the act or process of giving birth to a child; for the many plants used to alleviate parturition see *childbirth. Paspalum (Poaceae) – a genus of about 250 grass species widespread in tropical regions, but with highest diversity in the Americas (8 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda); in India some forms of P. scrobiculatum is occasionally cultivated as a staple diet; in East Africa the leaves of P. scrobiculatum (= P. commersonii) are used as an antiseptic dressing material on *wounds, i.e. to prevent *bacterial infection (Kokwaro 1976); the grain of P. scrobiculatum has tranquilizing effect on humans as well as dogs (Bhide & Aimen 1959). pasque flower – species of the genus Pulsatilla (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae), also named Anemone subgen. Pulsatilla; several species are attractive herbs inn the alpine garden; Pulsatilla vulgaris (Anemone pulsatilla) is used as a remedy for *cramping pain (especially in the *reproductive system of both male and female), emotional distress and *menstrual problems; it has also been used for *coughs and as a *sedative for sleep difficulties; this herb is very widely used in *homeopathic medicine; see also *meadow anemone (Pulsatilla pratensis). Passiflora (Passifloraceae) – a genus with about 370 species of climbing herbs or large lianes native to America (350 species) and Asia-Australia (20 species), but many species are cultivated and naturalized in East Africa; in Uganda the leaves of P. edulis (*passion fruit) are used to treat *cough, *diarrhoea and *measles (Adjanohoun et al. 1976; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Tanzania the Shambaa drop an infusion of the roots into the ear for *ear-ache (Kokwaro 1976). passiflora – passion flower, species of the genus Passiflora (passion fruit family, Passifloraceae) are often cultivated as pot plants, e.g. blue passion flower (P. caerulea), red (cluster) passion flower (P. racemosa) and scarlet passion flower (P. coccinea); other species are cultivated for their edible fruits, e.g. *purple granadilla (P. edulis) and yellow granadilla (P. laurifolia); the large yellow fruits of *granadilla (P. quadrangularis) is mainly eaten as a vegetable when immature; the major medicinal plant is *apricot vine (P. incarnata); this climbing vine has valuable *sedative and tranquillizing properties and is taken for disturbed sleep and *sleeplessness and for its relaxing effect reducing overactivity and panic; it has also been use as a mild *painkiller to relieve *headaches, periodic pain and *toothaches; in Mexico it is taken for *epilepsy, *hysteria and *insomnia; alternative name: *maypop and *passion flower. Passifloraceae – a family with 18 genera and about 530 species of climbers or more rarely erect herbs widely distributed in all tropical regions, but particularly abundant in America (8 genera and 53 species in East Africa, 6 genera and 20 species in Uganda); some genera have species of medicinal use, e.g. *Adenia and *Passiflora; vernacular name: *passion fruit family. passion flower – species of the genus Passiflora (passion fruit family, Passifloraceae) are often cultivated as pot plants; for species and medicinal uses see *passiflora, alternative names: *maypop and *passiflora. 270 passion fruit family – Passifloraceae er en nokså stor family med 20 slekter og 600 arter; de er vidt utbredt i tropene. passion fruit (plant) – Passiflora edulis (the passion fruit family, Passifloraceae) is a South American climber widely cultivated for its edible fruits in all warm countries worldwide. Pasteur, Louis (1822-1895) – pioneer French scientist who discovered the bacteria causing certain diseases and even introduced a vaccine; he is considered the founder of modern bacteriology and even moderen medicine; he is also known for having introduced pasteurization, i.e. to expose beer, milk and vine to high temperatures (60-80° C) to destroy certain microorganisms to make the drinks more long-lasting. patchouli – Pogostemon cablin (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is an indomalesian herb which contains a volatile oil widely used in scented cosmetics, shampoos and insect repellents; in Asia it is used as an *antidepressant, *antiseptic and *aphrodisiac and to treat *fever, *headaches and *menstrual pain; it is also used in *aromatherapy to treat *skin complaints. paternoster bean – Abrus precatorius (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a deciduous climber with attractive red and black seeds in pods; the seeds are deadly *poisonous (toxin: *abrin) but have been used as a *contraceptive and *abortifacient to induce a miscarriage; alternative names: *coral pea, *crab’s eye, *jequirity, *Indian liquorice, and *lucky beans. pathogen – something which causes a disease. pathological – which is caused by a disease or has to do with a disease. pau d’arco (Portuguese) – species of Tabebuia (the jacaranda family, Bignoniaceae); the bark from these trees is given as a remedy for *inflammatory and infectious problems, including *HIV and ME (post-viral fatigue syndrome); it also has *anti-tumour properties and is reputed to be beneficial in the treatment of *cancer (including *leukaemia); among native South American people this herb is a *cure-all; alternative name: *lapacho (Spanish). Paulinia (Sapindaceae) – a genus of about 200 species of woody climbers mostly native to the Americas, but with 1 species also throughout tropical Africa; in Tanzania the leaves of P. pinnata are used to treat *snakebite and a decoction of the leaves and roots is drunk to treat *gonorrhoea and *paralysis (Kokwaro 1976); in Burundi the leaves or leaf-juice are used to treat *lumbago, *madness, *otitis, *sterility, *tonsillitis and the roots taken for *vomiting (Baerts & Lehmann 1989); in Congo the leaves are taken to treat *anaemia, *sterility, *stomach problems, *venereal disease and *wounds, and used as a *cholagogue, *haemostatic, *lactogen anf *tonic (Bouquet 1969); in West Africa the leaves or roots of P. pinnata are used for a large number of diseases and conditions, e.g. *abscesses, *anorexia, *arterial hypertension (high blood pressure), *chest problems, *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *fractures, *gonorrhoea, *heavy menstruation, *impotence, *intestinal worms, *leprosy, *malaria, *meteorism, *mycosis, *oedema, *pin-worms, *psoriasis, *rheumatism, *sexual asthenia, *spleen pains, *swellings, *tachycardia, *wounds and also used to prevent *abortion, and considered as an *aphrodisiac, *disinfectant, *haemo-static (for injured veins) and *tonic (Neuwinger 1996). paunch – the belly, especially when large and protruding. Pauridiantha (Rubiaceae) – a genus of 20-25 species of shrubs, scramblers or small trees native to Africa and Madagascar (6 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in Tanzania a decoction of the roots of P. paucinervis is drunk for *headache and as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976). Pausinystalia (Rubiaceae) – a genus of 13 species in West Africa; in Ghana and Liberia the stem bark powder of P. lane-poolei is applied to *yaws, *scabies and *itch (Neuwinger 1996). Pavetta (Rubiaceae) – a genus with about 400 species of shrubs. small trees or rarely subshrubs in the Old World tropics (75 species in East Africa, 14 species in Uganda); in East Africa a boiled root decoction of P. abyssinica is drunk for *indigestion, and the leaves of P. crassipes are chewed (or an infusion drunk) as a remedy for cough, and the dry powdered fruits taken as a *vermifuge to expel *intestinal worms (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda the So used twigs of P. crassipes put into hot ash overnight and then pressed into *swellings as a cure (Heine & König 271 1988); in Tanzania the fruits are eaten to expel *intestinal worms and the leaves chewed for *colds; in the Ulanga region leaf powder and leaf juice are used to treat *malaria, the leaf juice is drunk for *tachycardia, and the root decoction and leaf macerate used for *ancylostomiasis or *hook-worm infection (Haerdi 1964); in Malawi leaves and roots are used for *colds, while the leaf extract is drunk for bloody urine and fever (Neuwinger 1996); in West Africa different parts of P. crassipes are used to treat enlargement of the *spleen, *malaria and snakebite (Neuwinger 1996); in South Africa P. canescens is a remedy for *headache and *snakebite; in Tanzania the Sukuma use the pounded roots and leaves of P. gardeniifolia (= P. terminataria) for *smallpox, while the Shambaa use the root of P. holstii as a purgative, while P. oliveriana is more widely used to treat *eye-ache and as an *aphrodisiac (Koyama 1976); in Guinea the stem bark of P. owariensis is a valued *anti-worm remedy (Neuwinger 1996); in Tanzania the Hehe chew the bark of P. schumanniana and swallow the juice for *sore throat (Kokwaro 1976). Pavonia (Malvaceae) – a genus with about 200 species of herbs or shrubs in all tropical and subtropical regions; in Uganda the leaf of P. burchellii (P. patens auct.) is used by women to treat *menstruation disturbances (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), in West Uganda the leaves of this species are steamed or squeezed and eaten or inserted in *vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005), and are also used to treat menstrual problems such as *dysmenorrhoea and excessive bleeding or *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Tanzania the Pare drink a root decoction of P. urens for various types of *abdominal problems (Kokwaro 1976). pawpaw – Carica papaya (Caricaceae) is a slender tree with large edible fruits native to tropical America, but widely cultivated throughout all tropical countries; the unripe fruits improve *digestion and the latex from the trunk is applied externally to heal *boils, *wounds, *ulcers, *warts and *tumours; the seeds and latex are used to expel *worms; a decoction of the ripe fruit is used to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery in children; alternative names: *melon tree and *papaya. pawpaw family – Caricaceae is a small family with 4 genera and about 30 species, which are native almost exclusively to tropical America; for medicinal use see *Caricaceae; alternative name: papaya family. PCP – a powerful hallucinogenic drug. pea – Pisum sativum (Fabaceae); the peas are rich in *protein and thus useful protection against *kwashiorkor. pea family – *Fabaceae (also named Leguminosae and Papilionaceae) is a very large family with about 700 genera and 17000 species widely distributed in all temperate as well as tropical regions; for medicinal plants see *Fabaceae. peach – Prunus persica (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a Southwest Asian tree widely grown as a commercial fruit crop; the fruits have some medicinal value due to their content of *vitamins; *African peach is *Sarcocephalus latifolius (Rubiaceae), peach palm or peach nut is Bactris gasipaes (Arecaceae) and wild peach is Kiggelaria africana (Flacourtiaceae). peanut – *Arachis hypogaea (*Fabaceae, Faboideae) from South America is widely cultivated for food in all tropical regions; the peanuts are rich in fat and *protein and thus useful protection against *kwashiorkor; in western Uganda the seeds of A. hypogaea are used as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); alternative names: earthnut and groundnut. pear – Pyrus communis (the rose family, Rosaceae) is an important fruit tree in temperate regions; pears contain more sugar than apples; as a medicine they are mainly important as convalescence food; balsam pear is Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae); prickly pear is species of the genus Opuntia (the cactus family, Cactaceae). 272 peat moss – mosses of the genus Sphagnum (Sphagnaceae, Bryophyta); peat mosses contain an *aseptic chemical, *sphagnol, and has in Europe been widely used as bandages on wounds, especially in times of war. pecan (nut) – the tree or fruit of Carya illinoensis and C. illinoensis in the walnut family (Juglandaceae), two American trees with edible drupes (pecan-nut); like *walnut the fruit is very nutritious and has medicinal values similar to *walnut (Juglans regia). pectoral – which acts on the lungs; relating to the chest or breast. Pedaliaceae – a family with 18 genera and about 95 species of annual or perennial herbs or shrubs (rarely small trees) native to tropical and warm regions (7 genera and 14 species in East Africa, 2 genera and 5 species in Uganda); several genera have species used as medicines, e.g. *Josephinia, *Pedalium and *Sesamum. Pedalium (Pedaliaceae) – a genus with a single annual species widespread in arid or saline areas from Africa to India; in coastal Tanzania the Zaramo boil the roots of P. murex and drink a *decoction three times a day to cure *gonorrhoea (Kokwaro 1976). Peddiea (Thymelaeaceae) – a genus with 10 species of trees or shrubs widespread in tropical and subtropical Africa; in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda P. fischeri is used by herbalists (Cunningham 1996). Pedilanthus (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with 14 species of succulent shrubs native to the Americas, but one species widely cultivated as a hedge or for ornament elsewhere; in Uganda the leaves of P. tithymaloides (*devil’s backbone) is used to treat *heart disease and *palpitations, while the whole plant is used to treat general sickness attributed to *bewitchment (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). pedunculate oak – Quercus robur (the beech family, Fagaceae) is a slow-growing deciduous tree from the northern hemisphere; it produces galls which contain about 50 % tannins; bark, leaves and *acorns are *astringent and are used as a gargle to treat sore throats and *tonsillitis; this tree is also used to treat *anal fissures, *haemorrhoids, small burns and other skin problems; powdered oak bark is sniffed to treat *nasal *polyps and sprinkled on *eczema to dry it; alternative name: *common oak. peepal or peepul – Ficus religiosa (the fig family, Moraceae) is a long-living Indian tree sacred to Hindus and Buddhists; it is cultivated in any tropical region where Indians have settled; the leaves are taken for *diarrhoea, *constipation and *dysentery; the powdered fruit is used for asthma and the white latex is applied to aching joints, *haemorrhoids and *warts; alternative names: *bo-tree, *pipal, *pipul and *sacred bo-tree. Peking spurge – Euphorbia pekinensis (the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae) is a Chinese herb widely cultivated in China as a medicinal plant; it contains a very toxic substance *euphorbon; the root is applied externally to inflamed *sores to reduce swellings; internally it is used to *purge excess fluid in severe illnesses, e.g. *ascites (excess fluid in the abdomen), *nephritis and other *kidney problems; alternative name: *da ji (Chinese). Pelargonium (Geraniaceae) – a genus with about 300 species of annual or perennial herbs or shrubs widely distributed in tropical and warm countries, but most common in South Africa (6 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in East Africa juice from the leaves of P. alchemilloïdes are used on *sore eyes, while a decoction from the roots of P. quinquelobatum is taken to treat *diarrhoea in children (Kokwaro 1976); in South Africa the roots of species of Pelargonium are thought to be *astringent and useful to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery (Watt & BreyerBrandwijk 1962). Pellaea (Adiantaceae) – a genus with about 75 fern species widespread in tropical and subtropical regions; in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda P. doniana is used by midwives, while P. viridis is used by herbalists (Cunningham 1996). 273 pellitory – Anacyclus pyrethrum (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a perennial herb native to the Mediterranean region; a decoction of the root-stock is used as a gargle to soothe sore throats and chewed to relieve*toothache and increase *saliva production pellitory of the wall – Parietaria officinalis (the nettle family, Urticaceae) is a small annual herb native to southern Europe and neighbouring countries; it has been much valued as a *diuretic, *demulcent and stone-preventing herb; it has been considered as a *balm for *wounds and burns and to relieve chronic *coughs; it is also believed to have restorative action on the *kidneys, and prescribed for *cystitis, inflammation of the *kidneys (*pyelitis) and *nephritis. Penianthus (Menispermaceae) – a genus of 4 species in tropical Africa; in West Africa the bark and roots of P. longifolius is widely used as an *aphrodisiac and as a dressing on wounds; the leaves are used to treat *hernia and *otitis, and to seduce a woman a little pulverized root is added to her food; also the related species P. zenkeri is used as an *aphrodisiac, as an *enema and to treat *whitlow (Neuwinger 2000). penicillin – an *antibiotic extracted from the fungi Penicillium notatum (previously) and P. chrysogenum (today); penicillin is particularly effective against *gram-positive bacteria; the hyphae of this fungus had been used for centuries to treat infected *wounds; its effective chemical substance was discovered during the last century. penis – the male organ of urination and copulation; in Kenya the leaves of Aneilema pedunculosum (Commelinaceae) are wrapped round the injured penises of Kikuyu boys after *circumcision (Kokwaro 1976); see also *erectile dysfunction and *prepuce. Pennisetum (Poaceae) – a genus of about 80 species of annual or perennial grasses widely distributed in tropical, warm and temperate regions (21 species in East Africa, 14 species in Uganda); P. glaucum (= P. americanum; pearl millet) is a grain crop; in Uganda the powdered leaves of P. polystachion are applied to *wounds, while the roots are used to treat *pyomyositis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), and the young stems of P. purpureum (*elephant grass) are used in dental care (Kakudidi et al. 2000). pennyroyal – Mentha pulegium (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial aromatic herb native to Europe and western Asia; the Latin word ’pulegium’ comes from ’pulex’ which means ’flea’, and this herb was traditionally used to repel *fleas; it is a good for the *digestion as it increase the secretion of digestive juices, relieves *colic and *flatulence and expels intestinal *worms; this herb encourages *menstruation and *labour; it has been used externally to treat *itchiness and *formication; see also *American pennyroyal (Hedeoma pulegoides). Pentaclethra (Fabaceae) – a genus of 2 forest trees from tropical Africa and America; in tropical Africa P. macrophylla is widely used as an *anthelmintic and *galactagogue and to treat *abdominal pain, *cicatrisation, *dysmenorrhoea, *dysentery, *epilepsy in children, *headache, *gonorrhoea, *intercostal neuralgia, *leprosy, *otitis, *splenomegaly, *stomach pain, *syphilis, *urinary infections and *wounds Pentanisia (Rubiaceae) – a genus with 15 species of perennial herbs or subshrubs confined to tropical Africa and Madagascar (8 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in East Africa a decoction of the roots of P. ouranogyne is given to children as a *tonic, while leaves and roots of P. schweinfurthii are boiled in water and the extract drunk to stop *diarrhoea (Kokwaro 1976). Pentarhinum (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) – a genus with 5 species of perennial twining herbs confined to tropical Africa (4 species in East Africa, 2-3 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Zigua use the roots of P. abyssinicum to treat *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976), while in Kenya the Luo drink pounded P. insipidum mixed with water to treat a disease named ‘chira’ (Geissler et al. 2002). Pentas (Rubiaceae) – a genus with about 40 species of perennial (rarely biennial) herbs or shrubs widely distributed in tropical Africa, Madagascar and Arabia (23 species in East Africa, 9 species in Uganda); in East Africa a decoction of the roots of P. bussei is taken as a remedy for 274 *dysentery, *gonorrhoea and *syphilis, the roots of P. decora are used as a cure for *pimples, and the roots of P. hindsioides as a remedy for *scabies (Kokwaro 1976); P. longiflora is the species most widely used as a medicine, e.g. in Uganda the leaves are used to treat *fever, *malaria, *ringworm and *scabies, while the rootbark is used to treat *blocked urethra, *constipation and *gonorrhoea (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda P. longifolia is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in Tanzania the roots of P. longiflora are used as a cure for *itchy rashes, *malaria, and *tapeworm; in East Africa the roots of P. micrantha are used as a *cough remedy, while the roots of P. zanzibarica are used as a remedy for *gonorrhoea and *syphilis, and the juice of the pounded leaves is drunk as a drastic *purgative (Kokwaro 1976). peony – Paeonia officinalis (the peony family, Paeoniaceae), and in compounds also other species of the genus Paeonia; a number of species and hybrids are widely cultivated garden ornamentals; P. officinalis is a native of southern Europe; its root-stock is believed to be *antispasmodic and *sedative, and used to treat nervous irritation and *whooping cough; see also *white peony (P. lactiflora). peony family – Paeoniaceae is a small family of herbs, shrubs or small trees with 1 genus and 33 species mainly native to temperate and summer warm parts of Eurasia; several species of the genus *Paeonia are of medicinal value. Peponium (Cucurbitaceae) – a genus with about 20 species of climbeing herbs native to Africa and Madagascar (5 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Kenya the Marakwet chew the leaves of P. vogelii as a treatment for *dysmenorrhoea (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the Bwamba use P. vogelii to treat stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 1996), while in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda this herb is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996). pepper – black and white pepper, Piper nigrum.(the pepper family, Piperaceae) is a woody climber native to India, but widely cultivated throughout tropical regions of the world as a spice and medicine; the fruit of pepper has a *stimulant and *antiseptic effect on the *digestive and *circulatory systems; it is taken to improve *digestion in connection with *constipation, *bloating, *flatulence, *nausea and *stomache pain; see *black pepper, chilly (*chillies), *green pepper, *red pepper and *white pepper; *bird pepper is Capsicum baccatum (the potato family, Solanaceae) and *Jamaica pepper is *allspice, Pimenta dioica (the myrtle family, Myrtaceae). pepper bark tree – Warburgia salutaris (previously W. ugandensis) in Canellaceae; it is a tall tree native to the forests of tropical Africa; in rainforest regions it is an important medicinal plant taken to alleviate *malaria; for other medicinal uses see *Warburgia; alternative name: East African *green heart. pepper family – Piperaceae is a large family with 5 genera and about 2000 species, or 9 genera and 3000 species if Peperomiaceae is included; the genus *Piper contains species used as medicine. Many species we name pepper belongs to the potato family (Solanaceae). peppermint – Mentha × piperita (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a strongly aromatic herb widely cultivated for its aromatic oil (includes *menthol); this *volatile oil is strongly *antibacterial, *antifungal, *antiseptic, and *anaesthetic to the skin; it also has an *antispasmodic effect on the *digestive system by relaxing gut muscles; its major value lies in its ability to relieve digestive problems such as *bloating, *colic, *diarrhoea, *flatulence, *griping pain, *nausea and *wind; peppermint is a hybrid between *watermint (M. aquatica) and *spearmint (M. spicata), which has similar but milder *therapeutic effects. peppers – spices from different genera and families, e.g. Piper nigrum (black and white pepper) in the pepper family, Piperaceae and Capsicum annuum & frutescens (red, greeen and chilli pepper in the potato family, Solanaceae. pepper tree – Schinus molle (Anacardiaceae) is an ornamental tree widely cultivated in all tropical regions; the leaf and bark is used to treat *wounds and *sores and internally as a *diuretic, for pain in the extremities and in *blennorrhagia; the gum-resin has been used as a remedy for *gout 275 and *rheumatism and as a *purgative (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); alternative names: *American mastic tree, *Californian pepper tree; Brazilian pepper tree is S. terebinthifolius. peptic – of or promoting *digestion; due to the action of pepsin or other digestive secretions. peptic ulcers – sores of the stomach or the first 25 cm of the intestine adjacent to the stomach due to the action of *pepsin (acid indigestion); this condition is sometimes alleviated drinking an infusion of meadowsweet, Filipendula ulmaria (Rosaceae). peptide – a lineary molecule built from two or more *amino acids by binding acid and alkaline ends of amino acids in peptid bonds. Pergularia (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) – a genus with 5 species of perennial twining herbs or climbing shrubs confined to tropical Africa and western Asia to India; in Tanzania the Shambaa use the roots of P. daemia as a treatment for *coughs and *stomach pain and as an *abortifacient (Kokwaro 1976); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda P. extensa is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996). pergularia – Pergularia extensa (the periwinkle family, Asclepiadoideae, Apocynaceae) is a perennial Indian climber; it is mainly prescribed as a treatment for *asthma and *bronchitis, but has also been used to reduce heavy *menstrual bleeding. pericardial sac – the membrane sac enclosing the heart. Pericopsis (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of 3 timber trees native to tropical Africa; in Tanzania a root decoction or infusion of P. angolensis is drunk to treat *cough, *diarrhoea, *dyspnea, *hypermenorrhagia and as an *aphrodisiac, while leaf sap is drunk as an *anthelmintic to treat *ascariasis and *maw worms (Haerdi 1964, Hedberg et al. 1983). period pain – pain in connection with menstruation; plants used to alleviate this condition include *caraway seeds (Carum carvi), wild *yam (Dioscorea villosa), *cramp bark (Viburnum opulus) and *black haw (Viburnum prunifolium). periosteum – bone cover; see *whitlow; inflammation of the periosteum is named *periostitis. Peristrophe (Acanthaceae) – a genus of 15 species in the Old World tropics; in Mali a decoction of the aerial parts of P. bicalyculata is drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006). peritonitis – *inflammation of the membrane lining the abdominal cavity (peritoneum). periwinkle – species of the genus Vinca (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae); they are often important garden plants and medicinal herbs, e.g. *lesser periwinkle (V. minor), greater periwinkle (V. major) and *Madagascar (rosy) periwnkle (V. rosea). periwinkle family – Apocynaceae is a large family with about 180 genera and 1500 species widely distributed in all continents. If the family Asclepiadaceae is included the family will consist of about 430 genera and 3400 species; for medicinal plants see Apocynaceae; alternative name: *dogbane family. Perotis (Poaceae) – a genus of 10 grass species widespread in the Old World tropics (6 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Uganda P. patens is used with Tridax procumbens for a child with *stomach trouble (Kokwaro 1976). Persea (Lauraceae) – a genus of 150 species of trees native to tropical and warm parts of the Americas; P. americana (avocado (pear), *alligator pear) is widely cultivated in tropical and warm countries for its edible extremely nutritious fruit, but it is also a very important medicinal plant; the *rind is used as a remedy to expel worms; the fruit pulp is used as baby food and is supposed to have *aphrodisiac properties, and used externally the pulp is cooling and soothing to the skin and wounds, and it is also believed to stimulate hair growth; the seed is used to treat *diarrhoea; Mexican avocado is P. drymifolia, and has been used in a similar way. Persian lilac – Melia azedarach (the mahogany family, Meliaceae); alternative name: *Indian bead tree, * Indian lilac, *Pride of India; for medicinal use see *Melia. Persicaria (Polygonaceae) – a genus with about 150 species of annual or perennial herbs or subshrubs widely distributed in warm as well as temperate regions; in West Uganda as well as in southern Tanzania the leaves of P. attenuata subsp. africana (= Polygonum pulchrum) are used 276 to treat *syphilis (Kokwaro 1976; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in East Africa a salt is obtained from the ash of P. decipiens (= Polygonum salicifolium) and licked as a cure for *sore throats, and a leaf decoction is used as a *purgative, and extracts from fresh leaves for skin troubles (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania P. senegalensis is used as a medicine for cows, while the Masai witch doctors bathe the dying with an infusion of the leaves of P. setosula in order to revive them (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the Bwamba use P. setosula to treat boils and whooping cough (Kakudidi et al. 1996). persimmon – Diospyros kaki (Ebenaceae) is a tree with edible fruits, also named *kaki, *Chinese date plum and Japanese persimmon; American persimmon is D. virginiana. perspiration – the act or process of loosing water through the pores of the skin; the watery fluid excreted in perspiring; since increasing perspiration helps reduce *fever, plants which help increasing perspiration will also be fever-reducing, i.e. *pleurisy root Asclepias tuberosa (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae, Asclepioideae) and +++ Peruvian balsam – Myroxylon pereirae (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a tree native to tropical America, but cultivated in many tropical regions for the *oleo-resin obtained from its bark; it is strongly antiseptic and stimulates repair of damaged tissue; it is most often taken internally to treat *bronchial asthma, *bronchitis, *emphysema and sore throats. Peruvian bark – Cinchona officinalis (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is an evergreen tree native to mountainous tropical regions of South America, but now grown in many tropical regions; it is the source of *quinine, for centuries the most widely taken antimalarial remedy in the world; it is also antibacterial and increases stomach secretions thus stimulating digestion; it is also prescribed to treat other feverish conditions; other species of the genus Cinchona are used in the same way, e.g. C. calisaya and C. ledgeriana; alternative name: *fever bark tree. pessaries – waxy pellets, containing essential oil or fine powder, which are inserted into the vagina, where they melt at body temperature; they are used when medicine through the mouth is likely to be broken down during digestion before reaching the intended site; see also *suppositories; pessary is also a diaphragm inserted into the vagina as a contraceptive. petha – Benincasa hispida (the melon family, Cucurbitaceae) is a hairy annual climber native to tropical Asia and Asia; it has been used as a food and medicine for thousands of years; in China a decoction of the fruit is taken for *chest conditions and *vaginal discharge; in *Ayurvedic medicine the seeds are used to treat *coughs, excessive thirst and *fever, and to expel intestinal worms; alternative name: *wax gourd. Peucedanum (Apiaceae) – a genus of about 150 species of perennial herbs widespread in northern temperate regions and at higher altitudes in the tropics (in East Africa 16 species, in Uganda 7 species); in East Africa (Marakwet) the roots of P. aculeolatum are boiled and the decoction drunk as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976). peyote (cactus) – Lophophora williamsii (the cactus family, Cactaceae) is a small round (hemispheric) stone-like cactus; it contains the *alkaloid *mescaline, which is a powerful *hallucinogen; it has been used in American religious ceremonies for over 3000 years; it is a *painkiller for *rheumatism, and has been used to treat *fevers, *paralysis and to induce *vomiting; peyote is applied externally as a *poultice for *fractures, *snakebites and *wounds. pfaffia – Pfaffia paniculata (the amaranth family, Amaranthaceae) is a Brazilian climbing perennial; its root-stock is used as an *aphrodisiac and to treat *cancer, *diabetes and *wounds; alternative name: *Brazilian gingseng. pharmaceutical – of *pharmacy or pharmacists. pharmacy – the art and science of preparing and dispensisng drugs; a drugstore. Phaseolus (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus usually estimated at 150-200 species, but in its modern circumscription it only consists of about 50 species of erect or climbing herbs or subshrubs mainly native to America (in East Africa 1 native species, none in Uganda), but P. coccineus (the scarlet runner), P. lunatus (*lima bean) and P. vulgaris (French bean; Harricot beans) are all 277 widely cultivated and in East Africa sometimes escaped in disturbed habitats; in Uganda the leaves of P. lunatus (*lima bean) are used to treat *conjunctivitis and *measles (Kakudidi et al. 2000); the seeds of all species are rich in *protein and therefore a good protection against *kwashiorkor. Phaulopsis (Acanthaceae) – a genus of about 20 species of herbs or small shrubs native from tropical Africa to India; in West Tanzania the Bende use the root of P. longifolia for magical purposes (Kokwaro 1976). phenol – an aromatic compound with one or more hydroxyl groups; it was originally a white poisonous mass obtained from coal tar and chiefly used as a *disinfectant and *antiseptic; phenols are rather varied plant constituents ranging from *salicylic acid and *aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) to complex sugar-containing phenolic *glycosides; phenols are often *antiinflammatory and *antiseptic; phenolic acids, e.g. *rosmarinic acid, are strongly *antioxidant and *anti-inflammatory, and often *antiviral also; many members of the mint family (Lamiaceae) contain phenols, e.g. *thymol in *thyme (Thymus vulgaris) and *menthol in *peppermint (Mentha × piperita). phenolic(s) - ?; a secondary metabolic product which contains a phenolic group (a hydroxylfunctioning group) on an aromatic ring; many have medicinal effect, e.g. *cyanidin glucoside, *gallic acid, *limonin, *myristicin, *rutin and *salicin. Philadelphia fleabane – Conyza philadelphicus (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a North American herb used by the Houma as a treatment for *menstrual problems; see *Canadian fleabane (C. canadensis and *Mexican fleabane (C. affinis). phlegm – the thick substance (mucus) which forms in the nose, throat or chest when one has a bad cold or flue. Phoenix (Arecaceae) – a genus of 17 species widespread i the Old World tropics and subtropics, including desert regions (1 species native to East Africa and Uganda, but the *date palm (P. dactylifera) is widely cultivated in the drier part of the region); in Uganda the the leaves of P. reclinata are used to treat *abdominal pain and *stomach-ache, the roots are used to treat *impotence, while the leaves and midrib are used in *dental care (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam eat the young plants of P. reclinata to treat ”white urine” disease (Heine & König 1988).in West Uganda the leaves and roots of P. reclinata are used to treat sexual *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (KamatenesiMugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005). phosphorus (P) – photosensitisation – condition of being sensitive to light and hence readily injured by sunlight; many plants have the ability to cause severe *wounds if skin with plant juice is being subjected to sunlight, e.g. Heracleum and other genera of the Apiaceae; for photosensitisation in sheep see *bog asphodel (Narthecium) and *horse-brush (Tetradymia). photosensitive – heightened sensitivity to sunlight. Phragmanthera (Loranthaceae) – a genus of 34 species of shrubby hemiparasites native to tropical Africa (8 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in East Africa heated twigs of P. usuiensis (= Loranthus rufescens) are applied to the chest of people suffering from *pneumonia (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the plant is used to treat *kwashiokor, *migraine and to keep away evil spirits (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam use P. usuiensis to treat *snakebites and *swellings (Heine & König 1988). phthalide – substance of *volatile oil in e.g. *lovage, Levisticum officinale (the carrot family, Apiaceae); phthalides are *sedative and *anticonvulsant. Phyllanthaceae – a family of herbs, shrubs and trees widely distributed in tropical regions, and previously included in Euphorbiaceae (6 genera and 64 species in East Africa, 4 genera and 23 species in Uganda); species from some genera are used as medicines, e.g. *Flueggea (*Securinega), *Margaritaria, *Phyllanthus and *Zimmermannia. 278 Phyllanthus (Phyllanthaceae; previously Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with about 700 species of annual or perennial herbs, shrubs or trees widely distributed in tropical regions with close to 100 species in Africa (52 species in East Africa, 20 species in Uganda); in East Africa a cold infusion of the leaves of P. amarus are taken to relieve pain in the stomach (Kokwaro 1976), while in Uganda the shoot of this herb is used to treat *snakebite and *infertility (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Africa a decoction of the roots of P. fischeri is drunk to cure general body illness; in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda P. fischeri is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in East Africa a decoction of the roots of P. fraternus (= P. niuri auct.) is taken as an *emetic; the leaves of P. hutchinsonianus and P. leucocalyx are very bitter and eaten (or a decoction drunk) by women after childbirth as a *stomach medicine or more generally as an *emetic and remedy for *stomach-ache; the roots of P. maderaspatensis are used for *snakebite and a decoction of the roots is drunk for the treatment of swollen *testicles, while the leaves are used as an *emetic (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of P. nummulariifolius (= P. capillaris) are used to treat vaginal *polypus (Adjanohoun et al. 1993) and measles (Kakudidi et al. 2000), or the powdered plant applied to wounds or an infusion of the plant taken to treat *premature *ejaculation (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Kenya a decoction of this herb is raken as a remedy for *vomiting, the roots are used for *stomach-ache, while the fruits are boiled in water and eaten to expel intestinal worms (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the roots of P. ovalifolius (= P. guineenis) are used to treat measles and the leaves taken to treat *anorexia (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Kenya this herb is used for the treatment of *corneal ulcer (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the roots of P. reticulatus are used as a *purgative and to treat *gonorrhoea and *hook-worm, the leaves of P. sacleuxii are used to stop *diarrhoea and cure *earache (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam use the roots of P. sepialis to treat *barrenness, while leaves are applied to open *wounds (Heine & König 1988); in East Africa the roots of P. welwitschianus (including P. beillei) are used as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976). phyllanthus – Phyllanthus amarus (the phyllanthus family, Phyllanthaceae, earlier Euphorbaceae) is a slender annual herb widespread in tropical regions; in India it is used to treat *liver and *cardiovascular problems; it is often used in combination with *picrorrhiza (Picrorrhiza kurroa); phyllanthus has *antiviral activity especially against the *hepatitis B virus; the leaves are *diuretic and lower *blood pressure and *blood sugar levels. Physalis (Solanaceae) – a genus with about 80 species of annual or perennial herbs widely distributed, but with the highest diversity in the Americas; in the past the berry of P. alkekengi (*Chinese lantern or *winter cherry) was widely used as a remedy for *kidney and *bladder stones following the *doctrine of signatures; in Kenya the Luo drink an infusion of P. angulata to treat *intestinal worms and *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002); in Uganda the leaves of P. lagascae (P. micrantha) are used to treat *abdominal pains (Adjanohoun et al. 1993) and *stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 2000), while the whole plant is used in the treatment of *measles and *vertigo, and the fruit eaten for *anorexia (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Central Uganda the Baganda drink an infusion of crushed leaves of this plant to expel retained *placenta (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in West Uganda the leaves of this plant is taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Kenya the Luo drink an infusion of this herb to treat *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002); in Uganda the leaves of P. peruviana (*Cape gooseberry) are used to treat *febrile *convulsions in children (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), for *cough (Kakudidi et al. 2000) and *vomiting (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda P. peruviana is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in Central Uganda the Baganda drink a leaf infusion of this plant to treat painful *menstruation (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999). physic nut – Jatropha curcas (the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae) is an American shrub widely planted as a hedge and medicinal plant in tropical Africa, and often naturalized; the plant is 279 *abortifacient, *anthelmintic, *emetic and strongly *purgative (*cathartic); it is widely used to cure a large number of diseases and conditions, e.g. the seeds are poisonous and used as an *abortifacient and to treat *arthritis, *gout, *jaundice, *leprosy and *syphilis; a root decoction is used to treat *dysentery, *gonorrhoea, *jaundice, *malaria, *pneumonia, *spermatorhoea, and *syphilis; the leaves are sometimes used for the same illnesses, but also for releasing *bile and cleansing the *kidneys, the crushed dry leaves are applied to *abscesses and *wounds; alternative name: *purging nut. physiomedicalism – a 19th and 20th century American and British system of herbal medicine; their idea was to restore equilibrium within the body, and to obtain this they used herbs that induced vomiting, e.g. *pokeroot, Phytolacca americana (Phytolaccaceae). Physostigma (Fabaceae) – a genus of 4 species in tropical Africa; P. venenosum (Calabar or ordeal bean) contains a poisonous alkaloid (physostigmine) which is used in *ophthalmic medicine. Phytolacca (Phytolaccaceae, the pokeweed family) – a genus with about 25 species of herbs, shrubs or small trees widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, but mostly in America (in East Africa and Uganda 1 native species); in East Africa P. dodecandra is widely used for a number of diseases and conditions: the roots are used in small quantities (if taken in excess it may cause death) as a *purgative, *cathartic, *taenifuge to expel *roundworm and *tapeworm and as a cure for *enlarged glands and *venereal diseases such as *syphilis (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves are much used to treat *scalp skin sores and *itchy skin rash (*tape worms), but also to treat fresh *wounds, chicken mites and cracked feet soles, and to prevent *abortion (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam use the sap of the root of P. dodecandra to treat a dangerous *stomach disease (Heine & König 1988); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda P. dodecandra is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in West Uganda the leaves and roots of P. dodecandra are used to treat sexual *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005). Phytolaccaceae – pokeweed family; a family with 18 genera and about 70 species of herbs, shrubs or small trees widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, but mostly in America; some species of the genus Phytolacca are important medicines. phytotherapy – herbal medicine; this treatment is varied from country to country and from one practitioner to another, but it usually involves prescribing use of herbs directly or medicines made from herbs. However often a holistic attitude is taken placing the illness in the context of the patient’s life as a whole, i.e. practitioners recommend suitable *dietary and lifestyle changes that will allow the body’s self-regenerating powers. Picralima (Apocynaceae) – a genus of 1 tree species in tropical Africa; a bark decoction of P. nitida is widely drunk as an *anthelmintic, *purgative and to alleviate *hernia and *stomach pain, while a root decoction is drunk to treat *blennorrhagia, *jaundice and *yellow fever. picrorrhiza – Picrorrhiza kurrooa (Scrophulariaceae) is a Himalayan plant; it is used to treat *fever, *liver and *cardiovascular problems, but is often used in combination with *phyllanthus, Phyllanthus amarus (the phyllanthus family, Phyllanthaceae, earlier Euphorbaceae). pigeonberry – Phytolacca americana (the pokeweed family, Phytolaccaceae) and other species of the genus Phytolacca; P. americana is an American perennial herb spread to many other warm and tropical regions; dye from the berries of this plant has been used to colour ink, sweets and wine; it has been used to treat *skin diseases, *sores, *tumours and *ulcers as well as *arthritic and *rheumatic conditions, to relieve pain and induce *vomiting; it has also been used to treat *respiratory tract infections (e.g. *sore throats and *tonsillitis); however, today pigeonberry is of most value because of its power to kill snails which carry *bilharzia; alternative names: *inkberry, *poke root and *pokeweed. pigeon pea – Cajanus cajan (Fabaceae, Faboideae) or the seeds of this plant; in East Africa the burnt ash of the stem of pigeon pea is applied to *wounds and *scalds; stalks are also chewed to 280 alleviate *toothache (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves are used to treat *anaemia, *diarrhoea, *thread worms and for *leucorrhoea in pregnancy (Adjanohoun 1993); in West Uganda the leaves are used to treat *conjunctivitis, fever and retained *placenta (Kakudidi et al. 2000). pignons – edible seeds of *pines (genus Pinus, Pinaceae; Gymnospermae); alternative name: *manna; the following species of pines have edible seeds: P. cembra (Siberian cedar), P. pinea (stone or umbrella pine) and P. torreyana (a Californian pine). pigweed – Portulaca oleracea (the purslane family, Portulacaceae) is a succulent annual herb native to southern Europe and Asia, but now widespread as one of the world’s worst weeds; it is a *diuretic and a mild *antibiotic and effective in treating *hookworms and bacillary *dysentery; it has also been used to treat *headaches and *stomach ache and as an *antidote for *snake bites and wasp stings; alternative names: *common purslane, *purslane and *pursley. piles – *haemorrhoids (*hemorrhoids). pilewort – Ranunculus ficaria (the buttercup family – Ranunculaceae) is a widespread herb in Europe and adjacent parts of Asia and Africa; it contains *anemonin, *protoanemonin, *saponins, *tannins and *vitamin C; this herb has been widely used as a medicine for the relief of *haemorrhoids and *ulcers; alternative names: *celandine and *lesser celandine; see also *greater celandine (Chelidonium majus). Piliostigma (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae) – a genus with 3 species of shrubs or small trees native to the Old World tropics (1 species i East Africa and Uganda); the genus is now usually included in Bauhinia; in Uganda the root of P. thonningii is used to treat *diarrhoea, *insanity, *pyomyositis, *sterility, *vertigo and as an *antidote, while the leaves are used for *pyomyositis and *diarrhoea (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003; Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in East Africa the leaves are also used for *chest complaints, *coughs, *stomach pain and their ash applied to *wounds from *snakebite; the bark is chewed to relieve *colds, *coughs and *chest pain; a *decoction or *infusion from the roots is drunk to stop *haemorrhage, *miscarriage and prolonged *menstruation, and as a remedy for *colds in the chest and as a cure for *venereal diseases (Kokwaro 1976). pill-bearing spurge – Euphorbia hirta (the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae) is a troublesome weed in many warm and tropical countries; in Asia it is wiely used to treat *bronchial asthma and other *respiratory tract conditions; alternative names: *asthma plant/weed, *garden spurge and *hairy spurge. pill of eight ingredients – famous Chinese medicine including e.g. *rehmannia, Rehmannia glutinosa (the foxglove family, Scrophulariaceae). pimento – spice from Pimenta dioica (the myrtle family, Myrtaceae), a tree where the immature fruits are used as spice, mainly grown in Jamaica; as a medicine pimento is a *stimulant, stomach-settling and *antiseptic, and it is mainly used to relieve *indigestion and *flatulence, and to treat *diarrhoea; alternative name: *allspice and *Jamaica pepper; Carolina allspice is Calycanthus floridus (Calycanthaceae). pimpernel – Anagallis arvensis (the primrose family, Primulaceae) is a troublesome weed in many temperate parts of the world; this herb is *diuretic, sweat-inducing and *expectorant; it has mainly been used to stimulate the *coughing up of *mucus and help recover from *colds and *flu, but was also taken to treat *epilepsy and mental problems; alternative name: *common pimpernel, *poison chickweed, *poisonweed, *poor man’s weatherglass, *red chickweed, *scarlet pimpernel, *shepherd’s clock, *shephard’s weatherglass and *wink-a-peep. Pimpinella (Apiaceae) – a genus of about 150 species of perennial herbs widespread in northern temperate regions and at higher altitudes in the tropics (in East Africa 14 species, in Uganda 3 species); in East Africa (Kakamega) a concoction from the leaves and roots of P. keniensis is used for the cure of *orchitis (Kokwaro 1976). pimples – small pustules (usually on the skin). 281 Pinacceae (Gymnospermae) – a family of about 9 genera and 210 species of softwood trees widely distributed in the northern temperate regions; some of the genera have medicinal species, e.g. Abies (*balsam fir), Larix (*larch) and Pinus (*Scots pine). pine – species of the genus Pinus (the pine family, Pinaceae; Gymnospermae), for medicinal use see *Scots pine (P. sylvestris) and *stone pine or *umbrella pine (*pignons, P. pinea). pineapple – Ananas comosus (the pineapple family, Bromeliaceae) is a very important South American ’fruit’; the edible part consists of an entire inflorescence not developing seeds; it is cultivated in most tropical and warm countries; the ripe ’fruit’ reduces excessive *gastric acid, settles *wind and relieves *constipation; the juice is a *digestive tonic and *diuretic; the unripe ’fruit’ increases appetite and relieves *dyspepsia. pineapple family – Bromeliaceae is a large family with about 50 genera and 2000 species widely distributed in America and with only one genus native to Africa. pine family – the pine family, Pinaceae (Gymnospermae) is a family of about 9 genera and 210 species of softwood trees widely distributed in the northern temperate regions; some of the genera have medicinal species, e.g. Abies (*balsam fir), Larix (*larch) and Pinus (*Scots pine). pine kernels – edible pine seeds, genus Pinus (the pine family, Pinaceae), e.g. from *stone pine or *umbrella pine (P. pinea), cembra pine (P. cembra) and Siberian cedar (P. sibirica). pink family – Caryophyllaceae is a large family with about 80 genera and 2000 species widely distributed in all continents. pink root – Spigelia marilandica (Loganiaceae) is a North American perennial herb today only used to expel *intestinal worms, particularly *roundworms and *tapeworms; it is *emetic and irritant to the stomach; Spigelia anthelmia is also a *vermifuge and has been used in criminal poisoning. pipal – Ficus religiosa (the fig family, Moraceae) is a long-living Indian tree sacred to Hindus and Buddhists; it is cultivated in any tropical region where Indians have settled; the leaves are taken for *diarrhoea, *constipation and *dysentery; the powdered fruit is used for *asthma and the white latex is applied to aching *joints, *haemorrhoids and *warts; alternative names: *bo-tree, *peepal, *peepul and *pipul. Piper (Piperaceae) – a genus with about 1000 species of herbs, creepers, scramblers or lianas widely distributed in the tropics, but with highest diversity in South America and SE Asia (4 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in West Uganda the Bwamba use P. capense to treat boils (Kakudidi et al. 1996); also in West Uganda the leaves of P. capense are used to treat *prolapsed uterus (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Kenya the roots are used as an *anthelmintic, while the seeds are used as a *cough mixture (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the leaves of P. umbellatum are used for *ear-ache and the roots boiled together with Aframomum roots as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976). Piperaceae – a family with 5 genera and about 3000 species of herbs, creepers or lianas widely distributed in the tropics, but with highest diversity in South America and SE Asia (2 genera and 12 species in East Africa, 2 genera and 11 species in Uganda); species of the genus *Piper are used as medicine. pipe vine – species of the genus Aristolochia (Aristolochiaceae); alternative names: *birthwort and *dutchman’s pipe; for medicinal use see *Aristolochia. pipsissewa – Chimaphila umbellata (the heather family, Ericaceae/Pyrolaceae) is a north temperate perennial forest herb; the leaves contain *hydroquinones which have a strong disinfectant effect within the urinary tract; it was widely used by native North Americans to treat *fevers (including *typhus) and induce sweating; European settlers took it for *rheumatism and for *kidney and *urinary problems; the herb is *astringent, *diuretic and *tonic. Piptadeniastrum (Fabaceae, Mimosoideae) – a genus with a single large tree species native to tropical African rain forests; P. africanum is used to treat a large number of diseases and conditions, e.g. as an *aphrodisiac, *expectorant and *purgative, and taken to treat *bronchitis, 282 *blennorrhagia ( *gonorrhoea), *cough, *fleas, *haemorrhoids, *insanity, *oedemas *pneumonia and toothache (Neuwinger 2000). pipul – Ficus religiosa (the fig family, Moraceae) is a long-living Indian tree sacred to Hindus and Buddhists; it is cultivated in any tropical region where Indians have settled; the leaves are taken for *diarrhoea, *constipation and *dysentery; the powdered fruit is used for *asthma and the white latex is applied to aching *joints, *haemorrhoids and *warts; alternative names: *bo-tree, *peepal, *peepul and *pipal. pistachio – species of the genus Pistacia (the mango family, Anacardiaceae); P. vera has edible seeds (*pistachio nut) and P. terebinthus gives terpentin; for medicinal use see *mastic tree. pistachio nut – the fruit of Pistacia vera (the mango family, Anacardiaceae), a small Asian tree now widely cultivated in the Mediterranean area; the seed are edible and used in confectinery and icecream and as dessert. Pistia (Araceae) – a genus of a single floating aquatic species widespread in tropical and subtropical regions; in East Africa the ash from a burnt plant of P. stratiotes (*water lettuce) is licked to cure *coughs, and the ash mixed with honey is taken as a remedy for *tachycardia; the roots are wrapped around the head of a *demented person and at the same time an infusion of the leaves is poured over the head (Kokwaro 1976). Pisum (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus with 5 species of annual herbs native to western Asia and the Mediterranean region, but one species, P. sativum, is widely cultivated in temperate regions worldwide, in the tropics mainly above 1500 m; in West Uganda the leaves of P. sativum (*garden pea) is taken to treat *diarrhoea (Kakudidi et al. 2000). pit shirish – Albizia lebbeck (the pea family, Fabaceae- Mimosoideae) is a deciduous Asian tree also spread to Africa and Central America; in Indian (*Ayurvedic) medicine its bark has been used for several thousands years to treat *allergies such as *asthma, *eczema, *hay fever and *urticaria, the flowers are taken for *bronchitis and coughs, and the seeds for *skin problems; research has shown that this plant helps to reduce allergic sensitivity and it may help to lower *cholesterol; alternative names: *East Indian walnut and *siris (tree). pitta – one of the three basic forces formed from the five elements (ether, air, fire, water, earth) in Indian *Ayurvedic medicinal philosophy; pitta is the fire principle created from fire and water; in the body fire (pitta) is manifested in digestive system, metabolism, body temperature, vision and intelligence; the bark of Albizia lebbeck (*pit shirish or *siris) is one of the plants taken for pitta; the other elements are *kapha and *vata. Pittosporaceae – a family with 9 genera and about 240 species of trees, shrubs or lianes widespread in the Old World tropics (6 genera endemic to Australia); in East Africa 1 genus and 3 species, 2 species in Uganda; some species of *Pittosporum have medicinal use. Pittosporum (Pittosporaceae) – a genus with about 200 species of trees, shrubs or climbers widely distributed in tropical and warm regions (3 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Kenya the bark of P. abyssinicum (= P. lanatum) is taken as an *emetic or as a *purgative for the treatment of *malaria (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the stem bark and roots together of P. viridiflorum (= P. mannii auct.) are used to treat *indigestion, and the leaves alone are used to treat lower *abdominal pain associated with the *falopian tube in women (Adjanohoun 1993); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam use the bark of P. viridiflorum as an *emetic and *laxative and to treat *malaria, lack of appetite and to cleanse the stomach (Heine & König 1988); in Kenya the bark of this species is boiled in water and used as an *emetic and as a remedy for *chest complaints, *malaria an other *fevers (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a root decoction of P. viridiflorum for *diarrhoea (Masinde 1996). pittosporum – species of the genus Pittosporum (Pittosporaceae), e.g. diamond-leaf pittosporum or Queensland pittosporum (P. rhombifolium) and Japanese pittosporum (P. tobira). placenta2 – spongy vascular organ through which the foetus is nourished via the *umbilical cord: the placenta is usually expelled in childbirth, but if retained the woman is often given plant medicine 283 to have it expelled, e.g. from *Cajanus cajan (*pigeon pea, Fabaceae), *Chamaecrista nigricans (Fabaceae), *Chasmanthera dependens (Menispermaceae), *Cissampelos mucronata (Menispermaceae), *Cynoglossum coeruleum (Boraginaceae), *Cyphostemma adenocaule (Vitaceae), *Ficus natalensis (*bark cloth tree, Moraceae), *Helichrysum globosum (Asteraceae), *Hydnora abyssinica (Hydnoraceae), *Indigofera arrecta (Fabaceae), *Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae), *Laportea ovalifolia (Urticaceae), *Physalis lagascae (Solanaceae), *Senna occidentalis & septentrionalis (Fabaceae), *Sporobolus pyramidalis (Poaceae), *Triumfetta rhomboidea (Tiliaceae) and *Zehneria scabra (Cucurbitaceae). plague – an epidemic disease of high mortality, especially the *bubonic plague. Plantaginaceae – a family with 3 genera and about 260 species of annual or perennial herbs widely distributed in warm and temperate regions (1 genus and 6 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); some species of the genus *Plantago are important medicinal herbs; the family is much larger if Veronicaceae is included. Plantago (Plantaginaceae or Veronicaceae) – a genus of about 255 species widely distributed in warm and temperate regions (6 species in East Africa, 2 species in Ugannda); in West Uganda the Bwamba use P. palmata (African plantain) to chase away evil spirits (Kakudidi et al. 1996); also in West Uganda the leaves of P. palmata are used to treat *fracture and to halt *foetal development (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda P. palmata is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in North Africa and elsewhere P. psyllium (*psyllium) is an important medicinal herb used as a safe and effective *laxative for thousands of years. plantain1 – *matoke or cooking banana (hybrids of the genus Musa (the banana family, Musaceae).; evergreen tall palm-like herb native to South-East Asia, but widely cultivated in all tropical regions; unripe plantains are *astringent (and the roots are strongly astringent) and are used to treat *diarrhoea; in Cuba dried plantain leaves are made into a syrup and widely used to treat *cough and chest conditions such as *bronchitis. plantain2 – species of the genus Plantago (the plantain family, Plantaginaceae), e.g. *broad-leaved plantain (P. major), buck’s horn plantain (P. coronopus), *common plantain (P. major), *dooryard plantain (P. major), *great plantain (P. major), hoary plantain (P. media) and sea plantain (P. maritima); see also *flea seed (P. arenaria or P. indica) and *ribwort (P. lanceolata); several of these species are important medicinal plants, see *Plantago. plantain family – Plantaginaceae in its classical form is a medium sized family with 3 genera and more than 250 species, but much larger if Veronicaceae is included. plasma – the fluid portion of the blood. Platostoma (Lamiaceae) – a genus of 5 species of herbs or small shrubs native to the Old World tropics; in Lushoto district in Tanzania a decoction of the roots of P. africanum is drunk for *headaches; the roots are also used as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976). Platycerium (Pteridophyta: Polypodiaceae) – a genus of 17 species of epiphytic ferns widely distributed in tropical forest regions, but most common in the old world; in West Uganda the whole plant of P. elephantotis is used to treat *palpitations (Kakudidi et al. 2000). Plectranthus (Lamiaceae) – a genus of about 300 species of annual or perennial herbs or shrubs widely distributed in tropical and warm countries; in East Africa the boiled roots of P. albus are used as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the Shambaa drink the leaves of P. amaniensis macerated in water for stomach diseases (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa a decoction of the root of P. amboinicus is drunk to treat *stomach pain (Kokwaro 1976), while in Uganda the fresh leaf is used to treat *dermatosis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Kenya the leaves of P. barbatus are used as a *purgative and as a remedy for *stomach-ache, and the Luo use this plant for bathing babies suffering from *measles (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the Pare chew the leaves of P. caninus to relieve *toothache (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of P. comosus are used to treat *stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 2000), while the fresh leaf of P. cyaneus is used to treat *fever with shivering (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Africa a *decoction of the bark of 284 P. cylindraceus is used for the treatment of *gastric ulcers, while a decoction of the leaves is taken together with a similar infusion from Microglossa oblongifolia as a remedy for *fever and severe *headache (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the Pare use an infusion of pounded leaves of P. elegans as a remedy for *intestinal worms (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the root of P. forskohlii is used to treat *sickle cell disease two weeks after the patient has been treated with the roots and leaves of Vernonia amygdalina , while the whole plant of P. lanuginosus is used to treat *peptic ulcers (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania a decoction of the root of P. lanuginosus is used to treat *intestinal disorders, while the leaves are chewed and believed to make one feel fresh and strong (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the Shambaa use an infusion of the pounded roots of P. laxiflorus to treat *rheumatism (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the Bwamba use P. laxiflorus to treat boils and chase away evil spirits (Kakudidi et al. 1996); in West Uganda the leaves of P. prostratus are steamed or squeezed and eaten or inserted in *vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); in East Africa the leaves of P. sylvestris are taken as a treatment for *abdominal pain and aching chests in children, while its roots are boiled together with those of Clerodendrum johnstonii and Senna didymobotrya and the decoction drunk as a remedy for *headache and *malaria (Kokwaro 1976). pleura – the lining of the *thoraic cavity. pleurisy – inflammation of the membrane that covers the *lungs and lines the chest; in America *pleurisy root (*butterfly weed), Asclepias tuberosa (the periwinkle family, ApocynaceaeAsclepioideae) has been widely used to treat this condition; other plants used are Bryonia dioica (*white bryony, Cucurbitaceae), *Indigofera lupatana (Fabaceae), Lobaria pulmonaria (*tree lungwort), *Ocimum sanctum (*holy basil or *tulsi, Lamiaceae), Polygala vulgaris (*milkwort, Polygalaceae), Polypodium vulgare (*polypody, Polypodiaceae; Pteridophyta), Thymus serpyllum (*wild thyme) & vulgaris (*garden thyme or *thyme, Lamiaceae), Ulmus americana (*white elm) & glabra (*wych elm) & rubra (*slippery elm, Ulmaceae). pleurisy root – Asclepias tuberosa (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae-Asclepioideae) is a native American herb widely used in North American herbal medicine as a *cure-all; it was used to treat conditions as diverse as *bronchitis, *catarrh, *colic, *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *eczema, *hysteria, *pleurisy, *pneumonia and *typhoid; this herb promotes the coughing up of *phlegm, reduces *inflammation and helps reduce *fever by increasing *perspiration. Pleurostylia (Celastraceae) – a genus of 3-4 species of trees or shrubs native to South Africa and the tropics of the Old World (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Zimbabwe a root infusion of P. Africana has been used to treat *schistosomiasis and *venereal diseases (Gelfand et al. 1985). Plicosepalus (Loranthaceae) – a genus of 12 species of shrubby hemiparasites native to tropical and South Africa reaching Arabia and the Middle East (4 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in East Africa heated twigs of P. curviflorus are sometimes applied to the chest of people suffering from *pneumonia (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam use P. sagittifolius to treat *snakebites and *swellings (Heine & König 1988). Plinius (Pliny) the elder (AD 23-79) – Roman writer who drew together writings from over 400 authors in his ”Natural History”; he included all herbal lore known at the time; much of the European knowledge of medicinal herbs comes from Pliny and his predecessor *Dioscorides. Pluchea (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 80 species of shrubs and herbs widespread in the tropics of both hemispheres (4 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); the Nyika use a decoction of the leaves of P. dioscoridis for curing children of *infantile ailments (Kokwaro 1976). plum – Prunus domestica (the rose family, Rosaceae); the fruit is rich in vitamins and thus useful in the general defence against diseases; in Africa *wild plum is Harpephyllum caffrum in the mango family (Anacardiaceae). Plumbaginaceae – a family with about 20 genera and 440 species of herbs, shrubs or lianes widespread in hot as well as cold regions, especially in arid and saline habitats (3 genera and 10 285 species in East Africa, 1 genus and 2 species in Uganda); species of the genus *Plumbago are of medicinal use. Plumbago (Plumbaginaceae) – a genus with about 20 species of perennial herbs, erect or climbing shrubs native to many tropical regions (8 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in West Uganda a decoction of the leaf of P. dawei is drunk as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the powder of P. zeylanica is drunk in tea to cure *ulcers (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003) while the leaf is used to treat *epilepsy and sexual *impotence (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a root *decoction of P. zeylanica to treat *rheumatism and speed up *delivery, while the root is applied to *wounds on legs (Heine & König 1988); in Kenya the rootstock or roots is used to treat *blisters on the skin, *hookworms, swollen legs, and is said to cure bad eyes in cattle (Kokwaro 1976). plumbago family – Plumbaginaceae is a medium sized family with 10 genera and about 560 species widely distributed in all continents; species of the genus *Plumbago are of medicinal use. PMS – *premenstrual syndrome; the symptoms many women experience before *menstruation, e.g. *acne, breast tenderness, *congestion, fluid retention, *headache, sore nipples and increased appetite especially for salty food; these symptoms can be alleviated using *valerian (Valeriana officinalis), *rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), *vervain (Verbena officinalis) and lime (Tilia species). pneumonia – inflammation of the lungs; in severe cases portions of the lungs may become solid; a large number of plants is used to treat pneumonia, e.g. Acacia mellifera, A. nilotica,Afzelia quanzensis,Aloë secundiflora, Antidesma membranaceum, Asparagus setaceus Poaceae – the grass family with about 635 genera and 9000 species of herbaceous or more rarely woody plants (bamboos) widely distributed throughout the world from hot tropical regions to cold arctic tundras (186 genera and 996 species in East Africa, 130 genera and 512 species in Uganda); some genera have species of medicinal use, e.g. *Brachiaria (signal grass), *Chloris (seed grass), *Cymbopogon (*lemon grass), *Cynodon, *Digitaria (couch grass), *Eleusine (finger millet), Elymus (*couch grass and quickgrass), *Imperata (cotton grass), *Melinus, *Oryza (*rice), Panicum (Guinea grass), *Paspalum, *Pennisetum, *Perotis, *Saccharum (sugar cane), *Sacciolepis, *Setaria (foxtail grass), *Sorghum, *Sporobolus, *Triticum (*wheat) and *Zea (*maize). podo – a species of the gymnosperm tree genus *Podocarpus (*Podocarpaceae); alternative name: *totara (pine), *white pine and *yellow wood; for medicinal use see *Podocarpus. Podocarpaceae – a family of gymnosperms with about 12 genera and 155 species of trees widely distributed in the southern hemisphere(1 genus and 5 species in East Africa, 1 genus and 3 species in Uganda); many species have important timber and some species of the genus *Podocarpus are used as medicines. Podocarpus (Podocarpaceae - Gymnospermae) – a genus with about 95 species of softwood trees (yellow-woods) native to upland tropical regions mainly in the southern hemisphere (5 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in East Africa an infusion of the bark of P. gracilior and P. milanjianus is drunk as a treatment for stomach-ache (Glover et al. 1966, Kokwaro 1976); P. gracilior has a timber which produce a *dermatitis, which has the characteristics of an *allergic reaction; the sap of Podocarpus-species has been used as a remedy for chest complaints (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); see also *African fern pine. podophyllotoxin – a poison used to treat *venerial warts; the poison is extracted from *may apple, Podophyllum peltatum (Podophyllaceae or Berberidaceae), a North American plant. poinciana – Caesalpinia gillesii (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae); dwarf poinciana er Caesalpinia pulcherrima; for medicinal use see *Caesalpinia. poinsettia – Euphorbia pulcherrima (the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae) is a widely cultivated ornamental plant used as a pot plant for Christmas in cold and temperate countries and as a 286 garden shrub in warm countries; the white sap is toxic and has been used to treat *warts; alternative name: *Mexican flame leaf. poison arrow tree – Acokanthera oppositifolia (Apocynaceae); for medicinal use see *Acokanthera. poison bulb – Boophone disticha (the daffodil family, Amaryllidaceae) is a robust, bulbous herb native to eastern and southern Africa; it is a very poisonous (Verdcourt & Trump 1969); the juice of the bulb is used as arrow poison and to increase sexual potency (if instead being paralyzed, powder of the burnt bulb is rubbed into the skin of the paralyzed part); the silky outer scales of the bulb are used as a dressing on *abscesses, *boils, *burns, areas of *rheumatic pain, *skin diseases, and *septic wounds. poison chickweed – Anagallis arvensis (the primrose family, Primulaceae) is a troublesome weed in many temperate parts of the world; this herb is *diuretic, sweat-inducing and *expectorant; it has mainly been used to stimulate the coughing up of *mucus and help recover from *colds and *flu, but was also taken to treat *epilepsy and mental problems; alternative names: *common pimpernel, *pimpernel, *poisonweed, *poor man’s weatherglass, *red chickweed, *scarlet pimpernel, *shepherd’s clock, *shephard’s weatherglass and *wink-a-peep. poison ivy – Rhus toxicodendron (Anacardiaceae) is a North American poisonous tree formerly used in herbal medicine as a treatment for *rheumatism, *paralysis and certain *skin diseases, but it is itself highly irritant to the skin and causes severe *dermatitis. poisonweed – Anagallis arvensis (the primrose family, Primulaceae); see *poison chickweed for medicinal use; alternative names: *common pimpernel, * pimpernel, *poison chickweed, *poor man’s weatherglass, *red chickweed, *scarlet pimpernel, *shepherd’s clock, *shephard’s weatherglass and *wink-a-peep. poke root – Phytolacca americana (the pokeweed family, Phytolaccaceae) and other species of the genus *Phytolacca; P. americana is an American perennial herb spread to many other warm and tropical regions; dye from the berries of this plant has been used to colour ink, sweets and wine; it has been used to treat *skin diseases, *sores, *tumours and *ulcers as well as *arthritic and *rheumatic conditions, to relieve pain and induce *vomiting; it has also been used to treat *respiratory tract infections (e.g. *sore throats and *tonsillitis); however, today poke root is of most value because of its power to kill snails which carry *bilharzia; alternative names: *inkberry, *pigeonberry and *pokeweed. poker tree - *red-hot poker tree is Erythrina abyssinica (the pea family, Fabaceae); alternative name: *flame tree; for medicinal use see *Erythrina. pokeweed – Phytolacca americana (the pokeweed family, Phytolaccaceae) and other species of the genus Phytolacca; for medicinal use see *Phytolacca and *poke root; alternative names: *inkberry, *pigeonberry and *poke root. pokeweed family – Phytolaccaceae, er en nokså liten family med 22 slekter og 125 arter, vanlig i varme land i alle verdensdeler. polio – short for *poliomyelitis; a disease caused by a *virus which attack the grey substance in the spinal cord (marrow), eventually resulting in *paralysis of the limbs; very few plants are used to alleviate this disease, e.g. *Acacia hockii (Fabaceae), *Lannea schimperi (Anacardiaceae) and *Lippia abyssinica (Verbenaceae). poliomyelitis – a disease caused by a *virus which attack the grey substance in the spinal cord (marrow), eventually resulting in *paralysis of the limbs, especially the legs; this disease is mainly found in unvaccinated populations; for medicinal plants used see *polio. Pollichia (Caryophyllaceae) – a genus with only 1 species (a perennial herb or subshrub) native to Africa and the Arabian peninsula; in East Africa the roots of P. campestris are boiled and the decoction drunk to cure *malaria, but it is also an *emetic causing *diarrhoea and vomiting (Koyama 1976). Polo, Marco (c. 1254-1324) – Italian explorer; in connections with his travels from Europe to China in the 14th century he brought Chinese medicinal herbs to Europe. 287 Polycarpaea (Caryophyllaceae) – a genus with about 50 species of annual or perennial herbs widespread in the Old World tropics and subtropics (5 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in East Africa an infusion of the pounded roots of P. eriantha is drunk several times a day as a *cough remedy (Koyama 1976). polydipsia – excessive thirst. Polygala (Polygalaceae) – *milkwort; a genus of about 500 species of annual or perennial herbs, shrubs or small trees widespread in both hot and temperate regions; in Kenya the Luo use P. erioptera to treat babies’ diseases such as *coughs, *skin rashes and *whitlow, while the Shambaa in Tanzania use the roots of P. macrostigma for *cough (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the rootstock or roots of P. sadebeckiana is used to treat sexual *asthenia, and the sap of the leaves applied to *wounds (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in East Africa an infusion of the roots or rootstock of P. sphenoptera is used for the treatment of *coughs and as an *aphrodisiac, while a medicine from the leaves of P. stenopetala is used to treat eye problems; in coastal Tanzania the Bondei apply the powdered leaves of P. paniculata on *wounds and use the roots as an *aphrodisiac; in Kenya the Kakamega use the juice from leaves of P. persicariifolia to alleviate eye-ache, while the Sukuma in Tanzania chew the roots of P. wadibomica for *snakebite and use the leaves to counter *infertility (Kokwaro 1976). Polygalaceae – the milkwort family; a family of about 18 genera and 950 species of annual or perennial herbs, shrubs, lianes or trees widespread in both hot and temperate regions; some genera contain species with medicinal use, e.g. *Polygala and *Securidaca. Polygonaceae – a family with about 55 genera and 1150 species of annual or perennial herbs, shrubs or small trees widely distributed in both warm and cold countries, but mainly in the northern hemisphere (7 genera and about 40 species in East Africa, 5 genera and 15 species in Uganda); some genera have species of medicinal use, e.g. *Fagopyrum, *Oxygonum, *Persicaria and *Rumex. Polygonum (Polygonaceae) – a genus with about 20 species; East African species which have been recorded to have medicinal use are now all transferred to the genus Persicaria, but see *knotgrass (P. aviculare), which is a temperate medicinal herb. Polypodiaceae – a fern family with about 30 genera and y species of epiphytic and terrestrial ferns widely distributed in both hot and cold countries (11 genera and 21 species in East Africa, 9 genera and 15 species in Uganda); species of the genus *Platycerium has medicinal use. polypody – Polypodium vulgare (the polypody family, Polypodiaceae) is a European and Asian fern with a sweet edible root-stock; it stimulates *bile secretion and has been used to treat *hepatitis, *indigestion and *jaundice; it is also a gentle *laxative and useful for *constipation in children; it is also *expectorant helping to relieve *bronchitis, *catarrh, *coughs and *pleurisy. polypore – kjuke, arter av family Polyporaceae s. lat. (Basidiomycetes: Polyporales), e.g. birch polypore (knivkjuke, Piptoporus betulinus), giant polypore (storkjuke, Meripilus/ Grifola giganteus), many-zoned polypore (sildekjuke, Coriolus/Trametes versicolor), shaggy polypore (pelskjuke, Inonotus hispidus) og scaly polypore (skjellkjuke, Polyporus squamosus). polyps – tumour with a stalk arising from the body’s surface (internal or external). polypus – tumour with a stalk arising from the body’s surface (internal or external). polysaccharides – multiple units of sugar linked together; the most important polysaccharides in herbal medicine are the sticky *mucilages and gums; they soak up large quantities of water producing a jelly-like mass that can be used to soothe and protect irritated tissue. Polyscias (Araliaceae) – a genus with about 100 tree species native to the Old World tropics (4 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); P. fulva (*parasol tree) is an African tree with *purgative bark; twig bark is used to treat *abdominal pain during *pregnancy, *colic, *cough, *insanity and *tuberculosis; a leaf decoction is drunk to expel intestinal *parasites (Neuwinger 2000); in Uganda pounded leaves are used to treat *peptic ulcers (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda P. fulva is used by herbalists (Cunningham 1996). 288 Polysphaeria (Rubiaceae) – a genus with about 20 species of shrubs or small trees confined to tropical Africa with Madagascar (9 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of P. lanceolata (= P. schweinfurthii) are used to cure *colds, the roots of P. multiflora are used as a *purgative and for *abdominal pain, while those of P. parvifolia are used for an unspecified disease (Kokwaro 1976). pomegranate – Punica granatum (the pomegranate family, Punicaceae or Lythraceae) is a deciduous shrub or small tree native to south-western Asia but widely cultivated elsewhere; miniature pomegranate are dwarf forms cultivated in pots as house plants; the fruits are very rich in antioxidants; the rind and bark contain poisonous *alkaloids, but are a very good remedy to cause *tapeworms to release their grip in the intestinal walls, and if followed by a strong *laxative will be expeled. pomegranate family – Punicaceae is a small family with only 1 genus and 2 species from Southeast Europe to India; the family is sometimes included in Lythraceae; for medicinal plants see *pomegranate. pomelo – Citrus maxima (the orange family, Rutaceae) is the largest of the citrus fruits; each fruit weighs from 0.5 to 1.4 kg; orange, grapefruit, clementin and lemon are all hybrids where pomelo or its hybrid is one of the parents; see *clementine, *grapefruit, *lemon, *orange, *Seville orange, *sour orange and *sweet orange. poor man’s weatherglass – Anagallis arvensis (the primrose family, Primulaceae) is a troublesome weed in many temperate parts of the world; this herb is *diuretic, sweat-inducing and *expectorant; it has mainly been used to stimulate the coughing up of *mucus and help recover from colds and flu, but was also taken to treat *epilepsy and mental problems; alternative names: *common pimpernel, * pimpernel, *poison chickweed, *poisonweed, *red chickweed, *scarlet pimpernel, *shepherd’s clock, *shephard’s weatherglass and *wink-a-peep. popinac – Acacia farnesiana (the pea family, Fabaceae, Mimosoideae) is a small tree or spiny shrub native to Australia, but widely cultivated elsewhere; it is used for *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *skin diseases and *wounds; the pulp surrounding the seeds has been used to treat *tumours and *duruncles; a perfume oil (cassie) is obtained from this species; alternative name: *huisache, *opopanax and *sweet acacia. poplar – most species of the genus Populus (the willow family, Salicaceae), e.g. black poplar (P. nigra), black Italian poplar (P. × canadensis), grey poplar (P. × canescens) and white poplar (P. alba); for medicinal species see *balm of Gilead (P. × candicans) and *quaking aspen (P. tremula). poppy1 – species of the genus Papaver (the poppy family, Papaveraceae), e.g. alpine poppy (P. alpinum), common or field poppy (P. rhoeas), Iceland poppy (P. nudicaule), *opium poppy (P. somniferum), oriental poppy (P. orientale) and *red poppy (P. rhoeas); some of these are important medicinal plants (see *Papaver). poppy2 – species of the poppy family Papaveraceae not belonging to the genus Papaver, e.g. *blue poppy (Meconopsis betonicifolia), *California poppy (Eschscholzia californica), *horned poppy (Glaucium), *Mexican poppy (Argemone mexicana) and *Welsh poppy (Meconopsis cambrica); some of these are important medicinal plants. poppy family – Papaveraceae is a fairly small family with 26 genera and about 250 species or with 42 genera and 650 species if the *fumary family, Fumariaceae is included. Porterandia (Rubiaceae) – a genus previously considered to consist of 14 species in Africa and Asia, but the African species are now transferred to a new genus *Aoranthe. Portulaca (Portulacaceae) – a genus with about 40 species of annual or perennial somewhat succulent herbs in tropical and warm countries (29 species in East Africa, 7 species in Uganda); in West Uganda the leaves of P. oleracea are boiled or steamed and eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); in Tanzania the roots of P. oleracea are used for *snakebite treatment (Koyama 1976); in East Africa leaves of P. quadrifida are used to cure 289 scalded or swollen parts of the body and to alleviate *toothache, and mixed with Plectranthus cylindraceus also to treat *gastric *ulcers (Koyama 1976); in West Uganda the leaves of P. quadrifida are boiled or steamed and eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005). Portulacaceae – a family with about 20 genera and 400 species of annual or perennial somewhat succulent herbs or shrubs in tropical and warm countries (5 genera and 38 species in East Africa, 3 genera and 12 species in Uganda); some species of the genera *Portulaca and *Talinum have species of medicinal uses. portulaca family – see Portulacaceae above. postpartum – after delivery. pot (USA) – marijuana, Cannabis sativa var. indica (the hemp family, Cannabaceae) is a tall annual herb native to southern Asia but now widely cultivated, often illegally, throughout the world; it is used as a drug and medicinal herb; the female inflorescences of marijuana contains a large number of *cannabinoids including *delta 9-*tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), a major psychoactive chemical, which is widely misused by millions of people worldwide; it has a pleasantly exciting effect, relieves pain and induces sleep, but reduces *fertility and can cause *delirium; the seeds are a strong *laxative; marijuana is a powerful *analgesic as effective as *codeine but mainly used in patients having *chemotherapy; marijuana has been used to treat *glaucoma as it reduces the pressure within the eye; this herb is also an *anti-inflammatory and *sedative; it is believed to relieve symptoms in *epilepsy, *multiple sclerosis and *spinal cord injuries; alternative name: *dagga and *marijuana; see also *bhang and *hashish. potash (K2CO3) – potassium carbonate, especially the crude and impure form obtained from wood ashes and used as medicine. potassium (K) – a silvery white chemical element; certain plants contain fairly high amounts of potassium, e.g. the *potato tuber (*Solanum tuberosum, Solanaceae). potato – Solanum tuberosum (the potato family, Solanaceae) is a South American perennial herb widely cultivated as a major starch crop throughout thr temperate regions of the world; the tuber contains starch and large amounts of *vitamins A, B1, B2, C and *minerals (especially potassium, K) and very small amounts of *atropine alkaloids (larger and dangerous amounts if subject to light and becoming greenish); taken in moderation potato juice from the tuber has been drunk to treat *peptic ulcers and used externally may soothe *backache, *headache, *haemorrhoids, painful *joints an *skin rashes; potato skins are used in India to heal *burns and treat swollen gums. potato family – Solanaceae is a large family with almost 150 genera and 3000 species widely distributed in all continents, but with the highest amount of genera and species in America; for medicinal plants see *Solanaceae; alternative name: *nightshade family. pot infusion – method of preparing herbal medicine that contain volatile oils; a pot without water is warmed and the herbs put innside; water that has just boiled is added and the lid put on; after teten minutes the inusion can be drunk. pot marigold – Calendula officinalis (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is an annual herb native to southern Europe, but widely cultivated as a garden plant throughout the world; the bright orange flowers are *antiseptic and *anti-inflammatory and widely used to treat cuts, inflamed and angry skin, *rashes, *ringworm, *sunburn, *varicose veins and *wounds; taken internally it helps *inflammatory problems of the *digestive system, e.g. *collitis, *gastritis and *peptic ulcers; marigold is also believed to be a detoxifying herb, and has been considered cleansing for the *liver and *gallbladder; alternative name: *marigold; field marigold, C. arvensis, has similar medicinal properties as C. officinalis; see also *African marigold, *corn marigold and *French marigold. 290 poultice – herbal preparation which is a mixture of fresh, dried and powdered herbs; it is usually applied hot to affected area to alleviate pain and reduce swelling, and to draw *pus from infected boils, wounds and ulcers; alternative name: *cataplasm. powder – powdered herbs; these are most easily taken as capsules or may be sprinkled on food or taken with water; externally they can be applied as a dusting powder to the skin or mixed with tinctures as a *poultice. premature ejaculation – very early ejection of semen; for the many plants used to treat this condition see *ejaculation. pregnancy – the period when a child is developing in the *uterus; only a few herbs are recommended for use during this period (e.g. *German chamomile, *cornsilk and *lime), since many medicinal herbs have constituents which stimulates the muscles of the uterus, and in large doses, could cause *miscarriage. pre-menstrual syndrome (tension) – the symptoms many women experience before *menstruation, e.g. *acne, breast tenderness, *congestion, fluid retention, *headache, sore nipples and increased appetite especially for salty food; these symptoms can be alleviated using *valerian (Valeriana officinalis), *rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) or *vervain (Verbena officinalis) and lime (Tilia species); see *PMS. Premna (Verbenaceae) – a genus of about 200 species of shrubs, climbers or trees widespread in tropical and warm regions of the old world (18 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in West Uganda the leaves of Premna angolensis are used to treat *dysentery (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in coastal Kenya a decoction of the roots of P. chrysoclada is taken as a remedy for *dysentery, *kidney trouble, *snakebite and as a *purgative, while an infusion of the leaves is used as a cooling wash to cure *fever and some *venereal diseases (Kokwaro 1976, Weiss 1979); the Digo also use a decoc-tion of the roots of P. oligotricha as a remedy for *cough and *chest problems, and an infusion of the leaves of P. serratifolia (= P. corymbosa) as a cooling wash to relieve *headache; in Tanzania pounded leaves of P. velutina are rubbed on burns acting as a cooling remedy (Kokwaro 1976). prepuce – the fold of skin that covers the head of the *penis; see *circumcision. prickly amaranth – Amaranthus spinosus (the amaranth family, Amaranthaceae) is one of the world’s worst weeds, but is also used as a medicine; in Indian (Ayurvedic) medicine it is taken to reduce heavy *menstrual bleeding and excessive *vaginal discharge, and to arrest the *coughing up of blood; in Uganda it has been applied for *functional psychosis (Adjanohoun 1993); alternative name: *needle bur, *spiny amaranth and *thorny pigweed. prickly ash – Zanthoxylum americanum (the orange family, Rutaceae) is a North American shrub or small tree widely used as herbal medicine by native Americans; both bark and berries were chewed to alleviate *rheumatism and *toothache; it has also been used as a *circulatory stimulant, for *arthritis, *digestive problems and leg *ulcers; it stimulates blood flow and painful and stiff *joints promoting the supply of oxygen and nutrients to painful areas and removing waste products; alternative name: *toothache tree; see also *southern prickly ash (Z. clavaherculis). prickly lantana – Lantana camara (the teak family, Verbenaceae), is a troublesome weedy shrub in many hot countries, but widely grown as an ornamental; alternative name: *curse of India, *redflowered sage, *tick berry, *white sage and *wild sage. prickly pear – species of the genus Opuntia (the cactus family, Cactaceae) have compressed spiny stems and edible fruits; they are native to the Americas, but are widely cultivated for hedges and ornament in all dry tropical countries, and are often going wild and becoming troublesome weeds; the plants are host for the cochinille-lice producing the red substance cochineal, which are used in lipstick; the fruit is used to make conserves and (alcoholic) drinks; the split stems have been bound around injured limbs as a first-aid measure; the flowers are *astringent, reduce 291 *bleeding and are taken to treat an enlarged *prostate gland; they are also taken for problems of the *digestive tract; alternative name: *barbary fig. prickly poppy – Argemone mexicana (the poppy family, Papaveraceae) is a showy, thorny, troublesome American weed now widely distributed in all tropical and hot countries; alternative name: *Mexican (prickly) poppy and *yellow (prickly) poppy. pride of Barbados – Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae); for medicinal use see *Caesalpinia; alternative name: dwarf *poinciana. pride of India – Melia azedarach (the mahogany family, Meliaceae); for medicinal use see *Melia; alternative names: *Indian bead tree, * Indian lilac, *Persian lilac. primavera – Primula veris (Primulaceae) is a perennial herb from temperate regions in Eurasia; the root is strongly *expectorant easing the clearance of *phlegm; it is especially used for chronic *bronchitis and *coughs; the root is also believed to be mildly *diuretic and *antirheumatic and to slow *blood clotting; the flowers are *antispasmodic and *anti-inflammatory and are used to treat *asthma and other *allergic conditions; alternative name: *cowslip. primrose family – Primulaceae is a large family with about 28 genera and almost 1000 species widely distributed in temperate parts of all continents; for medicinal plants see *Primulaceae. Primulaceae – a family with about 28 genera and almost 1000 species of annual or perennial herbs, rarely shrubs, widely distributed in temperate regions, and especially in alpine areas (5 genera and 19 species in East Africa, 4 genera and 8 species in Uganda); species of the genera *Ardisiandra, *Lysimachia and Primula (*primavera; *primrose) have medicinal uses. Pristimera (Celastraceae) – a genus of 24 species of tall lianes or scandent shrubs widely distributed in the tropics (5 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the liquid of the roots of P. andongensis var. volkensii (Hippocratea volkensii) is drunk as an *aphrodisiac, or people suffering from weakness are bathed in water with root liquid (Kokwaro 1976). Priva (Verbenaceae) – a genus of about 20 species of perennial herbs widespread in tropical and warm regions (4 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Uganda the leaves of P. flabelliformis (including P. cordifolia) are used to treat *diarrhoea, premature *ejaculation and vomiting (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), while in Tanzania the pounded leaves are rubbed on *burns where the juice acts as a cooling remedy; in coastal Kenya the juice from leaves of P. curtisiae is squeezed into the eyes as a remedy for *ophthalmia (Kokwaro 1976). processing herbs – herbs are usually preserved by drying in the air or in an oven and stored for later use in a dark glass jar or brown paper bags; for underground parts care should be taken to remove all soil particles before processing. procumbent sorrel – Oxalis corniculata (the sorrel family, Oxalidaceae), is a troublesome weed in some countries; for medicinal use see *Oxalis; alternative name:*creeping sorrel, *sheep sorrel og *yellow (wood) sorrel. progesterone – a female sex hormone which decline in connection with the *menopause; this hormone was first synthesized based on *diosgenin from *wild yam Dioscorea villosa (the yam family, Dioscoreaceae) and was the base for the first *contraceptive pill. progesterone levels – the level of the hormone progesterone, which helps to maintain bone density and reduce the risk of *osteoporosis, declines in connection with the *menopause; plants which benefit low progesterone levels include e.g. *agnus castus (Vitex agnus-castus), *black cohosh (Cimifuga racemosa) and *helonias (Chamaelirium luteum). prophylactic – preventing disease. prolapse – the displacement of an organ. prolapsed uterus – displaced uterus; this ailment is in West Uganda treated by one of the plants Crassocephalum crepidioides (Asteraceae), Laggera crispata (Asteraceae), Chenopodium opulifolium (Chenopodiaceae) or Pseudarthria hookeri (Fabaceae); see Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa (2006). 292 Prosopis (Fabaceae, Mimosoideae) – a genus of about 40 species of trees or shrubs mainly distributed in tropical America, but with 2 species native to Asia and 1 in Africa (also in Uganda); in Africa P. africana has been widely used as a *diuretic and *anthelmintic and to treat *bronchitis, *diarrhoea, diseases of the *urinary tract, *fever, external *parasites, *kidney stones, *leprosy, mouth diseases, *pharyngitis, *skin diseases and *toothache. prostaglandins – chemicals in plants as well as in the human body that have a hormonal action affecting a wide range of conditions including *pain and *inflammation. prostate (gland) – the muscular, glandular organ which surrounds the *urethrea of males at the base of the *bladder; problems concerning the prostate gland are sometimes alleviated using *Cucurbita pepo (*pumpkin-seeds, Cucurbitaceae), Epilobium angustifolium (*fireweed or *Rose Bay willow herb, Onagraceae), Eryngium maritimum (*sea-holly, Apiaceae), Hydrangea arborescens (*wild hydrangea, Hydrangeaceae), *Leucas concinna (Lamiaceae), *Opuntia spp. (*barbary fig or *prickly pear, Cactaceae), *Prunus africana (*pygeum, Rosaceae), Serenoa repens (*saw palmetto, Arecaceae) or Urtica dioica (*common nettle or *nettle); see also *benign enlargement of the prostate gland (*BPH). prostatism – a morbid state of mind and body due to *prostatic disease, especially the condition which results from obstruction to urination due to prostatic *hypertrophy. prostatitis – inflammation of the *prostate gland; for medicinal herbs used to treat this disease see *prostate (gland). prostration – the state of being completely worn out in body or mind; exhaustion, i.e. the state you are in when you have a severe *flu or are otherwise severely sick and have to be lying down. Protea (Proteaceae) – a genus with about 100 species of subshrubs, shrubs or small trees native to Africa (16 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the bark of P. gaguedi to treat swollen *spleen (Heine & König 1988); in southwestern Tanzania a decoction of bark and leaves of P. madiensis is drunk 2-3 times daily to treat *cough (Kokwaro 1976). Proteaceae – a family with about 75 genera and 1350 species of trees, shrubs or suffrutices widespread in the southern hemisphere with many genera and species confined to South Africa and Australia; in East Africa 2 native genera and 22 native species; in Uganda 2 genera and 7 native species, but others cultivated as ornamental trees or shrubs (especially Grevillea); some species of the genera *Faurea and *Protea are of medicinal use. protein – any of a group of nitrogenous organic compounds of high molecular weight that occur in all living cells and that are required for all life processes in animals and plants; albuminous substances built from *amino acids by acid and alkaline ends of amino acids bound together through *peptid bindings forming long polypeptide chains; natural proteins are built from more than 20 different amino acids. Protoasparagus (Asparagaceae) – a genus of about 40 species of perennial herbs or shrub-like plants widely distributed in the old world; in Tanzania the roots of P. buchananii (Asparagus buchananii) are pounded and mixed with water and drunk to treat *bilharzia; P. cooperi (Asparagus africanus) is a widespread thorny African savanna plant which is toxic and used as arrow poison and taken in traditional medicine for *bilharzia, *mental illness, pain and *venereal diseases like *gonorrhoea and *syphilis, and in East Africa also to cure *bubonic plague, *coughs, *sore throat and *wounds, and taken by women in *parturition (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves and fruits are used to treat *measles, and the fruit for sex determination of the *foetus (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Central Uganda the Baganda drink a root infusion of this plant to facilitate *childbirth (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in East Africa a decoction of the root tubers of P. falcatus (Asparagus falcatus) is taken as a remedy for *gonorrhoea and used as an *anthelmintic and to cure *hernia in children; in East Uganda P. racemosus (Asparagus racemosus) has been used to treat *burns, *hydrocele in children, *kwashiorkor and *migraine (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), and in West Uganda it is used for *scabies (Kakudidi et al. 293 2000); in East Africa a root decoction of A. racemosus is also drunk for *indigestion and for *gonorrhoea, while the pounded fruits and leaves of P. setaceus (Asparagus setaceus) are soaked in water and the infusion drunk for the treatment of *coughs and *pneumonia, and a root decoction is used to treat *bilharzia (Kokwaro 1976). proxeronine – an alkaloid which the body needs to produce *xeronine; it appears that the alkaloid xeronine enters the cells enabling them to counter *inflammation and support normal cellular divisions; it is found in e.g. *Indian mulberry or *noni, Morinda citrifolia (Rubiaceae), a southeast Asian shrub or small tree now also spread to India and the Pacific. prunastin – a cyanogenic glycoside that yields the very toxic *prussic acid or *hydrocyanic acid (HCN); prunastin reduces the cough reflex; prunastin occurs in e.g. species of the genus Prunus (the rose family, Rosaceae), and especially in the bark and seed of *bird cherry (P. padus) and *wild cherry, Prunus serotina. Prunus (Rosaceae) – a genus with about 400 species (including Pygeum) of trees or shrubs widely distributed in warm and temperate regions particularly in the northern hemisphere, but many species are widely cultivated for their edible fruits (only 1 native species in East Africa and Uganda); P. africana is highly valued as a medicinal plant and in some regions it is becoming extinct in the wild due to heavy exploitation, and is now cultivated in plantations (Cunningham & Mbenkum 1993, Cunningham et al. 2002); in East Africa a decoction of the bark is widely used to treat *stomach-ache, while the leaves are used to treat fever and improve appetite (Kokwaro 1976); internationally it has a reputation of being the best herbal treatment for *enlarged *prostate gland and *chronic prostate inflammation [*benign prostatic hyperplasia; see Longo & Tira 1981, Martelli et al. 1986, Barlet et al. 1990, Breza et al. 1998, Chatelain et al. 1999], and will help reverse male sterility when this is due to insufficient prostate secretions; in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda P. africana is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); see also *almond (P. dulcis), *apricot (P. armeniaca), *bird cherry (P. padus), *Japanese apricot (P. mume), *peach (P. persica), *plum (P. domestica), *sweet cherry (P. avium) and *wild cherry (Europe: P. avium; USA: P. serotina). prurigo – a chronic *inflammatory skin disease producing *eruptions, small pale rash and intense *itching. pruritus – *itching of skin; a feeling in the skin which produces the desire to scratch the part from which the feeling is felt. PSA-NCAM – a protein present in lower concentration in the brain of *schizophrenic patients than in normal people. Pseudarthria (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus with 4-6 species (according to opinion) of erect perennial herbs or subshrubs widespread in the Old World tropics (1-2 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Uganda the leaves of P. hookeri are used to treat *diarrhoea, *fever, *jaundice, *malaria fever, *ringworm of the scalp, *scabies and to quicken *labour; the fruits are used to treat *infertility in women, while the root is taken to treat *backache, and *snakebite, to promote *labour and expel retained *placenta (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in the region near Mt. Rwenzori the leaves are used to treat *prolapsed uterus, painful menstruation, *dysmenorrhoea and menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Kenya the Kakamega chew the root as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976). Pseuderanthemum (Acanthaceae) – a genus of about 60 species of herbs or small shrubs native to tropical regions of both hemispheres; in Tanzania the Shambaa take the root of P. hildebrandtii for *dysentery, *intestinal pains and for *snakebite, or rubbed on externally for *bronchitis; in coastal Kenya the Digo use the root of P. tunicatum for *abdominal pain and *chest complaints, while an infusion of the leaves is used as a wash for *headache (Kokwaro 1976). 294 Pseudocedrela (Meliaceae) – a genus with a single tree species native to tropical Africa; in East Uganda a powder of the root of P. kotschyi is drunk in tea to treat liver *cirrhosis, and the root and leaves are used in magics to chase away evil spirits (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). pseudocyesis – false pregnancy, or phantom pregnancy; the person affected may develop breast enlargement, experience morning sickness, enlarged *abdomen, cease having her period, but in actual fact there is no *foetus. Pseudognaphalium (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 80 species of annual or perennial herbs mainly in central and South America (in East Africa and Uganda 2 species only); in East Africa ash from burnt stems of P. luteo-album (Gnaphalium luteo-album) is mixed with ghee and given to babies as a tonic (Kokwaro 1976). Psiadia (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 60 species of shrubs and trees mostly in the Madagascar region, but some also in Africa and tropical Asia (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in Tanzania a decoction from pounded leaves of P. punctulata is drunk for *abdominal pain, while the powdered leaves are used for the treatment of *colds in the head (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Luo use this plant to treat *scabies and *skin infection (Geissler et al. 2002); for chemical constituents see Midiwo et al. (1997) and Juma et al. (2001 & 2006). Psidium (Myrtaceae) – a genus with about 100 species of trees or shrubs native to tropical America and the Pacific, but both the common*guava (P. guajava) and the strawberry guajava (P. cattleianum) are widely cultivated and naturalized in parts of East Africa including Uganda; in Uganda the leaves and roots of P. guajava together are used to treat *cough, while leaves are used for the treatment of *abdominal pain, *cough, *diarrhoea, *dysentery and as an *antidote for general *poisoning (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves and roots of *guava are taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Kenya the Luo drink an infusion of this plant to treat *diarrhoea and *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002); psoriasis – a chronic skin disease characterized by scaly patches; it is sometimes treated by the plants *Azadirachta indica (*margosa tree or *neem, Meliaceae), Berberis vulgaris (*barberry, Berberidaceae), Betula pendula (*silver birch, Betulaceae), *Capsicum frutescens (*Cayenne or *chilli pepper, Solanaceae), Galium aparine (*catchweed, *cleavers or *scratch grass, Rubiaceae), Mahonia aquifolium (*Oregon grape, Berberidaceae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae), Psoralea corylifolia (*bu gu zhi, Fabaceae), *Rauvolfia vomitoria (Apocynaceae), Scrophularia aquatica (*water figwort) & marylandica (*American figwort) & nodosa (*figwort, Scrophulariaceae), *Smilax spp. (*sarsaparilla, Smilacaceae), Stillingia sylvatica (*queen’s delight, Euphorbiaceae), Symphytum officinale (*comfrey or knitbone, Boraginaceae), Taraxacum officinale (*dandelion, Asteraceae) or *Thevetia peruviana (Apocynaceae). Psorospermum (Clusiaceae) – a genus with about 40-45 species of subshrubs, shrubs and trees native to Africa and Madagascar; in East Africa the roots of P. febrifugum are used to treat *pimples, *tongue diseases and a decoction of a mixture of roots and leaves is drunk as a cure for *leprosy; the bark is pounded, mixed with butter and applied on the skin of a person suffering from *scabies (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda a powder from the roots and leaves is drunk as tea to cure *diarrhoea, similarly the roots are used to treat *itchy skin, skin *rash and *syphilis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). psychosomatic – pertaining to the influence of the mind or functions of the brain (e.g. emotions, fear) upon the functions of the body especially in relation to disease. Psychotria (Rubiaceae) – a large genus variously estimated to consist of from 500 to 1400 species of shrubs or trees from all tropical regions, but with more than 200 species in Africa (81 species in East Africa, 14 species in Uganda); in coastal Kenya an infusion of the leaves of P. amboniana is given to babies as a remedy for *headache (Kokwaro 1976); in Ghana a leaf *decoction of P. articulata is used against *toothache (Neuwinger 1996); in Tanzania the roots of P. capensis (= 295 P. riparia) as well as those of P. cyathicalyx are used as an *aphrodisiac, the roots of P. eminiana are used for *snakebite, and the roots of P. faucicola are used as an *antidote for any poisoning (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal Kenya the Digo use smoke from burnt leaves of P. holtzii as a remedy for *colds in the head, while the Shambaa in Tanzania use roots and fresh fruits of P. kirkii as a *purgative; in East Africa a decoction of the roots of P. lauracea is taken as a remedy for *dysentery, as an *aphrodisiac, or given to women to make delivery less painful (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Kakamega use a decoction from stems and roots of P. mahonii as a gargle for sore throats (Kokwaro 1976), while in Madagascar a decoction of aerial parts of P. obtusifolia is used to treat *malaria (Neuwinger 1996); in Ghana the leaf juice of P. peduncularia is applied to *cuts, *sores and *wounds, and drunk as a *fever remedy, while the bark is regarded as effective against *roundworms, *threadworms and other *intestinal parasites (Neuwinger 1996); in Tanzania the Shambaa drink a leaf decoction of P. tanganyikensis for the treatment of *elephantiasis and aching throat, and a root decoction as an *emetic (Kokwaro 1976); in Benin the leaves of P. vogeliana are used against *constipation, while the sap of the warmed leaves is places on *wounds (Neuwinger 1996). Psydrax (Rubiaceae) – a genus of at least 100 species of shrubs, lianes or trees widespread troughout the Old World tropics with 34 species in Africa (18 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of P. parviflora (= Canthium rubrocostatum) are used to expel intestinal worms and the fruits are eaten to alleviate *coughs and *influenza; the bark of P. schimperiana (Canthium schimperianum) is used as a remedy for *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976). psyllium – Plantago psyllium (the plantain family, Plantaginaceae) is an annual herb used as a safe and effective *laxative for thousands of years in Asia, Europe and North Africa; the seeds swell when moistened and have a jelly-like consistency in the mouth; the seeds are mainly used for relieving *constipation and other *bowel problems such as acid *indigestion, *Crohn’s disease, *dysentery, *haemorrhoids, irritable bowel syndrome, stomach *ulcers, ulcerative *colitis and unexpectantly *diarrhoea; the seeds will also absorb toxins in the large bowel and it will help to lower blood-fat and *blood glucose levels in people with late-onset *diabetes; alternative name: *flea seed. Pteleopsis (Combretaceae) – a genus with about 9 species of trees or shrubs native to tropical Africa (3 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in Tanzania the Hehe drink a decoction from the roots of P. myrtifolia to cure *venereal diseases (Koyama 1976). Pterolobium (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae) – a genus with 10 species of usually climbing shrubs mostly confined to Asia, but one species extending to Africa; in East Africa the roots of P. stellatum are used to treat *snakebites and *stomach-ache, while the leaves are used for the treatment of *tuberculosis and other *chest diseases (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So herbalists on Mt. Kadam use the roots of P. stellatum for unknown purposes (Heine & König 1988). puerperal – in connection with childbirth; due to childbirth. puerperium – the period after childbirth or state of confinement after childbirth. puff adder bite – bites from this very poisonous snake is being treated by various plants (see *snakebite), but *Coccinia adoënsis is specifically given as treating the bite of this snake. pu huang – Typha angustifolia (the bulrush family, Typhaceae) is a widespread herb in northern temperate wetlands; the inflorescences are often used indoors for *decoration; the pollen, which is produced in very large amounts, is *astringent and in Chinese herbal medicine it is used to stop internal and external *bleeding; it may be mixed with honey and applied to *wounds and sores; the pollen is now also used in the treatment of *angina; alternative name: *bulrush. pulmonary – relating to the lungs. pulque – a national Mexican drink from Agave americana (Agavaceae); it is either consumed immediately without aging, or distilled to yield the spirit *mescal (*mezcal). 296 pumpkin – Cucurbita pepo (the pumpkin family, Cucurbitaceae) is an annual climber native to America, but cultivated worldwide as a popular vegetable; pumpkin seeds contain *cucurbitin, *sterols and fairly high levels of *iron, *selenium and *zinc; it is thus a good dietary source of these minerals; cucurbitin expels *worms and the sterols are *anti-inflammatory; research suggests that pumpkin seeds are effective in helping reduce *benign enlargement of the *prostate gland (*BPH) and are also *diuretic and *tonic to the bladder. pumpkin family – Cucurbitaceae, is a large family with about 120 genera and 750 species widely distributed in all continents except the coldest regions; alternative names: *cucumber family, *gourd family and *melon family. puncture vine – caltrop, *Tribulus terrestris (Zingiberaceae); for medicinal use see *Tribulus. Punica (Punicaceae) – a genus with 2 species of of shrubs or trees native from SE Europe to India and Socotra, but widely planted elsewhere as an ornamental shrub or for its edible fruits rich in C-vitamin and antioxidants; in Uganda and elsewhere in East Africa a decoction of the roots of the cultivated shrub P. granatum is drunk to expel *tapeworms, also named *helminthiasis (Kokwaro 1976; Adjanohoun et al. 1976). Punicaceae – a family with one genus and 2 species of shrubs or trees native from SE Europe to Himalaya and Socotra, but widely planted as an ornamental shrub or for its edible fruits rich in C-vitamin and antioxidants; the species of *Punicea are used as medicines. purgation – the state of emptying the bowels (*purging). purgative – a very strong *laxative (which promotes emptying of the bowels); *aperient is a mild laxative. purge – to empty the bowels. purging – which empty the bowels; a large number of medicinal plants are purgative, e.g. *linseed (Linum usitatissimum) and *purging flax (Linum catharticum). purging flax – villin, Linum catharticum (linfamily, Linaceae) is a small European annual herb previously widely applied as a *purgative, but is no longer in use. purging nut – Jatropha curcas (the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae) is an American shrub widely planted as a hedge and medicinal plant in tropical Africa, and often naturalized; the plant is *abortifacient, *anthelmintic, *emetic and strongly *purgative; it is widely used to cure a large number of diseases and conditions, e.g. the seeds are poisonous and used as an *abortifacient and to treat *arthritis, *gout, *jaundice, *leprosy and *syphilis; a root decoction is used to treat *dysentery, *gonorrhoea, *jaundice, *malaria, *pneumonia, *spermatorhoea, and *syphilis; the leaves are sometimes used for the same illnesses, but also for releasing *bile and cleansing the *kidneys, the crushed dry leaves are applied to *abscesses and *wounds; alternative name: *physic nut. purine – a group of alkaloids (e.g. *caffeine); the body breaks down purines into *uric acid, which may cause *rheumatic *arthritis when sharp crystals shards of uric acid collect inside joints and cause painful *inflammations. purple camel’s foot – Bauhinia variegata (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae)is a beautiful ornamental tree from tropical Asia widely cultivated in all warm countries; for medicinal use see *Bauhinia; alternative name: *purple orchid tree. purple foxglove – Digitalis purpurea (the foxglove family, Scrophulariaceae) is a native European plant also cultivated in gardens; it is a very poisonous plant feared by parents, but it also contains a life-saving heart medicine; foxglove contains *cardiac glycosides (*digoxine, *digitoxine and lanatosides), which enable the heart to beat more strongly, slowly and regularly without requiring more oxygen; at the same time foxglove stimulates urine production (is *diuretic), which lowers the volume of blood, and thus lessens the load on the heart; note that an overdose is fatal; alternative names: *common foxglove and *foxglove; see also *woolly foxglove (D. lanata). 297 purple coneflower – species of the genus Echinacea (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), and particularly the three species E. angustifolia, E. pallida and E. purpurea, which are some of the world’s most widely used medicinal herbs today; these perennial herbs are native to North America, but are at present widely cultivated throughout the world; they contain *alkamides which have the ability to raise the body’s resistance to *bacterial, *fungal and *viral infections by stimulating the *immune system; they can thus prevent or reduce *colds and *flu, and help to heal *acne, *boils and *wounds; native Americans used these herbs to treat *rabies, *septic conditions, *snake bites, *sore throats and *toothache; today it is still a very important immune stimulant used to prevent infections of all kinds, and also used to treat skin problems, *asthma and other *allergies; alternative name: *echinacea. purple gentian – Gentiana purpurea (søtefamily, Gentianaceae) is a robust perennial very bitter herb from European northern and alpine regions; it contains a substance named *amarogentin, which is possibly the most bitter substance on the earth – it can be tasted at dilutions of 1: 50000; gentian stimulates the appetite and improve the action of the whole digestive system by increasing stomach secretions; gentian also acts as a stimulant on the *gallbladder and *liver, and it aids the absorption of many nutrients including *iron and B12; it is particularly useful as a *digestive tonic in old age, for *iron-deficiency anaemia and for women with heavy *menstrual bleeding; *yellow gentian (G. lutea) can be used in the same way. purple granadilla – Passiflora edulis (Passifloraceae) and the edible fruit of this plant; for medicinal use see *Passiflora. purple loosestrife – Lythrum salicaria (the loosestrife family, Lythraceae) is a widespread wetland herb in the temperate northern hemisphere; it has been widely used to treat *diarrhoea (is safe even for breast-feeding babies), *dysentery, inter-menstrual *bleeding, and used externally on *eczema, *ulcers, *wounds and *vaginal itching; this herb is thought to have *antibiotic activity and to lower *blood sugar levels (is *hypoglycaemic). purple nutsedge – Cyperus rotundus (the sedge family, Cyperaceae) is one of the world’s most troublesome weeds; for medicinal use see *Cyperus; alternative name: *nut grass, *nutsedge, *red grass og *water grass. purple orchid tree – Bauhinia variegata (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae)is a beautiful ornamental tree from tropical Asia widely cultivated in all warm countries; for medicinal use see *Bauhinia; alternative name: *purple camel’s foot. purple sage – Salvia officinalis var. purpurascens (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is the preferred medicinal variety of *sage (S. officinalis); for medicinal use see *sage. purslane – Portulaca oleracea (the purslane family, Portulacaceae) is a succulent annual herb native to southern Europe and Asia, but now widespread as one of the world’s worst weeds; it is a *diuretic and a mild *antibiotic and effective in treating *hookworms and bacillary *dysentery; it has also been used to treat *headaches and *stomach ache and as an *antidote for *snake bites and *wasp stings; alternative names: *common purslane, *pigweed and *parsley; *winter purslane is Claytonia (Montia) perfoliata (Portulacaceae). pursley – Portulaca oleracea (the purslane family, Portulacaceae); for alternative names and medicinal use see *purslane. purulent – containing or discharging *pus. pus – yellowish viscid matter produced by the body, usually in connection with an inflammation; the process is named *suppuration. Pycnostachys (Lamiaceae) – a genus of 37 species of herbs or shrubs widely distributed in tropical and South Africa with Madagascar; in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda P. elliotii is used by midwives, while P. goetzenii is used by herbalists (Cunningham 1996); in Uganda the leaves of P. speciosa are used to treat *urticaria (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in coastal Kenya the Giriama use the leaves of P. umbrosa for *abdominal pain and as an eye wash (Kokwaro 1976). Pygeum (Rosaceae) – a genus now included in Prunus; see *pygeum used as a vernacular name. 298 pygeum – Prunus africana (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a tall evergreen tree native to tropical African forests; it is highly valued as a medicinal plant and in some regions it is becoming extinct in the wild due to heavy exploitation, and is now cultivated in plantations (Cunningham x); in East Africa a decoction of the bark is widely used to treat *stomach-ache, while the leaves are used to treat fever and improve appetite (Kokwaro 1976); internationally it has a reputation of being the best herbal treatment for *enlarged *prostate gland and *chronic prostate inflammation, and will help reverse male sterility when this is due to insufficient prostate secretions; alternative names: *red stinkwood. pylorus – aperture between the stomach and the small bowel. pyo- – with pus, formation of pus. pyomyositis – inflammation of muscles with formation of pus. pyorrhea or pyorrhoea – a disease tat causes the formation of pus in the gums and loosening of the teeth; a discharge of pus. pyrexia – fever, i.e. abnormal elevation of body temperature. pyrrolizidine alkaloids – alkaloids that are highly toxic to the *liver; it is know from the root and basal parts of the medicinal plant *comfrey or *knitbone, Symphytum officinale (the coffee family, Boraginaceae). pyrethrum – a plant, Tanacetum cinerariifolium (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), or an insecticide prepared from this plant. pyrrolizidine alkaloids – alkaloids that are highly toxic to the *liver; they are found in many plants, some of which have been used as medicinal herbs, e.g. *life root (Senecio aureus, Asteraceae). qi – ”vital energy” in Chinese medicinal philosophy; qi is the primal energy that maintain life and health. qiang huo – Notopterygium incisium (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is a Chinese herb which root is used to treat chills, *colds, *fevers, *headache and pain. qin jiao – Chinese gentian, Gentiana macrophylla (the gentian family, Gentianaceae) is a Chinese bitter-tasting herb widely used in Chinese herbal medicine partly in the same way as *gentian. quack-grass – Elymus repens (the grass family, Poaceae) is a troublesome weed in temperate regions; for medicinal use see *couch grass; alternative names: *couch (grass), *quickgrass, quitchgrass, *scutch(grass) and *twitch-grass. quaking aspen – Populus tremuloides (the willow family, Salicaceae) is a widespread tree in North America, but also planted in Europe because it has a higher annual production than the European *aspen, P. tremula; the bark contains *phenolic glycosides, including *salicin and populin, which have *fever-reducing, pain-relieving and *anti-inflammatory properties that are similar to those of *aspirin; it has been taken for a large number of diseases and conditions, including *anorexia, *arthritic and *rheumatic pains, *diarrhoea, *fever, *irritable bowel syndrome and urinary tract infections; alternative name: *American aspen. quassia – Picrasma excelsa (Simaroubaceae) is a deciduous tropical American tree widely known for its medicinal use; the bark is strongly bitter and supports and strengthen the *digestive system by increasing *bile flow, the secretion of *salivary juices and stomach acid; it is much used to stimulate the appetite and for *anorexia; quassia bark is also taken for *dysentery and *malaria. quassin – one of the *quassinoids; it is an intensely bitter substance which is *antimalarial and act against *cancerous cells; it is found e.g. in the bark of the *tree of heaven, Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae), a deciduous tree native to southern and eastern Asia. quassinoids – intensely bitter substances which are *antimalarial and act against *cancerous cells; two such quassinoids are *ailanthone and *quassin, both found in *tree of heaven, Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae), a deciduous tree native to southern and eastern Asia. 299 quebracho – Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae) is a tall South American tree with leathery leaves and very hard wood; it is *antispasmodic on the *bronchial tubes and used to treat * asthma and *emphysema; it is also *tonic and *astringent and used to reduce *fever and alleviate *burns and *wounds. queen of the meadow – Filipendula ulmaria (the rose family, Rosaceae); for medicinal use see *meadowsweet. queen’s delight – Stillingia sylvatica (the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae) is a perennial herb from south-eastern North America; this herb is a *purgative and was taken internally to treat *boils, *bronchitis, *constipation, *scrofula, throat infection, *venereal diseases and weeping *eczema; externally it is used for *eczema, *haemorrhoids and *psoriasis. Queensland nut – fruit of the genus Macadamia (Proteaceae), from Australia; Macadamia integrifolia and M. tetraphylla are commercially cultivated especially in Hawaii; the seeds are rich in fat and very nutrient rich, and are used as dessert nuts and in confectionery. quickgrass – Elymus repens (the grass family, Poaceae); for other names and medicinal use see *couch (grass). quince – Cydonia vulgaris (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a small tree with edible ’fruits’ from Asia, but now widespread in southern Europe; the word marmalade comes from this plant’s Spanish name (marmelo); the unripe fruit is *astringent and a good remedy for *diarrhoea and as a gargle for *sore throat; the seeds contain *mucilage and are used to treat *bronchitis and as a *laxative; *Bengal quince is Aegle marmelos (*bael, golden *apple, the orange family, Rutaceae). quinine – a quinoline alkaloid found in *Peruvian bark, i.e. species of the genus Cinchona (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) and particularly C. officinalis, C. calisaya and C. ledgeriana; for centuries quinine has been the most widely taken antimalarial remedy in the world; it is also strongly *antibacterial and *antispasmodic, but recently strains of the malaria parasite have developed resistance to quinine and other chemicals and plants are now substituting quinine; see also *chloroquine, *fever bark tree and *Peruvian bark. quinoa – Amaranthus caudatus, an American species of amaranth, used both as an ornamental garden herb and the nutritious grain (*Andean grain) is used to make bread and is eaten in salads; alternative name: *Inca wheat. quinone – p-Dioxybenzene or a derivate of this chemical; many quinones are electron carriers in mitokondria and chloroplasts. quinsy – a suppurative inflammation of the tonsils. quitchgrass – Elymus repens (the grass family, Poaceae) is a troublesome weed in many temperate countries; for alternative names and medicinal use see*couch (grass). rabies – *canine madness; an infectious *virus disease passed on to man by the bite of an infected animal causing *choking, *convulsions, etc.; plants used to treat this disease include Echinacea spp. (*purple coneflower or *echinacea, Asteraceae) and Scutellaria lateriflora (*mad dog or *Virginia skullcap, Lamiaceae); see also *antirabic. rachitis (rickets) – a vitamin D deficiency disease of the young, often marked by faulty bone development (softening of bones); in Africa *Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae) has been used to alleviate this disease; in Sierra Leone the Temne bathe rachitic children with a cold-water macerate of leaves of *Parquetina nigrescens (Apocynaceae, Periplocoideae) with the sap (latex) removed (Neuwinger 1996). radish – Raphanus sativus (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae) is a herb native to Asia, but widely cultivated as a vegetable throughout the temperate and warm regions of the world; radish stimulates the appetite and the digestion; it contains an *antibiotic *volatile oil (raphanin) and *phenolic compounds, which are *antioxidant; radish oil has been used to treat *skin diseases. 300 ragwort – Senecio jacobaea (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a perennial European herb toxic to grazing animals; it has traditionally been used as a poultice or lotion to relieve *rheumatic aches and pains; alternative name: common ragwort; see also *groundsel. ragweed – species of the genus Ambrosia and particularly A. artemisiifolia (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) produce a lot of pollen and allergies. raisin – dried fruits of grapes, Vitis vinifera, in the grape family (Vitaceae); raisins are weak *laxatives. rambutan – Nephelium lappaceum (Sapindaceae) is a Malesian tree with edible fruit pulp rich in vitamins and thus a useful defense for diseases. ramsons – Allium ursinum (the onion family, Alliaceae) is perennial herb native to Europe and Asia; it is used as a medicine in the same way as *garlic (A. sativum), but is weaker in action; ramsons are *tonic to the *digestion, they ease *stomach pain, lower high *blood pressure and help to prevent *arteriosclerosis; they have also been used for *colic, *diarrhoea, *indigestion, *wind, and loss of appetite. Ranunculus (Ranunculaceae) – a genus with about 250 species of annual or perennial herbs wiidely distributed particularly in temperate and cold regions, in the tropics mainly in uplands (9 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Shambaa drink a decoction of the roots of R. multifidus as an *emetic, but the plant is poisonous (Kokwaro 1976). Ranunculaceae – a family with 58 genera and about 1750 species of annual or perennial herbs or climbers (6 genera and 28 species in East Africa, 5 genera and 16 species in Uganda); species from many different genera are used as medicine, e.g. Aconitum (*monkshood), Adonis (*false hellebore), Anemone (*pasque flower), Cimifuga (*squaw root), *Clematis (*old man’s beard), Coptis (*goldthread), Helleborus (*hellebore), Hydrastis (*goldenseal), Nigella (*black cumin), Pulsatilla (*Chinese anemone) and *Ranunculus (*buttercup). Rapanea (Myrsinaceae) – a genus of about 150 species of shrubs or trees (but sometimes included in the genus *Myrsine) widely distributed in tropical and warm regions (in East Africa and Uganda 1 species); in East Africa the fruits of R. melanophloeos (including R. pulchra & R. rhododendroides) are eaten as an *anthelmintic, especially for *tapeworms (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the Bwamba use R. melanophloeos to treat *stomach-ache and muscular pain (Kakudidi et al. 1996);. rape – Brassica napus (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae) has oil-rich seeds providing a food oil considered healthy for cooking. Raphia (Arecaceae) – a genus of about 20 species of palms, all except two confined to the wetter parts of Africa (1 species in Uganda); palm wine with an alcohol content of 2-5 % is made by piercing the terminal bud of the living tree; in the Ivory Coast the juice of R. hookeri is used to ease the pain of *snakebite, the oily fruit pulp is used as a medicine for *stomach complaints an to relieve *pain, and the ash of the roots mixed with palm oil is given as ear-drops for *otitis (Neuwinger 1996). rash (pl.: rashes) – eruption on the skin, often numerous in spots or patches; many plants have been used to relieve this condition, e.g. *Acacia brevispica (Fabaceae), *Albizia versicolor (Fabaceae), *Aloë wollastonii (Aloëaceae), *Aspilia pluriseta (Asteraceae), *Azadirachta indica (*margosa tree or *neem, Meliaceae), *Bridelia micrantha (Euphorbiaceae), *Boswellia serrata (*Indian olibanum or *sallaki, Burseraceae), Calendula officinalis (*marigold or *pot marigold, Asteraceae), *Cardiospermum halicacabum (*balloon vine, Sapindaceae), *Crabbea velutina (Acanthaceae), *Cyperus alternifolius (Cyperaceae), *Cyphostemma cyphopetala (Vitaceae), *Dracaena steudneri (Agavaceae), *Eleusine corocana (*finger millet, Poaceae), *Ficus exasperata (Moraceae), *Galium ruwenzoriensis (Rubiaceae), *Juniperus oxycedrus (*oil of Cade, Cupressaceae), *Khaya senegalensis (Meliaceae), *Manilkara sulcata (Sapotaceae), *Pentas longiflora (Rubiaceae), *Phytolacca dodecandra (*pokeweed, Phytolaccaceae), Plantago major (*broad-leaved plantain or *common plantain, Plantaginaceae), *Polygala 301 erioptera (Polygalaceae), *Psorospermum febrifugum (Clusiaceae), *Santalum album (*sandalwood tree, Santalaceae), Scutellaria baicalensis (*Baical skullcap) & longiflora (*mad dog or *Virginia skullcap, Lamiaceae), Stelaria media (*chickweed or satin flower, Caryophyllaceae), Solanum tuberosum (*potato, Solanaceae), *Spathodea campanulata (*African tulip tree, Bignoniaceae), *Tylophora asmatica (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) and *Zehneria scabra (Cucurbitaceae); see also *nappy rash, *nettle rash, *skin rash and *urticaria. raspberry – Rubus idaeus (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a perennial subshrub (each shoot above ground last for two years) widespread in temperate parts of Europe and Asia; it is also cultivated for its delicious fruits; the leaves are mainly used to encourage easy *labour hastening *childbirth, but is also taken to relieve *diarrhoea, and externally as a mouthwash for mouth problems, as an eywash for *conjunctivitis, and for *wounds and excessive *vaginal discharge. Rauvolfia (Apocynaceae) – *snakeroot3; a genus with about 110 species of trees and shrubs in tropical regions of both hemisheres, see *African snakeroot (R. vomitoria) and Indian snakeroot (R. sepentina); both are important toxic medicinal plants lowering high *blood pressure and are also used to treat mental illnesses; in East Africa a bark decoction of R. caffra is drunk as a medicine for *pneumonia, *rheumatism and general body *swellings (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal Kenya the powdered stem bark of R. mannii is applied to wounds, and the boiled root mixed with fat and rubbed on affected places for *itch and *pimples, while the roots of R. mombasiana is used to treat *gonorrhoea and *malaria (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal East Africa preparations from the roots of R. mombasiana were used to cure stomach pains and skin conditions, while the leaves were used as poultice on swellings (Weiss 1979); R. vomitoria (and particularly its root) has been used as arrow poison and traditional medicine in almost every country where it is native, including Uganda (Bein 1956, Kerharo 1970); in Congo it is used to treat *abdominal problems, *colic, *diarrhoea, *dizziness, *fever, *jaundice, *nervous disorders and to expel *intestinal worms; in West Africa it is used for similar puposes, but also for *blennorrhagia, *convulsions, *chickenpox, *diabetes, *dysentery, enlargement of the *liver, *epilepsy, female *sterility, *haemorrhoids, *insomnia, *leprosy, *psoriasis, *urethral discharge, *venereal diseases and *vermin infestation (Neuwinger 1996). rauvolfia – species of the genus Rauvolfia in the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae; from the roots of Rauvolfia serpentina and closely related species an alkaloid (reserpin) is extracted; it is used for treatment of high *blood pressure (hypertension) and mental illnesses. rectal – having to do with the final section of the large intestine, terminating in *anus; rectal bleeding may be treated with the shrub Chinese gardenia, Gardenia jasminoides (the coffee family, Rubiaceae). rectum – final section of large intestine, terminating in anus; warts in rectum may be +++ red beet – Beta vulgaris (the goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae) is a perennial herb with a swollen red edible root; varieties of red beet are widely cultivated for food; red beet contain an anthocyanin (*betanin) which stimulates the *immune system; red beet juice is sometimes prescribed for *cancer; see *beet (root) and *white beet. red cabbage – Brassica oleracea var. capitata f. rubra (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae); for medicinal use see *cabbage. red chickweed – Anagallis arvensis (the primrose family, Primulaceae) is a troublesomeweed in many temperate parts of the world; this herb is *diuretic, sweat-inducing and *expectorant; it has mainly been used to stimulate the coughing up of mucus and help recover from colds and flu, but was also taken to treat *epilepsy and mental problems; alternative names: *common pimpernel, * pimpernel, *poison chickweed, *poisonweed, *poor man’s weatherglass, *scarlet pimpernel, *shepherd’s clock, *shephard’s weatherglass and *wink-a-peep. red clover – Trifolium pratense (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a perennial herb native to Europe and Asia and widely cultivated for fodder throughout the temperate regions of the world; the flower 302 heads have been widely used to treat problems during the *menopause as well as breast *cancer; it contains *isoflavones which are able to ’compete’ with the body’s own *oestrogen. red currants – Ribes rubrum s.lat. (Grossulariaceae) red-flowered sage – Lantana camara (the teak family, Verbenaceae); for medicinal use see *Lantana; alternative names: *curse of India, *prickly lantana, *tick berry, *white sage and *wild sage. red grass – Cyperus rotundus (the sedge family, Cyperaceae) is one of the world’s worst weeds; for medicinal use see *Cyperus; alternative name: *nut grass, *nutsedge, *purple nutsedge og *water grass. red-hot poker tree – Erythrina abyssinica (the pea family, Fabaceae); for medicinal use see *Erythrina; alternative name: *flame tree and *lucky bean tree. red iron tree – species of the genus Lophira (Ochnaceae), also named *African oak. red mombin – Spondias purpurea (Anacardiaceae); is a tropical American tree with edible drupes; the fruits have some medicinal value due to their content of vitamins and minerals; alternative name: *Spanish plum; see also *ambarella, *golden apple, *jew’s plum, *jobo, *mombin, *Otaheite apple and *yellow mombin. red pepper – fruits (peppercorns) of Piper nigrum (the pepper family, Piperaceae) collected ripe and dried; pepper has a stimulant and antiseptic effect on the *digestive and *circulatory systems; see *black pepper, *green pepper, *pepper and *white pepper. red poppy (USA) – Papaver rhoeas (the poppy family, Papaveraceae) is an annual herb native to the Mediterranean and adjacent Asia, but has spread to most temperate and warm parts of the world, and is now a troublesome weed in some countries, but it is also cultivated as a garden plant; this poppy contains similar *alkaloids as the *opium poppy (P. somniferum), but are much milder; the flowers are mildly *analgesic and *sedative, and have long been used as a mild pain reliever and as a treatment for *asthma, *insomnia, irritable *coughs and general irritability; alternative names: *corn *poppy and *field poppy. red river gum – Eucalyptus camaldulensis (the myrtle family, Myrtaceae) is an Australian tree with aromatic, *astringent leaves; it is most often used to treat *diarrhoea; when it is taken internally it colours the *saliva red. red sage – Salvia miltiorhiza (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial herb native to East Asia; in Chinese herbal medicine it is widely used for heart and *circulatory problems and particular for *period pain; it is taken by patients who are recovering from a heart attack, but it is more effective as a preventative rather than as a remedy as it helps opening up arteries and improving blood flow to the heart; see also *Mexican sage (S. divinorum) and *sage (S. officinalis). red valerian – Centranthus ruber (vendelrotfamily, Valerianaceae) is a very common herb in southern Europe, also cultivated as an ornamental in gardens. redweed – Striga lutea or S. asiatica (Orobanchaceae) is a troublesome parasitic weed on various crop plants; alternative names: *fireweed and red *witchweed. red whortleberry – Vaccinium vitis-idaea (the heather family, Ericaceae) has berries very rich in vitamin C and eating these is thus a useful defence for diseases; alternative name: *cowberry and mountain *cranberry. reedmace – species of the genus Typha (Typhaceae) and particularly T. latifolia; for medicinal use see *Typha. reedmace bulrush – Typha latifolia (Typhaceae); for medicinal use see *Typha. reedmace family – Typhaceae is a small family with 1 genus and about 15 species; the genus *Typha has species used as medicine.. refrigerant – a cooling remedy, relieving *fever and thirst or reducing heat. rehmannia – Rehmannia glutinosa (the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae) is a handsome perennial herb from China; it has a marked *tonic action on the *liver and *kidneys preventing poisoning and *liver damage; it is a good treatment for *hepatitis; furthermore it reduces *fevers, lowers 303 *blood pressure and *blood cholesterol levels; in China it is said that it ’cools the blood’ and therefore given to lower *fever in acute and chronic illnesses; it is also a valuable tonic for old age believed to prevent *senility; alternative name: *Chinese foxglove. renal – of the kidneys or the surrounding regions; for plants used to alleviate renal problems see *kidney pains and *kidney stones. reproductive problems – a large number of plants are used to treat *fertility problems in men (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005) and women; low sex drive in women is widely treated by Schisandra chinensis, while Angelica sinensis (*Chinese angelica) and Vitex agnus-castus (*agnus castus) are perhaps most widely used to aid *conception; see also *menstrual problems and *menopause; in men *Withania somnifera is useful for increasing general vitality, while Panax ginseng (*ginseng) is most widely used to treat *impotence and premature *ejaculation, but more than 1000 other species are used to improve male fertility. reserpine – an alkaloid extracted from the roots of Rauvolfia serpentina (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae) and closely related species; reserpine is used to treat high *blood pressure (*hypertension) and mental illnesses. resin – a sticky substance obtained especially from gum trees (Acacia spp., Fabaceae) and pine trees (Pinus spp., Pinaceae), often used in medicines; resins can be dissolved in alcohole but not in water. resolvent – agent (drug or plant) that reduces swellings or *inflammation. respiratory system – this system stretches from the linings of the nose and *sinuses to the base of the *lungs; particularly in towns and other polluted areas we contract *asthma and *sinus congestion; other respiratory diseases or problems are *bronchitis, *cough (chesty, dry, productive and unproductive), lung *cancer and *pneumonia; Allium sativum (*garlic) and other *antiseptics and *antibiotics help the lungs to resist infection; Inula helenium (*elecampane) and other *expectorants stimulate the coughing up of *mucus; Althaea officinalis (*marshmallow) and other *demulcents soothe irritated membranes, while Ammi visnaga (*visnaga) and other *spasmo-lytics relax *bronchial muscles. respiratory tract – *respiratory system. restharrow – species of the genus Ononis (the pea family, Fabaceae); particulary O. spinosa (*spiny restharrow) is widely used as a medicinal herb. restorative (herb) – (a plant) which is efficient in restoring health and strength; *convalescence herbs; retina – the innermost coat of the posterior part of the eyeball that receives the image produced by the crystalline lens; the fruits of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus, Ericaceae) help the eyes to adjust to the dark and stimulate the part of the *retina most involved in seeing clearly. retrosternal pain – pain felt behind the chest bone. revulsion – a strong feeling of distaste; a sudden and violent change of responce in sentiment. revulsive – producing revulsion; the treatment of a disordered organ by acting upon another. Rhamnaceae – the buckthorn family; a family with 53 genera and about 875 species of trees, shrubs, lianes or rarely herbs widely distributed in both tropical and temperate regions (11 genera and 24 species in in East Africa, 9 genera and 15 species in Uganda; some genera have species with medicinal use, e.g. *Helinus, *Rhamnus (*buckthorn), *Scutia and *Ziziphus. Rhamnus (Rhamnaceae) – a genus with about 125 species of trees or shrubs widely distributed in both warm and temperate countries (2 species in East Africa and in Uganda); in East Africa a decoction of the roots of R. prinoïdes is drunk to cure *gonorrhoea and (with Erythrina abyssinica) to alleviate *colics, and a soup from the roots is taken for rheumatism in the legs (Koyama 1976); the roots of R. staddo is used as a cure for *venereal diseases and sterility in women (Kokwaro 1976). 304 Rhamphicarpa (Orobanchaceae; earlier Scrophulariaceae) – a genus with 6 species of hemiparasitic herbs native to tropical and South Africa; for medicinal plants see *Cycnium (including Rhamphicarpa heuglinii). rhatany – Krameria triandra (Krameriaceae) is a dense evergreen shrub from the western slopes of the Andes; the root is a traditional South American remedy widely used as a mouthwash or gargle for *bleeding and sore gums and as a tooth preservative; it is *astringent and *antimicrobial and often taken for problems affecting the *gastro-intestinal tract, e.g. *diarrhoea and *dysentery; it has also been applied to *wounds to help stop bleeding. rheumatism – an acute disease characterized by *fever, profuse perspirations, painful *inflammation and swelling of one or more of the joints; for plants used to treat rheumatism see *arthritis. rhinitis – *inflammation of the nose or its *mucous membrane; see also *allergic rhinitis. Rhipsalis (Cactaceae) – a genus with about 50 species of (mostly) epiphytes widely distributed in tropical and subtropical America and with a few species elsewhere (1 species in Africa and Uganda); in East Africa the roots of R. baccifera (*mistletoe cactus) are used as a *purgative, but is *toxic; an infusion of the stem is taken as a remedy for *gonorrhoea (Kokwaro 1976); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda R. baccifera is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); near Kibale Forest in West Uganda the stem is used for *vaginal dryness and to expel *intestinal worms in cats and dogs (Kakudidi 2000). Rhizophoraceae – a family with 16 genera and 130 species of trees and shrubs mostly found in the Old World tropics; they often dominate mangrove vegetation (5 genera and 14 species in East Africa, 1 genus and 3 species in Uganda); some species of *Cassipourea are of medicinal use. Rhoicissus (Vitaceae) – a genus of 10-12 species of shrubs and climbers with tendrils and native to tropical and South Africa (in East Africa and Uganda 2 species); in East Africa the roots of R. revoilii is used for treating *wounds and given to cows to increase milk production, while the stem sap is applied to *burns, *cuts and *sores as it has healing and *anaesthetic (numbing) properties (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a leaf infusion of R. revoilii for stomach ache (Masinde 1996); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So om Mt. Kadam apply the leaves of R. tridentata as a plaster to *wounds, the sap of the rootstock is sprinkled on *burnings and round an open *wound to keep off flies (Heine & König 1988); in Tanzania the Masai drink the *decoction of the roots for *gonorrhoea and as a *stimulant, and the stem sap is dropped onto fresh spear *wounds to promote healing; in East Africa the roots of R. tridentata are also chewed to ease *indigestion, and extract of the root is drunk as a cure for *abdominal pain during *menstruation, and roots are also placed on swollen glands in front part of the *pelvis (Kokwaro 1976); elsewhere a root decoction is drunk for painful *menstruation and a leaf decoction if menstruation is too heavy; the roots are also used against *leprosy, and in South Africa as an *antenatal medication (Neuwinger 1996). rhubarb – Rheum rhaponticum (the knotgrass family, Polygonaceae) and other species of the genus Rheum; for medicinal use see *Chinese rhubarb (R. palmatum). Rhus (Anacardiaceae) – a large genus of about 250 species of shrubs and trees widely distributed in tropical and warm temperate countries (11 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda); in East Africa a *decoction of the boiled roots of R. longipes is used in treatment of *abdominal pain and *indigestion, while escaping vapour from boiled roots is inhaled as a treatment for *influenza (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the roots of R. natalensis are used to treat *abdominal pains, *gonorrhoea, *influenza and *hookworm, while the leaves are used as a *cough mixture and to cure *abdominal pains, *stomach-ache and *colds (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Luo drink a decoction of the root of R. natalensis to treat *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002); in Uganda the leaves are used to treat *abortion and *dysentery, the leaves together with the root bark are used to treat *cough, while the roots alone are used for *diarrhoea and *snakebite (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a *decoction of the bark of R. natalensis to treat *diarrhoea and *malaria, while the leaves are 305 chewed to treat *fever (Heine & König 1988); in East Africa the fruits of Rhus vulgaris are boiled and the extract drunk to stop *diarrhoea, the leaves are used in the treatment of *haemorrhoids, the stems are boiled and the liquid applied to *wounds, the powdered roots mixed with gruel is drunk to treat *gonorrhoea, and roots mixed with other plants make make a valuable drink for expectant mothers, believed to make delivery easy and counteract *infertility (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a root decoction of R. vulgaris for *gonorrhoea, while the leaf is chewed to treat *coughs and irritated throat (Masinde 1996); in East Uganda the leaves or roots are used to treat *diarrhoea, *haemorrhoids, *measles, *sterility, *syphilis and as an *antidote (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in western Uganda the root, leaves or bark is taken as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005). Rhynchosia (Fabaceae) – a large genus of about 200 species of herbs or subshrubs widely distributed in tropical and warm temperate countries (45 species in East Africa, 24 species in Uganda); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots of R. densiflora is used to treat *dysentery (Okello & Ssegawa 2007). ribgrass – Plantago lanceolata (the plantain family, Plantaginaceae) is a troublesome weed in some countries; medicinally it is used in the same way as *broad-leaved or *common plantain (P. major); alternative names: *buckthorn plantain, *narrow-leaved plantain and *ribwort. ribwort – Plantago lanceolata (the plantain family, Plantaginaceae) is a troublesome weed in some countries; medicinally it is used in the same way as *broad-leaved or *common plantain (P. major); alternative names: *buckthorn plantain, *narrow-leaved plantain and *ribgrass. rice – Oryza sativa (the grass family, Poaceae) and other species of the genus *Oryza; world production of rice is higher than that of any other grain crop; for medicinal use see *Oryza. Ricinus (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus of a single species (R. communis; castor oil plant) native to North Africa and the Middle East, but now widely distributed throughout the tropics; the whole plant is poisonous, and 2 seeds may be sufficient to kill an adult, but the toxins do not pass into the processed oil; *castor oil has been used in medicine for 4000 years; it is a strong *laxative or *purgative and is widely used to clear the *digestive tract in cases of *poisoning; the oil is tolerated by human skin, and it is sometimes massaged into the breasts after childbirth to stimulate milk flow; in India a *poultice of castor oil seeds is used to relieve swollen and tender *joints (Neuwinger 1996); in Uganda the fruits of R. communis are used to treat *snakebite (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), while in East Uganda the root is used to treat *haemorrhoids, *miscarriage, premature *ejaculation, *snake bite and *uterine *fibroids; and the leaves are massaged into joints to treat *dislocations (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam use R. communis to treat *wounds (Heine & König 1988); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe use a fruit solution of R. communis to induce vomiting (Masinde 1996); elsewhere in East Africa the roots are chewed to treat infection of *guinea worm (Drancuculus medinensis), *abdominal trouble or a decoction drunk to stimulate *appetite; stems and leaves are sometimes pounded and the juice drunk to treat *diarrhoea, *stomach-ache and *ulcers, while the pure oil from the seeds is put in the ears to cure *earache (Kokwaro 1976). rickets (rachitis) – a *vitamin D deficiency disease of the young, often marked by faulty bone development (softening of bones); in Africa *Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae) has been used to alleviate this disease; in Sierra Leone the Temne bathe rachitic children with a cold-water macerate of leaves of *Parquetina nigrescens (Apocynaceae, Periplocoideae) with the sap (latex) removed (Neuwinger 1996). Rig Veda – a more than 3000 years old Sanskrit text including medical knowledge and forming the base for the *Ayurvedic medical tradition; see also *Atharva Veda. ringworm (of scalp) – a contaginous fungal disease of the skin (*tinea) in which circular, red patches are formed, especially in children; many different plants are used to treat this condition, e.g., Agastache rugosa (*giant hyssop, Lamiaceae), *Allophylus abyssinica (Sapindaceae), Anamirta 306 cocculus (*cocculus, Menispermaceae), *Aspilia mossambicensis (Asteraceae), *Azadirachta indica (*margosa tree or *neem, Meliaceae), Calendula officinalis (*marigold or *pot marigold, Asteraceae), *Cardiospermum grandiflorum (Sapindaceae), Chelidonium majus (*greater celandine, Papaveraceae), Cnidium monnieri (*she chuang zi, Apiaceae), Cymbopogon citratus (*lemon grass, Poaceae), *Cynoglossum lanceolatum (*Boraginaceae), *Datura stramonium (*thorn apple, Solanaceae), *Dissotis senegambiensis (Melastomataceae), *Erucastrum arabicum (Brassicaceae), *Lycopersicon esculentum (*tomato, Solanaceae), *Melaleuca alternifolia (Myrtaceae), *Oxalis corniculata (Oxalidaceae), *Pentas longiflora (Rubiaceae), *Plumbago zeylanica (*Ceylon leadwort, Plumbaginaceae), *Pseudarthria hookeri (Fabaceae), Pterocarpus angolensis (*bleedwood tree, Fabaceae), *Sedum acre (Crassulaceae), *Senna alata (*ringworm plant) & didymobotrya (Fabaceae). Rinorea (Violaceae) – a genus of more than 300 species of shrubs or small trees widely distributed in tropical regions (15 species native to East Africa, 7 species in Uganda); in Tanzania and coastal Kenya the roots of R. elliptica are chewed and the juice swallowed for *snakebite treatment (Weiss 1979), while a root *infu-sion of R. ilicifolia is drunk for *coughs, and a *decoction of the roots of R. arborea is drunk to alleviate *abdominal pain (Kokwaro 1976). river bean – Sesbania sesban (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a widespread slender woody African legume plant; for medicinal use see *Sesbania. river blindness – *onchocerciasis; a disease (*filiariasis) caused by tiny roundworms (filiaria) of the genus Onchocerca; this filiariasis is spread by small gnats (e.g. the buffalo-gnat Simulium damnosum) and the disease is most widespread near streames and rivers in fertile agricultural areas; the parasites are found in the skin and not in the blood; they produce swellings under the skin and damage to the eyes, which may result in blindness. Robin-run-over-the-hedge – Galium aparine (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a troublesomeannual weed in many temperate countries; shepheards have used the stems to make sieves for straining milk; it is a mild *laxative and *diuretic taken for swollen *lymph glands, *kidney stones. urinary problems and *skin diseases such as *eczema, *psoriasis and *seboohoea, alternative names: *catchweed, *cleavers, *goosegrass, *hairif, *scratch grass, *sticky Willie; see also *bedstraw. rock samphire – Crithmum maritimum (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is a perennial herb native to the rocky sea coasts of the Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea; this herb is a good *diuretic and believed to relieve *flatulence and improve the *digestion; alternative names: *samphire and *sea fennel; marsh samphire is Salicornia spp. (the goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae); Roman chamomile – kamomille, Chamaemelum nobile (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a West European perennial medicinal herb useful herb for many *digestive disorders such as acidity, *bloating and *wind, *colic, *nausea, *vomiting, *indigestion and loss of appetite; it is *antispasmodic and eases tense muscles and *cramping pains; this plant is useful in treating *headaches and *migraine, particularly in children; it is *anti-allergenic and *anti-inflammatory and used to treat irritated skin; Roman chamomile is used interchangeably with German chamomile, but has a more bitter action; alternative name: *chamomile; *German chamomile is Chamomilla recutita. Roman nettle – Urtica pilulifera (the nettle family, Urticaceae) is a perennial herb from the Mediterranean; it is a cleansing and *detoxifying herb with the same values as *common nettle or *nettle (U. dioica). The Romans used this herb for *urtication, i.e. beating themselves with nettles to encourage blood to the surface; this they did to keep themselves warm. Rorippa (Brassicaceae) – a genus of about 80 species of annual or perennial herbs widespread throughout the world (2 species native to Uganda, 1 species naturalized); the young leaves of some species are eaten as vegetables; in west Uganda the leaves of R. microphylla (Nasturtium microphyllum) are used to treat *indigestion and quicken *labour (Kakudidi et al. 2000). 307 Rosaceae – a family with 107 genera and more than 3000 species of annual or perennial herbs, shrubs or trees widely distributed throughout the world, but most common in temperate regions; in East Africa 5 native genera and 38 species (4 genera and 28 species in Uganda) when excluding Chrysobalanaceae; many genera have species used as medicine, e.g. Agrimonia (*agrimony), Alchemilla (*Lady’s mantle), Crataegus (*hawthorn), Filipendula (*meadowsweeet), Fragaria (*strawberry), Geum (*avens), *Hagenia, Potentilla (*tormentil & *silverweed), *Prunus (*apricot, *cherry), Rosa (*rose), *Rubus (*blackberry, raspberry) and Sanguisorba (*burnet). rose1 – Rosa gallica (the rose family, Rosaceae) is native to the Middle East, but is no longer found in the wild, but is cultivated in numerous horticultiral forms and hybrids; the oil of roses is used in *aromatherapy as an *antidepressant, *anti-inflammatory and mildly *sedative remedy; rose petals and their preparations have a similar action and reduce high *cholesterol levels; rosewater is used as a lotion for *sore eyes; see also *dog rose. rose2 – species of the genus Rosa (the rosefamily, Rosaceae), e.g. alpine rose (R. pendulina), apple rose (R. villosa), burnet rose (R. pimpinellifolia). cinnamon or may rose (R. majalis) and dog rose (R. canina). rose3 – in compounds also about species not belonging to the genus Rosa, e.g. *cotton rose (Hibiscus mutabilis) and *rose of China (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, both in the mallow family, Malvaceae) and *desert rose (*Adenium obesum in the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae). roseapple or rose apple – Eugenia jambos (the myrtle family, Myrtaceae) is a tree from IndoMalaysia with edible fruits; the fruits are rich in vitamins and will thus improve the general defense to diseases. rosebay1 – Nerium oleander (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae); alternative name: *oleander; for medicinal use see *oleander. rosebay2 (Am) – Epilobium angustifolium (mjølkefamily, Onagraceae); alternative names: *Rose Bay willowherb or *willowherb; for medicinal use see *Rose Bay willowherb. Rose Bay willow herb – Epilobium angustifolium (the willowherb family, Onagraceae) is a perennial herb widespread throughout the north temperate regions; it is *astringent and *demulcent and has been used to treat *diarrhoea, irritable *bowel syndrome, *mucous colitis and prostate problems; in Siberia an alcoholic drink has been made from this herb and the *fly agaric (Amanita muscaria); alternative names: *fireweed and *rosebay. rose family – the rose family (Rosaceae) is a large family with about 120 genera and 3400 species widely distributed in all cold parts of the world. rosehip – the receptacle (’fruit’) of species of the genus Rosa (the rose family, Rosaceae); it is very rich in *vitamin C; it is a very useful supplementary food for babies, usually taken in the form of a soup, juice or mashed; in adults it will prevent *scurvy; alternative name: *hip. roselle – Hibiscus sabdariffa (the mallow family, Malvaceae) with leaves used like *spinach and the fleshy calyx used in drinks and jellies; a decoction or infusion of the calyx has been drunk to treat *convulsions, *cough, *hypertension, *sore throat and as a *diuretic to treat urinary tract infections and as a mild *laxative and *tonic for the female genital system; the powder of the ground flower calyx is mixed with honey and smeared on the *penis to treat sexual *asthenia; the seeds have been used as an *aphrodisiac and to treat *jaundice and expel *headlice; leaf sap or a leaf decoction is dropped into the eye to treat *conjunctivitis or used as a mouthwash to treat *toothache and * wounds like those from *circumcision (Adjanohoun 1988, El Kamali & Khalid 1996, Neuwinger 2000). rose-mallow – species of the genus Hibiscus (the mallow family, Malvaceae); for medicinal uses see *Hibiscus. rosemary – Rosmarinus officinalis (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a strongly aromatic perennial shrub native to the Mediterranean region; it has been used for thousand years to strengthen memory by improving blood flow to the head; it also eases *headaches and encourages hair 308 growth by stimulating *circulation of blood to the scalp; rosemary is also believed to raise low *blood pressure and aid recovery from long-term *stress and to raise the spirits; Australian rosemary is species of the genus Westringia (Lamiaceae). rose of China – Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (the mallow family, Malvaceae) is a popular ornamental shrub in warm countries and a pot plant in colder countries; a warming tea is made from its petals; alternative name: *shoe flower. Roseroot or rose-root – Rhodiola rosea or Sedum roseum (the stonecrop family, Crassulaceae) is a perennial succulent herb mainly found in mountains and the north temperate region; in the past it was planted on grass roofs to prevent fire, and used to wash the scalp to improve hair growth; more recently it has aquired reputation as a stimulant herb improving general health and improving reproductive power; today a large number of pills is being sold as a Nordic ginseng; alternative name: *midsummer-men. rosmarinic acid – a phenolic acid with a significant *anti-inflammatory action; it is know from *comfrey or *knitbone, Symphytum officinale (the borago family, Boraginaceae). rosy periwinkle – Catharanthus roseus (or Vinca rosea) in the periwinkle family (Apocynaceae) is an important medicinal herb now widespread as a weed in all tropical regions and cultivated worldwide as a garden plant; it contains a large number of different *indole alkaloids including *vincristin and *vinblastin, which are both powerful *anti-cancer agents and used in the treatment of *leukaemia, *Hodgkins disease and other types of *cancer; alternative name: *Madagascar rosy periwinkle. Rotheca (Verbenaceae or Lamiaceae) – a genus of about 40 species of mostly shrubs, lianes, or rarely perennial herbs native to all tropical and warm regions (about 15 species in East Africa and 3 species in Uganda), only recently split off the genus Clerodendrum; in East Africa R. myricoides is used to treat *chest pains, *colds, *constipation, *delirium, *diarrhoea, *dizziness, *gonorrhoea, *impotence, *indigestion, *malaria, *marasmus, *rheumatism, *snake bites, *skin problems, *sore throat, *swellings, *tonsilitis, *ulcers and *vomiting, and also used in *antenatal care (Kokwaro 1976; Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 20003); in Central Uganda the Baganda drink a root decoction of this plant to treat painful *menstruation and *infertility (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in Tanzania the roots of R. sansibarensis (= Clerodendrum scheffleri) are used to treat sick children and for the treatment of *snake bite (Kokwaro 1976). Rothmannia (Rubiaceae) – a genus of about 30 species of shrubs or small trees native to tropical Africa and Asia (8 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in wWest Africa R. longiflora is used for *backache, *diarrhoea, *fever, *jaundice, *measles, *stomach disorders and stomach pain; in Gabon the bark of R. walkeri is used against *colic and *intestinal worms; the fruit and roots of R. whitfieldii is used for *dysmenorrhoea and to stop perspiration (Neuwinger 1996). rothmannia – species of the gensu Rothmannia (the coffee family, Rubiaceae), e.g. forest rothmannia (R. urcelliformis); for medicinal use see above. round-leaved sundew – Drosera rotundifolia (the sundew family, Droseraceae) is an insect-eating plant widespread in north temperate regions; it contains *naphthaquinones which are *antimicrobial, *antispasmodic and also suppress *coughs; sundew relaxes the muscles of the *respiratory tract thus ease breathing and other chest conditions such as *asthma, *bronchial asthma and *whooping cough. roundworms – *ascaris (lumbricoides); parasitic round worms, which are cylindrical, pointed at both ends, of a pinkish colour and about 25 cm or more long; they are parasitic on man, but have no intermediate host; roundworms may cause *abdominal pain, *nausea and itching of the nose, or in more serious conditions such as intestinal obstrucion; the state of being infested with roundworms is known as *ascariasis; many plants are used to expel these worms, e.g. *Achyrospermum radicans (Lamiaceae), *Alstonia scholaris (*dita bark, Apocynaceae), *Anthocleista grandiflora (Loganiaceae), Artemisia cina (*Levant wormwood, Asteraceae), 309 *Bersama abyssinica (Melianthaceae), *Canarium schweinfurthii (*African elemi, Burseraceae), *Hibiscus trionum (*bladder hibiscus, Malvaceae), *Myrsine africana (Myrsinaceae), *Phytolacca dodecandra (Phytolaccaceae), *Psychotria peduncularia (Rubiaceae), *Senna occidentalis (Fabaceae), Spigelia marilandica (*pink root, Loganiaceae) and *Tacca leontopetaloïdes (Taccaceae); for other medicinal herbs used see *anthelmintic. Rourea (Connaraceae) – a genus of about 85 species (including Byrsocarpus and Santaloïdes) of shrubs or lianes native to tropical Africa and Asia (4 species in East Africa, 2 species native to Uganda); R. coccinea (Byrsocarpus coccinea) is widely used as a medicine in Central and West Africa; in Congo the plant is used as an *emetic, and the young leaves are eaten for *tachycardia; in Nigeria it is used for *gonorrhoea, *haemorrhage, *intestinal worms, *jaundice, swellings, *tumours and urinary problems; in Ghana it is used for jaundice, *wounds, mouth and *skin problems, and the roots eaten for *impotence; in Togo it is used to treat high *blood pressure and *sterility; in East Africa a decoction of the roots of R. orientalis (Byrsocarpus orientalis) is taken as a remedy for *diarrhoea, *gonorrhoea and blockage of the *urethra or vaginal *spasm, and leaves and roots are used to treat *headache, while an infusion of the root is used as a *prophylatic against *tick fever (Kokwaro 1976). rowan (tree) – Sorbus aucuparia (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a widespread tree native to north temperate regions; in Scotland rowan was believed to be an *antidote to *witchcraft; rowan is *astringent and often taken as a jam to treat *diarrhoea and *haemorrhoids and as a wash to treat *heamorrhoids and excessive *vaginal discharge; the seeds contain *cyanogenic glycosides, which upon contact with water produce the extremely poisonous *prussic acid; alternative name: *mountain ash. Royena (Ebenaceae) – a genus now included in Diospyros, e.g. Royena macrocalyx is Diospyros loureiriana. rubefacient – (an agent, drug or plant) which reddens the skin by producing active or passive *hyperemia (increased amount of blood to a part of the body). Rubia (Rubiaceae) – a genus of less than 60 species of climbing or creeping herbs in tropical and warm temperate regions (1 species in Uganda); R. tinctoria is widely cultivated for the red dye obtained from its underground parts; in Uganda the leaves or shoots of R. cordifolia are used to treat *abdominal pain, *cough, fresh *wounds and the *umbilical cord (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in West Uganda the leaves and fruits of this herb is taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); elsewhere in East Africa a boiled root decoction is drunk to treat *stomach disorders and used as an *antidote for general poisoning, while leaves and stems are used to treat *diarrhoea (Kokwaro 1976). Rubiaceae – a large family of about 500 genera and 6000 species widely distributed throughout the hot and temperate parts of the world, but only the tribe Rubieae is predominantly temperate (in East Africa 109 genera and 740 species, in Uganda 71 genera and 230 species); a large number of species from many genera are used as medicines, e.g. *Agathisanthemum, *Aoranthe, *Canthium, *Catunaregam, *Chassalia, *Chazaliella, *Coffea (*coffee), *Conostomium, *Craterispermum, *Cremaspora, *Crossopteryx, *Danais, *Fadogia, *Galium (*madder), *Gardenia, *Hallea, *Heinsia, *Hymenodictyon, *Ixora, *Keetia, *Kohautia, Mitchella (*squaw vine), *Morinda, *Mussaenda, *Nauclea, *Oldenlandia, *Oxyanthus, Pausinystalia (*yohimbe), *Pauridiantha, *Pavetta, *Pentanisia, *Pentas, *Polysphaeria, *Psychotria, *Psydrax, *Rubia, *Rytigynia, *Sarcocephalum, *Spermacoce, *Tarenna, *Tricalysia, Uncaria (*cat’s claw) and *Vangueria. rubber gardenia – Gardenia gummifera (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a shrub native to eastern India; it is *antiseptic and digestive. rubefacient – (a substance) which stimulates blood flow to the skin, causing reddening and warming. 310 Rubus (Rosaceae) – a genus with about 250 species and in addition many apomictic microspecies widely distributed throughout both cold and warm regions of the world, but rare in hot tropical regions; many species produce fruits (aggregated drupelets, popularly named berries), which are highly esteemed for their flavour and *vitamin content, e.g. *blackberries (many species), boysenberry (a hybrid), *cloudberry (R. chamaemorus), loganberry (a hybrid), *raspberry (R. idaeus) and wineberry (R. phoenicolasius); in Uganda the leaves of a species of Rubus are used to treat *cough and *flatulence (Kakudidi et al. 2000), while the roots of R. pinnatus is used to treat *impotence in men, and the leaves of R. rigidus are used to treat *eczema (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); pounded roots of R. rigidus are soaked in water and the infusion used as a remedy for *colds and *coughs in children (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya a decoction of the root of R. steudneri is drunk for *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976), while in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda R. steudneri is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); rue – Ruta graveolens (the orange family, Rutaceae) is an evergreen perennial native to the eastern Mediterranean, but widely cultivated as an ornamental and medicinal herb elsewhere; rue is mainly used to encourage the onset of *menstruation by stimulating blood flow and the muscles of the *uterus; an infusion of rue used as eyewash brings relief to strained and tired eyes; rue has also been taken (undocumented) to improve conditions like *Bell’s palsy, *colic, *epilepsy, *hysteria, *intestinal worms, *multiple sclerosis, *poisoning and *vertiligo; in compounds the name rue is also used about other species of the genus Ruta; see also *meadow rue (the genus Thalictrum in the buttercup family). rue family – the orange family, Rutaceae is a large family with about 150 genera and 900 species widely distributed in all tropical and warm regions; for medicinal plants see *Rutaceae; alternative names: *orange family and *citrus fruit family. Ruellia (Acanthaceae) – a genus of about 150 species of herbs or small shrubs widespread in tropical and temperate regions; in East Africa the roots of R. patula are used for swollen *glands, while an infusion acts as a coling agent (Kokwaro 1976). rumen – the belly (paunch) of a ruminant Rumex (Polygonaceae) – a genus with about 200 species of annual or perennial herbs widespread in both warm and cold regions, but in the tropics usually in uplands only (7 species in East Africa, 5 species in Uganda); in East Uganda the tuber of R. abyssinicus is rubbed on the skin to treat *fungal infections (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves of the same species are used to treat *skin rush in children (Kakudidi et al. 2000), while the leaves and stems are chewed as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005) or are boiled and eaten to improve sexuality in women (KamatenesiMugisha 2005) or taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the root of R. abyssinicus to treat a disease causing yellow stool (Heine & König 1988); in East Africa this species is also used as treatment for *pneumonia, as a *cough cure, and the roots are applied to wounds and as a remedy for *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the rootbark of R. nepalensis (R. bequaertii) is taken to treat *stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 2000), and the leaves used to treat *neurotic disorder marked by *somatisation and to chase away evil spirits (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda R. nepalensis is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in Tanzania the roots of this species is used for treatment of *abdominal pain, *abscesses, and the leaves used for *sore throat (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves and young stem of R. usambarensis are taken to treat *asthma, *polydipsia associated with *pregnancy, *stomach-ache, *scabies and to treat threatened *abortion (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda R. usambarensis is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in Tanzania the leaves of R. usambarensis are used to treat *cough and *stomach pain., while the whole plant 311 used for treating *smallpox (Kokwaro 1976); for anthraquinone pigments in Kenyan species of Rumex see Midiwo & Rukunga (1985). rupture – hernia; a condition with weakening of (muscular) tissue around an organ in such a way that part of the organ protrudes through the wall of the cavity normally containing it; rupture or hernia is most commonly used about a weakening of the abdomen wall; for medicinal plants used to treat this condition see *hernia.. rupture-wort – Herniaria glabra (the pink family, Caryophyllaceae) is a dwarf creeping herb native to Europe and adjacent parts of Asia; it is valued as a *diuretic herb with an *anti-spasmodic effect on the *bladder, and it is used to treat urinary problems like *cystitis, irritable bladder and *kidney stones; the Latin name Herniaria refers to its reputation to heal *hernia. Rutaceae – a family of about 150 genera and 900 species widely distributed in tropical and temperate regions, but most numerous in South Africa and Australia (14 genera and 42 species in East Africa, 10 genera and 19 species in Uganda); several genera have species with medicinal use, e.g. Aegle (bael; *Bengal quince), Citrus (*grapefruit, lemon, *lime, *orange), *Clausena, Dictamnus (*dittany; *burning bush), *Fagariopsis, Galipea (*angostura), Murraya (*curry patta), Phellodendron (*huang bai), Ruta (*rue), *Teclea, *Toddalia, *Vepris and *Zanthoxylon. rutin – a *flavonoid (polyphenolic compound) that strengthens capillaries and prevent leakage into surrounding tissues; rutin is found in many plants, e.g. *lemon (Citrus limon, Rutaceae) and *buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum, Polygonaceae); rutin is sold in food stores as a ”bioflavonoid”. rye – Secale cereale (the grass family, Poaceae). ++++++++ Rytigynia (Rubiaceae) – a genus of about 60-70 species of shrubs, lianes or small trees restricted to Africa with Madagascar (about 50 species in East Africa, 14 species in Uganda); in western Uganda R. kigeziensis is a very important medicinal plant used by midwives as well as herbalists (Cunningham 1996, Kamatenesi et al. 2000); in Tanzania the Shambaa use the root of R. uhligii (= R. schumannii) for magics. Saba (Apocynaceae) – a genus with 3 species of lianas native to tropical Africa (in East Africa and Uganda 1 species); in East Africa a boiled root decoction of S. comorensis (S. florida) is drunk for the treatment of *rheumatism (Kokwaro 1976); in Mali a maceration of the leaf of S. senegalensis mixed with fruit of Tamarindus indica or Citrus aurantifolia is drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006). Saccharum (Poaceae) – a genus of about 30 grass species widespread in tropical regions and extending to warm temperate regions (in East Africa and Uganda 1 native and 1 cultivated species, i.e. the sugar cane); in East Uganda the stem of S. officinarum (sugar cane) is used to treat *hiccup and *dental problems (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the stem of the sugar cane is inserted in vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005). Sacciolepis (Poaceae) – a genus of about 27 grass species widespread in tropical regions, but with highest diversity in Africa (11 species in East Africa, 7 species in Uganda); in East Africa S. curvata is used for the treatment of *cerebral *malaria (Kokwaro 1976). sacred bo-tree – Ficus religiosa (the fig family, Moraceae) is a long-living Indian tree sacred to Hindus and Buddhists; it is cultivated in any tropical region where Indians have settled; the leaves are taken for *diarrhoea, *constipation and *dysentery; the powdered fruit is used for *asthma and the white latex is applied to aching *joints, *haemorrhoids and *warts; alternative names: *bo-tree, *peepal, *peepul, *pipal and *pipul. sacred bo-tree – Ficus religiosa (the mulberry family, Moraceae); for medicinal use see *pipal. safflower – Carthamus tinctorius (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is an annual spiny herb native to Iran and western Asia, but widely dispersed as a weed elsewhere; it is well known as a dye plant also falsely sold as *saffron (Crocus sativus); its seed oil contains *linoleic acid, which lowers *cholesterol levels and is *purgative; the flowers may reduce *coronary artery disease as 312 well as lower cholesterol levels; the flowers are also given to stimulate *menstruation and to relieve *abdominal pain, to cleanse and heal *wounds and *sores and to treat *measles. saffron – food-dye obtained from the scarlet style of Crocus sativus (the iris family, Iridaceae); for medicinal use see *saffron (crocus). saffron (crocus) – Crocus sativus (the iris family, Iridaceae) is a perennial lily with a bulb-like corm native to the eastern Mediterranean and southwestern Asia; it is widely cultivated and highly valued as an expensive spice made from stigma of the flowers; it was in earlier days much used as a medicine to treat *chronic uterine *bleeding, *colic, *indigestion, periodic pain and to induce *menstruation and to quicken the spirit. sage1 – Salvia officinalis (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial herb native to the Mediterranean; it is widely cultivated as a culinary herb, but has also many therapeutic values; its essential oil contain up to 50 % *thujone, which has *antiseptic, *oestrogenic and *stomachic activity; sage is an excellent remedy for irregular periods, *menopausal symptoms, poor *digestion and *sore throats; it also has tranquilizing activity and possibly helps to prevent the onset of *Alzheimer’s disease; sage contains several powerful *antioxidants and *rosmarinic acid is also *anti-inflammatory; fresh sage leaves are a useful first aid remedy when rubbed on to stings and bites; it has also been used to treat *asthma; a purple variety, *purple sage, S. officinalis var. purpurascens, is the preferred medicinal variety. sage2 – in compounds used about other species both from the mint family (Lamiaceae) and other families; from the genus Salvia e.g. autumn sage (S. greggii), *clary sage (S. sclarea), gentian sage (S. patens), *Mexican sage (S. divinorum), pineapple-scented sage (S. rutilans), *red sage (S. miltiorhiza), roseleaf sage (S. involucrata), sticky sage (S. glutinosa); see also *blue sage (Eranthemum pulchellum, Acanthaceae) and *Jerusalem sage (Phlomis fruticosa, Lamiaceae). Salacia (Celastraceae) – a genus of about 200 species of lianes, shrubs and small trees widely distributed in tropical regions (11 species in East Africa, 3 in Uganda); in Tanzania a pad of the wet powder of grated roots of S. lehmbachii is bound on the navel in case of *umbilical *hernia (Kokwaro 1976). salak palm – Salacca edulis (Arecaceae) is a palm native to the Malay Peninsula, and in Java and elsewhere cultivated as a fruit crop; the fruit has an edible sour-sweet pulp tasting of apples and is *astringent (Purseglove 1972). salep – starchy tubers of some orchids used in cooking or for medicine, e.g. Dactylorhiza (Iran), Eulophia (Asia) and Orchis (Europe). Salerno Medical School – a medical school on the west coast of Italy; here one thousand years ago both Christians, Moslems and Jews, and even women, were allowed to train as physicians. Salicaceae – a family of 3 genera and over 500 species widely distributed in hot as as well as cold regions, but most abundant in temperate and cold parts of the northern hemisphere, in the tropics in upland areas only (in East Africa 2 genera and 2 native species, in Uganda 1 genus and 1 native species); many species of the genera Populus and *Salix are of medicinal use. salicin – a *phenolic glycoside found in a number of plants, including species from the genera Salix and Populus (the willow family, Saliceae) and *meadowsweet, Filipendula ulmaria (the rose family, Rosaceae); these plant are much used in herbal medicine because they have *feverreducing, pain-relieving (also in connection with *arthritis) and *anti-inflammatory properties that are similar to those of *aspirin;. salicylic acid – a *phenolic glycoside found in e.g. Filipendula ulmaria (the rose family, Rosaceae) and species of the genus Salix (the willow family, Salicaceae); it is used to produce *acetylsalicylic acid (commercial name: *aspirin); it is used for its fever-reducing, pain-relieving and anti-inflammatory properties and particularly for *headache, *arthritis and *rheumatic pains (*analgesic); it is the most used of all medicines; every day more than 100 tons are consumed. Salix (Salicaceae) – a genus of about 400 species of deciduous shrubs or trees widely distributed in hot as as well as cold regions, but most abundant in temperate and cold parts of the northern 313 hemisphere, in the tropics in upland areas only (in East Africa and Uganda 1 native species); in Tanzania the roots of Salix subserrata are used to treat *fever and *headache (Kokwaro 1976). sallaki – Boswellia serrata (Burseraceae) is an Indian deciduous tree used for thousands of years as an *astringemt and *anti-inflammatory; the useful part is the bark, which contains a golden transparent gum resin; it has been widely prescribed for *rheumatoid *arthritis reducing pain and stiffness; it makes an effective mouthwash and gargle and will benefit gum disease, *laryngitis, mouth *ulcers and sore throat; it may also be useful for *asthma, *gout, *hay fever and *nettle rash; alternative name: *Indian olibanum; see also *Boswellia and *frankincense (B. sacra). sallow – Salix caprea and S. cinerea (the willow family, Salicaceae) are trees or large shrubs fro northern temperate regions; since they contain *salicylic acid they are useful for treating pain. salpingitis – inflammation in one or both *oviducts (*fallobian tube), more rarely used about *inflammation in other tube-like organs. salsify – Tragopgon porrifolius (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is sometimes cultivated for its edible succulent taproot with a high content of *inulin; inulin has mucilaginous qualities that help soothe the *bronchial linings; alternative names: *goats-beard and * vegetable oyster. Salvadora (Salvadoraceae) – a genus with 3-4 species of (often scrambling) shrubs or trees native from Africa to China (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa a decoction of the root of S. persica (*toothbrush tree) is used to cure *chest problems, *gonorrhoea, *spleen trouble and general *stomach-ache, the latex of the bark is applied to *sores, and the young stem is much used as a *toothbrush (Weiss 1979), and is believed to cure *gum diseases (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink an infusion of the root of S. persica to treat *back pain, while the fruit is chewed raw to treat *fever and improve general health (Heine & König 1988). Salvadoraceae – a family of 3 genera and 11 species of shrubs, scramblers or trees in hot and dry parts of the Old World (in East Africa 3 genera and 4 species, in Uganda 3 genera and 3 species); species of the genera *Azima and *Salvadora are used as medicines. samphire – Crithmum maritimum (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is a perennial herb native to the rocky sea coasts of the Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea; this herb is a good *diuretic and believed to relieve *flatulence and improve the *digestion; alternative names: *rock samphire and *sea fennel; marsh samphire is Salicornia spp. (the goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae); sandalwood family – Santalaceae is a medium sized familywith about 35 genera and 400 species widely distributed in all continents except the coldest regions; for medicinal plants see *Santalaceae. sandalwood (tree) – Santalum album (Santalaceae) is a semi-parasitic evergreen tree from South Asia; it has a fragrant white wood used for making chests and finer furniture, and for production of ”sandal-oil” and perfumery; the wood is often burned as incense in Hindu and Buddhist rituals; sandalwood has *antiseptic properties and is used to treat *genito-urinary conditions such as *cystitis and *gonorrhoea; in China it is considered useful for *chest and *abdominal pain; in India a paste is used to soothe *rashes and *itchi skin; *bastard sandalwood er Myoporum sandwicense (Myoporaceae) fra Hawaii. sand olive – Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustifolia (Sapindaceae) is a pioneer shrub or small tree from dry regions in Africa and Asia; for medicinal use see *Dodonaea. sandwort – Arenaria serpyllifolia (the pink family, Caryophyllaceae) is a widespread annual herb throughout Europe and Asia; it is *diuretic and thought to help treat *urinary problems. sanicle – Sanicula europaea (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is a perennial herb native to Europe and Asia; it has a long-standing reputation for healing *wounds and treating internal *bleeding; it is also used for *bronchial problems, *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *nosebleeds and *sore throats; *African sanicle (Sanicula elata) probably has similar effects. san qi –Panax notoginseng (the ivy family, Araliaceae) is a Chinese species of ginseng, which root has been used as a medicine for centuries; it is particularly useful to improve *stamina and arrest 314 both external and internal *bleeding; it supports the function of the *adrenal glands (especially the production of corticosteroids and male sex hormones); it is thus used as a male *aphrodisiac; it improves blood flow through the *coronary arteries, and can be used as a treatment for *arteriosclerosis; it also reduces *blood pressure and lessens the symptoms of *angina; alternative name: *notoginseng. Sansevieria (Agavaceae or Dracaenaceae) – a genus of about 50 species of succulent herbs native to Africa with Madagascar and southern Asia; in Kenya a leaf of S. ehrenbergii is warmed up and then placed on an *aching part of the body to relieve pain, and in Tanzania the pounded roots of S. kirkii are soaked in water and the mixture drunk to treat *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the roots and stem together of S. trifasciata are used to treat threatened *abortion (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Uganda the So (people of Mt. Kadam) use the rhizome of species of Sanseviera to treat *diarrhoea and *vomiting in children, and for problems relating to *pregnancy between 3rd and 6th month (Heine & Brenzinger 1988); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the root of species of Sansevieria to treat *diarrhoea and *vomiting in infants, and to problems relating to *pregnancy; the green sap is applied to open *wounds; the plant is also given to cows and goats to expel the *placenta and to cleanse the belly (Heine & König 1988); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots of a species of this genus is used to treat *snakebites and used as a poison antidote (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a leaf paste of S. trifasciata rubbed into scarification cuts to treat *snakebite (Masinde 1996). Santalaceae – a family of about 35 genera and some 400 species of hemiparasitic herbs, shrubs or trees widely distributed in troppical and subtropical regions, rare in temperate areas (3 genera and 19 species in East Africa, 3 genera and 6 species in Uganda); a species of *Osyris is widely used as medicine. santonin – a medicinally efficient substance expelling intestinal worms found in several species of the genus Artemisia (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), e.g. in A. cina og A. maritima. sap – the juice or vital circulating fluid of a woody plant; trees such as *silver birch (Betula pendula) produce huge amounts of sap in spring; this sap is often used therapeutically. Sapindaceae – a family of about 147 genera and 2000 species of trees, shrubs, climbers and rarely herbs widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions (25 genera and 61 species in East Africa, 17 gnera and 27 species in Uganda); many species are cultivated for their edible fleshy fruits; species of some genera have medicinal use, e.g. *Allophylus, *Aporrhiza, *Blighia, *Cardiospermum, *Deinbollia, *Dodonaea, *Eriocoelum, *Lecaniodiscus, *Pappea, *Paullinia and *Zanha. Sapium (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus of about 125 species of trees or shrubs widespread in tropical regions, and with 13 species in Africa, but the widespread African species Sapium ellipticum is now transferred to the genus *Shirakiopsis. sapodilla (plum) – Manilkara zapota or Achras zapota (Sapotaceae) is a tree with edible fruits from Central Amerika; a chewing gum named chicle is made from this tree; the fruits are rich I vitamins and thus useful for the general defense against diseases; alternative name: beef apple, chicle, chiku og naseberry. saponin – a glycoside which like soap makes a lather (colloid phase) when placed in water; saponins have a bitter taste and hydrolise red bloodcells; they are particularly poisonous to fish; they are found in many different plants and are often the main active constituent in herbal medicines; saponins occur in two different forms, viz. *steroidal and *triterpenoid; the chemical structure of steroidal saponins is similar to that of many hormones in the body, e.g. *oestrogen and *cortisol, and many plants containing them have a marked hormonal activity, e.g. *wild yam (Dioscorea villosa); triterpenoid saponins occur more commonly in plants, e.g. *liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), *cowslip root (Primula veris) and *soapwort (Saponaria officinalis); the latter has been used for washing wool and finer textiles. 315 Sapotaceae – a family of about 107 genera and 1000 species of trees or shrubs widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, rare in temperate areas (13 genera and 44 species in East Africa, 8 genera and 22 species in Uganda); species of some genera have medicinal use, e.g. *Afrosersali-sia, *Bequartiodendron and *Manilkara and *Vitellaria (= Butyrospermum). Sarcocephalus (Rubiaceae) – a genus with 2 species of small to medium-sized trees restricted to tropical Africa (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Uganda the roots of S. latifolius are used to treat *backache, *helminthiasis, *hernia, premature *ejaculation, *pyomyositis, *uterine fibroids, *vertigo and used as an *antidote; also the fruits are used in the treatment of backache, hernia and vertigo, while the root bark is used to treat *rectal prolapse (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Apac district in North Uganda this species is used to treat *enema (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); elsewhere in Africa this species is used for a large number of different diseases and conditions, e.g. *abscesses, *amenorrhoea, *blennorrhagia, *chickenpox, *colic, *conjunctivitis, *constipation and other *diarrhoea, *digestive problems, female and male *sterility, *fever, *fractures, *haemorrhoids, *hernia, *high blood pressure, *inflammations, *jaundice, *nausea, *prophylactic against *malaria and for *rheumatic complaints (Neuwinger 1996); the most widespread use is in the treatment of malaria (Kokwaro 1976). Sarcostemma (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) – a genus with 14 species of perennial scrambling or twining succulent herbs native to the Old World tropics and subtropics; in East Africa the powdered roots of S. viminale (sensu lat.) are used as an *emetic, and as a medicine for *gonorrhoea, *scabies and *syphilis (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam chew the stems of S. viminale to treat *cough and *fever (Heine & König 1988). sarsaparilla – species of the genus Smilax (Smilacaceae); the root of these species contains *smilagenin; a *terpenoid which is a steroidal glycoside (saponin); the root is *oestrogenic and *anti-inflammatory and have *antibiotic activity; it can bring relief to skin problems such as *eczema, *itchiness and *psoriasis, and may help to treat *arthritis, *gout and *rheumatism; it is also used for pre-menstrual problems and *menopausal conditions such as *debility and *depression. satin-flower (USA) – Stellaria media in the pink family (Caryophyllaceae) is a troublesome weed in temperate countries; alternative name; *chickweed og *starweed (USA); it contains *saponins and is used to relieve *eczema, *nettle-rash (*urticaria) and certain *ulcers; it is also used in bathwater as it has *emollient properties and will repair tissue and reduce *inflammation of the skin or in *rheumatic joints; in small quantities it will aid *digestion, but taken in larger doses it may cause *diarrhoea. Satureja (Lamiaceae) – a genus of about 30 species of herbs or small shrubs widespread in temperate regions of particularly the northern hemisphere, in the tropics confined to high altitudes; in East Africa the leaves of S. abyssinica are used for *indigestion, ash from burned leaves is licked for *coughs, and an infusion from the plant is used for bathing and washing in connection with *circumcission; in Kenya the Kakamega use the roots and leaves of S. biflora for *headache (Kokwaro 1976); see also *winter savory (S. montana). sausage tree (Bignoniaceae) – Kigelia pinnata (K. africana) is a tall tree native to tropical Africa (widespread in Uganda); it is is the dispersed by elephants, and is often conserved around houses for medicinal purposes; particularly the stem bark is used to treat a number of diseases and conditions; in East Uganda the So in the mountains treat *liver and *spleen problems with a decoction of the bark; in various countries it is used for almost any disease, e.g. *cancerous *tumours, *colic, *convulsions, *dysentery, *elephantiasis of the *scrotum, *gonorrhoea, *rheumatic pain, *snake bite, *stomach pain, *syphilis, *ulcers and *wounds (Neuwinger 1996); in Senegal the flesh of ripe fruit is boiled in water and rubbed into the breasts of young girls to enlarge them, and in South Africa the fruit juice is rubbed into cuts in the skin of the *penis to enlarge it. 316 sausage tree family – Bignoniaceae is a large family with about 120 genera and 650 species widely distributed in tropical and warm regions; for medicinal use see *Bignoniaceae. savin – Juniperus sabina (the juniper family, Cupressaceae) is an evergreen shrub native to the Mediterranean region; it is very poisonous and a powerful *abortifacient; see also *juniper. savory – species of the genus Satureja (the mint family, Lamiaceae), e.g. summer savory (S. hortensis) and *winter savory (S. montana); for medicinal use see *winter savory. savoys – Brassica oleracea var. sabauda (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae) is a cabbage with curly leaves; for medicinal use see *Brassica and *cabbage. saw palmetto – Serenoa repens (the palm family, Arecaceae) is a North American stemless palm with edible fruits; the palm is growing on seashore sand dunes; the fruit pulp is used to help in *debility, for urinary tract problems and for reducing an enlarged *prostate gland; it also reduces *urinary retention and eases urine flow; saw palmetto is one of the few western remedies to be *anabolic, i.e. it strengthens and builds body tissues and encourage weight gain. scabies – a contaginous *skin disease (*dermatitis) with intense itching caused by a parasitic *mite (Sarcoptes scabiei) that burrow under the skin; the chief regions affected are the fingers, wrists and buttocks; the female lay eggs in a tunnel in the skin and the larvae and nymphs lives on the surface of the skin or in small burrows; many plants are used to alleviate this disease, e.g. *Acacia sieberiana (Fabaceae), *Azadirachta indica (*margosa tree or *neem, Meliaceae), *Cnidium monnieri (*she chuang zi, Apiaceae), *Combretum molle (Combretaceae), *Cynodon dactylon (*Bermuda grass, Poaceae), *Datura stramonium (*thornapple, Solanaceae), *Erythrophleum suaveolens (Fabaceae), *Eugenia bukobensis (Myrtaceae), *Ficus exasperata (Moraceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllanthaceae), *Harungana madagascariensis (Clusiaceae), *Indigofera arrecta (Fabaceae), *Justicia flava (Acanthaceae), *Kigelia pinnata (*sausage tree, Bignoniaceae), Liquidambar officinalis (*balm-of-Gilead, *Levant storax, Hamameliaceae), *Maesa lanceolata (Maesaceae), *Mannihot usitatissima (*cassava or *manioc, Euphorbiaceae), *Mansonia diatomanthera (Sterculiaceae), Menyanthes trifoliata (*bogbean or *buckbean), *Morinda morindoides (Rubiaceae), *Musa × paradisiaca var. sapientum (cooking banana or matoke, Musaceae), *Olea capensis (Oleaceae), *Oxyanthus speciosus (Rubiaceae), *Pentas hindsioides & longiflora (Rubiaceae), *Plumbago zeylanica (*Ceylon leadwort, Plumbaginaceae), *Protoasparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), *Pseuarthria hookeri (Fabaceae), *Psorospermum febrifugum (Clusiaceae), *Rumex usambarensis (Polygonaceae), *Sarcostemma viminale (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Shirakopsis elliptica (Euphorbiaceae), *Steganotaenia araliacea (Apiaceae), *Syzygium aromaticum (*clove, Myrtaceae), *Tephrosia vogelii (Fabaceae) and *Zehneria scabra (Cucurbitaceae). Scadoxus (Amaryllidaceae) – a genus with 9 species of handsome herbs native to tropical Africa south to Natal (4 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in Uganda the corm (rhizomatous bulb) of S. multiflorus is used to treat *snakebite (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). scald – to burn by contact with a hot liquid or steam. scallion – Allium fistulosum (the onion family, Alliaceae) is a widespread Mediterranean-Asian herb; in Chinese herbal medicine this plant is used to encourage sweating, to unblock the nose, to relieve *bloating, and to help drain *boils and *abscesses. scammony – Convolvulus scammonia (the bindweed family, Convolvulaceae) has been an important medicinal herb in the past, but is not widely used today. scarlatina – *scarlet fever; see below. scarlet fever – a contaginous disease that causes a fever and a scarlet *rash accompanied by *eruptions of the skin (*exanthema); alternative name: *scarlatina. scarlet pimpernel – Anagallis arvensis (the primrose family, Primulaceae) is a troublesomeweed in many temperate parts of the world; this herb is *diuretic, sweat-inducing and *expectorant; it has mainly been used to stimulate the *coughing up of *mucus and help recover from *colds and *flu, but was also taken to treat *epilepsy and *mental problems; alternative names: *common 317 pimpernel, *pimpernel, *poison chickweed, *poisonweed, *poor man’s weatherglass, *red chickweed, *shepherd’s clock, *shephard’s weather-glass and *wink-a-peep. scarlet runner (bean) – Phaseolus coccineus (the pea family, Fabaceae) is cultivated for its edible green pods; the beans are rich in proteins and therefore useful as a protection against *kwashiorkor. scented Solomon’s seal – Polygonatum odoratum (Convallariaceae) is a widespread perennial herb in temperate parts of Europe and Asia; as a medicinal herb it is used in much the same way as *Solomon’s seal (Polygonatum multiflorum). Schefflera (Araliaceae) – a genus of about 200 species of trees or lianes widesptread in the tropics of both hemispheres (6 species in East Africa, 5 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of S. goetzenii (S. barteri auct.) are taken before *childbirth to make *delivery safe; in Kenya gum obtained from S. volkensii is used as a cure for *bronchitis, *colds, *coughs and other *lung troubles (Kokwaro 1976). Schisandra (Schisandraceae) – a genus of 25 species of woody vines (lianes) in East Asia and 1 species in eastern North America; Schisandra chinensis is an important medicinal plant; for medicinal use see next word. schisandra – Schisandra chinensis (Schisandraceae) is an aromatic woody vine climbing to 10 m high; it is native to East Asia and widely cultivated in China; it contains up to 30 different *lignans, which have all a *liver-protective (*hepatotoxic) action; it also stimulates the nervous system improving mental clarity; the fruits are thought to reduce *depression and help improve irritability and forgetfulness; it also stimulates the *uterus, strengthening rhythmic contractions; like *ginseng (Panax ginseng) it is *adaptogenic helping the body to adapt to stress; it is also *sedative and used in the treatment of respiratory infections; alternative name: *Chinese schisandra. Schisandraceae – a family of 2 genera and about 47 species of woody vines (lianes) in East Asia and eastern North America; Schisandra chinensis is an important medicinal plant. schistosoma (schistosomiasis) – *bilharzia; a disease in man caused by *flatworms (schistosomes) that live in the large veins of the portal system; there are two common worms in East Africa, i.e. Schistosoma haematobia (*genito-urinary schistosomiasis) and S. monsoni (*intestinal schistosomiasis); several plants are used to kill the parasite in man, see *bilharzia, some plants such as Phytolacca americana & dodecandra will kill the parasite in snails in water before it can enter man; in Mali a large number of plants are registered as used to treat one or both of these diseases (Bah et al. 2006); alternative name: *bilharzia. schizophrenia – a specific type of functional *psychosis (*mental illness) characterized by disintegration of personality, emotional and intellectual deterioration, lack of logical connections between utterances and bizarre behaviour. schizophrenic (schizophrenoid) – which has *schizophrenia or the characteristics of schizophrenia. Schizozygia (Apocynaceae) – a genus with a single species of shrub native to tropical Africa (in East Africa 1 species, in Uganda none); in East Africa root extract of S. coffaeoides is mixed with *coconut oil and smeared on *sores (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal East Africa an extract of the roots or bark or both, is mixed with an oil and used to alleviate *skin problems (Weiss 1979). Schkuhria (Asteraceae) – a genus of 6 species of annual herbs native to the Americas, but one species widely dispersed as a weed throughout the tropics; in East Africa the whole plant of S. pinnata is pounded, soaked in water and the juice drunk for treating *chest, *liver and *stomach pains (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a decoction of the whole plant of S. pinnata for *fevers, *influenza and *malaria (Masinde 1996); in Kenya the Luo drink an infusion of this herb to treat *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002); in Uganda the tops of this plant are used to treat *sore throat and *malaria (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). 318 Schoenoplectiella (Cyperaceae) – a genus of about 30 species of annual or perennial herbs in tropical and warm regions (9 species in East Africa, 7 in Uganda), in East Africa the whole plant of S. articulata is used in the treatment of *fever (Kokwaro 1976). Schrebera (Oleaceae) – a genus with 8 species of trees and shrubs, 5 in tropical Africa, 2 in SE Asia and 1 in Peru (7 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of S. alata are chewed for *headache and *sore throat, while the bark is used as an *anaesthetic and chewed to treat *toothache; in Tanzania an infusion of the leaves of S. trichoclada is used as an eye-drop to cure eye problems (Kokwaro 1976). Schumanniophyton (Rubiaceae) – a genus 2-4 closely related species of shrubs or small trees restricted to tropical West and Central Africa; in Gabon the bark of S. arboreum is used as a stimulant to stay awake, and is believed to be an *aphrodisiac in higher doses; the bark of S. magnificum var. trimerum is widely used as an *anti-worm remedy, *anthelmintic, *purgative, and *aphrodisiac, and to treat *gonorrhoea and *syphilis sores, *snakebite and *scorpion stings; the grated bark is *antiseptic to *wounds and *ulcers, and in Cameroon the Bulu bathe the *penis with the bark decoction after *circumcision (Neuwinger 1996). Schwenckia (Solanaceae) – a genus with a single species native to Brazil, but widely dispersed throughout tropical regions as a weed; in East Uganda the leaves of S. americana are smoked as a charm to keep away evil spirits (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). sciatia – pain resulting from pressure on a nerve in the lower spine; this condition may benefit from taking the American *wintergreen, Gaultheria procumbens (the heather family, Ericaceae), *yellow jasmine (Gelsemium sempervirens, Loganiaceae) or the roots of *madder (Rubia tinctoria, Rubiaceae). Scilla (Hyacinthaceae) – a genus of about 40 species of bulbous herbs in Europe, Africa and Asia (1 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); small doses of diluted bulb *decoction of S. nervosa is drunk to treat *dysentery and *rheumatic fever (Hutchings et al. 1996); a bulb decoction of S. natalensis is used to treat internal *tumors, *ulcers and *sores, and also *lung sickness in cattle (Watt & Brejer-Brandwijk 1962). Sclerocarya (Anacardiaceae) – a genus of 2 species of trees confined to Africa and Madagascar (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa the bark of S. birrea subsp. birrea is used as a remedy for *dysentery and *rheumatism, while the bark of subsp. caffra is used as a medicine for *constipation, *stomach trouble and *toothache (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a *decoction of the bark of subsp. birrea to treat *stomach-ache, and sometimes a black gum found on this plant is rubbed on *wounds or applied to the hair to kill *headlice (Heine & König 1988); the Kamba in Kenya use the roots of subsp. caffra with those of Fagara chalybea and Capparis tomentosa as a treatment for internal harm referred to as ”kati”. sclerosis – *pathological hardening of soft tissue resulting from an overgrowth of fibrous tissue. scopolamine – a poisonous alkaloid used as an *anti-emetic and to treat *motion sickness; scopolamine is found in e.g. Atropa belladonna (*belladonna) and Scopolia carniolica both in the potato family (Solanaceae); see also *atropine and *hyoscyamine. scorbutic – of, like, or affected with *scurvy (disease due to lack of vitamin C; for plants used to treat this disease see *scurvy. Scorodophloeus (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae) – a genus with 2 tree species in tropical Africa (none in Uganda); in Tanzania the Zigua drink a *decoction of the roots of S. fischeri as an *anthelmintic (Kokwaro 1976). scorpion bite – in the Sudan Aristolochia bracteata has beenused to treat *scorpion bites. scorpion weed – Heliotropium indicum (the borage family, Boraginaceae) is a troublesome weed in some parts of the tropics; although native to Asia it is also widely used as a medicinal herb in Africa (Neuwinger 2000); alternative name: *white clary and *wild clary; ‘wild clary’ is also used about Salvia verbenacea (the mint family, Lamiaceae). 319 Scots pine – Pinus sylvestris (the pine family, Pinaceae; Gymnospermae) is a tall evergreen tree widespread in Europe and Asia; it contains an essential oil which has a mildly *antiseptic effect within the chest; it is also used for *arthritis and *rheumatic problems; oil from the leaves has been used for *asthma, *bronchitis and other *respiratory infections. scours – diarrhoea in new born animals. scrapie – a deadly contaminous disease which attacks the brain in sheep; the disease is believed to be caused by mutations in a *protein (and not by bacteria or viruses); the disease is named scrapie because the sheep scrapes off its wool; in cows the disease is named *BSE or *boviform spongiform encefalopati; if the disease attacks humans it is named *Creuzfeldt-Jakobs disease (but humans are not known to have been contaminated via sheep). scratch grass – Galium aparine (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a troublesomeannual weed in many temperate countries; shepheards have used the stems to make sieves for straining milk; it is a mild *laxative and *diuretic taken for swollen *lymph glands, *kidney stones. *urinary problems and *skin diseases such as *eczema, *psoriasis and *seboohoea, alternative names: *catchweed, *cleavers, *goosegrass, *hairif, *Robin-run-over-the-hedge, *sticky Willie; see also *bedstraw. scrophula – *tubercular infection of the *lymph nodes, particularly those of the neck, which swell to form hard protruding lumps beneath the skin (*figwort root resembles these glands); this disease have been treated by (*common) *nasturtium, Tropaeolum majus (Tropaeolaceae), purple orchid tree (*Bauhinia variegata, Fabaceae) and *figwort, Scrophularia nodosa (Scrophulariaceae). Scrophulariaceae – a family traditionally believed to consist of about 220 genera and 4500 species, but at present split up and most species transferred to *Plantaginaceae or *Veronicaceae with all parasites placed in *Orobanchaceae; in temperate regions the genus Scrophularia (*figwort) is widely used as a medicinal herb. scrotum (pl.: scrotula) – the pouch of skin that contains the *testicles (*testis). scrub typhus – a bushland disease caused by a *harvest mite, a tiny animal less than 1 mm long of the genus Trombicula; it is parasitic on man and lay the eggs on the earth or grass, and the larvae attack man; the mites are sometimes exterminated using *pyrethrum powder from the flower heads of the small shrub or herb Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Asteraceae). scurvy – disease due to lack of vitamin C (fresh fruits and vegetables) causing bleeding of the gums and eventually death; scurvy was very widespread in the past; in temperate and cold regions the disease could be avoided by eating *scurvy-grass (Cochlearia), and in warmer regions (especially by sailors) by eating *oranges (Citrus × aurantium); other plants which have been used to treat scurvy include *Brassica oleracea (*cabbage, *broccoli, *Brussels sprout), Eryngium maritimum (*sea holly, Apiaceae), *Punica granatum (*pomegranate, Punicaceae), Rosa spp. (*rose hips, Rosaceae) and Tsuga canadensis (*hemlock pine, Pinaceae). scurvy-grass – Cochlearia officinalis (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae) is a wintergreen herb widespread along the coasts of the northern temperate and cold regions; it is rich in vitamin C and when eaten regularly prevents the fatal disease *scurvy; the plant has also *antiseptic, *diuretic and mild *laxative action. Scutch (grass) – kveke; Elymus repens (the grass family, Poaceae) is a troublesomeweed in many cold and temperate countries; for medicinal use see *couch (grass); alternative name: *couch (grass), *quack-grass, *quickgrass, *quitchgrass og *twitch-grass. Scutia (Rhamnaceae) – a genus with 4 species (3 in South America, 1 in Africa) of shrubs or small trees; in Kenya the Kikuyu use a decoction of the root of S. myrtina to expel intestinal worms (Kokwaro 1976). scybalous – pertaining to a hardened fecal mass. scybalum – a hardened fecal mass. sea beet – the wild form of Beta vulgaris (the goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae) is a perennial herb found along the sea shores of the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean sea; *beet(root) is the 320 cultivated plant with a swollen edible root; it is mainly the cultivated plants which are used as herbal medicine; for medicinal use see *red beet and*white beet (sugar beet). sea buckthorn – Hippophae rhamnoides (the buckthorn family, Elaeagnaceae) is a thorny deciduous shrub native to Europe and Asia; the orange berries have very high content of vitamin C and are eaten especially in Siberia, and elsewhere jam and jelly is made from them; the berries are mildly *astringent and mainly used to promote *wound healing, treat *skin problems and improve *circulation and resistance to *infections. sea fennel – Crithmum maritimum (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is a perennial herb native to the rocky sea coasts of the Atlantic, Mediterranean and Black Sea; this herb is a good *diuretic and believed to relieve *flatulence and improve the *digestion alternative names: *rock samphire and *samphire; marsh samphire is Salicornia spp. (the goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae); sea holly – Eryngium maritimum (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is a thorny perennial sea shore plant growing along the European coasts; the root is *diuretic and prescribed as a treatment for *cystitis, enlarged *prostate gland, *kidney stones and *urethritis; sea holly has also been used to treat *paralysis and *convulsions and eaten to prevent *scurvy. sea kale – Crambe maritima (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae) is a European sea shore plant with some of the medicinal properties of *cabbage (Brassica oleracea). sea onion – Urginea maritima (the hyacinth family, Hyacinthaceae) is a perennial herb with a prominent bulb; it is native to sandy coasts of the Mediterranean Sea and adjacent parts of the Atlantic Ocean; it contains *cardiac glycosides and is strongly *diuretic and *emetic; it is a possible substitute for *foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) in aiding a failing heart; it is also used in *homeopathic preparations; alternative name: *sea squill. sea squill – Urginea maritima (the hyacinth family, Hyacinthaceae); for medicinal use see above (*sea onion). seaweed – macroskopic marine alga, usually brown alga (Phaeophyceae); see also *bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus) and *kelp. Secamone (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) – a genus of about 80 species of climbers and lianes native to the Old World tropics (7-8 species in East Africa, 5 species in Uganda); in Uganda the leaves of S. africana are used to treat *constipation, *syphilis and taken in *antenatal care (Kakudidi et al. 2000), while the roots are used to treat *ulcers and high *blood pressure (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Tanzania a root decoction of S. parvifolia is used in the treatment of *abdominal pains, *snakebite and *stomach disorders (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the Sandawi drink a decoction of the boiled roots of S. stuhlmannii as a medicine for *stomach trouble (Kokwaro 1976). secrete – produce and discharge a substance (a secrete) from *secretory glands in the body. secretion – the process by which a cell or gland produces and discharge a substance (a secrete) that fulfills some function within the body or is excreted; some substances or plants promote sectetion, others reduces secretion (e.g. *ginger, *cinnamon and *turmeric). secretory – which produce and discharge a substance (a *secrete) from *secretory glands in the body; see also *antisecretory. Securidaca (Polygalaceae) – a genus with about 80 species of trees, shrubs or scramblers widely distributed in the tropics; in East Africa the roots of S. longepedunculata (*violet tree) are *astringent and used for a large number of diseases and problems, e.g. cyclic *headaches, *dropsy and other forms of *oedema, some disorders of the *genital organs and to hasten birth in cases of difficulty (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the roots of this plant is used as an *antidote and to treat *diarrhoea, *fever, *functional psychosis, *headache, *hernia, *influenza, *insanity, *measles, *pains, *pyomyositis and *snakebite (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots of this species is used to treat *body pain, *diarrhoea, *epilepsy and *headache (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Mali a maceration of the root of this tree is drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006). 321 Securinega (Phyllanthaceae; earlier Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with about 20 species of trees or shrubs widespread in tropical regons, but only 1 species in Africa; this species, S. virosa, is often transferred to another genus, *Flueggea as F. virosa; in East Africa the roots of S. virosa are used for *stomach-ache, and the roots and fruits are chewed for *snakebite treatment (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaf of this plant is used to treat *asthma, *malaria and *backache (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Mali a decoction of the root of this plant is drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); for more details see *Flueggea. sedative – soothing, comforting; (a substance) which reduces activity and nervous excitement; an agent which quiets nervous excitement; see *sedative herbs. sedative herbs – herbs which have a soothing and comforting effect on the nervous system, e.g. *mistletoe (Viscum album) and *rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis); many plants, which produce toxins are sedative when used in low concentrations, e.g. the *tobacco plants, Nicotiana tobacco and N. rusticana (the potato family, Solanaceae), and the *coffee genus Coffea (the coffee or madder family, Rubiaceae); other plants sometimes taken as sedatives include *Argemone mexicana (*Mexican poppy or *Mexican prickly poppy, Papaveraceae), Artemisia dracunculus (*tarragon, Asteraceae), Asparagus officinalis (*asparagus, Asparagaceae), Ballota nigra (*white horehound, Lamiaceae), Calluna vulgaris (*heather, Ericaceae), *Cananga odorata (*ylang-ylang, Annonaceae), *Cannabis sativa (*dagga, *hashish or *marijuana, Cannabaceae), *Cardiospermum halicacabum & grandiflorum (*balloon vine, Sapindaceae), *Casuarina equisetifolia (*she oak, Casuarinaceae), Cedrus spp. (*cedar, Cupressaceae), Chelidonium majus (*greater celandine, Papaveraceae), Cimifuga racemosa (*black cohosh, Ranunculaceae), Cinnamomum verum (*cinnamon, Lauraceae), *Citrus × aurantium (*bitter orange, Rutaceae), *Cymbopogon citratus (*lemon grass, Poaceae), Cypripedium pubescens (*Lady’s slipper or *slipper orchid, Orchidaceae), Eschzholzia californica (*Californian poppy, Papaveraceae), *Euphorbia hirta (*athma weed, Euphorbiaceae), Gelsemium sempervirens (*yellow jasmine, Loganiaceae), Hyoscyamus niger (*henbane, Solanaceae), *Indigofera emarginella (Fabaceae), Lactuca sativa (*garden lettuce) & virosa (*opium lettuce or *wild lettuce, Asteraceae), Leonurus cardiaca (*motherwort, Lamiaceae), Levisticum officinale (*lovage, Apiaceae), Lippia (Aloysia) citriodora (*lemon verbena, Verbenaceae), Lycopodium clavatum (*clubmoss, Lycopodiaceae), Lycopus virginicus (*bugleweed, Lamiaceae), Melilotus officinalis (*melilot, Fabaceae), Nepeta cataria (*catmint, Lamiaceae), Nymphaea alba (*white waterlily) & odorata (*white pond lily, Nymphaeaceae), *Ocimum basilicum (*basil, Lamiaceae), Oenothera biennis (*evening primrose, Oenotheraceae), Paeonia officinalis (*peony, Paeoniaceae), Papaver rhoeas (*cornpoppy, *field poppy or *red poppy, Papaveraceae), Passiflora incarnata (*apricot vine or *maypop, Passifloraceae), Pulsatilla pratensis (*meadow anemone or *pasque flower, Ranunculaceae), *Rauvolfia vomitoria (*African snakeroot, Apocynaceae), Rosa gallica (*rose, Rosaceae), Schizandra chinensis (*Chinese schizandra, Schizandraceae), Scutellaria baicalensis (*Baical skullcap) & lateriflora (*mad dog & *Virginia skullcap, Lamiaceae), Solanum dulcamara (*bittersweet, Solanaceae), Stachys officinalis (*betony, Lamiaceae), Tilia spp. (*lime & *linden, Tiliaceae), Valeriana officinalis (*valerian, Valerianaceae), Viburnum opulus (*cramp bark or *guelder rose, Viburnaceae), *Withania somnifera (*Indian ginseng & *withania, Solanaceae). Seddera (Convolvulaceae) – a genus with about 20 species of herbs or subshrubs mainly confined to Africa, but extending to Arabia and India (6 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Kenya the Turkana use S. hirsuta as a medicine for *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976). sedge family – Cyperaceae is a large family with more than 100 genera and 4000 species widely distributed in all continents and in both hot and cold areas, but thy are most common in wet or seasonally wet habitas; for medicinal plants see *Cyperaceae. seed – matured plant ovule containing an embryo that can form a new plant; the dispersal unit in Gymnosperms and in Angiosperms when the fruit is a capsule; in other flowering plants the seeds 322 will be embedded in the fruit at the time of dispersal; when seeds are used as herbal medicine they should either be used immediately or properly dried to prevent fungal attacks. seed – the discrete body from which a new plant develops formed from a fertlized ovule; the seed cinsists of three parts, the embryo, the food store and the outer coat (testa); many plants have seeds, which are widely used as a medicine, e.g. *linseed. selenium – a mineral which has important *antioxidant and *anticancer activity in the human body; the seeds of *pumpkin Cucurbita pepo (the pumpkin family, Cucurbitaceae) have fairly high levels of selenium. selfheal or self-heal – Prunella vulgaris (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a small perennial herb native to Europe and Asia, selfheal has been used for centuries to staunch *bleeding and heal external and internal *wounds; it is an *astringent with powerful *antioxidant and tissue protective activity; it may heel *diarrhoea, *inflammatory bowel disease and *sore throat; alternative name: common selfheal (P. vulgaris); in compounds the name ’selfheal’ is also used about other species of the genus Prunella , e.g. large selfheal (P. grandiflora). semen – the fluid produced in the male reproductive organs (*testicles or *testis) containing the male mobile reproductive cells (*spermatozoa); *sperm. seneca snakeroot – Polygala senega (the milkwort family, Polygalaceae), is a perennial herb native to North America; it contains *triterpenoid *saponins which promote the clearing of *phlegm from the *bronchial tubes; it has been used to treat *chest problems such as *bronchial asthma, *chronic bronchitis and *whooping cough; seneca snakeroot causes *diarrhoea and *vomiting in excessive doses; see also *milkwort. Senecio (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 1000 species of annual or perennial herbs, shrubs or climbers widespread in both hot and cold regions of both hemispheres (72 species in East Africa, 24 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of S. hadiensis (= S. petitianus) may be pounded, soaked in water and the infusion drunk for *colds in the head (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves and roots of this herb is taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in East Africa the leaves of S. lyratus (= S. lyratipartitus) are used as an *emetic, while the roots are washed and dried, then ground into a powder, which is applied to *wounds (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the roots of S. syringifolius are also used as an *emetic, or chewed as a remedy for *colds or *coughs, while an infusion of the leaves is poured over the head to relieve *headache (Kokwaro 1976). senile dementia – a condition or disease in old age causing loss of memory; many plants are believed to have the ability to alleviate this condition, but foremost among these is *maidenhair tree or *ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgophyta, Gymnospermae) as this plant improves the blood *circulation to the brain; see also *dementia; also taking a *nicotine medicine or smoking *tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum, Solanaceae) may prevent development of this disease, but as smoking kills so many people few reach the age to benefit from this positive effect of nicotine. Senna (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae) – a genus of shrubs and trees previously classified in the genus Cassia with more than 500 species worldwide; several species are important herbal medicines, e.g. *senna, Senna alexandrina and S. obtusifolia; in East Africa the leaves of S. alata (Cassia alata; *ringworm plant) are used to treat *skin diseases and particularly *ringworm; in Uganda the leaves are used to treat *abdominal pain in *pregnancy and for *hemiplegia/*hemiparesis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Africa the roots, bark or leaves of S. alexandrina (Cassia senna) are used to treat *constipation, the roots of S. bicapsularis (Cassia bicapsularis) are used for *stomach complaints in children, while the pounded leaves mixed with vaseline are used in massaging to relax an infant’s body and also to treat *diarrhoea (Gessler et al. 2002); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe use the roots of S. bicapsularis to neutralise poisons eaten by animals (Masinde 1996); in East Africa the roots of S. didymobotrya (Cassia didymobotrya) are used as an *antidote for general *poisoning, while the bark and roots (and leaves) are soaked in water and the resulting solution drunk as a *purgative and as an *emetic, and a decoction of roots and 323 leaves is taken as a cure for *malarial fever, *headache and excess *bile; this medicine causes violent *vomiting and an overdose may be fatal; leaves are cooked and the decoction drunk to treat *backache in women and *gonorrhoea; the burnt ash of the plant is smeared on areas infected by *ringworm (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a leaf infusion of this herb to cleanse the stomach, a root decoction stops heavy blood flow during *menstruation, a root concoction is used to treat *gonorrhoea and *syphilis, while a leaf ointment is used for skin *fungal infections (Masinde 1996); in Kenya the Luo drink a decoction or infusion of S. didymobotrya to treat *diarrhoea (Geissler et al. 2002); in Uganda the leaf (with stem) is used to treat *constipation, *diarrhoea, *fever, *fungal infection, *jaundice, *malaria, *sickle cell anaemia, *stomach-ache, *syphilis and used in *antenatal care, while the root (with leaves) or whole plant is taken to treat *ascariasis, *diarrhoea, *hypertension, *pyomyositis and *salpingitis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in western Uganda the leaves of S. didymobotrya are used as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); in East Africa the roots of S. italica (Cassia italica) are used as a purgative while the leaves are used to treat *gonorrhoea; in Mali a decoction of the leaves of this tree is drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); in Uganda the women chew the roots of S. obtusifolia (Cassia obtusifolia, including C. tora) to quicken the birth, while the green parts of the plant is taken for *stomach trouble; the roots are also used to treat *chicken pox and *small pox (Kokwaro 1976; Adjanohoun et al. 1993); the roots of S. occidentalis (Cassia occidentalis) are used to treat any type of severe *stomach-ache and is also taken for swollen *testicles, while leaves are used in the treatment of *fever, *kidney trouble and *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal East Africa an extract of the young leaves, bark or fruits are used as a *purge (Weiss 1979); in Kenya the Luo drink a decoction of S. occidentalis to treat *diarrhoea and *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002); in Uganda the leaves of S. occidentalis are used to treat *ascariasis, *diphtheria, while the roots are used for abdominal *colic, *diphtheria, *hernia, *roundworm, *syphilis, and to expel retained *placenta and promote *labour (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in western Uganda the leaves and roots of S. occidentalis are taken as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005), to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005) and to treat painful menstruation, *dysmenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Tanzania the roots of S. petersiana (Cassia petersiana) are used to treat *stomach-ache, while the leaves and roots are used as an *anthelmintic; in East Africa the roots and fruits of S. septentrionalis (Cassia floribunda) are used as a *purgative and the leaves used to expel the retained *placenta (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves are used to treat *abdominal pain associated with *vomiting, *asthenia, *malaria and *vertigo, while an infusion of the root in yogurt is drunk to promote *ejaculation (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in East Uganda the root of S. siamea (Cassia siamea) is used to treat *snakebite, and the plant is also used for general *fatigue (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in East Africa a decoction of the bark or roots from S. sieberana (Cassia sieberana) is used to cure *diarrhoea, *dysentery and *vomiting, in Mali a decoction of the leaves of this tree is drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); in East Africa roots of S. singueana (Cassia singueana) are a cure for *convulsion, *gonorrhoea, general *stomach problems and *wounds, while the young leaves are chewed and the sap sucked for *constipation, *heartburn and *stomach-ache, but an overdose will cause death (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the bark of S. singueana to treat *diarrhoea, swollen *stomach and *stomach-ache (Heine & König 1988); in East Uganda the roots of S. singueana are used as a treatment for *hernia, *snakebite, *syphilis and used as a general *antidote; it is also used as a charm to keep away evil spirits (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). 324 senna – Senna alexandrina, previously Cassia senna (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae) is a small shrub about 1 m tall native to northeastern Africa and southwestern Asia; senna is one of the most well known herbal medicines and is still used in conventional medicine; it is an efficient *laxative because it contains *sennosides, and is specifically used for *constipation; since it is a very strong *laxative (*cathartic) it can cause *griping and *colic, and is therefore usually taken with aromatic *carminative herbs which relax the intestinal muscles; alternative name: *Alexandrian senna. sennosides – anthraquinone glycosides which irritate the lining of the large intestine, causing the muscles to contract strongly, resulting in a bowel movement about ten hours after the sennosides are taken; sennosides are found in *senna (Senna alexandrina) particularly. sepsis (bacterial) – contamination from festering *wound; blood-poisoning; *putrefaction. septic (ears) – involving *sepsis (contamination from festering *wound); *putrefying. Sericostachys (Amaranthaceae, the amaranth family) – a genus with a single species native to tropical Africa; in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda S. scandens is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996). serine – amino acid with polar (hydrophil) neutral R group. serotonin – a hormone, which is thought to trigger *migraine; *parthenolide appears to inhibit the release of this hormone; parthenolide is found in *feverfew, Tanacetum parthenium (the sunflower family, Asteraceae), a plant which is particularly useful in treating *migraine. sesame – Sesamum indicum (the sesame family, Pedaliaceae) is a an annual herb native to Africa, but widely cultivated throughout the world as a seed crop; the seeds are very nutritious and contain 55 % mainly unsaturated fat (about 43 % each of *oleic and *linoleic acids) and 26 % *protein; it is particularly rich in *calcium; the seeds can be pressed to make oil used in food and sometimes in ointments; the seeds are often sprinkled on bread and cakes like poppy seeds; sesame has been considered to have magical powers, cf. the phrase ”Open sesame!” from Arabian Nights; as a medicine sesame is taken to redress states of *deficiency; the oil is used to treat *skin problems and is also the base for cosmetics; the seeds are prescribed for blurred vision (when due to *anaemia), *dizziness and *tinnitus (ringing in the ears), and they stimulate the production of breast milk; alternative name: *simsim. sesame or simsim family – Pedaliaceae is a rather small family with 12 genera and about 70 species widely distributed in Africa and Australasia; for medicinal plants see *Pedaliaceae. Sesamum (Pedaliaceae, the sesame family) – a genus with 15 species in the old world tropics and South Africa (in East Africa 4 native species and 1 cultivated, in Uganda 3 native species and 1 cultivated); in East Uganda the leaves of S. angustifolium are eaten with Arachis hypogaea (groundnuts) or Sesamum indicum (simsim) to treat *hypertension (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); elsewhere in East Africa the rootstock is used as an *emetic, and the pounded leaves are put in water to give a *mucilage used to treat *eye troubles and infant *diarrhoea (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the rootstock of S. angolense is used to counteract *vomiting (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the seeds of S. indicum (*sesame, *simsim) are eaten as a sauce to treat *cough, *inguinal hernia, *palpitations, *sterility and to promote *labour, while the leaves are used for *tonsilitis (Adjanohoun 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). Sesbania (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus with some 50 species of annual or perennial herbs, shrubs or small softly wooded trees widely distributed in the tropics and subtopics, but always in wet or seasonally wet habitats (18 species in East Africa, 7 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of S. sesban are ground up and applied applied to swollen parts of the body, and also taken for *stomach troubles; this plant is also used to increase milk production in cows after delivery (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Luo use this herb to treat ‘headworms’ (Geissler et al. 2002); in Uganda the leaves of S. sesban are used to treat *abdominal pain, *colics, *diarrhoea, *febrile convulsions, *gonorrhoea, *peptic ulcers and *vomiting (Adjano-houn et al. 1993), and to prevent *miscarriage (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda S. 325 sesban is used by herbalists (Cunningham 1996). also other species of this genus are used as medicines, e.g. the Fipa in Tanzania use the root of S. tetraptera. Setaria (Poaceae) – a genus of about 100 grass species widespread in tropical and warm regions, mainly as weeds in temperate regions (22 species in East Africa, 16 species in Uganda); in Apac district in North Uganda an infusion of the leaves of S. sphacelata is squeezed onto fresh *wounds (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Uganda the leaves and inflorescences of S. verticillata are pounded and water added and then drunk three times a day for the treatment of *diarrhoea (Kokwaro 1976). sex drive – plants taken to raise sexual energy and vitality include (for women & men) Schisandra chinensis (*schisandra), and (for men only) Panax ginseng (*ginseng) and *Withania somnifera. sex hormones – for female sex hormones see *oestrogen (US: estrogen) and *progesterone; for male sex hormones see *testeron. sexual herbs – plants which stimulate the production of sex hormones, e.g. Vitex agnus-castus (*Agnus castus); this plant can help to balance *progesterone and *oestrogen production by the ovaries throughout the menstrual cycle thus aiding conception. Sevilla orange – sour orange, Citrus × aurantium (the orange family, Rutaceae); all oranges are probably hybrids between Citrus maxima (pomelo) and C. reticulata (mandarin); alternative name: *sour orange; see also *orange. shaman – a medicine man or woman among certain peoples, like the Eskimos and American Indians; shamans traditionally enter the spiritual realm to intercede with the spirit world to bring about a cure, often with the aid of *hallucinogenic plants or fungi, such as the liane *ayahuasca (Banisteriopsis caapi, Malpighiaceae) taken by Amazonian shamans or fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) taken by traditional Siberian healers. shamanistic medicine – medicine prescribed by *shamans. shan yao – Dioscorea opposita (the yam family, Dioscoreaceae) is an East Asian climber widely used in Chinese medicine as a tonic for the stomach and *digestion; it is also taken for appetite loss and *wheezing; alternative name: *Chinese yam; see also *wild yam (D. villosa). shan zhu yu – Cornus officinalis (the dogwood family, Cornaceae) is a small East Asian deciduous tree; it is *astringent and contains *verbenalin, which has a mild tonic effect on the nervous system; it has been used mainly to reduce heavy *menstrual bleeding and unusually active secretions such as copious sweating, excessive urine, *spermatorrhoea (involuntary discharge of semen) and premature *ejaculation; alternative name: *Chinese dogwood. shallot – previously named Allium ascalonicum, but probably a variety of Allium cepa (onion, Alliaceae) only. shea butter nut – seeds of *Vitellaria paradoxa (Butyrospermum paradoxum; Sapotaceae); the seeds with about 50 % fat provide shea butter, the most important cooking fats for savanna people; shea butter is also used for cosmetics, candles, soap, hair and skin creams, and is added to margarine and chocolate; in West Africa shea butter is rubbed into the affected parts for *joint pain and massaged into the nose for blocked *nasal passages or *colds; alternative name: *shea nut. shea nut = *shea butter nut. she chuang zi – Cnidium monnieri (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is an East Asian herb widely cultivated in China for medicinal use; the seeds are *antifungal and usually prescribed for external use for *skin condition such as *eczema, *ringworm and *scabies; the seeds are much applied for the genital area, e.g. to treat *vaginitis and *vaginal discharge. sheep sorrel – Oxalis corniculata (the sorrel family, Oxalidaceae), is a troublesome weed in some countries; for medicinal use see *Oxalis; alternative name:*creeping sorrel, *procumbent yellow-sorrel, procumbent sorrel og *yellow (wood) sorrel. sheeps-sorrel or sheep’s sorrel – Rumex acetosella (the knotweed family, Polygonaceae) is a small perennial herb with an extensive underground stem-system; it is now found as a weed througout 326 most temperate regions; it contains *oxalates and *anthraquinones and is a *detoxifying herb with distinct *diuretic effect; like other members of the genus Rumex it is mildly *laxative. she oak – species of the genus Casuarina (Casuarinaceae), e.g. river she oak, Casuarina cunninghamiana, (also named Australian beef wood), and swamp she oak, C. equisetifolia; in Senegal the leaf decoction of C. equisetifolia is drunk as a *sedative, while a fruit *decoction is gargled and vapour of the decoction is inhaled to treat *toothache and gum *inflammation (Kerharo & Adam 1974). she oak family – Casuarinaceae is a small family with 1 genus and 65 species native to Australia and southeast Asia, but are wiely grown in dry tropical and warm regions. shepherd’s clock – Anagallis arvensis (the primrose family, Primulaceae) is a troublesomeweed in many temperate parts of the world; this herb is *diuretic, sweat-inducing and *expectorant; it has mainly been used to stimulate the *coughing up of *mucus and help recover from *colds and *flu, but was also taken to treat *epilepsy and mental problems; alternative names: *common pimpernel, * pimpernel, *poison chickweed, *poisonweed, *poor man’s weatherglass, *red chickweed, *scarlet pimpernel, *shephard’s weatherglass and *wink-a-peep. shepherd’s purse – Capsella bursa-pastoris (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae) is a troublesomeannual weed in many cold and temperate countries; it is an *astringent herb used for *bleeding of all kinds, e.g. blood in urine, nosebleeds and heavy uterine bleeding; during the First World War it was used to staunch blood when the better alternatives, viz. *goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis (Ranunculaceae) and ergot, Claviceps purpurea (parasitic fungus) were unobtainable; it has also been taken to reduce *fever and treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery. shepherd’s weatherglass – Anagallis arvensis (the primrose family, Primulaceae); see *shepherd’s clock above. shingles – disease caused by a virus similar to that of *chicken pox resulting in *sores all over the body; shingles are a sign that the nervous system is run down and open to infection; this condition can be improved by taking herbs that support the nerves and the *immune system as a whole, e.g. *lemon balm (Melissa officinalis), a mixtire of *echinacea (Echinacea sp.) and *St. John’s wort (Hypericum perfoliatum) or a mixture of *garlic (Allium sativum), *ginger (Zingiber officinalis) and *lemon (Citrus × limon) – all prescriptions found in Chevallier (2001). Shirakiopsis (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus of 6 species of trees and shrubs only recently split off from the genus Sapium; in East Africa a decoction of the roots of S. elliptica is drunk to cure *coughs (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves and roots are used to cure *mumps (Adjanahoun et al. 1993), while the stem bark is used to cure *scabies (Kakudidi et al. 2000). shock – a general body disturbance characterized by fallen temperature, falling *blood pressure, feeble and rapid *heart beat, moist skin, and sometimes with *anxiety, restlessness and vomiting. shoe flower – Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (the mallow family, Malvaceae) is a popular ornamental; a warming tea is made from its petals; alternative name: *rose of China. sialogogue – an agent (substance, drug or plant) chewed to increase *salivation; alternative name: *masticatory. Siamese ginger – Alpinia galanga (the ginger family, Zingiberaceae) is a tall perennial herb native to southeastern Asia; it seems to have *anti-ulcer action; it has inferior taste and oil content compared to *galangal (Alpinia officinalis); alternative name: *greater galangal. Siam weed – Chromolaena (Eupatorium) odoratum (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a troublesome weed in many warm countries; the fresh plant is sometimes rubbed into the skin to prevent mosquito bites and alleviate *hypothermia, and a decoction is drunk to treat *metrorrhagia and *mycosis; alternative name: *bitter bush and *Jack-in-the-bush. Siberian ginseng – Eleutherococcus senticosus (the ivy family, Aralidaceae) is a deciduous hardy shrub native to eastern Asia; it can help people exposed to toxic chemicals and radiation and was given to the victims of the nuclear disaster at Chernobyl in 1986; it is used to improve mental as well as physical stress, for example during athletic training; it also stimulates immune resistance 327 and can be taken to aid recovery from chronic illness and prevent infection; it is also used to treat *impotence. sicle bush – *Dichrostachys cinerea (Fabaceae) is a widespread African tree or large shrub; for medicinal use see *Dichrostachys. sicle cell anaemia – a hereditary *anemia occurring chiefly among Africans, and characterized by many red cells in the blood loosing their normal shape and assume halfmoon or quarter moon shape and then get destroyed; acute *abdominal pains and *ulcerations on the legs may result; in Uganda the root of Plectranthus forskohlii is used to treat this disease two weeks after the patient has been treated with the roots and leaves of Vernonia amygdalina (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Sida (Malvaceae) – a genus with about 150 species of herbs and small shrubs native to tropical and warm regions; in East Africa the leaves of S. acuta are crushed and applied as a *poultice to cuts made in swollen limbs, the leaves of S. alba are chewed for *snakebite treatment, the roots of S. cordifolia are used as a cure for *lumbago, an infusion of the leaves is drunk as a remedy for *diarrhoea, the bark is chewed to stimulate *menstruation, and the plant used as an *abortifacient (Kokwaro 1976), while in Uganda the leaves are used to treat *diabetes mellitus (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Central Uganda the Baganda chew the fresh bark of this plant to stimulate *menstruation (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in West Uganda the leaves of S. ovata are squeezed or steamed and eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves of this species mixed with that of Ocimum basilicum is used to treat *sickle cell anaemia (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Kenya the powdered bark of S. ovata is applied directly to *wounds (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of S. rhombifolia are used to treat *dizziness, while the tops are used to treat *nightmares (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), and the stem to quicken *labour and in *dental care (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Kenya the Luo this herb is used to treat *diarrhoea, *stomach ache and a sunken *fontanelle (Geissler et al. 2002); in Kenya the roots of S. schimperiana (= S. cuneifolia auct.) are chewed and the juice swallowed for the treatment of *sore throat, while the Masai boil the roots and mix the decoction with milk, which is drunk by *pregnant women to quiet a *foetus, which moves too much in the womb (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the fresh leaves of S. schimperiana are used to treat *dislocations, *fractures, soft tissue *injuries and *sprains (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Central Uganda the Baganda eat the leaves of this plant cooked together with *simsim to prevent a *miscarriage (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in East Uganda the root of S. schimperiana is used to treat *backache and *diphtheria, and the leaves used to treat *vertigo (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in western Uganda the leaves of S. tenuicarpa are taken as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); in East Uganda S. urens is placed in a bundle of firewood to treat *frigidity. side-effects – these are other effects of a medicine than for what it is prescribed; some side-effects are really nasty, such as those from the *thalidomide scandal; plant medicines have fewer and less troublesomeside-effects than conventional medicines, nontheless also plant medicines need to be used with care, and are not always safe. Sigesbeckia (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 3-10 species of annual or perennial herbs native to tropical regions, but taxonomy is much disputed (in East Africa and Uganda 1 species); in Uganda the leaves of S. orientalis are applied to fresh *cuts (Kakudidi et al. 2003). silver birch – Betula pendula (the birch family, Betulaceae) is a tall fast-growing tree native to the north temperate regions; an infusion of silver birch leaves hastens the removal of waste products in the urine, and is thus beneficial for *bladder stones, *gout, *kidney stones and *rheumatic conditions; the sap is mild *diuretic and the oil destilled from the leaves *antiseptic and often used to treat *eczema and *psoriasis; see also *birch. silverweed – Potentilla anserina (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a prostrate perennial herb widespread in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, especially in coastal areas; it is *anti- 328 inflammatory and *astringent and is used for *diarrhoea and as a gargle for *sore throats; externally it is used for bleeding *haemorrhoids. silymarin – flavonlignans found in the fruits of *milk thistle (*Mary thistle, Silybum marianum); silymarin has a highly protective effect on the *liver, maintaining its function, renewing its cells and preventing damage from compounds that are normally toxic. severe damage to the liver due to eating *death cap mushrooms (or tetrachlorides) can to a certain extent be avoided by taking silymarin immediately before or within 48 hours after the ingestion of the mushroom; see also *amanita mushroom poisoning. Simaroubaceae – a family of about 25 genera and 120 species of trees or shrubs widely distributed in tropical regions (4 genera and 7 species in East Africa, 3 genera and 4 species in Uganda); some genera have species which have medicinal use, e.g. *Brucea and *Harrisonia. simple – (medicinal) about a herb used as a medicine on its own. simsim – Sesamum indicum (the sesame family, Pedaliaceae) is a an annual herb native to Africa, but widely cultivated throughout the world as a seed crop; the seeds are very nutritious and contain 55 % mainly unsaturated fat (about 43 % each of *oleic and *linoleic acids) and 26 % *protein; it is particularly rich in *calcium; the seeds can be pressed to make oil used in food and sometimes in ointments; the seeds are often sprinkled on bread and cakes like poppy seeds; sesame has been considered to have magical powers, cf. the phrase ”Open sesame!” from Arabian Nights; as a medicine sesame is taken to redress states of *deficiency; the oil is used to treat *skin problems and is also the base for cosmetics; the seeds are prescribed for blurred vision (when due to *anaemia), *dizziness and *tinnitus (ringing in the ears), and they stimulate the production of *breast milk; alternative name: *sesame. singabera (sanskrit) – Zingiber officinalis (the ginger family, Zingiberaceae) is an Asian herb or a spice or flavouring made from the rhizome of this plant; fresh ginger has a pungent, slight lemony taste; it is also one of the world’s best stimulating and *anti-emetic medicines; it is particularly useful to relief *digestion troubled by *colic, *wind, *travel sickness, *morning sickness and *nausea; ginger is also *antiseptic relieving *dysentery and other *gastro-intestinal infections, including some types of food poisoning; ginger is warming and soothing for *respiratory problems such as *colds, *coughs and *flu; ginger helps the blood to flow to the surface, making it an important remedy for *chilblains and poor *circulation to the hands and feet, and by improving circulation it helps high *blood pressure; it also increases sweating, and thus helps reduce *fever; alternative name: *ginger; see also *mango-ginger. sinigrin – a secundary nitrogenrich metabolic product which gives the sharp tast to horseradish, Armoracia rusticana (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae); see also *horseradish. sinus – one of the hollow cavities in the skull that connect with the nasal passages; inflammation of the sinus or sinuses is named *sinusitis; sinus *headache is sometimes treated with an infusion of *lime (Tilia spp.). sinusitis – inflammation of the *sinus or sinuses; see *allergic rhinitis and *respiratory system. sinus problems – these include sinus congestion, sinus *headache and *sinusitis; for medical treatment see *sinus, *allergic rhinitis and *respiratory system. siris (tree) – Albizia lebbeck (the pea family, Fabaceae- Mimosoideae) is a deciduous Asian tree also spread to Africa and Central America; in Indian (*Ayurvedic) medicine its bark has been used for several thousands years to treat *allergies such as *asthma, *eczema, *hay fever and *urticaria, the flowers are taken for *bronchitis and *coughs, and the seeds for *skin problems; research has shown that this plant helps to reduce *allergic sensitivity and it may help to lower *cholesterol; alternative names: *East Indian walnut and *pit shirish. sisal agave – Agave sisalana (Agavaceae) is a large tussocky American succulent previously cultivated in many trpical regions for its fibres; now in some countries cultivated as a source of *hecogenin, the substance that is the starting point in the production of *corticosteroids (*steroid hormones). 329 sisal hemp – Agave sisalana (Agavaceae) is a large tussocky American succulent previously cultivated in many trpical regions for its fibres; now in some countries cultivated as a source of *hecogenin, the substance that is the starting point in the production of *corticosteroids (*steroid hormones). sitz bath – a bath in which the patient immerses only the buttocks and hips; different medicinal herbs are often added to the water. skin cancer – cancer of the skin; this disease is sometimes treated using *Catharanthus roseus (*Madagascar periwinkle or *rosy periwinkle, Apocynaceae); see *cancer. skin diseases – e.g. *eczema, *psoriasis and *seboohoea, but see also *skin problems; many different plants are used to treat skin diseases, e.g. Galium aparine (*catchweed or *cleavers, Rubiaceae); for other plants used see *eczema and *psoriasis.. skin problems – see *acne, *athlete’s foot, *bites, *burns, *chicken pox, *fungal skin infections, *nettle rash, *ringworm, *shingles, *skin rash, *sores. *stings, *sunburns, *swellings, *urticaria, *wart, *weeping skin and *wounds. skin rash – eruption on the skin; inflamed skin rashes are treated by ointment or creams made from either Calendula officinalis (*marigold), Stellaria media (*chickweed), Symphytum officinalis (*comfrey) or Urtica dioica (*nettle); nettle rash (*urticaria) is treated by drinking an infusion of a mixture of Calendula officinalis (*marigold), *Urtica dioica (*nettle) and *Viola tricolor (*heartsease) or a decoction of a mixture of Arctium lappa (*burdock), *Rumex crispus (yellow dock) and *Taraxacum officinale (*dandelion), or using a cream made from Stellaria media (*chickweed); for other plants used see *rash. skullcap – Scutellaria galericulata (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a widespread European herb used as a medicine in the same way as *Virginia skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora), but like *lesser skullcap (Scutellaria minor) it is not in much use today; in compounds also other species of the genus Scutellaria, e.g. alpine skullcap (S. alpina), *Baical skullcap (S. baicalensis), *lesser skullcap (S. minor) and *Virginia skullcap (S. lateriflora); alternative name: *European skullcap; all these species have been used as medicinal herbs, but today mainly Baical scullcap and *Virginia scullcap are widely used. skunk cabbage – Symplocarpus foetidus (the lords-and-ladies family, Araceae) is an unpleasant smelling North American perennial herb growing in wet places; the root and rhizome are used primarily to treat *asthma, *bronchitis, *hay fever, *nasal catarrh and *whooping cough sleeping sickness – *trypanosomiasis; a mainly tropical African disease caused by a parasite of the genus Trypanosoma that is transmitted to man through the bite of the tsetse flies (Glossina); it is accompanied by *headaches and *sleepiness, which may last several years, and the sufferer usually dies if not treated; the *trypanosomes live in the blood and cause *adenitis, irregulae *fever, rapid pulse, *oedema and *rash, later they invade the nervous system and cause *lethargy and eventually death; in Liberia *Bussea occidentalis (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae) together with Distemonanthes benthamianus (Fabaceae) is used to ease the symptoms of this disease; other plants used include Cleistopholis patens (Annonaceae), *Glyphaea brevis (Tiliaceae) and *Lophira lanceolata (*African oak, Ochnaceae). sleep problems – insominia; inability or difficulty to sleep, often as the result of nervous trouble; many plants are used to treat insominia, often in the form of a relaxing tea, e.g. from Chamomilla recutita (*chamomile, Asteraceae), *Gardenia jasminoides (*Chinese gardenia, Rubiaceae), Humulus lupulus (*hop, Cannabiaceae), Lavandula officinalis (*lavender, Lamiaceae), Panax ginseng (*ginseng, Araliaceae), Passiflora incarnata (*apricot vine, Passifloraceae), Tilia spp. (*lime, Tiliaceae) or Valeriana officinalis (*valerian, Valerianaceae); another method used is to eat *oat porridge (Avena sativa) several times a day. slim amaranth – Amaranthus hybridus (the amaranth family, Amaranthaceae) is one of the world’s worst weeds, but is also used as a vegetable and *mineral supplier; for medicinal use see *Amaranthus; alternative name: *Cape pigweed, *smooth amaranth og *smooth pigweed. 330 slipper orchid – species of the genera Cypripedium and Paphiopedilum (the orchid family, Orchidaceae): in North America Cypripdium pubescens has been used in a similar way as *valerian (Valeriana officinalis) and named *American valerian; it is *relaxant and *sedative, relieves muscle *spasms and *panics; alternative name: *Lady’s slipper. slippery elm – Ulmus rubra (the elm family, Ulmaceae) is a large deciduous tree native to North America; the inner bark is nutritious and contains large amounts of mucilage; it is excellent food for *convalescence when *digestion is weak and over-sensitive; it soothes and coats the irritated tissue and protects it from injury; it can bring instant relief to acidity, *diarrhoea and *gastroenteritis, and will also alleviate *colic, *constipation, *diverticulitis, *haemmorhoids, *inflammation of the gut and *irritable bowel syndrome; it has also been used to treat *urinary problems and *chest conditions (*bronchitis, *coughs, *pleurisy and *tuberculosis). smilagenin – smilagenin; a secondary metabolic product (*terpenoid), which is a steroidal glycoside that has hormonial effect on the reproductive system; smilagenin is found in the genus *Smilax (Smilacaceae); see also *sarsaparilla. smallpox – a highly contaginous virus disease that causes fever and skin eruptions; it is marked at the onset by chills, high fever, backache and headache; the disease is sometimes treated using the plants *Diodia sarmentosa (Rubiaceae), *Maranta arundinacea (*arrowroot, Marantaceae), *Pavetta gardeniifolia (Rubiaceae), *Rumex usambarensis (Polygonaceae), *Tamarindus indica (*tamarind, Fabaceae) and *Vismia orientalis (Clusiaceae). Smilacaceae – a family of up to 10 genera and 350 species of climbing shrubs or lianes widely distributed in hot and warm regions (1 genus and 2 species in East Africa and Uganda); species of the genus *Smilax have medicinal use. Smilax (Smilacaceae) – a genus of about 300 species of mostly climbing shrubs or lianes widely distributed in hot and warm regions (2 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Tanzania the roots of S. anceps (= S. kraussiana) are used to treat *infertility, while the leaves are used as a medicine for the eyes (Kokwaro 1976); in Congo the leaf decoction or leaf juice is taken for *abdominal pain, *bronchial complaints, *lumbago, *otitis, *rheumatism and *tachycardia, while the roots are used for stomach *ulcers (Bouquet 1969; Motte 1978); in Cameroon the leaves are used for *fever, *rheumatism, *venereal diseases and to hasten the birth process (Neuwinger 1996); in West Africa different parts of S. anceps are used in the treatment of many diseases and conditions, e.g. *arthritis, black cobra bites, *blennorrhagia, *paralysis, *rheumatism and *sterility (Imperato 1977; Neuwinger 1996). smooth amaranth – Amaranthus hybridus (the amaranth family, Amaranthaceae) is one of the world’s worst weeds, but is also used as a vegetable and *mineral supplier; for medicinal use see *Amaranthus; alternative name: *Cape pigweed, *slim amaranth and *smooth pigweed. smooth pigweed – Amaranthus hybridus (the amaranth family, Amaranthaceae) is one of the world’s worst weeds, but is also used as a vegetable and *mineral supplier; for medicinal use see *Amaranthus; alternative name: *Cape pigweed, *slim amaranth and *smooth amaranth. smooth sumach – Rhus glabra (the mango family, Anacardiaceae) is a deciduous shrub native to North America; the root bark is taken to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery, and externally to treat excessive *vaginal discharge and skin eruptions; the berries are *diuretic and *astringent, and help to reduce *fever and can be used as a gargle for mouth and throat complaints. snakebite – either a bite from a poisonous snake or inflammation in a snakebite; very many plants have been used to treat snakebites, e.g. *Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae), *Acacia brevispica & polyacantha & seyal (Fabaceae), *Acalypha bipartita (Euphorbiaceae), *Adenia cissampeloides & gummifera & keramanthus (Passifloraceae), *Agathisanthemum bojeri (Rubiaceae), *Albizia coriaria (Fabaceae, Mimosoideae), *Allium cepa (*onion, Alliaceae), *Ancyclobotrys petersiana (Apocynaceae), *Annona senegalensis (*wild custard apple, Annonaceae), *Antidesma venosum (Euphorbiaceae), *Aristolochia alba & elegans & serpentina (*Dutchman’s pipe, *Virginia snakeroot, Aristolochiaceae), *Asystasia schimperi (Acanthaceae), *Barleria grandicalyx 331 (Acanthaceae), *Basananthe lanceolata (Passifloraceae), *Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), *Blepharispermum zanguebaricum (Asteraceae), *Brackenridgea zanguebarica (Ochnaceae), *Catunaregam nilotica & spinosa (Rubiaceae), *Chassalia buchwaldii (Rubiaceae), *Clivia spp. (*Kaffir lily, Amaryllidaceae), *Coccinea adoënsis (Cucurbitaceae), *Colocasia esculenta (*cocoyam, *dasheen & *taro, Araceae), *Combretum molle (Combretaceae), *Commiphora africana & eminii (Burseraceae), *Conyza pyrrhopappa (Asteraceae), *Cyathogyne bussei (Euphorbiaceae), *Datura metel (Solanaceae), *Dichrostachys cinerea (Fabaceae), *Digitaria scalarum (Poaceae), *Diodia sarmentosa (Rubiaceae), *Dioscorea bulbifera (Dioscoreaceae), *Diospyros loureiriana & lycioides (Ebenaceae), *Diplorhynchus condylocarpon (Apocynaceae), *Dregea abyssinica (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Dyschoriste hildebrandtii (Acanthaceae), *Ecbolium viride (Acanthaceae), *Erianthemum dregei (Loranthaceae), *Erythrina abyssinica (Fabaceae), *Erythrococca trichogyne (Euphorbiaceae), *Erythrophleum suaveolens (Fabaceae), *Euclea divinorum (Ebenaceae), *Euphorbia balsamifera & grantii & tirucalli (Euphorbiaceae), *Ficus natalensis (*bark cloth tree, Moraceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllanthaceae), *Gardenia ternifolia var. jovis-tonanthes & volkensii (Rubiaceae), *Glyphaea brevis (Tiliaceae), *Grewia arborea & bicolor & truncata (Tiliaceae), *Harrisonia abysinica (Simaroubaceae), *Heteromorpha trifoliata (Apiaceae), *Hoslundia opposita (Lamiaceae), *Icacina oliviformis (Icacinaceae), *Imperata cylindrica (*cotton grass, Poacaeae), *Ipomoea hildebrandtii (Convolvulaceae), *Jasminium eminii or flumiense (Oleaceae), *Lannea welwitschii (Anacardiaceae), *Lophira lanceolata (Ochnaceae), *Lophophora williamsii (*peyote cactus, Cactaceae), *Maclura africana (Moraceae), *Manilkara sulcata (Sapotaceae), *Markhamia obtusifolia (Bignoniaceae), *Maytenus senegalensis (Celastraceae), *Melianthus comosus (Melianthaceae), *Microglossa pyrifolia (Asteraceae), *Milletia usaramensis (Fabaceae), *Monsonia ovata (Geraniaceae), *Oldenlandia herbacea (Rubiaceae), *Ozoroa obovata (Anacardiacaeae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae), *Pavetta crssipes & canescens (Rubiaceae), *Phragmanthera usuiensis (Loranthaceae), *Phyllanthus amarus & maderaspatensis (Phyllanthaceae), *Piliostigma thonningii (Fabaceae), *Plicosepalus sagittifolius (Loranthaceae), *Polygala wadibomica (Polygalaceae), *Portulaca oleracea (Portulacaceae), *Premna chrysoclada (Verbenaceae), *Pseudarthria hookeri (Fabaceae), *Pseuderanthemum hildebrandtii (Acanthaceae), *Psychotria eminiana (Rubiaceae), *Pterolobium stellatum (Fabaceae), *Raphia hookeri (Arecaceae), *Rhus natalensis (Anacardiaceae), *Riccinus communis (Euphorbiaceae), *Rinorea elliptica (Violaceae), *Sansevieria kirkii (Agavaceae), *Scadoxus multiflorus (Amaryllidaceae), *Schumanniophyton magnificum (Rubiaceae), *Secamone parvifolia (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Securidaca longepedunculata (*violet tree, Polygalaceae), *Securinega virosa (Phyllanthaceae), *Senna occidentalis & siamea & singueana (Fabaceae), *Sida alba (Malvaceae), *Solanecio mannii (Asteraceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae), *Sporobolus pyramidalis (Poaceae), *Steganotaenia araliacea (Apiaceae), *Strophanthus eminii (Apocynaceae), *Strychnos henningsii & innocua & spinosa (Strychnaceae), *Suregada zanzibarica (Euphorbiaceae), *Swartzia madagascariensis (Fabaceae), *Synaptolepis kirkii (Thymelaeacaeae), *Tephrosia purpurea (Fabaceae), *Thevetia peruviana (Apocynaceae), *Thylacium africanum (Capparidaceae), *Tricalysia ovalifolia (Rubiaceae), *Trichodesma zeylanicum (Boraginaceae), *Uvaria acuminata (Annoniaceae), *Vernonia cinerea (Asteraceae), *Vitex strickeri (Verbenaceae), *Whitfieldia elongata (Acanthaceae), *Zanthoxylum chalybeum (*East African prickly ash) & gillettii (*large-leaved prickly ash, Rutaceae) and *Ziziphus mucronata (Rhamnaceae). snake grass – Equisetum arvense (Equisetaceae; Pteridophyta); for medicinal use see *common horsetail. snake plant – Sansevieria trifasciata (Agavaceae) and other species of the genus Sansevieria; for medicinal use see *Sansevieria; alternative name: *mother-in-law’s tongue. 332 snakeroot1 – Bistorta major or Polygonum bistorta (the knotgrass family, Polygonaceae); for medicinal use see *bistort. snakeroot2 (Am) – Cimifuga racemosa (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae) with the rhizome medicinal; for medicinal use see *black cohosh. snakeroot3 – species of the genus Rauvolfia (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae), a genus of about 110 species in tropical regions of both hemisheres; see *African snakeroot (R. vomitoria) and Indian snakeroot (R. sepentina); both are important medicinal plants lowering high *blood pressure and used to treat *mental illnesses. sneezewort – Achillea ptarmica (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) contains aromatic and bitter substances like A. millefolium (*milfoil), it is not much used as a medicine, except that ground plants were used to provide a strong sneeze; autumn-flowering sneezewort er Helenium autumnale (Asteraceae). soapbark – Quillaja saponaria (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a tall evergreen tree native to Chile and Peru; the bark has been used as soap; the inner bark contains up to 10 % triterpenoid *saponins, which are strongly *expectorant and can cause *inflammation of the *digestive tract; it has been used to treat *bronchitis by increasing *coughing and clearing *phlegm. soapwort – Saponaria officinalis (the pink family, Caryophyllaceae) is a widespread perennial autumn-flowering herb throughout the northern temperate region; all parts of the plant contain *saponin, and it was once widely used for washing wool and finer textiles; it has been prescribed for *asthma, *bronchitis, *coughs, *itchy skin, and *arthritic and *rheumatic pain. sodium (Na) – Sodom apple – Solanum incanum (the potato family, Solanaceae) is a common weed in warm countries; for medicinal use see *Solanum. Solanaceae – a family of about 90 genera and 2600 species of annual or perennial herbs, climbers, shrubs or trees widely distributed in both hot and temperate regions, but with the highest diversity in South and Central America; many genera contain species with medicinal use, e.g. *Capsicum (*Chilli pepper), *Datura (*thorn-apple), *Lycium (*boxthorn & *wolfberry), *Lycopersicon (*tomato; but this genus often included in Solanum), Mandragora (*mandrake), *Physalis (includes *Cape goose-berry), Solanum (includes *potato & *nightshades) and Withania. Solanecio (Asteraceae) – a genus of 16 species of perennial herbs, shrubs, scramblers or small trees native to tropical Africa, Madagascar and Yemen (13 species in East Africa, 7 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of S. angulatus (Crassocephalum bojeri) are crushed and the juice drunk for *colds, *fever, *rheumatism and as an *antidote (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves are used to treat *boils, *vertigo and as a *fever coolant, while the sap of the root is used for *septic ears, and the powder of the root for *antenatal treatment (Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves are steamed or squeezed and eaten or inserted in *vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); in Uganda the leaves of S. cydonifolius (including Senecio stuhlmannii) are used to treat *epigastric pains, *malaria, threatened *abortion or problems associated with *teeth eruption in children (Adjanohoun et al. 1993) and as an *insecticide to chase away red ants (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in East Africa the roots of S. mannii (Crassocephalum mannii) are used as an *anthelmintic, a *purgative, and for *dysentery and *indigestion (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves are used as a *fever coolant and to treat *polia, rigid *cervix uteri and *snakebite (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000). Solanum (Solanaceae) – a genus with about 1400 species of annual or perennial herbs, climbers, shrubs, scramblers or trees widely distributed in both hot and temperate regions, but with the highest diversity in South and Central America; in Uganda the fruit of S. aculeastrum is used to treat *asthma, *cough and *taeniasis, while the leaves together with roots are taken for *menorrhagia, the roots alone for *epilepsy, and the root bark for *cellulitis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; 333 Kakudidi et al. 2000); S. aculeastrum is also taken to treat abdominal *worms, *cellulites, enlarged *spleen, *ringworms and respiratory diseases in cattle (Bukenya-Ziraba 1996); in Central Uganda the Baganda drink a root decoction of the roots of this plant with roots of Vernonia amygdalina to treat ”akabengo” (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); elsewhere in East Africa this plant is used for treating *bronchitis, and the roots are taken as a remedy for *gonorrhoea (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of S. aethiopicum (including S. gilo) are used to treat *frigidity in women, *hypertension and to quicken *labour, while the ripe fruit is eaten for *lymphoedema (Adjanahoun et al. 1993; Bukenya-Ziraba 1996; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Uganda boiled fruits of S. anguivi are used to cure *hypertension (Bukenya-Ziraba 1996); in Uganda the leaves of S. giganteum are used to treat *sleeplessness due to worries when going to bed (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), while leaves and fruits are used to treat ulcers (Bukenya-Ziraba 1996); in East Africa a decoction of the roots of S. incanum (including S. bojeri; perhaps to be included in S. indicum) is used to treat *abdominal pains, *dyspepsia, *fever, *indigestion and *stomach-ache, and for *toothache by scrubbing the affected tooth with pieces of the root; leaves are used as a remedy for *ear-ache and *snakebite; the fruits are toxic but used as an *emetic; the contents of a fruit is applied to fresh cuts or *wounds, the fruit juice applied over a finger with *whitlow will draw it out; the fruits are also used for treatment of other *skin diseases, and the fruit juice squeezed into the sheep’s nostrils to cure *sheep cough (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda S. incanum is also used to treat *astheniamalaise, *dermatosis, *diarrhoea, *hiccough, hookworm, *impotence, *menorrhagia, *ringworm and sores on eyes of cattle (Bukenya-Ziraba 1996); in Kenya the Luo use this plant to treat *ringworm, *skin infection, *wounds and to disinfect the *umbilical cord (Geissler et al. 2002); in Uganda the fresh leaf of S. incanum is used to treat *conjunctivitis, *dermatosis, *hiccough, *mastitis, *menorrhagia, and *nosal infections, and the flowers are taken for *cataract, *cough and *otitis media, and the root for *asthenia, *backache, *diarrhoea, *diphtheria, *dysentery, *gonorrhoea, *hydrocele in children, liver *cirrhosis, premature *ejaculation, sexual *impotence, *snakebite and other *poisoning (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Rakai district in Uganda the fruits are crushed, ash and water added and given orally to chicken to treat *NCD (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the bark of S. indicum to treat body *pain (Heine & König 1988); in Kenya the roots of S. indicum are used to treat *toothache, while the berries are chewed for chest complaints (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of S. macrocarpon var. macrocarpon are used to treat *frigidity in women and boiled leaves to ease child *delivery, while the root of S. macrocarpon var. dasyphyllum (= S. dasyphyllum) is used to treat brain *fever and *gonorrhoea, the root bark for *urticaria, the roots together with leaves for *epilepsy, and the seeds for *inguno-scrotal *hernia (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Bukenya-Ziraba 1996); in East Africa the leaves of S. scabrum ssp. laevis (often wrongly named S. nigrum) and closely related species are used for the treatment of *boils, *ulcers, and swollen *glands, an infusion of the leaves and seeds is rubbed onto the gums of children for crooked teeth, and the raw fruit is chewed and swallowed for treatment of *stomach ulcers and general *abdominal upsets and pain (Kokwaro 1976), while in Uganda the leaves are used to treat high *blood pressure (Adjanohoun et al. 1993) and applied to fresh *wounds (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Kenya the Luo use this herb to treat *constipation, *earache and *toothache (Geissler et al. 2002); in East Africa the fresh roots of S. taitense are chewed as a medicine for *toothache, while the roots of S. terminale are used as a *diaphoretic and *stimulant (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves and roots of S. terminale are taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006). Solenostemon (Lamiaceae) – a genus previously referred to the genus Coleus; in West Uganda the leaves of S. latifolius are steamed or squeezed and eaten or inserted in *vagina to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); see also *Plectranthus. 334 Solomon’s seal – Polygonatum multiflorum (the lily of the valley family, Convallariaceae) is a widespread perennial herb in temperate and warm parts of the northern hemisphere; the rhizome of this herb has *astringent and *demulcent action and prevents excessive bruising and stimulates tissue repair; it is also used to alleviate *bronchial catarrh, *chest pain, dry and irritable *coughs and *sore throat. somatic – of the body (as distinguished from the mind). somatisation – of the body (as distinguished from the mind); the expression of abnormal psychological feeling states as bodily symptoms or illness. somnolence – drowsiness. somnolent – extremely drowsy. Sonchus (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 60 species widespread throughout the world in both warm and cold countries, some are troublesome weeds (8 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda); in Uganda the leaf of S. asper is used to treat *tonsilitis, while the root is used for serious *vomiting (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Kenya the leaves of S. luxurians are pounded for the treatment of *stomach upsets and also for those feeling feverish (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the whole plant of S. oleraceus is used to treat *anaemia (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), while in West Uganda the leaves are boiled or steamed and eaten to improve sexuality in women (KamatenesiMugisha 2005); in Tanzania the roots are used as a *purgative, and the leaves used for *ear-ache; in East Africa the leaves of S. schweinfurthii are used as an *emetic, and the roots eaten as a cure for *chest problems (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda an infusion of the whole plant is drunk for the treatment of *diphtheria (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). soporific – (a substance) which cause deep sleep; some medicinal plants are soporific, e.g. *Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae) and *Withania somnifera (Solanaceae). sores – *wounds, *ulcers or any other open skin lesion; a large number of medicinal plants are used to treat sores; the most widely used are Prunella vulgaris (*selfheal) and Symphytum officinale (*comfrey); Calendula officinalis (*marigold) and other *emollients reduce itchiness and soreness; other plants widely used to treat sores are Abies balsamea (*balm-of-Gilead, *balsam fir or *Canada balsam, Pinaceae), *Acacia polyacantha (Fabaceae), *Acalypha villicaulis (Euphorbiaceae), *Acmella caulirhiza (Asteraceae), *Albuca abyssinica (Hyacinthaceae), Allium cepa (*onion, Alliaceae), Angelica dahurica (*Amurian angelica or *bai zhi, Apiaceae), *Angraecum dives (Orchidaceae), *Aristolochia alba (*Dutchman’s pipe, Aristolochiaceae), *Bonatea steudneri (Orchidaceae), *Bothriocline longipes (Asteraceae), Carthamnus tinctorius (*safflower, Asteraceae), *Chamaecrsita absus (Fabaceae), Chamomilla recutita (*German chamomile, Asteraceae), *Combretum fragrans (Combretaceae), *Crinum macowanii (Amaryllidaceae), *Desmodium repandum (Fabaceae), *Dichrocephala integrifolia (Asteraceae), Dipsacus fullonum (*wild teasel, Dipsacaceae); *Emilia coccinea (Asteraceae), Equisetum arvense (*common horsetail, Equisetaceae), Euonymus atropurpureus (*wahoo bark, Celastraceae), *Euphorbia inaequilaterale & pekinensis (*da ji & *Peking spurge) & tirucalli (Euphorbiaceae), *Ficus exasperata (Moraceae), *Galinsoga parviflora (Asteraceae), *Gossypium barbadense (*cotton, Malvaceae), *Grewia similis (Tiliaceae), *Gutenbergia cordifolia & rueppellii (Asteraceae), Hedera helix (*ivy, Araliaceae), *Hibiscus calophyllus (Malvaceae), Hordeum distichon & vulgare (*barley, Poaceae), *Imperata cylindria (*cotton grass, Poaceae), *Ipomoea asarifolia (Convolvulaceae), *Isoberlinia tomentosa (Fabaceae), Lavandula officinalis (*lavender, Lamiaceae), *Leonotis ocymifolia (Lamiaceae), Linaria vulgaris (*common toadflax, Scrophulariaceae), Myrica cerifera (*bayberry, Myricaceae), Ochna mossambicensis (Ochnaceae), *Oldenlandia herbacea (Rubiaceae), *Opuntia vulgaris (*barbary fig, Cactaceae), Phytolacca americana (*inkberry, *pigeonberry or *poke root, Phytolaccaceae), Piper angustifolia (*matico, Piperaceae), *Psychotria peduncularia (Rubiaceae), *Pterocarpus angolensis (*bleedwood tree, Fabaceae), *Rhoicissus revoilii (Vitaceae), *Salvadora persica (Salvadoraceae), *Schinus molle (*California pepper tree or 335 *pepper tree) & terebinthifolius (*Brazilian pepper tree, Anacardiaceae), *Schizozygia coffaeoides (Apocynaceae), *Schumanniophyton magnificum (Rubiaceae), *Scilla natalensis (Hyacinthaceae), Solanum dulcamara (*bittersweet, Solanaceae), *Spermacoce subvulgata (Rubiaceae), *Strychnos cocculoïdes (Strychnaceae), *Typha angustifolia (*pu huang, Typhaceae), *Vernonia homilantha & wakefieldii (Asteraceae), *Xymalos monospora (*lemonwood, Monimiaceae) and *Zea mays (*corn or *maize, Poaceae); see also *cold sores. sore eyes – many plants are used to alleviate sore eyes, e.g. *Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae), *Albizia coriaria & zimmermannii (Fabaceae), *Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae), *Chamaecrista mimosoides (Fabaceae), Coptis chinensis (*Chinese goldthread, Ranunculaceae), *Crotalaria emarginata (Fabaceae), Dendranthema indicum (*wild chrysanthemum, Fabaceae), Dendranthema hybrids (*florists chrysanthemum, Asteraceae), *Dioscorea asteriscus (Dioscoreaceae), *Dorstenia holstii (Moraceae), *Emilia coccinea (Asteraceae), *Foeniculum vulgare (*fennel, Apiaceae), *Leucas oligocephala (Lamiaceae), Morus alba (*white mulberry, Moraceae), *Ocimum gratissimum (Lamiaceae), *Pelargonium alchemilloïdes (Geranaceae), Rosa gallica (*rose, Rosaceae), *Tabernaemontana pachysiphon (Apocynaceae), Terminalia myrobalanus (*Chebulic myrobalan, Combretaceae) and Teucrium scorodonia (*wood sage, Lamiaceae). sore joints – many plants are used to treat sore and inflamed joints, e.g. Crateva nurvula (*threeleaved caper or *varuna (Capparidaceae) and Gaultheria procumbens (*wintergreen, Ericaceae); for other plants see *arthritis sore mouth – many plants are used to alleviate sore mouth parts (see also *mouth ulcers), e.g. *Galium spurium mixed with *Rubia cordifolia (both Rubiaceae), Glycyrrhiza glabra (*liquorice, Fabaceae), Krameria triandra (*rhatany, Krameriaceae), *Mentha haplocalyx (Lamiaceae) and Teucrium chamaedrys (*wall germander, Lamiaceae). sore nipples (sore breasts) – this ailment is in Europe often treated by applying an ointment from Calendula officinalis (*marigold, Asteraceae) to the nipples (if breast-feeding wipe off the ointment before feeding) or a compress with an infusion of Chamomilla recutita (*German chamomile, Asteraceae); other plants which are used include Arctotis spp. (African daisy, Asteraceae) in Africa, and Baptista tinctoria (*wild indigo, Fabaceae) and Mitchella repens (*squaw vine, Rubiaceae) in North America. sore skin – many plants are used to alleviate sore skin, e.g. all species of *Aloë (Aloëaceae), Chamomilla recutita (*German chamomile, Asteraceae), Coptis chinensis (*Chinese goldthread, Ranunculaceae), *Josephinia africana (Pedaliaceae), *Phytolacca dodecandra (Phytolaccaceae), Piper angustifolia (*matico, Piperaceae), ; for other plants used see *eczema, *nettle rush and *urticaria. sore throats – a large number of herbs are used to relieve sore throats (see Chevallier 2001), e.g. drink a mixture of *garlic (Allium sativum, Alliaceae), *ginger (Zingiber officinale, Zingiberaceae) and *lemon (Citrus × limon, Rutaceae) three times a day or chew a *garlic, or gargle a decoction of *tamarind fruit (*Tamarin-dus indica, Fabaceae) or 20 ml of lemon juice either neat or diluted in warm water, or gargle a mixture of *Echinacea (*purple coneflower, Asteraceae), *Commiphora molmol (*myrrh, Burseraceae), Rosmarinus officinalis (*rosemary, Lamiaceae) and Salvia officinalis (*sage, Lamiaceae); other plants used to treat sore throats include Acacia arabica (*babul) & drepanolobium & fischeri & nilotica (Fabaceae), Adiantum capillus-veneris (*maidenhair fern, Adiantaceae), *Agathisanthemum bojeri (Rubiaceae), Agrimonia eupatorium (*agrimony, Rosaceae), Anacyclus pyrethrum (*pellitory, Asteraceae), *Artemisia afra (Asteraceae), *Asplenium loxoscaphoides (Aspleniaceae; Pteridophyta), Boswellia serrata (*Indian olibanum or *sallaki, Burseraceae), Butea monosperma (*Bengal kino, *flame of the forest or *palas, Fabaceae), *Bothriocline longipes (Asteraceae), Carpobrotus edulis (*hottentot fig, Aizoaceae), Castanea sativa (*sweet chestnut, Fagaceae), Ceanothus americanus (*New Jersey tea, Rhamnaceae), *Cissampelos pareira 336 (Menispermaceae), Coptis chinensis (*Chinese goldthread, Ranunculaceae), *Clematis hirsuta (Ranunculaceae), *Clerodendrum (*Rotheca) myricoides (Verbenaceae), Cydonia vulgaris (*quince, Rosaceae), *Dichapetalum braunii & ruhlandii (Dichapetalaceae), *Diospyros lycioides (Ebenaceae), Echinacea spp. (*echinacea or *purple coneflower, Asteraceae), Eriodictyon californicum (*yerba santa, Hydrophyllaceae), *Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae), Forsythia suspensa (*weeping forsythia, Oleaceae), Gnaphalium (Filaginella) uliginosum (*marsh cudweed, Asteraceae), *Grewia holstii (Tiliaceae), Hibiscus sabdariffa (*roselle, Malvaceae), *Hypoëstis aristata (Acanthaceae), Hyssopus officinalis (*hyssop, Lamiaceae), *Indigofera spicata (Fabaceae), *Lantana camara & ukambensis (Verbenaceae), Lathyrus linearifolia (*bitter vetchling, Fabaceae), Liriosma ovata (*muira puama, Oleaceae), *Maesa lanceolata (Maesaceae), Melaleuca leucodendron (*cajaput) & lineariifolia (*narrow-leaved paper bark tree) & viridiflora (*broad-leaved paper bark tree or *niaouli, Myrtaceae), Morus alba (*white mulberry, Moraceae), *Mucuna poggei (Fabaceae), *Myrianthus arboreus (Cecropiaceae), Myrica cerifera (*bayberry, Myricaceae), *Myroxylon pereirae (Fabaceae), *Pachycarpus bisacculatus & lineolatus (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Pavetta schumanniana (Rubiaceae), *Persicaria decipiens (Polygonaceae), Phytolacca americana (*inkberry, *pigeonberry or *poke root, Phytolaccaceae), Polygonatum multiflorum (*Solomon’s seal, Convallariaceae), Populus balsamifera (*balm-of-Gilead) & × candicans (Salicaceae), Potentilla anserina (silverweed, Rosaceae), *Protoasparagus cooperi or *Asparagus africanus (Asparagaceae), Prunella vulgaris (*selfheal, Lamiaceae), Psychotria mahonii (Rubiaceae), Pulmonaria officinalis (*lungwort, Boraginaceae), Quercus robur (*common or *pedunculate oak, Fagaceae), Ribes nigrum (*black currants, Grossulariaceae), Rubus fruticosus (*blackberry, Rosaceae), *Rumex nepalensis (Polygonaceae), Salvia officinalis (*sage, Lamiaceae), Sanguinaria canadensis (*blood root, Papaveraceae), Sanicula europaea (*sanicle, Apiaceae), *Schkuhria pinnata (Asteraceae), *Schrebera alata (Oleaceae), *Sida schimperiana (Malvaceae), *Steganotaenia araliacea (Apiaceae), *Synadenium grantii (Euphorbiaceae), *Tamarindus indica (*tamarind, Fabaceae), *Tephrosia pentaphylla (Fabaceae), Terminalia belerica (*Beleric myrobalan, Combretaceae), *Tithonia diversifolia (Asteraceae), *Typha angustifolia & latifolia (Typhaceae), Vinca major (*greater periwinkle) & minor (*lesser periwinkle, Apocynaceae), *Vitex ferruginea (Verbenaceae) and *Zea mays (*corn silk of *maize, Poaceae). Sorghum (Poaceae) – a genus of 24 grass species widespread in tropical and warm regions, and S. bicolor (*sorghum) widely cultivated as a grain crop (3 native species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Kenya the Luo use the seeds of S. arundinaceum (= S. verticilliflorum) as an *astringent (Kokwaro 1976). Sorindeia (Anacardiaceae) – a genus of about 40 species of shrubs or trees confined to Africa and Madagascar (3 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of S. madagascariensis are used for *menstruation problems (Kokwaro 1976). sorrel – Rumex acetosa (the knotweed family, Polygonaceae) is a very widespread perennial herb in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; it contains *oxalates and *anthraquinones and is a *detoxifying herb with distinct *diuretic effect; like other members of the genus Rumex it is mildly *laxative; see also *sheep’s sorrel (Rumex acetosella) and wood sorrel (Oxalis acetocella). sorrel family – the knotgrass family, Polygonaceae is a large family with 30 genera and about 750 species widely distributed in all continents; alternative name: *dock family. sour cherries – *sorrel, Rumex acetosa (the knotgrass family, Polygonaceae); for medicinal use see *sorrel. sour dock – Rumex crispus (the knotweed family, Polygonaceae) is a perennial herb native to European sea-shores, but widely distributed as a weed throughout the world; the root is a gentle *laxative used for *constipation and also has *detoxifying activity; it is believed to increase the 337 flow of *bile; it has also been taken for *arthritis and skin conditions (*acne, *eczema and *fungal infections), alternative names: *curled dock and *yellow dock. sour orange – Citrus × aurantium (the orange family, Rutaceae); all oranges are probably hybrids between Citrus maxima (*pomelo) and C. reticulata (*mandarin); for medicinal use see *Citrus; alternative name: *Seville orange; see also *orange. soursop – Annona muricata (Annonaceae) is a small tree with edible fruits; this plant has been used to treat a number of diseases, e.g. the fruit eaten to treat *feber, while the powder of unripe fruits is taken for *dysentery; the seeds are used as *emetic; a leaf tea or leaf infusion or decoction is used to treat *bronchitis, *coughs, *fever, *hypertension, *insomnia, *jaundice, *liver ailments, *malaria and *palpitations (Neuwinger 2000). southern nettle tree – Celtis australis (Celtaceae, previously Ulmaceae) is a tall deciduous tree native to the Mediterranean area; the leaves and fruit have *astringent properties and have been used to astringe the *mucous membranes of the gut in *diarrhoea, *dysentery and *peptic ulcers; it is also prescribed to reduce heavy *uterine bleeding. southern prickly ash – Zanthoxylum clavaherculis (the orange family, Rutaceae) is a North American shrub or small tree widely used as herbal medicine by native Americans; both bark and berries were chewed to alleviate *rheumatism and *toothache; it has also been used as a *circulatory stimulant, for *arthritis, *digestive problems and leg *ulcers; it stimulates blood flow and painful and stiff *joints promoting the supply of oxygen and nutrients to painful areas and removing waste products; see also *prickly ash (Z. americanum). southern sida (USA) – Sida acuta (the mallow family, Malvaceae) is a troublesome weed in many countries; for medicinal use see *Sida; alternative name: *broom-weed, *cheeseweed and *spinyhead sida. southernwood – Artemisia abrotanum (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a very aromatic shrubby perennial herb cultivated for the perfume industry and for herbal medicine; it contains a *volatile oil that repels insects and is therefore placed among clothes to repel moths; it is a bitter tonic that strengthens *digestive function by increasing secretions; it has also been taken as a treatment for *intestinal worms; field southernwood is A. campestris; see also *Artemisia, *dusty miller, *mugwort, *old woman, and *wormwood. sow-thistle – Sonchus oleraceus (the sunflower family – Asteraceae) is a troublesome weed in many countries; alternative name: *annual milk thistle; in compounds also about other species of the genus Sonchus, e.g. field sow-thistle (S. arvensis), marsh sow-thistle (S. palustris) and spiny sow-thistle ( S. asper); see also *blue sow-thistle (Circerbita alpina). soya – soybean, Glycine max (the pea family, Fabaceae) is an annual herb native to southwestern Asia, but widely cultivated throughout tropical and warm countries; soya is a staple food in many parts of Asia, and is now one of the world’s most important food crops; the beans contain about 30 % protein, 17 % fixed oil and about 2 % *lecithin in addition to *oestrogen-like substances (*coumestrol, *isoflavones and *sterols); because of these substances soya may have a protective role against *cancer, and especially *breast cancer (Japan may have less cancer due to the high amounts of soya food eaten there); soya is also a good medicinal food for women during the *menopause helping to relieve symptoms such as hot flushes and protect against *osteoporosis; soya bean sprouts may help to relieve *fever. soybean – soya, Glycine max (the pea family, Fabaceae); see *soya above. Spanish needle – Bidens pilosa (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a troublesome American weed introduced in many warm countries; for medicinal use see *Bidens; alternative names: * beggar’s-ticks og *stick tight. Spanish plum – Spondias purpurea (Anacardiaceae) is a tropical American tree with edible drupes; the fruits have some medicinal value due to their content of *vitamins and *minerals; alternative names: *jobo and *red mombin; see also *ambarella, *golden apple, *jew’s plum, *mombin, *Otaheite apple and *yellow mombin. 338 Spanish sage – Salvia lavandulifolia (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a relative of *sage, but does not contain the toxic substance *thujone; it is therefore a better culinary plant. Sparmannia (Tiliaceae) – a genus about 4 species of herbs or shrubs in Africa and Madagascar (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); S. africana is a fiber plant has irritant hairs on the leaves, which produce a contact *dermatitis; despite of this the flowers and leaves are mucilaginous and have been used in eye *inflammations and in *breast diseases (Dragendorff 1898); alternative names: *African hemp, house lime, stock rose, window linden. spasm – cramp; a sudden and violent involuntary tightening of the muscles; excessive muscular contractions; for plants used to treat this condition see *cramp. spasmodic – accompanied by *spasms, e.g. spasmodic asthma. spasmolytic – which relaxes muscles. spasmolytic herbs – herbs which relaxes muscles, e.g. *visnaga, Ammi visnaga, relaxes *bronchial muscles. spastic constipation – constipation which results from tension and muscle *spasm in the *colon; it can be alleviated using *cramp bark, Viburnum opulus. Spathodea (Bignoniaceae) – a genus with a single tree species native to tropical Africa; in Uganda the flowers of S. campanulata (= S. nilotica) are used to treat *otitis media, the leaves and flower for *insanity, the stem bark is used to treat *vaginal dryness, the stem bark together with leaves are taken for *headache, and the root for *diarrhoea and *jaundice (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the bark is boiled or pounded and eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005); in Kenya the stem bark is used to treat swollen cheeks, and newly born babies are bathed in water boiled with the bark to heal body *rashes (Kokwaro 1976); vernacular name: *African tulip tree. spearmint – Mentha spicata (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a widespread European herb; it contains a strongly aromatic oil (includes *menthol); this volatile oil is strongly *antibacterial, *antifungal, *antiseptic, and *anaesthetic to the skin; it also has an *antispasmodic effect on the digestive system by relaxing gut muscles; its major value lies in its ability to relieve *digestive problems such as *bloating, *colic, *diarrhoea, *flatulence, *griping pain, *nausea and *wind; spearmint is one of the parents of *peppermint (M. × piperata). speedwell – Veronica officinalis (Veronicaceae or Plantaginaceae) is a perennial creeping herb widespread in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; it was previously (up to 1935) an important herb used to treat *catarrh, *coughs and *chronic skin condition, but is little used today; alternative name: common speedwell. sperm – male mobile reproductive cells; *spermatozoa or *semen. Spermacoce (Rubiaceae) – a genus of some 200 species of annual or perennial herbs or small subshrubs widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions (about 32 species in East Africa, 12 species in Uganda); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda S. princeae is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in West Uganda the leaves of S. pusilla have been used on fresh *wounds and to quicken *labour (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Tanzania the herb S. senensis is used to treat *haemorrhoids, while the juice squeezed out of leaves of S. subvulgata is applied to *sores (Kokwaro 1976). spermatogenic – producing semen or spermatozoa spermatopoietic – promoting the secretion of *semen or *spermatozoa spermatorrh(o)ea – involuntary discharge of *semen; this condition is sometimes alleviated using a herb that reduces unusually active secretions, e.g. *Chinese dogwood or *shan zhu yu, Cornus officinalis (the dogwood family, Cornaceae). spermatozoa (singular: spermatozoon) – *semen; mature male mobile reproductive cell. Sphaeranthus (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 40 species of annual or perennial herbs widespread in the tropics and subtropics of the Old World (20 species in East Africa, 5 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of S. bullatus are used to cure *stomach-ache, and a *decoction of the 339 leaves is given to adolescents as a *tonic (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya an infusion of the leaves of S. kirkii is taken as a remedy for *kidney trouble, an infusion is also used as a cooling wash for *headache, and the whole plant soaked in warm water and used for bathing children suffering from *skin diseases (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania the Gogo use S. steetzii (= S. gomphrenoides) medicinally for babies, while the Kikuyu use this herb to expel the *afterbirth (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa a decoction of the whole plant S. suaveolens (including S. napierae) is drunk as a *cough remedy, while the leaves are squeezed and sniffed up the nose to treat *colds by causing sneezing; a decoction of the leaves is rubbed into the body of a person with *malaria; the plant is also believed to harbour magic poperties, such as keeping enemies away (Glover et al. 1961; Kokwaro 1976). sphagnum moss – species from the moss genus Sphagnum (bog moss family, Sphagnaceae) are very dominant in wet vegetation-types in temperate regions with acid soils (in East Africa mainly at altitudes above 1000 m); this moss contains a substance *sphagnol, which is strongly *antiseptic and absorbant; during the First World War (1914-1918) it was used by the tons in the battle trenches to dress wounds and treat infections. spider lily – some species of the genus Crinum (the daffodil family, Amaryllidaceae); for medicinal use see *Crinum. spiderwort – species of the genera Commelina, Murdannia and Tradescantia (Commelinaceae); for medicinal plants see *Commelina and *Tradescantia. spiderwort family – Commelinaceae is a fairly large family with about 40 slekter and 600 species widely distributed in almost all tropical and warm countries; species of the genera *Aneilema, *Commelina, *Cyanotis and *Tradescantia contain species of medicinal value. spike lavender – Lavandula spica (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial herb native to the Mediterranean region; it has been used to reduce pain and alleviate nervous excitability in the same way as *lavender (L. officinalis); it yields more oil than lavender, but the oil is of an inferior quality and thus not much used. Spilanthes (Asteraceae) – for Spilanthes mauritiana see *Acmella caulirhiza. spinach – Spinacia oleracea (the goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae); a widely cultivated vegetable throughout the world; it is much richer in *protein than other leaf vegetable, and it also has a high *vitamin A content. spinach beet – Beta vulgaris (the goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae); for medicinal use see the alternative name *beetroot; see also *red beet and *white beet. spinach family – the goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae is a large family with about 100 genera and 1500 species widely distributed in all continents; if the amaranth family is included the family consists of 165 genera and 2400 species; for medicinal plants see *Chenopodiaceae. spinal column – the series of vertebrae in a vertebrate animal (including man) forming the axis of the skeleton. spinal cord – the cord of nerve tissue extending through the centre of the *spinal column; inflammation of the covering of the spinal cord (and brain) is named *meningitis. spindle-tree – Euonymus europaeus or other species of the genus Euonymus (the spindle-tree family, Celastraceae); for medicinal use see *wahoo bark (E. atropurpureus, purple spindle tree). spindle-tree family – Celastraceae, is a large family with about 55 species and 850 species widely distributed in all continents, except for the coldest regions; for medicinal plants see *Celastraceae. spiny amaranth – Amaranthus spinosus (the amaranth family, Amaranthaceae) is one of the world’s worst weeds, but is also used as a medicine; in Indian (Ayurvedic) medicine it is taken to reduce heavy *menstrual bleeding and excessive *vaginal discharge, and to arrest the *coughing up of blood; in Uganda it has been applied for *functional psychosis (Adjanohoun 1993); alternative name: *needle bur, *prickly amaranth og *thorny pigweed. 340 spiny bamboo – Bambusa arundinacea (the grass family, Poaceae) is a tall bamboo to 30 m tall native to tropical Asia; it is most useful for building and furniture; the young sprouts are eaten to relieve *indigestion, *nausea and *wind; the leaves are *antispamodic and used to stimulate menstruation and relieve periodic pain, to strengthen stomach-function and to expel worms; the juice is rich in *silica and aids strengthening of *cartilage in *osteoarthritis and *osteoporosis. spinyhead sida (USA) – Sida acuta (the mallow family, Malvaceae) is a troublesome weed in many countries; for medicinal use see *Sida; alternative name: *broom-weed, *cheeseweed and *southern sida. spiny restharrow – Ononis spinosa (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a small spiny perennial herb native to Europe; the root is used as a *diuretic and to prevent *kidney and *bladder stones, and to alleviate *cystitis and *gout. spiroether – a volatile oil which is a strong *antispasmodic easing tense muscles and pain; it is found in e.g. *German chamomile, Chamomilla recutita (the sunflower family, Asteraceae). Spirostachys (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus of 2 species in tropical and South Africa; the stem and root bark of S. africana is *anthelmintic, while the latex is *emetic and *purgative; the root bark decoction is taken to treat *constipation, *cough, *diarrhoea, *gonorrhoea, *schistosomiasis, *stomach complaints and threatened *abortion; the pant is also used to treat acute *gastritis, gastric ulcers, *fever, *headaches, *nosebleeds and *influenza (Neuwinger 2000). spleen – organ of the *circulation system lying in the abdominal cavity; it is an important part of the blood-forming system; some plants are believed to stimulate and strengthen the function of the spleen, e.g. *fringed tree (Chionanthus virginicus, the olive family, Oleaceae). spleenwort – the fern genus Asplenium (Aspleniaceae), e.g. African spleenwort (A. africanum), black spleenwort (A. adiantum-nigrum), forked spleenwort (A. septentrionale), green spleenwort (A. viride) and maidenhair spleenwort (A. trichomanes); a leaf tea of A. africanum is taken as an *enema to treat *spleen problems or powdered leaves used to treat physically underdeveloped children; the leaves of A. monanthes and A. trichomanes are smoked to treat *chest colds and *headache (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Neuwiner 2000). splenomegaly – inflammation of *spleen, often resulting in enlargement; it can be caused by many infectious diseases; this disease is sometimes treated by herbs, e.g. *Asystasia gangetica (Acanthaceae), *Cleome gynandra (Capparidaceae), *Echinops amplexicaulis (Asteraceae), *Euphorbia prostrata (Euphorbiaceae), *Pentaclethra macrophylla (Fabaceae) and *Zornia glochidiata (Fabaceae). MSpondianthus (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus of 1 species native to tropical Africa (also in Uganda); a heavily diluted leaf decoction of S. preussii is drunk to treat *fever, while a bark decoction has been used as mouthwash for *toothache (Neuwinger 2000). Sporobolus (Poaceae) – a genus of about 150 grass species widespread in tropical and warm regions, and a few species extending to temperate regions (44 species in East Africa, 27 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Sandawi chew the roots of S. festivus for *stomach trouble, while in Uganda the roots of S. pyramidalis are used to treat *whooping cough (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda the roots of S. pyramidalis are used to treat *cataract, *migraine, *snakebite and to expel retained *placenta and promote *labour (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). sprain – to wrench the muscles or *ligaments around (a joint) without *dislocation; a condition of being sprained. spring cabbage – Brassica oleracea var. capitata (Brassicaceae); for medicinal use see *cabbage. spring tonics – cetain plants rich in *vitamin C previously in cold regions widely taken in spring to strengthen a body weakened after a winter without access to vegetables and fruits, e.g. Angelica archangelica (*angelica, Apiaceae) and Montia perfoliata (*winter purslane, Portulacaceae). spurge – species of the genus Euphorbia (the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae); for medicinal use see *Euphorbia. 341 spurge family – the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, is a very large family with about 300 genera and over 5000 species, but some smaller families are recently split off, e.g. Phyllanthaceae; for medicinal uses see *Euphorbiaceae. squaw root (Am) – Caulophyllum thalictroides (the barberry family, Berberidaceae) is an important medicinal plant in Eastern North America, its root has long been used for women’s complaints, especially for *menstrual problems encouraging a regular menstrual cycle, help to reduce heavy menstrual *bleeding and periodic (*uterine and *ovarian) pain, and improve contractions during labour; it has been used as a *contraceptive by native Americans by both sexes, but may cause malformation of the *embryo and *foetus in the womb; alternative names: *blue cohosh and *papose root. squaw vine (Am) – Mitchella repens (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a North American forest herb; it has been widely used to aid *labour and *childbirth; it is considered to have a *tonic action on the *uterus and *ovaries; it is taken to relieve *periodic pain and may stimulate *breast-milk production; the crushed berries with a tincture of *myrrh (Commiphora molmol) are helpful for *sore nipples; it may also help for *colitis and *diarrhoea. squaw weed (Am) – Senecio aureus (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a North American herb, which has been used to treat *gynaecological problems such as to relieve *labour pain and induce *menstrual periods; however, the plant contains *pyrrolizidine alkaloids that are highly *toxic to the *liver and are now only used for *external use, as a douche for excessive *vaginal discharge; alternative name: *life root. squill – species of the genera Scilla og Urginea (the hyacinth family, Hyacinthaceae), e.g. alpine squill (Scilla bifolia), autumnal or autumn-flowering squill (Scilla autumnalis), Natal squill (Scilla natalensis), spring squill (Scilla verna) and sea squill (Urginea maritima); for medicinal uses see *Scilla. squirting cucumber – Ecballium elaterium (the melon family, Cucurbitaceae) is a trailing herb from the Mediterranean region; the fruit is taken as a *purgative. Stachytarpheta (Verbenaceae) – a genus of about 100 species of annual or perennial herbs or shrubs widespread in tropical and warm regions (4 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in coastal Kenya an infusion of the leaves of S. urticifolia (as S. jamaicensis) is taken as a remedy for headache (Kokwaro 1976). staggers – a form of disease (dizziness) in which *mental confusion and muscular weakness are the chief symptoms (most often in animals). St. Ant(h)ony’s fire – a disease in man caused by eating the fungus Claviceps purpurea (*ergot), which is found as pollution in grain. Stapelia (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) – a genus with about 50 species of perennial succulent (cactus-like) herbs native to tropical and South Africa; in Uganda S. dummeri is a Baganda taken as a earache remedy (Bally 1937 & 1938), while in Kenya the Kamba use the whole plant of S. remota to treat *wounds and *ulcers (Kokwaro 1976); in South Africa S. gigantea contains *purgative *anthraquinones and is a Zulu remedy for *hysteria (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). star anise – Illicium verum (Illiciaceae) is a tall evergreen tree native to East Asia; star anise is mainly used as a spice and has a similar taste as *anise (Pimpinella anisum); it has *digestive, *diuretic and *stimulant properties and is used to treat *back pain, *colic, *hernias, *indigestion, *rheumatism, *toothache and *wind; alternative name: *Chinese anise. starch – a homopolysaccharide, which consists of D-glucose molecules; it is the most important storage carbohydrate in higher plants. star cluster – species of the genus Pentas (the coffee family, Rubiaceae), for medicinal use see *Pentas. starfruit – Averrhoa carambola (the sorrel family, Oxalidaceae); for medicinal use see *carambola. 342 star grass (Am) – Aletris farinosa (Liliaceae s.lat.) is a tall American lily by native North Americans used for *stomach ache and *snake bites; because of its content of *steroidal saponins and *oestrogenic action it is at present mainly used for *gynaecological problems, particularly at the *menopause, but it is also given for *periodic pain and *irregular periods; it is also a good *digestive herb treating loss of appetite, *indigestion, *flatulence and *bloating; alternative names: *colic root and *true unicorn root. starweed (USA) – Stellaria media in the pink family (Caryophyllaceae) is a troublesome weed in many temperate countries; for alternative names and medicinal use see *chickweed. Stathmostelma (Apocynaceae - Asclepiadeae) – a genus with 13 species of perennial herbs native to tropical Africa (10 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda): in Tanzania the Shambaa drink a decoction of bark and roots of S. pauciflorum as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the tuber of S. pedunculatum is used to treat *ascariasis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), while in Tanzania it is used as a *purgative, but considered as toxic (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Sambulu take a root decoction of S. rhacodes for *stomach troubles (Kokwaro 1976). steam inhalation – a combination of steam and essential oil or other *antiseptic ingredients used to clear the airways through the *respiratory system; it is an effective way to clear *catarrh and relieve *bronchial asthma, *hay fever and *sinusitis. Steganotaenia (Apiaceae) – a genus of 2 species of shrubs, perennial herbs or small trees native to tropical and South Africa (in East Africa 2 species, in Uganda 1 species); in Uganda the leaves of S. araliacea are used to treat *diarrhoea, while leaves together with the stem bark are used to treat *sickle cell anaemia, the bark alone is used for *scabies and the roots for *anasarca, the root bark is used for *functional *psychosis and the roots together with leaves for *epilepsy (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East the roots of are used for treating chronic *endomitritis, *haemorrhoids and *pyomyositis, while the leaves are used to treat *lameness and to promote *labour (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a *decoction of the root and bark of S. araliacea to treat *malaria (Heine & König 1988); in Apac district in North Uganda this species is used to treat back hump (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); elsewhere in East Africa the roots are used to treat *snakebite, the bark and roots are chewed for *sore throat, the leaves and bark are used to cure *swellings due to *allergy, a decoction of the bark is mixed with milk and drunk for *dysentery and excess gas in the stomach; the plant is also known to cure *liver and *lung diseases in cattle (Kokwaro 1976). Stephania (Menispermaceae) – a genus with about 40 species of herbaceous or woody climbers widespread in the Old World tropics (3 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of S. abyssinica are used as an *aphrodisiac, the whole plant is dried and ground and the powder applied to any *aching part by making small cuts with a razor blade, while the leaves are crushed and applied to the *wound resulting from tortoise bite; extract from the plant is also used for treating *mastitis in cattle (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaf is used to tame animals (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Sterculia (Sterculiaceae) – a genus with about 300 species of trees (rarely shrubs) native to the tropics; in Tanzania the roots, bark and leaves of S. africana are boiled with other plants and used as an inhalent for *fever and *influenza, a decoction of the bark and leaves of S. appendiculata is taken for *palsy, a bark decoction of S. mhosya is used for *indigestion and the roots used as an *antidote, the sap of the roots of S. quinqueloba is mixed with salt and used for treating those suffering from *sorcery, while the bark of S. rhynchocarpa is taken for *stomach troubles (Kokwaro 1976). Sterculiaceae – a family of about 60 genera and 1100 species of annual or perennial herbs, shrubs or trees widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics; species from many genera are used as medicines, e.g. *Cola, *Dombeya, *Mansonia, *Melhania, *Melochia, *Sterculia, *Theobroma and *Waltheria. 343 Stereospermum (Bignoniaceae) – a genus with 15 tree species native to the Old World tropics (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa the bark and roots of S. kunthianum are used to treat *cough and a boiled root decoction is drunk for the treatment of *venereal diseases; in Bunyoro in Uganda an infusion of the leaves is used for washing *wounds and to treat *ulcers (Kokwaro 1976). sterility – barrenness; not being able to produce children. sterids – derivates from cyclo-pentanoperhydrophenantren (steran); if the molecule contains one or more hydroxyl groups and no carbonyl- or carboxyl groups the steriden en *sterol; inneholder derimot molekylet en eller flere karbonyl- eller karboksylgrupper, er sterid is a *steroid. sternutatory – a drug or substance used as a snuff and causing *sneezing . steroid – active chemical of plant or animal origin with powerful hormonial actions; a group of derivates from cyclo-pentanoperhydrophenantren (steran) where the molecule contains one or more carbonyl- or carboxyl groups; many plants contain steroids, e.g. the genus Dioscorea (*yams), which has been used in the production of *cortisone, sex hormones and contraceptive pills. steroidal saponins – saponins with a chemical structure similar to that of many hormones in the human body, e.g. *oestrogen and *cortisol; many plants containing them have a marked hormonal activity, e.g. *wild yam (Dioscorea villosa). sterol – a group of derivates from cyclo-pentanoperhydrophenantren (steran) where the molecule contains one or more hydroxyl groups and no carbonyl- or carboxyl groups. stertorous – characterized by deep snoring. Stevia (Asteraceae) – a genus with about 230 species native to tropical and warm America, but the shrub S. rebaudiana cultivated world-wide for its extremely sweet glycoside *stevioside. stevioside – a diterpene *glycoside up to 300 times as sweet as sucrose; it is widely used for sweetening drinks and other food being important in treating *obesity due to its low caloric content; in some countries its use is illegal as it is suspected of causing male *sterility. stick tight – Bidens pilosa (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a troublesome American weed introduced to many tropical and warm countries; for medicinal use see *Bidens; alternative names: *Spanish needle and *beggar’s-ticks; the name is also used about Bidens frondosa and other species in the genus Bidens. sticky Willie – Galium aparine (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a troublesome annual weed in many temperate countries; it is a mild laxative and *diuretic taken for swollen *lymph glands, *kidney stones, *urinary problems and *skin diseases such as *eczema, *psoriasis and *seboohoea, alternative names: *catchweed, *cleavers, *goosegrass, *hairif, *scratch grass, *Robin-run-over-the-hedge; see also *bedstraw. Stigmatorhynchus (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) – a genus with 2-3 species of branched shrubs often with twining shoots native to tropical and subtropical Africa; in Tanzania the Gogo use S. umbelliferus as a medicine (Kokwaro 1976). Stilbaceae – a family previously often included in Verbenaceae, but recently redefined, including e.g. the African genus *Nuxia, which include some species with medicinal use. stimulant – an agent (substance, drug or plant) which increases rate of activity and nervous excitement, or temporarily quickens the activity of the mind or body; any food, spice or beverage that stimulates or invigorates (fills with energy), e.g. coffee and tea; see also *stimulant herbs. stimulant herbs – some herbs are general stimulants, others will stimulate one particular physiological function; *appetizers are foods or drinks that stimulate the appetite, e.g. many spices; choleretics stimulate secretion of bile by the *liver, e.g. Cynara scolymus (*artichoke), circulatory stimulants will improve the *circulation of blood to the extremities, e.g. *Capsicum frutescens (*Cayenne pepper), digestive stimulants stimulate secretion of *digestive juices by the stomach and *intestines, e.g. Artemisia absinthum (*wormwood), *diuretics stimulate the flow of urine, e.g. Zea mays (*cornsilk), *expectorants stimulate the *coughing up of *mucus, e.g. 344 Inula helenium (*elecampane), heart stimulants will strengthen the heart’s contraction or increase the heart beat rate, immune stimulants will increase the body’s defense against diseases, e.g. Echinacea spp. (*purple coneflower) and Tabebuia spp. (*lapacho), *laxatives will stimulate bowel movements, e.g. Cassia senna (*senna), nerve stimulants will strengthen the nervous system (*nervines), e.g. Rosmarinus officinalis (*rosemary) or increase nervous activity, e.g. Cola acuminata (*kola nut), sex stimulants increase production of sex hormones, e.g. *Vitex agnus-castus (*agnus castus). stinging hairs – capillary hairs filled by an irritating burning fluid, e.g. in *stinging nettle (Urtica dioica, Uticaceae). stinging nettle – Urtica dioica (the nettle family, Urticaceae); for medicinal use see *nettle. stinging nettle family – the nettle family, Urticaceae, is a large family with about 45 genera and 1000 species widely distributed in all continents and both in hot and cold regions; for medicinal uses see *Urticaceae. stings – insect stings in the throat or if prone to *allergic reaction need immediate medical attention; otherwise insect stings can be treated with an infusion of *nettle (*Urtica dioica) or *purple coneflower (Echinacea spp.), or applied externally use the juice of (or gel, lotion or tincture of) *Aloe vera, Calendula officinalis (*marigold), Hypericum perforatum (*St. John’s wort), Lavandula officinalis (*lavender), Ocimum basilicum (*sweet basil), O. sanctum (*holy basil), Salvia officinalis (*sage) or Thymus vulgaris (*thyme); if nothing else is available use neat lemon juice; see also *scorpion bite. stinking mayweed – Anthemis cotula (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is an annual or perennial herb native to the Mediterranean region, but now widely dispersed as a weed throughout most parts of the world; it has been used as an *antispasmodic and to induce *menstruation. stinkwood – species of the genus Prunus (the rose family, Rosaceae), e.g. *red stinkwood (Prunus africana), an important medicinal plant, see *Prunus, stitch – a sharp stabbing pain in the side or abdomen of short duration. St. John’s wort – Hypericum perforatum (St. John’s-wort family, Hypericaceae or Clusiaceae) is a perennial herb native to the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; it is a valuable medicinal herb for *nervous exhaustion, *depression and seasonal affective disorders (active substance: *hyperforin); this herb also has *antiviral activity (active substance: *hypericin) and seems to act against enveloping *viruses, e.g. *herpes virus, *hepatitis B and C and perhaps *HIV; the herb may also increase the lowered vitality that can accompany the *menopause; alternative name: *common St. John’s wort; in compounds used about other species of the genus Hypericum, e.g. giant St. John’s wort (H. revolutum), hairy St. John’s wort (H. hirsutum), imperforate St. John’s wort (H. maculatum), mountain St. John’s wort (H. montanum) and slender St. John’s wort (H. pulchrum); some of these species are used therapeutic in the same way as St. John’s wort. St. John’s wort family – Hypericaceae or Clusiaceae, is a large family with about 40 genera and 1000 species widely distributed in all continents; for medicinal plants see Hypericaceae. stomach ache – pain in belly; see *stomach spasm; for plants used to alleviate stomach ache see *abdominal pain. stomachic – which eases stomach pain or increases stomach activity. stomach spasm – *pain in belly (including stomach, *bowels and other nutritive organs), often produced by strong contractions of *intestines; many plants are used to relieve this condition, e.g. *angelica (Angelica archangelica), *anise (Pimpinella anisum), *cramp bark (Viburnum opulus), *fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), *galangal (Alpinia officinarum), *German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita), *lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) and *peppermint (Mentha × piperata); see also *abdominal pain and *colic; for a more complete list of plants used to alleviate this condition see *abdominal pain. 345 stomatitis – inflammation of the mucous membrane of the mouth; a few plants have been used to alleviate such inflammation, e.g. *Diodia sarmentosa (Rubiaceae) and *Euclea natalensis (Ebenaceae). stonecrop – species of the genus Sedum (the stonecrop family, Crassulaceae), e.g. birdfoot stonecrop (S. pulchellum), English stonecrop (S. anglicum), hairy stonecrop (S. villosum), insipid stonecrop (S. sexangulare), rock stonecrop (S. forsteranum), thick-leaved stonecrop (S. dasyphyllum) and white stonecrop (S. album); see also *livelong or *live-forever (S. telephium), *midsummer-men (Rhodiola rosea), *orpine (S. telephium), *rose-root (Rhodiola rosea) andg *wall-pepper (S. acre); for medicinal use see *livelong, *live-forever, *midsummer-men and *rose-root. stonecrop family – Crassulaceae is a large famile with about 35 genear and 1500 succulent species widely distributed in all continents except Australia; for medicinal plants see *Crassulaceae. stone root – Collinsonia canadensis (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial herb native to moist woodlands of eastern North America; this herb has *astringent, *diuretic and *tonic properties, and is mainly used to treat *kidney stones and other disorders of the *digestive system and to counteract *fluid retention. storax – Styrax officinalis (the storax family, Styracaceae) is a small deciduous tree or large shrub native to the Mediterranean area; the resin (*gum storax) is *antiseptic and used to treat *coughs and other *respiratory problems; *liquid storax is the resin of *Levant storax (Liquidambar orientalis). storing (herbs) – medicinal herbs have to be stored properly or their efficiacy will not last; if plants are dried, they should either be stored in brown paper bags in a dry, dark place or in sterilized, dark glass containers; such herbs can be kept for about 12 months after harvesting; herbs frozen in plastic bags can be kept for about 6 months. strawberry – species of the genus Fragaria (the rose family, Rosaceae); cultivated strawberry is Fragaria × ananassa and other hybrids; *wild strawberry is F. vesca; for medicinal use see *alpine strawberry and *wild strawberry. strawberry tree – Arbutus unedo (the heather family, Ericaceae) is an evergreen shrub or small tree native to Ireland and the Mediterranean area; the leaves and fruits are *antiseptic and *astringent and has been used for treating *cystitis, *diarrhoea, *dysentery and *urethritis Streblus (Moraceae) – a genus with about 25 species of shrubs or trees widespread in the Old World tropics (1 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in East Africa pounded leaves of S. usambarensis (= Neosloetiopsis kamerunensis) are soaked in water and the juice applied for the treatment of an infected eye (Kokwaro 1976). streptomycin – an antibiotic obtained from the bacterium genus Streptomyces. stress – if subject to daily stress, the nervous system is unable to recover its natural vitlity; long-term stress can lead to *anxiety, *depression, *insomnia, irritability, nervousness and *palpitations; many different herbs are effective in nourishing the *nervous system, calming and relaxing the mind; calming herbs that ease physical tension and help maintain a balanced mental and emotional state include Hypericum perforatum (*St. John’s wort), Melissa officinalis (*lemon balm; will also treat *digestive problems due to stress), Scutellaria lateriflora (*skullcap; will also treat *panic attacks and *headaches) and Turnera diffusa (*damiana); Valeriana officinalis (*valerian) has tranquillizing qualities and will treat chronic *anxiety and *hyperactivity; Codonopsis pilosula (*codonopsis) will treat *muscle tension and *headaches; Panax ginseng (*ginseng) and Eleutherococcus senticosus (*Siberian ginseng) will treat short-term stress and increase vitality, while Withania somnifera is used for long-term stress and *convalescence; see also *headache, *insomnia (sleeplessness), *migraine and *neuralgia (nerve pain). stretch marks – stretch mark resulting from pregnancy is treated by rubbing Aloe vera gel over the affected area, or by massaging olive oil (Olea europaea) firmly into the skin 1-2 times a day. strewing herb – in the past plants, e.g. Filipendular ulmaria (*meadowsweet), were often scattered over the floor or other surfaces to improve bad smell and to keep away diseases. 346 Striga (Orobanchaceae; or earlier Scrophulariaceae) – a genus with about 40 species of annual, rarely perennial, root-parasitic herbs native to the Old World tropics; in Kenya fresh leaves of S. hermontica are used for the treatment of *thrush, and in Tanzania the roots of S. pubiflora are chewed or boiled and taken for *stomach troubles (Kokwaro 1976). stringybark (tree) – some species of the genus Eucalyptus (the myrtle family, Myrtaceae) with fiberlike bark, e.g. brown stringybark (E. capitellata), red stringybark (E. macrorhyncha) and yellow stringybark (E. acmenoides and E. muelleriana); alternative name: *gum (tree); see also ironbark (tree); for medicinal use see *eucalyptus. stroke – an attack of *apoplexy or paralysis, i.e. a sudden loss of bodily function due to rupture or occlusion of a blood vessel in the brain; this condition, often arising through aging, may be avoided by regular use of *ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), a Chinese tree, which leaves are belived to maintain good *circulation to the head and brain, improving memory, concentration and energy levels (Chevallier 2001). Strophanthus (Apocynaceae) – a genus with 38 species of shrubs, trees or lianas native to tropical Africa and Asia (in East Africa 12 species, in Uganda 4 species); in Tanzania the roots of S. eminii are used as an *emetic and to cure *fever and as a medicine for *worms, and young branches are chewed to treat *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976). strophanthus – Strophanthus kombe (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae) is a very toxic African woody forest vine and has been used as an arrow poison; it is *diuretic and contains up to 10 % *cardiac glycosides, which slow heart rate and improve the heart’s efficiency, but is dangerous to use; see also *hairy strophanthus (S. hispidus). Struthiola (Thymelaeaceae) – a genus with bout 30 species of small shrubs in tropical and South Africa (1 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in East Africa the raw roots of S. thomsonii are chewed as a*cough remedy, while an infusion is drunk for *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976). strychnine – an *indole alkaloid, a lehal poison producing intense muscle *spasms and often used as arrow poison; it is found in e.g. *nux vomica, Strychnos nux-vomica (Strychnaceae); the seeds of this plant have been used externally to relieve pain and treat *tumours and *paralysis, especially *Bell’s palsy; it is widely used in *homeopathic preparations. strychnine tree – species of the genus Strychnos (Strychnaceae); they have seeds vontaining the toxic alkaloid strychnine, which is used as rat poison. Strychnos (Loganiaceae or Strychnaceae) – a genus of about 190 species (75 species in Africa) of trees, shrubs and woody vines (in East Africa 20 species, in Uganda 10 species); the seeds contain *strychnine (in the integuments) and are very poisonous, and some species are used as arrow poisons; see *nux vomica (S. nux-vomica); in Tanzania a root decoction of S. cocculoïdes is drunk for *gonorrhoea, and pounded leaves are applied to *sores, while in Kenya fresh roots of S. henningsii are chewed to treat *snakebite, and a decoction from the roots is drunk as a treatment for *chest pains and internal injuries (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the fresh roots of S. innocua are used in the treatment of *snakebite, while a decoction of the roots is taken as a remedy for *gonorrhoea; an infusion of the bark of the roots is taken by *pregnant women with a baby lying in an abnormal position, and an infusion of bark and twigs is drunk to facilitate birth (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda the leaves are sown into a child’s cloth as a charm to protect against illness (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in East Africa the roots of S. spinosa are taken as a cure for *colds, *dropsy, *earache and *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976). stupor – mental or moral *apathy or dullness. sty – sting; inflamed swelling of the eyelid. Stylosanthes (Fabaceae. Faboideae) – a genus of about 25 species of perennial herbs or subshrubs widespread in the tropics and subtropics (3 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Mali a decoction of the aerial parts of S. erecta is drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis or mixed with the fruit from Tamarindus indica or butter from Vitellaria paradoxa to treat either *urinary 347 or *intestinal schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); in East Africa the roots of S. fruticosa are used as a medicine for *chest diseases (Kokwaro 1976). styptic – (a substance, drug or plant) which stops bleeding (is *haemostatic) when applied to body surface (*topically); for styptic plants see *bleeding. subcutaneous – (situated) beneath the skin. sudorific – (an agent or substance) which causes sweating; for plants which are sudorific see *sweating.. sugar apple – Annona squamosa (Annonaceae) is an American tree with edible fruits widely cultivated throughout the tropics; the bark, leaves and unripe fruits are strongly *astringent and are used to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery and to reduce uric acid levels; the crushed seeds have been used as an *insecticide; alternative names: *custard apple and *sweetsop; the name sugar apple is sometimes used about Annona reticulata (bullock’s heart) also. sugarbeet – Beta vulgaris ssp. cicla (the goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae) is a perennial herb with a swollen white root rich in sugar; it is widely cultivated for production of sugar in temperate regions; it also contains *betaine, which promotes the regeneration of *liver cells, the metabolism of fat cells, and helps to lower blood fat levels; see *beet and *red beet. sugar bush – Protea gaguedi and other species of the genus Protea (Proteaceae); for medicinal use see *Protea; honeypot sugarbush er P. cynaroides. sugar cane – sukkerrøyr, Saccharum officinarum (the grass family, Poaceae); for medicinal use see *Saccharum. sulfur (S) – sultana – a dried fruit (raisin) from grapes without seeds from a small yellow form of grapes from Turkey, i.e. Vitis vinifera in the grape family (Vitaceae); for medicinal use see *grape. sumach – species of the genus Osyris (sandalwood family, Santalaceae); for medicinal use see *Osyris. sumach family – Santalaceae is a medium sized familywith about 35 genera and 400 species widely distributed in all continents except the coldest regions; for medicinal plants see *Santalaceae; see also *sandalwood family. summer savory – Satureja hortensis (Lamiaceae) is a perennial herb native to the Mediterranean region; it is similar to *winter savory (S. montana) but its essential oil is milder; it is mainly cultivated for use in cookery, but as a strong *antioxidant it also has therapeutic values. sunburn – *Aloe vera gel or *lavender (Lavandula officinalis) essential oil is often applied to sun burns, sometimes also a lotion of Calendula officinalis (*marigold). sundew – Drosera rotundifolia (the sundew family, Droseraceae) and other species of the genus Drosera; this insect-eating plant contains *naphthaquinones which are *antimicrobial, *antispasmodic and also suppress *coughs; sundew relaxes the muscles of the *respiratory tract thus ease breathing and other chest conditions such as *asthma, *bronchial asthma and *whooping cough; alternative name: *round-leaved sundew. sundew family – Droseraceae is a rather small family with 4 genera and 83 carnivorous species widely distributed in all continents. sunflower – Helianthus annuus (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is an annual herb native to North and Central America, but now widely cultivated for its oil-rich seeds (50 % oil) in most temperate and warm parts of the world; native Americans medicine men sometimes used this plant in spring and autumn rituals. sunflower family – the sunflower family, Asteraceae is the largest of the plant families with about 1100 genera and 25000 species widely distributed in all continents; for medicinal use see *Asteraceae. supporation – formation of secretion of *pus. 348 suppositories – waxy pellets, containing essential oil or fine powder, which are inserted into the anus, where they melt at body temperature; they are used when medicine through the mouth is likely to be broken down during digestion before reaching the intended site. Suregada (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with some 40 species of shrubs or trees widespread in the Old World tropics and with 8 species in Africa (3 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the roots of S. zanzibariensis are boiled in water and the juice drunk as a *purgative and the roots chewed as a treatment for *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976). Swartzia (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae) – a genus of about 130 species widely distributed in tropical America, and 2 species in Africa; a root decoctin of S. madagascariensis is drunk as an *anthelmintic, while a root infusion is used to treat *gonorrhoea, *pneumonia and *rheumatism; roots are also used to treat *diarrhoea, *gastritis, *jaundice, *sickle cell anemia, *snakebite, *syphilis and *whitlow; fruits are taken to treat *abdominal pain and leprosy (Neuwinger 2000). sweating – perspiring; moisture exuding from the skin; many plants induce sweating, e.g. *Achyrospermum radicans (Lamiaceae), *Adansonia digitata (Bombacaceae), Allium fistulosum (*scallion, Alliaceae), *Ancyclobotrys petersiana (Apocynaceae), Aralia nudicaulis (*wild sarsaparilla) & recemosa (*American spikenard, Araliaceae), Borago officinalis (*borage, Boraginaceae), Bupleurum chinense (*bupleurum, Apiaceae), Calamintha officinalis (*common calamint, Lamiaceae), Chimaphila umbellata (*pipsissewa, Ericaceae), Eupatorium perfoliatum (*boneset, Asteraceae) & teucrifolium (*wild horehound), Guaiacum officinale (*lignum vitae, Zygophyllaceae), Murraya paniculata (*cosmetic bark, Rutaceae), Nepeta cataria (*catmint, Lamiaceae), *Plumbago zeylanica (*Ceylon leadwort, Plumbaginaceae), Sambucus nigra (*elder, Sambucaceae), *Solanum terminale (Solanaceae), *Tinnea aethiopica (Lamiaceae) and Zingiber officinalis (*ginger, Zingiberaceae); other plants are used to counter excessive sweating, e.g. Atractylodes macrocephala (*bai zhu, Asteraceae), Cornus officinalis (*shan zhu yu, Cornaceae) and Cupressus sempervirens (*Italian or Mediteranean cypress, Cupressaceae). swede – Brassica napus var. napobrassica (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae) with edible basal tuber, which is the hypocotyl and lower part of the stem; the root is rich in *vitamin C and thus useful to eat as a general defence against diseases. Swedish turnip – Brassica napus var. napobrassica (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae), see *swede. sweet acacia – Acacia farnesiana (the pea family, Fabaceae, Mimosoideae) is a small tree or spiny shrub native to Australia, but widely cultivated elsewhere; it is used for *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *skin diseases and *wounds; the pulp surrounding the seed has been used to treat *tumours; a perfume oil (cassie) is obtained from this species; alternative name: *huisache, *opopanax and *popinac. sweet basil – Ocimum basilicum (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial aromatic herb probably native to India, but now widely cultivated for its distinctive flavour throughout the world; it acts mainly on the *digestive and nervous systems alleviating *colic, *epilepsy, *flatulence, *indigestion, *migraine, *nausea, stomach *cramps and *vomiting, and helps to kill *intestinal worms; it is also used to ease *anxiety, *depression, *insomnia (difficulty in sleeping), nervous irritability and *whooping cough; applied externally the leaves act as an insect repellent; see also *holy basil (O. sanctum). sweet cherry – Prunus avium (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a deciduous tree or large shrub native to southwestern Asia, but widely cultivated for their sweet fruits throughout temperate regions of the world and often becoming naturalized; cherry bark is *astringent and *diuretic and has been used for *arthritis, *cystitis, *gout, *nephritis and urinary retension; the fruits are rich in sugar and are mildly *laxative; alternative name: *wild cherry (England); see also *bird cherry. sweet chestnut – Castanea sativa (the beech family, Fagaceae) is a tall deciduous tree native to the Mediterranean and adjacent parts of western Asia; the fruits are nutritious and can be roasted, candied, or made into a flour; an infusion of the leaves is used to treat *bronchial catarrh, *bronchitis, and *whooping cough; they are also taken as a gargle for *sore throats and for 349 *diarrhoea; the leaves may be used to treat *rheumatic conditions and to relieve stiff *joints and muscles; se also *American chestnut (C. dentata). sweet flag – Acorus calamus (the sweet flag family, Acoraceae) is a perennial aquatic strongly aromatic herb with a bitter taste; it is probably native to southern Europe and adjacent parts of Asia to India, but widely cultivated as a medicinal herb throughout most temperate regions of the world; this herb stimulates the appetite and soothes the *digestion relieving *bloating, *colic, poor digestion and *wind; it is a most effective *antispasmodic and relieves *spasms of the intestines; the volatile oil contains *asarone, which is *carcinogenic (causes cancer) at least when isolated (but not present in an American variety); alternative name: *sweet sedge. sweet gale – pors, Myrica gale (the bog-myrtle family, Myricaceae) is a widespread strongly aromatic shrub of temperate northern bogs and wet heathlands; it is an effective insect repellent and *insecticide and has been widely used to repel *fleas and *midges thus reducing *viral and *bacterial infections; alternative name: *bog-myrtle. sweet gum – Liquidambar styraciflua (Hamamelidaceae); for medicinal use see *American red gum. sweet marjoram – Origanum majorana (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a slightly woody perennial herb native to the Mediterranean area; it is mainly used as a culinary herb, but is also valued as a *stimulant and *antispasmodic; it is taken to treat *colic, *flatulence and *respiratory problems; it is also a good general *tonic, helping to relieve *anxiety, *headache and *insomnia, but it is believed to lower the sexual drive. sweet orange – Citrus × aurantium, previously known as Citrus sinensis (the orange family, Rutaceae); this plant is now considered a hybrid between *mandarine (Citrus reticulatus) and *pomelo (Citrus maxima); see *bitter orange, *orange, *Sevilla orange and *sour orange; these are all variations of the same hybrid; sweet oranges are a major world fruit and an important source of *vitamin C for many people (previously very important for sailors) thus preventing the disease *scurvy; other varieties are used mainly as medicines or for their aromatic substances, e.g. *bitter orange and *bergamot. sweet pepper – paprika, Capsicum annuum var. annuum (the potato family, Solanaceae); for medicinal use see *Capsicum. sweet potato (vine) – Ipomoea batatas (Convolvulaceae) has storage roots, which are a good source of carbohydrates, but also contain substantial quantities of *vitamin C and moderate quantities of *thiamin, *riboflavin and *niacin (Woolfe 1992); new orange-fleshed cultivars have high quantities of pro-*vitamin A, and will increase resistance to diseases in both children and adults by reducing micronutrient deficiencies, specifically vitamin A, *iron and *zinc (Faber et al. 2002). sweet sedge – Acorus calamus (the sweet flag family, Acoraceae) is a perennial aquatic strongly aromatic herb with a bitter taste; it is probably native to southern Europe and adjacent parts of Asia to India, but widely cultivated as a medicinal herb throughout most temperate regions of the world; this herb stimulates the appetite and soothes the *digestion relieving *bloating, *colic, poor digestion and *wind; it is a most effective *antispasmodic and relieves *spasms of the *intestines; the volatile oil contains *asarone, which is *carcinogenic (causes cancer) at least when isolated (but not present in an American variety); alternative name: *sweet flag. sweetsop – Annona squamosa (Annonaceae) is an American tree with edible fruits widely cultivated throughout the tropics; the bark, leaves and unripe fruits are strongly astringent and are used to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery and to reduce *uric acid levels; the crushed seeds have been used as an *insecticide; alternative names: *custard apple and *sugar apple. sweetsop family – Annonaceae is a large family with about 120 genera and 2000 species widely distributed in all tropical regions. sweet sumach – Rhus aromatica (the mango family, Anacardiaceae); the root bark is taken to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery, and externally to treat excessive *vaginal discharge and *skin 350 eruptions; the berries are *diuretic and *astringent, and help to reduce *fever and can be used as a gargle for mouth and throat complaints. sweet violet – Viola odorata (the violet family, Violaceae) is a small creeping perennial herb native to Europe and Asia; the flowers and leaves have a gentle *emetic, *expectorant and *demulcent action and are used to treat *catarrh, *chest problems and *coughs; in Britain they have been used to treat breast and stomach *cancer. sweet woodruff – Galium odoratum (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a perennial aromatic forest herb native to Europe, Asia and North Africa; it is often placed among clothes to prevent attacks by insects and is used to alleviate *colds and *cough; it contains *flavonoids which are *diuretic and improve *circulation; it is also *antispamodic, *anti-inflammatory and considered good in healing *wounds and helpful for *insomnia, *phlebitis and *varicose veins. swellings – external swellings can be treated with the juice of (or gel, lotion or tincture of) *Aloe vera, Calendula officinalis (*marigold), Hypericum perforatum (*St. John’s wort), Lavandula officinalis (*lavender), Ocimum basilicum (*sweet basil), O. sanctum (*holy basil), Salvia officinalis (*sage) or Thymus vulgaris (*thyme). sympathic nervous system – part of the nervous system involved in maintaining arousal, alertness and muscle tone; see *parasympathetic nervous system. sympathomimetic – producing effects simulating those caused by stimulation of the *sympathetic nervous system Symphonia (Clusiaceae) – a genus with 17 species of medium to large trees native to Africa and America (1 species) and Madagascar (16 species); in Uganda the root bark or stem bark of the beautiful tree S. globulifera is used to treat *cough in children (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda S. globulifera is used by herbalists (Cunningham 1996). Synadenium (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with 19 closely related species of succulent shrubs or trees confined to eastern and southern Africa (12 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in Uganda the leaves and branches of the tree S. compactum are used to prevent *swelling of the *lymphatic glands in calves, and in Kenya the leaves of S. glaucescens are used as a *purgative, and the latex in the treatment of *boils (Kokwaro 1976, Weiss 1979); in East Uganda the sap from S. grantii is used to treet *inflammation in finger and toe (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Kenya the dried powdered leaf is applied to cuts made in the skin to relieve pain in cases of severe *backache or *swelling of *joints, and the burned ash is taken to cure a *sore throat; the milky latex is applied to swellings on cattle to soften *boils, and hence release the *pus (Kokwaro 1976). Synaptolepis (Thymelaeaceae) – a genus with 5-6 species of small shrubs or woody climbers in tropical Africa and Madagascar (2 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in Tanzania the roots of S. alternifolia are used as a *purgative, and in Kenya the roots of S. kirkii are chewed as an *antidote for *snakebite causing *vomiting (Kokwaro 1976). Synedrella (Asteraceae) – a genus of 2 species of annual herbs native to tropical America, but with one species a troublesome pantropical weed; in Uganda the leaves of S. nodiflora are used to treat acute *conjunctivitis, while the whole plant is used to treat *breach presentation in *pregnancy (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). synergism or synergy – the joint action of agents, as drugs, that when taken together increase each other’s effectiveness; when the whole plant (herbal synergy) is used rather than extracted constituents, the different parts interact, and often, it is thought, producing a greater *therapeutic effect than the equivalent dosage of isolated active constituents. synthesized – the combining of separate parts to form a whole; synthesized drugs are prepared by taking out chemicals from a herb or other organism or substance and joining these to a drug. syphilis – a contaginous *venereal disease (spread through sexual intercourse) affecting first some local part, secondly the skin and mucous membrane, and thirdly the muscles, bones and brain; it is caused by the *spirochaete bacteria Tremonema pallidum (Spirochaeta pallida), and is the 351 most serious of all venereal diseases; many plants have been employed in attempts to cure this disease, e.g. *Acacia hockii (*white thorn acacia) & mellifera (Fabaceae), *Acokanthera oppositifolia & schimperi (Apocynaceae), *Adenia keramanthus (Passifloraceae), *Agathisanthemum bojeri (Rubiaceae), *Agave americana (*century plant, Agavaceae), *Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae), *Albizia coriaria (Fabaceae), *Asparagus africanus (Aspargaceae), Atractylodes macrocephala (*bai zhu, Asteraceae), *Bauhinia variegata (Fabaceae), *Kigelia pinnata (*sausage tree, Bignoniaceae), Cannabis sativa (*marihuana, Cannabacea), *Carissa spinarum (Apocynaceae), *Cassia abbreviata (Fabaceae), *Centella asiatica (*Apiaceae), *Chenopodium opulifolium (Chenopodiaceae), *Chrysanthellum indicum (Asteraceae), *Clematis hirsuta (Ranunculaceae), *Combretum fragrans (Combretaceae), *Crotalaria incana (Fabaceae), *Cyphostemma adenocaule (Vitaceae), *Elaeodendron buchananii (Celastraceae), *Emilia coccinea (Asteraceae), *Erythrina abyssinica (Fabaceae), *Erythrophleum suaveolens (Fabaceae), *Euphorbia balsamifera & heterochroma (*Euphorbiaceae), *Gardenia posoquerioides (Rubiaceae), Guaiacum officinale (*lignum vitae, Zygophyllaceae), *Harrisonia abyssinica (Simaroubaceae), *Heteromorpha trifoliata (Apiaceae), *Indigofera tinctoria (Fabaceae), *Isoglossa lactea (Acanthaceae), *Jatropha curcas (*physic nut or *purging nut, Euphorbiaceae), *Justicia exigua (Acanthaceae), *Kigelia pinnata (*sausage tree, Bignoniaceae), *Lactuca inermis (Asteraceae), *Leucas martinicensis (Lamiaceae), *Maerua edulis (Capparidaceae), Mangifera indica (*mango, Anacardiaceae), *Manilkara sansibarensis (Sapotaceae), *Maprounea africana (Euphorbiaceae), *Markhamia zanzibarica (Bignoniaceae), *Maytenus heterophylla & senegalensis & undata (Celastraceae), *Mentha aquatica (*watermint, Lamiaceae), *Microglossa pyrifolia (Asteraceae), *Milletia dura (Fabaceae), *Mimosa pigra (Fabaceae), *Morinda morindoides (Rubiaceae), *Neorautanenia mitis (*Fabaceae), *Oldenlandia herbacea (*Rubiaceae), *Pentas bussei & zanzibarica (Rubiaceae), *Persicaria attenuata (Polygonaceae), *Phytolacca dodecandra (Phytolaccaceae), *Psoro-spermum febrifugum (Clusiaceae), *Rhus vulgaris (Anacardiaceae), *Sarcostemma viminale (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), *Schinus terebinthifolius (*Brazilian pepper tree, Anacardiaceae), *Schumanniophyton magnificum (Rubiaceae), *Secamone africana (Polygalaceae), *Senna didymobotrya & occidentalis & singueana (Fabaceae), *Tylosema fassoglensis (Fabaceae), *Vismia orientalis (Clusiaceae), *Ximenia caffra (Olacaceae), *Zanthoxyloum gillettii (*large-leaved prickly ash, Rutaceae) and *Ziziphus mucronata (Rhamnaceae). syrups – infusions or decoctions of medicinal herbs preserved by adding honey or unrefined sugar; they have a soothing action and therefore are good for cough mixtures as well as relieving sore throats; with their sweet taste syrups can disguise the taste of unpalatable herbs. systemic – affecting the body as a whole rather than individual organs. systole – contraction of the heart. Syzygium (Myrtaceae) – a genus estimated at 500-800 species of trees or shrubs native to the Old World tropics, but a few in Australia and New Zealand (7 native species in East Africa, 4 in Uganda, but other species are cultivated and naturalized); in East Africa the young unopened flower buds of S. aromaticum (*clove = Eugenia caryophyllata) are chewed for *colds, the roots or bark of S. cordatum is boiled and the *decoction drunk for *indigestion, while the roots or bark of S. guineense (*water berry) are used as an *anthelmintic and *purgative to treat *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976); the cultivated S. cuminii (*jambolan or *Java plum) has an edible fruit rich in *antioxidants and thus useful for improving resistance to diseases. Tabernaemontana (Apocynaceae - Rauvolfioideae) – a genus of about 110 species of trees and shrubs widely distributed in the tropics of both hemispheres (5 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in East Africa the milky sap of T. pachysiphon (T. holstii) is applied to minor cuts and *abrasions, and has also been applied to sore eyes; a decoction of its root is taken as a 352 remedy for *constipation, *headache, *stomach-pain and as a *purgative and as a *hypnotic to cause people to sleep; in Kenya the Kakamega the milky sap of T. ventricosa (T. usambarensis) is applied to old *wounds to eliminate secondary infection (Kokwaro 1976). Tabernanthe (Apocynaceae) – a genus of 7 species from tropical Africa; T. iboga from West Africa is a *hallucinogen (Neuwinger 1996). Tacazzea (Apocynaceae - Asclepiadoideae) – a genus with 4 species of shrubs or climbers native to tropical and South Africa; in Uganda the the leaves and roots together of T. apiculata are used to treat *allergic reactions to different foods (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Taccaceae – a family of 1-2 genera and about 15 species of tuberous stout perennial herbs widely distributed in the Old World tropics (1 genus and 1 species in East Africa and Uganda); species of the genus *Tacca are used as medicines. Tacca (Taccaceae) – a genus of about 15 species of tuberous stout perennial herbs widely distributed in the Old World tropics (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Tanzania the roots of T. leontopetaloïdes are crushed and the liquid extracted and drunk as a *vermifuge; it is considered especially effective against *roundworms (Kokwaro 1976). tachycardia – accelerated pulse, rapid beating of the heart, usually applied to rates over 100 beats per minute; some medicinal herbs are taken to alleviate this condition, e.g. *Afzelia africana (Fabaceae), *Paulinia pinnata (Sapindaceae), *Pavetta abyssinica (Rubiaceae), *Pistia stratiotes (*water lettuce, Araceae), *Rourea coccinea (Connaraceae), *Smilax anceps (Smilacaceae) and *Ziziphus abyssinica (Rhamnaceae). taenia (tenia) – tapeworms; a parasitic worm of the class Cestoidea, a segmented ribbon-like *flatworm that developes in the *alimentary canal of vertibrates; the state of being infested with tapeworms is known as *taeniasis; for plants used to expel these worms see *anthelmintic, *taenifuge and *tapeworms. taeniasis – the state of being infested with tapeworms (known as *taenia); for medicinal plants used to expel tapeworms see *anthelmintic, *taenifuge and *tapeworms. taenifuge – (a substance or plant) which expels tapeworms; see also *anthelmintic; many plants are used to expel tapeworms, e.g. in America *avocado (Persea americana), *pink root (Spigelia anthelmia & marilandica, Lauraceae) and *wormseed (Chenopodium ambrosioides, Chenopodiaceae), in Europe and Asia *pomegranate (Punica granatum, Punicaceae), in Africa *Clerodendrum rotundifolia (Verbenaceae), *Albizia anthelmintica (Fabaceae) and *Solanum aculeastrum (Solanaceae); see also *anthelmintic, *taenia, *tapeworm and *worms. Tagetes (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 50 species of annual or perennial herbs native to the Americas, but with two species as widespread weeds; in East Africa the roots of T. erecta are eaten with *oyster nuts (Telfairia pedata) to relieve pain in the sexual organs (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves and flowers (tops) of T. minuta (*African marigold) are used to treat *functional psychosis, *headache, *helminthiasis, *malaria and *psychotic excitement, while the whole plant with roots are taken for *salpingitis; it is also used to chase away red ants from the house and widely used as an *insecticide and insect repellent (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam pound the T. minuta plant, mix it with fat and rub on head to expel *lice and *bedbugs (Heine & König 1988); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda T. minuta is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in the southern part of the Rwenzori region the leaves of this herb are taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Rakai district in Uganda the leaves are crushed and smeared onto eyes of chickens to expel mites or spread in poultry house (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007); in Kenya the Luo drink apply this herb to *bleeding wounds (Geissler et al. 2002). Talinum (Portulacaceae) – a genus with about 40 species of perennial somewhat succulent herbs or subshrubs in tropical and warm countries, and especially in Central America (5 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in Uganda the leaves of T. portulacifolium are used to treat 353 *psychotic excitement (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), while in West Uganda the leaves are boiled or steamed and eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005). tamarind – Tamarindus indica (the pea family, Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae) is an evergreen tree possibly native to Africa, but today widely grown and naturalized throughout tropical regions of the world, and particularly in India; for medicinal and other uses see *Tamarindus; alternative name: *Indian date; *Manila tamarind is Pithecellobium dulce; *velvet tamarind is Dialium guineense. Tamarindus (the pea family, Fabaceae - Caesalpinioideae) – a genus of a single species, T. indica (*tamarind), a species today so widely grown throughout the world that its origin is uncertain, but most probably African; the acid pulpy part of the pods is edible and also used for jams, sweets and other preserves as well as a refreshing drink; also the seeds are edible; the fruit and seeds are *cleansing and beneficial to the *digestion; they improve the appetite, acts as a mild *laxative, relieve *constipation and strengten the stomach; in Uganda the bark is used to treat *uterine fibroids, while the roots are used for the treatment of *menorrhagia and *syphilis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a *decoction of the fruit of T. indica to treat *smallpox and to stop *bleeding after *delivery, or when no fruits are available a decoction of the leaves is used (Heine & König 1988); in East Africa the bark has also been used as a gargle for *sore throat, and a decoction of the roots is drunk as a cure for *cough and *fever, and together with Sterculia africana also for stopping *diarrhoea and *dysentery (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal East Africa the fruit pulp is made into a drink for alleviating *fevers and as a *laxative for children; in Kenya the Luo use the leaves and roots of this tree to treat *earache and *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002); in Mali a decoction of the leaves of this tree is mixed with that of other plants and drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); alternative name: *Indian date. tang – species of the brown seaweed genus Fucus (Fucaceae, Phaeophyta), e.g. black tang (Fucus vesiculosus);for medicinal use see *bladderwrack. tangerine – Citrus reticulatus (Rutaceae); an orange-like tree with small sweet fruits and loose peel; alternative name: *mandarin; this plant is one of the parents of the many widely cultivated *citrus trees being commercially cultivated on a large scale; these hybrids include *grapefruit, *orange, *sweet orange, *Sevilla orange, *sour orange; the other parent is *pomelo (Citrus maxima); the tangerines or *clementines without seeds being sold today are hybrids between Citrus reticulatus and orange. tannin – a *polyphenolic compound that contracts and *astringe tissue of the body by binding with and precipitating proteins, hence their use to tan leather; in the human body tannins may reduce *infections and hault *bleeding; plants rich in tannins are used to tighten up over-relaxed tissues (as in *varicose veins), to dry up excessive watery secretions (as in *diarrhoea) and to protect damaged tissue (such as skin problems resulting from *eczema or *burns); medicinal plants with a high content of tannins should not be consumed with meals as tannins impair the absorption of nutrients; tannins are found in most plants; the harsh *astringent taste of tannin-laden bark and leaves make them unpalatable to insects and grazing animals; see *maté; bark is often rich in tannins, e.g. in *oak (Quercus robur) and *black catechu (*Acacia catechu). tansy – Tanacetum vulgare (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a perennial aromatic herb native to temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; it is widely cultivated as an ornamental, and was in earlier days much used to expel *intestinal worms and to induce *menstruation, but it is toxic (contains *thujone) and is not recommended for medicinal use today. Tanzanian lemon grass – Cymbopogon densiflorus (the grass family, Poaceae) has been smoked by medicine men in Tanzania to produce dreams foretelling the future. tapeworms – taenia (tenia); parasitic worms of the class Cestoidea, segmented ribbon-like *flatworms that develope in the *alimentary canal of vertibrates; the state of being infested with tapeworms is known as *taeniasis; many plants are used to expel tapeworms, e.g. *pink root 354 (Spigelia anthelmia & marilandica, Loganiaceae) in America, *pomegranate (Punica granatum) in Europe and Asia, and *Clerodendrum rotundifolia and *Albizia anthelmintica & coriaria (Fabaceae) in Africa; other plants used as anthelmintics include *Aframomum alboviolaceum & angustifolium & melegueta & mildbraedii (Zingiberaceae), *Benincasa hispida (*wax gourd, Cucurbitaceae), *Bridelia micrantha (Euphorbiaceae), *Croton macrostachyus (Euphorbiaceae), *Cyphostemma adenocaule (Vitaceae), *Dryopteris aequalis & filix-mas (*male fern, Dryopteridacea), *Embelia schimperi (Myrsinaceae), *Erythrophleum suaveolens (Fabaceae), *Fuerstia africana (Lamiaceae), *Funtumia africana (Apocynaceae), *Geranium incanum (Geraniaceae), *Hagenia abyssinica (Rosacaeae), *Harungana madagascariensis (Clusiaceae), *Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae), *Lophira lanceolata (*Ochnaceae), *Maesa lanceolata (Maesiaceae), *Myrsine africana (Myrsinaceae), *Olea capensis & europaea ssp. cuspidata (Oleaceae), *Olinia rochetiana (Oliniaceae), *Pentas longiflora (Rubiaceae), *Phytolacca dodecandra (Phytolaccaceae), Polygonum aviculare (*knotgrass, Polygonaceae), *Rapanea melanophloeos (Myrsinaceae), and *Vernonia karaguensis (Asteraceae); see also *taenifuge, *vermifuge and *worms. tapioca – the starch of the large tuberous roots of *manioc or *cassava, Mannihot usitatissima (the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae), a shrub from tropical America nowadays widely cultivated as a food crop throughout the tropics; *tapioca is the commercially processed, dry, flour-like thickening agent used in soup and puddings; the name is sometimes used about the plant as well; for medicinal use see *Manihot. tar – a dark sticky substance obtained by the destillation of wood or coal; Stockholm tar is tar from Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris). Taraxacum (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 50-100 species of rosette herbs widespread in temperate regions, but often apomictic populations are described as species, thereby increasing the number of species to many hundred (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); while species of this genus is widely used as medicine in temperate regions, Taraxacum has only been reported vaguely as being of medicinal value in East Adrica (Kokwaro 1976); this is not unexpected due to its recent introduction to East Africa. Tarenna (Rubiaceae) – a genus of about 180 species of shrubs, lianes or small trees native to the Old Worl tropics with about 50 species native to Africa (20 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in Kenya the roots of T. graveolens are used to treat rheumatism of the joints (Kokwaro 1976), while in coastal East Africa the ground wood was made into poultices to treat *ulcers, *sores and *smallpox lesions, and was regularly sold in local markets (Weiss 1979); in western Uganda the leaves and roots of this plant are used as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); in Tanzania the roots of T. pavettoides are used to alleviate coughs (Kokwaro 1976). taro – Colocasia esculenta/antiquorum (Araceae) is sometimes cultivated for its starchrich edible rhizomes; a root decoction is used an *enema to treat *stomach problems, while the leaf pulp is used as a dressing to treat *insect bites, *rheumatism and *snakebites; the sap of the leaves together with that of Crassocephalum montuosum is drunk as an abortifacient; alternative names: *cocoyam and *dasheen. tarragon – Artemisia dracunculus (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a perennial aromatic Asian herb widely cultivated as a herb in cooking or for medicine; in France it was believed to cure serpent bites; tarragon stimulates the *digestion and is a mild *sedative improving sleep, and is also taken if periods are delayed; the root has been applied to aching teeth. taxine – a mixture of very toxic alkaloids found in *yew, Taxus baccata (barlindfamily, Taxaceae) and other species of the genus Taxus. taxol – a *diterpene (secondary metabolic product), today widely used as an anti-cancer drug; it inhibits cell division and prevents the development of *cancer tumours in the ovaries especially; 355 taxol is mostly extracted from *Pacific yew, Taxus brevifolia (the yew family, Taxaceae), a West American counterpart of yew and from the fungus Taxomyces andreanae. TB – abbreviation for *tuberculosis. tea (bush) – Camellia sinensis (the tea family, Theaceae) is a small to large shrub native to East Asia, but widely cultivated in temperate tropical regions today; tea is perhaps the most widely used drink after water; it contains *theobromine, 2-5 % *caffeine and *vitamin C; *green tea contains significant levels of *polyphenols; *black tea, which is produced by a process of fermentation, has lower levels of polyphenols; the caffeine in tea may help to relieve *headaches, but is less effective than coffee (Coffea spp.); green tea is considered a much healthier drink than black tea due to its strong *antioxidant activity (perhaps *cancer preventative); the high intake of green tea in China and Japan is believed to be partly responsible for the low incidence of certain types of cancer in these countries; strong brews of green tea are used in *digestive infections, as a nerve *tonic, and to soothe *insect stings, irritated eyelids, *sunburns and *swellings; green tea may help to induce weight loss and treat *hepatitis; alternative name: *China tea bush. tea family – Theaceae is a large family with about 28 genera and over 500 species of shrubs or trees widely distributed but most common in East Asia and America; some genera have species with medicinal use, e.g. *Camellia. tea-plant – species of the genus Lycium (the potato family, Solanaceae), e.g. African tea-plant (L. afrum) and Duke of Argyll’s tea-plant (L. halimifolium); see also *boxthorn. teasel – species of the genus Dipsacus (the teasel family, Dipsacaceae), e.g. small teasel (D. pilosus) and *wild teasel (D. fullonum), the latter has been used as a medicinal herb. teasel family – Dipsacaceae is a medium sized family with 11 genera and about 350 species widely distributed in Africa and Eurasia. tea tree – Melaleuca alternifolia (the myrtle family, Myrtaceae) is a an Australian *antiseptic evergreen tree widely used to treat *burns, *insect bites and *stings, *wounds and infections of all kinds; it is particularly effective to treat skin and *fungal problems such as *acne, *athlete’s foot, *boils, *corns, *ringworm, *warts and *vaginal thrush. Teclea (Rutaceae) – a genus with about 30 species of shrubs or trees all native to Africa (7 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of T. nobilis are used to cure *fever, while the roots are used as an *anthelmintic; a decoction of either leaves or roots is mixed with honey and taken for *pneumonia or *rheumatism (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the Soo on Mt. Kadam add the root of T. nobilis to beaf soup to treat head disease, while the twigs are used in a body wash to improve general health (Heine & König 1988); in East Uganda the roots of T. nobilis are used to cure *amoebiasis (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). teething – the growing of teeth, particularly when coming through the gums; the itching or slight illness experienced by some children can be relieved by eating the roots of *common mallow (Malva sylvestris), *German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita), *marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) or slippery *elm (Ulmus rubra). Telfairia (Cucurbitaceae) – a genus with 3 species of large lianes confined to Africa (2 species in East Africa, 1 species native to Uganda); in East Africa the seeds of T. pedata are steamed and taken to increase *breast milk production (Kokwaro 1976). Temnocalyx (Rubiaceae) – a genus now included in *Fadogia. temple tree – Plumeria rubra (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae) fra tropisk Amerika er et svært vanlig dyrket tre i alle varme land; alternative name: *frangipani. temple tree – species of the genus Plumeria (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae); they are American trees with copious white stem juice and are widely grown as ornamentals in all tropical countries; the bark of P. rubra is used as a *purgative, for intermittent *fever, *diarrhoea, *gonorrhoea and to expel intestinal *parasites; the juice is applied to *itch and *warts; alternative name: *frangipani. tenesmus – strained stools or *defaecation. 356 tenia (taenia) – tapeworms; a parasitic worm of the class Cestoidea, a segmented ribbon-like *flatworm that developes in the *alimentary canal of vertibrates; the state of being infested with tapeworms is known as *t(a)eniasis. tension – mental or emotional strain; muscle tension is treated by drinking a decoction of Codonopsis pilosula (*codonopsis); nervous tension can be treated by an fusion of *lime (Tilia spp.) and pre-menstrual tension by taking Verbena officinalis (*vervain) and *lime. teosinte – teosint, Zea mays subsp. mexicana (the grass family, Poaceae), the wild relative og maize, which originates from this plant; for medicinal use see *Zea. Tephrosia (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of about 400 species of annual or perennial herbs and shrubs widespread in tropical and warm regions (57 species in East Africa, 21 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the roots of T. aequilata are chewed with salt as a cure for *venereal diseases (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaf of T. elegans is used to treat *cataract (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Africa the roots of T. interupta are taken with a little salt as a *cough cure and also eaten by women after *childbirth to give them strength, while the boiled leaves of T. linearis are used as a medicine for babies (Kokwaro 1976); in North Uganda the Lango use the leaves of this plant to treat *cellulitis and to prepare a charm for good luck (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in East Uganda the leaves of T. linearis are dried, crushed, mixed in bizigo and rubbed on penis to prevent premature *ejaculation (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves of T. nana are used to treat *gonorrhoea (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in East Africa the roots of T. noctiflora have a strong tast and are used as an *emetic and as a *cough remedy, the dried powdered roots of T. paucijuga are applied on wounds, the roots of T. pentaphylla are chewed as a remedy for *sore throat and *cold in the chest, also the roots of T. pumila are chewed as a remedy for *cold in the chest, while an infusion from boiled roots is taken in broth as a cure for *venereal diseases; the roots of T. purpurea are used as a medicine for *stomach pains, and a decoction is used as a *purgative, while the leaves are used for *snakebite; the roots of T. villosa are boiled with milk and drunk for pain in the *liver and *spleen, while a root decoction of T. vogelii is used in the treatment of *scabies and *yaws (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of this plant is used to treat *acaricide and applied to *wounds (Kakudidi et al. 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Rakai district in Uganda the fresh leaves are crushed into powder, water added and the chicken dipped in extract to expel lice and mites (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007). tequila – Mexican spirit destilled from fermented sap of Agave americana (Agavaceae); see also *mescal; it has been used to treat *nervous conditions. Teramnus (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of 8 species of perennial herbs or subshrubs widespread in tropical and warm regions (4 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Kenya the Luo drink a decoction of the root of T. labialis to treat a disease named ‘chira’ (Geissler et al. 2002); terebinth – Pistacia terebinthus (Anacardiaceae); alternative name: *turpentine tree; for medicinal use see *Pistacia. Terminalia (Combretaceae) – a genus of about 150 species of trees or (rarely) shrubs native to the tropics and subtropics with about 30 species in Africa (22 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda); in East Africa the twigs of T. brownii are chewed and the solution swallowed to treat *yellow fever particularly in children; in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a *decoction of the bark of T. brownii as an *emetic and to treat ”green eyes” disease (Heine & König 1988); and in Tanzania a root decoction of T. kaiserana is used to treat *bilharzia, *gonorrhoea and used as a *diurtic, while the bark of T. kilimandscharica is soaked in hot water and used for the treatment of *colds (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaf of T. laxiflora is used to treet *bewitchment (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the bark of T. mollis as an *emetic and *laxative and to treat body pain, *stomach-ache and *yellow fever (Heine & König 1988); in Uganda a powder from roots of T. schimperiana (= T. glaucescens) is applied to wounds, e.g. for *circumcised boys, and also 357 drunk to treat *epilepsy, and used magically to protect the garden and keep away evil spirits (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Apac district in North Uganda the buds and leaves of this species are chewed to treat *cough (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Tanzania the roots of T. sericea are used to treat *bilharzia and *stomach troubles, in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam put the bark of T. spinosa in the mouth and keep it there until *toothache is over (Heine & König 1988); in Kenya T. spinosa is said to have *magical properies and the wind makes a mournful wailing noise like a mad person when it blows through its thorns, and in Tanzania the roots of T. trichopoda are used to treat *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976). terminalia – arter av slekta *Terminalia (Combretaceae), e.g. red-pod terminalia (T. brownii); for medicinal use see *Terminalia. terpene – molecule that forms the base of most constituents of volatile oils; a hydrocarbon consisting of two or more isopren-units; terpenes are either linear or cyclic molecules or a combination of both; many important biological substances are terpenes, e.g. *vitamin A, E og K, *carotenoids, *phytol, gibberellin acid, natural rubber and some *lipids. terpenoid - a secundary metabolic product built from 5-carbon (isopren) building units in a head with tail; *gibberellins are tetracyclic diterpenoids built from 4 isoprenoid units; the biological isopren-unit is isopentenyl-pyrophosphat (IPP); some important terpenoids are: *camphor, *digitalin, *lycopene, *menthol, *nepatalactone, *oleandrin, *rubber, *smilagenin and *taxol. testeron – male sex hormone. testicle – *testis; either of the two oval organs (*glands) located in the *scrotum in males; inflammation of the testiscles is called *orchitis; in Tanzania *Clerodendrum robustum is used to alleviate swollen testicles. testicular – concerning the *testicles; of the testicles. testicular cancer – cancer in the *testicles; in America this disease is sometimes treated using *Podophylum peltatum (*American mandrake or *May apple, Berberidaceae). testis – *testicle; either of the two oval organs (*glands) located in the *scrotum in males; inflammation of the testis is called *orchitis. Tetracera (Dilleniaceae) – a genus of about 40 species of shrubs or climbers widespread in tropical countries including 8 species native to Africa (5 species in East Africa and 1 species in Uganda); in coastal East Africa the root of T. boiviniana is used as a charm to protect man from *influenza and *pneumonia, and domestic stock from wild predators. Tetradenia (Lamiaceae) – a genus of 5 species (including Iboza) of herbs native to tropical Africa and Madagascar; in East Africa the roots of Tetradenia riparia (= Iboza multiflora) are boiled or chewed as a treatment for *bilharzia, *indigestion, *pneumonia and *rheumatism, while the leaves are used for *conjunctivitis and chewed for *cramp in the stomach (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a leaf decoction of T. riparia for *fevers, *influenza and *malaria, while the leaves are chewed for gum and teeth ailments (Masinde 1996); in Uganda the roots are used to treat *conjunctivitis, while the leaves are used to treat *cerebrospinal *meningitis, *cough, *dyspepsia, *malaria, *psychotic excitement and *stomach-ache (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000), and used in magics to avoid evil spirits (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). tetrahydroaminoacridin (THA) – an enzyme in the brain which inhibit the activity of another enzyme which breaks down *acetylcholine. In Alzheimer’s disease there is a lack of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Tetrapleura (Fabaceae) – a genus of 2 tree species native to Africa (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Lango in North Uganda the stem bark of T. tetraptera is used to treat *cough (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). THA (tetrahydroaminoacridin) – an enzyme in the brain which inhibit the activity of another enzyme which breaks down *acetylcholine. In Alzheimer’s disease there is a lack of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. 358 THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) – a toxic substance used as a medicine to treat *glaucoma, and *nausea after *chemotherapy; THC is extracted from hemp or marijuana, Cannabis sativa (the hemp family, Cannabaceae). Thai ginseng – thalidomide – a drug formerly used as a tranquilizer; when taken during pregnancy it sometimes causes abnormalities in the *foetus (fetus). Thea (Theaceae) – a genus now included in *Camellia. tea family – Theaceae is a large family with about 28 genera and over 500 species of shrubs or trees widely distributed but most common in East Asia and America; some genera have species with medicinal use, e.g. *Camellia. Theaceae – a family with with about 28 genera and over 500 species of shrubs or trees widely distributed but most common in East Asia and America; some genera have species with medicinal use, e.g. *Camellia; vernacular name: *tea family. Theobroma (Sterculiaceae) – a genus with about 20 species of trees or shrubs native to tropical America, but T. cacao (*cacao) widely cultivated as a commercial crop in tropical countries; the seeds are the source of chocolate, which contains *theobromine and other stimulating alkaloids; also the surrounding butter has important medicinal uses; for medicinal uses see *cacao. Theophrastus (c. 372-286 BC) – Theofrastos; Greek physician who has written down the uses of 550 medicinal plants in “Inquiry into plants” and “Growth of plants”; he was a student of *Aristotle. theory of the four humours – a medicinal and philosophical theory saying that four principal fluids (or humours) exist within the body: blood, choler (yellow bile), melancholy (black bile) and phlegm; the ”ideal” person bore all four in equal proportions, but in most people one or more humours predominate, giving rise to particular temperaments or character; excess choler produced a choleric-type person, who was likely to be short-tempered, sallow, ambitious and vengeful; see also Aristotle (384-322 BC). therapeutic – of or pertaining to the remedial treatment of disease. therapeutics – the branch of medicine concerned with the remedial treatment of disease. therapy – the remedial treatment of a disease or other physical or mental disorder. Thespesia (Malvaceae) – a genus of 17 species of shrubs or small trees (including Azanza) native to tropcal regions; in coastal Kenya the Digo drink a decoction of the roots of T. danis as a remedy for *gonorrhoea, while T. garckeana is more widely used as a *purgative and as a remedy for *infertility (Kokwaro 1976). Thevetia (Apocynaceae) – a genus of 8 species of trees or shrubs native to tropical America, but T. peruviana is widely cultivated as an ornamental (especially as a hedge) elsewhere in the tropics; in East Uganda an infusion of the root of T. peruviana is drunk to treat *hernia and *snakebite (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Kenya the Luo use the leaves to treat congested nose in children and ‘haedworm (Geissler et al. 2002); it has also been used to treat *amenorrhoea, *colds, *fever, *headache, *inflammations after snakebite, *migraine, *psoriasis and *syncope (Neuwinger 2000); vernacular name: yellow oleander. thistle – species of the genera Carduus, Carlina, Centaurea, Cirsium, Onopordium and Silybum (the sunflower family – Asteraceae), e.g. creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense), marsh thistle (Cirsium palustre), melancholy thistle (Cirsium helenoides), spear thistle (Cirsium vulgare) and stemless thistle (Cirsium acaulon); see also *Mary or *milk thistle (Silybum marianum), *cotton thistle or *Scotch thistle (Onopordum acanthium) and *star thistle (Centaurea calcitrapa). thomasine – a toxic alkaloid in the leaves of the tomato plant, Solanum lycopersicon (the potato family, Solanaceae); thomasine expels Colorado beetles. Thomson, Samuel (1769-1843) – a North American unorthodox herbal practitioner who believed that all illnesses resulted from cold; he became extraordinary popular and had many followers; his system of medicine was an early form of *naturopathy in which ill health is treated with naturally grown food, sunlight, fresh air and natural medicines. 359 Thonningia (Balanophoraceae) – a genus with a single root parasite attached to the roots of trees in rainforest in tropical Africa; in West Africa the whole plant is used to treat enlarged *spleen (Kakudidi et al. 2000). thoraic – having to do with the *thorax. thorax – the part of the human trunk between the neck and the *abdomen. thorn – some thorny species of the genus Acacia (Fabaceae, Mimosoideae), e.g. Egyptian thorn (A. nilotica), false umbrella thorn (A. reficiens), Kangaro thorn (A. armata), Naivasha thorn (A. xanthophloea), umbrella thorn (A. tortilis), whistling thorn (A. drepanolobium) og white thorn (A. seyal). thornapple or thorn apple – Datura stramonium (the potato family, Solanaceae) is a robust toxic annual herb native to America, but widely distributed as a weed throughout the world; it contains up to 0.5 % tropane alkaloids (mainly *hyoscamine and *hyoscine) that act to reduce secretions and relax smooth muscles (muscles of the *gastro-intestinal tract as well as those of the *bronchial and *urinary tracts); in high doses it causes *hallucinations, but is in fact used to treat *insanity; in low doses it can be used to ease *asthma, muscle *spasm, *whooping cough and the symptoms of *Parkinsonism thorny elm – Chaetacme aristata (Celtidaceae, previously Ulmaceae); for medicinal use see *Chaetacme. thorny pigweed – Amaranthus spinosus (the amaranth family, Amaranthaceae) is one of the world’s worst weeds, but is also used as a medicine; in Indian (Ayurvedic) medicine it is taken to reduce heavy *menstrual bleeding and excessive *vaginal discharge, and to arrest the *coughing up of blood; in Uganda it has been applied for *functional psychosis (Adjanohoun 1993); alternative name: *needle bur, *prickly amaranth and *spiny amaranth. three-leaved caper – Crateva nurvula (the caper family, Capparidaceae) is a large deciduous tree native to India; the dried bark of this tree has been used for 3000 years to treat *kidney and *bladder stones; the bark has also been used to treat *fevers, *gastritis, *snake bites and *vomiting, and the fresh leaves relieves sore and inflamed joints; alternative name: *varuna. threonine – amino acid with polar (hydrophil) neutral R group. thrush – fungal infection of the mucous membranes by the fungus Candida albicans in the mouth (*oral thrush) or vagina (*vaginal thrush); *garlic (Allium sativum, Alliaceae), *marigold (Calendula officinalis, Asteraceae), *caper (Capparis spinosa, Capparidaceae), *echinacea (Echinacea spp.), *tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) and *thyme (Thymus vulgaris, Lamiaceae) will all ease this condition. thujone – ++++++; it is toxic in excess and is found in many coniferous plants (including Thuja) and the medicinal plant absinthe (Artemisia absinthum); it is the toxic substance in the drink *absinthe, a widely consumed *addictive alcoholic drink in 19th century France, killing hundred thousands of people. Thunbergia (Acanthaceae) – a genus of about 100 species of climbing or erect herbs and shrubs widespread in tropical and warm regions of the Old World; in Uganda the leaves of T. alata are used to treat *palpitations (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000), *boils, *diarrhoea and *premature *ejaculation (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots and leaves of this species are used to treat *diarrhoea and *impotence (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Kenya the leaves are used to treat *backache, *hydrocele and *pain in joints, and also given to children who have pains in the mouth and tongue (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe chew a leaf of T. alata (and spit out) for mouth ulcers, while a leaf concoction is used for massage (Masinde 1996); in Uganda the leaves of T. battiscombei are used to treat failed or poor lactation in women (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in East Africa T. fischeri is crushed in fat and given to children as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda T. mildbraediana is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996). 360 Thylacium (Capparidaceae) – a genus of about 10 species of shrubs or small trees native to the East African coast and Madagascar (5 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); the roots of T. africanum are used to treat *snakebites and the bark as a cure for general pain in the body (Kokwaro 1976). thyme – Thymus vulgaris (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial aromatic herb native to southern Europe, but is now grown worldwide as a medicinal plant and culinary herb, it is a potent *antioxidant that may prevent the breakdown of essential fatty acids in the brain and slow down the aging process; the volatile oil (including *thymol) is strongly *antiseptic and a most effective *antifungal, but also expels *intestinal worms, and has shown strong *antibacterial activity against Helicobacter pylori, a *bacterium often associated with *stomach ulcers; it is also believed to relieve muscle *spasms and counter the effects of ageing; it is also an effective remedy for *asthma and *hay fever, and *throat and *chest infections such as *bronchitis, *pleurisy and *whooping cough; alternative name: *garden thyme; hairy thyme is T. polytrichus and *wild thyme is T. serpyllum. Thymelaeaceae – a family of some 50 genera and 700 species of trees and shrubs, more rarely lianes or herbs widely distributed in bothtropical and temperate regions (7 genera and x species in East Africa, 4 genera and 15 species in Uganda); species from several genera are used as medicines, e.g. *Gnidia, *Struthiola and *Synaptolepis. thymine – a pyrimidin base found in DNA (shortened T). thymol – a substance of the volatile oil in *thyme (T. vulgaris); it is strongly antiseptic and a most effective *antifungal; see also *garden thyme and *wild thyme (T. serpyllum). thyroid (gland) – a large gland of the throat that has an important effect on growth and mental development; an overactive thyroid gland may be treated with the aerial parts of the plants *bugleweed (Lycopus virginicus, the mint family, Lamiaceae) and *gipsywort (L. europaeus). tian nan xing – Arisaema consanguineum (the lords-and-ladies family, Araceae) is a perennial herb native to eastern Asia; the dried rhizome is used for *chest problems, while the fresh rhizome is only used externally, for *ulcers and other *skin problems. tick – any of numerous blood-sucking insect-like creatures (unlike insects the adults have 4 pairs of legs, while insects have only 3), some of which transmit diseases such as *tick fever (by Ornithodoros moubata), tick typhus (by the dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus) and Rocky Mountain fever (by Dermacentor andersonii). tick berry – Lantana camara (the teak family, Verbenaceae), is a trouble some weedy shrub in topical countries, but is a widely grown ornamental; alternative name:*curse of India, *prickly lantana, *red-flowered sage, *white sage og *wild sage; for medicinal use see *Lantana. tick fever (of man) – a tick-borne disease (relapsing fever) in tropical Africa transmitted by the *tick Ornithodoros moubata; in East Africa an infusion of *Rourea orientalis is used as a prophylatic against tick fever. tick tree – Sterculia africana (Sterculiaceae); alternative name: *African star chestnut; for medicinal use see *Sterculia. tick trefoil – species of the genus Desmodium (the pea family, Fabaceae); for medicinal uses see *Desmodium. tiger-nut – Cyperus esculentus (the sedge family, Cyperaceae) is a tropical and subtropical weed with small edible tubers; the tuber is regarded as a *digestive tonic easing *flatulence and promoting urine production and menstruation; it is also belived to *aphrodisiac, and the juice is taken to heal *ulcers of the mouth and gum; alternative name: *chufa. Tiliaceae – a family of about 50 genera and 700 species of herbs, shrubs or trees widely distributed in both hot and cold countries; species from the genera *Corchoris, *Grewia, Tilia (*lime) and *Triumfetta are of medicinal value. 361 tincture – plant medicine prepared by crushing (macerating) one or more herbs in water and alcohol; the active plant constituents will then dissolve giving tinctures a stronger action than *infusions and *decoctions. tinea – ringworm infection; ringworm may affect the skin in various parts of the body, the nails or the hair; tinea capitis is ringworm infection of the head; tinea corporis is ringworm infection of the body; many different plants are used to treat tinea, see *ringworm. Tinnea (Lamiaceae) – a genus of 19 species of shrubs native to tropical Africa; in East Uganda the leaves of T. aethiopica are eaten with ground nuts or Sesamum indicum (*simsim) to treat *hypertension (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam pound the leaves of T. aethiopica, soak in cold water and apply to eyes to treat *eye pains (Heine & König 1988); in Kenya the Luo drink a decoction of the leaves to treat a disease named ‘chira’ (Geissler et al. 2002); in Tanzania the leaves are used as a *diaphoretic, while leaves together with roots are used as a poultice for swollen legs Tinnevelly senna – Senna angustifolia (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae) is widely cultivated in the Indian subcontinent and used as a herbal medicines in the same way as (*Alexandrian) *senna (Senna alexandrina); it is an efficient *laxative because it contains *sennosides, and is specifically used for *constipation; since it is a very strong *laxative it can cause *griping and *colic, and is therefore usually taken with herbs which relax the *intestinal muscles. tinnitus – a disease causing ringing in the ears; it is sometimes alleviated using herbal medicines, e.g. Cimifuga racemosa (*black cohosh, *snakeroot & *squaw root, Ranunculaceae), *Lycium chinense (*Chinese matrimony vine or *Chinese wolfberry, Solanaceae), *Sesamum indicum (*simsim, the sesame family, Pedaliaceae) and Viscum album (*mistletoe, Viscaceae). Tinospora (Menispermaceae) – a genus with about 30 species of climbers or somewahat woody lianes widespread in the Old World tropics (5 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of T. caffra are sometimes pounded and the juice squeezed on an open *wound as an *antiseptic, while the Shambaa in Tanzania use the roots of T. oblongifolia as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976). but see KB 26 p. 379. tit – nipple; a protuberance at the tip of each breast or udder in mammalia, in which the ducts of the mammary gland open, and from which the milk is sucked by the young. Tithonia (Asteraceae) – a genus of 11 species of annual or perennial herbs or shrubs native to America, but two species are widely cultivated as a hedge and sometimes naturalized; in Uganda the leaves of T. diversifolia are used to treat *abdominal pain during *pregnancy (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a leaf decoction of this plant for stomach ache (Masinde 1996); in Central Uganda the Baganda a leaf infusion or decoction of this plant is drunk to alleviate abdominal pains during pregnancy (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in Kenya the Luo grind the leaves, add water and drink the infusion to treat a *sore throat, *indigestion, and pains in the *liver and stomach (Kokwaro 1976). toadflax – Linaria vulgaris (Scrophulariaceae or Plantaginaceae) is a perennial herb native to Europe, but now widely distributed as a weed throughout the world; ++++ gamle utgaven tobacco – Nicotiana tobacco (the potato family, Solanaceae) is an annual toxic herb native to tropical America; although tobacco is mainly used as a dangerous *stimulant it also have *therapeutic values; the plant contains alkaloids (notably *nicotine), which is a *stimulant and *sedative, but addictive; the dried leaves make a good *insecticide; in Central America tobacco was used as a treatment for *asthma, *convulsions and *skin diseases; at present tobacco is used to treat *senile dementia; a related species, *wild tobacco, Nicotiana rusticana may be used in the same way. Toddalia (Rutaceae) – a genus with a single species of a scrambling shrubs native to the Old World tropics (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa the leaves and branches of T. asiatica (wait-a-bit-thorn) are used to cure *nasal and *bronchial pains, the fruits or their decoction are taken for *coughs and *colds; roots are *emetic and used for the treatment of 362 *coughs and *stomach-ache, and also used as a remedy for *paralysis caused by snake-bite (Kokwaro 1976; Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a *decoction of the root of T. asiatica to treat *chest pains or when *coughing blood (Heine & König 1988); in coastal East Africa the leaves and young shoots are sometimes pounded and used for stomach disorders (Weiss 1979); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe chew the root of T. asiatica for *sore throat and *influenza (Masinde 1996). tomato – Lycopersicon esculentum or Solanum esculentum (the potato family, Solanaceae); for medicinal use see *Lycopersicon. tone – the normal state of tension or firmness, as of a muscle: *oats (Avena sativa, Poaceae) will improve the tone. tongue ulcer – open sore on the tongue; it is sometimes treated by equal parts of tinctures of Commiphora molmol (*myrrh), Echinacea spp. (*purple coneflower) and Glycyrrhiza glabra (*liquorice). tonic(s) – *tonic herbs; which exerts a restorative or nourishing action on the body or on an organ; see *tonic herbs. tonic herbs – herbs taken to increase general vitality or strengthen a particular function or alleviate a disease such as that of *digestion, heart (*cardiotonic), *impotence, *rheumatism, *kidneys, *menstruation and *uterus or improve nerve function; certain herbs are general tonics (energy tonics), e.g. Astragalus membranaceus (*Chinese milk-vetch, Fabaceae), Alpinia officinarum (*galangal, Zingiberaceae), *Camellia sinensis (*tea plant, Theaceae), Canella winteriana (*canella bark, Canellaceae), Citrus × aurantifolia (*lime tree) & × limon (*lemon, Rutaceae), Coffea spp. (*coffee, Rubiaceae), *Cola acuminata (*cola nut, Sterculiaceae), *Culcasia scandens (Araceae), Elettaria cardamomum (*cardamom, Zingiberaceae), Juglans nigra (*black walnut, Juglandaceae), Lycium chinense (*Chinese matrimony-vine or *Chinese wolfberry, Solanaceae), Melissa officinalis (*balm or *bee balm, Lamiaceae), Origanum majorana (*sweet marjoram, Lamiaceae), Panax ginseng (Asiatic ginseng or *ginseng, Araliaceae), Polygonum multiflorum (*flowery knotweed, Polygonaceae), Psoralea corylifolia (*bu gu zhi, Fabaceae), *Theobroma cacao (*cacao, and the product *chocolate, Sterculiaceae) and Turnera diffusa (*damiana, Turneraceae); a large number of herbs are tonics for the digestion (see *digestion); *oats (Avena sativa) improve nerve function and *tone; for heart tonics see *cardiotonic; see also *bladder tonic, *hair tonic, *kidney tonic, *liver tonic, *nerve tonic and *uterotonic. tonic wines – wines made by steeping *tonic herbs, such as Angelica sinensis (*Chinese angelica) or bitter herbs, such as Artemisia abrotanum (*southernwood), in red or white wine for several weeks; it should be noted that fermentation alters the activity of the herbs and tends to reduce their medical value (Chevallier 2001). tonify – strengthen and restore the body systems. tonsillitis – an inflammation of the *tonsils (especially of the palatine tonsil); a gargle prepared from bark and leaves of common oak, Quercus robur (the beech family, Fagaceae) is sometimes used to relieve this condition. tonsils – two organs on each side of the cavity at the back of the mouth; they consist of diffuse and nodular lymphoid tissue. toothache – pain in or around a tooth; it is sometimes treated by chewing a *clove bud (Syzygium aromaticum or Eugenia caryophyllacea) or rubbing 1-2 drops of essential clove oil on the affected tooth 2-3 times a day for up to 3 days; other plants used to treat toothache include *Acalypha fruticosa (Euphorbiaceae), Achyranthes bidentata (*niu xi, Amaranthaceae), *Acmella caulirhiza (previously Spilanthes mauritiana, Asteraceae), *Aframomum melegueta (*meleguta pepper, Zingiberaceae), *Agathisanthemum bojeri (Rubiaceae), *Ajuga remota (Lamiaceae), *Alectra sessiliflora (Orobanchaceae), *Allophylus rubifolius (Sapindaceae), *Aloë wilsonii (Aloëaceae), *Anacardium occidentale (*cashew nut or *acajou, Anacardiaceae), Anacyclus pyrethrum (*pellitory, Asteraceae), Angelica dahurica (*Amurian angelica or *bai 363 zhi, Apiaceae), *Boscia senegalensis (Capparidaceae), *Cajanus cajan (Fabaceae), *Casuarina equisetifolia (*she oak, Casuarinaceae), Chionanthus virginicus (*fringed tree, Oleaceae), *Combretum zeyheri (Combretaceae), *Commiphora eminii & madagascariensis (Burseraceae), Conyza affinis (*Mexican fleabane, Asteraceae), Coptis chinensis (*Chinese goldthread, Ranunculaceae), Craterostigma plantagineum (Scrophulariaceae), *Cucurbita maxima (winter squashes, Cucurbitaceae), *Dichrostemma glaucescens (Euphorbiaceae), Echinacea spp. (*echinacea or *purple coneflower, Asteraceae), Ervatamia coronaria (*East Indian rosebay or *grape jasmine, Apocynaceae), Eschsholzia californica (*Californian poppy, Papaveraceae), *Euclea racemosa (Ebenaceae), Hibiscus sabdariffa (*roselle, Malvaceae), Illicium verum (*Chinese anise or *star anise, Illiciaceae), *Lannea schimperi (Anacardiaceae), *Lantana camara (*curse of India, Verbenaceae), *Laportea lanceolata (Urticaceae), Larrea tridentata (*creosote bush, Zygophyllaceae), *Maerua angolensis (Capparidaceae), *Markhamia zanzibarica (Bignoniaceae), Mentha haplocalyx (*cornmint, Lamiaceae), *Milletia makondensis (Fabaceae), *Morella (*Myrica) salicifolia (Myricaceae), *Obetia radula (Urticaceae), *Ocimum gratissimum (Lamiaceae), *Passiflora incarnata (*apricot vine or *passiflora, Passifloraceae), Pimpinella anisetum (*anise, Apiaceae), Piper methysticum (*kava-kava, Piperaceae), *Piptadeniastrum africanum (Fabaceae), *Plectranthus caninus (Lamiaceae), *Portulaca quadrifida (Portulacaceae), *Prosopis africana (Fabaceae), *Psychotria articulata (Rubiaceae), *Schrebera alata (Oleaceae), *Sclerocarya birrea ssp. caffra (Anacardiaceae), *Solanum incanum & indicum & taitense (Solanaceae), *Spondianthus preusii (Euphorbiaceae), *Terminalia spinosa (Combretaceae), *Triumfetta rhomboidea (Tiliaceae), *Vigna unguiculata (Fabaceae), *Warburgia salutaris & stuhlmannii (Canellaceae), *Zanthoxylum americanum (*southern prickly ash or *toothache tree) & chalybaeum (*East African prickly ash) & gillettii (*large-leaved prickly ash, Rutaceae) or *Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae). toothache tree – Zanthoxylum americanum (the orange family, Rutaceae) is a North American shrub or small tree widely used as herbal medicine by native Americans; both bark and berries were chewed to alleviate *rheumatism and *toothache; it has also been used as a *circulatory stimulant, for *arthritis, *digestive problems and leg *ulcers; it stimulates blood flow and painful and stiff *joints promoting the supply of oxygen and nutrients to painful areas and removing waste products; alternative name: *prickly ash. toothbrush – in rural areas in Africa branchlets of trees or shubs are favoured for toothbrushes; in coastal East Africa the most favoured plants for toothbrush are Salvadora persica (*toothbrush tree, Salvadoraceae), Dobera glabra (Salvadoraceae) and Zanthoxylum chalybeum (Rutaceae) in that order (Weiss 1979); in Ethiopia seven different toothbrush sticks were investigated for antimicrobial activity (van Vuuren & Viljoen 2006), viz. Clausena anisata (Rutaceae), Dovyalis abyssinica (Flacourtiaceae), Maerua oblongifolia (Capparidaceae), Osyris quadripartita (Santalaceae), Pittosporum viridiflorum (Pittosporaceae), Sida cuneifolia (Malvaceae) and Stereospermum kunthianum (Bignoni-aceae); of these Sida cuneifolia gave highest antimicrobial effect; see also Almas (2001) for antimicrobial effect of Asian toothbrush species. toothbrush tree – Salvadora persica (Salvadoraceae); for medicinal use see *Salvadora. topical – application of herbal remedy to body surface. tormentil – Potentilla erecta (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a perennial herb widely distributed in Europe and Asia; all parts of the plant are strongly *astringent; this herb has been considered ”most excellent to stay all kinds of fluxes of blood or humours in man or woman, whether it be at nose, mouth, belly, or any wound in the veins or elsewhere” (*Culpeper); in fact tormentil contains even more tannins (15-20 %) than bark of *common oak (Quercus robur); in addition to staunch blood it has been taken to treat *colitis, *diarrhoea, *dysentery and irritable bowel syndrome; it is considered an effective mouthwash for treating *mouth ulcers and infected gums, and a good gargle for throat infections; applied externally as a *lotion or *ointment it helps relieve *haemorrhoids, staunch wounds and protect damaged or burned skin. 364 totara (pine) – species of the genus Podocarpus (Podocarpaceae, Pinopsida); for medicinal use see *Podocarpus; see also *podo, * white pine and *yellow wood. toxaemia – entry into and persitence in the blood stream of *bacterial toxins absorbed from a local lesion, from which stream these poisons are borne by *circulation to all parts of the body. toxic (plant) – plants that contain high amounts of *toxins or very strong toxins; many toxic plants, also some used in herbal medicine, are deadly to humans also in small doses, e.g. Aconitum napellus (*monkshood), *Adenium obesum (*desert rose), Atropa belladonna (*deadly nightshade), *Datura stramonium (*thorn apple) and Digitalis purpurea (*foxglove). toxicity – the amount of *toxins (poisons) in a plant or other organism or substance. toxin – poison; an organic poisonous substance generated by microorganisms (usually bacteria), plants or animals. trachea – the tube connecting the throat to the lungs; it ends in two branches. trachoma – a chronic contaginous inflammation of the eye (*conjunctiva and *cornea), characterized by granules and scarring; in East Africa this diseases has been treated by *Aspilia pluriseta (Asteraceae), *Erythrina abyssinica (Fabaceae) and *Ximenia caffra (Olacaceae). Tradescantia (Commelinaceae) – a genus of about 65 species of somewhat succulent herbs native to America, but T. pendula (= Zebrina pendula) is cultivated and sometimes escaping to the wild in Uganda; in Uganda the leaf is used to treat *cervical *lymphadenitis, while the whole plant is used for *metrorrhagia (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Tragia (Urticaceae) – a genus of about 125 species of usually perennial twining or trailing herbs native to all tropical regions (27 species in East Africa, 8 species in Uganda); in East Africa the root of T. brevipes is a *purgative and is also given to a woman having *labour pains so that the rate at which the *uterus contracts is increased, and the leaves, which have an irritating nettlelike action, are rubbed on joints to treat *rheumatism (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of this (or related species) are used to quicken *labour (Kakudidi et al. 2000); in western Uganda the leaves of this plant are used as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); in East Africa T. furialis (including T. scheffleri) is used as an *aphrodisiac, and an infusion of the leaves as a wash to counteract the effects of poisonous plants such as the *buffalo bean (Kokwaro 1976). trailing eclipta – Eclipta prostata (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is an annual or short-lived perennial creeping herb widespread throughout the tropics of the old world; the leaves have been eaten as a vegetable, and contain a black pigment that in India has been used to colour the hair or as an ink for tattooing; both on Chinese and Indian herbal medicine it is used to invigorate the *liver, staunch *bleeding (especially from the *uterus), and to prevent premature greying of the hair; alternative names: *false daisy and *white eclipta (syn. E. alba). tranquilizer – an agent (drug or plant) used in calming persons suffering from nervous tension, e.g. the grain of *Paspalum scrobiculatum (Bhide & Aimen 1959). traveller’s joy – Clematis vitalba (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae) is a robust, slightly woody toxic vine native to temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; the leaves are strongly *analgesic and *diuretic, and were in the past applied to *arthritic joints to help relieve pain and encourage the removal of waste products, but the leaves will irritate the skin causing it to redden and blister; the juice is supposed to relieve *headaches and *migraine if sniffed, but is not recommended since it may destroy the *mucous linings of the nose; it is also a remedy for emotional disorders and will help absent-mindedness; alternative name: *old man’s beard. traveller’s palm – Ravenala madagascariensis (Strelitziaceae) is a beautiful Madagascarian palmlike tree widely cultivated as an ornamental in other tropcal countries; in Madagascar an infusion of the areal parts is drunk to treat malaria fever (Rasoanaivo et al. 1992). travel sickness – having poor *digestion and a feeling of sickness with desire to *vomit; plants recommended by Chevallier (2001) to improve on this condition are: *German chamomile, Chamomilla recutita (the sunflower family, *Asteraceae), *ginger, Zingiber officinale (the 365 ginger family, *Zingiberaceae), *fennel, Foeniculum vulgare (the carrot family, *Apiaceae) and *lemon, *Citrus × limon (the orange family, *Rutaceae). tree lungwort – Lobaria pulmonaria (Lobariaceae) is a lichen usually growing epiphytic on tree trunks in sheltered or humid areas; it has been used since ancient times as a remedy for *lung problems; it contains lichen acids which are *astringent and *demulcent and is useful in treating *pulmonary *ulcers and *gastro-intestinal problems; it also has *expectorant and *tonic properties aiding the clearing of congested *mucus and easing *asthma, *emphysema, *pleurisy, and *chronic respiratory *catarrh such as *bronchitis and *coughs. tree magnolia – Magnolia officinalis (hou po) from China is an up to 25 m tall ornamental tree frequently used as a medicine; its bark is mildly *antimicrobial and used to treat *amoebic dysentery, *diarrhoea, *flatulence, griping pain, *indigestion and vomiting; see *magnolia. tree of heaven – Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae) is a deciduous tree native to southern and eastern Asia, but widely cultivated as a garden tree elsewhere; the bark contains *quassinoids such as *ailanthone and *quassin; quassinoids are intensely bitter, *antimalarial and act against *cancerous cells; the bark has been widely used to treat *asthma, *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *gonorrhoea, *intestinal worms and *malaria. tree tomato – Cyphomandra betacea or Solanum betaceum (the potato family, Solanaceae) is a shrub or short-lived tree with edible fruits from South America, but it is cultivated in many tropical countries; it is an excellent source of *vitamin C (40 mg per 100 g; www.naturalhub.com). trefoil – species of the genus Trifolium in the pea family (Fabaceae), e.g. hop trefoil (T. campestre), lesser yellow trefoil (T. dubium), red trefoil (T. pratense), slender trefoil (T. micranthum), og soft trefoil (T. striatum); for medicinal use see *red clover (T. pratense); alternative name: *clover. Trema (Cannabaceae or Celtidaceae; earlier Ulmaceae) – a genus of about 15 species of trees or shrubs widespread in tropical and subtropical regions (1 species in East Agrica and Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of T. orientalis are crushed, mixed with lemon, strained and drunk as a cure for *coughs, or given to children for the treatment of *bronchitis and *pneumonia; it is also used as an *antidote to poisoning and as an *insecticide (Kokwaro 1976). Triaspis (Malpighiaceae) – a genus with 15 species of scandent shrubs, lianes or small trees native to Africa (5 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in coastal Kenya the leaves of T. mozambica are used for *stomach problems in general (Kokwaro 1976). Tribulus (Zygophyllaceae) – a genus of about 25 species of annual or perennial herbs widespread in hot and dry regions (6 species in East Africa, 3 species in Uganda); in coastal East Africa T. cistoides is used in herbal compounds (Weiss 1979); in East Africa the leaves of T. terrestris are used to treat *septic ears (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). Tricalysia (Rubiaceae) – a genus with about 100 species of shrubs or trees native to Africa with Madagascar (about 30 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of T. ovalifolia are used for *snakebite treatment, while a decoction of the roots of T. pallens (= T. myrtifolia) is used as a *tonic and taken as a remedy for *jaundice and to stop vomiting *bile (Kokwaro 1976). Trichilia (Meliaceae) – a genus with 88 tree species with 18 species native to tropical Africa (6 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in East Africa an infusion of the pounded bark of T. emetica acts as an *emetic that cause profuse perspiration and is used to treat *pneumonia; a *decoction of the roots is taken as a remedy for *colds, as a *diuretic or to induce *labour in pregnant women, and a decoction of the bark is used as a *purgative; the seeds are fried and the oil thus extracted is applied to sores from which *jiggers have been removed, and also applied on toes to prevent *jigger infection (Kokwaro 1976); in Apac district in North Uganda the roots of this species are used to treat *body pain, *gonorrhoea, heart problems, *impotence, *intestinal worms, *snakebite and *syphilis (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in coastal East Africa the powdered bark is used as an *emetic (Weiss 1979); in Mali the leaves are used as a *wound-healing remedy and their *immunomodulating *polysaccharides are studied by Diallo et al. (2003); T. 366 emetica also has *antimalarial activity on both *chloroquine sensitive and chloroquine resistant strains of the *malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum (El-Tahir et al. 1999; Traoré et al. 2000). Trichocladus (Hamamelidaceae) – a genus with 5 species of trees or shrubs native to tropical and South Africa (3 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa a decoction of the bark of T. ellipticus is added to soup or taken with meat as an aid to digestion (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the root of T. ellipticus to treat pains of women during the first months of pregnancy (Heine & König 1988). Trichodesma (Boraginaceae) – a genus of about 45 species of annual or perennial herbs or subshrubs widely distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics of the Old World (8 species in East Africa, 3 in Uganda); in Tanzania the Nyika give an infusion of the flower stems of T. physaloides to calves suffering from *diarrhoea, while the Nyamwezi use T. zeylanicum for the treatment of *tuberculosis and as an *antidote for *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976). Triclisia (Menispermaceae) – a genus of about 25 species of robust twining lianes native to Africa and Madagascar (3 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Tanzania the Shambaa chew the fresh or dry roots of T. sacleuxii and swallow the juice to treat *kidney diseases (Kokwaro 1976). Tridax (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 30 species of annual or perennial herbs native to America, but one species a troublesome pantropical weed; in East Uganda the Padhola chew the leaves of T. procumbens as a remedy for *malaria and *stomach-ache, while children drink an infusion of the leaves mixed with those of *Perotis patens for *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976). trigeminal neuralgia – pain affecting a *facial nerve; this condition may benefit from taking the American *wintergreen, Gaultheria procumbens (the heather family, Ericaceae). Trilliaceae – a small family widely distributed in the north temperate regions; some species of the genus Trillium are of medicinal value; vernacular name: herb Paris family. Trimeria (Flacourtiaceae or Salicaceae) – a genus of 2 species of shrubs or trees native to tropical and subtropical Africa (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Africa a root *decoction of T. grandifolia subsp. tropica is considered as a *diuretic and drunk for the treatment of *dysmenorrhoea, *gonorrhoea and a swollen *scrotum and *testicles, and the *gum that exudes from the cut bark is used to heal old *wounds (Kokwaro 1976). triterpenoid saponins – *saponins +++++which occur very commonly in plants, e.g. in *liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), *cowslip root (Primula veris) and *soapwort (Saponaria officinalis). Triticum (Poaceae) – a genus of about 20 grass species native to the Mediterranean region, but T. aestivum (*wheat) widely cultivated as a grain crop throughout the world, but in the tropics mainly above 1500 m; in Uganda the grains of T. aestivum (= T. vulgare) are used in the treatment of *anaemia and *fever (Adjanohoun et al. 1993). Triumfetta (Tiliaceae) – a genus of about 100 species of annual or perennial herbs to large shrubs widespread in all tropical regions (21 species in East Africa, 9 species in Uganda); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda T. brachyceras (= T. macrophylla) is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996), while in Kenya it is used by rain-makers (jojimb-koth) to bring rain during dry periods, while the leaves of T. pilosa are pounded, soaked in water and the infusion drunk as a *purgative (Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the leaves of T. rhomboidea are used for the treatment of *burns and open *wounds, while the roots are used for the treatment of *circumcision wounds and *toothache (Kokwaro 1976; Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a leaf concoction of T. rhmboidea for stomach ache (Masinde 1996); in Kenya the Luo use the leaves in the treatment of *labour pain (Geissler et al. 2002);in Uganda the stem is used in *dental care, the fruit is taken for blocked *urethra, and the rootbark or leaves together with the roots to expel retained *placenta, while the tops are used as a charm to stop *nightmares (Adja-nohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000). tropane alkaloids – +++++++….e.g. *atropine and *hyoscyamine, which are found in many species of the tomato family (Solanaceae), e.g. *deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna); the action of 367 these alkaloids is well known; they inhibit the *parasympathetic nervous system, which controls involuntary bodily activities; this reduces *gastric, *intestinal and *bronchial secretions, *saliva, as well as the activity of the *urinary tubules, *bladder and intestines; tropane alkaloids also increase *heart rate and dilate the pupils. tropic ageratum – Ageratum conyzoides (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a troublesome weed in many warm countries; For medicinal use see *Ageratum; alternative names: *billy goat weed, *blue top, *goat weed og *winter weed. Trotula – Italian woman physician from the *Salerno medical school; in around 1050 she wrote a book on *obstetrics. true unicorn root – Aletris farinosa (the lily family, Liliaceae s. lat.) is a tall American lily by native North Americans used for *stomach ache and *snake bites; because of its content of *steroidal saponins and *oestrogenic action it is at present mainly used for *gynaecological problems, particularly at the *menopause, but it is also given for periodic pain and irregular periods; it is also a good *digestive herb treating los of appetite, *indigestion, *flatulence and *bloating; alternative names: *colic root and *star grass (inappropriate name as it is not a grass). trypanosomiasis – *sleeping sickness; a mainly tropical African disease caused by a parasite of the genus Trypanosoma that is transmitted to man through the bite of the *tsetse flies (Glossina); it is accompanied by *headaches and *sleepiness, which may last several years, and the sufferer usually dies if not treated; the *trypanosomes live in the blood and cause *adenitis, irregulae *fever, rapid pulse, *oedema and *rash, later they invade the nervous system and cause *lethargy and eventually death; in Liberia *Bussea occidentalis (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae) together with Distemonanthes benthamianus (Fabaceae) is used to ease the symptoms of this disease; other plants used include *Cleistopholis patens (Annonaceae), *Glyphaea brevis (Tiliaceae) and *Lophira lanceolata (*African oak, Ochnaceae). trypanosome – the minute parasite living in the blood and causing the disease *trypanosomiasis (*sleeping sickness). Tryphostemma (Passifloraceae) – an old name for a genus now named *Basananthe. tryptophan – amino acid with non-polar (hydrophob) R group. tsetse flies – flies of the genus Glossina; they are common in tropical Africa and transmit the deadly disease *trypanosomiasis (*sleeping sickness). tuber – a swollen part of stem or root which serve as a storage organ for nutrients or water, or to survive unfavourable periods oof drought or cold; tubers from some plants are used as herbal medicines, e.g. *tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus). tubercle – a small wart-like outgrowth; a small granular tumour or nodule formed within the substance of an organ tending to degeneration. tuberculosis – a contaginous disease affecting most tissue of the body (often affecting the lungs) marked by tubercles and the presence of a characteristic bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis; it is sometimes treated using the plants *Agave spp. (*century plant, Agavaceae), *Allium sativum (*garlic, Alliaceae), *Aporrhiza paniculata (Sapindaceae), *Chamaecrista nigricans (Fabaceae), *Cleistopholis patens (Annonaceae), Coptis chinensis (*Chinese goldthread, Ranunculaceae), *Croton sylvaticus (Euphorbiaceae), *Diodia sarmentosa (Rubiaceae), *Entada leptostachya (Fabaceae), *Ficus sur (Moraceae), *Flueggea virosa (Phyllanthaceae), *Harrisonia abyssinica (Simaroubaceae), *Harungana madagascariensis (Clusiaceae or Hypericaceae), *Hygrophila auriculata (Acanthaceae), *Indigofera circinella (Fabaceae), *Inula helenium (Asteraceae), *Lepisanthes senegalensis (Sapindaceae), *Momoerdica foetida (Cucurbitaceae), Polygonum multiflorum (*flowery knotweed, Polygonaceae), *Polyscias fulva (*parasol tree, Araliaceae), *Pterolobium stellatum (Fabaceae), Syzygium aromaticum (*clove, Myrtaceae), *Trichodesma zeylanicum (Boraginaceae), *Tylosema fassoglensis (Fabaceae), Ulmus americana (*white elm) & glabra (*Wych elm) & rubra (*slippery elm, Ulmaceae), *Vernonia amygdalina (Asteraceae) and *Warburgia salutaris (Canllaceae). 368 tuber-rooted parsley – Petroselinum crispum (the carrot family - Apiaceae); for medicinal use see *parsley. tubocurarine – a toxic alkaloid used as arrow poison; it is a strong muscle relaxant and is now used as an *anaestetic to paralyse the muscles duing operations; it is extracted from the curare trees Curarea toxicofera, C. candicans and Chondrodendron tomentosum (all the curare family, Menispermaceae); see also *curare. tulsi (Hindi) – Ocimum sanctum (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is an annual aromatic herb native to tropical Asia; this herb has the ability to reduce blood sugar levels and is thus helpful for some types of *diabetes; it also has *anti-inflammatory, *fever-reducing and *pain-relieving properties; in Indian medicine it is chiefly used to reduce *fever, but is also prescribed for *asthma, *mouth ulcers, *stress and respiratory infections, especially *bronchitis, *colds, *coughs and *pleurisy; the juice is applied to *insect bites, *ring worm and *skin diseases; the herb seems to inhibit *sperm production; alternative name: *holy basil. tumour – an abnormal or diseased swelling or growth in any part of the body; *neoplasm. turmeric – Curcuma longa (the ginger family, Zingiberaceae) is a perennial herb with a thick rootstock which is bright orange innside; it is native to southern Asia, but is widely cultivated elsewhere; it has been used for thousands of years to dye food, but it is also a valuable medicinal herb having *antibacterial, *anti-inflammatory and *antioxidant properties treating *digestive and *liver problems, relieving *inflammatory conditions, inhibiting *blood-clotting and lowering *cholesterol levels. Mturnip – Brassica campestris var. rapa (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae) is a +++; den spiselige knollen er egentlig en hypocotyl; it is rich in vitamins and minerals and is popularly known as the Nordic orange. Mturnip-rooted parsley – Petroselinum crispum var. tuberosum (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is similar to *parsley except for its swollen turnip-like root; like parsley it is diuretic and rich in vitamins; turnip-rooted parsley is taken as a treatment for cystitis, flatulence and rheumatic conditions; alternative name: *parsley root. Mturnip-rooted parsley – rotpersille, Petroselinum crispum var. tuberosum (skjermplante-family, Apiaceae). ?turpentine – a colourless, strong-smelling liquid distilled from conifer trees, and used chiefly to thin paints. turpentine tree – Pistacia terebinthus (Anacardiaceae); for medicinal use see *Pistcia; alternative name: *terebinth. turpeth – Operculina turpethum (the bindweed family, Convolvulaceae) is a perennial twining climber native to tropical India; the root contains about 4 % *turpethin resin and has been used as a *purgative to clear the bowels for thousands of years; alternative name: *Indian jalap. turpethin – +++; plants containing turpethin (resin) include *turpeth, Operculina turpethum (Convolvulaceae), and have been used as a *purgative to clear the bowels for thousands of years. Turraea (Meliaceae) – a genus of about 50 species of shrubs and small trees native to Africa and Madagascar with a few reaching the tropical Far East (18 species in East Africa, 8 species in Uganda); in East Africa the bark of T. floribunda (including T. kaessneri) is used as an *emetic, while both root and bark are used as a *purgative, and a decoction of the roots used as a *cough remedy; for *limonoids of T. floribunda and T. holstii see Mulholland et al. (1998); the roots of T. mombassana are used to treat excess *bile, the Masai cook the roots in milk or soup as an *emetic, or make a *decoction from the roots, which is drunk for *malaria and other fevers; in Tanzania the roots of T. nilotica are boiled and the decoction drunk for stomach upsets, while a decoction of the boiled roots of T. robusta is drunk to cure *diarrhoea, *stomach pain and other *stomach troubles, while leaves are used as an *antidote for general *poisoning (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda a powder of the roots of T. robusta is drunk as tea to treat *uterine fibroids (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). 369 twitch (grass) – Elymus repens (the grass family, Poaceae) is a troublesome weed in many temperate countries; for medicinal use see *couch grass; alternative names: *couch (grass), *quack-grass, *quickgrass, *quitchgrass og *scutch (grass). Tylosema (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae) – a genus of about 4 species of trailing or climbing perennial herbs (often woody below) in tropical Africa (3 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); the genus is now usually included in Bauhinia; in Uganda the roots of T. fassoglensis is used to treat *diarrhoea, male sexual *impotence, *pelvic inflammatory disease, suspected *tuberculosis, *sterility, *syphilis, *uterine fibroids and used in *antenatal care, while the flowers are used for *hypertension and *jaundice, and the bark for *haemorrhoids, *sterility, *syphilis and *uterine fibroids (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the rootstock of T. fassoglensis to treat a children’s disease causing yellow stool, while seeds are fried to treat *barrenness of women (Heine & König 1988);. tympanites – a swelling or distention of the abdomen caused by the presence of air or gas in the intestine. Typha (Typhaceae) – a genus with 10-12 species of small to tall herbs widely distributed in both warm and cold countries (3 species in East Africa and Uganda); in East Uganda the ash of the whole plant of T. domingensis is licked to treat cough (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); popular names: *bulrush, *cat-tail and *reed mace. Typhaceae – a family of a single genus and 10-12 erect small to tall herbs widely distributed in both warm and cold countries (3 species in East Africa and Uganda); some species of the genus *Typha are considered as medicinal herbs. typhoid (fever) – an acute, infectious, often fatal disease, characterized by *fever and *intestinal *inflammation; it is caused by the *bacterium Salmorella typhosa and often spread through unclean water supply. typhus (fever) – an acute, *infectious disease characterized by high *fever, great mental and physical *depression and a peculiar eruption of reddish spots on the body; it is caused by a germ (Rickettsia) transmitted by *lice, *fleas and *harvest mites; in North America the leaves of Chimaphila umbellata (*pipsissewa, Ericaceae) are used to alleviate this disease. tyrosine – aromatisk alfa-amino acid with polar (hydrophile) neutral R group. Uapaca (Euphorbiaceae) – a genus of about 60 species (in Uganda 2 species) of trees widespread in tropical Africa and Madagascar; U. guinenesis (sugar plum) has edible fruits and a valuable timber; the root bark is used to treat female *sterility, *gastrointestinal troubles, *haemorrhoids, nasal *cancer, *oedemas and *rheumatism; the unripe green fruit is believed to be *expectorant and good for *coughs and *pulmonary infections (Neuwinger 1996); in Njombe district in Tanzania the roots of U. kirkiana are used in the treatment of *intestinal infections (Kokwaro 1976); in West Africa U. togoensis is considered as a *purgative with *anti-abortive effect; the sap squeezed from young twigs is used on *boils (Neuwinger 1996). uggli – en hybrid mellom Citrus reticulata, mandarin og grapefrukt, Citrus × paradisi (the orange family, Rutaceae); for medicinal use see *Citrus. ulcer – open sore or *lesion on external or internal surface of body with secretion of *pus; see *mouth ulcers and *peptic ulcers. Ulmaceae – the elm family is a rather small family of trees and shrubs with about 5 genera and 150 species widely distributed in both temperate and warm countries; most African species previously assigned to Ulmaceae are now transferred to Celtidaceae or Cannabaceae; the genus Ulmus (*elm) has many species of medicinal value, e.g. *slippery elm, *white elm and *Wych elm. Umbelliferae – an old name for a plant family now named *Apiaceae. 370 umbrella plant (Am) – *Melia azedarach (Meliaceae); alternative name: *Indian lilac, *Persian lilac, *Pride of India. urates – ++++; many plants will help the kidneys to dispose of urates and other waste products, e.g. celery, Apium graveolens var. dulce (the carrot family, Apiaceae). Urena (Malvaceae) – a genus of 6 species in tropical and warm regions; U. lobata (Congo jute) has been used as a substitute for jute; in East Uganda this species is used to treat *amoebiasis, *diarrhoea and *snake bite (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). Urera (Urticaceae) – a genus of about 35 species (in Uganda 2 species) widespread in tropical America and Africa; they are trees, shrubs and lianes with stinging hairs; the stinging hairs causes pustules and blisters on the skin; in East Africa a decoction of the stems of U. hypselodendron mixed with milk is given to pregnant women who feel pain in the *abdomen, while the green leaves are given to sick chickens (Kokwaro 1976); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda U. hypselodendron is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); a decoction of the West African species U. rigida is strongly *diuretic; in Congo the leaf juice combined with that of Costus afer is taken for *pneumonia and pains in the side (Neuwinger 1996); in Tanzania the leaves of U. sansibarica (= U. fischeri) are crushed and the liquid used for eye-ache, while the leaves of U. trinervis are chewed and the juice swallowed for *bilious disorders (Kokwaro 1976). urethra – the passage through which urine flows from the bladder when passing urine; inflammation of the urethra is called *urethritis. urethritis – inflammation of the *urethra; *antiseptics will disinfect the urinary tubules; plants used to treat such inflammation include Agathosma betulina (*buchu), Arbutus unedo (*strawberry tree, Ericaceae), Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (*bearberry or *uva-ursi, Ericaceae), *Brillantaisia kirungae (Acanthaceae), Elymus repens (*couch grass, Poaceae), Eryngium maritimum (*sea holly, Apiaceae), Hydrangea arborescens (*wild hydrangea, Hydrangeaceae) and Larix decidua (*larch, Pinaceae). dysuric – relating to or suffering from difficult or uric acid – +++++; see *hyperuricemia. urination – the discharge of urine; painful *urination is sometimes treated by the plants Crotalaria laburnifolia (Fabaceae), *Euadenia trifoliolata (Capparidaceae), Gardenia jasminoides (*Chinese gardenia, Rubiaceae) and *Glyphaea brevis (Tiliaceae); see also *incontinence and *prostate (gland). urinary infection – *antiseptics like Agathosma betulina (*buchu) will disinfect the urinary tubules. urinary system – many different herbs are used to protrect and heal the urinary system, e.g. *antiseptics like Agathosma betulina (*buchu) will disinfect the urinary tubules, *diuretics like *Zea mays (*maize) cob silk hairs will stimulate the flow of urine, and *astringents like Equisetum arvense (field *horsetail) will tighten and protect the urinary tubules. Urtica (Urticaceae) – a genus of about 30 species of annual or perennial herbs (*nettles) with stinging hairs; see *Roman nettle (U. pilulifera) and *stinging nettle (U. dioica); in tropical Africa, U. massaica (masai nettle) is the only native species; in West Uganda the leaves of this species are used to expel intestinal worms (Kakudidi et al. 2005), while the whole plant is used as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005). Urticaceae – a large family of about 50 genera and 1000 species of annual or perennial herbs, shrubs, scramblers or small trees widely distributed in both hot and cold regions (15 genera and 42 species in East Africa, 12 genera and 26 species in Uganda); many genera have species with medicinal use, e.g. *Laportea, *Obetia, *Urera and *Urtica. urticaria – nettle rash; sore and itching skin usually caused by an allergic reaction (often caused by species of the nettle family) or triggered by cold, heat or sunlight; it can be relieved by applying *chickweed cream, or simply use the juice from *chickweed (Stellaria media), *common 371 plantain (Plantago major) or even from *nettle (Urtica dioica); other herbs sometimes recommended are: *heartsease (Viola tricolor) and *marigold (Calendula officinalis). urticating – with burning hairs like those of nettle (Urtica); the pain from these can be relieved by using the juice of various plants; see *urticaria. urtication – beating with nettles to encourage blood to the surface; this was done to keep oneself warm; the Romans used *Roman nettle, Urtica pilulifera (the nettle family, Urticaceae). Usnea (Usneaceae - lichens) – a genus of mostly epiphytic lichens; in East Africa the axes of U. africana and U. flavescens are chewed fresh and the bitter substance (*usnic acid) swallowed to relieve stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976). usnic acid – a substance with *bacteriostatic properties being protective against gram-positive organisms, including Koch’s bacillus (Kokwaro 1976); usnic acid is found in many different lichens, including all species of the genus *Usnea. Usteria (Loganiaceae) – a genus containing a single species, U. guineensis, a West African woody climber; the leaves are used in arrow poisons, and a decoction of the branches is used for feverish children (to drink or bathe in); in Sierra Leone roots are rubbed on the forehead, joints and throat for *malaria; a root decoction is used for *colds, *coughs and *gonococcal infections. uterine carcinoma – malignant tumour of the uterus made up of chiefly *epithelial cells; see *African daisy. uterine fibroids – *fibroids in the uterus.. uterine tonic – which strengthen the uterus and the female genital system including alleviating heavy menstrual bleeding; alternative name: *uterotonic (herbs). uterotonic herbs – herbs which are used to strengthen the uterus and the female genital system including alleviating heavy *menstrual bleeding; alternative name: *uterine tonic (herbs); plants used include Angelica atropurpurea (*American angelica) & sinensis (*Chinese angelica, Apiaceae), *Cycnium tubulosum (Orobanchaceae), Hibiscus sabdariffa (*roselle, Malvacea) and Lamium album (*white deadnettle, Lamiaceae). uterus – the womb; the organ of female mammals in which the young develop before birth; prolapsed uterus (displaced uterus) is in West Uganda treated by one of the plants Crassocephalum crepidioides (Asteraceae), Laggera crispata (Asteraceae), Chenopodium opulifolium (Chenopodiaceae), Ekebergia capensis (Meliaceae) or Pseudarthria hookeri (Fabaceae); see Sewram et al. (2000) and Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa (2006). Uvaria (Annonaceae) – a genus with about 100 species of shrubs, woody climbers or small trees native to the Old World tropics (14 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in Est Africa a *decoction of the boiled roots of U. acuminata is drunk by women for painful menstruation or taken as a remedy for *chest (*pectoral) diseases, *dysentery and *snakebite, while a decoction of the roots of U. leptocladon is taken as a *diuretic particular for *gonorrhoea and as a remedy for *dysentery (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Kamba use the bark of the roots of U. scheffleri as a cure for *fever (Kokwaro 1976); for constituents in U. scheffleri and other species of the genus see Achenbach et al. (1997) and Nkunya et al. (2004). uva-ursi – Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (the heather family, Ericaceae) is a perennial evergreen creeping herb from temperate and cold northern countries; the leaves and berries have *antibacterial effects and are considered as one of the best *urinary *antiseptics to *disinfect and *astringe the *rinary tract in cases of acute and chronic *cystitis and *urethritis; alternative name: *bearberry. vagina – sexual passage in female from *uterus to external orifice; inflammation of the vagina is called *vaginitis; see also *vaginal discharge, *vaginal dryness, *vaginal itching, *vaginal polyps, *vaginal rash, *vaginal spasms, *vaginal thrush and *vaginal warts. vaginal – pertaining to or in the vagina. vaginal discharge – excessive vaginal discharge is sometimes treated using one of the plants *Acacia arabica (Fabaceae), Amaranthus hypochondrius (*Indian amaranth) & spinosus (*needle bur, 372 *prickly or *spiny amaranth, Amaranthaceae), Cnidium monnieri (*she chuang zi, Apiaceae), *Benincasa hispida (*wax gourd, Cucurbitaceae), Geranium maculatum (*American cranesbill, Geraniaceae), Gingkgo biloba (*ginkgo or *maidenhair tree, Ginkgoaceae), Lamium album (*white deadnettle, Lamiaceae), Lythrum salicaria (*purple loosestrife, Lythraceae), Pterocarpus marsupium (*kino, Fabaceae), Rubus idaeus (*raspberry, Rosaceae), Rhus glabra (*smooth sumach) & aromatica (*sweet sumach, Anacardiaceae), Senecio aureus (*life root or *squaw root, Asteraceae), Sorbus aucuparia (*mountain ash or *rowan tree, Rosaceae), Terminalia myrobalan (*Chebulic myrobalan, Combretaceae) and Tsuga canadensis (*hemlock spruce, Pinaceae). vaginal dryness – this condition has been treated by the stem of *Rhipsalis baccifer (*mistletoe cactus, Cactaceae) and *Spathodea campanulata (*African tulip tree, Bignoniaceae). vaginalis – of the *vagina. vaginal itching – itching of the walls of the vagina; this condition has been treated using the herb Lythrum salicaria (*purple loosestrife, Lythraceae); see also *vaginal thrush. vaginal polyps (polypus) – small tumors with a stalk on the wall of the vagina; remedies are the juice of fresh leaves of *Phyllanthus sp., which are applied into the vagina, or the ash of burnt inflorescences of *Cyperus papyrus, which is mixed with vaseline and the ointment applied locally thrice a day. vaginal rash – eruptions of the walls of the vagina; this condition has been treated by the powdered dry leaves of *Ficus exasperata (Moraceae). vaginal spasms – cramps of the vagina; this condition has been treated by a root *decoction of *Rourea orientalis (Connaraceae). vaginal thrush – having strong growth of the fungus Candida albicans in the vagina; this type of infection is common and is often found as a side-effect of *antibiotic treatment; it can be reduced by using *garlic (Allium sativum, Alliaceae), *marigold (Calendula officinalis, Asteraceae), *caper (Capparis spinosa, Capparidaceae), *tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), *Chinese anemone (Pulsatilla chinensis, Ranunculaceae), *apricot (Prunus dulcis, Rosaceae) or a mixture of *echinacea (Echinacea spp., Asteraceae) and *thyme (Thymus vulgaris, Lamiaceae); see also *candidiasis, *oral thrush and *thrush. vaginal warts – in Uganda vaginal warts have been treated by using warm leaves of Acacia hockii (Fabaceae); see Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003. vaginitis – *inflammation of the *vagina; many different plants are used to treat this condition, e.g. Butea monosperma (*Bengal kino, *flame of the forests or *palas, Fabaceae), Cnidium monnieri (*she chuang zi, Apiaceae) and Terminalia myrobalan (*Chebulic myrobalan, Combretaceae). vagus – a nerve supplying the heart, lungs and stomach. valerian – Valeriana officinalis (the valerian family, Valerianaceae) is a perennial herb native to temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; it has been used for at least 2000 years to reduce *anxiety, *nervous tension and stress; valerian is relaxant and *sedative, lowers *blood pressure and relieves muscle *spasms; being sedative and depressant it will also induce sleep, ease *asthma, *colic and neck tension; in the Middle Ages it was considered an ”all-heal” herb; *American valerian is V. uliginosa; *Cape valerian is V. capensis; *Chinese valerian is V. hardwickii; *Himalayan valerian is V. wallichii; red valerian is Centranthus ruber. Valerianaceae – the valerian family is a medium sized family with 13 genera and about 400 species widely distributed in all continents except Australia; many species of the genus *Valeriana are of medicinal value. valerian family – Valerianaceae is a medium sized family with 13 genera and about 400 species widely distributed in all continents except Australia; many species of the genus *Valeriana are of medicinal value. Vangueria (Rubiaceae) – a genus with 27 species of shrubs or small trees native to Africa with Madagascar (8 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of V. 373 apiculata are chewed and the juice swallowed as a cure for *stomach-ache and a root *decoction drunk to expel *intestinal worms, and the fruits are very rich in *antioxidants; the roots of V. infausta are chewed as an *antidote for *snake-bite and a root decoction drunk as an *anthelmintic and to alleviate *coughs and *gonorrhoea and to expel *hookworms; a decoction from the roots of V. madagascariensis (V. acutiloba) is drunk to expel *intestinal worms and the bark is used in the treatment of *malaria (Kokwaro 1976). vanilla – the immature fruits of the orchid Vanilla planifolia or V. fragrans (the orchid family, Orchidaceae). vanilla orchid – Vanilla planifolia (V. fragrans) or other species of the genus Vanilla (the orchid family, Orchidaceae); the leaf sap of vanilla orchids has been used to treat *otitis; in Europa also used about the genus Nigritella, e.g. black vanilla orchid is Nigritella nigra. vanillin – a flavouring essence obtained from the immature fruits of the vanilla orchid, Vanilla planifolia (the orchid family, Orchidaceae). varices (sing.: *varix) – abnormally dilated (bulging) or knotted blood vessels. varicocele – *varicose swelling of *spermatic vein. varicose – pertaining to *varices. varicose veins – bulging veins and pooling of blood due to a weakness or increased pressure in the veins; plants used to improve this condition include Achillea millefolium (*milfoil or *yarrow, Asteraceae), Aesculus hippocastanum (*horse-chestnut, Hippocastanaceae), Calendula officinalis (*marigold or *pot marigold, Asteraceae), *Citrus × limon (*lemon, Rutaceae), Cupressus sempervirens (*Italian or *Mediterranean cypress, Cupressaceae), *Erythrophleum suaveolens (Fabaceae), Fagopyrum esculentum (*buckwheat, Polygonaceae), Galium odoratum (*sweet woodruff, Rubiaceae), Hamamelis virginiana (*American witch hazel or *witchhazel, Hamameliaceae), Lamium album (*white deadnettle, Lamiaceae) and Ruscus aculeatus (*boxholly or *butcher’s broom, Ruscaceae). variola – virus diseases characterized by pustular eruptions, including smallpox, cowpox, etc. varix (plur.: *varices) – an abnormally dilated (bulging) or knotted blood vessel. varuna – Crataeva nurvula (the caper family, Capparidaceae) is a large deciduous tree native to India; the dried bark of this tree has been used for 3000 years to treat *kidney and *bladder stones; the bark has also been used to treat *fevers, *gastritis, *snake bites and *vomiting, and the fresh leaves relieves sore and inflamed joints; alternative name: *three-leaved caper. vasoconstrictor – which constricts (contracts) and narrow blood vessels. vasodilator – which relaxes and widens blood vessels. vasomotor – which regulate the diameter of blood vessels, as do certain nerves. vaseline – a trademark of *petrolatum, i.e. a semisolid, greaselike substance obtained from petroleum and used for lubrication and in *ointments. vata – one of the three basic forces formed from the five elements (ether, air, fire, water, earth) in Indian *Ayurvedic medicinal philosophy; vata is the air principle created from ether and air; the other elements are *kapha and *pitta. vegetable oyster – Tragopgon porrifolius (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is sometimes cultivated for its edible succulent taproot with a high content of *inulin; inulin has *mucilaginous qualities that help soothe the *bronchial linings; alternative names: *goats-beard og *salsify. vegetable sponge – Luffa cylindrica (Cucurbitaceae) is a large climber from Asia and Africa with a fruit which dried content (fibrous skeleton) is often used as a vegetable sponge; it is ocasionally cultivated as a pot plant in temperate countries; the loofah fruit is *expectorant and used to clear congested *mucus and to alleviate *chest infections; it is also prescribed for pain in the *abdomen, *chest, *joints and muscles; alternative name: *loofah (gourd). Velloziaceae – a family of 5-6 genera and about 250 species of perennial herbs or shrubs adapted to very dry habitats in hot regions, with the highest diversity in South America (1 genus and 8 374 species in East Africa, 1 genus and 2 species in Uganda); species of the genus *Xerophyta are used as medicinal herbs. venereal – pertaining to or produced by sexual intercourse. venereal diseases – diseases which are contracted mainly in connection with sexual intercourse, e.g. *gonnorrhoea, *lymphogranuloma venereum and *syphilis. venerial warts – warts on the genitalia; these are sometimes treated by *podophyllotoxin, a toxin extracted from *may apple, Podophyllum peltatum (Podophyllaceae or Berberidaceae), a North American medicinal herb. venom – the poisonous fluid secreted by certain snakes and spiders; see *cobra and *snakebite for medicinal plants used as an *antidote to venom. venomous – poisonous, but mainly used about the fluid secreted by certain snakes and spiders; see *cobra and *snake bite for herbs taken as an *antidote to venomous bites. Venus’s bath – the water which collects in the leaf of *wild teasel, Dipsacus fullonum (the teasel family, Dipsacaceae), was believed to be good for the eyes. verbena – species of the genera Lippia and Verbena in the teak family (Verbenaceae), e.g. garden verbena (Verbena × hybrida) and lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora), which are cultivated as ornamentals; for medicinal use see *Lippia and *vervain (*Verbena). Vepris (Rutaceae) – a genus with about 15 species of shrubs or trees native to tropical and South Africa with Madagascar and the Mascarenes (11 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Kenya the Pokot use the decoction from the boiled bark of V. glomerata (= Teclea pilosa) for *heart pain (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam use the twigs of this plant as *toothbrush (Heine & König 1988). Verbenaceae – a family of about 70-80 genera and 3000-3500 species of herbs, shrubs or trees widely distributed in tropical and temperate regions (in East Africa 14 genera and 130 species, in Uganda 12 genera and 38 species); many genera have species used as medicine, e.g. *Clerodendrum, *Lantana, *Lippia, *Premna, *Priva, *Rotheca, *Stachytarpheta, Verbena (*vervain) and *Vitex; the family is sometimes included in *Lamiaceae and the family will then consist of 275 genera and 6000 species; popular name: *verbena family or *teak family. verbena family – Verbenaceae; see above; alternative name: the teak family. verbenalin – an iridoid *glycoside which produces a mild tonic effect on the involuntary *nervous system; it is found in *Chinese dogwood or *shan zhu yu, Cornus officinalis (the dogwood family, Cornaceae). vermiform appendix – a small attachment to a certain segment of the intestine; inflammation of the vermiform appendix is named *appendicitis. vermifuge – (a drug or plant) which expels intestinal worms, especially *hookworms, *roundworms and *tapeworms; a large number of plants are used as vermifuges, e.g. in America *avocado (Persea americana), *pink root (Spigelia anthelmia & S. marilandica) and *wormseed (Chenopodium ambrosioides), in Europe and Asia *pomegranate (Punica granatum), in Africa *Clerodendrum rotundifolia and *Albizia anthelmintica; for other medicinal herbs used see *anthelmintic; see also *worms. MVernonia (Asteraceae) – a genus of about 1000 species of herbs and shrubs widely distributed in tropical and warm countries (135 species in East Africa, 46 species in Uganda); in Uganda the roots of V. adoënsis (V. grantii) are used to treat *diarrhoea as well as *dizziness and *vomiting (Adjanohoun wt al. 1993); in Apac district in North Uganda the leaves of this species is used to treat *impotence and adominal pain during *menstruation (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); the *immunomodulating activity of *polysaccharides (pectin/pectin arabinogalactan) from the roots of V. adoënsis is studied by Nergard et al. (2003-2006); in coastal Kenya the Digo rub the ash from V. aemulans into small incisions made in swellings on the abdomen, especially those of women; the ash acts both as a haemostatic and as a medicine for fresh wounds (Kokwaro 1976); V. amygdalina is a shrub or tree up to 10 m tall widely used to treat *diarrhoea, *fever and 375 *malaria; in East Africa the leaves are pounded, juice extracted and drunk to alleviate *fever, and an infusion from the roots is given to children suffering from infection by a *trematode (Enterobius vermicularis) that lives in the *caecum as an adult and causes irritability in children (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Luo drink a decoction of the leaves and roots to treat a *diarrhoea and *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002); in Uganda the leaves alone are used to treat *abdominal pain, *asthma, *diarrhoea, *malaria, *measles and *tuberculosis, the leaves together with the roots are used to treat *malaria and *sickle cell disease, the roots alone are used for *abdominal pain, *malaria and as a *diuretic, while the entire plant is commonly used to treat *malaria (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Central Uganda the Baganda drink a root decoction of the roots of this plant with roots of Solanum aculeastrum to treat ”akabengo” (Wanyana-Maganyi 1999); in Toro this plant is taken for *cough, malaria and *stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 2003), while in the southern part of the Rwenzori region in Uganda the leaves and roots of this plant is used to treat painful menstruation, *dysmenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); and in Busoga also used for *amoebiasis, *convulsions, *flu, *hernia and *measles (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Apac district in North Uganda this species is used to treat *anal itching and *stomachache (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Rakai district in Uganda the leaves are crushed, water added and given orally to chickens to treat *NCD (Bukenya-Ziraba, Kamoga & Olila 2007); V. anthelmintica is mainly used to treat *skin problems; V. auriculifera is used as a substitute for toilet paper as well as a medicine container for pounded stuff as well as for poultice; it is sometimes used as a medicine for similar uses as V. amygdalina (Kokwaro 1976); in Central Uganda a leaf infusion of this plant is said to expand the *pelvic canal (WanyanaMaganyi 1999); in East Africa an infusion of the leaves of V. brachycalyx is drunk to treat *malaria, while the washed roots are chewed as a *purgative and to cure *stomach-ache (Glover et al. 1961; Kokwaro 1976); in East Africa the leaves of V. cinerea are chewed and the juice swallowed or an infusion drunk for *snakebite treatment (Kokwaro 1876); in Uganda the tops of V. cinerea are used to treat *tonsillitis (Adjanohoun et al. 1993), while in West Uganda the leaves are used to treat stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 2000), and in Busoga it is used to avoid evil spirits (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in western Uganda the leaves and roots of this plant are used as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005); in East Africa a decoction of the roots of V. colorata is used as a remedy for earache, or as a general *antidote for poisoning, and the leaves used to treat *cough (Kokwaro 1976); V. hildebrandtii is used to treat very many diseases and conditions. e.g. a leaf tea is in Kenya given to children to drink for *colds, *coughs and *chest problems, and the very bitter root is used for stomach problems, as an *emetic and to relieve strangulated *hernia (Kokwaro 1976); in Tanzania it is used to treat *convulsions and *mental illnesses; in East Africa an infusion of the roots of V. holstii is drunk to alleviate *abdominal pains, while ground up leaves of V. homilantha are applied to sores (Kokwaro 1976); a decoction of the whole plant of the herb V. hochstetteri (= V. jugalis) is drunk to cure *epilepsy, while roots are used to promote birth, and leaves used for stomach trouble (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a root concoction of V. hymenolepis for *stomach ache (Masinde 1996); in East Africa an infusion from the roots of V. karaguensis is used to kill *intestinal worms, particularly *tapeworm, and to treat *anthrax; and the leaves are boiled and applied to *wounds and sores in calves, thus promoting healing and killing any *worm that may be in the *wounds (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves are taken for *abdominal pain and *stomach-ache (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Kakudidi et al. 2000); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda V. kirungae is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in East Africa the leaves of V. lasiopus (including V. iodocalyx) are either chewed or boiled and the decoction of leaves or roots drunk to cure *stomach-ache; the root decoction is also used as a sex *stimulant for men, and the leaf decoction acts as a *purgative and is used for the treatment of *abdominal pains and *indigestion, and the leaves are also applied in a paste on sores in cattle to keep *maggots away 376 (Kokwaro 1976); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda V. lasiopus is used by midwives (Cunningham 1996); in West Uganda the leaves of V. lasiopus are used to treat malaria (Kakudidi et al. 2000), while the leaves and roots are squeezed or steamed and eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005) and taken to treat menstru-ation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Tanzania V. lasiopus var. iodocalyx is taken to speed up the birth process; in East Africa a root decoction of V. myriantha (including V. ampla, V. podocoma & V. subuligera) is drunk for *indigestion and mixed with those of Lonchocarpus laxiflorus drunk to treat *dysmenorrhoea; roots are also used for *influenza; leaves are chewed to alleviate *chest complaints and used for improving *lactation, while leaf juice with a little water is used as a *styptic, and as a *purgative for cattle (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the leaves of V. perottetii are used to treat *cataract, and the leaf of V. theophrastifolia is used to treat fever and also to treat spontaneous *abortion (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Kenya the bark of V. wakefieldii is chewed and when well moistened put on a sore tied with a bandage (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal Kenya a decoction of the roots of V. zanzibarensis acts as an *emetic and is used as a remedy for pain in the *spleen or *kidneys, and is also taken to relieve strangulated *hernia; roots are also used for *chest diseases, and the powdered leaves mixed with water drunk for *coughs (Kokwaro 1976). vertigo – *dizziness; giddiness; feeling that surrounding objects are turning round, often causing *vomiting; this condition is sometimes eased taking Ballota nigra (*black horehound, Lamiaceae), *Cardiospermum halicacabum (*balloon vine, Sapindaceae), *Celosia trigyna (Amaranthaceae), *Chenopodium ambrosioides (Chenopodiaceae), *Cleome monophylla (Capparidaceae), *Cucurbita maxima (winter squashes, Cucurbitaceae), *Desmodium triflorum (Fabaceae), *Indigofera arrecta (Fabaceae), *Maerua triphylla (Capparidaceae), *Morus alba (*white mulberry, Moraceae), *Physalis lagascae (Solanaceae), *Piliostigma thonningii (Fabaceae), *Sarcocephalus latifolius (Rubiaceae), *Senna septentrionalis (Fabaceae), *Sida schimperiana (Malvaceae) or *Solanecio angulatus (Asteraceae). vervain – Verbena officinalis (the vervain or teak family, Verbenaceae) is a perennial herb native to Europe, Asia and North Africa; since ancient Greek times vervain was considered a sacred herb and taken as a *cure-all (*panacea); it has *tonic, *restorative properties, and is taken to improve *digestive function and relieve *anxiety and *stress; vervain has both *oestrogenic and *progestogenic activity and will stimulate the womb, and production of *breast-milk; it also eases *headaches and *migraines; recent research has shown it to be effective as a *diuretic and *gout remedy and to suppress appetite, but not for use as a *contraceptive and *antispasmodic or to treat *fever, *dysentery and *skin infections; alternative name: *Juno’s tears; *blue vervain is V. hastata; rose vervain is V. canadensis. vesicant – (an agent, drug or plant) which causes blisters, e.g. *nettle (Urtica dioica). vesicatory – (an agent, drug or plant) which causes blisters, e.g. *nettle (Urtica dioica). vesicles – small sacs or blisters. vesicular – covered by small blisters. vesiculation – formation of small sacs or blisters on the skin; the blisters contain clear fluid. vetchling – species of the genus Lathyrus (the pea family, Fabaceae), e.g., meadow vetchling (L. pratensis) and spring vetchling (L. vernus); for medicinal use see *bitter vetchling (L. linearifolius, previously named L. montanus). Vietnamese medicine – this is very similar to Chinese medicine as Chinese culture has excerted great influence. Vigna (Fabaceae. Faboideae) – a genus of about 150 species of herbs, climbers or small shrubs widespread in all tropical regions (35 species in East Africa, 23 species in Uganda); in East Uganda the seeds of V. mungo are cooked with potash and eaten to treat *premature *ejaculation, and a poultice of the leaves of V. unguiculata is used to treat *boils and *wounds (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves are used to treat *toothache (Kakudidi 377 2000); elsewhere the leaves are crushed and used as a snuff for *headache, for *burns the leaves are chewed raw, and if the afterbirth remains behind, the roots are chewed or the root juice drunk in cold water; in coastal Kenya the Digo crush the leaves of V. vexillata with water and the liquid is put in the eyes as a remedy for *opthalmia (Kokwaro 1976). vinblastine – a medicinally efficient substance used in the treatment of *leucemi, *Hodgkins disease and other types of *cancer; vinblastine is found in e.g. Catharanthus rosea (Vinca rosea) in the periwinkle family (Apocynaceae); see also *vincristine. vincristine – a medicinally efficient substance used in the treatment of *leucemi, *Hodgkins disease and other types of *cancer; vincristine is found in e.g. Catharanthus rosea (Vinca rosea) in the periwinkle family (Apocynaceae); see also *vinblastine. Violaceae – a family of about 22 genera and some 900 species of herbs, shrubs or small trees widely distributed in all continents, mostly woody species in tropical regions, mostly herbs in temperate regions (in East Africa 3 genera and 20 species, in Uganda 3 genera and 10 species); some species of the genera *Rinorea and Viola (*heartsease, *pansy, *violet) are used as medicines. violet – species of the genus Viola subgen. Viola (the violet family, Violaceae), e.g. birdsfoot violet (V. pedata), bog violet (V. palustris), common violet (V. riviniana), dog violet (V. canina), hairy violet (V. hirta), hill violet (V. collina) and yellow wood violet (V. biflora); for medicinal use see *heartsease (V. tricolor) and *sweet violet (V. odorata), see also *pansy. violet family – Violaceae; see above. violet tree – Securidaca longipedunculata (Polygalaceae) is a scrambling shrub up to 10 m tall widely distributed in the tropical Africa; the roots are *astringent and used for a large number of diseases and problems, e.g. cyclic *headaches, *dropsy and other forms of *oedema, some disorders of the *genital organs and to hasten birth in cases of difficulty (Kokwaro 1976); in Uganda the roots of this plant is used as an *antidote and to treat *diarrhoea, *fever, *functional psychosis, *headache, *hernia, *influenza, *insanity, *measles, *pains, *pyomyositis and snakebite (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). viper’s bugloss – Echium vulgare (the borage family, Boraginaceae) is a stiff perennial herb native to Europe; it is diuretic and sweat-inducing if taken internally, but contains *pyrrolizidine *alkaloids, which may be *toxic to the *liver, and is not much used today; taken externally it will help heal *wounds. Virginia peppergrass – Lepidium virginicum (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae) is an annual herb native to eastern North and Central America; it is nutritious, rich in *vitamin C and *detoxifying; it is *diuretic and will ease *rheumatic pain, it has been used to treat excess *catarrh within the *respiratory tract, and to expel *intestinal worms. Virginia skullcap – Scutellaria lateriflora (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is an American herb; it is widely used for ”hot and damp” conditions, such as *dysentery and *diarrhoea; the plant is *antiallergenic, *antibacterial *anti-inflammatory and *sedative; it is used for *asthma, *hay fever (*allergic rhinitis), *eczema, *nettle rash, *bronchitis, chronic *hepatitis, high *blood pressure and *diabetes; it has also been used as a *nervine to treat *convulsions, *epilepsy, and *hysteria; alternative name: *mad dog (because in North America it was earlier used as a treatment for *rabies). Virginia snakeroot – Aristolochia serpentaria (the birthwort family, Aristolochiaceae) is a North American perennial used for *snakebites; see also *African snakeroot (A. bracteata), *Amazonian snakeroot (A. klugii), *birthwort and *Dutchman’s pipe. Virginia tobacco – Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae); for medicinal use see *Nicotiana. viral – pertaining to *virus, e.g. viral infection. virus – any of a group of microscopic infectious agents that reproduce only in living cells; they can cause diseases like *aids and *mumps. Viscaceae – a family of 7 genera and about 450 species of shrubby hemiparasites attaching themselves to the branches of woody plants and widely distributed in tropical as well as temperate 378 countries (3 genera and 25 species in East Africa, 1 genus and 6 species in Uganda); the family is sometimes included in Loranthaceae; some species of the genus *Viscum are occasionally used as medicines. viscotoxins – substances with *anticancer activity found in *mistletoe (Viscum album). Viscum (Viscaceae or Loranthaceae) – a genus (*mistletoe) with about 100 species of shrubby parasites attaching themselves to the branches of woody plants and widely distributed in tropical as well as temperate countries (23 species in East Africa, 6 species in Uganda); *viscotoxins are substances with *anticancer activity found in *mistletoe (Viscum album); in East Africa heated twigs of V. fischeri and V. tuberculatum are used as a *poultice on the chest of a person with *pneumonia, and V. tuberculatum is also used for *liver problems (Kokwaro 1976). Vismia (Clusiaceae) – a genus with about 35 species of shrubs or trees native to Africa and America (2 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in coastal Kenya a *decoction of the the roots of V. orientalis is taken as a remedy for *lassitude, and because they exude a red gum which resembles blood, it is thought that this medicine strengthens the blood; the bark is used to treat *acne, *chikenpox, *pimples, *smallpox and *syphilis (Kokwaro 1976). visnaga – Ammi visnaga (the carrot family, Apiaceae) is an annual aromatic herb native to North Africa and the Mediterranean region; although it is used as a culinary herb it has more value as a medicine being an effective muscle *relaxant; it has been used for centuries to ease the pain of *kidney stones; it is also taken for *asthma and various *respiratory problems such as *bronchitis, *emphysema and *whooping cough. Vitaceae – a family of 14 genera and over 1000 species of erect or trailing herbs, climbers or lianes widely distributed in tropical and temperate regions of both hemispheres (5 or 6 genera and about 150 species in East Africa, 5 or 6 genera and 38-39 species in Uganda); some genera have species with medicinal use, e.g. *Ampelocissus, *Cayratia, *Cissus, *Cyphostemma, Rhoicissus and Vitis (*grape); vernacular name: *grape family. vital force – a philosophical term being ”the primal energy that maintains life”; in Chines medicine it is called ”qi”, in *Ayurveda it is ”prana”, while Western medical herbalists and *homeopaths use the term ”vital force”; see *Descartes. vital spirit – a theoretic term in *Galen’s philosophy; Galen believed that spirit was taken in with each breath and processed in the body to form the vital spirit. vitality – extremely vigorous (exuberant) physical and mental strength; herbals taken to maintain vitality include Avena sativa (*oats), Codonopsis pilosula (*codonopsis), Panax ginseng (*ginseng), Thymus vulgaris (*thyme) and *Withania somnifera. vitamin – any of a group of organic substances essential in small quantities to normal metabolism and health; vitamins are found in many medicinal herbs, and both in animal and plant foods; for the many different vitamins see below. vitamin A – a vitamin essential to growth and the prevention of night blindness; it is found in green and yellow vegetable and egg yolk; *watercress, Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum, has high levels of vitamin A; beta-carotene is pro-vitamin A. vitamin B – a member of the vitamin B complex; the most important are vitamin B1, B2, or B12. vitamin B1 – thiamine; watercress, Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum, has high levels of vitamin B1. vitamin B2 – riboflavin; watercress, Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum, has high levels of vitamin B2. vitamin B12– a vitamin used in the treatment of *anaemia; it is obtained from e.g. liver and oysters. vitamin C – *ascorbic acid; it is needed by humans to prevent contracting the fatal disease *scurvy; vitamin C is found in many plants, but Citrus fruits are particularly useful (although many other fruits contain more vitamin C) because their natural packaging is superior and can last for months; see also *scurvy-grass (Cochlearia officinalis) and watercress (Rorippa nasturtiumaquaticum); the plants with the highest vitamin C content are *rose *hips (Rosa spp.) and the fruits of *pomegranate (Punica granatum). 379 vitamin D – a vitamin essential for the formation of normal bones and teeth; it is found mainly in fishliver oil; vitamin D deficiency causes the disease *rachitis or *rickets. vitamin E – a vitamin that promotes *fertility and is active in maintaining the nervous and vascular system; it is found in e.g. *wheatgerm oil (Triticum aestivum) and *watercress, Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum. vitamin K – a vitamin that promotes *blood clotting; it occurs especially in leafy vegetables. Vitellaria (Sapotaceae) – a genus containing a single tree species, V. paradoxa (previously named Butyrispermum paradoxum); it is widespread in savanna regions in Africa; a *decoction of the bark is used to expel *intestinal worms and to treat *diarrhoea and infectious *gastroenteritis; bathing in twig bark decoction eases *rheumatism, and a leaf decoction is used as an eye-bath; boiled leaves or bark often mixed with *shea butter is applied lukewarm to *burns, *fractures and *wounds; latex applied to wounds is said to hasten *cicatrisation (for more details see Neuwinger 1996); in Apac district in North Uganda this species is used to treat *boils and skin rush (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Mali a decoction of the leaves of this tree is drunk to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); in Mali chopped dried roots are milled and added to porridge and taken to treat *urinary *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); vernacular names: *shea (butter) tree. Vitex (Verbenaceae) – a genus of about 250 species of shrubs or trees widely distributed in all tropical regions and a few in temperate areas (16 species in East Africa, in Uganda 4 species); in Tanzania the roots of V. buchananii are eaten fresh or dried to cure *venereal diseases; in North Uganda a decoction of the roots of V. doniana is drunk in cases of backaches in women, while the young tender leaves are used as a remedy for eye troubles (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda the leaves of V. ferruginea are eaten for *sore swollen throat and used in connection with bad body and mouth odour (Kokwaro 1976; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Uganda the leaf of V. fischeri is used to treat *oral *aphthous *ulcerations (Adjanohoun et al. 1993); in Apac district in North Uganda a root extract of V. madiensis is drunk to treat *cough and *diarrhoea (Okello & Ssegawa 2007); in Tanzania a root decoction of V. mombassae is used as a medicine for *infertility and *vomiting, while leaves and roots of V. strickeri are used for the treatment of *snakebite or *inflammation from snakebite, the roots also for treating *influenza (Kokwaro 1976). In temperate regions Vitex agnus-castus (*Agnus castus) is a very important medicinal plant regulating female sex *hormones thus aiding *conception, relieving *menstrual problems and increasing *breast milk production. vitiligo – a disease causing loss of pigments; in China this disease is treated with the seeds of *bu ghu zi (Psoralea corylifolia, Fabaceae). Vittaria (Vittariaceae, Pteridophyta) – a genus of about 80 species of mostly epiphytic ferns widely distributed in tropical and warm regions of both hemispheres; in coastal Kenya the Digo use an infusion of V. guineensis to wash the head as a treatment for *headache (Kokwaro 1976). VLDL (very low density lipoproteins) – *cholesterols that occur in blood and tissues of the animal organism; high concentrations of cholesterol in the blood may result in *arteriosclerosis; VLDL transport cholesterol to the walls of the veins (”dangerous cholesterol”); see also *HDL and *LDL. volatile oil – plant constituent that evaporates easily at ordinary temperatures, volatile oils are often extracted from a plant to produce essential oils; volatile oils are particularly abundant in the families *Lamiaceae and *Myrtaceae; many of these oils are important medicinally active plant constituents, some are also used in perfumery; they are complex mixtures often of 100 or more compounds, mostly made up of mono*terpenes (molecules containing 10 carbon atoms); essential oils have many uses, e.g. tea tree oil from Melaleuca alternifolia (*tea tree) is strongly *antiseptic, while sweet gale oil from Myrica gale (*sweet gale) is an effective insect repellant. 380 vomit – to eject the contents of the stomach through the mouth; many different herbal remedies are used to prevent vomiting, e.g. drink a cup of an infusion of the root of one of the three herbs *ginger (Zingiber officinale), *galangal (Alpinia officinarum) or *turmeric (Curcuma longa) five times a day, or simply drink freshly squeezed lemon juice (neat or diluted) every morning. vomitive – something which causes vomiting. vulnerary – (a substance, drug or plant) which heals *wounds; see *vulnerary herbs. vulnerary herbs – herbs which heal wounds; very numerous herbs have wound healing qualities; the most widely used for healing wounds are Prunella vulgaris (*selfheal) and Symphytum officinale (*comfrey); for other vulnerary herbs see *bleeding. vulva – the external female genitalia; inflammation of vulva is sometimes treated by Trigonella foenum-graecum (*fenugreek, Fabaceae); see also *vaginitis. Wahlenbergia (*Campanulaceae) – a genus of some 200 species of annual or perennial herbs or small shrubs widely distributed in the southern hemisphere (9 species native to Uganda); in East Africa the roots of W. abyssinica (= Lightfootia abyssinica) are chewed and the juice sucked to treat *colds, *coughs and *measles (Kokwaro 1976). wahoo bark – Euonymus atropurpureus (the spindle family, Celastraceae) is a small, toxic, deciduous tree native to eastern North America; it contains cardic *glycosides and is used for heart conditions; the bark has been considered a *laxative and *diuretic taken for conditions with poor *liver and *gall bladder function (*biliousness and *eczema); native Americans used the bark as a poultice for sores in the face, as an eye lotion and for *gynaecological conditions. wallflower – Cheiranthus cheiri (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae) is an annual or perennial toxic herb native to southern Europe, but widely grown as a garden plant; it contains cardioactive *glycosides and supports a failing heart; it was earlier used as a *diuretic to provoke urination and *menstruation untill its powerful effect on the heart was understood; alpine wallflowers are species of the genus Erysimum. wallflower family – Brassicaceae (earlier Cruciferae); a family comprising about 390 genera and 3000 species of annual or perennial herbs, rarely shrubby, and widely distributed in both hot and cold countries; for genera with useful medicinal herbs see *Brassicaceae; alternative vernacular names of family: *cress family and *mustard family; the family Capparidaceae is sometimes included in Brassicaceae, and this extended family comprises 425 genera and 3700 species. wall germander – Teucrium chamaedrys (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial aromatic herb native to Europe, North Africa and western Asia; an infusion of this herb is taken to treat *catarrh, *fever, *gout, *rheumatism, *stomach problems and to aid weight loss; it has also been used as a mouthwash for sore gums, and as a lotion to heal *wounds; see *Cape germander (T. capense) and *wood sage (T. scorodonia). wall-pepper – Sedum acre (the stonecrop family, Crassulaceae); this small succulent species has in North Europe been widely used to treat *warts and *ringworm; see also *stonecrop, which is the name for most other species in this genus, *livelong and *roseroot. walnut (tree) – Juglans regia (the wallnut family, Juglandaceae) is a tall deciduous tree native to Asia and southeastern Europe; the fruits are highly nutritious, and lower *cholesterol levels and contain significant quantities of *alpha-linolenic acid; in Chinese medicine the nut is used as a *kidney tonic; the bark is taken as a gentle *purgative and applied to poor *skin conditions; see also *black walnut (tree), J. nigra and *butternut (tree), J. cinerea. walnut family – Juglandaceae is a rather small family with about 7 slekter and about 50 species widely distributed in warm parts of America and Asia. Waltheria (Sterculiaceae) – a genus with about 50 species of annual or perennial herbs or shrubs native to the tropics, but with highest diversity in tropical America and only 1 weedy species in Africa; in East Africa the roots of W. indica are used as an *astringent and in the treatment of 381 *cough and *eyeache (Kokwaro 1976); in West Kenya the Marachi tribe apply a powder from the dry leaf of W. indica on wounds and cuts (Masinde 1996);. Warburgia (Canellaceae) – a genus of 3 species of trees native to East Africa (only 1 species native to Uganda); in East Africa the dried bark of W. salutaris (W. ugandensis) is chewed and the juice swallowed to treat *constipation, *coughs, *fever, *muscle pain, *toothache, *stomach-ache, *weak joints and general body pain; the Kikuyu in Kenya use a soup from the roots to prevent *diarrhoea, and perhaps most importantly a decoction of the bark or leaves is taken as a cure for *malaria, but causes violent *vomiting (Kokwaro 1976); in West Uganda the leaves and bark (*pepper bark tree) is used to treat *fever, *flu and *stomach-ache (Kakudidi et al. 2000), while the leaves, root and bark of this tree is taken as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005) or are boiled or pounded to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005) or taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam consider W. salutaris their most important medicinal plant; its bark is *emetic (in large amounts) and used to treat *mental disease, *swellings and *tuberculosis (Heine & König 1988); in coastal East Africa powdered bark of W. stuhlmannii is mixed with water and used as a gargle for *toothache, while the powdered inner bark is mixed with water and applied to the body for *rheumatism (Kokwaro 1976) or the inner bark powdered and used as a plaster to ease aches and joint pains (Weiss 1979). warming herbs – herbs used to treat diseases caused by cold, e.g. Cinnamomum verum (*cinnamon), is in Chinese medicine a principal remedy when the patient ”shivers with *fever, breathes heavily and feels *nauseous”; many plants causes a sense of warmth, e.g. Alpinia officinarum (*galangal, Zingiberaceae), Angelica sinensis (*Chinese angelica, Apiaceae), Capsicum frutescens (*Cayenne or chilli pepper, Solanaceae), Evodia rutaecarpa (*evodia, Rutaceae), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (*rose of China or *show flower, Malvaceae), Schizonepeta tenuifolia (*jing jie, Lamiaceae) and Zingiber officinalis (*ginger or *singabera, Zingiberaceae); see also *Thomson. calefacient – an agent, substance or drug that wart – a small, usually hard, abnormal growth on the skin (often on the hand) covered by thickened epidermis; warts are usually caused by a virus; warts are often treated by applying an Aloe vera gel or a neat tincture of Thuja occidentalis (*arbor-vitae) directly to the wart 2-3 times a day for up to 3 months. washes – herbal baths and skin washes can relieve many conditions, including aching limbs and stuffy *sinuses; they are made from diluted *essential oils or *infusions; eyebaths soothe sore, inflamed or irritated eyes (Chevallier 2001). water berry – Syzygium guineense (the myrtle family, Myrtaceae) is a widespread tree in African swamp forests; for medicinal use see Syzygium. watercress – Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae) and its hybrid with R. microphyllum; watercress is a perennial creeping herb in moving water native to Europa and adjacent parts of Asia; it is rich in *vitamins A, B1, B2, C and E, and minerals, particularly *iodine, *iron and *phosphorus, and has *antibiotic and *anti-tumour activity; it is a good *detoxifying herb; it stimulates the appetite and relieves *bronchitis and *indigestion. water figwort – Scrophularia aquatica (the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae) is a perennial herb native to Europe; the Latin generic name alludes to the plant’s age-long use to treat the disease *scrofula; American figwort is *diuretic and helps to detoxify the body and expel *intestinal worms; it is also helpful in treating chronic *skin diseases such as *eczema and *psoriasis; it will also speed the healings of *wounds, *burns, *ulcers and *haemorrhoids;; see also *American figwort (S. marylandica), *Chinese figwort (S. ningopoensis), and *(common) *figwort (S. nodosa). 382 water grass1 – Cyperus rotundus (the sedge family, Cyperaceae) is one of the world’s worst weeds; for medicinal use see *nut grass; alternative name: *nut grass, *nutsedge, *purple nutsedge and *red grass. water grass2 – Cyperus esculentus (the sedge family, Cyperaceae) is one of the world’s worst weeds; for medicinal use see *water grass; alternative name: *chufa, *nut grass, *tiger nut, *water grass, *yellow nut sedge and *yellow nutgrass. water grass – Cyperus esculentus (the sedge family, Cyperaceae) is a tropical and subtropical weed with small edible tubers; the tuber is regarded as a *digestive tonic easing *flatulence and promoting *urine production and *menstruation; it is also belived to *aphrodisiac, and the juice is taken to heal *ulcers of the mouth and *gum; alternative name: *chufa, *nut grass, *tiger nut, *yellow nut sedge og *yellow nutgrass. water hyssop – Bacoba monnieri (the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae) is a a creeping perennial herb native to southern and eastern Asia; according to Indian researchers this herb improves *mental function, memory and concentration, and reduces learning time, and it is used for *asthma, *bronchitis, *constipation, *epilepsy, *indigestion, *nervous system disorders, *mental illness, *ulcers and *wind; in China it is taken as a tonic for *impotence, *infertility, *premature ejaculation, and *rheumatic conditions; and in Indonesia it is used for *filiariasis. water lettuce – Pistia stratiotes (Araceae); an aquatic floating herb widespread in tropical and subtropical regions; in East Africa the ash from a burnt plant is licked to cure *coughs, and the ash mixed with honey is taken as a remedy for *tachycardia; the roots are wrapped around the head of a *demented person and at the same time an infusion of the leaves is poured over the head (Kokwaro 1976). waterlily or water-lily – any species of the genera Nymphaea and Nuphar (the waterlily family, Nymphaeaceae), e.g. blue waterlily (Nymphaea nouchali), *white pond lily (Nymphaea odorata), *white waterlily (Nymphaea alba) and *yellow waterlily (Nuphar luteum); for medicinal use see *Nymphaea. waterlily family – Nymphaeaceae, is a rather small family with 9 genera and about 90 species widely distributed in both warm and temperate regions; for medicinal use see *Nymphaeaceae. watermelon – Citrullus vulgaris (the cucumber family, Cucurbitaceae) is an annual vine native to tropical Africa; it is widely cultivated for its large sweet and juicy thirst-quenching fruit; the seeds are oily and nutritious; it clears *wind, increases *urine flow and cleanses the *kidneys; it may also ease *asthma and *bronchitis, and has been used to treat *hepatitis. watermint – Mentha aquatica (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a widespread herb from wet habitats (Europe to Africa and Asia); it contains a strongly aromatic oil (includes *menthol); this volatile oil is strongly *antibacterial, *antifungal, *antiseptic, and *anaesthetic to the skin; it also has an *antispasmodic effect on the *digestive system by relaxing gut muscles; its major value lies in its ability to relieve *digestive problems such as *bloating, *colic, *diarrhoea, *flatulence, *griping pain, *nausea and *wind; watermint is one of the parents of *peppermint (M. × piperata). Watsonia (Iridaceae) – an African genus with about 50 species (mainly in South Africa); in South Africa W. densiflora is a remedy for *diarrhoea in the calf; alternative name: *bugle lily. wattle – some species in the genus Acacia (the pea family, Fabaceae, Mimosoideae), e.g. black wattle (A. mearnsii), Cootamunda wattle (A. baileyana), golden wattle (A. podalysiifolia), green wattle (A. decurrens or A. longifolia), hairy wattle (A. pubescens), silver wattle (A. dealbata) and Sydney golden wattle (A. decurrens and A. longifolia); African false wattle er Peltophorum africanum (Fabaceae, Caesalpinoideae); for medicinal use see *Acacia. wax gourd – Benincasa hispida (the cucumber family, Cucurbitaceae) is an annual vine native to tropical Africa and Asia; it is cultivated as a vegetable in India and East Asia; in China it is taken for *chest conditions and *vaginal discharge; in India the seeds are used to treat *coughs, *fever and excessive heat, and to expel *tapeworms. 383 weeping forsythia – Forsythia suspensa (the olive family, Oleaceae) is a deciduous shrub native to China and Japan; it has been shown to have *anti-inflammatory activity, to be *antimicrobial and to reduce *nausea and *vomiting; it has been used to treat *boils, *carbuncles, *mumps and infected *neck glands, and also *colds, *fever, *flu, *sore throat and *tonsillitis; in China it has been used to treat *breast cancer. weeping skin – skin exuding small droplets after exposed to burning, sun-burning or chemicals; it is sometimes treated using *witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) or *aloe (species of the genus Aloë such as A. vera). Welsh onion – Allium fistulosum (the onion family, Alliaceae); for medicinal use see *Allium. West African prickly ash – Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (the orange family, Rutaceae) is a West African tree traditionally used for *rheumatic conditions; see *Zanthoxylum. West Indian arrowroot – Maranta arundinacea (Marantaceae) has edible rhizomes (*maranta starch); for medicinal use see *arrowroot. wheat – Triticum aestivum (the grass family, Poaceae), also named bread wheat; in compounds also: durum wheat (T. turgidum Durum group), emmer wheat (T. turgidum Dicoccon group), flint, hard or macaroni wheat (T. turgidum Durum group), Polish wheat (T. turgidum Polonicum group) and Poulard wheat (T. turgidum Turgidum group); see also *Einkorn and *emmer. wheatgerm (oil) – the germinating seedlings of Triticum aestivum (the grass family, Poaceae) and its oil; it is rich in *vitamin E, a vitamin that promotes *fertility and is active in maintaining the nervous and vascular system. wheeziness – the state of being afflicted with or characterized by *wheezing. wheezing – breathing with difficulty and with a whistling sound; this condition is sometimes alleviated by taking *Chinese yam (*shan yao), Dioscorea opposita (the yam family, Dioscoreaceae). white beet – Beta vulgaris (the goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae) is a perennial herb with a swollen white root rich in sugar (sugar beet); it is widely cultivated for production of sugar in temperate regions; white beet contains *betaine, which promotes the regeneration of *liver cells, the metabolism of fat cells, and helps to lower *blood fat levels; see *beet and *red beet. white bryony – Bryonia dioica (the pumpkin family, Cucurbitaceae) is a perennial *toxic vine native to Europe; from prehistoric time its root was dug up and cut into human shape and used as a substitute for *mandrake (Mandragora officinalis) to afford magical protection; white bryony root is a powerful *cathartic and *purgative and is mainly used to ease painful *rheumatic conditions, but also taken for *asthma, *bronchitis and *pleurisy, and to reduce *high blood pressure; the whole plant is *antiviral and helps the body to adapt to stress. white cinnamon family – Canellaceae is a small family with 5 genera and 16-17 species; it is only native to tropical parts of Africa and America. white deadnettle – Lamium album (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial herb native to Europe and parts of Asia; it is *astringent and *demulcent and mainly used as a *uterine *tonic to reduce *menstrual bleeding and abnormal *vaginal discharge; taken externally it may ease *haemorrhoids and *varicose veins. white eclipta – Eclipta prostata, earlier E. alba (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is an annual or short-lived perennial creeping herb widespread throughout the tropics of the old world; the leaves have been eaten as a vegetable, and contain a black pigment that in India has been used to colour the hair or as an ink for tattooing; both on Chinese and Indian herbal medicine it is used to invigorate the *liver, staunch *bleeding (especially from the *uterus), and to prevent premature greying of the hair; alternative names: *false daisy and *trailing eclipta. white elm – Ulmus americana (the elm family, Ulmaceae) is a large deciduous tree native to North America; the inner bark is nutritious and contains large amounts of mucilage; it is excellent food for *convalescence when *digestion is weak and over-sensitive; it soothes and coats the irritated tissue and protects it from injury; it can bring instant relief to acidity, *diarrhoea and 384 *gastroenteritis, and will also alleviate *colic, *constipation, *diverticulitis, *haemmorhoids, *inflammation of the gut and *irritable bowel syndrome; it has also been used to treat *urinary problems and chest conditions (*bronchitis, *coughs, *pleurisy and *tuberculosis); *slippery elm (U. rubra) is used in the same way. white false hellebore – Veratrum album (Melianthiaceae) is a very *toxic plant native to Europe; it is an effective *insecticide (de-lousing agent), but can cause damage to human skin; it has also been used to ease *rheumatic pain; it is used in *homeopathic preparations to slow *heart rate; see also *American hellebore (V. viride), *Californian false hellebore (V. californicum), and *green false hellebore (V. viride). white-galled acacia – Acacia seyal (the pea family, Fabaceae, Mimosoideae) is a small thorny tree widespread in wooded grasslands in tropical Africa: for medicinal use see *Acacia. white horehound – Marrubium vulgare (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial herb native to Europe, but naturalized in North America and elsewhere; the leaves may act on the heart to correct irregular *heart beat; they have also *bitter and *expectorant activity; it has been used as a remedy for *chest problems for thousands of years; the herb causes the secretion of a more fluid *mucus, which is more readily cleared by *coughing; it is also taken for *asthma, *bronchiectasis, *bronchitis, *wheeziness and *whooping cough; as a bitter *tonic it increases the appetite and supports the function of the stomach. white lotus – Nymphaea lotus (the water lily family, Nymphaeaceae) is a perennial aquatic herb native to tropical Africa and Asia; it has been used for thousands of years to treat *dysentery, *indigestion and other *gastro-intestinal problems. whiteman’s foot – Plantago major (the plantain family, Plantaginaceae), is considered a troublesome weed in many countries; the leaves are used on *wounds to stop *bleeding, used internally it is *diuretic, *expectorant and *anti-catarrhal and is commonly prescribed for *gastritis, *peptic ulcers, *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *respiratory catarrh and *urinary tract bleeding; alternative names: *broad-leaved plantain, *common plantain, *dooryard plantain and *great plantain. white mulberry – Morus alba (the mulberry family, Moraceae) is a tall deciduous tree native to China; it is cultivated worldwide as a garden tree or for food for the silkworm; the leaves are *expectorant, encouraging the loosening and *coughing up of *catarrh, and taken to treat *coughs, *dizziness, *fever, *headaches, *sore eyes and throats and *vertigo; an extract of the leaves has been injected to ease *elephantiasis; the fruit juice is *cleansing and *tonic and used as a gargle and mouthwash; the fruit has been taken for blurred vision, *dizziness, *insomnia, premature greying of the hair, and *ringing in the ears; the root bark is *laxative. white mustard – Sinapis alba (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae) is an annul European herb; the ground seeds are mixed with water act as a *laxative and can relieve *acid indigestion; the grounded seeds or mustard oil from the seeds is applied as an ointment to sore muscles. white paint brush – Scadoxus (Haemanthus) albiflos in the daffodil family (Amaryllidaceae); a bulb maceration has been drunk to treat chronic *coughs. white peony – Paeonia lactiflora (the peony family, Paeoniaceae) is native to East Asia but widely cultivated as a garden ornamental in Europe and elsewhere; it is primarily a women’s herb; its root-stock is *antispasmodic relaxing intestinal tissue as well as the muscles of the *uterus; white peony counters *oxytocin, the hormone that induces contractions of the uterus; it is also thought to be *anti-inflammatory, lower *blood pressure (is *hypotensive) and reduce *fever; it helps *menstrual disorders like pain and *cramp and is probably *antiviral against the cold sore virus (*herpes simplex); see also *peony (P. officinalis). white pepper – fruits (peppercorns) of Piper nigrum (the pepper family, Piperaceae) collected ripe, the mesocarp removed and soaked in water for 8 days before drying; pepper has a *stimulant and *antiseptic effect on the *digestive and *circulatory systems; see *black pepper, *green pepper, *pepper and *red pepper. 385 white pine – species of the genus Podocarpus (Podocarpaceae, Pinopsida); for medicinal use see *Podocarpus; see also *podo, *totara (pine) and *yellow wood. white pond lily – Nymphaea odorata (waterlily family, Nymphaeaceae) is a perennial aquatic herb native to North America; due to its high content of *sodium (Na) and other minerals this plant is eagerly sought by grazing animals; the rhizome is *antiseptic, *astringent and *sedative, and taken to treat or relieve *anxiety, *bronchial catarrh, *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *insomnia and *kidney pain; it is reputed to reduce *sexual drive. white sage – Lantana camara (the teak family, Verbenaceae) is a troublesome weedy shrub in hot countries; for medicinal use see *Lantana; alternative names: *curse of India, *prickly lantana, *red-flowered sage, *tick berry and *wild sage. white thorn acacia – Acacia hockii (Fabaceae, Mimosoideae) is a small tree widely distributed in tropical Africa; it is used to treat *fever and *heart complaints; see *Acacia. white waterlily – Nymphaea alba (waterlily family, Nymphaeaceae) is a perennial aquatic herb widespread in temperate regions of Europe; due to its high content of *sodium (Na) and other minerals this plant is eagerly sought by grazing animals; the rhizome is *antiseptic, *astringent and *sedative, and taken to treat or relieve *anxiety, *bronchial catarrh, *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *insomnia and *kidney pain; it is reputed to reduce *sexual drive. white willow – Salix alba (the willow family, Salicaceae) is a tall deciduous tree native to Europe, North Africa and parts of Asia; the bark (stripped from branches 2-5 years old) contains *salicylic acid, which relieves pain and soothes *fever, and is used in the same way as *aspirin (the commercial product) for *headaches and fever; white willow is a good remedy for *arthritic and *rheumatic pain; the bark is also *astringent and was formerly used to staunch internal *bleeding; see also *black willow (S. nigra) and *crack willow (S. fragilis). Whitfieldia (Acanthaceae) – a genus of about 10 species of herbs or small shrubs native to tropical Africa; in Tanzania the Nguru chew the root of W. elongata for *snakebite (Kokwaro 1976). whitlow – *felon; localized supporation in finger or toe in one of several situations, e.g. in the nail fold or beneath the *periosteum; many plants are used to treat this condition, e. g. *Acacia hockii (*white thorn bark, Fabaceae), *Asystasia gangetica (Acanthaceae), *Citrullus lanatus (Cucurbitaceae), *Ipomoea batatas (*sweet potato) & cairica (Convolvulaceae), *Penianthus zenkeri (Menispermaceae), *Polygala erioptera (Polygalaceae), *Solanum incanum (Solanaceae) and *Swartzia madagascariensis (Fabaceae); see also *felon and *paronychia. whoop – the sound made from a person suffering from *whooping cough. whooping-cough – an infectious disease (especially of children) marked by a series of short, gasping coughs followed by a whooping sound/cough; many plants have been used to treat this condition, e.g. *Abrus precatorius (*coral pea, Fabaceae), *Acalypha fruticosa (Euphorbiaceae), *Acanthus pubescens (Acanthaceae), *Aloë mubendiensis (Aloëaceae), Ammi visnaga (*visnaga, Apiaceae), *Ananas comosus (*pineapple, Bromeliaceae), *Callistemon speciosus (Myrtaceae), *Cannabis sativa (*hashish or *marijuana, Cannabaceae), *Carica sativa (*papaya or *pawpaw, Caricaceae), Castanea dentata (*American chestnut) & sativa (*sweet chestnut, Fagaceae), Chelidonium majus (*greater celandine, Papaveraceae), *Clematis hirsuta (Ranunculaceae), *Croton megalocarpus (Euphorbiaceae), *Datura stramonium (*thornapple, Solanaceae), *Dracaena steudneri (Agavaceae), Drosera rotundifolia (*round-leaved sundew, Droseraceae), Ferula assa-foetida (*asafoetida or *devil’s dung, Apiaceae), Gelsemium sempervirens (*yellow jasmine, Loganiaceae), *Kalanchoë crenata (Crassulaceae), Marrubium vulgare (*white horehound, Lamiaceae), Morella (Myrica) salicifolia (Myricaceae), Ocimum basilicum (*sweet basil, Lamiaceae), *Ocotea usambarensis (Lauraceae), Oenothera biennis or spp. (*evening primrose, Oenotheraceae), Paeonia officinalis (*peony, Paeoniaceae), Polygala senega (*seneca snakeroot, Polygalaceae), Sanguinaria canadensis (*blood root, Papaveraceae), *Sporobolus pyramidalis (Poaceae), Symplocarpus foetidus (*skunk cabbage, Araceae) and Thymus vulgaris (*garden thyme, *thyme or *wild thyme, Lamiacaee). 386 whortleberry – Vaccinium myrtillus (the heather family, Ericaceae); alternative names: *bilberry and *blueberry; for medicinal use see *bilberry; red whortleberry is V. vitis-idaea and bog whortleberry is V. uliginosum. Widdringtonia (Cupressaceae; Gymnospermae) – for medicinal use see *African cypress. wild banana – Ensete (Musa) ventricosum (bananfamily, Musaceae); for medicinal use see *Ensete. wild candytuft – Iberis amara (the cabbage family, Brassicaceae) is an annual herb native to Europe and North Africa (cultivated as an ornamental in East Africa); it is a *bitter-tasting *tonic aiding *digestion and relieving *bloating and *wind; it has also been taken to treat *arthritis, *gout and *rheumatism. wild carrot – Daucus carota (the carrot family, Apiaceae); for medicinal use see *carrot. wild celery – Apium graveolens (the carrot family, Apiaceae); for medicinal use see *celery. wild chamomile – Chamomilla recutita in the sunflower family (Asteraceae); for medicinal use see alternative name: *German chamomile. wild cherry1 (England) – Prunus avium (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a deciduous tree or large shrub native to southwestern Asia, but widely cultivated for their sweet fruits throughout temperate regions of the world and often becoming naturalized; cherry bark is *astringent and *diuretic and has been used for *arthritis, *cystitis, *gout, *nephritis and urinary retension; the fruits are rich in sugar and are mildly *laxative; alternative name: *sweet cherry; see also *bird cherry (P. padus) and *dwarf cherry (P. cerasus). wild cherry2 (USA) – Prunus serotina (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a tall deciduous tree native to North America, but is widely cultivated for its timber; the bark of this tree is *astringent and widely used as an effective treatment for chronic dry and irritable *coughs; it is also used to treat *colds, *indigestion and *bowel problems; the bark contains a cyanogenic *glycoside (*prunastin) that yields the very toxic *prussic acid or *hydrocyanic acid (HCN); prunastin reduces the *cough reflex. wild chicory – Cichorium intybus (the sunflower family, Asteraceae); for medicinal use see alternative name: *chicory. wild chrysanthemum – Dendranthema indicum (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is an Asian perennial herb widely used in China to relieve *headaches, improve the eyesight, soothe *sore eyes and counter *infections such as *colds and *flu; see also *florist’s chrysanthemum. wild cinnamon – Canella winterana (Canellaceae) is a white-barked tree native to Central America used as a substitute for *cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), the bark has long been used for flavouring tobacco, wild cinnamon bark is *aromatic, *stimulant, *antiseptic, *antifungal, *cytotoxic (kills cells) and repels insects, and also used as a fish poison; an infusion is drunk for its pleasant flavour and it is considered a sexual stimulant; alternative name: *canella. wildcrafting – harvesting herbs from the wild. wild custard apple – Annona senegalensis (Annonaceae) is a savanna tree widespread in tropical Africa; it is a *diuretic widely used for a number of diseases and conditions, e.g. *abdominal pain, *diarrhoea, *fever, *intestinal worms, *joint problems, *leprosy, *snakebite, *sterility, *venereal diseases and *snakebite (Neuwinger 1996). wild horehound – Eupatorium teucrifolium (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a North American herb widely used to treat *arthritis, *colds, *fever and *rheumatic pains; the plant increases resistance to *viral and *bacterial infections, and reduces fever by encouraging sweating; it also loosens *phlegm and promotes its removal through *coughing; it has been used as a substitute for *boneset (Am), Eupatorium perfoliatum. wild hydrangea – Hydrangea arborescens (the hydrangea family, Hydrangeaceae) is a North American deciduous shrub; it is *diuretic and considered particularly useful in in the treatment of *bladder and *kidney stones; it has also been used for other *genito-urinary troubles, e.g. *cystitis, enlarged *prostate and *urethritis. 387 wild indigo – Babtisia tinctoria (the pea family, Fabaceae) is a perennial herb native to eastern North America; this herb has been widely used as a *poultice on *snake bites and other *wounds; it is a strong *antiseptic, *antimicrobial and *immune-stimulant widely used for upper *respiratory infections, a decoction of the root soothes infected skin and sore nipples. wild leek – Allium ampeloprasum (the onion family, Alliaceae); for medicinal use see *Allium. wild lettuce – Lactuca virosa (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a biennial herb native to Europe; it contains *sesquiterpene lactones which have a *sedative effect; the leaves are taken to reduce *cough, calm *overactivity and excitability resulting in a better sleep; wild lettuce is believed to lower the *libido; see *garden lettuce (L. sativa). wild marjoram – Origanum vulgare (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial herb native to Europe; it is today mainly used as a culinary herb, but was in medieval times considered a *cureall; it is *antibacterial, *antifungal and *antiseptic; it has been taken to treat *asthma, *bronchitis, *coughs, *tonsillitis and other respiratory problems; it also settles *flatulence and may promote *menstruation; see also *sweet marjoram (O. majorana). wild onion – Allium schoenoprasum subsp. sibiricum (the onion family, Alliaceae) is a perennial bulbous herb native to the northern parts of the northern hemisphere; it was used extensively by native North Americans to treat *colds, *flu and *stings; it may be used in the same way as *chives (A. schoenoprasum). wild sage – Lantana camara (the teak family, Verbenaceae) is a troublesome weedy shrub in hot countries; for medicinal use see *Lantana; alternative names: *curse of India, *prickly lantana, *red-flowered sage, *tick berry and *white sage. wild sarsaparilla – Aralia nudicaulis (the ivy family, Araliaceae), is a bush that encourages sweating, is *stimulant and *detoxifying; its root is taken for *asthma, *coughs and *rheumatism; applied externally as a *poultice it is used to treat *eczema and other *skin diseases; a related American species, *American spikenard (A. racemosa), is used much the same way. wild strawberry – Fragaria vesca (Rosaceae) is a European herb which has been used to treat *diarrhoea and *dysentery (Chevallier 1996). wild teasel – Dipsacus fullonum (the teasel family, Dipsacaceae), is a tall perennial herb native to Europe and western Asia; it is often a troublesome weed; the root is thought to have *diuretic, sweat-inducing properties, cleansing the system and improving the *digestion, but is not much used today; it was traditionally used to treat *diarrhoea, *fistulae, *sores (also *cancerous ones) and *warts; it may also act on the liver helping with *jaundice and *gall bladder problems; the water which collects in the leaf (*Venus’s bath) was believed to be good for the eyes. wild thyme – Thymus serpyllum (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial aromatic herb native to Europe; the volatile oil (including *thymol) is strongly *antiseptic and a most effective *antifungal, but also expels *intestinal worms, and has shown strong *antibacterial activity against Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium often associated with *stomach ulcers; it is also an effective remedy for *asthma and *hay fever, and throat and chest infections such as *bronchitis, *pleurisy and *whooping cough; see also *garden thyme or *thyme (T. vulgaris). wild tobacco – Nicotiana rusticana (the potato family, Solanaceae) is an annual *toxic herb native to tropical America; although tobacco is mainly used as a dangerous *stimulant it also have *therapeutic values; the plant contains *alkaloids (notably *nicotine), which is a stimulant and addictive; the dried leaves make a good *insecticide; in Central America tobacco was used as a treatment for *asthma, *convulsions and *skin diseases; at present wild tobacco is used to treat *senile dementia; a related species, *tobacco, Nicotiana tobacco is used in the same way. wild yam – Dioscorea villosa (the yam family, Dioscoreaceae) is a perennial climbing vine native to North and Central America, but has been cultivated and naturalized elsewhere; it contains *dioscin, a steroidal *saponin, which was the base (through *diosgenin) for the synthesis of *progesterone (one of the female sex hormones) and the first *contraceptive pill as well as 388 *corticosteroid hormones such as *cortisone; *dioscin has anti-inflammatory action and has been used to relieve pain especially in connection with *arthritis, *rheumatism, labour and painful *menstrual periods; it also relieves *cramps, muscle tension and *colic; see *yam. willow – species of the genus Salix (the willow family, Salicaceae), e.g. basket willow (S. viminalis and S. purpurea), *black willow (S. nigra), brittle willow (S. fragilis), Cape willow (S. mucronata), corkscrew willow (S. matsudana f. ’tortuosa’), *crack willow (S. fragilis), creeping willow (S. repens), cricket-bat willow (S. alba f. ’coerulea’), goat willow (S. caprea), golden willow (S. alba f. ’chermesina’), Humboldt willow (S. chilensis), Kilmarnock willow (S. caprea f. ’pendula’), least willow (Salix herbacea), prairie willow (S. humilis), pussy willow (S. caprea), weeping willow (S. babylonica and S. × sepulcralis), *white willow (S. alba) and woolly willow (S. lanata); all species in this genus contain *salicin, which has been widely used in folk medicine to treat *headache and *fever; see *aspirin, which is the commercial product still widely used to treat *headache, *inflammations, *rheumatic (*arthritis) and other *pains (*analgesic). willow family – Salicaceae is a medium sized family with 4 genera and about 350 species widely distributed in all continents except Australia; if parts of Flacourtiaceae is included the family is much larger. willow herb (willow-herb) – species of the genus Epilobium (Onagraceae); for medicinal use see *fireweed. wind – gas formed by the bowels by indigestion; plants used as remedies for excessive wind include *cardamom (Eletteria cardamomum), *fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), *lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora) and *peppermint (Piper × piperita). wineberry – Rubus phoenicolasius (the rose family, Rosaceae); like other species in this genus wineberry has numerous small drupes rich in vitamins and thus useful a s a general defence against diseases. wink-a-peep – Anagallis arvensis (the primrose family, Primulaceae) is a troublesome weed in many temperate parts of the world; this herb is *diuretic, sweat-inducing and *expectorant; it has mainly been used to stimulate the *coughing up of *mucus and help recover from *colds and *flu, but was also taken to treat *epilepsy and *mental problems; alternative names: *common pimpernel, *pimpernel, *poison chickweed, *poisonweed, *poor man’s weatherglass, *red chickweed, *scarlet pimpernel, *shephard’s clock and *shepherd’s weatherglass. winter cherry – Physalis alkekengi (the potato family, Solanaceae) is a perennial herb native to Asia, but widely cultivated and naturalized elsewhere; the fruit contains alkaloids and vitamins A and C; it has been widely used in the past as a *diuretic and to treat *gallstones and *kidney stones; alternative name: *Chinese lantern. wintergreen (USA) – Gaultheria procumbens (the heather family, Ericaceae) is a North American low-growing, creeping shrub; it contains *phenols such as *salicylic acid; this plant is strongly *anti-inflammatory, *antiseptic, and soothing to the *digestive system; it is an effective remedy for *arthritic and *rheumatic pains bringing relief to inflamed, swollen and sore muscles and *joints; it may also help *neurological conditions such as *sciatia and *trigeminal neuralgia; taken as a tea it relieves *colic and *flatulence. wintergreen family – Pyrolaceae is a small family with 4 genera and about 30 species; the genus Chimaphila (*pipsissewa) has a species used as medicine; the family Pyrolaceae is now often included in Ericaceae. winter purslane – Montia (Claytonia) perfoliata (the purslane family, Portulacaceae) is a small annual herb native to North America, but widespread as a weed in temperate regions througout the world; it is rich in *vitamin C and used as a salad; it can also be taken as an effective *diuretic and invigorating spring *tonic; alternative name: *miner’s lettuce. winter savory – Satureja montana (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial herb native to the Mediterranean region; it is similar to *summer savory (S. hortensis) but its essential oil is 389 stronger; it is mainly cultivated for use in cookery, but as a strong *antioxidant it also has therapeutic values similar to those of *thyme (Thymus vulgaris); it stimulates the *digestion, helps to alleviate *colic, *flatulence and *wind; the essential oil is *antifungal and may be used to treat *candidiasis and other fungal attacks. winter squashes – Cucurbita maxima (the melon family, Cucurbitaceae); the seeds may be used in a similar way as those of *pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo). winter weed (Australia) – Ageratum conyzoides (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a troublesome weed in many warm countries; for medicinal use see *Ageratum; alternative names: *billy goat weed, *blue top, *goat weed and *tropic ageratum. witch grass – Elymus repens (the grass family, Poaceae) is a troublesome weed in many temperate countries; for medicinal use see *couch grass. witch hazel – Hamamelis virginiana (the witch hazel family, Hamamelidaceae) is a small deciduous North American tree; the bark is strongly *astringent and taken internally for damaged blood vessels, *haemorrhoids, heavy *menstrual bleeding and *varicose veins; it will also benefit inflamed and tender skin and *abrasions and makes a good eyewash for inflammation of the eyes; alternative name: *American witch hazel. witch hazel family – Hamamelidaceae, is a fairly small family with about 28 genera and less than 100 species widely distributed in warm and temperate regions (in East Africa 1 genus and 3 species, in Uganda 1 genus and 1 species); some species of the genera Hamamelis (*witch hazel) and *Trichocladus are used as medicine. witchweed – species of the hemiparasitic genus Striga (previously Scrophulariaceae now Orobanchaceae); many species are troublesome weeds parasiting cultivated plants, e.g. red witchweed (S. lutea or S. asiatica); for medicibal use see *Striga. Withania (the potato family, Solanaceae) – a genus with 10 species in the Old World tropics; in Uganda the leaves of W. somnifera are used to treat *peptic ulcers and expel *thread-worms, while the root bark is used to stop recurrent *abortion and the powdered root drunk in tea to treat *bubo and premature *ejaculation (Adjanohoun et al. 1993; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves are boiled and eaten to improve sexuality in women (KamatenesiMugisha 2005); elsewhere in East Africa this plant is widely used for many purposes, e.g. the heated leaves are applied to various parts of the body as *pain killers; the roots are used to treat *colds in children, *excess bile, *gastric ulcer, *gonorrhoea, *labour pain, *stomach-ache and generell ill-health (Kokwaro 1993); see *withania (below) and *Indian ginseng. withania – Withania somnifera (the potato family, Solanaceae) is a shrub native to India, the Middle East, the Mediterranean and parts of Africa; it contains alkaloids that are sedative, reduce blood pressure and lower the heart beat rate; withania also contains *steroidal lactones (withanolides) which are similar to the body’s own *steroid hormones; these are *anti-inflammatory and inhibit the growth of *cancer cells; the plant may be used in chronic inflammatory diseases such as *lupus and *rheumatoid arthritis, and as a cancer-preventative; withania increases *heamoglobin levels, reduces greying of hair and improves sexual performance; it has a high *iron content and is used for *anaemia; withania is particularly useful for restoring vitality for sufferers of stress and overwork; alternative name: *Indian ginseng. Withering, William (1741-1799) – an English conventional doctor, who in 1785 published ”Account of the Foxglove” showing its value as a medicine for *dropsy (water retention), which is often an indication of a failing heart. wizard – male practitioner of black magic, see Diospyros mespiliformis. wolfberry (Am) – species of the genus Lycium (the potato family, Solanaceae), a genus of about 100 species in temperate and subtropical regions of both hemispheres; for medicinal use see *Lycium; alternative names: *boxthorn and *matrimony-vine; see also *Chinese matrimony-vine (Lycium chinense), *Duke of Argyll’s tea-plant (Lycium halimifolium), and *tea-plant. 390 woman’s tongue – Albizia lebbeck (the pea family, Fabaceae, Mimosoïdeae) is a tree native to tropical Asia, but widely naturalized in Africa; for medicinal use see *Albizia. wonderberry (Am) – Solanum scabrum (the potato family, Solanaceae) is a weedy species in the Solanum nigrum complex also cultivated as a vegetable; it has been used to treat a variety of maladies such as high blood pressure, *diarrhoea, abdominal pains, burns, scalds, cuts, boils, hiccup, heartburn and excessive salivation in children, and also as a preventive medicine for *malaria and as a fungal repellent (Olet et al. 2005). wood anemone – Anemone nemorosa (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae) is a perennial toxic spring herb very abundant in temperate European woods; it is now rarely used in herbal medicine. wood apple – Limonia acidissima (the orange family, Rutaceae) is a spiny tree with a useful timber native to southern India, but widely cultivated in tropical Asia; the fruit contains fruit acids, *vitamins and *minerals, and are used to stimulate the *digestive system; the leaves are *astringent and used for *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *flatulence, *haemorrhoids and *indigestion; alternative name; *elephant apple. wooden pear – species of the genus Schrebera (Oleaceae), e.g. wing-leaved wooden pear (S. alata); for medicinal use see *Schrebera. wood flowers – species from the family Loranthaceae; these are all parasites attached to branches of trees and shrubs and often producing attractive flowers; for medicinal see see *Loranthaceae. woodruff – some species of the genera Asperula and Galium (the coffee family, Rubiaceae); for medicinal use see *sweet woodruff (previously Asperula odorata, now Galium odoratum). wood sage – Teucrium scorodonia (the mint family, Lamiaceae) is a perennial aromatic herb native to Europe, North Africa and western Asia; an infusion of this herb is taken to treat *catarrh, *fever, *gout, *rheumatism, *stomach problems and to aid weight loss; it has also been used as a mouthwash for sore gums, and as a lotion to heal *wounds; see *Cape germander (T. capense) and * wall germander (T. chamaedrys). wood sorrel – Oxalis acetosella (the wood sorrel family, Oxalidaceae); for medicinal use see *Oxalis; *yellow wood sorrel is O. corniculata. woolly foxglove – Digitalis lanata (the foxglove family, Scrophulariaceae) is today the main source of *cardiac glycosides; see *foxglove. World Health Organization (WHO) – an international organization under the United Nations dealing with various international health problems, and also publishing books and other information on health related items. worms (in intestines) – plants which expels parasitic intestinal worms (especially *hookworms, *roundworms and *tapeworms) are named *anthelmintic or *vermifuges; a large number of plants are used to expel parasitic worms, e.g. *avocado (Persea americana), pink root (Spigelia anthelmia & marilandica) and *wormseed (Chenopodium ambrosioides) in America, pomegranate (Punica granatum) in Europe and Asia, for other medicinal herbs used see *anthelmintic. wormseed – Chenopodium ambrosioides (the goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae) is an annual herb native to America, but widely spread as a weed throughout the world; it has been widely used to expel *intestinal worms and also used for *snake bites and other *poisoning; the leaves have been used for *asthma and *spasmodic coughs, and as a *digestive remedy to ease *colic and *stomach pain . wormwood – Artemisia absinthum (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a widespread medicinal plant in temperate regions; wormwood contains volatile oils (*sesquiterpene lactones, *thujone, *azulenes), *flavonoids, *phenolic acids and *lignans) and has a strong *tonic effect on the *digestive system, especially on the stomach and *gallbladder; it is much used to treat *digestive problems such as *anaemia; it eases *stomach pain, stimulates secretion of *bile, eliminates *intestinal worms, is *anti-inflammatory and a mild *antidepressant. alternative name: * absinthe 391 (plant); in compounds also *Chinese wormwood (A. annua), field wormwood (A. campestris), *levant wormwood (A. cina) and sea wormwood A. maritima); see also *mugwort and *southernwood. wound – an injury involving the cutting or tearing of the flesh; for *wound healing herbs see below. wound healing herbs – very numerous herbs have *astringent and wound healing qualities; the most widely used for healing wounds are Agrimonia pilosa (*Chinese agrimony or *xian he cao, Rosaceae), Prunella vulgaris (*selfheal, Lamiaceae) and Symphytum officinale (*comfrey, Boraginaceae); for other herbs used see *bleeding. woundwort – species of the genus Stachys (the mint family, Lamiaceae), e.g. alpine woundwort (S. alpina), downy woundwort (S. germanica), field woundwort (S. arvensis), hedge woundwort (S. sylvatica), marsh woundwort (S. palustris); for medicinal use see *betony (S. officinalis). wu mei – Prunus mume (the rose family, Rosaceae) is a tall deciduous tree native to China; the fruit is very sour, but is *antibiotic and *astringent and widely used in Chinese medicine to alleviate *coughs, *diarrhoea and *dysentery and stop *bleeding; externally the fruit is applied as a plaster to sites of removed *corns and *warts; alternative name: *Japanese apricot. Wych elm – Ulmus glabra (the elm family, Ulmaceae) is a large deciduous tree native to Europe; the inner bark is nutritious and contains large amounts of mucilage; it is excellent food for *convalescence when *digestion is weak and over-sensitive; it soothes and coats the irritated tissue and protects it from injury; it can bring instant relief to acidity, *diarrhoea and *gastroenteritis, and will also alleviate *colic, *constipation, *diverticulitis, *haemmorhoids, *inflammation of the gut and *irritable bowel syndrome; it has also been used to treat *urinary problems and *chest conditions (*bronchitis, *coughs, *pleurisy and *tuberculosis). xanthophyll – yellow oxygen-rich carotenoid. +++++ Xeroderris (Fabaceae. Faboideae) – a genus with a single tree species native to the savanna regions of Africa (in East Africa, but not in Uganda); in coastal Tanzania the bark of X. stuhlmannii is boiled in water and the *decoction drunk for *colds and *chest troubles, while a root decoction is drunk for the treatment of *elephantiasis (Kokwaro 1976). Xeromphis (Rubiaceae) – a genus now transferred to the genus *Catunaregam. xeronine – an alkaloid which enters the human cells enabling them to counter inflammation and support normal cellular divisions; it is found in e.g. *Indian mulberry or *noni, Morinda citrifolia (Rubiaceae), a southeast Asian shrub. Xerophyta (Velloziaceae) – a genus with about 30 species of perennial herbs of shrubs widely distributed in hot regions in Africa, Madagascar and Arabia (8 species in East Africa, 2 species in Uganda); in Kenya a stiff neck or other stiff part of the body is treated by using the leaves of X. spekei; the leaf is placed near a fire and when quite warm placed over the stiff or aching parts on top of a cloth, and the leaf is used to rub the area (Kokwaro 1976). xian he cao – Agrimonia pilosa (the rose family, Rosaceae) has long been used to heal *wounds because it staunches *bleeding and encourages *clot formation; it is also a helpful remedy for *diarrhoea and is a *tonic for the *digestion as a whole; alternative name: *Chinese agrimony. Ximenia (Olacaceae) – a genus with 8 species of trees or shrubs widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in Kenya the edible fruits of X. americana (hog plum; monkey plum) are eaten in large quantities to expel *intestinal worms (Kokwaro 1976); in Mali a decoction of the root of X. americana mixed with the aerial parts of Euphorbia hirta is drunk to treat *intestinal *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); a root *decoction of X. caffra is a part-medicine for *chest pain, *hookworms and *syphilis, and fresh leaves are chewed and the juice swallowed for *stomach-ache; also a drop of a leaf extract is applied to an *itchy eye in treatment of *trachoma (Kokwaro 1976); in Kenya the Luo use this plant to treat *mouth infection, *toothache and *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002); in Karamoja in East 392 Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam chew the leaves of X. caffra and spit into eyes to clear eyes (Heine & König 1988);. Xylocarpus (Meliaceae) – a genus of 2 or 3 tree species native to coastal habitats from East Africa to the Pacific (2 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in East Africa the large fruits of X. granatum are crushed and the liquid drunk as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976). Xylopia (Annonaceae) – a genus of 100-160 species of trees and shrubs native to all tropical regions (8-10 species in East Africa, 4 species in Uganda); the seed of X. aethiopica (African pepper) contains a volatile oil with the odour of cinnamon; it is also said to contain an alkaloid resembling *morphine in action (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); the aromatic root of X. odoratissima is taken by women for *barrenness (Bally 1937 & 1938). Xylotheca (*Flacourtiaceae or *Achariaceae) – a genus of 2 species of shrubs or small trees native to Angola and eastern Africa (1 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in East Africa the roots of X. tettensis are chewed or a root *decoction drunk as an *aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976). Xymalos (Monimiaceae) – a genus of 3 species of shrubs or small trees native to tropical and South Africa (1 species in East Africa and Uganda); in Kenya the leaves of X. monospora (*lemonwood) are softened by folding and twisting and placed on *sores for quick healing, while the root is used to alleviate aching parts of the body (Kokwaro 1976). yam – species of the genus *Dioscorea (the yam family, Dioscoreaceae); the large underground tubers are eaten in periods of little available food; ; se also ’cocoyam’; D. bulbifera has up to 5 cm big edible airial bulbils in leaf axils; many species of the genus Dioscorea contain *dioscin, a steroidal *saponin, which was the base (through *diosgenin) for the synthesis of *progesterone (one of the female sex hormones) and the first *contraceptive pill as well as *corticosteroid hormones such as *cortisone; dioscin has anti-inflammatory action and has been used to relieve pain especially in connection with *arthritis, *rheumatism, *labour and painful *menstrual periods; it also relieves *cramps, *muscle tension and *colic; see *wild yam. yam family – Dioscoreaceae is a medium sized family with 6 genera and about 630 species widely distributed in warm parts of all continents; species of the genus *Dioscorea are of medicinal use. yarrow – Achillea millefolium (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a widespread perennial herb in Europe and western Asia; it has *alkaloids (e.g. *achilleine) and *flavonoids which help stop external and internal *bleeding, *sesquiterpene *lactones which are bitter and have *anti-tumour activity, and volatile oils which are *anti-inflammatory and *anti-allergenic; yarrow is first and foremost a herb for staunching *wounds; it also helps to recover from colds and flu and regulate the *menstrual cycle; it may also be useful for *hay fever, weak digestion and *colic; in compound words also other species of the genus Achillea; alternative name: *milfoil. yaws – an infectious tropical disease marked by *febrile disturbances, *rheumatic pains, and eruptions of rounded tubercles. yellow dock – Rumex crispus (the knotweed family, Polygonaceae) is a perennial herb native to European sea-shores, but widely distributed as a weed throughout the world; the root is a gentle *laxative used for *constipation and also has *detoxifying activity; it is believed to increase the flow of *bile; it has also been taken for *arthritis and *skin conditions (*acne, *eczema and *fungal infections), alternative name: *curled dock and *sour dock. Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine – earliest Chinese medical text; it was written in the first century BC. yellow fever – an acute infectious *virus disease of warm climates characterized by *fever, *jaundice and *albuminuria; it is transmitted by a *mosquito; plants used to treat yellow fever include (bark or twigs of) *Picralima nitida (Apocynaceae), *Terminalia brownii & mollis (Combretaceae). yellow foxglove – Digitalis lutea (the veronica family, Veronicaceae) is a perennial herb native to central and western Europe; it has been cultivated in Russia for medicinal use; like other 393 foxgloves it contains *cardiac glycosides which strengthen the beating of a weakened heart; it is not as much used as other foxgloves, but is in fact a less toxic alternative than *purple foxglove and *woolly foxglove (as its alkaloids are more readily metabolized and flushed out of the body). yellow gentian – Gentiana lutea (the gentian family, Gentianaceae) is a robust perennial very bitter herb from European alpine regions; it is an attractive garden plant and an important medicinal herb; it contains a substance named *amarogentin, which is possibly the most bitter substance on the earth – it can be tasted at dilutions of 1: 50 000; gentian stimulates the appetite and improve the action of the whole *digestive system by increasing stomach secretions; gentian also acts as a stimulant on the *gallbladder and *liver, and it aids the absorption of many nutrients including *iron and *vitamin B12; it is particularly useful as a digestive *tonic in old age, for irondeficiency *anaemia and for women with heavy *menstrual bleeding; alternative name: *gentian and great yellow gentian; *purple gentian (G. purpurea) can be used in the same way. yellow jasmine – Gelsemium sempervirens (Loganiaceae) is an evergreen woody climber native to Central America and adjacent parts of North America; the rootstock is a potent medicine in small doses taken as an *antispasmodic and *sedative for *neuralgia; it is applied externally for *neuralgia and *sciatica, and sometimes for *asthma, *bowel problems, *insomnia, *migraine, and *whooping cough; it is also used in *homeopathic medicine. yellow loosestrife – Lysimachia vulgaris (the primrose family, Primulaceae) is a perennial herb native to Europe; it is an astringent herb used to treat *gastro-intestinal problems like *diarrhoea, *dysentery, external and internal *bleeding and to cleanse *wounds; its English name refers to its reputed power to prevent conflict, especially between animals; see also *Chinese loosestrife (L. christinae) and *yellow pimpernel (L. nemorum). yellow mombin – Spondias mombin, also named S. lutea (Anacardiaceae); is a medicinal tree with edible drupes; in West Africa the fruit juice is taken for *fever and as a *diuretic; a bark decoction is drunk to alleviate severe *cough, while dry pulverized bark is applied as a dressing on *circumcision wounds; a root extract is drunk to treat *colic and *stomach pain, but for children the sap of young leaves is used; ground leaves mixed with lemon are given to childrena as *anthelmintic; a leaf maceration is drunk to trat *anuria, *blennorrhagia and *metrorrhagia in pregnant women (Neuwinger 2000); alternative names: *jobo and *mombin; see also *ambarella, *golden apple, *jew’s plum, *Otaheite apple, *red mombin and *Spanish plum. yellow nutgrass – Cyperus esculentus (the sedge family, Cyperaceae); see *yellow nut sedge below. yellow nut sedge – Cyperus esculentus (the sedge family, Cyperaceae) is a tropical and subtropical weed with small edible tubers; the tuber is regarded as a *digestive tonic easing *flatulence and promoting urine production and *menstruation; it is also belived to *aphrodisiac, and the juice is taken to heal *ulcers of the mouth and gum; alternative name: *chufa, *nut grass, *tiger nut, *water grass and *yellow nutgrass. yellow oleander – Thevetia peruviana (the periwinkle family, Apocynaceae) is native to tropical America but is widely cultivated as an ornamental (especially as a hedge) elsewhere in the tropics; for medicinal use see *Thevetia. yellow pheasant’s eye – Adoxa vernalis (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae) is a perennial Eurasian herb sometimes cultivated in gardens for its bright yellow spring flowers; it contains *cardiac glycosides similar to those found in *foxglove (Digitalis purpurea); these substances improve the heart’s efficiancy, increasing its output while at the same time slowing its rate; it is mainly used to treat low *blood pressure and too fast or irregularly beating hearts; alternative name: *false helleborine. yellow pimpernell – Lysimachia nemorum (the primrose family, Primulaceae) is a perennial creeping herb native to European woodlands; it is an *astringent herb used to staunch *bleeding; see also *Chinese loosestrife (L. christinae) and *yellow loosestrife (L. vulgaris). yellow poui tree – Tabebuia serratifolia (Bignoniaceae) is an attractive ornamental tree from Venezuela; for medicinal use see *lapacho. 394 yellow (prickly) poppy – Argemone mexicana (the poppy family, Papaveraceae) is a handsome, thorny troublesome weed in many warm countries; for medicinal use see *Mexican (prickly) poppy; alternative names: *Mexican (prickly) poppy and *prickly poppy. yellow sorrel – yellow species of the genus slekta Oxalis and particularly O. corniculata (the wood sorrel family, Oxalidaceae); for medicinal use see *Oxalis. yellow (sour) dock – Rumex crispus (the knotgrass family, Polygonaceae) is a troublesome weed in some countries; For medicinal use see *curled dock; alternative names: *curled (curly) dock og *sour dock. yellow water crowfoot – Ranunculus delphinifolius (the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae) is a North American herb; its flowers are used by the Meskawi people as a snuff and to provoke *sneezing, and mixed with other herbs to treat *respiratory conditions such as *catarrh and nasal *congestion. yellow-wood – species of the genus Podocarpus (Podocarpaceae, Pinopsida); for medicinal use see *Podocarpus; see also *podo, *totara (pine) and *white pine; East African yellow-wood is P. falcatus. yellow (wood) sorrel – krypgaukesyre, Oxalis corniculata (gaukesyrefamily, Oxalidaceae), is a troublesome weed in some countries; for medicinal use see *Oxalis; alternative name:*creeping sorrel, *procumbent sorrel and *sheep sorrel. yerba santa (Spanish for holy herb) – Eriodictyon californicum (Hydrophyllaceae) is a sticky, aromatic, evergreen shrub native to Mexico and western North America; the leaves have been infused and taken for *asthma, *catarrh, *colds, *coughs, *fever and *sore throats. yerba dulce (Spanish for sweet herb) – Lippia dulcis (Verbenaceae) is a deciduous shrub native to Mexico; it has been used as a *demulcent and * expectorant remedy. yew – barlind, Taxus baccata (barlindfamily, Taxaceae) is an evergreen European shrub or tree; it contains very toxic alkaloids (*taxine), but yew has been used to treat *rheumatic and *urinary problems; some varieties of yew also contains the diterpene *taxol; which is an *anti-cancer drug because it inhibits cell division (but usually the *Pacific yew is preferred; the best longbows in Europe were made from yew; i compounds also other species of the genus Taxus, e.g. American yew (T. canadensis), Chinese yew (T. chinensis), Japanese yew (T. cuspidata) and *Pacific yew (T. brevifolia). yin (Chinese) – in Chinese thought, everything in the universe is composed of yin and yang, i.e. complementary opposites such as day and night, dark and light side of a valley, up and down; yin is the front of the body while yang is the back, but the abdomen is yin relative to the chest, which is yang. yin chen hao (Chinese) – Artemisia capillaris (the sunflower family, Asteraceae) is a perennial aromatic herb native to eastern Asia; it contains a volatile oil which is *antifungal; this herb is also *anti-inflammatory and *diuretic; it has a strengthening effect on the *liver, *gallbladder and *digestive system; in Chinese medicine it is mainly used for treating *liver problems, and particularly *hepatitis with *jaundice; alternative name: *liver wormwood. ylang-ylang (Chinese) – Cananga odorata (the custard apple family, Annonaceae) is a tall evergreen tree native to southeastern Asia and the Pacific, but is widely cultivated elsewhere; the flowers are a traditional adornment in the Far East, and their scent is believed to have *aphrodisiac qualities; the flowers and their aromatic oil are *antimicrobia, *antioxidant and *sedative; they are used to lower *blood pressure and slow a very fast heart rate, and possibly helpful in treating *impotence. yohimbe – Pausinystalia yohimbe (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a tall, evergreen tree native to the forests of western Africa; its bark contains about 6 % *indole alkaloids, which have a *cerebral stimulant action in small doses, but are highly toxic in large doses; it is used as a male *aphrodisiac, mild *hallucinogen and as a stimulant to counter *erectile dysfunction. 395 Zamioculcas (Araceae) – a genus with a single tuberous species native to tropical Africa (1 species in East Africa, none in Uganda); in East Africa the leaf bases of Z. zamiifolia are heated and the warm juice squeezed into the ears of children to treat *ear-ache (Kokwaro 1976). Zanha (Sapindaceae) – a genus of 4 species of trees or shrubs in tropical Africa including Madagascar (2 species in East Africa, 1 species in Uganda); in East Africa a root decoction of Z. africana is used to treat *constipation, *fits, *prostatitis, and to facilitate *childbirth, while pounded roots are rubbed on aching legs; the bark of Z. golungensis is used to increase milk production and powdered bark is drawn up through nose for chest complaints (Kokwaro 1976). Zanthoxylum (Rutaceae) – *prickly ash; a genus of about 250 species widespread i all warm regions and reaching the temperate region in Canada; all are prickly shrubs or trees and many are used as herbal medicines or as spices, and some have valuable timber; Z. americanum (*prickly ash) is used for many different diseases by native Americans; Z. bungeanum (*Chinese prickly ash) is used for illnesses causing *abdominal pain; Z. capense (*Cape prickly ash) is traditionally used for colic; Z. chalybeum (*East African prickly ash) is used as a substitute for *quinine and to treat *cold, *coughs, *fever, *headache and *stomach complaints; in East Africa it is also used to treat *oedema in *kwashiorkor, *dizziness, *malaria and the bark is chewed for *toothache (Kokwaro 1976); in coastal East Africa branchlets are used as toothbrushes, and are belived to keep the gums hard and healthy (Weiss 1979); in Kenya the Luo use this plant to treat *toothache and *stomach ache (Geissler et al. 2002); in East Uganda the roots are used to treat *pyomyositis, *sterility and uterine *fibroids (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam add the leaves, seeds and bark of Z. chalybeum to soup or gruel to treat *cough, *fever and to improve body strength (Heine & König 1988); Z. clavaherculis (*southern prickly ash) is used for many different diseases by native Americans; in Uganda and Kenya the bark of Z. gillettii (= Z. macrophyllum & Fagara macrophylla; *large-leaved prickly ash) is chewed and the juice swallowed for the treatment of *stomach-ache and to alleviate *toothache (Kokwaro 1976; Adjanohoun et al. 1993); it is also used for *colic, *coughs, *internal parasites, *rheumatism, *snakebite and *venereal diseases; in West Uganda its bark is used to treat blocked *urethra (Kakudidi et al. 2000) while the bark and root is boiled and eaten to improve sexuality in women (Kamatenesi-Mugisha 2005) or taken to treat menstruation with excessive bleeding, *hypermenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006); in the Bwindi Impenetrable forest in Uganda Z. leprieurii is used by herbalists (Cunningham 1996); in East Africa the roots, bark and fruit of Z. usambarense are taken as a *cough medicine, and the bark is also used in the treatment of *rheumatism; Z. zanthoxyloides (*West African prickly ash) is traditionally used to treat *rheumatic conditions Neuwinger 1996). Zea (Poaceae) – a genus of 4 Central American species, but Zea mays (*maize) is now cultivated worldwide as a major food crop; different parts of the maize plant is widely used as medicine; the *cornsilk is of particular value for almost all problems of the *urinary system; maize meal is taken (as a *decoction) for *dysentery and to increase *breast-milk production, and externally to treat bruises and other *skin problems like *boils, sores and swellings; in East Uganda the ashes are rubbed against the gum in dental care in connection with false teeth (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Mali the spike of maize is mixed with the powdered leaves of Glossonema boveanum and the leaves of Opilia celtidifolia and taken as a porridge to treat *intestinal *schistosomiasis (Bah et al. 2006); alternative name (in America): *corn; see also *cornsilk. zebra wood family – Connaraceae is a medium sized family with 16 genera and about 350 species widely distributed in all tropical regions; many species are poisonous, and some are used as medicines; see *Connaraceae. Zebrina (Commelinaceae) – an old name of a genus now classified as *Tradescantia. zedoary – Curcuma zedoaria (the ginger family, Zingiberaceae) is an Asian herb widely used as a medicine; it is a bitter *digestive stimulant particularly useful to relief digestion troubled by 396 *colic, *wind, *travel sickness and *nausea; it reduces *cervical cancer, and increases the cancer-killing effects of *radiotherapy and *chemotherapy; see *ginger and *mango-ginger. Zehneria (the cucumber family, Cucurbitaceae) – a genus of about 30 species in the old world tropics (6 species in Uganda); Z. scabra (common in Uganda) is a slender herbaceous climber often used as a medicine; in East Uganda the tuber is used to treat *hernia, *hydrocele in children, premature *ejaculation, problems passing urine, *sterility, uterine *fibroids and in connection with birth (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in West Uganda the leaves are used in to expel retained *placenta (Kakudidi et al. 20009, in Kenya the Luo use this plant to treat *measles (Geissler et al. 2002); in Burundi it has been used for *dermatitis, *diarrhoea, *earache, *fever, internal parasites, and *scabies; in Ethiopia the crushed fruits and leaves are used for *alopecia and (with barley shoots) to treat *scabs and *scabies; in Rwanda roots and leaf juice has been used to treat *gonorrhoea, but has been proven effective; in Tanzania the roots are used for *abdominal pains, and the ash from the burnt plant applied to *wounds, while the leaves are used against *fever and to treat *skin rashes and expel *fleas from caves (Kokwaro 1976), and with oil to treat skin diseases, especially infantile *scabies; in Zambia the leaves are used as a gentle *laxative and the root decoction as a *diuretic and *emetic (Neuwinger 1996); in East Uganda Z. minutiflora is used to treat uterine *fibroids and in connection with *bewitchment (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003). zhe bei mu (Chinese) – Fritillaria thunbergii (the lily family, Liliaceae) is a lily native to East Asia; it is taken for *bronchitis and *coughs. zhi mu (Chinese) – Anemarrhena asphodeloides (the lily family, Liliaceae) is a lily native to northern China; the rhizome has a bitter taste and is taken for *fever, *coughs and *night sweats; it is also used to treat mouth *ulcers. zhi zi (Chinese) – Gardenia jasminoides (the coffee family, Rubiaceae) is a evergreen shrub native to East Asia; it provides an important essential oil used to flavour teas; it is taken for *cystitis, *headaches, *insomnia, *nosebleeds and for *urinary and *rectal bleeding; alternative name: *Chinese gardenia. Zimmermannia (Phyllanthaceae; earlier Euphorbiaceae) – a genus with 6 species of shrubs or trees confined to East Africa (not in Uganda); in Tanzania a decoction of the roots of Z. capillipes is drunk as an *anthelmintic (Kokwaro 1976). zinc (Zn) – a mineral which is needed in the human body in low amounts; the seeds of *pumpkin Cucurbita pepo (the pumpkin family, Cucurbitaceae) have fairly high levels of zinc. Zingiber (Zingiberaceae) – a genus with about 85 species of aromatic herbs native to southeastern Asia, but *ginger (Z. officinale) is widely cultivated as a spice in all tropical countries; in western Uganda the rhizome of this plant is taken as a treatment for *impotence and *erectile dysfunction (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2005) and to treat painful menstruation, *dysmenorrhoea (Kamatenesi-Mugisha & Oryem-Origa 2006). Zingiberaceae – a family with about 50 genera and perhaps 1200 species of perennial herbs widely distributed in humid tropical regions, less commonly in drier parts (4 genera and about 40 species in East Africa, 4 genera and 25 species in Uganda); species of some genera are used as medicinal herbs, e.g. *Aframomum and *Costus. Ziziphus (the buckthorn family, Rhamnaceae) – a genus with about 85 species of trees and shrubs native to tropical and warm countries (6 species in East Africa, 5 species in Uganda); in East Uganda the roots and leaves of Z. abyssinica are used to treat *hydrocele and *itchy skin (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003), and in East Afriva the roots are used for *asthma, *pneumonia and *stomach-ache (Kokwaro 1976); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the bark of Z. abyssinica to treat *diarrhoea and *stomach-ache, while the bark is chewed raw to alleviate *flatulence after having eaten too much meat (Heine & König 1988); in Burundi Z. abyssinica is used to treat *abdominal pain, *madness, *pimples and *tachycardia; Z. jujube (*jujube) is an Indian herbal remedy aiding weigth gain, improving muscular strength and 397 strengthening *liver function; Z. mauritiana is a widespread species native to Africa from Senegal to Kenya; it is *diuretic and used to treat *colic, *diarrhoea, *dysentery, *fever, *gonorrhoea, *indigestion, *intestinal worms, *rickets, *stomach problems, *toothache, *ulcers and *venereal diseases; in Kenya roots are added to drinking water to poultry suffering from *diarrhoea (Kokwaro 1976); Z. mucronata is in Tanzania it is used to treat *asthma, *gonorrhoea, *intestinal worms, *mental diseases, *rheumatism, *snakebite, *stomach troubles, *syphilis, and to prevent *abortion (Kokwaro 1976); in Namibia it is used to treat open *wounds, *ulcers and all types of *skin diseases (Neuwinger 1996); in Karamoja in East Uganda the So on Mt. Kadam drink a decoction of the bark of Z. spina-christi as an *emetic and *laxative and to treat *stomach-ache (Heine & König 1988). Zornia (Fabaceae, Faboideae) – a genus of about 80 species of annual or perennial herbs in all tropical regions (13 species native to Africa; 3 species in Uganda); in East Africa the leaves of Z. glochidiata are cooked as a vegetable and used to treat *kwashiorkor in children (Kokwaro 1976); in East Uganda the whole plant is used to treat tropical *splenomegaly, while the leaves are used in magics to keep away evil spirits (Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion 2003); in Tanzania the fresh roots of Z. setosa are chewed and the juice swallowed to cure *stomach pain (Kokwaro 1976). Zygophyllaceae – a family of about 25 genera and perhaps 200 species of annual or perennial herbs or shrubs widely distributed in hot and dry regions of both hemispheres (3 genera and 10 species in East Africa, 1 genus and 3 species in Uganda); species of some genera are used as medicinal herbs, e.g. *Fagonia and *Tribulus. 398 REFERENCES Abbiw, D. K. 1990. Useful plants of Ghana. – Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Abebe, W. 1986. A survey of prescriptions used in traditional medicine in Gonda region, Northwest Ethiopia: General pharmaceutical practice. – Journal of Ethnopharmacology 18: 147-165. Abila, B., Richens, A. & Davies, J. A. 1993. Anticonvulsant effects of extracts of the West African black pepper, Piper Guineense. – Journal of Ethnopharmacology 39: 113-117. Abulfatih, H. A. 1987. Medicinal plants of South Western Saudi Arabia. – Economic Botany 41: 354-360. Achenbach, H., Höhn, M., Waibel, R., Nkunya, M. H. H., Jonker, S. A. & Muhie, S. 1997. 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Toxic and poisonous plants of Madagascar: an ethnopharmacological survey. - Fitoterapia ca. 64: 114-129. 423 Notes This proof reading begins at Irish potato Waako – what is ’white urine disease’ Zea mays (cornsilk of maize, ...) – isugest we delete ‘cornsilk of’