D
Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 6 (2018) 202-216
doi: 10.17265/2328-2150/2018.03.002
DAVID
PUBLISHING
Extraction of Essential Oils from Afghanistan Medicinal
Plants Using Microwave and Conventional Methods
Nazifa Faqeryar and Yoshihito Mori
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Division of Advanced Sciences, Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences,
Ochanomizu University 2-1-1 Otsuka, Bunkyo, Tokyo 112-8610, Japan
Abstract: Afghanistan has many kinds of volatile-oil-rich and not-fully-utilized flora. This article represents a review on Afghanistan
medicinal plants contain essential oils. Lamiaceae, Asteraceae and Apiaceae are the most important botanical families which are widely
found and used as traditional medicines, food and spices in Afghanistan. Over 215 plants which are used in traditional therapy in
Afghanistan, 93 plants contain essential oils. Twenty-two plants contain essential oils applied to microwave extraction techniques and
forty-nine plants contain essential oils applied to conventional extraction techniques. Totally 41 extracted species belong to above
mentioned botanical families that could be found in Afghanistan too. But still there are some species of these families which are
endemic in Afghanistan and not studied yet.
Key words: Afghanistan medicinal plants, essential oils, conventional extraction, microwave extraction.
1. Introduction
Afghanistan is a mountainous country which has a
dry climate with very hot summers and very cold
winters (+51 and -52.2 °C). This fluctuation of climate
has effect on habitude of exploitation of agricultural
land and the usage cycle of plants. Afghanistan has
more than 5,000 plant species. About 1,200 plant
species are endemic [1]. And a great number of plant
species are used in traditional medicines [2]. Also most
of
these
floras
are
volatile-oil-rich
but
not-fully-utilized.
Traditional medicines are the oldest medical practices
in societies which are used long before modern
medicines. Different nations, cultures and custom of
different nations beholden their growth and
development to the use of medicinal plants. According
to WHO (World Health Organization) more than 80%
of world’s population used medicinal plants. It is not
just in developing countries but also in USA, UK and
other developed countries the usage of herbal
medicines is growing up.
In Afghanistan also traditional medicinal therapy has
been used since centuries. People of Wakhan Corridor,
in Pamir mountain of Afghanistan one of the most
remote and insular areas in the world is using local
herbal medicines for treatment of infectious disease,
fever and pain [3]. Different way of usage of medicinal
plants is common in Afghanistan. The most common
traditionally way is boiling herbs or making herbal tea
by decoction of flowers, leaves or stems of plant in
water and then the extract is filtered, while numerous
people are in unscientifically manner treat their health
problems with plants. Villagers in Pamir mountain of
Afghanistan and Tajikistan are using fresh and dried
medical plants for treatment and prevention of
gastrointestinal, dermatological, kidney illness and
hypotension, pain relief etc. [4].
The aim of this study is to show the importance of
Afghanistan medicinal plants and its usage for both
domestic and industrial people in future. In this article
we have reviewed two methods of extraction:
Corresponding author: Nazifa Faqeryar, Ph.D., assistant
professor, research fields: botanical chemistry and
pharmaceutical chemistry.
microwave and conventional applied widely for
extraction of essential oil from plant. Furthermore, the
Extraction of Essential Oils from Afghanistan Medicinal Plants
Using Microwave and Conventional Methods
spread of essential oil in three most important botanical
families in the world (Lamiaceae, Apiaceae and
Compositae), as well as the native species of
Afghanistan belong to some great genus of these
families and contain essential oil is discussed here.
2. Essential Oil
Essential oils in plants are complex mixtures of
volatile substances, presented at low concentrations
and broadly used in folk medicine for treatment and
debarment of different human illness, as well as in the
perfume industries especially in production of
shampoos, hair lotions, bathing lotion and as
disinfectants also in pharmaceutical sectors and in the
food and human nutrition [5-7].
The yield and chemical composition of essential oils
of a single species of the genus are affected by
following factors: Method of extraction, geography or
edaphic of growth of plant, collecting period and
environmental conditions. Ocimum sanctum shows an
increase in essential oil in plant collected from region
of Kerala compared two plants collected from
Maharahtra of India. Also the amount of essential oil
was high in sample collected in winter compared to
sample collected in summer [8].
Essential oils have been extracted by
hydro-distillation, steam distillation and soxhlet
extraction from decades. These techniques take from
hours to days and require plenty amount of water,
therefore, resulting in the losses of volatile compounds,
degradation of unsaturated or ester compounds through
thermal or hydrolytic effects and toxic solvents residue
in the extract. These drawbacks have led to the
developing of new alternative techniques in extraction
such as supercritical carbon dioxide, supercritical
fluids, ultrasound and microwave extractions [9-11].
Microwaves are form of electromagnetic energy at
frequency between 300 MHZ and 300 GHz [12]. The
frequency of 2.45 GHz is the most reputed and has a
substantial effect on the rate of various chemical and
food industries processes [13]. Advancements in
203
microwave extraction have resulted in new techniques
for instance compressed air microwave distillation
(CAMD), vacuum microwave hydro distillation
(VMHD), microwave hydro-distillation (MWHD),
solvent free microwave extraction (SFME),
microwave-accelerated steam distillation (MASD),
microwave steam distillation (MSD) and microwave
hydro diffusion and gravity (MHD). Nowadays, more
than 500 articles have been published on the topics of
microwave extraction [14]. Utilization of microwaves
in extraction process has demonstrated to diminish the
extraction time and volume of solvent required.
Therefore, these methods are environmentally friendly
and consuming less energy compared to conventional
methods [15].
3. Spread of Essential Oil in Botanical
Families
Lamiaceae (Labiatae), Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) and
Asteraceae (Compositae) are the most interesting
botanical families and there are large numbers of
publications which have been reported worldwide.
Essential oils occurred widely in the plant kingdom.
In 64 plants families, about 400 species produced
essential oil. From viewpoint of essential oil
production, the most important families are Asteraceae
(Compositae), Lamiaceae (Labiateae) and Apiaceae
(Umbelliferae).
Fifteen
species
of
each
above-mentioned family produce essential oils in a
large scale. Fabaceae, Rutaceae, Lauraceae,
Cupressaceae, Pinaceae, Zingiberaceae, Myrtaceae,
Rubiaceae and Burseraceae are the other important
families producing essential oils [16]. Same species of
these families are found in Afghanistan too and are
utilized in folk medicines largely.
Brackle et al. [1] have shown distribution of these
botanical families in Afghanistan. Jeppesen and his
co-workers have studied the antibacterial effect of
some species of Lamiaceae and Compositae families
from Pamir mountain of Afghanistan [3]. A regional
research in Behsood in a remote and impoverished
204
Extraction of Essential Oils from Afghanistan Medicinal Plants
Using Microwave and Conventional Methods
district of Maidan-wardak province of Afghanistan
showed that most people in this area have used plants
for treatment of different disease which belonged to
Lamiaceae, Apiaceae and Asteraceae families.
Seventy-seven botanical families are represented as
medicinal plants of Afghanistan traditionally used by
people [2]. Over them, thirty-seven families contain
essential oil. Tables 1 and 2 show Afghanistan medical
plants contain essential oil.
3.1 Lamiaceae (Labiateae)
Lamiaceae botanical family contains 210 genera and
3,500 species [1]. The Lamiaceae family is rich in
aromatic species. Therefore, these plants are used as
culinary herb, folk medicines and perfumes in many
countries. In Lamiaceae family the volatile oil is
distributed on the aerial parts of plant [17].
In Afghanistan, 234 species of Lamiaceae family are
found in which 67 of them are endemic [1]. Fifteen
plants of Lamiaceae family are introduced as medicinal
plant [2]. Thirteen plants of this family contain
essential oil. Nepeta laevigata, Salvia hydrangea,
Salvia macrosyphon and salvia rhytidea were extracted
by conventional methods [18-22]. Table 1 shows the
species of Lamiaceae family extracted by conventional
methods. Mentha longifolia and Stachys lavandulifolia
were extracted by SFME method, Mentha piperita was
extracted by MADD and MAHD and Ocimum
basilicum was extracted by MAE and SFME [23-28].
Table 2 shows the species of Lamiaceae family
extracted by different microwave extraction methods.
For all these plants the aerial parts were utilized for
essential oil extraction in both HD and microwave
extraction methods, but in case of Salvia macrosyphon
and salvia rhytidea the seeds also were used for
essential oil extraction.
Nepeta is the largest genera of the Lamiaceae family,
and extensively used in folk medicine because of their
antispasmodic, diuretic, antiseptic, antitussive and
antiasthmatic activities. Most Nepeta species are rich in
essential oils [29]. In Afghanistan, genus Nepeta
comprises of 49 species in which 17 of them are
endemic.
Salvia is another large genus in Lamiaceae family
comprise of many species which have been widely
used in traditional medicine therapy. A large amount of
genus salvia is economically important and used as
spices and flavouring agent [30]. The therapeutic
properties of Salvia are related to their essential oils.
The species of Salvia bear the attributes of antioxidant,
antimicrobial, antifungal, and aromatic [31]. In
Afghanistan 25 species of this genus exist over them
five species are endemic and have not been studied yet.
Table 3 shows the endemic species of Afghanistan
belonging to genus Nepeta, Salvia, Mentha and
Thymus.
3.2 Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
Apiaceae is a large botanical family which
composed of 300-455 genera and more than 3,000
species. The Apiaceae family is usually aromatic plant.
Therefore, various Umbelliferae genera are used in
industries because of their aromatic and medical
virtues [32, 33].
In Afghanistan, 214 species of Apiaceae family are
found in which 56 of them are endemic [1]. Totally, 15
plant of Umbelliferae family are introduced as medical
plant [2]. Thirteen of these plants contain essential oils.
Conium maculatum, Daucus carota, Dorema
ammoniacum, Ferula foetida, Prangos pabularia are
extracted by conventional methods [34-38]. Different
microwave extractions were applied for essential oil
extraction of Anethum graveolens, Opium graveolens,
Carum carvi, Carum copticum, Coriandrum sativum,
Cuminum cyminum, Foeniculum vulgare and
Pimpinella anisum [39-49]. Tables 1 and 2 show the
species of Apiaceae family extracted by conventional
and microwave extraction methods. Almost the seeds
of these plants were treated for extracting essential oil
except for C. Maculatum, O. graveolens and A.
graveolens whose leaves and aerial parts were used for
oil extraction.
Table 1
Afghanistan medicinal plants applied to conventional extraction methods.
Local name in
Afghanistan
Bozbash
Botanical name
Family name
Parts used for study
Bioactivity
Lamiaceae
Leaves
Fever, Sore throat,
Surkh Sawij
Kanawcha
Nepeta laevigata (Don) Hand.
Mzt.
Salvia hydrangea L.
Salvia macrosyphon boiss.
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Carminative, Spasmolytic, anti-inflammation
Emollient, anti-tussive
Malangan
Salvia rhytidea benth.
Lamiaceae
Aerial part
Aerial part
Seeds
Flowers
Leaves
Seeds
Leaves
Flowers
Seeds
Fruits
Antimicrobial activity
Gum-Resin
Spasmolytic, anthelmintic
Antiseptic, diuretic, aphrodisiac, digestive disorders, scars,
bleeding
Margig
Conium maculatum L.
Zardak
Daucus carota L.
Ganda Firoza
Dorema ammoniacum Don.
Heng
Ferula foetida (bunge) Regel.
Burboo
Prangos pabularia Lindl.
Umbeliferae
(Apiaceae)
Umbeliferae
(Apiaceae)
Umbeliferae
(Apiaceae)
Umbeliferae
(Apiaceae)
Umbeliferae
(Apiaceae)
Boemadaran
Aqha Anqara
Achillea santolina L.
Anacyclus pyrethrum L.
Compositae
Compositae
Mastar
Artemisia alba L.
Compositae
Leaves
Fruits
Umbel
Aerial part
Root
Aerial part
Aerial part
Bahman Safid
Pirtaran
Centaurea behen L.
Compositae
Chrysanthemum parthenium Pers. Compositae
Aerial part
Flowers
Kasni
Zanjabir Shahi
Kahoo
Cichorium intybus
Inula helenium L.
Lactuca sativa L.
Compositae
Compositae
Compositae
Zrad Sarak
Matricaria disciformis DC.
Compositae
Tripleurospermum disciformis (C.
A. Mey.) Sch. Bip.
Aerial part
Roots
Seeds
Leave
Aerial part
Extraction
method
SD [18]
HD [19]
HD [20] [21]
Expectorant, anti-tussive, emollient
HD [22]
Toxic
Column analgesic, Diuretic, Stomachic
Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antigastritis
Antimicrobial activity, analgesic, antigastritis, anthelmintic
Antipyretic, diuretic, anthelmintic, anti-diabetic,
leishmanicidal,antibacterial, antifungal
Cytotoxic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, hypotensive
Anti-migraine, anti-arthritis, anti-psoriasis, antibacterial,
antioxidant, insecticide
Anti-hypatotic, anti-diabetic, anti-malaria antipyretic
Anti-bacterial, cerebral analgesic
Anti-microbial, antifungal, anti-bacterial, sedative,
branchopulmonary infection
Gastrotonic, carminative, tranquilizer, antifungal, hair tonic,
antihemorrhage
HD [34]
SD [35]
HD [36]
HD [37]
HD [38]
HD [50]
HD [51]
HD [52] [53]
HD [54]
HD [55]
HD [56]
HD [57]
HD [58] [59]
HD [60]
(table 1 continued)
Local name in
Afghanistan
Parisiawashan
Kalpura
Botanical name
Khenjak
Gule Gowzuban
Pistacia khinjuk stocks.
Echium amoenum L.
Korgiah
Chambli
Awri (Khardal)
Family name
Parts used for study
Bioactivity
Expectorant, diuretic, laxative, anti-diarrheal
Anti-gastritis,anti-diabetic, diuretic, sedative
Anacardiaceae
Betulaceae
Leaves
Leaves
Stem
Seeds
Aerial part
Flowers
Capparis spinosa L.
Lonicera caprifolium DC.
Brassica hirta moench.
Capparaceae
Caprifoliaceae
Cruciferae
Aerial part
Flowers
Seeds
Tarboz Abujahel
Citrullus colocynthis schrad.
Cucurbitaceae
Seeds
Abhal
Juniperus sabina L.
Cupressaceae
Amla
Emblica officinalis gaertn.
Euphorbiaceae
Bed Anjir
Ricinus communis L.
Euphorbiaceae
Fruit
Leaves
Fruits
Seeds
Aerial part
Shahtara
Shirinboya
Fumaria parviflora Lam.
Glycyrrhiza glabra L.
Fumariaceae
Leguminosae
Aerial part
Leaves
Adiantum capillus-veneris L.
Adiantaceae
Aerva javanica (Burn. f.) Spreng. Adiantaceae
Shanbalilia (Hulba) Trigonella Foenum Graecum L.
Leguminosae
Anjir
Bartang
Ficus carica L.
Plantago lanceolata L.
Anjabar
Anar
Polygonum bistorta Gaecke.
Punica granatum L.
Gulab
Rosa centifolia L.
Aerial part
Seeds
Moraceae
Leaves
Plantagianaceae Fruit
Leaves
Polygonaceae
Flowers
Portulacaceae
Seeds
Flowers
Rosacea
Flowers
Fuwa
Rubia tinctorum
Rubiaceae
Aerial part
Sedative, digestion disorders, tonic, toothache, astringent
Tonic, tranquilizer, diaphoretic, anti-pneumonia, cough
suppressant
Analgesic, anthelmintic, expectorant, diuretic
Anti-bacterial, antiviral, antioxidant
Bronchopulmonary infection, menstruation disorders,
anti-neuralgia, anti-pneumonia
Laxative, anti-cathartic, antioxidant, anti-hypersensitive,
ant-diabetic, immunostimulant, anti-bacterial
Anti-neoplastic, abortive, antibacterial, antifungal
Anti-bacterial, diuretic, laxtative, hair tonic, anti-insomnia,
anti-hemorrhage
Anti-microbial, anti-inflammation, anti-diabetic, liver disorders,
laxative
Anti-histaminic, insecticidal
Anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, anti-cancer, antioxidant,
anti-bacterial
Anti-diabetic, anti-fever, antioxidant, anti-inflammation,
anti-microbial
Anti-hemoroidal,anti-anemic, stimulant
Emollient, antitussive
Antioxidant, refreshing, stimulant
Anti-diabetic, astringent, anti-diarrhea
Mild Anti-viral and bactericidal, cooling, relaxing, toning,
anti-asthma
Amenorrhea, dropsy, jaundice
Extraction
method
HD [61]
Dry SD [62]
HD [63]
HD [64]
HD [65]
HD [66]
HD [67]
SD [68]
HD [69]
SD [70]
SD [71]
HD [72]
HD [73]
HD [74]
HD [75]
SE [76]
HD [77]
HD [78]
SE
HD [79]
CP/HD [80] [81]
SE [82]
HD [83]
(table 1 continued)
Local name in
Afghanistan
Sadab
Rita
Murche Surkh
Datura
Botanical name
Family name
Parts used for study
Bioactivity
Ruta graveolens L.
Sapindus trifoliatus L.
Capsicum annuum
Datura stramonium
Rutaceae
Santalaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Aerial part
Seed
Fruits
Aerial part
Sag Angorak
Solanum nigrum L.
Solanaceae
Panirband
Susan bekh
(Benafsha)
Espand
Withania coagulans Dunal.
Viola odorata L.
Solanaceae
Violaceae
Leaves
Arial parts
Fruits
Aerial part
Peganum harmala L.
Benafsha
Tokhom(Lale
Sarnegon)
Koknar
Fritillaria imperialis L.
Zygophyllaceae Leaves
Seeds
Liliaceae
Aerial part
For digestive disorders
Detergent, surfactant, emulsionant
Flavoring agent, Food dye
Anti-bacterial, antioxidant, spasmolytic, anti-asthmatic,
aphrodisiac
Anti-ulcer, analgesic, sedative, anti-tuberculoses, anti-tumor,
antioxidant, anti-inflammatory
Emetic, stomachic, anti-diabetic
Anti-inflammatory, expectorant, diuretic, antioxidant, as
perfume
Erosive, hypnotic, antispasmodic, anodyne, emetic
Bang Dana
HD
SD
SE
SPME
CP/HD
Extraction
method
HD [84]
HD [85]
SD [86]
SD [87]
HD [88]
SD [89]
SD [90]
HD [91] [92]
Cardiac stimulant
HS [93]
Papaver somniferum L. Var.
Album L.
Papaveraceae
Seeds
Cannabis Sativa L.
Cannabaceae
Bud
Hydro-distillation
Steam distillation
Steam extraction
Solid phase micro extraction
Cold Press/Hydro-distillation
As adjuvant for medical diagnostics, as a carrier for
cancerostatics in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma and SPME [94]
cyclosporine A.
Narcotic
SD [95]
Table 2
Afghanistan medicinal plants applied to microwave extraction methods.
Local name in
Afghanistan
Raihan (Nazebo)
Botanical name
Family name
Part used for study
Bioactivity
Ocimum basilicum L.
Lamiaceae
Aerial part
Antimicrobial, antioxidant
Pudina
Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds.
Lamiaceae
Aerial part
Anti-inflammation, carminative, antiemetic,
diaphoretic, antispasmodic, analgesic,
anticatharrral, stimulant
Antiseptic, smoothing, antispasmodic, tonic,
vasodilator
Extraction methods
MAE [12]
SFME [15]
SFME [23] [24]
Nana
Mentha piperita L.
Lamiaceae
Leaves
Zarafshan
Shebet
Stachys lavandulifolia vahl.
Anethum graveolens L.
Ajmood (Karafs)
Opium graveolens L.
Aerial part
Leaves
Seed
Aerial parts
Zire Siah
Carum carvi L.
Lamiaceae
Umbeliferae
(Apiaceae)
Umbeliferae
(Apiaceae)
Umbeliferae
(Apiaceae)
Badian Sabez
Gashniz
Coriandrum sativum L.
Zire Asel
Cuminum cyminum L.
Umbeliferae
(Apiaceae)
Umbeliferae
(Apiaceae)
Umbeliferae
(Apiaceae)
Umbeliferae
(Apiaceae)
Seeds
Jawani
Pimpinella anisum L.
Anisum vulgare
Carum copticum benth.
Badian Raziana
Foeniculum vulgare gaertn.
Umbeliferae
(Apiaceae)
Fruits
Carminative, antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, MAWD [43]
mosquito repellent
MAE [48]
IMAE [49]
Afsantin
Artemisia absinthium L.
Compositae
Aerial part
Hublqurtom (Masor) Carthamus tinctorius L.
(Safflower)
Compositae
Flowers
Antifungal, antimicrobial, carminative, digestive
SFME [96]
disorders
Analgesic, antispasmodic, emollient, anti-arthritis,
MD/SPME [97] [98]
cardiovascular, hypotensive
Seed
Seed
Leaves
Seeds
Seeds
Anxiolytic, sedative
Anti-fungal, diuretic
Carminative, stomachic, diuretic, emmenagogue,
anti-rheumatism
Perfumes, fragrances, spices, digestive disorders
Carminative, antispasmodic, antiseptic, expectorant,
stomachic, diuretic, diaphoretic, stimulant
Antispasmodic, stimulant, tonic, carminative,
antidiarrheal
Analgesic, antispasmodic, febrifuge, carminative,
digestive
Spices, column analgesic, antioxidant
MADD [25]
OAHD&MAHD [26]
MAHD [27] [28]
MAE [39]
MAE [40]
MAE [41]
MDG [42]
MAWD [43]
MAWD [43]
SFME [44]
MAHD [45]
MAE [46]
MAWD [43]
SFME [44] [47]
ISFME [46]
MAE [48]
(table 2 continued)
Local name in
Afghanistan
Gole Babuna
Botanical name
Family name
Part used for study
Bioactivity
Matricaria chamomilla L.
Compositae
Flowers
Pista
Pistacia vera L.
Anacardiaceae
Fruit
Leaves
Gum
Aerial part
Antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antiparasitic,
spasmolytic, antioxidant
Antidiarrheal, sedative, alimentary
Archa dana (Sarwe
Kohi)
Zafaran
Juniperus excelsa bieb.
Cupressaceae
Crocus sativus
Iridaceae
Henna (Khina)
Siah dana
Lawsonia inermis roxb.
Nigella sativa L.
Samaruq
Rhus coriaria L.
Panj Angusht
Vitex negundo L.
MAHD
MSD
MASE
MAHT
MD/SPME
OAHD
ISFME
MAWD
SFME
Stigma
Corm
Lythraceae
Leaves
Ranunaculaceae Seeds
Therebintaceae Fruits
Leaves
Flowers
Verbenaceae
Leaves
Microwave Assisted Hydro-distillation
Microwave Steam Distillation
Microwave Assisted Steam Extraction
Microwave Assisted Hydro-thermal Extraction
Microwave Distillation/Solid Phase Micro extraction
Ohmic Assisted Hydro-distillation
Improved Solvent Free Microwave Extraction
Microwave Assisted Water Distillation
Solvent Free Microwave Extraction
Extraction methods
MAE [99] [100]
MAHD [101]
Menstrual analgesia anti-tussive, anti-bronchitis,
anti-tuberculosis
Antispasmodic, expectorant, aphrodisiac
SFME [102] [103]
MAE [104]
Cosmetics, antioxidant
MAHT [105] [106]
Anti-asthmatic, anti-tumor, antiviral, antibacterial,
anti-inflammatory, anti-malarial, antihypertensive,
MSD [107]
anti-diabetic, anti-atherosclerotic, gastroprotective,
antioxidant, anti-cholesterol
Antiseptic, food flavoring agent, antioxidant,
antimicrobial
MAE [108]
Anthelmintic, antibacterial
SFME [109]
MAHD
Extraction of Essential Oils from Afghanistan Medicinal Plants
Using Microwave and Conventional Methods
210
Table 3 The endemic species of Afghanistan plant in the genera of three botanical families comprise essential oil.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Compositae
Species
A. andersiana
A. bicolor
A. dumosa
A. ghazniensis
A. ghoratensis
A. Kandaharensis
C. codringtonii
C. heratensis
I. sericeo-villosa
Genus
Artemisia
Artemisia
Artemisia
Artemisia
Artemisia
Artemisia
Centaurea
Centaurea
Inula
Apiaceae
Species
F. afghanica
F. costata
F. dictyocarpa
F. ghorana
F. glabra
F. hedgeana
F. heratensis
F. kandahrica
F. myrioloba
F. nuristanica
F. pachycaulos
F. rechingeri
F. stenoloba
F. trachelocarpa
F. trachyphylla
F. xanthocarpa
19
20
21
The genus Ferula—the old-world plant, belongs to
Apiaceae family and has some 130 species distributed
throughout the Mediterranean area and Central Asia.
The plants of this genus are good source of biologically
active compounds such as derivatives and sulfur
containing compounds [33]. These plants are
frequently used as spices and in the provision of local
drugs. Some species are used in folk medicine for the
treatment of skin infections and hysteria [110]. The
Afghanistan flora comprises of 31 species of Ferula, of
which 16 of them are endemic. Table 3 shows the
endemic species of Ferula genus in Afghanistan [1].
3.3. Compositae (Asteraceae)
Compositae botanical family contains 9,000 genera
and about 20,000 species. Over 180 species are used
for medical purposes [111].
In Afghanistan, 705 species of Compositae family
are found in which 192 of them are endemic [1].
Shafique et al. [2] introduced seventeen species of
Genus
Ferula
Ferula
Ferula
Ferula
Ferula
Ferula
Ferula
Ferula
Ferula
Ferula
Ferula
Ferula
Ferula
Ferula
Ferula
Ferula
Lamiaceae
Species
N. amicorum
N.barfakensis
N.bellevii
N. freitagii
N. juncea
N. nawarica
N. paktiana
N. persica
N. podlechii
N. polyodonta
N. rechingeri
N. subincisa
N. uberrima
S. ariana
S. maymonica
S. pterocalyx
S. rechingeri
S. tetrodonta
M. longifolia
(austroafghanica)
M. royleana (afghanica)
T. koeieanus
Genus
Nepeta
Nepeta
Nepeta
Nepeta
Nepeta
Nepeta
Nepeta
Nepeta
Nepeta
Nepeta
Nepeta
Nepeta
Nepeta
Salvia
Salvia
Salvia
Salvia
Salvia
Mentha
Mentha
Thymus
Compositae family as medical plants of Afghanistan.
Among them, fifteen species are containing essential
oil. Achillea santolina, Anacyclus pyrethrum,
Artemisia alba, Centaurea behen, Chrysanthemum
parthenium, Cichorium intybus, Inula helenium,
Lactuca sativa and Matricaria disiformis are extracted
by HD [50-60]. Artemisia absinthinum, Carthamus
tinctorins and Matricaria chamomile are extracted by
different microwave extraction methods [96-100].
Essential oil in the Compositae family is distributed in
all parts of the plants. In A. santolina, C. behan,
Artemisia genus, C. intybus, and M. disiformis the
essential oil was extracted from aerial part while for A.
pyrethrum, I. helenium, L. sativa seeds and for C.
parthenium, C. tinctorins and M. chamomile flowers
were used for extraction. Tables 1 and 2 show
conventional and microwave extraction of plants
belong to Compositae family.
Genus Artemisia is one of the most abundant plants
in Compositae family in the world and has special
Extraction of Essential Oils from Afghanistan Medicinal Plants
Using Microwave and Conventional Methods
interest because of botanical and pharmaceutical
properties. Terpenoids are one of the major constitutes
of this genus which makes it the most momentous
source of biological compounds [112]. In Afghanistan,
the genus Artemisia consists of 54 species, sex of
which are endemic [1]. Table 3 shows the endemic
species of Artemisia genus in Afghanistan.
4. Essential Oil in Afghanistan
A number of small companies in Afghanistan
produce essential oils from bitter orange blossom (Gule
narinj) and rose which are used by perfume industries
in France [113]. As well as, in Afghanistan, much
amount of essential oil is extracted from medicinal
plants by boiling water and making tea or by adding
seeds or aerial parts of plants in food and cooking them
in the kitchen in everyday life of normal people. In
these methods less amount of essential oil is extracted.
A conventional extractor is specially designed and is
difficult to use in houses, but nowadays microwave
ovens are available in many markets with reasonable
prices and some people already use in their kitchen in
cities [114].
5. Conclusions
The purpose of this review was to show the
importance of Afghanistan medicinal plants and their
utilization in domestic and industrial areas. Two
methods of extraction: microwave and conventional
extraction applied widely for extraction of essential oil
from plant were reviewed in this article.
Species from Compositae, Lamiaceae and Apiaceae
which contain much amount of essential oils are widely
spread in Afghanistan and traditionally used by people
as food, spices and medicines.
Extractions of essential oils from plants which are
not endemic plants of Afghanistan have been done in
other countries. As the yield and chemical composition
of essential oils affected by growth place of a single
species, study of species of botanical families from
Afghanistan is highly recommended.
211
Also the native flora in these families still includes
many plants for instance genus Artemisia which may
contain essential oil, have not been studied yet and can
result in new products for pharmaceuticals, perfumes
and cosmetics industries.
Given the fact that microwave energy is increased
the extracted amount of essential oil and the time of
extraction decreased. Therefore, this study may
encourage domestic people to use a microwave oven
for extracting much amount of essential oil in their
kitchen in very short time and take the advantage of
both food and medicine from the plants which they use
in their daily life as food.
Acknowledgments
The authors greatly acknowledge Professor
Mohammad Usman Babory of Kabul University for his
guidance in writing this paper. Also we would like to
thank Mr. Rasool Hossaini for making available his
bachelor monograph regarding traditional usage of
medicinal plants by residents of Behsood District of
Afghanistan, for us.
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