Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiative Feasability Assessment Report - Nepal Central Department of Botany Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal June 2010 Contributors, Advisors, Consultants Core group contributors • Chaudhary, Ram P., Professor, Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University; National Coordinator, KSLCI-Nepal • Shrestha, Krishna K., Head, Central Department of Botany • Jha, Pramod K., Professor, Central Department of Botany • Bhatta, Kuber P., Consultant, Kailash Sacred Landscape Project, Nepal Contributors • Acharya, M., Department of Forest, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC) • Bajracharya, B., International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) • Basnet, G., Independent Consultant, Environmental Anthropologist • Basnet, T., Tribhuvan University • Belbase, N., Legal expert • Bhatta, S., Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation • Bhusal, Y. R. Secretary, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation • Das, A. N., Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation • Ghimire, S. K., Tribhuvan University • Joshi, S. P., Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation • Khanal, S., Independent Contributor • Maharjan, R., Department of Forest • Paudel, K. C., Department of Plant Resources • Rajbhandari, K.R., Expert, Plant Biodiversity • Rimal, S., Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation • Sah, R.N., Department of Forest • Sharma, K., Department of Hydrology • Shrestha, S. M., Department of Forest • Siwakoti, M., Tribhuvan University • Upadhyaya, M.P., National Agricultural Research Council • Uprety, B. K. Ministry of Environment Research Assintants/ Students • Acharya, M., Student, Tribhuvan University • Bhattarai, P., Student, Tribhuvan University • Gautam, R.K., Student, Tribhuvan University • Lama, T., Local resident, Simikot • Limbu, M., Student, Tribhuvan University II Acknowledgenments • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Chief District Officer, Humla; Ramu Prasad Upadhyaya Local Development Officer, Humla; Yam Lal Adhikari Deputy Superitendent of Police, Humla; Shishir Karmacharya Medical Docotr, District Health Office, Humla; Prakash Prasad Shah District Forest Officer, Humla; Subash Chandra Dash Officer, Dist. Forest office, Humla; Bechan Thakur Deputy Chief District Officer, Humla; Shiv Chandra Dhital Ranjor, District Forest Office, Humla; Shiv Sankar Jha Nepal Police, Humla, District Ddevelopment Committee, Humla District Forest Office, Humla District Ayurved Health Clinic District Agriculture Office District Health Office District Livestock Health Service Center Local people of Baitadi, Darchula, Bajhang and Humla districts Himalayan Conservation, Humla Nepal Trust, Humla SNV Nepal, Humla CEDA Nepal, Humla Humla Development Project WUPAP, Humla Kailash FM HCDA, Humla Kamal Shahi, Kailash FM Tsewang Lama, Simikot Chhak B Lama, Simikot (Former Minister) Sagar Lama, Nepal Trust Yogi Kayastha, manager, HDP Samden Lama, herder, Baijubara Jivan Shahi, Humla Lokjung Shahi, Humla Sangeeta Rajbhandary, Tribhuvan University All political parties in Baitadi, Darchula, Bajhang, and Humla districts III Foreword MFSC IV Preface The MInistry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC) and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) signed a Letter of Agreement (LoA) for the implementation of Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiative (KSLCI) project with an aim of promoting an ecosystem approach for important transboundary landscape. The ICIMOD and UNEP have entered into an MOU to jointly work in the KSLCI. The LoA signed by the MFSC and ICIMOD entrusted to the Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University (TU) as the lead partner for the KSLCI project implementation. The KSLCI project encourages cooperation to address the challenges of global climate and other environmental changes in the Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL)-Nepal and the region, and promoting sustainable development. The KSL-Nepal comprises four districts in Nepa – Baitadi, Darchula, Bajhang, and Humla, located in far-western and mid-western region in Nepal. The region, at present represents remotest part of the country from development indices, although houses rich biological and cultural diversity. Unfortunately, the region also lacks basic climatic, ecological, socio-economic and socio-cultural data, and the knowledge base required for long-tern effective cultural landscape conservation. The Feasibility Assessment Report-Nepal part is the first outcome of the KSLCI project. It is prepared thorugh available literature search, field study, consultations with officials of the government departments, diverse stakeholders at national and district/village level, and with various experts. The extensive onsite field study and consultations with the communities and NGOs provided valuable information to identify the existing gaps, and the priorities for future plans. We consider that the status report will provide strong basis for preparation of conservation strategy, comprehensive environmental monitoring plan for Nepal part, and they would lead to the process of developing Regional Cooperation Framework (RCF) for the KSL-region. We acknowledge the MFSC, MoEn, and ICIMOD for their constant help and guidance to accomplish this work including financial support from UNEP through ICIMOD. We sincerely thank all the experts for providing valuable information to prepare this report. During the project, encouragements, inspirations, and guidance that we have received from the steering committee are thankfully acknowledged. The work would not have been accompluished without genetrous help from local communities, social workers, officers working at government and non-government organizations who shared their valuable knowledge and information with us, and helped during the field work. Ram P. Chaudhary National Coordinator, KSLCI-Nepal Professor, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal V Acronyms and Abbreviations ANCA B.S. BOD BOOT BPP BZMR Api Nampa Conservation Area Bikram Samvat Biological Oxygen Demand Build, Operate and Ownership Transfer Biodiversity Profile Project Buffer Zone Management Regulation ha HMG HHs IAS IBA ICIMOD CABI Center for Agricultural Bioscience International Convention on Biological Diversity Community Based Organization IEE IUCN kg KNP KP KRTC COP Central Bureau of Statistics Climate Change Network Clean Development Mechanism Community Forest User Group Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora Conference of Parties DCA DDC DFO Detrended Correspondence Analysis District Development Committee District Forest Office LSGA LSMA m asl Important Plant Area Intensive Study and Research Centre The World Conservation Union kilogram Khaptad National Park Kyoto Protocol Khaptad Region Tourism Committee Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiative Local Self Governance Act Land Survey and Measurement Act meter above sea level DHM Department of Hydrology and Meteorology District Livestock Service Office Designated National Authority m ton metric ton CBD CBO CBS CCN CDM CFUG CITES DLSO DNA DO DoA Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Dissolved Oxygen Department of Archaeology EIA EPA Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental Protection Act FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FNCCI GHG Federation of Nepal Chamber of Commerce and Industry Greenhouse Gas GISP GLM Global Invasive Species Program Generalized Linear Model GLOF Glacial lake Outburst Flood DNPWC IPA ISRC KSLCI Hectare His Majesty’s Government Households Invasive Alien Species Important Bird Area International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development Initial Environmental Examination Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Multilateral Environmental Agreements Ministry of Forests and Soil MFSC Conservation millimetres mm Ministry of Agriculture and MoAC Cooperative Ministry of Environment MoE MCCICC Multi-stakeholder Climate Change Initiative Coordination Committee National Adaptation Program of NAPA Action National Agricultural Research NARC Council National Biodiversity Coordination NBCC Committee Nepal Biodiversity Strategy NBS National Biodiversity Strategy NBSIP Implementation Plan National Capacity Needs SelfNCSA Assessment MAP MEA VI GoN NGO Government of Nepal Non Government Organization NEA SINA NHM NIE NLCDC Natural History Museum National Implementing Entity spp. TOR TU Nepal Electricity Authority Statistical Information on Nepalese Agriculture Species Terms of Reference Tribhuvan University NPWCA TAC Technical Advisory Committee NTFP NRDB National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act Non Timber Forest Product National Red Data Book PAs Protected Areas PDD Project Design Document PIN Project Idea Note PPCR Pilot Program for Climate Resilience PREGA Promotion of Renewable Energy, Energy Efficiency and GHG Abatement Regional Cooperation Framework Reduction of Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation Rara National Park South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation Sustainable Development Agenda for Nepal Scientific Committee on Problems of Environment RCF REDD RNP SAARC SADAN SCOPE National Lake Conservation Development Committee Total Dissolved Solids UN Conference on Environment and Development UNCCD UN Convention to Combat Desertification United Nations Development UNDP Programme United Nations Environment UNEP Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Village Development Committee VDC TDS UNCED WCMC WCN World Conservation Monitoring Centre Wildlife Conservation Nepal WRA WUA Water Resource Act Water User Association WWF World Wildlife Fund VII Table of Contents Foreword Preface 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background ................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Objective .................................................................................................................. 2 1.3 Scope and Coverage .................................................................................................. 2 1.4 Methodology ............................................................................................................... 3 2. Delineation of Kailash Sacred Landscape-Nepal .................................................. 4 3. Physical, Biological, and Socio-Cultural Characteristics ....................................... 7 3.1 Physical Characteristics .............................................................................................. 7 3.2 Biological characteristics........................................................................................... 17 3.3Socio-Cultural Characteristics .................................................................................... 52 4. Major Environmental Degradation and Cultural Integrity..................................... 79 4.1 Ecosystem and Species Degradation ....................................................................... 79 4.2 Socio-Economic and Cultural Integrity Degradation ................................................. 80 4.3 Globalization ............................................................................................................. 81 5. Identification of Priorities ..................................................................................... 88 5.1 Biodiversity and Livelihood ....................................................................................... 88 5.2 Socio-Economic and Cultural.................................................................................... 88 5.3 Tourism ................................................................................................................ 89 5.4 Cultural Identity ......................................................................................................... 90 5.5 Institutional and Capacity Building ............................................................................ 90 5.6 Illegal Transboundary Trade ..................................................................................... 90 6. Community Perception on Biodiversity, Cultural Values, Environmental Issues, and Climate Change .................................................................................................. 91 7. Policy and Enabling Environment ....................................................................... 97 7.1 Policies 8. ................................................................................................................ 97 Needs Assessment Framework ........................................................................ 118 References …………………………………………………………………………………………. 132 Annexes ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 140 VIII List of Figures Figure 1.1 Figure 2.1 Area under the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal Map of the KSL Target Area outline boundary, based on a merging of the delineation of their respective area by each of the three KSL countries Figure 3.1 Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal Figure 3.2a Altitudinal variation of temperature in the Project Area Figure 3.2b Temperature trends recorded from Patan Station Figure 3.2c Temperature trends recorded from Chainpur Station Figure 3.2d Precipitation trends recorded from Kekerpakha station Figure 3.2e Precipitation trends recorded from Patan Station Figure 3.2f Precipitation trends recorded from Chainpur Station Figure 3.2g Precipitation trends recorded from Pipalkot Station Figure 3.3 GoogleEarth image of project area including Mansarovar (right) and Rakchas Tal (left) on top of the image Figure 3.4 River basins of KSL Figure 3.5 River network in KSL (obtained from DEM) Figure 3.6 GoogleEarth image of Chhubhu Taal Figure 3.7 Hydrological and meteorological stations in the project area Figure 3.8a Wheat cultivation in Humla District Figure 3.8b Field ploughing for crop sowing in Humla for summer Figure 3.9a Western Himalayan temperate forest Figure 3.9b Western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows Figure 3.10a-f Vegetation/forest type: a-Baitadi; b-Darchula, c-Bajhang, d-Humla, e-Conifer (Bluepine) forest, f-Birch forest Figure 3.11 Eskemukerjia megacarpum, an endemic species Figure 3.12 Morchella species Figure 3.13 Useful plant species under different use categories recorded in Thehe and Chhipra VDCs Figure 3.14 Food plant species (%) under different processing categories in Thehe and Chhipra VDCs Figure 3.15a Fritillaria cirrhosa Figure 3.15b Dactylorhiza hatagirea Figure 3.15c Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora Figure 3.15d Juglans regia27 Figure 3.15e Berberis asiatica Figure 3.15f Extracting oil from Princepia utilis Figure 3.16 Acer cappadocicum Figure 3.17 Himalayan marmot Figure 3.18 Chukar Figure 3.19 Important wildlife habitats in KSL-Nepal Figure 3.20 Important Plant Areas in KSL-Nepal Figure 3.21 Physical features and landuse, Khaptad National Park and Buffer Zone (not to scale) Figure 3.22 Api-Nampa Conservation Area Figure 3.23 Rara National Park Figure 3.24 Fuelwood transported for sale to Simikot Figure 3.25 Timber export to Tibet via Hilsa (Photo credit Yogi Kayastha) Figure 3.26a-b Annual timber/fuelwood demand and supply in Humla and Bajhang Districts Figure 3.27 Major trade routes in the KSL-Nepal region Figure 3.28 Amount of traded NTFPs and revenue generated for five years Figure 3.29 Plant product based small scale industries Figure 3.30 Total forest area of KSL-Nepal Figure 3.31 Pasturelands in Humla District (a-subalpine; b-temperate) Figure 3.32 Local herder milking his Jopa Figure 3.33 Chart showing movement of livestock in different pastures for rotational grazing in Changlakhola valley in Dozam, Thehe VDC, Humla Figure 3.34 Chart showing movement of livestock in different pastures for rotational grazing in Chandranath Community Forest, Chhipra VDC, Humla Figure 3.35 Seasonal grazing pattern followed by the sheep of Kanda VDC, dotted line shows the current route Figure 3.36 Seasonal grazing route for sheep of Sunsera VDC (Darchula) and adjoining areas IX 1 5 7 9 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 15 15 16 16 18 18 22 22 24 25 25 26 26 27 27 27 27 27 28 31 32 37 38 40 41 43 44 44 44 45 47 48 48 49 49 52 53 54 55 Figure 3.37 Seasonal grazing route for sheep of Khar VDC (Darchula) and adjoining areas Figure 3.38 Population size in different VDCs/municipality of KSL in 2001 Figure 3.39 Projected population size in different VDCs/Municipality of KSL in 2009… Figure 3.40 Population density in different VDCs/ municipality of KSL in 2001 Figure 3.41 Population density (person/sq.km) Figure 3.42a Ethnic composition of KSL- Nepal (a and b) Figure 3.42b Dalit population in KSL- Nepal Figure 3.43 Population by caste within KSL-Nepal Figure 3.44 Sex ratio within KSL VDCs Nepal Figure 3.45 Literacy rate in KSL VDCs, Nepal Figure 3.46a & b Water and Sanitation in districts of KSL-Nepal Figure 3.47 Lighting facilities in districts of KSL-Nepal Figure 3.48 Settlement pattern in Humla Figure 3.49 Irrigation by different sources Figure 3.50 Livestock population in the districts of KSL-Nepal Figure 3.51 Rice cultivation in low cut valley across Dharapori village, the last Thakuri village Figure 3.52 Naked barley is the staple crop in the upper reaches of Humla District Figure 3.53 In Limi valley crops, are grown in level field consisting of several plots for irrigation Figure 3.54 Transhumance is an additional major form of subsistence livelihood in Humla Figure 3.55 Caravan of goats and sheep a as pack animals Figure 3.56 a & b Traditional and modern types of tents used by herders of Limi and Hepka Figure 3.57 Sheep and goats from Tibet graze in Nepal Figure 3.58 Processing of Phuru, a wooden tea bowl, a major trade item Figure 3.59 Trade channel of NTFP (based on local information in Dozam village) Figure 3.60a & b Apiculture in Humla district Figure 3.61 Scenic landscapes are major attractions of the region Figure 3.62 The upper reaches of the district has several monasteries Figure 3.63 Tourism infrastructures are at minimal levels Figure 3.64 Benefits of tourism to local people is at minimal level Figure 3.65 Solid waste management is already a becoming a persistent problem Figure 3.66 Potential trekking route displayed in Simikot Figure 3.67 Promotion of Limi Valley as a tourism destination or an alternative route to Hilsa would help diversify tourism in the district Figure 4.1 Deforestation at Gothi, Humla Figure 4.2a Stack of wooden planks ready for export to Taklakot Figure 4.2b Bringing steep slopes under cultivation is increasing forest degradation Figure 4.3 Monthly rainfall distribution Figure 4.4 Annual mean rainfall distribution Figure 4.5 Pre-monsoon mean rainfall distribution Figure 4.6 Monsoon mean rainfall distribution Figure 4.7 Post-monsoon mean rainfall distribution Figure 4.8 winter mean rainfall distribution Figure 4.9 Temperature change between 1975 and 2006 Figure 4.10 Vulnerability map of Nepal Figure 4.11 Satellite based monitoring of forest fires in Nepal (25 April 2010) Figure 6.1 A well conserved forest in Halji Figure 6.2 Monasteries play an important role in resource management and in maintaining community systems Figure 6.3 Halji field washed away by outburst of Tako Chho 56 57 58 58 59 59 60 60 61 62 64 64 65 67 69 70 71 71 72 73 73 75 75 76 78 81 81 82 83 84 85 85 86 86 86 90 90 91 91 91 91 92 92 93 103 104 104 List of Tables Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 3.5 Table 3.6 Table 3.7 Physical characteristics of KSL-Nepal Land use change (ha) in the KSL-Nepal Monthly summary of precipitation (mm) recorded in the project area Monthly summary of temperature (oC) recorded in the project area Climatic trends in the project area Meteorological stations in the project site Water quality of major rivers X 8 9 10 10 11 17 17 Table 3.8 Table 3.9 Table 3.10 Table 3.11 Table 3.12 Table 3.13 Table 3.14 Table 3.15 Table 3.16 Table 3.17 Table 3.18 Table 3.19 Table 3.20 Table 3.21 Table 3.22 Table 3.23 Table 3.24a Table 3.24b Table 3.25 Table 3.26 Table 3.27 Table 3.28 Table 3.29 Table 3.30 Table 3.31 Table 3.32 Table 3.33 Table 3.34 Table 3.35 Table 3.36 Table 3.37 Table 3.38 Table 3.39 Table 3.40 Table 3.41 Table 3.42 Table 3.43 Table 3.44 Table 3.45 Table 3.46 Table 3.47 Table 3.48 Table 3.49 Table 3.50 Table 3.51 Table 3.52 Table 4.1 Table 6.1 Table 7.1 Table 8.1 Collections held in gene bank, NARC Livestock population in project districts Forest types in Kailash Sacred Landscape-Nepal Edible Plants Culturally important plants Threatened and protected flora in KSL-Nepal Rare and threatened plant species recorded in Thehe and Chhipra VDCs and their status Amphibian and reptilian species reported only from KSL-Nepal Summary of potential faunal taxa from KSL-Nepal and their local, national and globally threatened status some endangered, threatened and protected flora and fauna of KSL-Nepal Medicinal IPAs in KSL-Nepal Protected areas in KSL-Nepal Biodiversity Hotspot areas of Api-Nampa Conservation Area List of fish species recommended for legal protection in Mahakali River Major trade routes with different types of exported and imported materials Major forest products traded and revenue generated Top ten plant species under trade (in terms of quantity) Top ten plant species under trade (in terms of royalty generated) Forest product-based industries Distribution of forest management in four districts Pastures mostly used by people in Thehe and Chhipra VDCs Livestock population in Dojam area of Thehe VDC Livestock population in two community forests in Chhipra VDC Population size and density in four districts Population by caste (%) Population by religion Population by occupation Literacy rate in four districts Number of institutions and students in 2001 and 2006 Health Indices Incidence of major diseases Water and sanitation gap by district (ranked by sanitation coverage) Number of households using electricity Number of households using different sources of cooking fuel Number of households using different lighting facilities Length of roads (km) in 2004 Area and production of different crops Annual production (in m ton) of major crops in KSL-Nepal Irrigated area (ha) by different sources Use of agricultural inputs by district Total Quantity of NTFPs traded and royalty generated in the last five years Food availability and requirement in the region in 2005/2006 Highly traded species of NTFPs from Dozam and Chhipra area Important sites in KSL–Nepal Number of tourists visiting KSL-Nepal Tourists Arrival in Humla in 2009 Disease profile of KSL-Nepal districts Different types of households in three villages in Limi VDC Legal provisions governing natural resources Framework of needs assessment and means of implementation 19 20 22 27 28 29 30 33 34 35 37 39 41 42 46 46 47 47 48 48 50 50 51 57 60 60 61 61 62 63 63 63 64 64 64 65 66 67 67 68 69 70 77 79 80 84 88 102 128 130 List of Boxes Box 3.1 Box 3.2 Box 6.1 Mammal species observed in Humla Bird species observed in Humla Cultural practices for resource management XI 31 32 101 1. Introduction 1.1 Background The Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL)-Nepal complex is a proposed transboundary landscape covering larger region around Mt Kailash of 31,252 sq.km, of which about 13,289 sq.km (42.5% of the total area) falls in Nepal, 10,843 sq.km (34.7%) in China and, 7,120 sq.km (22.8%) in India. The northern and western boundary of KSL-Nepal coincides with international boundary with China and India, respectively. Kailash Sacred Landsacape Covergae Nepal The KSL-Nepal comprises four districts in Nepal, KSL coverage Baitadi, Darchula, Bajhang and Humla; located in Regions of Nepal far-, and mid- western region in Nepal (Figure 100 0 100 200 Kilometers 1.1). Also the area is understood within greater N Karnali (including Karnali Zone) for the development of the Karnali region as a whole. Figure 1.1 Area under the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal The area, at present, is characterized by remote part of the country from development indices, and suffers from food deficits and shortage, disease, nutritional deficiency, and unfulfilled basic needs. The intense conflict between the government and the Maoist insurgents further compounded the food security problem in the region. In the past, Karnali was considered a prosperous region; it is still considered as a place with immense potentialities (Adhikari 2008). The Government of Nepal has formulated a strategy to provide management of landscape in the country. The Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (NBS) has adopted the landscape planning approach to protect and manage biodiversity on a sustainable, long-term basis. The NBS has provision of landscape conservation strategy i(HMG/MFSC 2002), and this is now being promoted by the periodic plans of Nepal (GoN/NPC 2008). The Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation through the departments has joined hands with several national, regional and international conservation and development partners for conservation including Western Tarai Landscape Complex project, and Sacred Himalayan landscape strategy. As one of the strategies of the Interim Plan (2008-2010) is committed to follow scientific management system for conservation of biodiversity and genetic resources, it creates enabling policy environment for the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC) [other relevant ministries as well] to promote transboundary landscape management which implies using an integrated approach in the management of extended landscapes, defined by ecosystems rather than boundaries, in which both the conservation and sustainable use of components of biodiversity and cultural diversity are considered. Therefore, the Interim Plan does support such transboundary landscape management. The Three-Year Plan - Approach Paper (2010/11-2012/13) creates enabling policy environment for the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation [other relevant ministries as well] to promote landscape management, undertake sustainable forest management system, develop new national forestry strategy, and develop and implement adaptation and mitigation measures to combat climate change (GoN/NPC 2010). Further, the plan has given priority to link remote geographical areas including Humla and other districts in Karnali with road, and mainstream marginalized groups into socio-economic development. Therefore, the Interim Plan does support such transboundary landscape management (GoN/NPC 2010). 1 The Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiative (KSLCI), a collaborative effort of International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and partners in Nepal, China and India; the countries have launched transboundary landscape management of the Kailash region in 2009. The trend of conservation paradigm in Nepal has been changing from species conservation to landscape management. Considering the importance of landscape approach in the context of long term sustainable management of biological resources with conservation, several programmes have been implemented to protect the areas of particular importance to biodiversity. However, the effectiveness has not been to the level of expectation (GoN/MFSC 2009). 1.2 Objective The overall objective of the feasibility study has been to conduct both a preliminary feasibility assessment and a policy and enabling environment assessment as relevant to the implementation of the KSL Conservation Initiative, as a first stage document leading to the development of a RCF for the KSL Conservation Initiative. The feasibility study also includes in raising awareness of the local people and the relevant stakeholders at the target districts regarding management provision of landscape approach to conservation of transboundary Kailash Sacred Landscape. The study also contributes in enhancing processes and procedures in conservation of biological and cultural diversity, rangeland management, improvement of livelihood pattern and sustainable use of resources, economic upliftment, reducing poverty, and conservation of ecosystem and cultural integrity of the region. The specific objectives of the feasibility assessment include: • • • • • • 1.3 delineation of target landscape of Kailash Sacred Landscape(KSL)-Nepal; preparation of status report on bio-physical, socio-cultural, environmental degradation and cultural identity of the target landscape; identification of priorities (biodiversity, socio-cultural, environmental) for the target landscape; analysis of community perception on biodiversity, cultural values, environmental issues,and climate change; assessement of enabling environment (review of existing policies); and assessment of need analysis for the KSL-Nepal to develop a Regional Cooperation Framework (RCF). Scope and Coverage The scope and coverage includes to: • prepare feasibility study report in accordance with TOR; • undertake wider consultations with the relevant line agencies and stakeholders in the district; • conduct field study and interact with local communities, user groups, political parties, social leaders, school, health posts, business and enterprise group, local media, NGOs, and community based organizations; • review available data/literatures; • conduct baseline survey to assess status of biological and natural resource of the target landscape in Nepal; assess environmental degradation and cultural integrity; • identify potential threats and vulnerabilities, and prioritize major issues; • understand community’s perception on biodiversity, and cultural values; and • analyse policy enabling environment; and assess significant gaps in protecting and conserving the resources of the target area. 2 1.4 Methodology The feasibility assessment report is based on secondary as well as primary data. Secondary information were generated mainly through literature review; whereas primary data was collected through consultations, interaction program, group discussion, individual household surveys, field surveys. Questionnaire, checklists, datasheets and field survey were used to generate primary level of information. Local people were contacted and interviewed to solicit information. A few focus group discussions were organized at different settlements (both permanent and temporary), and Simikot, the district headquarters of Humla. An interaction program at Simikot was held to obtain valuable opinion from stakeholders. Comprehensive discussion on issues, and wider consultations during the field level study was made with local communities, schools, health posts, clubs, user groups, VDCs, business and enterprise group, entrepreneurs in the district. Opinion of all major political parties in conservation of KSLNepal was also well conceived. Consultations with relevant line agencies and government offices at the central level in Kathmandu and other stakeholders in the district were made to generate primary information, and to verify data collected from the field as well. Literature review comprised of both published and unpublished reports of government, nongovernment and other local level stakeholders, and interpretation of maps and photographs. Past management plans and strategies for the area, sectoral management plans, master plan and draft operational plans of other conservation areas were reviewed. Existing policy, legislation and institutional arrangements were also reviewed. Baseline survey in Humla District as a representative district was conducted jointly by a team of Tribhuvan University, MFSC, and District Forest Office and its local staff, Simikot. Masters students were also involved to generate baseline data for monitoring. Field survey covered site visit, consultation, site inspection and observation, site specific or significant ecological features of the area, and discussion with local community and stakeholders.The study on biophysical and social aspects included land use, biological information (flora and fauna, birds, reptiles, etc), status of community forestry, forest types, NTFPs and wildlife habitats, distribution of protected and endangered species found in the area, and management system. This also included issues related to conservation of wild flora and fauna. Local communities including VDCs, Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs), NGOs, and CBOs were consulted. Main issues raised and discussed in the focus group was conservation sensitivity, importance of biodiversity, present status, present problems or difficulties, and potential solutions of the proposed Kailash Sacred landscape. Information collected from different sources was used to prepare a comprehensive database of the feasibility study of KSL-Nepal. The generated information from primary sources were analyzed, tabulated and prioritized to fulfill the main objectives of the study. 3 2. Delineation of Kailash Sacred Landscape-Nepal The process of National Level KSL boundary delineation in Nepal was initiated through Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, nodal agency for Kailash Scared Landscape Conservation Initiative. An executive committee at the national level was formed to guide the project in Nepal. Criteria for delineation were developed and then agreed upon through an iterative and consultative process in Nepal at national level stakeholders workshop held in Kathmandu on 12 March 2010. Expert opinion and technical help of ICIMOD was most important to delineate the landscape. The primary criteria as agreed by the regional partner countries were followed and included three categories: (i) ecological, or abiotic and biotic, (ii) cultural, and (iii) planning and management. The main points identified for consideration are the following: • Trans-boundary ecosystem services and ecosystem contiguity • Key biodiversity areas, including migratory habitats and potential biodiversity corridors • Endemism (biodiversity and culture) • Indicator/flagship, rare, endangered and threatened species (and their habitat ranges) • Protected areas, wetland (particularly Ramsar Sites) and other conservation priority areas • Cultural heritage sites, pilgrimage routes; and existing and potential ecotourism areas • Vulnerabilities of the area (globalization, migration and other change processes) • Urbanization and infrastructure development (current and planned) • Watershed and river basin coverage for headwater areas of major rivers originating from the landscape; and • Ecological zone The process adopted for the delineation included a review of published literature and other secondary information, and expert and stakeholder consultation with meetings at national and local levels. The area delineation exercise developed three scenarios, with the final boundaries decided by the Executive Committee. Main criteria considered included transboundary linkages and ecosystem services, watershed and river basin boundaries, key biodiversity areas, endemism, indicator/flagship, and rare, endangered and threatened species, protected areas and Ramsar Sites, cultural heritage sites, and pilgrimage routes 2 The delineated target area for the KSL-Nepal is approximately 13,289 km and comprised of four districts, namely Humla, Bajhang, Baitidi, and Darchula (Figure 2.1, 3.1). The altitudinal gradient ranges from 390m to 7,132masl. Average rainfall ranges from 25mm in parts of Humla, to 1,344mm in Bhajang. Major rivers in this region include the Mahakali, Humla Karnali, and Seti Rivers. This region also encompasses the major pilgrimage routes and several historical trade routes. In general, the area is remote; however there is an airfield at Simikot with connection to Surkhet and Nepalganj. The main crops include paddy, barley millet, maize, and wheat. Generally, this is a food deficit area, with families typically not growing enough food for the full year, as well as high variability from year to year, with several recent drought years. 4 Figure 2.1 Map of the KSL Target Area outline boundary, based on a merging of the delineation of their respective area by each of the three KSL countries This area is particularly rich in biodiversity, and lies at the intersection of several major floristic regions, namely the Western Himalayan, Eastern Himalayan, and Central Asiatic. This area fall within the Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot, and is comprised of five major ecoregions: • Himalayan subtropical broad-leaved forest • Himalayan subtropical pine forest • Western Himalayan broad-leaved forest • Western Himalayan subalpine conifer forest • Western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows Within the KSL-Nepal area, there are reportedly approximately 83 species of mammals, 456 species of birds, 38 species of reptiles, and 119 species of fish. Of these, 22 mammals’ species, 12 bird species, and one reptile species are on the IUCN Red List. Eight species of mammals, 7 species of birds, 22 species of reptiles and 8 species of fish are either endemic or have a restricted range. There are 35 species of mammals, and 73 species of birds, that are listed in various categories in CITES. Ten mammals, 4 species of birds and 1 species of reptile are listed as legally protected by Government of Nepal. In addition, there are three endemic species of fish (Schizothorax nepalensis, S. macrophthalmus, and S. raraensis - restricted-range) have been reported from adjoining Rara National Park in KSL-Nepal. Agricultural biodiversity is very high, with globally significant genetic resources and locally important landraces maintained by farmers, as well as many wild relatives of economically important food crops found in this area. Over 200 species for NTFPs are reported used for food and/or medicine in Bajhang district, of which 38 species (or their products) are commonly traded. A total of 83 species for NTFPs are recorded from Darchula District, of which 73 species (products) are used as ethnomedicine. 5 Forest product-based industries (five year report on forest/DFO, 2009) include Nepali paper factories, furniture industries, fibre refining factories (allo-bhangro refineries), medicinal herb processing, fruit processing, rattan factory, honey bee refineries, honey farms. There is significant trade and revenue from collection of medicinal plants (and other medicinals). There are 14 forest types reported for this region. Most of this forest is government managed, however a significant portion is under community forest management, with many Community Forestry Users Groups (CFUGs) reported for this area. Socio-economic, livelihood, poverty and gender dimensions Total population for this area (CBS 2001) was approximately 564,035 persons, with close to half found in Baitadi District. Humla, although the largest district, has the fewest people and lowest populaton density. Gender balance shows significant outmigration by males. Main ethnic groups or castes include Chetri, Bahun Thakuri, Tamang, Bhote, Dalit, and Lama. The religion of these peoples is more than 90% Hindu, with Buddhist primarily comprising the remainder. Agriculture is the main occupation for over 70.5% of the population. Population density ranges from 7 persons per km2 in Humla to 154 persons per km2 in Baitadi District. Literacy rates are generally low throughout the four districts. Health indicators are also generally low reflecting the wide spread and deep poverty of this area, with very few doctors and very few health care facilities. Chronic malnutrition among children under five is high, and percentage of the population with access to safe drinking water relatively low. There are almost no roads in this area, though there are several under construction. Baitadi, Darchula and Bajhang Districts together have about 283 km of road (including 53 km blacktopped), while Humla has none (data from 2004). 6 3. Physical, Biological, and Socio-Cultural Characteristics 3.1 Physical Characteristics The Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL) complex extends from 29o22’N to 30o45’N latitudes, and 80o15’E to 82o10’E Humla longitudes. Humla District alone accounts for 45% of Darchula the total area. Kailash Bajhang Sacred landscape varies along with the elevation Baitadi gradient. Altitude of the region varies from 390m (Baitadi District) to above N 7,000m (Table 3.1). The mountains, Mt Saipal – District Boundary 7,031m in Bajhang; Api 80 0 80 Kilometers Himal-7,132m in Darchula; and Mt. Nala Kankad7,336m, in Humla fall in Figure 3.1 Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal this region. Other mountains include Byans – 6,670m, Guransh - 6,644m, Lipu Lek - 5,000m and Nampa - 6,757m. Climatic regime ranges from tropical in Baitiadi District to alpine in higher reaches of Bajhang, Darchula and Humla Districts. Climate of the area is generally characterized by high rainfall and humidity; whereas a part of Humla region is drier. Altogether, there are 178 VDCs/municipality in the region (Annex 1a & 1b). Brahmin, Chhettri, Bhote, Kami, Damai/Sarki are dominant ethnic groups in the area. The region includes the recently declared Api Nampa Conservation Area; whereas a part of Khaptad National Park falls in southern part of Bajhang District. High biogeographic, climatic, geological altitudinal variations as well as topographic complexity contribute to high biodiversity over a relatively small area. The landscape, thus, forms a complex mosaic of ecosystems unique to the mountain system. Baitadi District, Mahakali Zone, is a hilly district in Far Western Development Region of Nepal, bordered by Bajhang and Doti Districts in the east, Darchula District in the north, Uttaranchal Pradesh of India in the west, and Dadeldhura District in the south. Jhulaghat market of India is the nearest Indian market from district headquarters Dashrath Chand Municipality. It comprises 62 Village Development Committees (VDC) and one Municipality. Darchula District, Mahakali Zone, is one of the mountainous districts in Far Western Development Region of Nepal, bordered by Bajhang district in the east, Tibet Autonomous Region of China (TARChina) in the north, Uttaranchal of India in the west and Baitadi District in the south. Khalanga Darchula is the headquarters of the district and situated in close proximity to the Mahakali River. Dharchula is the nearest market in the Indian border lying just opposite to Darchula of Nepal. It comprises 41 VDCs. Bajhang District in Seti Zone is also a the hilly district of Far Western Development Region of Nepal, bordered by Bajura and Humla Districts in the east; Darchula and Baitadi Districts in the west; Humla District and TAR-China in the North; and Doti and Baitadi Districts in the south. Chainpur is the headquarters of the district, which is located about 32km north from Khaptad National Park headquarters. The district is divided into 47 VDCs. Only 54.92 sq.km (8%) area of the district falls within Khaptad National Park Buffer Zone. 7 Table 3.1 Physical characteristics of KSL-Nepal Parameters Baitadi Area (sq.km.) 1491.42 Latitude 29o 22'-29o 57'N Longitude 80o 15'-80o 45'E Altitude (m) 390- 2950 Annual mean temperature (ºC) 5-30 Average annual rainfall (mm) 1513 Darchula 2337.68 29o 36'-30o 15'N 80o 22'- 81o 9'E 518-7132 5.7-18.6 1885 Bajhang 3455.91 29o 29'-30o9'N 80o 46'-81o 34'E 915-7077 5.7- 18.6/-10 1343 Humla 6003.66 29o 25'-30o57'N 81o 18-82o 10' E 1220-7336 10o-25o/-10o 25.4-146.9 Humla District in Karnali Zone is a mountainous district of Mid-Western Development Region of Nepal. The district is located in the northern corner of Karnali zone and bordered by TAR-China in the north and north-west, Mugu District in the south-east, Bajura in the south and Bajhang in the south-west. Simikot is the headquarters of the district. It is divided into 27 VDCs. Land use and Soil Land use categories in the study area comprise forest, cultivated land, non-cultivated land, pasture, and others (Table 3.2). The existing land use pattern were forest 24.3%, shrubland 8.6%, grazing land 17.1%, cultivated land 8.6%, and others 41.3% (GoN 1998/2001). The percentage of cultivated land is quite low varying from 1% in Humla and 21% in Baitadi, with less than only 12.5% of the total land being irrigated (7.8% in Humla and 15.3% in Darchula). Soils of the lower region are predominantly fine to coarse loam; and alluvial and coarse textured in irrigated field. Overall, forest area has remained almost constant; whereas shrub area has greatly been increased from 1978/79 to 1998/2001. This is accompanied by decrease in grassland and cultivated land. However, the forest area in Humla and Darchula districts are found to be in increasing trend which may be attributed to handing over of forest areas to the communities, and insurgency during which many people migrated from the district. This data needs to be reconfirmed, because rampant deforestation has also been observed in the region. Except Humla district, agriculture land is found to be in decreasing trend (Table 3.2). The comparison of the two available datasets is quite difficult. This is due to combined effect of different factors such as the primary objectives, materials and methods used and interest in mapping. The LRMP has used manual interpretation of aerial photographs with field verification whereas the Topo-sheet work was based on satellite image analysis with limited field verification. Even land use/land cover categories or legends used in these two studies are different. Fine particles of stony soil exit in cracks of larger rocks in the High Himalayan region while shallow and stony soils are seen in the high mountains. Soils in the Middle Mountains are moderately to highly acidic, medium- to light-textured coarse grained sand and gravel. Soils of the lower region are predominantly fine to coarse loam; and alluvial and coarse textured in irrigated field. Soils in the middle mountains are moderately acidic, medium- to light- textured coarse grained sand and gravel. In the high mountains, fine particles of stony soils exist in cracks of larger rocks (ANCA 2008; DNPWC 2008, 2010). Soils of the lower region are predominantly fine to coarse loam and alluvial and coarse textured in irrigated paddy fields. Table 3.2 Land use change (ha) in the KSL-Nepal District Baitadi 60785 Department of survey/GoN (1998/2001) Shrub Grassland Cultivated Forest Shrub Grassland Cult. land land 17920 19199 51624 61292 30573 10792 44480 Darchula 72978 6555 61214 25012 75578 17988 52987 Bajhang 102463 10655 52926 41657 97437 38500 63028 Humla 71985 9124 79607 24578 94277 Total 308211 38987 274785 127417 313914 111639 221084 Change in ha and % LRMP (1978/79) Forest 3857 141446 Sources: LRMP (1978/79), and Department of Survey (1998-2001) 8 Forest 507 (0.83%) 20115 2600 (3.44%) 34651 -5026 (5.16%) 12506 7622 (9.57%) 111752 5703 (1.82%) Shrub Grassland Cult. land 12653 -8407 -7144 (41.39% ) (-77.90%) (-16.06%) 11433 -8227 -4897 (63.56%) (-15.53%) (-24.34%) 27845 10102 -7006 (72.32%) (16.03%) (-20.22%) 20721 -47169 3382 (84.31%) (-50.03%) (27.04%) 72652 -53701 -15665 (65.08%) (-24.29%) (-14.02%) 3.1.1 Geomorphology and Geology Most geological formations in different physiographic zones run east to west. A small portion in the northern most part of the KSL, Nepal area is dominated by Tibetan sediment. The High Himalayan zone belongs to the Precambrian era and it consists of gneiss, schist, limestone and sediments. This zone also possesses granite and pegmatite. The Middle Mountain zone is mostly of late Precambrian to Devonian era and consists of phyllite, quartzite, gneiss, granite and schist. The area seems to have relatively less fertile land from the point of agriculture, but this area is rich for medicinal plants. Midlands in Bajhang are dominated by chlorite and dolomite (Forest Resources of Nepal, FAO 1999). 3.1.2 Climate Due to variation in altitude and topography, the climate of the region varies widely from subtropical to alpine type. In north, most part is covered with snow and the climate is alpine. In the Southern part and valleys the climate is subtropical, and in middle hill region climate is a temperate type (Figure 3.2). The average maximum temperature is 18.6ºC and the minimum temperature is 7.7ºC, and average rainfall is 2,129mm, with nearly 80% of the total annual rainfall falling during the four months of monsoons from June to September. All areas experience very high rainfall intensities, ranging between estimates of 125-350 mm for a 24 hour period (ICIMOD 1997). Upper part of Humla is relatively much drier. Within its elevation range of 1,000m to 2,000m there are limited subtropical valleys in the southern margin although most of the area is physiographically temperate or highland. A cold, 15 y = -0.0058x + 19.13 generally dry climate exists in the high alpine 10 R² = 0.9996 valleys just north of the southern arm of the 5 Himalaya that cuts across the bottom of Darchula 0 and Humla. The region lies in the western Himalaya (Holarctic Biogeographic Zone). This location 500 1500 2500 3500 (distance from markets, inaccessibility, and the unusual confluence of geologic, climatic and Elevation, m biological factors), and the area's orographic isolation, create a region of high floral diversity, with distinctive vegetation, as well as a high degree of Figure 3.2a: Altitudinal variation of temperature in the project area. endemism, including many valuable MAPs. Temperature (oC) LAPSE RATE Climate data for the entire region is not available. The average annual rainfall for Khaptad National Park is about 1,550mm based on records from Tribeni (3,050m) for 1978-1981. Most precipitation falls between May and September. About 1m of snow accumulates on the plateau during winter. Mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures range from about 16°C and 8°C in January to 31°C and 21°C in June at Silgadi, Doti, which is 1,630m lower than Tribeni (Kattel 1981). Summary of precipitation and temperatures of selected places is given in Tables 3.3, 3.4 & 3.5 which show that between 1980 and 2006 average temperature change is increasing; whereas average precipitation is almost constant or slightly increasing (Figures 3.2b-3.2g). Table 3.3 Monthly summary of precipitation (mm) recorded in the project area Index Period Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug 0101 1956-06 41 45 56 47 100 260 457 397 0102 1973-06 45 58 59 54 127 198 320 276 0103 1956-06 41 40 47 47 101 197 344 301 0107 1974-06 51 64 68 59 121 298 686 641 0108 1956-06 45 56 65 65 124 218 402 385 0201 1956-06 54 53 60 62 117 315 585 555 0202 1956-06 56 62 63 47 60 179 372 385 0311 1978-06 30 56 69 35 49 78 141 148 0313 1979-06 38 48 65 59 72 109 333 294 9 Sep 220 160 159 316 202 305 208 110 149 Oct 54 42 37 53 37 61 47 35 44 Nov 7 8 9 9 10 11 9 14 18 Dec 18 29 21 29 28 25 25 18 28 Ann 1,701 1,375 1,344 2,396 1,637 2,202 1,512 784 1,256 Table 3.4 Monthly summary of temperature (oC) recorded in the project area Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Index No. 103 Patan Period 1981-2006 Max 16.9 19.1 23.3 27.8 29.8 30.4 28.4 28.1 Min 4.2 6.1 9.8 13.4 16.3 19.2 19.9 19.8 Ave 10.5 12.6 16.6 20.6 23.0 24.8 24.2 23.9 Index No..202 Chainpur Period 1980-2006 Max 18.0 20.2 24.0 28.2 30.8 31.1 29.4 29.1 Min 3.4 5.3 8.8 12.2 15.8 18.9 20.0 19.6 Ave 10.7 12.7 16.4 20.2 23.3 25.0 24.7 24.3 Index No. 107: Darchula Period 1990-2006 Max 19.0 22.2 26.6 31.2 33.5 33.8 32.0 31.7 Min 4.4 6.1 9.8 14.2 18.6 20.8 21.5 21.3 Ave 11.7 14.2 18.2 22.7 26.0 27.3 26.7 26.5 Index No. Simikot Period 1989-2006 Max 7.5 6.6 11.3 17.2 20.5 22.3 21.9 21.0 Min -7.6 -7.9 -3.0 3.6 6.8 8.7 10.9 11.3 Ave -0.1 -0.7 4.2 10.4 13.7 15.5 16.4 16.1 Sep Oct Nov Dec 27.7 18.0 22.9 26.2 13.5 19.9 22.3 8.4 15.4 18.8 5.1 11.9 28.6 17.5 23.1 26.7 12.2 19.4 23.0 7.3 15.2 19.5 4.0 11.7 30.8 19.5 25.1 28.3 14.0 21.2 24.4 8.8 16.6 20.1 5.3 12.7 20.1 9.2 14.7 17.6 3.4 10.5 13.8 -0.6 6.6 11.6 -5.7 3.0 Figure 3.2b: Temperature trends recorded from Patan station. Table 3.5 Climatic trends in the project area Index Station Lat Long 101 Kakerpakha 29.65 80.5 103 Patan 29.47 201 Pipalkot 202 Chainpur Elvtn 842 b R2 N Sig 95% Sig b 3 0.024 48 0.283 No 80.53 1266 -1.5 0.008 46 0.289 No 29.62 80.87 1456 49 0.28 No 29.55 81.22 1304 49 0.28 No 3 0.015 3.1 0.034 10 R2 N Sig 95% Sig 0.039 0.328 20 0.438 No 0.045 0.543 25 0.392 Yes Figure 3.2c Temperature trends recorded from Chainpur Station Figure 3.2d Precipitation trends recorded from Kekerpakha station 11 Figure 3.2e Precipitation trends recorded from Patan Station Figure 3.2f Precipitation trends recorded from Chainpur Station 12 Figure 3.2g Precipitation trends recorded from Pipalkot Station 3.1.3 Hydrology, River Systems and Water Resources Besides the catchment of Mansarovar, KSL-Nepal includes four districts in the northeast part of Nepal: Baitadi, Darchula, Bajhang, and Humla (Figures 3.3 & 3.4). Figure 3.3 indicates that the northern part of the project area is significantly dry compared to the southern parts. Because of limited scope in agriculture and economic activities, very few settlements are located above 3,000m, although more than half of the project area lies above 3,000m. River Basins The Humla Karnali, the Mahakali and the Seti are the major river basins in the project area. River basins in KSL-Nepal are delineated in Figure 3.4. This also shows the basins of rivers considered in this study, but linked outside Nepal’s political boundary. Humla Karnali originates in Kailash area in TAR-China. Major portion of the Mahakali lies in India, whereas the Seti River basin is confined to the Nepalese territory. Rivers and their major tributaries are depicted in figure 3.5. 13 Figure 3.3 GoogleEarth image of project area including Mansarovar (right) and Rakchas Tal (left) on top of the image 1. All basins (Nepal, China, and India): (i) Basin Area - 25,640 km2; (ii) Average basin elevation – 3,520 m 2. Basins in Nepal (Nepal, and China): (i) Basin Area: 12,360 km2; (ii) Average basin elevation: 3,740 m 3. Lowest Elevation of basins in Nepal: (i) Mahakali - 600 m; (ii) Seti - 980 m; (iii) Humla Karnali - 1,540 m 4. Highest elevation of basins in Nepal and China: (i) Mahakali-7,132 m (Api Himal); (ii) Seti – 7,031 m (Saipal); (iii) Humla Karnali – 7,728 m (Gurla Mandhata). Figure 3.4 River basins of KSL 14 Figure 3.5 River network in KSL (obtained from DEM) Figure 3.6 GoogleEarth image of Chhubhu Taal 15 Lakes Lakes of small size occur in the project area. The largest lake with area less than one square kilometer is the Chhubhu Tal in Bajhang District (Figure 3.6). The lake is located above 4,000m and is influenced by snow and ice. The Surma Tal near Chhubhu Tal and Khaptad Tal in the southern part of Bajhang are two other lakes of smaller sizes. Hydrometry Because of poor accessibility, river basins in the project area are poorly gauged. Although more than half of the project area lies above 3,000m, no weather station exists in the region. A climate station located at Simikot (2,800m) in Humla District is the only high altitude station (Table 3.6). Location of stations and their description are given in Figure 3.7 and Table 3.6, respectively. Figure 3.7 shows that the network is relatively better in lower part of the basin. Table 3.6 Meteorological stations in the project site Index Station Lat Long (DD) No. (DD) 101 Kakerpakha 29.65 80.50 Elevation (m) 842 Basin 102 Baitadi 29.55 80.42 103 Patan 29.47 107 Darchula 108 Satbanjh 201 Mahakali Established Date 05/01/1956 Station Type Precip 1635 Mahakali 05/01/1973 Precip 80.53 1266 Mahakali 05/01/1956 Climate 29.85 80.57 1097 Mahakali 02/01/1974 Climate 29.53 80.47 2370 Mahakali 06/01/1976 Precip Pipalkot 29.62 80.87 1456 Karnali 06/01/1956 Precip 202 Chainpur 29.55 81.22 1304 Karnali 06/01/1956 Climate 311 Simikot 29.97 81.83 2800 Karnali 05/01/1976 Climate 313 Darma 29.73 82.10 1950 Karnali 09/01/1979 Precip Figure 3.7 Hydrological and meteorological stations in the project area 16 Hydrology and River Systems Out of the four major river basins, KSL-Nepal is drained by two river basins: Karnali and Mahakali. Karnali River originates from the south of Mansarovar and Rakchhes Tal in TAR-China. The main tributaries are Bheri, West Seti, Tila, Mugu Karnali, Humla Karnali, etc., and watershed area covers 19 districts including Humla and Bajhang of Nepal. Similarly, the Mahakali River originates in the high Himalayas from the Milan Glacier in India and Lipulekh (Api Himal) in Nepal. Chamelia River of Darchula District is one of the major tributaries of the river basin. The National Lake Conservation Development Committee (NLCDC 2009) under the Ministry of Tourism made a desktop analysis of Nepal’s lakes on the basis of Toposheets and identified 5,358 lakes/ponds in Nepal. NLCDC recorded largest number of lakes in Humla District (381) in Nepal. High Himalayan lakes are glacial in origin, whereas, in the middle mountain zone these are tectonic in origin. Out of the several wetlands in KSL-Nepal, only two (Khaptad and Rara) have comprehensive information. Major lakes in Humla District include Chhungsa Daha (69 ha, 4,907m), Chhyungar Daha (20 ha, 4,679m), Chhaung Daha (18 ha, 5,054m), Lurupya (18 ha, 4,404m), Dudhya Daha (21 ha, 4,261m) and Jigilya Daha (17 ha, 4,359m). Some important lakes in the high mountain zone are Khaptad Daha and Surma Sarobar in Bajhang and Joge Tal in Darchula. Similarly, important lakes in middle mountain zone are Tima Daha, Nilla Hari kunda, Rakcchesh Daha in Bajhang, Bhrama Daha and Pasa Daha in Darchula, Jadya Daha, Selim lake, Nila lake in Humla and Rara Tal in Mugu, close to the Kailash region in Nepal. Main river systems along the Nepal-India border are Mahakali and Chameliya (Chaulani) Rivers. All water sources originate from the Himalayan range of Darchula District. Water quality of three rivers shows that the physio-chemical characters such as pH is slightly higher than national standard; whereas TDS, DO and BOD are within the recommended range (Table 3.7). Table 3.7 Water quality of major rivers (DHM 1998; CBS 2008) Rivers pH TDS DO BOD (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) Mahakali at 8.8 110 5 2 Pancheswar Karnali at Chisapani 8.9 264 10.5 1.5 Seti at Ramghat 8.2 222 9.3 2 Water Bodies and Drainage Disruption along the Nepal-India Border The Mahakali, a border river between Nepal and India, flows south forming the western international boundary between Nepal and India. In the upper region of the river, it flows in a deep gorge. Downwards, it joins with the Gori Ganga at Jauljibi, which in turn joins the Saryu River at Pancheshwar. The area around Pancheshwar is called 'Kali Kumaon'. Kalapani is situated on the Kailash-Lake Mansarovar trek, and it is said that at this place the Great Sage Vyasa meditated, thus the valley is called Vyasa Valley. The river is named after the Goddess Kali whose temple is situated in Kalapaani near the Lipu-Lekh pass at the border between India and China. The Mahakali (Sarda in India) is shared with India, and has a total basin area of 14,871 km2 up to Upper Sarda Barrage, about 34% of which lies in Nepal. The total catchments area is 17,818 km2 up to Lower Sarda Barrage. The river also has a barrage to regulate water flow for irrigation and hydroelectric power. There are 87 glaciers in the area of 143.33 sq.km in the Mahakali River System and 10.06 km3 ice reserves (Mool et al. 2001). 3.2 Biological characteristics 3.2.1 Agrobiodiversity Diversity of Food Crops Availability of cultivated land is low in Kailash area in Nepal; only 8.6% of the total land is cultivated varying Figure 3.8a Wheat cultivation in Humla District from 1% in Humla District to 21% in Baitadi District. 17 Only a small part of the area is suitable to grow a single crop a year above 3,000 m (Figures 3.8a & 3.8b). A great deal of agrodiversity has been found in KSL-Nepal. Farmers in these districts (Baitadi, Darchula, Bajhang and Humla) of the country grow diverse and unique/rare crops to fulfill their basic needs and to avert risk from adverse climatic conditions. Rice, maize, wheat, finger millet, proso millet, soybean, black gram, and phaseolus beans are major food crops. The agro-climatic variation is very high, from tropical to subalpine. People grow local cultivars of different crop species. Adoption of improved varieties is very nominal due to unique ecosystem and inaccessibility of new material and information. On the basis of germplasm collections maintained at National Agricultural Research Council (NARC), crop diversity of the area has been reflected (Table 3.8). Figure 3.8b Field ploughing for crop sowing in Humla for summer Table 3.8 Collections held in gene bank, NARC (Source: Gupta et al. 2000 Crops Humla Darchula Baitadi Amaranths Barley Bitter gourd Blackgram Broadbean Buckwheat Coriander Cucumber Common field bean Cowpea Finger millet Foxtail millet Garden cress Horsegram Lentil Maize Niger Proso millet Pumpkin Peas Perilla Rape mustard Radish Rice Ricebean Sorghum Sesame Soybean Sunflower Spinach Snake gourd Wheat Total 3 30 5 8 1 55 4 24 3 1 11 3 3 1 1 1 47 4 1 5 25 236 3 6 3 1 1 7 2 1 5 4 33 8 6 2 1 2 3 10 1 17 2 2 1 31 4 6 13 115 18 Bajhang 6 2 2 2 4 1 2 8 9 8 2 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 22 2 2 1 3 5 94 Humla is particularly rich in diversity of crop varieties. Eight different types of finger millet (Eleusine coracana) have been documented, rato, kalo, agulya, taunya, dallya, jharuwa, rimalaya, and biyalnya (Rokaya 2058 B.S.). Five different types of barley (Hordeum vulgare) are documented, kalo jau, seto jau, murlaya jau, dhanbali jau, and bun jau (which is medicinal value). Similarly, varieties of naked barley include muralaya uwa, phul uwa, and dhanbale uwa. Varieties of wheat include hyasa, bhabri, and papi. Local varieties of buckwheat are gaslayo (sweet), dalya, fuche, and chakhau. People make bread, porridge, jadd (alcohol) from millet and barley; whereas lagar (a kind of thick bread which gives strength for a long time and normally eaten with choti, a radish) is prepared from buckwheat. Proso millet i.e. ‘chino’ (Panicum miliaceum), and fox-tail millet i.e. ‘kaguno’ (Setaria italica) are other important crops. Varieties of proso millet include rato chino, dudhya china, and bharbhurya chino. Similarly, varieties of fox-tail millet are rato, kalo and mal. The region is also famous for beans, i.e. simi and the types found in Humla are malya simi, chukkya simi, chakhurya simi, sukilo simi, rato simi, kalo simi, lahare simi, etc. (Adhikari 2008). Livestock Livestock husbandry is one of the major occupations of the far-western (Darchula, Bajhang, Baitadi) and mid western (Humla) districts of Nepal. Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats and yaks are major livestock species in the region (Table 3.9). Table 3.9 Livestock population in project districts (Source: MoAC, 2008/9, DLSO Darchula) Development Region/districts Cattle Buffalo Livestock species Chauri/Yak Goats A. Mid western 1. Humla 32,546 1,750 2,671 (1,000) B. Far western 1.Darchula 61,531 31,036 375(10) 2. Bajhang 98,743 47,890 42 (5) 3. Baitadi 94,276 63,774 Figures in (parenthesis) indicate number of yaks. Sheep Poultry Chicken Pigs 33,561 29,053 43 28,518 48,836 51,228 100,335 27,266 28,664 238 280 793 87 91,009 61,829 44,340 Cattle, sheep and goats are major livestock species in the west and far western mountain region of Nepal. Yak and chauri are also raised in these districts. Yaks occur in very small numbers compared with chauri (crossbreed between yak and cattle). Breeds and productivity of several animal species are given in Annex 2. These mountain districts are feed deficit during the winter. People use pastures and rangelands for summer feeding. About 10 major fodder trees are available in these districts, which are Grewia optiva (Vimal), Ficus semicordata (Khanyu), Litsea monopetala (Kutmiro), Ficus nemoralis (Dudhilo), Bauhinia variegate (Koiralo), Bauhinia purpurea (Tanki), Quercus semecarpifolia (Kharsu), Leucaena leucocephala (Ipil ipil), Quercus leuchotrichophora (Banjh), Populus species (Populus) and Salix balylonica (Bains). Major forage and pasture species in mid- and far-western region of Nepal are Rosa sericea, Caragana species, Artemisia species, Medicago falcate, Poa species, Pennisetum species, Chamae jane, Flaccidum species, Hippophae tibetana, and Agrostis species. Fishery Fish diversity of Bajhang, Humla, Darchula, and Baitadi Districts of far western development region is one of the most ignored, poorly studied and documented in Nepal. These four districts are enriched with several large international rivers and their tributaries. This implies that the area has potential for warm, as well as cold, water fisheries and aquaculture due to abundance of water. Besides, rich aquatic resources also indicate that these districts should indeed be rich in fish biodiversity resources. There are only rudimentary studies on fish, fisheries and livelihoods of communities of these districts. However, fisheries could be an attractive area for future development. This is because the 19 rivers located in these districts are natural habitats of world famous game fishe species such as Mahseer (Tor putitora), Katle (Neolissochielus hexagonolepis), Asala (Shizothorax sp.), etc. Mahseer, also known as Himalayan golden mahseer, is one of the largest freshwater fishes in the Indian Sub-Continent. Large individuals can attain sizes of more than 100 kg body weight. Thus, rich fish biodiversity with several important game fishes suggest that large rivers and lakes could be utilized for promotion of recreational or tourism fisheries in the future (Gurung 2009). Artificial impoundments, built as hydropower reservoirs, have also been reported in some districts. Recently, Nepal's largest reservoir has been envisaged for the Seti River which is habitat for 34 fish species. The proposed reservoir will cover approximately 2,070 hectares in six far-western districts. This reservoir will also extend to areas of Bajura and Bajhang. Only a few farmers in some of the districts have initiated fishery activities, particularly pond fish farming. Traditional fisheries in the area are largely undocumented. Landholding pattern from fisheries perspective is not known. 3.2.2 Vegetation, Flora and Threatened Plant Species Botanical Exploration While botanical expeditions in Nepal began in the beginning of the 19th century i.e. (1802-03), plant collection in KSL-Nepal area and enroute started only in the 1960s. The botanical explorations carried out in west Nepal (Humla, Bajhang, Darchula and Baitadi districts) from 1952 to 2009 are given in Annex 3. The table shows that altogether 23 trips have been taken for plant explorations in these four districts by Nepalese as well as foreign scientists. However, the herbarium record shows that not many plants have been collected so far from these areas and much remains to be collected. Ecoregions The KSL-Nepal region comprises five major ecoregions that represent distinct habitat types. • • • • • Himalayan subtropical broadleaved forest. The ecoregion represents the east-westdirected band of Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests, lying between 500m and 1,000 m asl. Above 1,000 metres, the broadleaf forests yield to the Himalayan subtropical pine forests. These forest types in KSL-Nepal consist of subtropical broadleaf hill forests comprising sal (Shorea robusta) forest. Alnus species is an early-successional species that invades landslide areas and forms monospecific stands, along with Albizia species. Himalayan subtropical pine forest. The mountain range is made up of east-west-directed parallel zones, between 1,000m and 2,000m asl. The dominant species is Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii), which lacks a well-developed understory due to frequent fires. Western Himalayan temperate/broadleaved forest. This ecoregion represents the temperate broadleaf forests of the western Himalayas between 1,500 and 3,000m asl. Evergreen broad-leaved forests and deciduous broad-leaved forests mainly include Quercus species (Figure 3.9a). Western Himalayan subalpine conifer forest. The ecoregion represents the subalpine conifer forests between 3,000 and 3,500m asl, comprising extensive forests of blue pine (Pinus wallichiana), fir (Abies spectabilis, and A. pindrow), and spruce (Picea smithiana) mixed with oak-fir forest. These subalpine areas have a number of economically important species including a large number of medicinal plants. Western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows. The ecoregion contains several localized hotspots of floral diversity and endemism such as Himalayan alpine meadows and shrublands between about 3,000 and 5,000m. The rich meadow flora is dominated by herbaceous plants, especially species of Anaphalis, Aster, Cyananthus, Jurinea, Morina, Potentilla, Delphinium, Gentiana, Meconopsis, Pedicularis, Anemone, Aster, Polygonum, Primula, and Saussurea. A steppe-type vegetation of Caragana gerardiana, Lonicera spinosa, Juniperus indica, Hippophae tibetana, Myricaria rosea and Berberis species is found in the northern extents of the ecoregion (Figure 3.9b). The ecoregion and the adjoining trans-Himalayas are the prime habitat for the snow leopard and its ungulate prey. 20 Figure 3.9a Western Himalayan temperate forest Figure 3.9b Western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows Forest Type At least 18 main forest types occur in the KSL-Nepal area out of total 35 forest types in Nepal as classified by Stainton (1972). They are: 1. Hill Sal (Shorea robusta), 2. Riverine (Bombax ceiba, Toona ciliata, Albizia species), 3. Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii), 4. Alder (Alnus nepalensis), 5. Oak (Quercus species), 6. Himalayan blue pine (Pinus wallichiana), 7. Lower temperate mixed broadleaved (Michelia kisopa, Castanopsis tribuloides, Alnus nepalensis), 8. Upper temperate mixedbroad-leaved (Aesculus indica, Juglans regia, Acer caesium), 9. Hemlock (Tsuga dumosa), 10. Himalayan Cypress forest (Cupressus torulosa), 11. Fir (Abies spectabilis), 12. Himalayan spuruce (Picea smithiana), 13. Himalayan Cedar (Cedrus deodara), 14. Poplar (Populus ciliata), 15. Birch (Betula utilis), 16. Moist alpine shrub (Hippophae- Caragana), 17. Caragana steppe, and 18. Upper alpine meadows (Table 3.10, Figures 3.10a-f). Table 3.10 Forest types in Kailash Sacred Landscape-Nepal Forest Type Altitude (m asl) 1. Hill Sal forest (700-1000m) 2. Riverine forest (700-1500m) 3. Chir pine forest (1000-2700m) 7. Lower temperate mixed broadleaved forest (2000-2500m) 6. Himalayan blue pine forest (2000-35000m) 5. Oak Forest (2000-3100m) 4. Alder forest (500-2700m) 8. Upper temperate mixedbroad-leaved forest (20002900m) Forest Sub-type & (Associated species) Shorea robusta Forest (Anogeissus latifolia, Terminalia tomentosa, Adina cordifolia, Bauhinia vahlii) Riverine forest with Toona, Acacia, and Albizia (Bombax malabaricum, Mallotus philippensis, Acacia catechu) Pinus roxburghii forest (Olea cuspidata, Capparis spinosa, Woodfordia fructicosa, Indigofera heterantha) Alnus nepalensis forest & A. nitida forest (Juglans regia, Quercus floribunda, Populus ciliata) Oak (Q. floribunda) forest (2100-2750m) (Alnus nepalensis, Q. leuchotrichophora) Oak (Quercus leucotrichophora, Q.lanata)-chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) forest (2000-2450m) Oak (Q. semecarpifolia - blue pine (Pinus wallichiana) forest (2450-3000m) Oak forest (Quercus semecarpifolia) forest (24503100m) (Abies spectabilis, Betula utilis, Rosa sericea) Baitadi + Darchula Bajhang Humla Remarks - + - - - Similar to that in some parts of KSL-India + + + + Similar to that in the KSL-India + + + + Similar to that in the KSL-India + + + + + + + + - + + + + + + + Pine (Pinus wallichiana) forest (2000-3200m) (Picea smithiana, Abies pindrow, Q. leuchotrichophora) - + + Pinus-Picea-Abies forest (2800-3500m) (Pinus wallichiana, Picea smithiana, Abies spectabilis, Q. semecarpifolia, Sorbus cuspidata, Juglans regia, Juniperus wallichiana) - - + + Lower temperate mixed forest (Michelia kisopa, Castanopsis tribuloides, Alnus nepalensis, Euonymous echinatus, Daphne papyracea, ) - - + - Rare in KSL area Aesculus- Juglans-Acer (Aesculus indica, Juglans regia, Acer caesium) (Betula alnoides, Alnus nepalensis, Quercus floribunda, Q. semecarpifolia, Prunus cornuta) + - - + Similar to that in the KSL-India 21 Similar to that in the KSL-India Similar to that in the KSL-India Similar to that in the KSL-India Similar to that in the KSL-India 10.Himalayan Cypress forest 2100-2900m) 9. Hemlock forest (2100-3200m) 12. Fir forest 2150-3500m) 11. Himalayan Spruce forest (2150-3200m) 13. Himalayan Cedar forest (2000-2600m) 15. Birch forest 2900-4000m) 14. Poplar forest (2150-3200m) 16. Moist alpine shrub (36504400m) 17. Caragana Steppe (40004500m) 18. Upper alpine meadows (45005000m) Tsuga dumosa forest (Pinus wallichiana, Abies spectabilis, Sorbus cuspidate, Ilex dipyrena) - + + + Cupressus torulosa-Abies pindrow (Rosa macrophylla, Syringa emodi) Cupressus torulosa (Juniperus indica, Viburnum cotinifolium, Berberis species, Cotoneaster species) - + - + - + + + Picea smithiana (Pinus wallichiana, Abies pindrow, Tsuga dumosa, Populus ciliate, Betula utilis) - - + + Abies pindrow (2150-2900m) - + + + Abies spectabilis (3050-3950m) (Sorbus foliolosa, Taxus wallichiana, Rosa sericea, Cotoneaster acuminata, Ribes graciale) Abies spectabilis-Betula utilis forest (3000-4000m) - + + + - + + + Abies spectabilis-Junipeus indicar forest (30003500m) Cedrus deodara (Pinus wallichiana, Rosa sericea, Berberis aristata, Cotoneaster frigidusSpiraea canescens) - - + + + + + + Populus ciliata (Picea smithiana, Pinus wallichiana, Hippophae salicifolia, Rosa sericea, Jasminus officinale) Betula utilis forest (2900-3800m) (Prunus rufa, Acer caesium, Sorbus microphylla, Lonicera myrtillus) - - - + - + + + Betula utilis-Rhododendron campanulatum (35004000m) (Abies spectabilis, Prunus cornuta, Ribes graciale, Lonicera myrtillus) Moist alpine shrub (Juniperus wallichiana, Rhododendron lepidotum, R. anthopogon, Potentilla fruticosa, Lonicera obovata) Caragana Steppe (Caragana gerardiana, C. brevifolia, Myricaria rosea) - - + + - + + + Similar to that in the KSL-China - - - + Similar to that in the KSL-China Upper alpine meadows (Festuca ovina, Kobresia seliculmus, Agrostis munroana, Allium carolinianum, Arenaria polytrichoides, Saxifraga stenophylla ) - - + Similar to that in the KSL-China Similar to that in the KSL-India (Source: Stainton 1972; DFO reports 2008; Field Study 2010) Endemic Species A total of 13 endemic plant species has been documented so far from KSL-Nepal region those are mainly distributed above 2500 m (Figure 3.11, Annex 4). It is worth to mention here that the northwest part of western Nepal (Kali-Karnali region), comprising eight districts of Nepal possess 101 species of endemic plants, and Dolpa district alone comprises 65 species. Therefore, it has been estimated that after thorough explorations, the number of endemic plants would be increased. Moreover, it is also essential to assess and monitor the distribution and frequency of occurrence of the endemic species. Flora As such, Eastern and Mediterranean floristic elements dominate, due to topographic, climatic, and altitudinal complexities. However, north-Indian elements occur in the lower altitudes in the south, and Tibetan flora in the northern Trans-Himalayan zone. Only a few botanical collections have been undertaken in the KSL-Nepal, hence the areas merit a systematic floristic study. We estimate that the KSL-Nepal region comprises about one third of the total 6,500 species (Press et al. 2000) of angiosperms in Nepal. Based on botanical collections made in Humla, the largest ten families is comprised of Asteraceae (18 genera/29species), Poaceae (16/18), Fabaceae (12/17), Brassicaceae (11/13), Liliaceae (10/15), Lamiaceae (10/10), Scrophulariaceae (9/10), Ranunculaceae (8/29), and Polygonaceae (7/16). Similarly, Largest genera of angiosperms include Anemone and Potentilla (8 species each), Lonicera (7 species), Berberis, Ficus, Rhododendron and Rubus (6 species each), 22 Acer, Androsace, Artemisia, Clematis, Prunus, Rosa, Salix (5 species each), Aconitum, Cotoneaster, Primula, Thalictrum (4 species each). Flora of the KSL-Nepal region or even the checklist of flowering plants of the KSL-Nepal region is not available. A recent cursory survey in some parts of Humla district and screening of the specimens in National Herbarium revealed the presence of nearly 700 species (Annex 5). Therefore, a series of botanical explorations, and examination of herbarium specimens previously collected from that area, which are housed in national and international herbaria, may be instrumental to document the flowering plants as well as non-flowering plants of the KSL-Nepal region. b a c d e f Figure 3.10a-f Vegetation/forest type: a-Baitadi; b-Darchula, c-Bajhang, d-Humla, e-Conifer (Bluepine) forest, f-Birch forest 23 3.2.3 Useful/NTFPs/Medicinal Plants: A case study in Humla District Plant species are used for various purposes that include food, medicine, timber, fiber and trade. Only a few studies exist to document plant species into various categories such as NTFPs, medicinal, edible, ritual, fodder (Nepal and Sapkota 2005, Burlakoti and Kunwar 2009). Healers and different ethnic communities use plant species in traditional medicinal practice (Kunwar et al. 2008, Joshi 2009). Figure 3.11 Eskemukerjia megacarpum, an endemic species Figure 3.12 Morchella species We conducted a study to document useful plant species at Thehe (inhabited by Lama) and Chhipra VDC (inhabited by Chhettri, Thakuri and Dalits) in Humla District. A total of 167 species of vascular plants, 4 species of mushrooms (including Morchella conica, Figure 3.12) and 1 species of lichen have been recorded from Thehe and Chhipra VDCs as useful plant species. According to use, these species are grouped into nine use categories (Figure 3.13). Highest number of species was cited for medicine (92 species, 53% of total species) and food (78 species, 45%). Among food plants, highest proportion of species (45%) is consumed as cooked vegetables (Figure 3.14). Besides medicine and food, the other important use categories included social-religious (29 species, 17%), fuel/timber (26 species, 15%), and fodder (14 species, 8%) (Figure 3.13). Plant parts of about 20 species are traded from the two VDCs. About 79 species (46% of total) have multiple uses. Details of the useful species will be submitted as a Masters dissertation. Trade Fibre Dye Poisonous Social-religious Fodder Fuel/timber Food Medicine 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Figure 3.13 Useful plant species under different use categories recorded in Thehe and Chhipra VDCs A list of selected species of plants from Thehe and Chhipra VDCs having medicinal, food and sociocultural importance and information on local name, locality, distribution, parts used, use in brief is given in Annex 6. 24 Edible oil Beverage Condiments Pickle Edible fruits Other parts eaten raw Cooked vegetable 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Figure 3.14 Food plant species (%) under different processing categories in Thehe and Chhipra VDCs NTFPs/Medicinal. Important NTFPs/Medicinal plant species include Aconitum bisma, Aconitum ferox, A. spicatum, Asparagus filicinus Berginea ciliata, Dactylorhiza hatagirea (Figure 3.15b), Delphinium himalayai, Fritillaria cirrhosa (Figure 3.15a), Juniperis indica, Morchella conica (Figure 3.12), Nardostachys grandiflora, Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Figure 3.15c), Paris polyphylla, Parnassia nubicola, Podophyllum hexandrum, Prinsepia utilis, Rheum australe, Rhododendron anthopogon, Taxus wallichiana, Thymus linearis, Valeriana wallichii. Figure 3.15a Fritillaria cirrhosa Figure 3.15b Dactylorhiza hatagirea Figure 3.15c Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora Figure 3.15d Juglans regia Figure 3.15e Berberis asiatica Figure 3.15f Extracting oil from Princepia utilis Edible plants. Some edible plant species from the KSL-Nepal region are Aconogonum molle, Allium wallichii, Amaranthus caudatus, Arundinaria falcata, Asparagus racemosus, Berberis asiatica (Figure 3.15e), Cannabis sativa, Chenopodium album, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Diplazium stoliczae, Fragaria nubicola, Hippophae salicifolia, H. tibetana, Juglans regia (Figure 3.15d), Lindera neesiana, Morchella conica, Morus alba, Phytolaca acenosa, Polygonatum verticillatum, Prunus 25 napaulensis, Pyrus pashia, Rosa sericea, Rubus ellipticus, Rumex species, Smilax aspera, Typhonium diversifolium, Urtica dioica, etc. Plant species are used in various ways. A study conducted at Thehe and Chhipra VDC in Humla showed that edible plants also have trade value at local and international levels (Table 3.11). Table 3.11 Edible Plants Most potential Altitude species (m) 3100-3500 Arisaema 1 erubescens 2700-3100 Arisaema flavum1 Important distribution area (VDC) Jabkung, Seding (Thehe) Use(s) Parts Used Vegetable Tuber Dojam, Japkung, (Thehe) Vegetable low Arisaema griffithii1 2800-3100 Japkung (Thehe) vegetable Whole Plant Leaves Berberis aristata 2100-2450 Hildum chhada, Simikot; (Thehe; Chipra) eaten raw Fruits low Dryopteris cochleata1 2000-2500 Chipra VDC Vegetable low Juglans regia1 2100-3100 Chipra VDC; Dojam, Jabkung (Thehe) Megacarpea polyandra2 2800-3500 Tugling (Thehe); Upper Nalna (Chipra) edible oil extraction, edible kernels vegetable Young fronds Kernel Leaves low Morchella species3 3200-3800 Seding, Upper Japkung (Thehe) Vegetable Whole plant High Polygonatum 1 verticillatum 3100-3600 Japkung, Tugling, Seding, Polakyong (Thehe) Vegetable Tenders, leaves low Prinsepia utilis1 2200-2500 low 2700-3000 cotyledons low 2800-3200 Dojam, Jabkung (They VDC) edible oil extraction edible oil extraction local tea Cotyledons Prunus sp1 Nalna, Hildum khola, Chaupata (Chipra) They, Dojam (They VDC) roots low Smilicina purpurea 3200-3600 Japkung-Seding (Thehe) Vegetable low Sorbus cuspidata1 2800-3500 Young leaves Fruits 1 Rosa macrophylla1 1 Trade Value low low low Chipra VDC, Thehe, Dojam ripe fruits low (Thehe) edible 1- All the edible plants are either traded locally or used for domestic consumption and therefore categorized as low trade value; 2- Higher price in the local markets; 3- Trade route to China via Limi. Sorbus cuspidata-Apple branches are grafted with the stem of Sorbus cuspidata to produce new variety of apple with stronger branches. Cultural and Ritual plants. Culturally important plant species are utilized by the local communities as ritual during festivals, household goods, and some of them also hold trade value. They include Abies pindrow, A. spectabilis, Acer caesium, A. cappadocicum (Figure 3.16), Artemisia indica, Betula utilis, Buddleia asiatica, Juniperus indica, Nardostachys grandiflora, Valeriana hardwickii, V. jatamansii, Rhododendron anthopogon, R. Lepidotum, etc. (Table 3.12). Figure 3.16 Acer cappadocicum 26 Table 3.12 Culturally important plants Most potential Altitude (m) IPAs Place species (VDC) 3000-3300 Japkung Acer (Thehe) cappadocicum Betula utilis Nardostachys grandiflora Taxus wallichiana Cedrus Deodara Use(s) Parts used Knotty burs of trunk wood in the preparation of drinking cups (fura) 2700-4200 Manal-Seding Fuel, resin is used (Thehe) as substitute of tea, to make plough 4300-4500 Chhudalung, Rhizome in incense upper selding particularly during (Thehe) worships 3000-3500 Japkungto make musli, Tukling handles of other (Thehe) agricultural equipments 2200 Chipra VDC Holy plant, planted at temples wood Trade Trade route & Remarks Value Medium To China, sometimes to India. Wood is exported to China to make fura (cup), and then sold in the markets of China or India Low rhizome high wood Medium To China, sometimes to India Whole low live plant Invasive Alien Plant Species Invasive alien species (IAS) is known to out-compete native species and cause habitat degradation and ecosystem degradation. There is no detailed study of IAS in KSL-Nepal. Common IAS at lower altitudes include Ageratina adenophora (Eupatorium adenophorum), Chromolaena odorata, Parthenium hysterophorus, Eichhornia crassipes, Ipomoea carnea ssp. fistulaosa, Lantana camara, Ageratum conyzoides, Amaranthus spinosus, Bidens pilosa, Cassia tora, Cassia occidentalis, Xanthium strumarium, etc (Tiwari et al. 2005). Threatened Plant Species There are, altogether 15 plant species threatened and protected under various categories by GoN. In the KSL-Nepal region 12 species (out of total 17 species in Nepal) protected by the Government of Nepal under various categoris are recorded (Table 3.13). Table 3.13 Threatened and protected flora in KSL-Nepal S.N Scientific Name Common Name Banned for collection and export 1 Panch Aule Dactylorhiza hatagirea 2 Juglans regia (bark) Okhar ko bokra 3 Kutki Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora Banned for export without processing as specified 4 Jatamansi Nardostachys grandiflora 5 Sarpaganda Rauvolfia serpentina 6 Sugandabala Valeriana jatamansii 7 Lichens Jhyau 8 Talispatra Abies spectabilis 9 Taxus baccata subsp. wallichiana Himalayan Yew 10 Yarsagombu Cordyceps sinensis Banned for felling, transportation and export 11 Sal Shorea robusta 12 Simal Bombax ceiba 13 Juglans regia (Tree) Okhar 13 Bikh Aconitum heterophyllum 14 Himalayan Meconopsis regia Yellow Poppy 15 Orchidaceae Sungava 16 Chirayato Swertia chirayita P = Protected by NPWC Act 1973, CITES: Appendix II; Appendix III, Status Code IUCN CITES Family Legal Status Orchidaceae Juglandaceae Scrophulariaceae V II - P P P Valerianaceae Apocynaceae Valerianaceae Pinaceae Pinaceae Hypocreaceae V E - II II II II II - P P P P P P P Dipterocarpaceae Bombacaceae Juglandaceae Ranunculaceae Papaveraceae R - III P P P - Orchids Gentianaceae V II - - IUCN: V-Vulnerable; E-Endangered; R-Rare Other important plant species meriting conservation The surveyed areas in Humla (Thehe and Chhipra VDC) are rich in threatened plant species which merit proper conservation. Plant species with local distribution, threat category (global, regional and national) and their local availability is given in Table 3.14. 27 Table 3.14 Rare and threatened plant species recorded in Thehe and Chhipra VDCs and their status Botanical name Family Local name Local distribution Locality Altitude Threat category* Global Regional m asl Protection and priority National 1996 CITES GN GN 2001 Appendi Protecte Prioritized x d VU + HimEnd Aconitum spicatum Ranunculaceae Duk Tugling 3220-3400 - - CT Bergenia ciliata Saxifragaceae - Ghattekhola area 2900-3000 - VU CT - - - + Dactylorhiza hatagirea Orchidaceae Hattajadi Tugling-Seding 3300-3700 - EN-CR - EN Ap. II + Delphinium himalayai Ranunculaceae Atis Manal-Jabkung 2700-3300 - - - VU - Dioscorea deltoidea Dioscoriaceae Khankhani Manal-Gyal dorje 2700-2950 - EN-CR CT EN Eskemukerjea meghacarpum Fritillaria cirrhosa Polygonaceae Kyunmanlang Jabak-Jabkung 2840-3200 - - R Liliaceae Podya Ladegompa area 3400-4200 - - Juglans regia var. kumaonia Jurinea dolomiaea Juglandaceae Okhar 2500-3300 - Asteraceae Dhupjadi BaijubaraJabkung Above Seding 4200-4500 - Bhultya Above Seding 4200-4500 - Above Seding 3400-4500 - Jabkung-Seding 3100-4200 - Tugling-Seding 3300-3700 Nardostachys grandiflora Valerianaceae Scrophulariaceae Katuki Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora Podophyllum hexandrum Berberidaceae Ende Local Local micity Avail- status ability C NT HimEnd R NT + HimEnd R Tn,a - - NepEnd C Ta Ap. II - + wide C NT - - - - NepEnd F NT - VU - - - HimEnd C Ta - - - - + + HimEnd C NT NT,VUEN VU,ENCR VU - NR - NarEnd C Tn,a VU VU Ap. II + + HimChn C Ta VU VU - + + HimChn C Ta VU VU Ap. II - + wide C NT - VU,ENCR VU - VU - - + HimEnd C T 3700-4200 - NT-VU - NR - - - NarEnd R T a Rheum australe Polygonaceae Arthakpa Rheum moorcroftianum Polygonaceae Padamchalno Seding Rubia manjith Rubiaceae Majitho Ghattekhola area 2700-3050 - - - VU - - + NarEnd C NT Schisandra grandiflora Schisandraceae - Ghattekhola area 3050 - - - - - - - HimEnd R Ta Taxus wallichiana Taxaceae Sangasing Jabkung-Tukling 3100-3400 - EN-CR - EN Ap. II - + wide F Ta Valeriana jatamansii Valerianaceae Samayo Chhipra 2100-2400 - VU-CR - VU - + + HimChn R Ta Ulmus wallichiana Ulmaceae Tyaktyak Gyaldorje forest 2800-3000 VU - R - - - - HimInd F NT 28 n,a 3.2.4 Fauna Faunal diversity is high in the KSL-Nepal region. Mammals A total of 83 species of mammals representing nine orders, 26 families and 61 genera are currently listed from the KSL-Nepal (B.P.P. 1995a, b; DNPWC/MFSC/GoN 2005; Bhuju et al. 2007; Siwakoti & Basnet 2007; Baral & Shah 2008). Among them, 55 species occur in the midhills (between 1,000 – 2,500 m asl), and 56 species in the highlands (above 2,600 m asl). In Kailash region, Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni), Asiatic Wild-dog/Dhole (Cuon alpines), Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens), Particoloured Flying Squirrel (Hylopetes alboniger) are under IUCN Endangered category (Annex 3). Figure 3.17 Himalayan marmot (Marmota There are eight regionally confined mammalian bobak) species in the KSL-Nepal. They are Horsefield's Shrew (Crossidura horsfieldi), Pearson's Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus pearsonii), Rufous Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus rouxi), Bent Wing Bat (Miniopterus schreibersii), Little Tube-nosed Bat (Murina aurata), Hog Badger (Arctonyx collaris), Himalayan Field Mouse (Apodemus gurkha-Nepal endemic) and Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni). Hence, KSL-Nepal significantly contributes in conserving mammalian species at genetic level (Figure 3.17). A summary of local, national and globally threatened status of mammalian species is given in Table 3.17 and annotated checklist supplement in Annex 7. Box 3.1. Mammal species observed in Humla In the feasibility study carried out in May-June 2010, 26 species of mammals were verified from Humla district. Herds of Blue Sheep (Pseudois nayaur), more than 25 in numbers were observed near Tila village in Limi, and Changla Himal. At Limi village, some of the goats killed and injured by Snow Leopards were also encountered. Snow Leopard’s were recorded from Manepeme, Limi valley and Tolung lake areas. Wild Yak (Bos mutus) was reported from Chinese border – Deu khola and Sajhe khola area. Similarly, Tibetan Wild ass or Kiang (Equus kiang) was reported form Takse Khola, Gyau Khola and Sakya Khola area, close to the border of China. Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni), an endangered species was also reported from the area. Source: Field study, May-June 2010 Birds The area habours 455 bird species representing 17 orders, 50 families and 213 genera (Fleming et al. 1976; Inskipp 1989; B.P.P. 1995a, b; Grimmet et al. 1998, 2000; Baral & Inskipp 2004, 2005; DNPWC/MFSC/GoN 2005; Bhuju et al. 2007; Siwakoti & Basnet 2007). Over 65% of species are residential and remaining 35% are summer visitor or migratory. Midhills zone of the area habours 388 birds where as highlands support for 287 species. The species of birds that are under risk in trade (CITES appendix) are 73 species (NHM/TU & IUCN 2002 (2059-BS). Among them, three vulture species viz. White-rumped Vulture (Gyps bengalensis), Slender-billed Vulture (Gyps tenuirostris), and Red-headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus) are the critically endangered (IUCN 2007). Four species of birds: Cheer Pheasant (Catreus wallichii), Himalayan Monal (Lophophorus impejanus), Satyr Tragopan (Tragopan satyra), and Black Stork (Ciconia nigra) are under legal protection by the Government of Nepal (Annex 3). The KSL-Nepal region offers habitat for at least six bird species which have regional restricted range of distribution in Nepal. They are Red-necked Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus), Whitecheeked Tit (Aegithalos leucogenys), Tytler’s Leaf Warbler (Phylloscopus tytleri), Black-chinned Yuhina (Yuhina nigrimenta), Spectacled Finch (Callacanthis burtoni) and Yellowhammer (Emberiza citronella). It also habours significant number of breeding bird species [see Table 3.17 and Annex 8]. 29 Other potential important bird areas of the KSL-Nepal region are forest and grasslands of Baitadi district. The sites could be potential for carrying out surveying of the critically endangered Himalayan Quail (Ophrysia superciliosa), a species not yet recorded in Nepal. Table 3.15 Amphibian and reptilian species reported only from the KSL-Nepal region SN Common Name Scientific Name 1 Nyingchi high altitude toad Scutiger nyingchiensis 2 Sikkimese pelobatid toad Scutiger sikimmensis 3 Bajang frog Paa ercepeae 4 Small paa frog Paa minica 5 Indian Borrowing frog Sphaerotheca breviceps 6 Elongated Tortoise Indotestudo elongata 7 Large mountain lizard Oriotiaris major 8 Agaupani forest agama Oriotiaris dasi 9 Kumaon mountain lizard Oriotiaris kumaonensis 10 Theobald's Toad Agama Phrynocephalus theobaldi 11 Nepalese rock gecko Cyrtopodion nepalense 12 Himalayan ground skink Asymblepharus himalayanus 13 Nepalese ground skink Asymblepharus nepalensis 14 Red bellied Kukri Snake Oligodon erythrogaster 15 Boulenger's Keelback Amphiesma parallelum 16 Olive oriental slender snake Trachischium leave Sources: Shah 1995; Shah 2004; DNPWC/MFSC/GoN 2005; Bhuju et al. 2007 Two species of vultures, Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis) and Lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus), were commonly observed in good numbers from Humla District, and another endangered species, Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus), recorded only once or twice. On the basis of local informants, globally threatened Cheer pheasant were reported from grassland and slope of Chehate forest of Khagalgaun, Thehe and Chhipra VDCs in Humla District (Figure 3.18). Box 3.2. Bird species observed in Humla Over 125 species of birds were verified from different habitats between 2,800m to 5,000m asl during the feasibility study (May, 2010) in Humla district. Two species of vultures Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis) and Lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus) were commonly observed in Humla district, and another endangered species Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) was recorded only once or twice. On the basis of local informants, globally threatened Cheer Pheasant were reported from grassland and slope of Chehate forest of Khagalgaun, Thehe and Chuprak VDC in Humla district. According to Baral & Inskipp (2005), five globally threatened species Satyr Tragopan (Tragopan styra), White-rumped Vulture (Gyps bengalensis), Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus), Red-headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus), Tytler’s Leaf Warbler (Phylloscopus tytleri) and two Restricted range species Tytler’s Leaf Warbler (Phylloscopus tytleri), and Spectacled Finch (Callacantheis burtoni) has been reported from this Important Bird Areas (IBA). Similarly, another endangered species Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus also reported from this region. Some identifies potential Important Bird Area of the Kailas Sacred Landscape is the forest Source: Field study, May-June 2010 and grasslands of Baitadi district. This site could be a potential survey site for the critically endangered Himalayan Quail Ophrysia superciliosa a species not yet recorded in Nepal. Herpeto fauna Toads, frogs, lizards and snakes have been reported from the KSL-Nepal region in Nepal. There are 38 species of amphibian and reptile found in the region, representing four orders, 10 families and 25 genera (Shah 1995; Shah 2004; DNPWC/MFSC/GoN 2005; Bhuju et al. 2007; Siwakoti & Basnet 2007). Fewer numbers of species occur in highland (11 species) than Figure 3.18 Chukar (Alectorus chukar) in Midhills (30 species). One species, Yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens) falls under the legal protection of the GoN. Four species of reptiles and amphibians are listed in the IUCN red list; among them one species of Elongated tortoise (Indotestudo elongate) is listed under Endangered categories. Similarly, five species fall under the CITES appendix (NHM/TU & IUCN 2059-BS). The KSL-Nepal region harbours three endemic amphibian species: Khaptad Pelobatid Toad (Scutiger nepalensis), Bajang Frog (Paa ercepeae), and Small Paa Frog (Paa minica) (Annex 2b). Similarly, it harbours Nepalese Rock Gecko (Cyrtopodion nepalense), and Nepalese Ground Skink (Asymblepharus nepalensis), an endemic reptiles. In a feasibility study, only two species of reptiles Theobal's toad agama (Phrynocephalus theobaldi) and Skink (Asymblepharus species) were 30 observed during May-June 2010 in Humla district. A significant number of toads, frogs, lizards and snakes have been reported only from KSL-Nepal, thus significantly contributing to the gene pool of Nepalese herpeto-diversity. At least 16 amphibia and reptiles which are restricted to KSL-Nepal are presented in Table 3.15 and Annex 9. During the field survey in Humla District, only two species of reptiles, Theobal's toad agama (Phrynocephalus theobaldi) and Skink (Asymblepharus sp.) were observed. Fish Altogether 119 species of fish belonging to 10 orders, 26 families, and 62 genera have been reported from the Mahakali, Karnali and Seti Rivers that are the main watershed areas in Kailash, and its adjoining areas (Shrestha 1994, 1995; Bhuju et al. 2007; Bhattarai et al. 2062-BS). Among them Fageta (Barilius barna), Kunar snow trout (Schizotharaichthys labiatus), Spotted snow trout (Schizothorax plagiostomus), and Titari (Psilorhynchus homaloptera) are reported from high altitudes. These fishes require relatively clean, transparent cold and high oxygenated waters for feeding and spawning. Many remaining species are reported from the midhills or lower altitude. No fish species falls under the threat categories of IUCN and CITES Appendixes. Similarly, no species is under GoN legal protection; however some 19 species are listed in the 1995 National Red Data Book meriting legal protection. Among them, one species: Sahar (Tor tor) is Endangered, eight species are Vulnerable, and ten species are Susceptible (B.P.P. 1995c). One species Chuche Asala (Schizotharaichthys annandalei) is an endemic species reported from KSL-Nepal. Other two fish species are reported only from this region in Nepal, they are Rato machha (Carassius carassius), and Tengana (Glyptosternum blythii) [Table 3.16 and Annex 10]. Table 3.16 Summary of potential faunal taxa from the KSL-Nepal region and their local, national and globally threatened status Threat Categories / Taxa Mammals Birds Herpeto Fish Orders 9 17 4 10 Families 26 50 10 26 Genus 61 213 25 62 Species 83 456 38 119 Mid Hill 55 388 30 >18 High Land 57 287 11 4 GoN protected 11 4 1 0 CITES Appendix 36 73 5 0 I 16 4 0 0 II 9 56 2 0 III 11 13 3 0 IUCN Red list 23 12 4 0 CR 0 3 0 0 EN 5 1 1 0 VU 9 3 2 0 NT 9 5 1 0 NRDB list 30 56 7 19 C 2 2 0 0 E 3 3 0 1 V 10 10 0 8 S 15 41 7 10 Endemic spp. 1 1 5 1 Regional confinement spp. 33 16 12 7 HL WP 3 2 3 4 HL 14 12 1 0 MH WP 2 0 5 0 MH 14 2 3 3 Restricted Range spp. 8 6 16 >2 Sources: B.P.P. 1995a, b, c; DNPWC/MFSC/GoN 2005; Bhuju et al. 2007; Siwakoti & Basnet 2007; NHM/TU & IUCN 2059-BS, Fleming et al. 1976; Inskipp 1989; Suwal & Verheugt 1995; Grimmet et al. 1998, 2000; Baral & Inskipp 2004, 2005; Shah 1995; Shah 2004; Shrestha 1994, 1995 and Humla D.F.O. 2062/63-BS Note: IUCN: CR – Critically Endangered, EN- Endangered, VU – Vulnerable, NT – Near Threatened; NRDB: C – Critically Endangered, E- Endangered, V – Vulnerable and S – Susceptible; HL – High land, WP – Western part, MH – Midhills 31 3.2.5 Threatened Animal Species The KSL-Nepal region comprises a numbers of threatened and protected fauna. Altogether 17 species of mammals, ten species of birds and four species of herpeto fauna are threatened species reported from the region. A total of 11 mammal species (out of 26 species), four bird species (out of nine species), and one herpeto species (out of three species) are protected by the Government of Nepal. The endangered, threatened and protected species of animals reported in the KSL-Nepal region with their status of protection are listed in the Table 3.17. Table 3.17 Some endangered, threatened and protected flora and fauna of the KSL-Nepal region Taxa / Common Name Scientific Name GoN IUCN Red list Mammals Chinese Pangolin P Manis pentadacyla Assamese Macaque P VU Macaca assamensis Asiatic Wild-dog, Dhole EN Cuon alpinus Grey Wolf P Canis lupus Brown Bear P Ursus arctos Himalayan Black Bear VU Ursus thibetanus Red Panda P EN Ailurus fulgens Snow Leopard P EN Panthera uncia Clouded Leopard P VU Pardofelis nebulosa Leopard Cat P Prionailurus bengalensis Musk Deer P Moschus chrysogaster Wild Yak P VU Bos mutus Himalayan Thar VU Hemitragus jemlahicus Mainland Serow VU Capricornis sumatraensis Tibetan Antelope P EN Pantholops hodgsoni Irrawaddy Squirrel VU Callosciurus pygerythrus Particoloured Flying Squirrel EN Hylopetes alboniger Birds Cheer Pheasant P VU Catreus wallichii Himalayan Monal P Lophophorus impejanus Satyr Tragopan P NT Tragopan satyra White-rumped Vulture CR Gyps bengalensis Slender-billed Vulture CR Gyps tenuirostris Pallas's Fish Eagle VU Haliaeetus leucoryphus Egyptian Vulture EN Neophron percnopterus Red-headed Vulture CR Sarcogyps calvus Black Stork P Ciconia nigra Grey-crown Priniya VU Prinia cinereocapilla Herpeto Khaptad pelobatid toad VU Scutiger nepalensis Small paa frog VU Paa minica Elongated Tortoise EN Indotestudo elongata Yellow Monitor P Varanus flavescens GoN: P = Protected by the Government of Nepal under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (NPWC) Act 1973 IUCN = IUCN Red List Category: CR = Critically Endangered; EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; NT = Near Threatened 3.2.6 Important Habitats and Wildlife Corridors The KSL-Nepal region supports several important habitats of plant and animal species. Important wildlife habitats in the area include forests, grasslands, agricultural lands, and wetlands (rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds). However, limited scientific study exists on important habitats for plant and animal species, and wildlife corridors due to remote location (Hamilton and Radford 2007; Baral and Inskipp 2005). 32 Forests and Pasturelands. Humla, Bajhang and Darchula Districts provide diversity of natural forests and large pasturelands. Mammals, including endangered animals such as snow leopard, wild yak, Tibetan antelope and Kiang mainly inhabit areas along the Nepal-China border in Humla District. Musk deer habitat is the dense conifer forest of Humla, Bajhang and Darchula Districts. Important bird areas include wetlands in the protected areas (Khaptad, Rara), and the Humla and Mahakali Rivers and their tributaries. Important bird areas and wildlife habitats in KSL-Nepal is presented in Figure 3.19. Figure 3.19 Important wildlife habitats in KSL-Nepal Important habitats in Humla District include Thehe VDC (Ladekhola, Larchham forest, Parangdunga forest and Raling Himal area); Bar gaun VDC forests (Kermi areas – Nyalu lekh, Chula khola and its surrounding forests); Limi VDC (Takchi forest); Muchu VDC (Nara lekh, Tau Banand Sipali forests); Syada VDC (Bokhsi lekh); Darma VDC (near Mugu border – Rimi and Ruga - Changli lekh, Sarkideu, and Kalika VDCs (Munya lekh, Madana lekh and Gusao forest). Wetlands, that are mostly situated in the northern side of Humla District are also important habitats for birds and mammals, such as Thehe VDC (Lade daha, Raling daha, Dilu bali daha) and Lali VDC (Bagnepani daha dil, Nilpani daha, Dudhe daha in Kharpunath VDC. In Bajhang District, Majhigaun, Pauwagadi, Kalukheti, Kada- tallokot, bungal areas are rich in wildlife. Main wildlife habitats include Ghodadaune patan and other large subalpine grasslands/ pasturelands situated in Khaptad National Park. Other important habitats include Seti River, Kali gaad khola, Kalganga River, Guela gaad, Taru gaad, Gadaae, Bahuli gaad, Suni gaad, Talkoti gaad, Surma Sarobar, Timadaha, Khaptad Taal, Lokunda Tal, Khapar daha, Nilsiri kunda, and Urilekh’s Ramche daha. In Darchula District, important habitats include Surma Sarobar taal (in Khandeshowri VDC), Mahakali River, Chaulani, Takar khola, Tusharpani khola, Kala gaad, Naugaad, Thali gaad, Lasku khola, Bartola, and Lipu lekh (at 5,000m) In Baitadi District, border area of Darchula and Baitadi is famous for birds. Mahakali river, Seti river, Chaulani River, Dhikgaad, Surnaya River, Jamadi, Satgaad, Kansigaad, Ishori ganga, Garma, Koteni gaad, Nilgad gaad, Lichodi gaad are important wetlands. 33 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) Khaptad National Park is an Important Bird Area in KSL-Nepal. Population of some bird species e.g. Chukar (Alectoris chukar), Kalij Pheasant (Lophura leucomelanos), Black Francolin (Francolinus francolinus), and Himalayan Monal (Lophophorus impejanus) are found to have increased in recent years (DNPWC/MFSC/GoN 2005). Khaptad National Park is particularly important for five bird species because they either have particularly restricted ranges or have been described as uncommon or rare in the Indian subcontinent (Inskipp 1989). These include Pied Ground Thrush (Zoothera wardii), Great Parrotbill (Conostoma oemodium), Hoary Barwing (Actinodura nipalensis), Rusty-flank Tree Creeper (Certhia nipalensis) and Spot-winged Rosefinch (Carpodacus rodopeplus). Other potential IBAs recorded during field survey of Humla Districts are grassland and slope of Chehate forest of Khagal VDC and Kumuti area in Syuja VDC. Similarly, some forests and pasturelands of Thehe and Chipra VDCs are also important habitat for Cheer pheasant and Tytler’s leaf warbler. Important Plant Areas KSL-Nepal hosts medicinal plant Important Plant Areas (IPAs). All four districts are identified as medicinal plants IPAs complex by Hamilton and Radford (2007) which are presented in Table 3.18. Table 3.18 Medicinal IPAs in KSL-Nepal Medicinal Plant IPA Complexes Karnali Upper Mahakali-Seti Lower Mahakali-Seti No. of Sites per IPA Complex 5 3 4 Names of Sites Humla, Mugu, Jumla, Kalikot, Dolpa Darchula, Bajhang, Bajura Baitadi, Dadeldhura, Doti, Achham No. of IPAs per Complex 36 18 14 We conducted both field study as well as literature search to identify medicinal plants IPAs in KSLNepal. At least 20 VDCs were found to have rich diversity of medicinal plants. These are distributed mainly in the subalpine and alpine zones in Humla, Bajhang and Darchula Districts. Moreover, subtropical and temperate zones in Baitadi and Bajhang Districts are also rich in medicinal plants. Figure 3.20 provides distribution of IPAs in KSL-Nepal. Figure 3.20 Important Plant Areas in KSL-Nepal 34 3.2.7 Protected Areas The KSL-Nepal region includes three important Protected Areas (PAs) such as two (Khaptad NP and Api-Nampa CA) within the KSL boundary, and one (Rara NP) at the adjoining area (Table 3.19). The PAs comprise rich biological resource, and cultural and religious heritage. The PAs include important habitat for many threatened wildlife species including endangered, vulnerable, rare or threatened species, such as Snow leopard, Musk deer, Black bear and Red panda. The region is also important for several species of critically endangered and migratory birds and other wildlife. Currently these PAs are scattered as ‘conservation islands’; however, with establishment of connectivity and corridors in between the PAs, viable population of many species could be demonstrated. The PAs would be important also for research in climate change adaptation in Nanda Devi (India)-Kailash region (Tibet). Table 3.19 Protected areas in KSL-Nepal Features Khaptad NP Establishment 1984 Location Lat 29°17' N - 29°27' N Long 81°00' E - 81°13' E Area (sq km) – 225 (216) Core & (BZ) Altitude(m) & No. 1,296-3,276 (21) VDCs Land use pattern Forest (90%), Shrub & grassland (7%), Agricultural land (2%), Wetlands (1%) Forest types Biodiversity Rangelands Wetlands Population Cultural and Religious sites 11 with 22 meadows (patans) Flora (567 species, endemic 5 species), Fauna (23 mammals, 287 birds, 23 herpeto) Medicinal & aromatic, and edible plant species Khaptad dahaFlowering plant (87 species), Wetland dependent bird (20 species), mammals (9), Herpeto (2, one endemic); proposed for inclusion in Ramsar site 33,272 Khaptad baba asharam, Sahashra linga, Tribeni Api-Nampa CA 2010 Lat 29˚ 30' N-30˚ 15' N Long 80˚ 22' E- 81˚ 09' E Rara NP 1976 Lat 29o 26' N-29o 34' N Long 82o 00' E-82o10' E 1,902 106 (198) 518-7,132 (21) 2,754-4,097 (9) Forest (29%), Grazing land (23%), Barren land (23%), Bush/Shrub (6), Cultivated land (5%), Water body (1%), Others (13%) 16 Forest (70%), Grassland (15)%, Shrubland (4%), Water body (10%), Other land (1%) n/a Flora (1070 species, endemic 30 species), Fauna (51 Mammals, 241 Birds, Endemic fish 3 species) Medicinal & aromatic, and edible plant species Medicinal & aromatic, and edible plant species 4 Chamelia river, Tinker gad, Lasku gad, Hopary gad, Lalikali gad, Thali gad; Godu tapobani, Brahmdev, pasa daha; Kotwalek Barhma Daha; Surmasarovar daha Mugu-Karnali river, Rara lake (10.65 sq km), Gamgad, Kapra khola, Jhary khola, Himanadi, Lahagad, Khatyad khola 54,358 Api Himal, Nampa Himal, Lipu kek, Godu Tapobani, Hunaenath temple, Siva Malikarjun temple, , Surmasarovar daha, Brahmdev, Pasa daha, Religious cave (Khandeshwari) 11,685 Rara Mahadev, Chapru Mahadev, Chhayanath, Harhara Mahadev and Thakurnath temples 1. Khaptad National Park (Figure 3.21) Eleven species of mammals found in the park are protected by CITES. Two species of mammals and two bird species are protected under Appendix I of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973. The common mammal species include Common leopard (Panthera pardus), Himalayan black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus), Wild dog (Cuon alpinus), and Musk deer (Moschus 35 chrysogaster). Some important bird species of this park are Impeyan pheasant, Peregrine falcon, and White-rumped vulture. Culture: The renowned Khaptad Baba Ashram, a religious site where Hindu pilgrims come to worship Shiva on the full moon of July-August each year, is located near the Park headquarters. Many pilgrims also visit the Park during the Ganga Dashahara festival on Jestha Purnima (the full moon of mid-June or July). Sahashra Linga, another religious site is situated at the highest point (3,200m) of the Park. Rangelands: The upper elevations between 2,800m to 3,300m represent shrub and grassland. These landscapes are primarily used for livestock grazing, and collection of fodder, wild foods, and medicinal and aromatic plants. Livestock dung is collected from pasturelands and grasslands for organic manure and fuel. Wetlands: A wide variety of colorful butterflies, moths and insects is also an important feature of the park ecosystem. The wetland areas of Khaptad support over 20 species of wetland-dependent birds and 9 species of mammals. In a recent study, above 50 species of birds, two species of mammals (Ochotona roylei and Semnopithecus entellus), 2 species of herpetofauna (Bajang frog, Paa ercepeae and Himalayan ground skink, Asymblepharus himalayanus) were observed. Among the avian species, four species of birds were added in the checklist including Short-eared owl (Asio flammeus), Black drongo (Dicrurus macrocercus), Black-faced laughing thrush (Garrulax affinis) and Rufous-vented yuhina (Yuhina occipitalis). Khaptad Daha and Tribeni wetland complex is also a proposed Ramsar Site. Figure 3.21 Physical features and landuse, Khaptad National Park and Buffer Zone (not to scale). Source: HMG Survey Department 1992. 36 The Khaptad Daha supports over 20 species of wetland dependent birds and 9 species of mammals including an endemic frog, Bajhang frog (Paa ercepeae). Similarly, over 87 species of flowering plants are reported in and around the Daha including Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Valeriana jatamansii, Taxus wallichiana and Abies spectabilis. These are threatened and government protected species under the Forest Act 1993 (Siwakoti & Basnet 2007). 2. Api-Nampa Conservation Area The source of Kali River is on the northern slope of Mt Api. Mount Kailash (6,714m) is located about 100 km to the north of this trijunction. The central core area of the ANCA is a rolling plateau of grasslands intermixed with oak, coniferous forests and riverine deciduous temperate forest. Its peripheral areas are steep slopes covered with a variety of vegetation types ranging from subtropical forests in the lower altitudes to temperate forests around the area up to Byans, and alpine meadow above this belt (Figure 3.22). Diverse climatic condition and altitudinal variation have provided habitats for many wildlife species Figure 3.22 Api-Nampa Conservation Area including the endangered snow leopard, musk deer and clouded leopard Birds include the national bird of Nepal, danphe or Himalayan monal (Lophophorus impejanus), as well as Satyr tragopan (Tragopan satyra). Biodiversity hotspots are presented in Table 3.20. Table 3.20 Biodiversity Hotspot areas of Api-Nampa Conservation Area Major Sites Sunsera, Hikela, Dhari, Ghusa, Iearkot VDCs Main Forest Species Dhupisalla, Gobresalla, Gurans, Kharsu, Nigalo Medicinal Plants Chiraito, Kutki, Panchaaule, Yarsagumba, Satuwa, Ganao, Sugandhawla, Bhutkesh Siddanath CF Daphne Lauthsalla, Okhar, CF and Basdhara CF of Gobresalla, Oak, Kaulo Iearkot VDC-6 Chiraito, Kutuki, Panchaule, Timur, Pakhanved, Sugandhawla Malikarjun VDC Dalchini, Chiraito, Pakhanved, Sugandhawla, Satuwa Rani Kothha Rapla VDC Okhar, Panger, Utis, Oak, Timur Lauthsalla, Bhojpatra, Deodar Dharmdhar Biodiversity area Khandeshori VDC (border of Bajhang district) Dhupisalla, Gobresalla, Lauthsalla, Oak, Gurans, Kharsu, Okhar, Utis, Pangar, Nigalo Chiraito, Kutki, Panchaaule, Yarsagumba, Satuwa, Ganao, Sugandhawla, Sekhdhar chuk, Timur, Dolu, Dhumini jara, Silajeet, Olaechan Source: Api-Nampa Conservation area Management Plan, DNPWC 2009 Wildlife Common Leopard, Himalayan Black Bear, Musk Deer, Himalayan Goral, Himalayan Thar, Barking Deer, Wild boar, Kalij, Himalayan monal etc. Common Leopard, Blue sheep, Musk Deer, Himalayan Goral, Himalayan Thar, Barking Deer, Wild boar, Rhesus Macaque, Kalij, Himalayan monal Himalayan Goral, Barking Deer, Black bear Common Leopard, Himalayan Black Bear, Musk deer, Barking deer Musk deer, Blue sheep, Common leopard, Black bear, Barking deer, Naur, Himalayan ghoral Wetlands and River System: The Mahakali River is the main water body of the area. It originates from the greater Himalayas of Nepal at Kalapaani at an altitude of 3,600m, and it flows south forming the western international boundary between Nepal and India. Kalapani is situated along the trek of Mt. Kailash and Mansarovar Lake. In Pithoragarh District of Uttarakhand (India), it joins with the Gori Ganga at Jauljibi, and the Saryu River at Pancheshwar. (The area around Pancheshwar is called 'Kali Kumaon'). The river has three major tributaries: Chamelia, Surnayagad and Rongun 37 Khola (Sharma 1997). The river also has a barrage to regulate the flow of water for irrigation and hydroelectric power. The Mahakali, after it descends into the plains into India is known as Sarda, which meets the Ghaghara (Karnali in Nepal) in Indian Territory (DNPWC 2008). There are 87 glaciers in the area of 143.33 sq.km in the Mahakali River System and 10.06 km3 ice reserves (Mool et al. 2001). Wildlife Vegetation and forests of ANCA encompasses suitable habitat for several rare, endangered and vulnerable species of mammals (Annex 11). The area hosts a number of wild fauna including protected and endangered species such as snow leopard (Uncia uncia), clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), musk deer (Moschus moschiferous), wolf (Canis lupus), leopard cat (Felis bengalensis), wild yak (Bos mutus) and red panda (Ailurus fulgens). Himalayan tahr and musk deer are dominant. Other large mammals include Hanuman langur (Semnopithecus entellus), jackal (Canis aureus), a small number of grey wolf (Canis lupus), Himalayan black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus). Danphe (Lophopherus impejanus), Satyr pheasant (Tragopan satyra), snow cock (Tetraogallus tibetanus), blood pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus), red billed chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) and yellow-billed chough (Pyrrhocorax graculus) can be seen in higher Himalayan range. A total of 69 fish species are recorded from the Mahakali River, out of a total of 130 species of fishes occurring in the snowfed rivers and mountain lakes (Shrestha 1990). Fish species meriting protection is given in Table 3.21. Table 3.21 List of fish species recommended for legal protection in Mahakali River Scientific name Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis Chagunius chagunio Tor tor Schizothorax plagiostomus Common name Katle Rewa Sahar Buchhe asla NRDB code V V E V Distribution Koshi, Gandaki, Karnali, Koshi, Gandaki, Karnali, Mahakali Gandaki, Mahakali Koshi, Bheri, Gandaki, Karnali, Mahakali, Phewa, Lake, Gandaki Source: Shrestha 1990 Medicinal plants: The district is very rich in medicinal and aromatic plants. Main species found here are Yarsagumba, Panchaule, Jhyau, Bhojpatra, Bhyakur, Dalchini, Timur, Pakhanved, Padamchal, Daruhaldi, Titepati, Lauthsalla, Guchhichyau, Kumkum, Sikakai, Satuwa, Setak chini, Katuki, Kaphal bokra, Okhar, Dhupi, Tejpat, Ritha, etc. More than 59 species of medicinal plants are found in the ANCA (DNPWC 2008). Among them Yarsagumba, Dalchini, Kurilo, Pakhanbed, Bojho, Timur, Chirita, Lauth salla are commercially traded in India and Tibet. Tourism in ANCA ANCA is a potential site for tourism promotion due to scenic beauty of trans-Himalayan range. It is rich in flora and fauna. The Mahakali river system, en route to Kailash/Mansarovar, is considered a religious and cultural site. The intangible local cultural heritage such as traditional Deuda, Gaura and Byansi festivals are equally significant for tourism development. 3. Rara National Park - an adjoining park (Figure 3.23) From regional development perspective, this area is placed under Midwestern Development Region in Karnali Zone. A larger part of RNP lies in Mugu District while a southern tip of the Park lies in Jumla District. The Park covers an area of 106 sq.km. out of which 10.8 sq.km. is occupied by Rara Daha, Nepal’s largest lake that lends its name to the park. RNP is the smallest of the country’s national parks, established in 1976 with the main objective of conserving the natural beauty of Rara Lake. There are over 50 species of mammals reported from RNP, many of which are listed under CITES Appendices. The park is rich in bird species, over 200 species, of which many fall under CITES Appendices. There are three snow trout (fish) species unique to Rara Lake (Annex 12a, 12b & 12c). 38 Figure 3.23 Rara National Park 3.2.8 Forest Utilization and Management Forest resources are utilized in various ways in the KSL-Nepal region. Broadly, the utilization can be grouped as follows. Fuelwood. About 98% of the local people depend on fuel wood as a primary source of energy in the KSL-Nepal. Fuelwood is a major source of fuel energy, followed by cattle-dung, and kerosene. Fuelwood is required for cooking, heating, lighting (to a certain degree), and dairy processing. It is estimated that each HH used 10 average loads i.e. ‘bhari’ (1bhari equals approx 30 kg) firewood in dry season and 20-30 ‘bhari’ in winter season per month, particularly at higher altitudes. When forests are within a convenient distance, trees are harvested for fuelwood; but at high altitudes above the tree-line, the major source of fuelwood is the low-growing woody shrub. It is estimated that annual fuelwood demand in Bajhang and Humla districts is higher than supply (Figure 3.26a & b). Majority of households living around the headquarters of the districts sale fulewood for subsistence income. Timber. Timber is extracted from the forest by the local communities for their own use or sale across the border in India and China. Most of the western parts of Darchula district is bordered with India along the Mahakali River. The Indian part is almost depending on timber products from opposite forests of Nepal. With and without permit, large quantities of fuelwood and timber were found to be supplied to India. Timber is extracted and supplied to Taklakot (Tibet) via Tinker from Darchula district (DNPWC 2008); and via Hilsa from Humla district (Figure 3.24, 3.25). It is estimated that timber demand in Humla is about 100,000 cft; whereas timber legally fulfilled is about 5,757 cft (4,757 cft from the government forests and 1,000 cft from the community forests). In Bajhang district, timber demand is 556,741 cft, whereas, the supply is 296,925 cft from all sources (Figure 3.26). Timber supply from Government forest in Baitadi and Darchula districts are 20,127 39 cft, and 11,533 cft respectively (DFO 2005). High timber demand is related partly with illegal timber trade across the border. Figure 3.24 Fuelwood transported for sale to Simikot Figure 3.25 Timber export to Tibet via Hilsa (Photo credit Yogi Kayastha) a Figure 3.26a-b Annual timber/fuelwood demand and supply in Humla and Bajhang Districts b Non-timber/Medicinal plants. The KSL-Nepal region comprises rich source of nontimber/medicinal and aromatic plant species MAPs). The local communities collect MAPs, but generally in small quantities for personal use; however, a large quantity of NTFPs/medicinal plant species is collected for trade to China and India. Over 50 species are found to be commonly traded (Annex 13). Major trade routes in the KSL-Nepal region, and the major traded items are shown Figure 3.27 and Table 3.22. 40 Figure 3.27 Major trade routes in the KSL-Nepal region 1. Simikot- Hilsa**, 2. Simikot-Limi-Lapche,* 3. Simikot-Changla*, 4. Simikot-Nepalgunj**, 5. Chainpur- Urai Bhanjyang*, 6. ChainpurNepalgunj*, 7. Chainpur- Darchula Khalanga*, 8. Chainpur- Patan- Gothalapani,** 9. Chainpur- Dhangadhi/ Mahendranagar**, 10. Darchula Khalanga- Tinkar bhanjyang**, 11. Darchula Khalanga- Joljivi- Dharchula**, 12. Darchula Khalanga- Dattu- Dharchula*, 13. Gothalapani- Jhulaghat**, 14. Gothalapani- Patan- Dhangadhi/Mahendranagar**, 15. Baitadi- Darchula- Tinkar- Taklakot* (** Major routes, * Occasional routes) Table 3.22 Major trade routes with different types of exported and imported materials Route Route Name No. 1 Simikot- Hilsa Export Import Alcohol, household consumption items 2 Simikot-Limi-Lapche Timber, Medicinal Plants, Wildlife products Medicinal Plants,Furu (wooden bowl) 3 Simikot-Changla Medicinal Plants, Wildlife parts Alcohol, household consumption items 4 Simikot-Nepalgunj Medicinal Plants, Agricultural products 5 Chainpur- Urai Bhanjyang Medicinal Plants, Wildlife parts construction materials, household consumption items Alcohol, household consumption items 6 Chainpur- Nepalgunj Medicinal Plants, Agricultural products household consumption items 7 Chainpur- Darchula Khalanga Medicinal Plants, Wildlife parts household consumption items 8 Chainpur- Patan- Gothalapani Medicinal Plants, Wildlife parts household consumption items 9 Chainpur- Dhangadhi/ Mahendranagar Medicinal Plants, Agricultural products household consumption items 10 Darchula Khalanga- Tinkar bhanjyang household consumption items 11 Darchula Khalanga- Joljivi- Dharchula 12 Darchula Khalanga- Dattu- Dharchula 13 Gothalapani- Jhulaghat Medicinal Plants, Wildlife products, Agricultural products Medicinal Plants, Wildlife products, Agricultural products Medicinal Plants, Wildlife products, Agricultural products Medicinal Plants, Agricultural products household consumption items 14 Gothalapani- Patan- Dhangadhi/ Mahendranagar Baitadi- Darchula- Tinkar- Taklakot Medicinal Plants, Agricultural products household consumption items 15 Alcohol, Household consumption items household consumption items household consumption items Medicinal Plants, Agricultural products, household consumption items Wildlife parts 41 Quantity of Major Forest Products and Revenue Generated. The District Forest Offices of four districts have recorded quantity of major forest resources and revenue generated from them. Main forest resources traded include medicinal herbs, timber, lokta (Daphne species) bark, Taxus wallichiana leaf, and resin (khoto) from pine (Table 3.23, Figure 3.28). A list of top ten plant species under trade from the KSL-Nepal region shows that Sapindus mukorossi (ritha) was collected in large quantities (about 1,921 tonnes) in five years (between 2005-2009) (Table 3.24a). However, revenue generated by Cordyceps sinensis was highest, over NRs. 18 million in five years (Table 3.24b). Table 3.23 Major forest products traded and revenue generated S.N. Particular Districts Unit Baitadi 1 2 Quantity of traded major forest products Royalty collected from sales of major forest products Total Darchula Bajhang Humla Medicinal Herbs (2005-2009) Kg 2215601 1250022 142104 157920 3765647 Timber (2005-2009) cft 20127 11533 1693 1675 35028 Lokta (2005-2009) Kg 30040 0 7000 0 37040 Taxus (2005-2009) Kg 0 33300 70000 0 103300 Khoto (2005-2009) Kg 567928 0 0 0 567928 Medicinal Herbs (2005-2009) NRs Timber (2005-2009) NRs 106705 Lokta (2005-2009) NRs 85080 Taxus (2005-2009) NRs 0 Khoto (2005-2009) NRs 1267643 0 7010509 20334393 4252751 2195399 33793052 423020 59050 103008 691783 0 33000 0 118080 556500 1750000 0 2306500 0 0 1267643 Source: Annual reports of District Forest Office (Baitadi, Darchula, Bajhang and Humla) Figure 3.28 Amount of traded NTFPs and revenue generated for five years Trade and Revenue of Major Medicinal Plants. A list of top ten plant species under trade from KSL-Nepal shows that Sapindus mukorossi (ritha) is collected in large quantities (about 1,921 tonnes) in five years. However, royalty generated by Cordyceps sinensis is highest, over NRs. 18 million in five years (Table 3.24a and 3.24b). 42 Table 3.24a Top ten plant species under trade (in terms of quantity) Quantity traded from S. No. Species 2005-2009 (Kg) 1 1,921,346 Sapindus mukorossi 2 351,495 Cinnamommum tamala 3 288,300 Bergenia ciliate 4 Pawan ko bokra (Machilus species) 223,600 5 Lichens (Usnea longissima) 136,000 6 137,600 Persea odoratissima 7 117,450 Phyllanthus emblica 8 108,311 Nardostachys grandiflora 9 47,556 Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora 10 35,627 Swertia chirayita Table 3.24b Top ten plant species under trade (in terms of royalty generated) S. No. Species Royalty generated from 2005-2009 (NRs) 1 18,737,350 Cordyseps sinensis 2 4,324,936 Sapindus mukorossi 3 2,254,500 Usnea longissima 4 1,604,956 Nardostachys grandiflora 5 Pawan ko bokra (Machilus species) 1,268,000 6 934,500 Persea odoratissima 7 699,000 Cinnamommum tamala 8 613,900 Bergenia ciliata 9 601,578 Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora 10 478,440 Valeriana jatamansii Forest Resource Based Small Scale Industry. There are altogether 67 small-scale industries based on forest resources. They include furniture (28 industries), followed by fibre (17), Nepali paper (14), rattans (6), and refining factory (2) (Figure 3.29; and Table 3.25). Forest Management. Forest is being managed under various approaches. Still a larger area of the forest is being managed by the government (76%) followed by community forest (23%). Leasehold forest and private forests are very low (Table 3.26 & Figure 3.30). Figure 3.29 Plant product based small scale industries 43 Figure 3.30 Total forest area of KSL-Nepal Table 3.25 Forest product-based industries Particulars Baitadi Darchula Bajhang Humla Nepali paper factories 3 1 10 Furniture factories 13 2 11 2 Fibre refining factories (Girardiana-Cannabis) 4 13 Medicinal herb refineries 2 Rattan factory 6 Source: Modified after Five Year District (Baitadi, Darchula, Bajhang and Humla) Forest Report 2008 Table 3.26 Distribution of forest management in four districts (Year 2008) Forest management Government managed forest (ha) Community forest (ha) Leasehold forest (ha) Private forest (ha) Total CFUGs (Number) Baitadi 77,881 24,280.29 53.93 0 Darchula 52,916.78 20,064.25 0 1.47 Bajhang 88,305.44 12,272.49 1,865.17 0 Humla 48,844.4 24,891 1,048 0 298 232 293 58 3.2.9 Rangelands (Pasturelands) The KSL-Nepal region comprises both natural as well as man-made pasture lands (kharka or patan or bukiyan in Nepali). Rangelands are broadly categorized as summer and winter pastures. The natural rangelands located at high altitudes (i.e. summer pastures) include subalpine and alpine meadows, which are dominated by forbs and shrubs (Figure 3.31a). These pastures are located in the treeless zone above 3800m asl. In the KSL-Nepal, two distinct forms of alpine meadows prevail, namely moist and dry alpine meadows. The highland pastures are bigger in size, and open as compared to the pastures at lower altitudes. In goth areas (livestock assembly points) presence of grazing resistant/tolerant species, such as Athyrium wallichianum, Morina nepalensis, M. polyphylla, Rumex nepalensis, etc. clearly show some level of high grazing pressure. Most of the summer pastures of lower belt (2700-3500m asl) are forested pastures as these are either located within the forest or surrounded by forests (Figure 3.31b). These pastures are originated from human interference, and are maintained by biotic factors such as grazing, forest clearing and fire. Still, the grazing areas are maintained by repeated fire and subsequent clearing of trees and shrubs. The lower-altitude pastures are locally known as jairini kharka (the pastures with jungle), and are mostly surrounded by or occur near mixed broad-leaved forests. The winter pastures are located just above or near the permanent settlements, and are smaller in size consisting of an open central part where the herds are kept at night, but the livestock are allowed to graze in wider areas including the adjoining forests and grasslands. Besides these, individually-owned lands near the settlements, cropping fields, and the homestead areas are used for livestock grazing particularly during winter. 44 b a Figure 3.31 Pasturelands in Humla District (a-subalpine; b-temperate) Livestock Raising in Dozam and Chhipra – Case Study There are 15 major pastures in Dojam area of Thehe VDC and 8 pastures in Chipra VDC (Table 3.27). In Dojam, some of these pastures are further differentiated into a number of grazing units or sub-pastures classified and delimited for rotational grazing and harvesting reources (mainly medicinal plants). In Chipra, due to the lack of sufficient rangelands, the number of grazing units was quite few (Table 3.27). Alpine meadows in Changlakhola valley in Dozam area are comparatively better in terms of productivity tolerating some extent of increasing grazing pressure due to their bigger size stretching widely in Ushaped valleys which could accommodate large herd sizes. Table 3.27 Pastures mostly used by people in Thehe and Chhipra VDCs Name of the pasture Location Village/Valley/Forest Altitude (m) VDC Users Manal Changlakhola Thehe 2700 People of Dojam, Baijubara; Thehe VDC Jabak Changlakhola Thehe 2840 People of Dojam, Baijubara; Thehe VDC Gyal dorje Changlakhola Thehe 2950 People of Dojam, Baijubara; Thehe VDC Jabkung Changlakhola Thehe 3100 People of Dojam, Baijubara; Thehe VDC Polakyon/Poltyong Changlakhola Thehe 3200 People of Dojam, Baijubara; Thehe VDC Tukling Changlakhola Thehe 3400 People of Dojam, Baijubara; Thehe VDC Ladegompa Changlakhola Thehe 3550 People of Dojam, Baijubara; Thehe VDC Ladekhola Changlakhola Thehe 3600 People of Dojam, Baijubara; Thehe VDC Nyaltang Changlakhola Thehe 3600 People of Dojam, Baijubara; Thehe VDC Seding Changlakhola Thehe 3700 People of Dojam, Baijubara; Thehe VDC Thadesangu Changlakhola Thehe 3700 People of Dojam, Baijubara; Thehe VDC Kurugwa Changlakhola Thehe 4000 People of Dojam, Baijubara; Thehe VDC Lajarma Changlakhola Thehe 4200 People of Dojam, Baijubara; Thehe VDC Rakarbu Changlakhola Thehe 4100 People of Dojam, Baijubara; Thehe VDC Gudung gada Changlakhola Thehe 4100 People of Dojam, Baijubara; Thehe VDC Chulibisauna Chandranath CF Chhipra - People of ward 8 and 9 of Chhipra VDC Khod Chandranath CF Chhipra - People of ward 8 and 9 of Chhipra VDC Raul bas Chandranath CF Chhipra - People of ward 8 and 9 of Chhipra VDC Jumarakhya Chandranath CF Chhipra - People of ward 8 and 9 of Chhipra VDC Lekh majh (Maja) Hilsa CF Chhipra - People of ward 1-7 of Chhipra VDC Hale Kharka Hilsa CF Chhipra - People of ward 1-7 of Chhipra VDC Bhainse Kharka Hilsa CF Chhipra - People of ward 1-7 of Chhipra VDC Narthala Hilsa CF Chhipra - People of ward 1-7 of Chhipra VDC Source: Field study 2010 45 Animal husbandry is one of the most important occupations among the people of Thehe and Chhipra VDCs. It is the basic subsistence system which has been practiced for a long time. As the area consists of vast stretches of grazing grounds, each and every household owns at least some livestock (Figure 3.32). The major livestock reared in the study villages are goat/sheep and jopa/jhoma (yakcow cross breeds). Small numbers of yak/chauri are found in Dojam area of Thehe VDC and cows/buffalos in Chhipra VDC (Table 3.28 & 3.29). A total of 1,752 livestock were reported in 57 households of Dojam village of Thehe VDC with high (31) livestock holding per household. Chipra VDC, as a whole, comprises total livestock population of 1,976 with livestock holding per household to be 12.8. The major livestock products are milk, curd and chhurpi (dried cheese), only the latter being sold in the lower altitude villages or in the villages of mid-altitude districts (Bajhang, Bajura) when people seasonally migrate to these areas with their herds of goat/sheep for grazing during winter months. Goat and sheep are also directly sold to these areas, which provide an annual earning of NRs. ca. 20,000-200,000 per household. Table 3.28 Livestock population in Dojam area of Thehe VDC Units 1,500 Number of households rearing livestock 40 Cows 12 5 Yak/Chauri 20 20 Jhopa/Jhoma* 150 40 Mules/ass 20 15 Horses 50 25 Goat/Sheep Total No. of livestock 1,752 Source: Field study 2010 Table 3.29 Livestock population in two community forests in Chhipra VDC Type Goat/Sheep No. of livestock grazed in Chandranath CF 400 No. of livestock grazed in Hilsa CF 400 Cows/buffalo 300 650 Jhopa/Jhoma* 75 100 Mules/ass 20 15 Horses 6 10 801 1,175 Total *yak/cow cross breed Utilization and Management of Pasture Resources: Transhumance The common modes of utilization of pasture resources are: rotational grazing based on a system of transhumance, and medicinal plant harvesting. Rotation of livestock grazing is undertaken in high altitude and low altitude pastures during summer and winter seasons, respectively (Figure 3.33 - 3.37). The rotational grazing system is an informal system of management in the area since ancient times. Herders mostly take their livestock in the pasture area within their traditional territories where rotation of livestock takes place in high altitude and low altitude pastures during summer and winter seasons, respectively (Figure 3.33 - 3.37). Figure 3.32 Local herder milking his Jopa 46 People of Chhipra VDC also utilize pasture resources of Yari village (Muchu VDC) during summer months. As a traditional practice, most of the people take their herds of goats/sheep during winter months in the low lying area as far as Sanfe Bagar in Achham District and other areas of Achham and Bajura Districts (Figures 3.33 & 3.34). During severe winter and dry months, other livestock are kept in the village and are provided with stall fodder comprising grasses such as Cymbobogon sp. (gajo), dried stalks of wheat and finger millet. As a traditional management practice, grasses and other plants are cut annually only once in September-October. The grasses are dried, stored and used as fodder only during winter months. November Village (2550 m) Manal mid-April November mid-April to mid-June Jabak Upper temperate forest pastures (>3100-3500 m) April/May Goat/ sheep Jabkung Gyaldorje November mid-April mid-June Lower-temperate forest pastures (2700-3100 m) Sanfebagar mid-April to mid-June >Tugling Polkyon Sub-alpine meadows (>3500-3900 m) mid-June October <Tugling October Lade- mid-June to mid-July Seding gompa Ladekhola mb er pte September Se mid-July Alpine meadows (>3900-4500 m) Sept. Nyaltang Thadesangu mid-July to August Rakarbu Kurugwa Lajarma Figure 3.33 Chart showing movement of livestock in different pastures for rotational grazing in Changlakhola valley in Dozam, Thehe VDC, Humla 47 Village (2300 m) Stall feeding/ grazing in village area (Oct.-Nov.) Stall feeding in village area (Nov.-May) ril -Ap uly endJuly for grazing & trade Ju November Chuli Bisauna* mi d-J Achham, Bajura or Bajhang districts June mid mi d -N 50% livestock are taken ov . 50% stay in village July mi d- O ne cto be r Chuli bisauna November Khod for trade (buy salt) Au g ust Taklakot end-Sept. Village area mid-October Raul bas* Yari for grazing mid-July August October Jhuma Rakhya movement of jhoma/jhopa movement of cows for stall feeding/grazing in village area (Oct.-Nov.) movement of goat/sheep Figure 3.34 Chart showing movement of livestock in different pastures for rotational grazing in Chandranath Community Forest, Chhipra VDC, Humla *Lack of drinking water in some of the pastures (Chuli bisauna and Raul bas) is the main issue in livestock herding in Chhipra VDC. 48 Pastures at Tibet (Kathan, Baisha, Godohalna) 2-3 months (June to September) Saipal region (10-15 days) Village (Kanda) (October) Chainpur (October last) Dadeldhura (5-7 days) Village (Kanda) (May- June) Dipayal (Doti) (OctoberNovember) Tele lekh (5-7 days) Jogbudha (December-January) Kailali, Kanchanpur, Tanakpur (India) (January last to April) Figure 3.35 Traditional seasonal grazing pattern followed by the sheep of Kanda VDC, dotted line shows the current route 49 Dongdang Goth (Above Tinker): two months stay (July last, August, September) (c4000m asl) Rakang (1-2 days) (c3500m asl) Kuntiseu (1 day) June to July Gaga (2-4 days) (2900m asl) Dobakey (1 day) Dumling (1 day) March-June Village (Sunsera): October last Baitadi (only palti patha) Dadelchura Tarai region November to March Figure 3.36 Traditional seasonal grazing route for sheep of Sunsera VDC (Darchula) and adjoining areas 50 Dongdang (June/JulySeptember) Rakang (1-2 days) Gaga (2-4 days) Kuntiseu (1-2 days) Dobakey (1 day) Ranithala (1 day) Tosharpani (1 day) June to July last Dumli (1 day) Patalthalo (1 day) Thaisain (1 day) Thadaodar (1 day) Godani (1 day) Pinatoli (1 day) Village (Khar VDC and adjoining areas) All cattle except ‘palti patha’ (breeder sheep) stay for whole winter (October last to May/June) March to June Baitadi Dadeldhura Tarai region November to March Figure 3.37 Traditional seasonal grazing route for sheep of Khar VDC (Darchula) and adjoining areas 51 3.3 Socio-Cultural Characteristics 3.3.1 Settlements and demographic pattern Population The total population of the KSL-Nepal region according to 2001 Census, is 564,035, with male 274,967 (48.75%) and female 289,068 (51.25%). Male population is lower compared to female in general, except in Humla district and few VDCs in other districts where the ratio of male is higher. Ethnically, the region is largely dominated by Chhettris followed by Brahmin, Thakuri, Dalits, and Lama (Figure 3.42a). Villages in higher elevation of Humla district, called ‘Jadan’ area, are inhabited by Lama People of Tibetan origin. An indigenous group Byasi inhabits in the Byas and Rapla villages in the north of Darchula district, and at the foothills of the Byas Himal. Majority (94%) of the people in the KSL-Nepal region are Hindus, followed by Buddhists residing mainly in upper parts of Humla. Other religions (Jain and Muslim) are in minority. Total number of household is 96,957, with an average household size of 5.82 (CBS 2001) (Figure 3.38 & 3.39, Table 3.30). There is a wide variation in social and natural fabrics among these four districts of the region. Population in KSL VDCs, Nepal 2001 HUMLA DARCHULA BAJHANG BAITADI 60 0 60 120 District boundary Population 653 - 1000 1001 - 3000 3001 - 6000 6001 - 10000 10001 - 18345 Kilometers N Figure 3.38 Population size in different VDCs/municipality of KSL in 2001 Source: ISRC 2008. Table 3.30 Population size and density in four districts District Baitadi 234,418 40,387 5.80 Projected Population 2009 265,113 Bajhang 167,026 21,029 5.80 Darchula 121,996 28,588 5.84 40,595 6,953 5.83 564,035 96,957 Humla Total Population (2001 Census) Census HHs HH size 2001 2009 154 174 193,103 49 57 140,932 53 61 47,229 7 8 646,377 52 Population Density Projected Population in KSL VDCs, Nepal 2009 HUMLA DARCHULA BAJHANG BAITADI 60 0 60 120 District boundary Projected Population 754 - 1000 1001 - 3000 3001 - 6000 6001 - 10000 10001 - 20747 Kilometers N Figure 3.39 Projected population size in different VDCs/Municipality of KSL in 2009 Source: ISRC 2008. Population Density The KSL-Nepal region is inhabited by 564,035 individuals residing in 96,957 households, among them 48.75% are male and 51.25% are female. Highest family size is in the lower part of the area in general. There is also a wide variation in these VDCs in terms of population density with as low as 0.83 persons per sq.km. in Limi VDC of Humla District to as high as 427.62 persons per sq.km. in Huti VDC of Darchula District (Figure 3.40 & 3.41). Population Density in KSL VDCs, Nepal 2001 HUMLA DARCHULA BAJHANG BAITADI 60 0 60 120 District boundary Population density 0.8 - 10 10.01 - 50 50.01 - 100 100.01 - 200 200.01 - 300 300.01 - 430 Kilometers N Figure 3.40 Population densities in different VDCs/ municipality of KSL in 2001 Source: ISRC 2008. 53 Ethnic Composition Ethnically, the region is largely dominated Population density (Person/ sq. km.) by Chhetris followed by Brahmins, Thakuri, Dalits, and Lama (Table 3.31). Villages in higher elevations of Humla District are Humla inhabited by Lama people of Tibetan origin Bajhang 7 49 and is called Jadan area. An indigenous group, Byasi, inhabits the Byans village to the north of Darchula District and the foothills of Byas Himal. The Byasis are also called Saukas, however, they like to be Baitadi Darchula called Rango after the name of the Ranga 154 53 cloth worn by priests of the deity Namjung. A larger population of Byasi also lives in the Figure 3.41 Population density (person/sq.km) area of Kumaon across the border from Darchula. Figures 3.42a, 3.42b, & 3.43 Ethnic distribution in KSL VDCs, Nepal show ethnic distribution and composition of 2001 the region. In Humla District, northern VDCs are almost exclusively inhabited by Lama Population. Thehe VDC (Humla), although shown as having more than 50% or more Chhetris, has a Lama population of 20%. Most of the VDCs shown ‘without any majority ethnic group’ (no ethnic group with at least 50% of the total population) have mostly Chhetri, Bahun, and Thakuri population jointly forming the majority (Figure 3.42a). Pancheswar VDC of Baitadi 60 0 60 120 Kilometers District has the highest proportion (46%) of Dalit population. Altogether nine VDCs in the whole region have more than 25% Dalits. Among other ethnic groups, Dhanuks Figure 3.42a Ethnic composition of KSL- Nepal are found in Bhatana, Bhumiraj, Hatairaj and Udaydev VDCs of Baitadi District. In Bhatana, Dhanuks represent 41% of the total population. Similarly, Sanyasis inhabit mostly Gokuleswar, Rudreswar, Hatairaj, Sreekedar VDCs of Baitadi and Matela, Dandakot, Bhairavnath, Chainpur, Kharkanda, Rithachaupata of Bajhang District. Other ethnic groups inhabiting the area are Nurangs and Lohars. Both Lama and Byansi have their own unique languages and ways of life. Byansis are also traders and both groups conduct their trade between Taklakot in Tibet. HUMLA DARCHULA BAJHANG BAITADI District boundary Population VDCs with 50 % or more Chhetri VDCs with 50 % or more Bahun VDCs with 50% or more Thakuri VDCs with 50 % or more Lama VDCs without any majority groups VDCs with 50 % or more Byasis N Table 3.31 Population by caste (%) Ethnic Group Chhetri Bahun Thakuri Dalit Lama Other Baitadi 48.12 20.2 8.23 10.75 Darchula 59.2 18.5 6.6 11.6 Bajhang 63.93 10.76 5.61 4.77 12.7 4.1 14.93 54 Humla 44.3 6.2 19.5 9 16.1 4.9 Average 53.88 13.91 9.98 9.03 4 9.15 Percentage of Dalit Population in KSL VDCs 2001 HUMLA DARCHULA BAJHANG District boundary Dalit Population Percentage 0-5 6 - 15 16 - 25 26 - 35 36 - 46 BAITADI 60 0 60 120 Kilometers N Figure 3.42b Dalit population in KSL- Nepal Figure 3.43 Population by caste within KSL-Nepal Religion Majority (94%) of the people are Hindus, followed by Buddhists residing mainly in upper parts of Humla. Other religions (Jain and Muslim) are in minority (Table 3.32). Table 3.32 Population by religion Religion Baitadi Darchula Hindu Baudha Jain Muslim Other 99.78 0.02 0.02 0.18 99.71 0.2 0.02 0.01 0.06 Bajhang 99.77 0.2 0.01 0.02 Humla 78.2 20.2 1.6 55 Average 94.36 5.15 0.48 Population distribution by sex Total number of households is 96,957 with an average household size of 5.82 (CBS 2001). Male population is lower compared to female in general, except Humla District and few VDCs in other districts where ratio of male is higher (Figure 3.44). Sex Ratio in KSL VDCs, Nepal 2001 HUMLA DARCHULA Occupation BAJHANG Generally, agriculture is the main livelihood means of District boundary Sex Ratio the population. However, percentage of the population 77 - 85 86 - 94 95 - 104 dependent on agriculture varies from district to district. 105 - 112 113 - 117 In Darchula, more people (32.4%) are dependent on job employment than on agriculture (22.2%). However, Figure 3.44 Sex ratio within KSL VDCs Nepal in Humla District, percentage of population dependent on agriculture is as high as 88%. Generally, people residing in bordering area of India (Darchula District) are less dependent on agriculture as livelihoods mean (Table 3.33). BAITADI 60 0 60 120 Kilometers N Table 3.33 Population by occupation Occupation Agriculture Job-employee Business Pot-manufacturing Pension Production Other Baitadi 88.5 4.2 3.2 4.1 Darchula 22.2 32.4 3.4 3 2.2 36.8 Bajhang 84.09 5.31 2.48 2.05 6.7 Humla 87.57 2.6 3 3.4 3.43 Average 70.59 11.12 3.02 15.27 Literacy rate and educational institutions The average literacy rate of the area for 2001 and 2009 are 40.70% and 46.75%, respectively, both of which is below the national average literacy rate of 86.5% (CBS 2001, 2009). Average literacy population of male is 59.45%, whereas female literacy is 23.32%. There is a wide variation in literacy rate both among and within the districts. Villages in Humla District have low literacy rate, with the lowest in Limi at 9%. VDCs of Darchula and Baitiadi Districts bordering India generally have higher literacy rates up to 72% (Table 3.34 & Figure 3.45). Table 3.34 Literacy rate in four districts District Baitadi Bajhang Darchula Humla Average Literacy rate (%) 2001 2009 51.55 58 35.26 41 49.39 57 26.62 31 40.70 46.75 Literacy rate (%) Male 2001 Female 2001 71.5 33.8 57.6 15.2 67.41 32.5 41.3 11.8 59.45 23.32 56 Disadvantaged Population (%) 0.93 14.52 2.97 59.97 Literacy Rate in KSL VDCs, Nepal 2001 HUMLA DARCHULA BAJHANG BAITADI 60 0 60 120 District boundary Literacy Rate 9 - 20 20.1 - 30 30.1 - 40 40.1 - 50 50.1 - 72 Kilometers N Figure 3.45 Literacy rate in KSL VDCs, Nepal Educational Institutions There are a total of 1,690 institutions including 1,168 primary, 289 lower secondary schools, 127 secondary, 8 higher secondary schools and 2 campuses based on 2006 information (Table 3.35). Table 3.35 Number of institutions and students in 2001 and 2006 Educational Institutes and Students Baitadi 2001 Darchula 2006 2001 Bajhang 2006 2001 Humla 2006 2001 2006 Primary schools 263 409 294 300 279 348 108 111 Lower secondary schools 103 108 73 73 70 84 23 24 49 53 34 34 35 46 9 9 Secondary schools Private schools Higher Secondary schools Campus 96 - - - 8 - - - 2 - - - Students in Primary schools 36,492 52,085 24,598 24,801 22,062 42,863 4,284 9,043 Students in Lower secondary schools Students in Secondary schools 10,021 10,677 6,727 7,322 4,961 7,471 1,449 1,359 3,509 4,175 3,040 2,198 2,035 2,880 387 483 Source: CBS 2007 Health The overall health index (rank) of these districts is poor compared to other districts in Nepal. There are few hospitals, health centres, and Ayurvedic clinics. High incidence of diarrhoea is reported from all districts. Among the four districts, incidence of tuberculosis is highest in Baitadi; malaria and HIV positive in Darchula, and typhoid in Bajhang district (Table 3.37). Some health indices are shown in Table 3.36. 57 Table 3.36 Health Indices Health Health index (rank) (ICIMOD 2003) Health institutions density Population per doctor (District Profile 2063) Ayurvedic Clinic Hospitals Health centers Sub-health centers Doctor Per doctor benefitted population Chronic malnutrition among children under 5 yrs (index) (National: 0.72) Baitadi 66 Darchula 62 Bajhang 74 Humla 67 3.6 2.5 2.01 1.78 40,595 1 12 55 1 5 11 29 46,090 0.79 5 1 2 45 1 120,000 0.68 0.64 1 10 16 1 45,674 0.11 Table 3.37 Incidence of major diseases Disease Baitadi Diarrheal diseases 8,716 Tuberculosis 185 Measles 12 HIV positive NA Malaria 9 Leprosy NA Typhoid NA Source: District Profile 2063 Darchula 3,140 38 213 289 421 NA NA Bajhang 7,354 22 2 NA NA 14 3,595 Humla 6,236 15 NA NA NA NA NA Indigenous communities possess sound knowledge of medicinal plants and traditional medicinal practice. In our field study in May-June 2010, we found more than 100 plant species that are being used in traditional medicinal practice by the local communities. This suggests that a detailed study is required to fully explore the medicinal plant species and traditional medicinal practice of the communities. Water and Sanitation Households with access to safe drinking water vary from 44 % (Bajhang district) to 71.4 % (Darchula district), which is below the national average of 84.1% in 2008. However, few places in Darchula district get very poor supply of water. Most villages have a communal water supply through using tap from a spring or stream. Sanitation coverage is between 10.8% (Bajhang) and 23.5% (Baitadi), much lower than the national average of 49.2% (Table 3.38, Figures 3.46a & 3.46b). Table 3.38 Water and sanitation gap by district (ranked by sanitation coverage) Districts Baitadi Sanitation Coverage 23.5 Darchula 14.4 Bajhang Humla Average Water Coverage 60 Sanitation Gap -36.5 Remarks Water and sanitation less than national average 71.4 -57 Water and sanitation less than national average 10.8 44 -33.2 Water and sanitation less than national average 18.3 64.5 -46.2 Water and sanitation less than national average 16.75 60.0 43.25 Source: CBS 2001; cited in WaterAid Nepal 2004 58 Figure 3.46a & b Water and Sanitation in districts of KSL-Nepal Energy Households here depend heavily on traditional sources of energy. Household connection to electricity is very low. Only 14.2% of the households in the region have access to electricity for lighting compared to 56.1% of national average (Figure 3.47 & Table 3.39). About 98% of households use firewood for cooking purpose followed by 1.7% of households using kerosene and 0.2% LP gas. Table 3.40 and 3.41 present the source of electricity and cooking fuel in the region. Figure 3.47 Lighting facilities in districts of KSL-Nepal Table 3.39 Number of households using electricity District NEA Solar MicroTotal Percentage hydro HHs Baitadi 3,802 317 1,554 40,387 14.05 Darchula 1,276 1,103 204 21,029 12.28 Bajhang 745 279 961 28,588 6.94 Humla 266 329 1,038 6,953 23.49 Source: NEA 2000; cited in GoN-NPC and UNDP-Nepal 2006 Table 3.40 Number of households using different sources of cooking fuel Fuel Type Wood Kerosene LP gas Bio gas Santhi/Guitha (cow dung) Others Baitadi 38,800 771 312 55 0 65 Darchula Bajhang 20,355 592 0 0 0 41 28,028 276 0 0 0 0 Humla 6,736 12 0 0 168 0 % total surveyed HHs 98% 1.7% 0.2% 0% 0.1% 0.1% Table 3.41 Number of households using different lighting facilities Lighting Facilities Electricity Kerosene Biogas Others Baitadi 8,903 29,036 55 2,030 Darchula Bajhang 1,750 17,405 0 1,824 1,462 20,556 0 6,286 59 Humla 846 369 11 5,682 % total surveyed HHs 13% 71% 16% 0% Road Network and Communication Road network in these districts is poor, although Table 3.42 Length of roads (km) in 2004 road construction is one of the priority sectors of Road type Baitadi Darchula Bajhang Humla the local government. Road construction is now Blacktopped 53 0 0 0 taking place at a faster pace. Road network in 0 0 0 0 districts of neighboring countries is much better Gravelled Earthen 90.5 66.4 73.2 0 than in KSL-Nepal (Table 3.42). Many villages in these districts still do not have telecommunication facilities. However, this service is growing very fast, and it will not be long before all VDCs have access to telecommunication facilities like cell phones. Settlement Pattern in Humla The majority of villages in Humla conform to a pattern of settlement extending over a large part of the Karnali Zone irrespective of ethnographic and linguistic boundaries (Haimendorf 1988). All ethnic groups live in villages of similar type. Houses are built wall to wall in such a way that their flat roofs form a large terrace on which one can move from house to house without having to descend to the bottom. In some villages like Kermi, Yalbang, and Yangar, houses cling to a slope with each house touching the one below and one above giving an appearance of a fort from afar. But in villages like Muchu and Yari, the houses are bigger and stand by themselves. Houses in Limi Valley are also connected to one Figure 3.48 Settlement pattern in Humla another, but they are big and have larger space inside. Houses are flat-roofed and mostly of three storeys. The ground floor in these houses serves as cattle-shed, the first floor and second floors are used as living rooms and stores (Figure 3.48). There is a system of creating secondary dwellings for exploitation of resources at different elevations in the region. Generally, people have one primary dwelling with permanent structures in the main village, while they move in tents in high pastures. Thus, settlements are all-season settlements. However, there is also another system whereby people have two almost equally important dwellings at two elevations, such as is practiced in the villages of Dinga and Hepka. Here, each household has two settlements: one for summer and another for winter. Each household owns a homestead in both the upper and lower settlements. These are named Lek Dinga and Byasi Dinga. In addition to having permanent structures at two elevations, they live in tents in high pastures. 3.3.2 Livelihood and Poverty Livelihood Crop production and animal husbandry, aided by seasonal trade, are main livelihood strategies adopted by people throughout KSL-Nepal. Contribution of each of these sectors in household economy varies from region to region, and even within a particular settlement. The diversity of climate, ranging from subtropical in lower elevations to temperate and alpine in higher reaches, offers a variety of ecological niches and accompanying livelihood opportunities. In addition to crop production and animal husbandry, collection of herbs, NTFPs like Morchella, and bee keeping provide means for subsistence. Agriculture is the most important sector of KSL-Nepal. The area is primarily composed of agrarian society living in rural communities. Farming is mainly of subsistence type and is dependent on own farm inputs such as seed, manure, human and animal labor. Use of external inputs such as improved seeds, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides are either non-existent or very low. The average 60 landholding size is very small and the yield per unit land is very low. Land distribution pattern indicates predominance of forest, pasture, and agricultural land. Crop Production Crop productivity is relatively low in the region. Details of cropped area and production are shown in Table 3.43. Table 3.44 shows the production of several major crops in 2002 and 2007 (CBS 2007). Inadequate irrigation facilities, rainfed farming system and minimum use of modern technologies are the major reasons for low productivity. Throughout the region, rice is the preferred crop. It is often reported that the common episodes of hunger are caused by scarcity of rice rather than scarcity of food items. A wide variety of crops are grown in the region. Variation in climatic conditions and physiographic features offer opportunities to grow diverse crops. Food items collected from the wild constitute important means for supporting livelihoods. However, a comprehensive documentation of these crops and cultivation practices is lacking. Most of the available information on agriculture is based on secondary information. The study team collected primary data on agricultural system of Humla District. A detailed study of the region is urgently needed (Adhikari 2008). Table 3.43 Area and production of different crops Humla Area Prod. (ha) (m tons) Paddy 550 910 Maize 82 140 Millet 1,360 1,300 Wheat 990 431 Barley 680 280 Oilseed 58 21 Potato 664 6,640 Sugarcane Cardamom Ginger Garlic 10 63 Turmeric Chilly 26 93 Lentil 15 10 Chickpea Pigeonpea Blackgram 50 37 Horsegram 4 4 Soybean 28 25 Others 85 56 Source: SINA 2008/2009 Crops Darchula Area Prod. (ha) (m tons) 3,950 7,480 5,900 10,970 1,115 1,000 5,965 4,255 1,200 792 154 67 716 9,216 32 495 42 510 12 76 4 34 5 17 61 53 50 31 1 1 270 162 164 160 775 557 248 146 Baitadi Area Prod. (ha) (m tons) 5,330 9,660 9,500 17,270 870 950 5,000 4,355 500 500 250 170 725 7,975 3 0.6 56 310 8 16 7 14 12 24 700 560 40 22 150 130 484 250 515 400 130 80 Bajhang Area Prod. (ha) (m tons) 6,005 9,200 3,650 6,261 2,285 2,170 6,100 6,317 1,510 1,350 120 24 950 7,272 30 450 10 60 120 600 140 560 150 110 470 198 8 3 5 2 480 288 50 25 160 98 290 150 Table 3.44 Annual production (in m ton) of major crops in KSL-Nepal Crops Baitadi 01/02 06/07 Paddy 10,660 8,138 Wheat 10,100 6,500 Maize 12,750 16,450 Millet 1,090 770 Barley 560 500 Oilseed 250 250 Potato 622 640 Source: CBS (2007) Darchula 01/02 06/07 7,120 7,289 7,450 9,500 8,850 9,145 1,200 990 1,034 1,050 110 126 5,350 865 61 Bajhang 01/02 06/07 9,557 9,949 8,915 9,155 5,285 6,200 2,239 2,285 1,653 1,510 166 120 5,350 940 Humla 01/02 602 863 109 1,062 1,680 33 4,887 06/07 910 975 140 1,090 1,190 50 580 Irrigation Irrigation facility in the KSL-Nepal region is poor and limits crop production. Among the four districts, Darchula ranks highest with 13.37% of agricultural land under irrigation while Baitadi ranks lowest with only 3.55% of agricultural area under irrigation. Table 3.45 and Figure 3.49 show the level and type of irrigation in the region. Figure 3.49 Irrigation by different sources Table 3.45 Irrigated area (ha) by different sources Irrigation Tube well/boring Perennial Seasonal Pond, well Others Mixed Irrigated Area Irrigated Area (%) Source: CBS 2007 Baitadi 11.9 3,400 1,899.9 80.7 6.6 0 5,399.1 3.55 Darchula 6 1,952 1,111.3 3.5 0 0 3,072.8 13.37 Bajhang 133.4 2,527.3 2,035.1 2 2 0 4,699.9 7.77 Humla 11.2 689 270 1.9 0 0 972 5.5 Fertilizer and Other Inputs Use of external inputs like chemical fertilizers and pesticides is low, thus resulting in low productivity. The table below gives a picture of the level of external inputs in four districts. 62 Table 3.46 Use of agricultural inputs by district Inputs for different crops Baitadi Darchula Bajhang Humla Paddy Area (reported) treated with mineral/chemical fertilizers (ha) 545.5 188.4 149.6 0 72,714 8,678 16,061 0 192 348 139 410 Area (reported) treated with mineral/chemical fertilizers (ha) 1,184.4 364.5 8.1 0 Mineral/chemical fertilizers quantity used (kg) 280,929 31,235 1,743 0 329 209 119 90 Area (reported) treated with mineral/chemical fertilizers (ha) 2,148.1 197.3 250.8 0 Mineral/chemical fertilizers quantity used (kg) 329,460 13,462 24,280 0 384 501 337 746 65.6 1.1 21.7 0 9,075 56 3,089 0 55 97 139 359 Area (reported) treated with mineral/chemical fertilizers (ha) 1.4 0.2 0 0 Mineral/chemical fertilizers quantity used (kg) 274 14 0 0 0 14 0 0 100.9 12.3 10.6 0 13,901 2,239 3,327 0 165 306 277 892 777.1 2.1 7.1 0 99,529 904 4,258 0 55 70 396 286 Mineral/chemical fertilizers quantity used (kg) Number of holdings using insecticide Maize Number of holdings using insecticide Wheat Number of holdings using insecticide Potato Area (reported) treated with mineral/chemical fertilizers (ha) Mineral/chemical fertilizers quantity used (kg) Number of holdings using insecticide Sugarcane Number of holdings using insecticide Vegetables Area (reported) treated with mineral/chemical fertilizers (ha) Mineral/chemical fertilizers quantity used (kg) Number of holdings using insecticide Other crops Area (reported) treated with mineral/chemical fertilizers (ha) Mineral/chemical fertilizers quantity used (kg) Number of holdings using insecticide Source: CBS 2001/2002. Livestock Farming Livestock farming is an integral component of the farming system in KSL-Nepal. Integrated crop livestock farming system is a special characteristic of animal production. Improvement in livestock productivity will contribute to improving living standards in rural areas while facilitating structural transformation of the economy. The priority animal by Agricultural Perspective Plan (APP) in midwest and far-west hills and mountains are dairy cattle, goats, sheep, Angora rabbit, and yak (APP 1995). Cross breeds of yaks and local cattle are also popular in the upper reaches of KSL-Nepal. These animals serve various purposes such as ploughing, transportation, and production of milk, ghee (butter), meat, hide, fur, and manure. Sheep are still used to carry loads of about 14 kg on either side of their backs. Sheep also produce 0.5 to 1.5 kg wool per year, and the animals are used for transportation, meat and wool (Adhikari 2008). A restriction placed by the Chinese government on trade in 1961 brought dramatic changes in livestock raising systems and their numbers. This mainly affected the Bhotia population of upper Humla (including Mugu District). The Chinese government: (i) shifted the market from Chotu (close to the border) to Pangdu (three days walk from the border), (ii) artificially lowered the price of salt and wool; and (iii) restricted grazing of animals from Nepal side in Tibet (Adhikari 2008). 63 Livestock numbers in four districts shows a decreasing trend from 1991 to 2003 (Figure 3.50). Figure 3.50 Livestock population in the districts of KSL-Nepal (Source: CBS 2007) NTFPs Trade Pattern and Generated Royalty Non timber forest product, especially medicinal and aromatic plants, play an important role in the overall economy of the region and household economy of individual households. A total of 55 species are traded as medicinal plants from KSL-Nepal. In the last five years, a total of 3,765,647 kg of herbs were traded generating total revenue of Rs. 33,793,051 (Table 3.47). Table 3.47 Total Quantity of NTFPs traded and royalty generated in the last five years Year 2065-66 (2009) 2064-65 (2008) 2063-64 (2007) 2062-63 (2006) 2061-62 (2005) Source: DFO Annual reports Quantity (kg) 863,467 750,448 1,024,304 546,130 581,298 Revenue (Rs) 16,288,820 9,450,959 4,107,341 1,597,888 2,348,044 Food Availability and Requirement The region has remained a chronically food deficit area and famines are common episodes. Data available for 2005/06 (Table 3.48) shows the severity of food deficit in terms of cereal availability and requirement. These figures show the food deficit in aggregate amount, but the severity could be worse in individual VDCs. Table 3.48 Food availability and requirement in the region in 2005/2006 District Population Rice Baitadi 251,560 Bajhang 181,396 Darchula 132,257 Humla 43,796 Source: VDC Profile 2008 4,706 5,309 4,013 197 Cereals Availability (m tons) Wheat Maize Millet Barley 5,940 6,669 7,055 108 10,310 3,702 3,303 93 629 1,870 808 887 64 138 351 278 399 Total edible 21,723 17,901 15,457 1,684 Required (m tons) Deficit (m tons) 50,564 34,647 25,261 8,365 28,841 16,746 9,804 6,681 There is a wide variation in social and natural fabrics among these four districts of KSL-Nepal. The description above provides a broad general scenario of the region. Socioeconomic Features of Humla District – A Case Study A comprehensive study of the whole region is necessary to document major and subtle socioeconomic features of the region. The study team visited Humla District in May-June 2010 and conducted research on socioeconomic features of the district. Following are descriptions of these features of Humla District. Agriculture Practice Generally, there are no large compact areas of cultivable land, and people utilize large numbers of scattered plots. Although some settlements have reasonably level fields, cultivation in steep slopes is a common sight. Small patches of forests in steep slopes are cleared for cultivation, and evidences of slash and burn agriculture are also found. Buckwheat is mostly grown utilizing this method of shifting cultivation. These plots are abandoned after two to three years of cultivation. In the low valleys, crops like rice and millet are grown in limited quantities. At higher elevations, these crops recede and naked barley, buckwheat, chino millet, radishes, and potatoes become the staple food. A certain level of correlation is found between types of crops grown and ethnicity. Though Thakuris have adapted themselves in many ways to life in higher reaches and resemble greatly with Lamas in house types, agricultural Figure 3.51 Rice cultivation in low cut valley across implements, and methods of animal Dharapori village, the last Thakuri village husbandry, they have mostly settled in areas where at least some rice can be grown (Furer-Haimendorf 1988). Rice cultivation was found up to a place across Dharapori (at an elevation of 2,400m; Figure 3.51), the last Thakuri village in an area inhabited by Lamas. In the lower elevation areas crops can be grown twice a year. In areas north of Simikot, up to Muchu, major crops grown are naked barley, wheat, barley, finger millet, chino millet, buckwheat, amaranth (Marse), turnip, potato, and local variety of radish. Depending on snowfall and rainfall, naked barley, wheat and barley are sown in October/November and harvested in May/June. Finger millet, Chino, Marse, buckwheat, potatoes, turnip are grown as summer crops. Although some farmers reported of growing sweet varieties of buckwheat, mostly bitter buckwheat is grown and preparation for summer crops begins in March/April. Land left fallow in winter for summer crops is first prepared. Finger millet, chino, and Figure 3.52 Naked barley is the buckwheat are sown after land preparation. Potatoes and staple crop in the upper reaches of radishes are also planted. In late-May and June, naked barley Humla District (Figure 3.52), barley, and wheat are harvested. These fields are immediately ploughed and buckwheat and chino are sown as summer crops. Weeding of summer crops is done in July/August. The early sown buckwheat is harvested in September/October. Naked barley, barley, and wheat are sown immediately after land preparation. No agricultural work is done from December to February. Winter crops are weeded in March, and then the new cropping cycle begins. 65 In higher elevations like Limi valley, and Yari village, crops can be grown in one season only. Major crops grown here are naked barley, wheat, pea, rape seed, potatoes, and radishes. Best fields are grown with naked barley. Fields are plowed in April/May. In Limi valley fields are plowed with one Dzo. Usually crops are weeded once in July/August and harvested in October. In Limi valley, fields are planted almost a month later in Halji than in Zhang and Tila villages. However, being in relatively warmer place compared to other two villages, crops ripen Figure 3.53 In Limi valley crops, are grown in level field sooner in Halji. People from these three consisting of several plots for irrigation villages exchange labor during planting and harvesting among the relatives, or labor exchange circles. Crops are grown in level fields with several small plots designed to facilitate irrigation (Figure 3.53). Crops are irrigated regularly till July/August. These villages have well established traditional irrigation systems. Each water turn, called chhyuri, is well respected and strictly adhered to. They have well defined and implemented rules for maintenance and operation of irrigation canals. Some of the canals are installed with polythene pipes in place of traditional wooden sluices. This type of water management has been practiced successfully by farmers in Manang village, Manang District. This system requires less labor and contributes towards efficient management of available water quantity (Dannevig 2007), supply of which is decreasing annually. Some of the cultivable lands in Limi Valley belong to the monastery and community. Households cultivating these lands pay a tribute of three to four units of grain for one unit of seeds sown. Regions with one agricultural season face more acute food shortage than regions with two agricultural seasons. Animal Husbandry Livestock rearing is an integral part of household economy of all residents of the district. In lower Humla, cattle and buffaloes are kept in limited numbers. As one moves to higher elevations, dzo, jhuma¸ cross-breeds of yak and local cattle become common. An ethnic correlation is noticed in animal husbandry, as well. Although dzo and jhuma are kept by Chhetris and Thakuris in areas adjoined by Lama Communities, yaks are kept exclusively by Lama Communities who cross-breed these animals to produce dzo and jhuma. The herding of yak involves seasonal movement to higher pastures. Hybrids of local cattle, called lulu, and yaks, both male and female, are prized highly as pack animals and good milk yielders. Many Lama Communities keep a few kirkoo bulls to cross with chauris (yak). Jhuma is prized for higher milk yield. Offspring of Jhuma and Lulu bulls are called Tolba (male) and Tolbini (Female) and are of relatively little value. People used to maintain large flocks of goats and sheep. Unlike many other parts of Nepal, sheep and goats here are kept as pack animals, as well. However, over the years, with scarcity of winter grazing land for sheep and goats in southern neighboring districts Figure 3.54 Transhumance is an additional major form of and dwindling salt-grain trade, the numbers of goats and sheep has reduced drastically. In subsistence livelihood in Humla 66 lower elevation, rong-lu (low country sheep) breed of sheep, characterized by coarse wool, are generally raised. In Limi Valley, chiang-lu (northern sheep), with finer wool are kept. A yak costs Rs 30-35,000 and Tsauris about Rs 30,000. Transhumance People, especially in the northern parts, practice transhumance, moving their herds to pastures of different elevations. In the summer and rainy seasons, animals are taken to high pastures while in winter season, they graze around main settlements. People in northern parts of the district follow a seasonal calendar while grazing their animals. All the animals are taken to summer season/ pasture, called Soika after planting of crops (Figure 3.54). In some villages, pack animals such as dzo and horse are not taken to pastures, but are grazed near the villages instead. In other villages, these animals are brought back to the villages from the high pastures if there is a need to carry loads (Figure 3.55). Pastures for rainy season, Yarka, are located higher up. Around August, with the onset of Tonka (Autumn), pastoralists start to bring their animals to pastures in lower elevations. The Tonka pastures are the same as Soika (Summer) pasture. Around the end of the Tonka season, crops are also harvested and animals are brought back close to the village when the Ghunka, winter season begins. These rotational grazing systems are closely monitored and regulated by the community. If any individual is found grazing animals in Ghunka pasture in other season, s/he is severely punished. Even within a particular seasonal pasture, the community decides where to take animals so that pasturelands are maintained. For example, in Limi VDC, people take their animals to Ning Khola, Talung, Artang in Soika; Shakya Khola, Gyau Khola in Yarka; Talung, Ning in Tonka, and in the villages of Rak and Ning Khola in Ghunka season (Figure 3.50). All households do not go with their animals to higher pastures. People with few animals request their neighbors/relatives to look after their animals in their herds. In such cases, absentee owners provide food and other required materials to the herders. In the case of collective herding of milking animals, ghee and dried cheese chhurpee are divided among the animal owners in proportion to number of milking animals or the amount of milk produced by the animals, the division-system varying in different villages. Although people of Limi valley still use traditional tents made of yak fur in high pastures, people of Hepka, Dojam and lower villages were found using synthetic tents available in the market. The traditional tents, though of high quality and durability, are bulky and require two yaks to carry them. Hence, people with better access to the market have started using light polythene tents (Figure 3.56 a & b). Each village has traditionally defined and recognized pasturelands. Communities regularly monitor their pasturelands to ensure that these are not encroached. However, despite such efforts, these recognized boundaries are often encroached upon. For example, pasturelands traditionally utilized by Limi residents is encroached by pastoralists of Hepka village. Hepka residents have been gradually encroaching bordering pastures like Tolung Khola across the Nyalu Pass and are taking their livestock further into other pastures including Dhakche and Shakya Khola near the international border. Figure 3.55 Caravan of goats and sheep a as pack animals 67 Some people of Hepka resent the practice of other fellow Hepka residents of taking their animals deep into the pasture land traditionally owned by Limi. People of Limi had already communicated in a letter to Hepka not to take their animals in the pastureland belonging to Limi. However, people of Hepka informed that they would take their animals across the Nyalu Pass to Limi irrespective of whatever was written in the letter (Figure 3.52). The dispute between Limi and Hepka is not only limited to pasturelands. People of Limi complained that last year pastoralists from Hepka engaged in illegal collection of herbs in Limi, despite their prohibition. The police post, even after receiving formal complains, took no action against the perpetrators. Figure 3.56 a & b Traditional and modern types of tents used by herders of Limi and Hepka Issues of Animal Husbandry Traditionally, herders from Yari and Limi would take their animals to pasturelands now in Tibet, during the winter season, as the pastures there are better and wind blows the snow away. However, with the new political arrangements between the two countries, such practice of cross-border winter grazing has been stopped completely. This has had a severe impact and the number of animals herders can keep has been greatly reduced. Political boundaries do not match with the ecological and traditional livelihood boundaries of the region. Although Nepalese herders are not allowed to take their animals across the border, local people reported that animals from across the border are grazed in pasturelands in Nepal. Flocks of goats and sheep from Sera (China), a town across the border near Hilsa (Nepal), were found grazing in the Nepal side (Figure 3.57). However, officials in Tibet were reportedly not allowing their animals to cross the border to prevent disease infection. There was an outbreak of Foot and Mouth Disease in Limi two years ago and people of Tila, a village in Limi, alone lost about 40 chauris (yak and cattle cross-breeds). Although the number of animals has been reduced significantly, this has not been reflected in the quality of pastureland. In fact, because of the pressure on pastureland and decreased snowfall, the quality of pastures has been reportedly deteriorating. Availability of pastureland has been reduced not only on the northern side, but access to traditional winter grazing areas for goats and sheep in southern neighboring districts like Achham, Bajura and Bajhang has greatly diminished leading to reduction in number and size of flocks. Combined with the lack of grazing areas, labor shortages to herd animals, because of children attending schools locally or in India with support from different foundations, have led to reduction of herd size. Trade Although the centuries-old salt-grain trade has become almost non-existent since a few decades owing largely to influx of Indian salt and political changes in Tibet, the deep-seated culture of trade in the region manifests in other minor trading activities. The cessation of salt-grain trade has severely impacted the local economy. People of Limi, the northern most VDC of Nepal, still recall the days of storing a good quantity of red-rice traded with salt. This change has also contributed to aggravation of food security problem. 68 Some market centers in the district have been slowly evolving over the yeras. Some of these centers include Dharapori, Sarkeghat, Shreenagar, Maila, Lali, Muchu, Melchham, Darma, and Simikot (Humla DDC 2010). However, in the northern parts of the district, trade with Taklakot in Tibet carries high significance. Most consumer goods, including food items, are bought from Taklakot. Usually, Hilsa - the bordering trade center in Nepal - remains closed in the winter months as little trading activities takes place through the Nara Pass (4,560m) which becomes impassable in the winter. In the last few years, Hilsa has become a major trading center with people from different parts of the district, including from Mugu District, opening shops here. Until the Maoist insurgency, this settlement remained an agricultural village, but now no crops are grown here and all the land has been converted into building construction site. With the growth of Kailash-bound tourism, several lodges have also been built. The most common item of export from Humla from this point has been timber. Planks of wood and beams, usually from forests above Kermi, are carried on Dzopa and sold in Taklakot. A load of Dzopa would fetch as little as Rs 500. Over the years, the volume of timber export has been fluctuating. It was reported that when people have alternative income opportunities like working for Food for Work program of World Food Program, the export of timber declines. Stacks of wooden planks prepared for export become a common site in the forest beyond Kermi village. Although there was a range post of District Forest Office in Yari village, supervision of the District Forest Office was found ineffective. Neither is there any control/checks at the bordering town. Trade of NTFPs. Since the last one year, a large quantity of herbs is being exported via this route mainly for two reasons: (i) to avoid the hassles of paying taxes, and (ii) for better prices in Taklakot. The state has not established any regulating/tax collecting unit in Hilsa. The Police check post here operates only for about six months. Large quantities of Chinese drink, locally called Thobe, and wheat flour were the most common items bought by Dzopa owners to be traded in Simikot. A bottle of Thobe in Hilsa costs about Rs 72 and in Simikot Rs 200. For Dzo owners, Figure 3.57 Sheep and goats from Tibet graze the Thobe trade is flourishing. Interestingly, though in Nepal rice is available in Taklakot and Hilsa, people do not buy it much as buying rice from Food Corporation in Simikot would make economical sense. Although, there is a chronic shortage of rice in the district, most of the locally-made alcoholic drinks are made from rice and not from traditional alcohol preparing grains like naked barley and millet. Another common item of export is Phuru, a small wooden tea bowl manufactured from Acer species (Figure 3.58). People of Limi and surrounding areas buy Phuru in India or prepare them by carving out trees in lower elevation. These Phurus are further processed and painted in the villages and sold in Taklakot. People of Limi also buy grains like naked barley and other materials, much more than other villages. The growth of economy in Taklakot provides employment opportunities and increases the demand for Nepalese products like timber and herbs. Although Limi area is rich in herb production, quite Figure 3.58 Processing of Phuru, a wooden interestingly unlike many northern districts of Nepal, tea bowl, a major trade item Amchi practice (Tibetan medicine system) based mostly on herbs is almost nonexistent in Limi; however, people in Dojam and Chhipra area do use medicinal plants to treat common diseases/ailments. Training of a few people in this field would not only help add value to the products but also cater to the health needs of local people. 69 Trade Channel of NTFPs. NTFPs including medicinal plants are one of the most important natural resources supporting significantly to the economy and healthcare of local people. The most important species of MPs in terms of local economy and healthcare are given in Table 3.49. Among these, Jatamansii (Nardostachys grandiflora) and Kutki (Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora) are highly traded from almost all parts of Humla district including Thehe and Chhipra VDCs. According to DFO records about 9000 kg of dried rhizomes of Nardostachys grandiflora have been legally traded from the district in 2009/2010. However, according to villagers’ estimate, Dozam area (Thehe VDC) alone contributes about 4000-5000 kg of dried rhizome of Nardostachys grandiflora in annual trade from Humla district. The difference in trade data between DFO records and villagers’ estimate indicates that large volumes of NTFP are being involved in trade through illegal channel. The other most commonly traded species of MPs are Morchella species, Delphinium himalayai, Valeriana jatamansii and Fritillaria cirrhosa. Almost all of the products are traded in crude form. Practices of processing and value addition are virtually absent. The collected products are traded to district-level traders who directly sold the products to the Tarai whole sellers from where the products are exported to India (Figure 3.59; Table 3.49). In this process many agencies and agents are engaged. In recent years, medicinal plants and other NTFPs have also been illegally exported to nearby Chinese markets. The trade of NTFPs generates important revenue for a large number of local people including collectors, middleman, porters and local traders. Figure 3.59 Trade channel of NTFP (based on local information in Dozam village) 70 Table 3.49 Highly traded species of NTFPs from Dozam and Chhipra area† Botanical name Local name Trade name Dactylorhiza hatagirea Hattajadi Panchaunle Nardostachys grandiflora Bhultya Jatamansi Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora Katuki Kutki Fritillaria cirrhosa Podya Kakoli Delphinium himalayai Alusi Atis Morchella species Guchhi chyau † source of information: local people and NTFP collectors *amount traded in 2009 nt = not traded yet Trade amount (kg air dry weight) from Dozam* 13 Trade amount (kg air dry weight) from Chhipra* Market price (Rs/kg) nt 1,700-1,800 5,000 nt 300-400 4,000 450 550-800 100 nt 2,000-3,500 350 nt ? 100 5 6,000-15,000 NTFP processing and micro-enterprise. There are ample opportunities for the value addition of the herbal products by establishing processing units and promoting locally affordable microenterprise technologies. Recently, an essential oil processing unit (capacity 1000 kg) has been established by DFO in Kurilla area of Karpunath VDC with a total cost of NRs. 2.8 million. The main raw materials for this plant are rhizomes of Nardostachy grandiflora and Valeriana jatamansii. Beside this, there is one micro-enterprise for extracting juice from seabuckthorn (Hippophae salicifolia) berries in Thehe VDC. These efforts, although encouraging, are not sufficient given the amount of resources that are being involved in trade from the area. Value addition technologies of different capacity should be established in order to provide sustainable earnings to the poor collectors. Apiculture Honey production plays an important role in the livelihood of the people of the KSL, Nepal area. Humla, Bajhang, and Darchula districts are ideally suitable for apiculture. Bee keeping is popular in areas below 3,000m. Dojam area (Thehe VDC) is famous for honey production. Each household owns several honey bee hives (locally called thour in Humla) which is manufactured by local farmers. A quality thour is made from log of Pinus wallichiana, and lasts for six to seven years. Each thour produces about six to eight kg of honey. Most of it is consumed locally, and a part is sold at a rate of about Rs. 600 per kg. Many farmers keep several of such hives. A farmer in Baijubara village (Thehe VDC) was found to own 90 thours which are kept in the roof of his house, kitchen garden, and inside the forest. Processing of honey is done using standard equipments by his family. Honey extracted is exported to Nepalgunj and Kathmandu by air. Farmers fix honey bee hives at suitable locations in May and harvest honey by October. In the forest, thours are hanged on a big rock with the help of rope/bark made from Desmodium elegans. Rocks where thours are fixed are owned by individual farmer for several generations, and the rock is automatically transferred to the next generation as parental property. Some farmers, who do not get time to fix the bee hives in the rock owned by his/her family, may allow other families to fix their hives for some rent or share (Figure 3.60a & b). It was learnt that there are 3-4 types of honey bee; and the bees survive in winter by migrating to low lands in the adjoining districts - Accham, Bajura, Bajhang, etc. 71 a b Figure 3.60a & b Apiculture in Humla district Foreign employment Unlike in many other parts of Nepal, where foreign employment has become a common sought-after strategy, foreign employment in general sense is non- existent in Humla. However, for people of Limi valley, employment in Taklakot is of paramount importance. Most of the youths from Limi go to Taklakot after sowing naked barley. Mostly, they get work in construction sites to carry cements and sand or other construction materials. As the construction work there is proliferating with the rising economy the employment opportunities for these youths is good. They get work mostly on the basis of personal contacts and quite often drivers help them to secure a job. Normally, the daily wage rate ranges from Rs. 700 to 800. However, people from other villages like Yari, although as close as Limi to Taklakot, are not involved in such employment there. It was reported that females get job easily mostly because of their sincerity. Before the growth of construction work in Taklakot, only a few persons from Limi would get job in Taklakot, mostly to herd animals in pastureland. But now they do not work as agricultural labors there anymore. The work opportunities in Taklakot have been a key in keeping household economies in Limi afloat. 3.3.3 Tourism Although the region abounds in natural beauties and inherits rich cultural heritage, the tourism activities in the region is at minimal level. Some of the major tourism attraction centres of the region are rivers like Mahakali, Chaulani, Karnali; mountains like Api, Nampa, Byash, panchachuli, Saipal; and other attractions like Surma sarobar lake, dudhkund lake, Kailash cave, Jaya Prithvi Nagar, Limi Valley. The region has two Protected Areas Khaptad National Park and recently declared Api Nampa Conservation Area and adjoins the Rara National Park. The region’s natural beauty is matched by cultural diversity and richness. Being largely an under-exposed area, it holds an immense potential for tourism development. Besides, the region had been traditionally a trade route linking Taklakot of Tibet and southern parts of Nepal and India. It has also been a route for pilgrimage to Kailash/ Mansarovar for devotees from Nepal and India. The KSL-Nepal region holds a good prospect of being developed into a major tourism hotspot (Table 3.50, Annex 15). Currently, tourism activities are concentrated on a few locations like Simikot to Hilsa in Humla district. The region displays richness and diversity in natural and cultural attractions. After opening of the region for tourism in mid-1960s, number of visitors to the region is gradually increasing. In the time of insurgency, the area experienced a drastic decline in the number of visitors coming to the region. The region has several potentials for the development of naturebased tourism, such as: Himalayan range with unique beauty as well as sacred place (Kailash and Mansarovar) for the peoples of different religion, rich cultural and religious heritage, popular route for the pilgrims to Kailash-Mansarovar and the traders to Taklakot, unique biological diversity, several lakes and ponds, hot springs, traditional herding and agricultural system, handicrafts, sheep caravans and farms, etc. Development of ecotourism in the region would be a major source of economic, socio-cultural and environmental protection and more significantly reducing the level of poverty in the area (Karnali Area Development Master Plan 2008) 72 Major features of tourism attractions are high mountains- Nalakangkang range: Nalakangkang (7337m), Tankh Himal, Chalna Himal; Byash-Rishi Himal range, Api Himal (7134m), Nampa (6757), Saipal (7036m); rivers, lakes, religious sites like Halji and Reling monastery in Humla, temples of Tripurasundari in Baitadi. Details of these sites are listed in table and Annex. Main pilgrimage and trade route in the region are Baitadi-Darchula-Tinkar-Taklakot, ChainpurTaklakot, and Nepalganj-Simikot-Hilsa-Taklakot. Among these three routes first two routes are frequented less as there are high passes and open only seasonally. The Nepalganj-SimikotTalkakot route is the most followed route in the region now. Details of these routes have been provided in Annex 15. Table 3.50 Important sites in KSL–Nepal Baitadi Khalanga Bazar, Khalanga Bazar, Shera gaun, Patan, Jhulaghat, Killekot, temple of Dewalghaat, Temple of Tripurasundari, Jagannath temple, Ishwari Ganga, Patal Bhumeshwar, Raulakedar, Thehimandu Bhagwati Darchula Byash-Rhishi Himal range, Jaskar range, Tinkar Bhanjyang (6097m). Darchula Khalanga, Tapoban, Gokuleshwor Temple, Malikarjun, Joljivi, Chhangru, Tinkar, Ukoo Gwallekh Dhura, Deulekh, Ghanghasya Lekh (Silanga), Khochlekh-Deulekh (Siddapur) Grassland near Indian border side Border area of Darchula and Baitadi Khandeshwari VDC, Majhigaun, Pauwagadhi, Byash VDC, Rapla VDC, Kalukheti, Kada VDCs, Ghusa VDC, Marma VDC Talkot, Bungal Khandeshwori VDC Khaptad National park Areas of sociocultural importance Areas of historical importance Tallo Sorad and Few parts of Upallo Sorad, Purchaudi Haat Tinkar, Chhangru, Byash area, Ukoo Khalanga bazaar, Killekot, Raula Kedar Uku VDC, Malikarjun VDC, Tinkar Important religious sites places of sorad (Tripurasundari, Melauli Bhagwati, Ninglashaini, Patal Bhumeshwar, jagannath temple, Ishwari Ganga, Dewal Ghat), Gwallek Kedar dhura Khodpe, Patan, Satbajh, Khochlekh, Jhulaghat, Baiatdi khalanga, Gokuleshwar Malikarjun VDC, Khandeshwari VDC, Gokuleshwar Main tourist sites Important Plant Areas Important Bird Areas Important Wildlife Areas Important trade centers Lipu lekh Bajhang Nampa (6757m)- Bankiya lekh (6936m)- Saipal (7036m)- Kapkot (6373m), Khyuri khala (5992m); Chainpur, Jayaprithvinagar, Surmasarobar, Dhuli, Thalhara, Khaptad Lekh Humla Mountan Ranges:A) Nalakangkang range: Nalakangkang (7337m), Tankh Himal, Chalna Himal, B) Jarkar range, Nampa Chalang, Saipal Range (7036m); Simikot, Darma, Sorugalfa, Limi, Reling, Kharpunath, Muchu Thehe, Khagalgaun, Mimi, Raya, Limi Chipra, Dojam, Khagalgaun Ladekhola, larchham forest, parangdunga forest and Raling himal’s surrounding, Takchi forest, Changli lekh, and Tibetan border pastureland Khaptad lek, Dhuli, Tumkot, Muchu, Limi, Channa, Kada VDC, Byasi Darma, Thehe VDC Kailash VDC Jayaprithvinagar, Limi, Sorugalfa, Simikot, Thalhara, Banni kot, Tumkot Chainpur Khaptad Lek, Surma, Kharpu nath VDC, Halji, Kailask cave(Kailash Reling, Mount Changla VDC), Baddi Jyaban Majhigaun, Pauwagadi, Kalukheti, Kada- tallokot, bungal areas Khalanga bazar, Sunkuda, Thalara, Limi, Naka, simikot, Gokuleshwar, Tinkar Daulichaur, Bagthala, Sarkideu, Paiyan bzar chhangru, Joljivi, Pasti, Deura, Deulek Dallek Source: Mechi dekhi Mahakali samma (in Nepali language), DFO reports 2008, District Profiles 2008, Field visit 2010 Although the whole region holds potential for tourism development, till date, foreign tourists’ arrival has been only in Humla district and Khaptad National Park. Rara National Park, adjoining to the region has also received foreign tourists. Number of tourists arrival in Humla and the protected areas are shown in the table. Tourism flow has been only to Humla district and Khaptad. The tourists arrival declined drastically after 1999 owing to insurgency and has started picking up again from 2007. The revenue generated by the two national parks from tourism fee in 1999 was Rs. 199,708, but declined to a meagre amount of Rs. 34,406 in 2005. In 2007 it was at Rs. 72,296 (DNPWC 2008) (Table 3.51). Infrastructure for tourism promotion in the whole region can be characterized as barely minimal. Since among all the four districts in the KSL Nepal region, most of the tourism activities take place in Humla district, overview of infrastructure development in Humla would help shed the light for the whole region. The existing infrastructure and facilities for the region has been listed in Annex 15. The section below presents the opportunities and challenges for tourism in Humla district. 73 Table 3.51 Number of tourists visiting KSL-Nepal Year Humla Foreign Tourists* Indian Tourists 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 NA NA 2000 400 2001 384 1 2002 299 36 2003 259 31 2004 473 266 2005 412 109 2006 800 516 2007 1,000 2,000 * Foreign tourists does not include Indian tourists. Source: Karnali Area Tourism Development Master Plan 2008 Rara and Khaptad National Parks 222 190 100 565 161 705 78 38 10 24 5 29 53 151 Tourism in Humla Tourism is one of the most promising sectors holding key for the socio-economic transformation of the Humla district. Currently also, it contributes significantly in generating revenue for the district. The District Development Committee charges Rs. 500 per tourists from the SAARC region and Rs 700 per tourists from other countries. According to the District Profile of Humla district, the revenue generated from such a collection of fees amounted to Rs. 288,040 in the FY 2065/66; Rs. 245,134 in the FY 2064/65, and Rs. 299,535 in FY 2063/64. These figures account for 20.18 %, 19.58 %; and 35.85 % respectively for those fiscal years (DDC Humla 2010). Although tourists flow and the role of tourism in revenue generation is significant, at the current stage, the attraction of Humla lies mainly as a gateway to Kailash/Mansarovar rather than being a tourist destination by itself. However, the region has several cultural and natural resources which could make it one important tourist destination in itself. Natural beauties Lofty snow capped peaks like Mt. Saipal, Mt. Changla; vertical cliffs; scenic landscapes ranging from series of temperate forests to idyllic alpine meadows; several lakes, waterfalls, and rivers; abundance of several flora and fauna makes the region a rich natural store house of tourism attraction. Wild animals like - Himalayan marmot, musk deer, Blue sheep; Beautiful bird species like - Ibisbill, Grandala, Chukar, Snow Pigeon, Lammergeier, Himalayan Griffon and many more are found in the region. These natural infrastructures provide opportunities for varieties of tourism like adventure tourism, trekking, and nature tour (Figure 3.61). Cultural Infrastructure The cultural fabric of the region matches the natural beauty and exhibits a rich diversity. The southern part of the district is largely dominated by Hindu groups like Chhetri and Thakuris, whereas the upper reaches of the district are inhabited by people subscribing to Tibetan Buddhism. Diversities manifest in subtle to marked differences even within these subgroups in cultural practices. Several monasteries in the northern part and temples in the southern part stand testimony to such diversities (Figure 3.62). Figure 3.61 Scenic landscapes are major attractions of the region Some of the renowned monasteries in the region are Namkha Khyun Dzong Monastery of Yalbang; Drikung Kagyu Waltse Rinchenling monastery in Halji, Limi; and Reling monastery. The Halji 74 monastery was established by Rinzin Zampo (9851055) and later extended by Chinga Lingpa (Tara Gaon Development Board 2008). About forty years ago, two other villages of Limi, Tila and Zhang, built their own monasteries – Kunzom Dhongak Chhoeling monastery in Tila and Phenzeling monastery in Zhang. Monasteries in the region subscribe to different sects of Tibetan Buddhism. For example, the monastery in Yalbung subscribes to Ningmapa sect, whereas the one in Tumkot subscribes to Shakyapa sect, and those in Limi valley subscribe to Drikung Kagyu. The monastery of Halji, besides being one of the oldest monasteries in the country, owes its Figure 3.62 The upper reaches of the district has several monasteries importance to the fact that the previous head of the Kagyupa sect resided in this monastery. The current head of the sect, Kyangen Rinpochhe who resides in India, visited this monastery in 2008. Wang, a special blessing ceremony, is organized during his visit. A large number of people from Tibet attended the Wang during his visit 15 years ago, but only local people attended the ceremony in 2008. Besides these monasteries, there are several smaller monasteries maintained at household level. The monastery in Yalbang has monastic schools Lobdra and Shedra, offering classes in Buddhist studies equivalent to college level. These monasteries, apart from assisting people in spiritual aspirations, play a vital role in conservation of wildlife. The southern part of the district is predominantly Hindu, and one major attraction is Kharpunath temple. Apart from these cultural monuments, rituals, festivals and transhumance way of life are other cultural resources which could attract tourism. Historical Importance The region falls on the historic salt-grain trade route that survived for centuries and flourished the local economy and culture. However, with political changes in TAR-China and the influx of salt from India, this trade was brought to an almost complete halt. The remnants of this once-flourishing trade add to the beauty of the region. Tourism Infrastructure The most common route followed by trekking groups from Simikot to Hilsa is via Kermi, Yalbang and Muchu crossing the Nara Pass at 4,560m. The trail is generally in fairly good condition, although it could be improved in several sections. Condition of bridges is good along the trail. There are reasonably good camping sites managed by individuals at regular intervals. Although there are small tea houses along the trail, their condition is very poor. Most of these teahouses are not in a position to provide reasonably good lodgings or food even for NepalI tourists, let alone foreign tourists. Hygiene of most of these small teashops is poor (Figure 3.63). There is either piped water or traditional, makeshift water spouts. Some of these water tap stands built by NGOs have already been damaged although they do not appear to be old. Although many of these houses have installed improved smoke-free stoves and solar lights, their general hygiene condition is very poor. Some households grow vegetables in small plots. However, they are currently unable to provide green vegetables to visiting tourists. Boiled drinking water Figure 3.63 Tourism infrastructures are at canisters have been installed at a few places, but minimal levels since they are not available at regular intervals, they have not been used. 75 Few teahouses have reported receiving basic level of training on cooking, but they have not been able to practice what they have learned. Other trained tourism human resources like nature guides and trained lodge owners are virtually non-existent. Except for a couple of information boards displayed in Simikot, there are no information boards or signposts along the trekking route. There are also no tourist information posts in the district headquarters. The DDC places its staff in the airport to collect local fees from tourists. However, there are no facilities, such as cultural museum, to engage tourists in Simikot or other villages. Beyond Simikot, telecommunication facilities are non-existent. No communication can be made in case of emergencies. Some trekking groups were found carrying satellite telephones. People in Hilsa, although in the Nepalese side of the border, can communicate with people across the border in TAR-China, but not with people in Nepal. The police post in Hilsa, which operates for only about six months, has a wireless set. Currently, construction of a telecom tower in Hepka VDC has begun. Upon its completion, communication facility should improve at least up to this VDC. A new hotel, designed especially to provide services for tourists, has been established in Simikot. There are a few other lodges/hotels in Simikot which are reasonably good and in a position to host foreign tourists. Current Tourism Pattern The final destination for most tourists coming to the district is Mt Kailash/Mansarovar. The tourism season starts in May and ends in September, although a few tourists arrive in October also (Table 3.54). Two clear patterns of tourism movement can be identified from this gateway to Kailash/Mansarovar. Western tourists trek from Simikot to Hilsa, the frontier town in the SinoNepalese border. The trek normally takes five to six days. Tourist flow in this route is a one-way traffic; no tourist treks from Hilsa to Simikot. After reaching Kailash, they mostly travel to Khasa. These tourists travel in organized self-contained groups. All food items, trekking gear, equipment and accessories are flown to Simikot and carried by mules and porters. Indian tourists, who form the largest group of tourists, mainly fly from Simikot to Hilsa on a helicopter and proceed to their final destination. Their return journey also involves the same route. A few Indian tourists return from Kailash via Khasa. However, both groups of tourists fly from Nepalgunj to Simikot (Table 3.52). Although some Indian tourists spend a night in Simikot (2,979m) before flying to Hilsa (3,654m), many of them spend less than an hour in Simikot before boarding a helicopter to Hilsa. They then stay the night at Taklakot in TAR-China. This practice of rapidly gaining elevation from less than 100m (Nepalgunj) to about 4,000m (Taklakot) in a day puts their health at grave risk. According to residents of Hilsa, last year about six Indian tourists succumbed to altitude sickness. It is strongly recommended that travel agencies organizing such pilgrimages plan for Indian tourists to spend at least a day in Simikot for acclimatization. This would not only minimize health risks but also help in supporting local economy. Economic Benefits Currently, economic benefits from tourism are of mixed type. The potential for tourism to boost local economy has not yet been exploited. Most benefits from tourism go to travel agencies and not to the local economy. It gives employment opportunities to a few porters, mule owners, and local agent of travel agencies. The Cook and Guide are both brought from outside the district. A porter is paid about Rs 600 a day, and a mule is hired for about Rs 700 a day. The campsite owner gets Rs 100 for Figure 3.64 Benefits of tourism to local people is at a sleeping and toilet tent and Rs 200 for dining minimal level 76 and kitchen tent per night (Figure 3.64). No local food items are sold to these tourist groups. However, support staffs consume some items. Besides these fringe benefits from tourism, local people do not get any direct benefit from tourism. Curiously, souvenir trade, a common activity at other tourist areas, was conspicuously absent here in Humla or along the trail. The souvenir shop of Simikot was not operating. Most tourism benefits are accrued by tour operators based outside the district. Airlines operating helicopter services base their choppers in Simikot for over two months and benefit from Indian tourists. Indirectly, the district generates most of its revenue from tourism. However, revenue generated from tourism has not been utilized to promote tourism in the region. Table 3.52 Tourists Arrival in Humla in 2009 Country Austria Canada China Czech Republic Estonia France Germany India Ireland Israel Italy Malaysia Mexico Netherlands Russia South Africa Spain Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom USA Yugoslavia Total Jan Feb Mar Apr Ma Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov y 4 58 2 7 20 9 2 3 9 5 10 3 12 9 6 62 2 6 49 34 168 95 1 1 7 1 1 14 1 15 5 4 1 4 4 1 13 34 16 2 8 3 12 4 3 8 13 240 187 17 24 238 19 Dec Male Female Total 47 2 3 10 6 21 65 144 1 5 1 1 20 10 2 26 3 9 11 7 394 53 100 2 4 4 9 54 153 1 14 10 30 119 297 1 1 2 10 4 2 1 21 13 4 8 1 344 1 1 30 14 4 1 47 16 19 8 738 Source: Humla DDC 2010 Impacts of Tourism Tourism flow in the region is low compared to other major trekking routes like Annapurna or Everest regions in Nepal. However, in many places, problem of solid waste management is already prominent (Figure 3.65). All tourist groups carry their own fuel, so there is no direct pressure on forest resources. Cultural impacts of tourism are also visible. In almost all the villages frequented by tourists, children ask for 'pen' and 'copy'. This may be a byproduct of wellintentioned tourists assisting local people. Although the level of sanitation and hygiene could not be ascertained as having improved over the years as a result of tourism, these conditions are still poor. Developing and displaying minimum impact code for tourists should be a priority. 77 Figure 3.65 Solid waste management is already a becoming a persistent problem Future Issues for Tourism There are several issues which should form the core of future tourism planning in the district. One such objective should be to promote the district as a tourism destination in itself rather than merely a gateway to Kailash/Mansarovar. Another objective should be to diversify tourism products. One such diversification could be promoting Limi Valley as a tourist destination. Even with the current focus on Kailash/Mansarovar destination, an alternative route − Simikot-SalliNyalu-Limi-Hilsa − could be promoted (Figures 3.66 and 3.67). Limi Valley, because of its rich cultural heritage as well as scenic trail, with gorges, alpine pastures, high altitude lakes and views of Mansarovar and Kailash from Nyalu La (5,004m) and Lapche La, could be promoted as an important destination similar to Upper Mustang or Upper Dolpa. In addition, when the Hilsa-Simikot road is completed, this alternative route could still attract trekking tourists. However, to promote this route, investment on tourism infrastructure, such as lodges, campsites, human resources, is required. Major Trekking Route in Humla # Dhakche bridge S # Tolung lake Hot spring S # # S S Halji Tila # # S S Zhang #Nyalu Pass S # Saleman lake S # S #Nara pass Hilsa S Tumkot ## S S Yalbang monaster # Muchu S # Kermi # S S Salli Dharapori # S # S Simikot 30 0 30 60 Kilometers District Boundary Current route Alternate route N Figure 3.67 Promotion of Limi Valley as Figure 3.66 Potential trekking route displayed in a tourism destination or an alternative Simikot route to Hilsa would help diversify tourism in the district Another focus should be to promote tourism that contributes directly to the local economy. In its current form, most of the benefits accrue outside the district. Promotion of Free Independent Tourism (FIT) could help local people to derive benefits from tourism. Tourism products like cultural/nature tour that aims to lengthen stay of tourists or to engage them in Simikot would help boost the local economy. One immediate step that needs to be taken is requiring travel agencies to plan the pilgrimage of Indian tourists so that they stay at least one night in Simikot for acclimatization. This would help in contributing to the local economy. Humla DDC is already taking steps to improve tourism infrastructure in the district. They organized a tour of tourism entrepreneurs and officials from the district to the Annapurna Conservation Area and are planning to improve some tourism attraction spots while providing better information to tourists. 78 4. Major Environmental Degradation and Cultural Integrity The major existing and emerging environmental issues of KSL-Nepal are primarily associated with ecological fragility, deforestation, poor management of natural resources, poverty and inappropriate farming practices. The cumulative impacts of these threats result in accelerated loss of biodiversity along with loss of cultural integrity. Major issues regarding biodiversity and natural resources, tourism, socioeconomic and cultural integrity are briefly discussed. 4.1 Ecosystem and Species Degradation Habitat loss and deforestation: Habitat loss in the mid-western and far-western Himalayan subalpine conifer forest is severe, with over 70% of the natural vegetation lost (Mittereneier 2004). KSL-Nepal contains some of the least disturbed forests in western Himalayas that need appropriate conservation. Deforestation has been observed very frequently in all districts in KSL-Nepal (Fig 4.1). Forests: Forests are rapidly being destroyed for various purposes in all districts. Forests near the border, especially on the banks of Humla Karnali and Mahakali Rivers where most of the settlements are located, are accessible to communities and thus Figure 4.1 Deforestation at Gothi, Humla (Photo: degraded. Trees of Humla and Darchula are Yogi Kayastha) harvested for timber which is exported to TAR-China (Taklakot) and India (Darchula), respectively (Figure 4.2a). In some places, forests are destroyed for slash and burn agriculture. Moreover, forests on steep slopes have also been converted into agricultural land (Figure 4.2b). Forest fires are common in the region. In some sites, people reported that such fires were initiated to vent anger on the community. However, these claims could not be corroborated. With construction of the HilsaSimikot road in progress, a realistic possibility of further forest degradation exists as large volumes of timber could be easily transported to feed the ever increasing demands on the Tibetan side. However, such a possibility could be thwarted if the District Forest Office acts effectively. As of now, their activities in these vulnerable areas are ineffective. Evidence of reduced timber export when people are employed with food for work programs offers an opportunity to mitigate this potential threat. High-demand timber trees are Abies spectabilis and Taxus wallichiana; both of which are government protected species. Figure 4.2a Stack of wooden planks ready for export to Taklakot Figure 4.2b Bringing steep slopes under cultivation is increasing forest degradation 79 Energy: Fuelwood is the main source of energy in KSL-Nepal. Electricity production is very low. Rangelands: Rangelands are under grazing pressure. The rapid spread of Rumex nepalensis (an unpalatable species) around cattle sheds and highly fertile areas, and Berberis scrub in comparative dry area is an example of change in species composition. All gentle and accessible meadows have undergone extensive habitat degradation due to overgrazing, trampling, and commercial harvest for medicinal plants. Poaching: Wildife poaching includes snow leopard and red panda for their beautiful pelts, musk deer for musk pods, and bear for bile. Poaching is rife across the border in China (Lee et al. 2000) and India (DNPWC 2008). Local price for one musk pod was NRs 7,000 (approximately US$ 100). Poacher/trader use ghee (clarified butter) bottles to hide musk pods and supply them to Tibet and India. Poachers use different techniques to kill musk deer including snaring, trapping and shooting (DNPWC 2008). The unregulated border allows a big window of opportunity for illegal trafficking of wildlife products. A few years ago, four individuals from Humla were arrested with wildlife products in Taklakot. The lack of presence of state in the border, which at best can be characterized as very minimal, fuels such wildlife trafficking. Human-wildlife conflict: As in other areas in Nepal, human-wildlife conflicts result in retaliatory killing of wildlife. Despite a strict ban imposed by the government and 'Lamas' on killing of wild animals, retaliatory killing and illegal hunting is still prevalent. Snow leopards in upper Humla and Darchula are livestock predators. Regular wildlife crop damage is commonly observed around Khaptad National Park. Wetlands: The high Himalayan wetlands are glacial in origin, whereas in the middle mountain zone these are tectonic in origin. Among several wetlands in KSL-Nepal, only two lakes (Khaptad and Rara) have relatively good information. Information is needed to understand the impact of climate change in the formation and disappearance of lakes. Over-exploitation of biological resources: Several species of medicinal and wild edible plants are collected unsustainably or at a premature stage. Local people and cattle herders have started to uproot Angelica glauca (locally called gadalnno - its root is used to flavor tea and pickle, as well as to cure gastric and rheumatic problems), Dactylorhiza hatagirea (panchaule), Thamnocalamus spathiflorus (deulo nigalo), Morchella species and other medicinal plants such as kutki, jatamansii, chirayito, and yartsa gumbu. Loss of agrobiodiversity: Traditional crops growing in KSL-Nepal are vulnerable to fluctuations in weather patterns. Food production per capita has also been declining. This has adverse impacts on loss of traditional varieties of crops, both major and minor varieties. Protected areas: Conflicts and threats exist in the protected area system in Nepal (Annex 16). Grazing, hunting, illegal collection of fuelwood, timber and NTFPs, and fire are major environmental threats in Khaptad and Rara National Parks. Invasive species: The number of species of IAS was higher in east and central Nepal in comparison to west Nepal. There is no study of IAS in KSL-Nepal; however the impact is severe at lower altitudes. Ageratina adenophora has seriously invaded Baitadi District. 4.2 Socio-Economic and Cultural Integrity Degradation Poverty and food security: Though Karnali region produced sufficient food to meet its basic needs until the mid-1960s, KSL-Nepal at present is a food deficit area. The region has also faced a high level of vulnerability caused by adverse weather conditions. Fluctuation in snowfall in the upper part of KSL-Nepal is another reason for reduction in food production. Trade link with Tibet was cut off and this adversely affected the traditional system of trade migration and livelihoods of local people. 80 There was a decline in animal husbandry, particularly sheep, and other income sources (like honey production, local cloth weaving, etc) (Adhikari 2008). The only alternative for people was to migrate more extensively to India (also a small population from Limi to China) and other parts of Nepal for work. Cultural and religious sites: The KSL-Nepal region comprises rich cultural and religious heritage. However, many important cultural and religious sites are in need of protection and management. Kharpunath Temple of Chhipra VDC and Halji Gompa of Limi VDC, among others, need proper management. Water and sanitation: Access to water and sanitation is low in the KSL-Nepal region. This is associated with several water-borne diseases. Vulnerability: Natural disasters such as flash floods and earthquakes have been reported in the KSL-Nepal region. Incidents have been reported from Darchula District which is located beside the border town of India. Incidents of human diseases are very high. No documentation of animal diseases across the border in KSL-Nepal has been available. Among the major diseases, khari is prominent in Baitadi and Darchula Districts (Table 4.1). Table 4.1 Disease profile of KSL-Nepal districts SN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Disease External parasites Liver fluke Round worms Digestive disorder Manges mites Khari Respiratory sign Infertility Mastitis Red urine Abortion Sudden death Others Total Percent appeared 19.86 17.32 13.60 15.74 6.67 56.20 5.73 0.81 0.37 0.35 0.20 0.04 13.13 100.0 Remarks A big problem, Pollution • Air pollution: No data is available on air pollution in KSL-Nepal. Air pollution may increase in the future along with construction of roads in various districts headquarters. Baitadi District, with a few blacktopped roads, also has some traffic related hazards. • Water pollution: Information on water pollution is also not available. Major settlements and district headquarters do not have sewerage treatment plants, and water is directly drained to the major river systems. Karnali River gets water discharge also from Tibetan settlements in China; and Mahakali River from settlements in India. • Solid waste: Solid waste is increasing in headquarters and trekking routes as well. Local authorities have not initiated solid waste treatment facility. Plastics are often burned without considering environmental hazards. Tourist routes are also affected by solid waste pollution; whereas problem of water and beer bottles, as well as local wine is seen in towns and villages. • Chemicals and fertilizers: Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides is slowly increasing in districts with road access; however, Humla continues to be an organic district. 4.3 Globalization Globalization Larger global and regional development changes occurring in China and India have an impact in the KSL-Nepal region too. Consequences have been observed in two major fields: (i) climate change and (ii) tourism. 81 Climate change. Nepal's national development plans do not seriously consider the possible impact of climate change. The KSL-Nepal region is vulnerable in terms of environmental changes and livelihoods of local communities. Local people have clearly perceived impacts of climate change in many sectors related with livelihoods, including crop productivity, increasing incidents of diseases, and lack of water availability. Tourism. Impact of tourism has been reported on main trekking trails and protected areas. Solid waste disposal is also increasing. Moreover, local people are not wearing their local dresses, and are changing their food habits, as well as lifestyles. Use of local languages and dialects is also declining since no efforts have been made by the government to protect them. Observations, perceptions, and projections of climate change, and/or other environmental change processes The KSL Conservation Initiative aims to develop a Conservation Strategy and a Regional Cooperation Framework, while establishing a regional knowledge sharing platform to inter alia enhance promotion of regional cooperation on environmental and climate change monitoring and networking, and community-based climate change adaptation mechanism. It is expected to provide greater opportunity to address emerging threats of climate change on mountain people and communities, ecosystem services, and livelihoods. This chapter focuses on a few key elements, namely climate change trend, transboundary climate change issues, threats and impacts of climate change on biodiversity and livelihoods, adaptation needs and major initiatives undertaken on UNFCCC implementation to support development of a regional framework that addresses ongoing and emerging threats of climate change on biodiversity and mountain communities in KSL-Nepal. Continued and accelerated emissions of GHGs from industrialised countries have raised atmospheric temperature and affected the Himalayas causing, among others, increased snow melting. Realizing the adverse impacts of climate change on the Himalayas and on biodiversity, several response measures are in place at both international and national levels. Most efforts are concentrated in developing frameworks to address these impacts individually or jointly. Climate Change Trend Extreme variation in topography, south-easterly monsoonal system and temperature help to understand climate change and its potential impact. Thirty years of average rainfall data (19762005) indicates nearly 80 percent of the total rainfall during the monsoon season, followed by about 12 percent during the pre-monsoon season. This exemplifies changes in average rainfall patterns for Nepal but does not clearly indicate inter-seasonal variations. Nepal receives about 1,875 mm mean annual rainfall (Figures 4.3 and 4.4) with high degree of observed temporal variation from eastern to western and southern to northern parts of the country. In general, eastern, central, and western development regions receive higher rainfall compared to mid-western and far-western Nepal. Similarly, rainfall increases from south to north till the foot hills of High Mountain Region and then declines sharply further north causing rain shadow effect (MoE 2010). 82 600 Rainfall (mm) 500 496.5 423.2 400 300 295 263.5 200 100 21.9 26 34.5 Feb Mar 140.6 67.5 60.4 11.5 17 0 Jan Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Months Figure 4.3 Monthly rainfall distribution Note: Average of 30 years data (1976-2005); Monthly rainfall from 166 stations. Source: Practical Action 2009. Figure 4.4 Annual mean rainfall distribution Source: Practical Action 2009. Distribution of mean rainfall in the pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon is similar to mean annual rainfall distribution (Figures 4.5, 4.6 and 4.7). Mean winter rainfall, however, shows temporal distribution declining from west to east and north to south (Figure 4.8). Far-west and mid-west Nepal receive higher rainfall compared to western, central and eastern Nepal. An analysis of about 30 years of observed temperature of Nepal shows that maximum temperatures in Nepal are increasing at an alarming rate (Shrestha et al. 1999; Figure 4.8). A study carried out by the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) shows that all-Nepal maximum temperature increased by 1.8ºC in 32 years between 1975 and 2006, which is equivalent to about 0.06°C per year (Figure 4.9). Such warming was more pronounced in the northern high altitude regions of Nepal including Kailash landscape. Warming is equally pronounced in the winter compared to other seasons. The climate vulnerability map based on sensitivity, risk/exposure, adaptation capacity and climate vulnerability using available historical data of districts indicates ten highly vulnerable districts that require urgent and immediate actions (Sharma and Shrestha 2010) (Figure 4.10). Overall vulnerability ranks of the four districts in KSL-Nepal range from high to very high (Sharma and Shrestha 2010; unpublished report in MoE 2010). 83 Figure 4.5 Pre-monsoon mean rainfall distribution Figure 4.6 Monsoon mean rainfall distribution Figure 4.7 Post-monsoon mean rainfall distribution Figure 4.8 Winter mean rainfall distribution. Source: Practical Action 2009. Figure 4.9 Temperature change between 1975 and 2006 Figure 4.10 Vulnerabilty map of Nepal Transboundary Climate Change Issues Climate change is a global transboundary issue requiring global, regional and sub-regional efforts to address it. Increased use of carbon intensive socio-economic development path; continued dependence of majority of the people on forests and its products; decline in forest area and forest productivity; low level of low-carbon technology development, use and transfer are ongoing and emerging transboundary issues related to climate change. Inadequate knowledge and understanding of the science and effects of climate change, together with skills and finances to develop and use green technologies has limited the promotion of low-carbon sustainable development. Furthermore, low levels of understanding on environmental services provided by uplands to downstream communities would likely emerge as a threat to people living in both the uplands and lowlands. Similarly, increased gap in science-based and community-based information of the effects and impacts of climate change to biodiversity and natural resources, together with little or no monitoring of mountain ecology is another significant issue that requires urgent and immediate action to understand and verify ongoing threats. 84 Threats and Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity and Livelihoods Ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to climate change, with around 15-40% of species potentially facing extinction after only 2°C of global warming (Stern 2006). Being a mountainous, landlocked and least developed country, Nepal is highly vulnerable to climate change. Impact of climate change on agriculture, water resources, human health and other sectors will directly or indirectly affect biodiversity and livelihoods. With this perspective, possible impacts of climate change in these sectors are summarized below: Major glaciers are retreating by 30-60m during the period of 1970−1989, and with surface thinning by nearly 12m between 1978−1989. Accelerated melting of glaciers has created many new glacier lakes and expansion of existing ones with possible risk of Glacial lake Outburst Flood (GLOF). If GLOF occurs, it will have devastating impacts on biodiversity and livelihoods along river corridors. In Nepal, two-thirds of the population derives their livelihoods from agriculture. Crop and livestock bases are highly dependent on climate. Any adverse impacts on crop production and livestock rearing will create food insecurity and threaten livelihoods of large section of the population. Increased humidity also creates favorable environment for spread of pests and diseases. In recent years, major winter crops in the Terai like potato, oilseeds, pulses and onion have been affected by diseases. Climate change has weakened the livelihoods of poor people by eroding their livelihood assets. Poor people are vulnerable to loss of physical capital (because of damage to shelter and infrastructure), human capital (malnutrition and diseases), social capital (displacement of communities), natural capital (loss of productivity in agriculture and fisheries) and financial capital (increased disasters and lower income). In 2009, outbreak of diarrhoeal diseases, which claimed over 240 lives in western hills, was attributed in part to water shortages due to winter drought and delayed onset of the summer monsoon. Rising temperatures and changes in water availability might affect biodiversity. It might lead to migration of forests towards higher altitude, change in their composition, and possible extinction of species. Tropical wet forest and warm temperate rain forest is likely to disappear, and cool temperate vegetation would turn to warm temperate vegetation (MoPE 2004). Species most likely to be at risks will be species with low dispersal capacity (e.g. soil fauna, non- flying insects, and tree species with heavy fruits). Climate change will also affect productivity of natural ecosystems, thereby reducing the potential of providing environmental services. MFSC, in its draft National Forest Fire Management Strategy 2009 (BS 2066), considered climate change as one of the causes of forest fires. Long-term dryness resulting from no rain or little rain might have increased incidents of forest fires. In 2008, forest fires were predominant, particularly during the spring season, resulting in extensive loss of forests and biodiversity from the Terai to high mountains. In Ramechhap District alone, 43 persons including security persons died due to forest fires. Forest fire is increasing in relation to increased dryness in forests. There were 358 fires in Nepal on 25 April 2009. There is an increasing trend of forest fires as dryness increased in spring 2009 (Figure 4.11). 85 Figure 4.11 Satellite based monitoring of forest fires in Nepal (25 April 2010) Source: MFSC 2009. National Forest Fire Management Strategy (Draft). Scientists and people have projected that climate change will change habitat composition and lead to upwards shifting. Approximately 20−30% of plants and animal species assessed so far are likely to be at increasingly high risk of extinction as global mean temperature exceeds warming of 2-3ºC (Fischlin et al. 2007 in MoE 2010). Climate change will likely provide favorable conditions for growth and spread of invasive species because of their increased adaptation to disturbance. Geographically restricted ecosystems are potentially more vulnerable due to less flexibility for species distribution. The NAPA Project has identified impacts of climate change on forests and biodiversity which are related to potential outbreaks of diseases and insects in trees and other plants, and possible reduction of tree species, herbs and NTFPs, local birds, migratory birds and wild animals. Vertical migration of plants might occur with rising temperatures depending on temperature tolerance capacity of species. Foresters and community forest users in high altitude districts like Dolpa, Jumla, Mugu and Humla have noted that production of high altitude herbs like jatamansi and kutki have decreased in comparison to previous years. The study on snow leopard habitat indicates that increased temperature will lead to shrinkage of snow leopard habitat (MoE 2010). Local people in Darchula informed lowered availability of yartsagumba (Cordeyseps sinensis) and jatamansi (Nordostachys grandiflora), while residents of Dolpa District indicated lowered availability of kutki (Neopicrorhiza scrophularifolia) and sughandhawal (Valeriana wallichii). This might be attributed to climatic stress such as less water availability and changes in weather patterns. Birds like danphe pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus), domicile crane (Anthropodis virgo) and other birds will also face increased vulnerability. In the mid-hills, local communities have experienced increased vulnerability due to dry conditions affecting some moisture-requiring tree species namely banjh (Quercus lanata), kharsu (Quercus semecarpifolia), katus (Castanopsis indica), champ (Michelia champaca), and utis (Alnus nepalensis). Upward shifting of dhupi (Juniperus recurva) and utis has also been reported. Adaptation and Mitigation Measures Impacts of climate change could be minimized through landscape level management and creation of biodiversity corridors to ensure vertical as well as horizontal connectivities. Some of the adaptation programs, as also included in the draft NAPA, would be: (i) control of forest fires, forest pathogen, and invasive species; (ii) integrated forest management (with primary objective of water and wildlife conservation); (iii) landscape level forest management; (iv) research and development on adaptation technologies and use, environmental services, and animal food, habit and behavior; (v) development and maintenance of biodiversity database; and (vi) awareness and capacity 86 building. Latter three categories of activities (i.e. iv to vi) provide information base and capacity to cope with climate change problems and issues. Global, Regional and National Efforts Climate change will continue to be the major issue of debate amongst politicians, climate negotiators, policy makers, scientists and people at various levels. It is certain that climate change is happening and will continue to happen. But it is unclear about the degree, magnitude, extent and duration of its impacts. In order to address these impacts, efforts are made at various levels from international to national and local levels. Such efforts are briefly described below: The international community realized the unprecedented rate of changes in the climate system in the late 1970s and 1980s and urged for developing a legally binding instrument to address potential threats of climate change on people, their life-support system - ecosystem - and livelihoods. In 1988, the United Nations General Assembly decided to take urgent actions and established an Inter-governmental Negotiating Committee (INC) to develop a legally binding instrument. The UN Member States prepared and adopted the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in May 1992 in New York. In order to operationalize the Convention, the Kyoto Protocol was adopted in December 1997 in Kyoto City, Japan. These legal instruments provide ample opportunities to reduce GHG emissions and to address ongoing and emerging threats of climate change if implemented in good faith. The UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol were entered into force in 1994 and 2005, respectively. As KSL lies in South Asia, it is worth-mentioning the outcome of the recent 16th SAARC Summit held in Thimpu, Bhutan, in April 2010 that provides, inter alia, opportunities for greater regional cooperation to address the adverse impacts of climate change on biodiversity and livelihoods. Climate Change Activities in Nepal Nepal signed the UNFCCC on 12 June 1992 during the UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janerio from 3 to 14 June 1992. After ratification of the Convention by the House of Representatives, the instrument of ratification was submitted to the Depository (UN Secretary General) on 2 July 1994 and it has entered into force in Nepal on 31 July 1994. To be a Party to the Kyoto Protocol, Nepal deposited its instrument of accession on 16 September 2005 and it also entered this into force on 14 December 2005 in accordance with the provision of the Kyoto Protocol. The Government of Nepal made the Ministry of Environment responsible as the Designated National Authority (DNA) for CDM (Clean Development Mechanism) activities on 22 December 2005. Similarly, the Government of Nepal designated the Ministry of Environment in May 2010 to function as the National Implementing Entity (NIE) to the Adaptation Fund Board. Some of the activities that Nepal undertook as a Party to the UNFCCC and KP are summarized below. In this context, Nepal has done some preparatory work to address impacts of climate change on environmental resources. However, they are limited to policy level and compliance to requirements of the Convention. These initiatives might contribute to initiate KSLCI activities in Nepal's portion at a broader perspective. 87 5. Identification of Priorities Uncontrolled grazing, transboundary issues, illegal trade of timber, NTFPs/medicinal plants, and wild animals, lack of monitoring, prevailing poverty and food crisis are important issues in KSLNepal. Landuse change and climate change are two major threats to biodiversity (Sala et al. 2000). Major issues regarding biodiversity and natural resources, socioeconomic and cultural integrity, as well as climate change are briefly discussed below. 5.1 Biodiversity and Livelihood In KSL-Nepal, a pertinent issue has been sustainable conservation and use of flora and fauna that are excessively overexploited for trade. Poaching and illegal extraction of local resources are major problems in this region. NTFPs are collected in excess without proper monitoring. Of the many faunal species threatened with extinction, two wildlife species, (Himalayan black bear, Selenarctos thibetanus, and Himalayan musk deer, Moschus chrysogaster) are prone to poaching for bear-bile and musk pod, respectively. Collective hunting by villagers and commercial poaching by local aristocrats have been traditions in the area via Tibet and Indian border. Grazing is a major issue in the northern part of Humla and Darchula Districts. Herders operate their cattle sheds in the upper belt as a part of traditional livelihoods. Grazing issues are primarily connected with livelihood patterns of indigenous peoples, such as Bhotia in Humla District and Byasi in Darchula District. Their occupational dependency is on animal husbandry - sheep, yak, horse and goat. Local communities consider that free grazing in lush grasslands of the region is beneficial to both the animals, as well as the grasslands, since manures left by the animals eventually help maintain soil fertility (DNPWC 2008). Forests and rangelands are key resources for supporting livelihoods of local people in KSL-Nepal. Sustainable management of these resources needs reliable information on quantity, quality, location and distribution of the resources. This quantitative and spatial information of vital management importance are not available. For this, a detailed resource inventory, in collaboration with local users and other organizations, should be carried out and a baseline information system established to develop management decisions. There is a need to develop a reliable information base on biodiversity (all taxonomic groups of flora and fauna), as well as human and livestock population, and to monitor changes in land use, and make interventions to minimize impacts of grazing to ensure sustainability. There is need to creating a livestock database, by species, ownership and location, with participation of the CBOs and VDC. Inadequate development and conservation of community forests have resulted in inadequate habitat management and biodiversity conservation in the region. One of the reasons is inadequate coordination among forest offices, communities, relevant agencies, and user groups and user committees. Another emerging issue of the region relates to collection of yartsa-gumbu (Cordyceps sinensis) and guchhi chyayu (Morchella species). When the local people seek their rights to collect yartsagumbu as a primary source of income, traders and outsiders grasp this opportunity and raise conflicts in between. 5.2 Socio-Economic and Cultural A micro level analysis for exploring the situation of agriculture, food sufficiency, wage, livestock development, trade, and tourism development is essential to know about the socio-economic environment. Social and gender discrimination are also causal factors for food security. An assessment of availability of services of roads, electricity, irrigation, education, health services, drinking water and sanitation, communication and available institutions and service delivery patterns gives the tentative scenario of socio-economic environment of people of KSL-Nepal. These issues were explored during the field work. Moreover, some important socio-economic aspects such as 88 local employment, skill development, conservation awareness, and community development were also considered vital for people's livelihoods. Cultural/religious issues that will be affected by the proposed activities were critically analyzed. Poverty and food security. Poor people rely more on natural resources for their livelihoods. Due to increasing demand, people often collect biological resources illegally, and even from protected areas. Unless alternative conservation-centered livelihood opportunities are provided, poverty and food security will be a major obstacle in sustainable development and conservation of KSL-Nepal. This calls to divert destructive resource use behavior into conservation-focused behavior. In this connection, KSL-Nepal has to solicit new local opportunities that directly target poor people and mitigate threats to the areas. Poor people frequently do not receive the benefits of public investment. It is obvious that without direct address and actions, it will not help the poor. The benefits rarely reach to the poor. It is for this reason that the launching of KSL-Nepal has to implement poverty alleviation activities in all districts, with more focus on Humla and directly targeting to the poor of other districts. Raising Awareness, and Mobilizing Communities Since the economy of the region is highly dependent on agriculture and livestock, people are concerned about their ‘hand to mouth’ problem rather than conservation issues. People have not realized that conservation of resources is their heritage. Overexploitation of natural resources will eventually lead to loss of biodiversity and environmental degradation. Therefore, people of the region have to clearly understand the value of biodiversity, animal husbandry, tourism development and employment options for betterment of the society. People should be made aware of the correlation between biodiversity conservation and tourism and socioeconomic value. Actions for awareness raising and social mobilization should be promoted by involving CBOs, INGOs and GOs. Market Promotion of Local Products and Value Addition Local people produce a range of forest-based products including mattresses, baskets, etc. However, there is no market available for these products. NTFPs/medicinal plants are considered a potential for enhancing people's livelihoods, but these have not been exploited for economic production. These resources are sold to traders in raw form that provides little economic return to the communities. Transport of the resources by air is very expensive. Processing of the resources at the local level would add value to the resources. Formation of cooperatives or user groups should be promoted for sustainable harvesting of resources in the wild. 5.3 Tourism Tourism has been conceived as a potential activity in KSL-Nepal. The tourism plan for Karnali has been prepared showing potential tourism sites/areas. KSL-Nepal has high potential for tourism, whereas the region is also highly popular for Kailash-Mansarovar destination. The number of foreign visitors has been few; tourists mostly from India visit Kailash-Mansarovar and Humla serves as a gateway to this destination. Religious tourists have not exceeded 200-300 persons per year. Issues pertained to weak tourism activities are linked with difficult and unreliable accessibility, inadequate promotion in nearby towns, and poor infrastructure. Several attractions are under shadow that are related to cultural, religious and nature based. Intangible heritage such as traditional Deuda, Gaura and Byansi festivals in Darchula District, and ‘Lama’ culture in Limi, Humla, are equally significant. Basic air services for both foreign, as well as domestic, tourists are poor; whereas roads connecting to the headquarters can help develop tourism. Organization at community, district and national levels is needed to manage tourism in this region. One of the major roles of local organizations is to develop ‘Tourism Development Guideline’ for their 89 village or community. These guidelines, once agreed at community level, should be submitted by each VDC to the DDC, approved and implemented. 5.4 Cultural Identity Indigenous people are an making effort to preserve their traditional norms, values and practices. These factors play a key role in socio-economic development and cultural identity. KSL-Nepal is a multilingual and multi-religious area. Religion is deeply rooted and binds people together to perform community activities that preserve their cultural identity and resources. 5.5 Institutional and Capacity Building Institutional strengthening and capacity building are essential for social mobilization and economic development. These include human resource development; community development; support to infrastructure facility, literacy, drinking water, trail, energy, health and sanitation; tourism promotion and industry development; and creation of alternate opportunities for livelihoods and income generation. Training, awareness and skill development would help build capacity at the local level. However, separate package of programs for Dalits, women, disadvantaged and poor communities in income generation and awareness would be required to bring social justice in the region. 5.6 Illegal Transboundary Trade There is no data on the extent of wildlife trade by poachers from this region through India, Nepal and China borders. Illegal trades are run by mafias through channels that operate clandestinely with hidden support. Illegal trade across the Sino-Nepal and Sino-India border is active. Wildlife and wildlife products have been used in both Tibetan Medicine and Traditional Chinese Medicine for a very long time and are still widely used in China (Yi-Ming et al. 2000). Traders in border areas who send products illegally to other countries are hard to detect. Only one incidence of 215 kg of raw Shahtoosh (Tibetan antelope) wool from Tibet was confiscated in Darchula on 6 April 2003. The wool was in transit from Darchula in Nepal to India for use in pashmina shawls (WCN 2005). 90 6. Community Perception on Biodiversity, Cultural Values, Environmental Issues, and Climate Change In KSL-Nepal, different forms of traditional institutions existed at different times for management of natural resources in forests and pastures. People are living in most of the villages since ancient times. People living in Dozam village of Thehe VDC belong to Tibeto-Burman linguistic group and follow a sect of Buddhism. They are known as ‘Tsang-ba’ in Tibetan (or ‘Dojamé’ by Nepalese) and trace their origin to Utsang area in Western Tibet. They speak a Tibetan dialect known as ‘Tsangtam Kham’ which is considered to be very different from Tibetan dialects spoken by people in other northern villages of Humla. Other villages in Thehe VDC and almost all villages in Chhipra VDC are dominated by Indo-Aryans who follow Hinduism and speak Khas Nepali language. The antiquity of these villages can be traced back to the period when Nepal was not unified and this area of Humla District was under the Khasan Empire. According to Tucci (1962), in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, west Tibet and a large area of north-western Nepal were united under the Malla kings, whose two capitals were located at Sinja, northwest of Jumla, and at Taklakot, in western Tibet. Towards the end of the fourteenth century, this kingdom collapsed and was divided into baisi (twenty-two) raja states. In Dozam area, natural resources (land, forest, pasture, etc.) have been managed by Lamas of Gumbas (monastery) for generations. This system was replaced after the inception of the Talukdari system in 1911 AD. Talukdars or Mukhiyas (locally ‘gowa’) were persons with the main responsibility of local revenue collection for agricultural lands. Besides, as liaison officials between government and local people, the Mukhiyas had additional responsibilities of local security, settling disputes, and control and management of lands, forests and pasture resources. The Mukhiya was appointed from among the village elite, and in subsequent generations the post was granted only to members from previous Mukhiya families. However, this system theoretically ended with the government's new arrangements of local revenue collection by village authorities. The Land Reform Act of 1964 established a new tradition of revenue collection by government officers; thereafter the role of Mukhiya was not so strong in villages. However, their influence remained up to the end of the Panchayat system (1990). In the current democratic situation, traditional socio-political structure of villages and defined ownership of land and pastures were changed to some extent. In both Dozam and Chhipra, Mukhiya remains to date, but they have little role in resource management. After nationalization of forests in 1956 under the Panchayat System, management of forest areas fell under control of local government. During this period, there was provision of keeping ‘Nora’ (forest guard) in each village for management of forest resources, agricultural system and livestock. The number of Nora in each village varied from one to many depending upon size of the village and existing resources. Each household had to contribute 10 kg grains to the Nora. Later, Nora received some cash from both villagers and village treasury. The traditional pasture management system, which prevails to date, is rotational grazing and is under control of the local community. Decisions are made in village meetings organized in the presence of politically influential persons (village head or mukhiya, village political leaders), elderly people and herders. There are a few rules regulating use of traditional pastures and harvesting of resources (Box 3.1). All decisions and rules are community-based, i.e. formulated and decided in community meetings. After declaration of Community Forests (community forests were declared in 1997 in Chhipra and recently in 2007 in Dozam), management of forests and pastures is under the responsibility of Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs). Local people of Kanda (Bajhang) have perceived and adapted well the changes taking place in the climate of Himalayas. They have almost similar kinds of perceptions about the climate change and its impacts. Mr. Gorakh Bohora (age 40, Kanda village), a school teacher as well as local trader of MAPs, has perceived the climate change in terms of reduced as well as irregular rainfall (at lower elevations) and snowfall (at higher elevations). According to him, germination of ‘Yarsagumbu’ is directly related to snowfall during winter and rainfall during April-May determines the germination of Morchella (Guchhi chyau) species. Morchella production has been very low due to the reduced and irregular rainfall pattern. Snowfall has also reduced since last ten years in terms of frequency as well 91 as intensity and which has attributed to the reduction of the germination of ‘Yarsagumbu’. He says that each year, peoples search new habitats of ‘Yarsagumbu’, and thus it seems that the production of ‘Yarsagumbu’ has been increasing; but it is only due to the increased habitats from where it is collected. Krishna Bahadur Bohora (age 86, Kanda village), a renown vaidhya of the region, also have almost similar kinds of perceptions. He correlates the production of the crops during May-June to the amount of snowfall during December-January. He says that if abundant snowfall occurs during December-January and covers the germinating wheat and barley, it is certain that the production of those crops during May-June will be significantly higher than in usual conditions. Because, if the germinating seedlings of those crops are covered with snow, get protected from severe cold temperature and can absorb required amount of moisture too. When the snow melts down, then the seedlings grow up rapidly with the formation of tillers. He also says that snowfall has reduced significantly (less frequent as well as less intense) since last 10-15 years. Those places where heavy snowfall occurred during December of each year (till last 15 years), now receive light snowfall in 2 or 3 or 4 years. He also says that the crop showing season has shifted to one month earlier, where as the harvesting season is the same. It means, crop maturation period has increased by one month. According to him, barley was used to show during Mansir (November-December) month in the past, but now, shown during Kartik (October-November). However, the harvesting season (Baisakh-Jeth/ May-June) is the same. As a result, they had to replace their local variety of barley with the introduced one. He also memorizes that they had ‘yellow-grain’ variety of local millet in the past, which was harvested during Mansir (November-December) month, but now is replaced with the ‘black-grain’ variety (introduced from ‘aul’ (warmer) region), which is harvested during Kartik (October-November) month. He attributes this change to the slight rise in temperature during winter season. The local variety of barley, called ‘Junge Jau’ or ‘Kalo Jau’, local varieties of paddy, ‘Khashrya’ and ‘Gadpakhya’ (planted during April) are also disappeared due to an alteration in the crop calendar. To cope with such change, they have introduced the new varieties of barley, millets, and paddy, which are mostly imported from the warmer regions. According to the local peoples of Chhyangru (Darchula) the amount of snow in the peaks and glaciers has been depleting rapidly, due to which the frequency of avalanches and existence of glacial lakes has retarded greatly. They have also perceived that since last 10 to 15 years there has been a trend that snowfall starts prior to the usual season but the frequency and intensity of snowfall has reduced substantially. As a result, their crops are damaged annually. However, side by side, they have started to grow crops like garlic, onion, tomato, beans, apples, etc. in their places, which, according to them, could not be grown in the place before 10 years. They attribute such change in the agriculture to the rise in temperature of the region. Conflicts and Issues In Chipra and Thehe VDCs, a large part of the forest and pasture areas have been recently handed over as community forests. At present, there are two community forests in Chipra VDC − Chandranath Community Forest (242.82 ha) and Hilsa Community Forest (275.53 ha), and one in Dozam of Thehe VDC − Changla Community Forest (1,085.35 ha). Beside these, natural forest areas have also been provided to local communities as Leasehold Forests. Areas used by local people for livestock grazing and resource harvesting for their livelihoods represent traditional forests or pasture areas that they have been using for many generations before establishment of community/leasehold forests. However, at present, conflict exists particularly between local people and owners of leasehold forests. Local people have access to fewer pasture areas with the declaration of community/leasehold forests. Conflicts are also evident between local people and people from other villages in using pastures/forests for harvesting resources other than grazing. For example, most medicinal plant resources and timber species in areas surrounding district headquarters have already been depleted, so residents of district headquarters and surrounding villages are found encroaching into community forests for commercial harvesting of these resources. 92 Box 6.1 Existing regulations and local cultural practices for resource management • • • • • • • Cultivation and harvesting of agricultural products are permitted only during specific days decided by the community. Harvesting of grasses and other plants for winter fodder are permitted only during SeptemberOctober. In Dozam area, there is a cultural provision of worshipping village god ‘Yulha’ known as ‘Lang Mgo Ra’ before cultivation and harvesting of each crop and harvesting of forest resources. Every year, a special puja (Mane Jatra) is organized in the month of Magh (end-February), during which people offer torma (religious cake) and worship the village god for well-being of people, livestock and agriculture. In addition, all the people of Dozam village gather together just before the start of medicinal plant collection and livestock movement in summer pastures and worship the village god. People also believe that each outsider/visitor should worship this village god before entering their forest in Changlakhola Valley. Although the Dozamé are Buddhist, they believe that their god needs animal blood, thus each year when people enter the forest for harvesting medicinal plants, they sacrifice an animal in the village temple. Cultural provision also exists protecting a particular species. For example, in Chhipra area, hemlock (Tsuga dumosa) trees are considered sacred. The tree is rare in the area and is culturally prohibited from felling. The tree is never harvested by higher caste people (Brahmin/Chhetri or Thakuri); harvesting/collection of any plant part is considered a sin and the act may harm their family. When needed, lower caste people (Dalits) paid cash as wages for harvesting such plant parts. Dalits must harvest at night without giving notice to the community. Collection of even a small piece of wood is forbidden from harvesting or use by non-Dalits. Livestock grazing and harvesting of medicinal plants and other resources are prohibited to people not belonging to Dozam area. Collection of products which are greatly depleted are banned in the area (e.g., collection of kutki has been banned since last year), and penalties are imposed for unauthorized use of forest and pasture resources. Recently, local people in Dozam area decided to protect a forest known as Nyalthang. Resource extraction from this forest is strictly prohibited and the forest has been kept aside as a seed source (i.e. gene bank) of different species of medicinal plants. Theoretically, pastures are accessible to only one particular community within a VDC. But in practice, livestock grazing is not confined only to community-owned pastures. For example, in Changlakhola Valley, pastures/forests have been utilized not only by residents of Dozam and Baijubara villages of Thehe VDC (traditional resource users), but also by people from Bargaon and Kharpunath VDCs. Besides livestock grazing, these pastures are commonly utilized for commercial harvesting of medicinal plants. This is the main issue of conflict. Local people of Dojam have imposed restriction on livestock grazing, medicinal plant collection and other uses of forests for people not residing in Thehe VDC. They have formulated some rules, banning collection of certain products greatly depleted in the area (such as kutki in 2009/2010), and imposing penalties for unauthorized use of forest and pasture resources of Changlakhola Valley. However, conservation management of forest and pasture resources is greatly challenged by lack of strong enforcement of local rules and regulation due to unstable political situation. Village territorial conflicts also exist between Dozam in Thehe VDC and neighboring villages. Agricultural lands owned by Dojamé for many generations in Lurkya area have not been properly registered in their name. Official ownership of the land is with Khas people from Kharpunath VDC. Local people informed that they do not have easy access to government officials in District Headquarters so their issues have not been properly entertained. Indigenous Management System and Conservation of Resources in Limi VDC Indigenous system of management of natural resources is deeply embedded in cultural values espoused by local communities both as a group, as well as an individual. An indigenous management system in Limi Valley is described below. Limi VDC, the northern most VDC in Nepal, has three main settlements: Tila, Zhang, and Halji. Halji, with four wards, is the largest settlement located between two other settlements. Zhang has three wards, while Tila has two. People here subscribe to Dhikung Kagyu sect of Tibetan Buddhism and follow polyandry system of marriage, though monogamy is also becoming more popular. 93 The community system is very closely woven with cultural practices. Selection of authorities for management of community system and hierarchy in the society is closely linked with property inheritance system associated with the polyandry system of marriage. People here follow the impartible primogeniture inheritance system where the eldest son inherits property exclusively. If the family does not have a son, the uxorial son-in-law inherits the property. The eldest son of the family who inherits the property becomes a Dhongba. If younger brothers do not share the same wife and separate, they get a smaller proportion of the property and become Dhongjung. Unmarried sisters who separate from their brothers become Bhomdang. Bhomdang receive even lesser property than Dhongjung. Dhongba refers both to individuals and estate. The number of Dhongba in a village always remains the same, but the number of Dhongjung and Bhomdang may increase or decrease. A Dhongjung can never become a Dhongba. However, a son born to a Bhomdang can become a Dhongjung. The number of these three different types of households in three villages is shown in Table 6.1. Table 6.1 Different types of households in three villages in Limi VDC Name of settlement Types of Settlements Dhongba Dhongjung Bhomdang Total Halji 29 31 20 80 Tila 13 11 15 39 Zhang 15 33 14 62 Source: Field visit, 2010 Within the social hierarchy, Dhongba are at the top followed by Dhongjung and Bhomdang. This hierarchical order is also manifested in property ownership with Dhongba owning more property followed by Dhongjung and Bhomdang. Being a Dhongba also involves more responsibilities, especially in religious aspects. Dhongba must contribute more during religious rituals and ceremonies. For example, if a Dhongba family has two sons, one must join the monastery and become a monk, but in the case of Dhongjung such requirement is imposed only if the family has three sons. Selection of Authorities Since there has been no elections for local VDC bodies for a long time, people elect VDC chairperson and ward chairpersons locally by following a system called Hipsing, wherein lotteries are drawn in the name of each individual (Dhongba and Dhongjung only) for a period of five years. In Tila Village, where there are two wards, one chairman is elected from among Dhongba and the other from among Dhongjung. But in the other two settlements, they are selected from either Dhongba or Dhongjung. In earlier times, only the Dhongba could become the chairman, but the society has become more egalitarian over the years and no such discrimination is made. The system of Hipsing ensures equal opportunities to all potential people. This system is also adopted in other processes such as deciding water turns, selection of pasture lands, etc. Selection of authorities even when official elections were held followed social arrangements rather than political party lines. There are two more types of officials called Loiba and Lora which are rotated annually. Loiba are responsible for monitoring forest areas, and pasture land in some cases, while Lora are responsible for ensuring that animals do not stray in the fields. Each village has two Lora. Only Dhongba households are eligible to become Lora. If animals are found straying in a field, the owner must pay a fine of both grains (about 4 kgs of naked barley) as well as Rs 50. The cash component goes to the community fund, while the grain is kept by the Lora. The number of Loiba who look after forests ranges from 4 to 6 and can be represented by both Dhongba and Dhongjung households. 94 Resource Management The community decides the date when dried firewood can be collected from the village forest. The Loiba checks each load of firewood just before people enter the village, and if anyone is found picking fresh branches, he/she is fined up to Rs 5,000. These forests are not formally recognized as community forests, but the communities have been protecting them on their own initiative (Figure 6.1). People take oaths before religious idols to refrain from collecting fresh tree parts or felling any trees. Such oath-taking is respected by every individual. A few years ago, dispute arose between Halji and Tila regarding the ownership of a forest. But when the people of Halji proclaimed in the monastery that the forest belonged to them, the people of Tila Figure 6.1 A well conserved forest in Halji immediately relented their claim over the forest. Protected forests are of good quality (Figure 6.1). People can harvest trees from these forests for community works like building/repairing monasteries, schools and bridges. Such issues are decided in village meetings. People are strictly prohibited from hunting animals. If anyone is found using a gun, he is fined Rs 50,000. The healthy forests and sight of wild animals like blue sheep stand testimony to the conservation ethos of the local community. People have agreed not to harvest any herbs from community-owned land. Not only forests, but agricultural practices and calendar of operations are decided by the community and all operations are strictly carried out as per the plan. The community decides when to sow seeds (usually two days allowed), weed crops, cut grasses from fields, irrigate, and harvest. All people strictly adhere to such decisions. If important decisions are to be made between villages, for example deciding turn/rotation of pasture land, ward chairpersons meet in a neutral ground at Sunkhani. Moving animals to high pasture is coordinated among the three villages. They utilize Hipsing to ensure equity among resource users. Although the whole VDC is immersed in conservation ideals, they have developed a particular resentment against snow leopards. Every year, snow leopards kill their goats and other livestock. Big snow leopard traps dug in the ground could be found in a few places. Some people claimed that these traps were made by Hepka residents when they take their animals to Limi. Regardless of their origin, a deep resentment exists between snow leopard and local people do exist. Although residents of Limi follow conservation practices that are espoused by Buddhist philosophy, it was observed that Hepka residents, who also subscribe to Buddhist faith, contradict such practices (Figure 6.2). People of Hepka are involved in hunting. In fact, during the field study, a gun was observed outside a Hepka herder's tent. People of Hepka were also found hunting last year in Limi and were handed over to the police, but to the dismay of Limi people no action was taken against the perpetrators. Figure 6.2 Monasteries play an important role in resource management and in maintaining community systems 95 People reported decreasing snowfall over the years. One visible impact of climate change has been drying of water sources in many places. People reported that the degradation of pastureland has been mainly because of reduction of rainfall over the years. One of the most significant problems people experienced in the recent past was the bursting of Tako Chho six years ago in Halji Village. The lake burst in June and flooded the village in the late afternoon. Though there was no human casualty, the flood swept away water mills and destroying agricultural fields (Figure 6.3). Since then, more land is being washed away by the stream every year. This not only damages Figure 6.3 Halji field washed away by outburst of cropped fields, but also threatens the very Tako Chho survival of Halji Monastery and the settlement. There is also a threat of outburst of Homya Chho and Ghanje Lake. Although people of Halji have made several requests, no concrete support has been provided to protect the land and village from further erosion. Therefore, this needs immediate attention. No comprehensive study could be carried out on how people perceive and observe the process of climate change in the region. As these highland communities are not strong in socioeconomic conditions, they have narrow options for adaptation measures and responses. Deteriorating values of social responsibility also leads to conservation threats. There were clear evidences of harvesting herbs before maturity. However, some monasteries, especially the Yalbang Monastery, have been playing a vital role in encouraging people for conservation. Many people reported that after initiation of the Abbot of this monastery, hunting in Hepka village has significantly reduced. Similarly, conservation practices of Limi Valley could be a good example. 96 7. Policy and Enabling Environment 7.1 Policies Conservation of natural resources and biodiversity has been receiving government policy focus from the mid-1950s, when the periodic panning process began in Nepal, in the form of protection of forest, protected area management and land use planning. It got more emphasis with the formulation and implementation of Master Plan for Forestry Sector, National Conservation Strategy 1987 and the Eighth Plan. Environment conservation has been receiving greater importance since the Eighth Plan (1992-1997) when, for the first time in the planning history of Nepal, a separate chapter was included for conservation of environment. 7.1.1 Natural Resource Management and Biodiversity The Tenth Plan (2002-2007) One of the objectives of Forest and Soil Conservation sector of the Eighth Plan is conservation and management of forests, plants, soil and watershed, and biodiversity, while developing forest enterprise, continuing supply of forest products and contributing to maintaining environmental balance. In order to achieve the objectives, five strategies have been adopted. The most important strategy is to conserve biodiversity and genetic resources including forests, plants, insects, and wildlife. Four policies and karya nitis have been envisaged by the Eighth Plan to contribute to the above strategy which include increasing forest cover to 40% to maintain a balance between natural environment and development; conserving biodiversity by establishing a base for sustainable development by adopting landuse planning system and collaborative forest and soil conservation; and obtaining resources available under Kyoto Protocol by highlighting Nepal’s contribution to global environment through protected areas. Implementation arrangements have been stipulated for community and private forests; national and leasehold forests; NTFPs, plants and medicinal plants; soil and watershed conservation; and biodiversity. Implementation arrangements for biodiversity provides that while conserving, prompting, managing and utilizing forests, even on the basis of public participation and landscape concept, the central focus will be on conservation and utilization of biodiversity. The Interim Plan (2008-2010) The objectives of Forest and Soil Conservation sector of the Interim Plan are very different from the objectives of the Tenth Plan. Objectives of the Interim Plan emphasize on access to forest resources of the poor, downtrodden and socially excluded and their rights. One of the objectives provides that balanced environment will be maintained by scientific management of forest, plants, watersheds, biodiversity and protected areas and ensure the access and rights of poor and disadvantaged communities over forest products by increasing sustainable growth in the supply of forest products and empower them socially and economically. One of the strategies is to follow scientific management system for conservation of forest, plants, wildlife including biodiversity and genetic resources by adopting decentralization, devolution, participatory and people’s right-oriented procedures/system. As one of the strategies of the Interim Plan is committed to follow scientific management system for conservation of biodiversity and genetic resources, it creates enabling policy environment for MFSC to promote transboundary landscape management which implies using an integrated approach in the management of extended landscapes, defined by ecosystems rather than boundaries, in which both conservation and sustainable use of components of biodiversity are considered. It would be probably one of the best systems to contribute to or achieve the above mentioned objectives of the Interim Plan. The Interim Plan has listed over 60 Policies and Karya Nitis. Although they seem more like a wish list, some of them, such as existing protected area management will be strengthened; develop and implement necessary programs to achieve objectives of and fulfil obligations under the CBD while undertaking institutional and infrastructure development for bio-safety; develop infrastructure for nature conservation oriented community tourism; in order to expedite documentation of biodiversity, 97 and priority should be given to the execution of Biodiversity Implementation Plan, are worth mentioning. The main programs for conservation of biodiversity, genetic resources and bio-safety include documentation of biodiversity in 900 VDCs, 1 of 5 development regions; protection and improvement of habitat/ecosystem in 13 national parks and wildlife reserves; species conservation and management; designating western mountain Api area as a conservation area. Designation of Api-Nampa as a Conservation Area in 2009 is likely to be the biggest achievement of the Interim Plan. It remains to be seen whether and to what extent MFSC will adopt scientific management system for conservation of forest, plants, wildlife, biodiversity and genetic resources. The objectives of the Environment, Science and Technology sector of the Interim Plan are to emphasize on protection, restoration and wise use of natural environment; prevent pollution of urban environment and promote sustainable development by garnering public participation in the movement to keep rural areas clean and beautiful and ensuring individual’s right to live in a clean environment; and effectively implement national and international environmental management commitments. Ensuring an individual’s right to clean environment was adopted as one of the objectives mainly because the Interim Constitution declares the right of every person to live in a clean environment to be a fundamental right (Article 16 (1)). Operate development programs by internalizing environmental management; formulate and implement additional national standards for air, water, soil and noise; and prioritize environmental conventions to which Nepal is party and implement them by formulating action plans are the three major strategies adopted by this sector. During the Interim Plan period, the Ministry of Environment Science and Technology initiated formulation of the Climate Change Policy and NAPA. The draft of the Climate Change Policy has been developed and is yet to be finalized. Protection and promotion of intellectual, cultural and archaeological heritage; and developing tourism industry as principal part of national economy so that it could contribute to creation of employment and increasing the living standards of people by developing necessary infrastructure and diversification and expansion of tourism and developing Nepal as one of the main attractive destination for tourism are the two objectives of the Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation sector of the Interim Plan related with tourism. Strategies adopted to achieve the above mentioned objectives include involving local bodies in protection and promotion of nation’s cultural heritage; developing tourism sector as the foundation of economy by giving high priority to the tourism sector; diversifying and expanding tourism sector keeping in view regional balance; developing tourism sector through rural tourism so that it can help improve living standards of people. The Nepal part of KSL includes Baitadi, Darchula, Bajhang, and Humla that are districts with high biological diversity and lowest Human Development Index. If the government is indeed committed and sincere in “developing tourism sector through rural tourism so that it could help in increasing the living standard of people.” Now the Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation needs to take the lead as MFSC has already designated one national park and one conservation area in this region. Sustainable Development Agenda for Nepal 2003 The Sustainable Development Agenda for Nepal 2003 (SADAN) maintains that development efforts can never be sustainable if they deplete natural resources and damage ecosystems. Further, SADAN stipulates that environmental conservation should not be an after-thought of modern economic development; it is an intrinsic and inviolable party to poverty reduction and sustainable economic growth. Over the past three decades, GoN has also been active in identifying areas of high biological diversity needing protection. SADAN has rightly pointed out that in a diverse country with many ethnic and religious groups, gender imbalance and geographical differences, the pattern of access and representation of citizens in institutions of the State is not representative. So by launching an initiative such as KSL, people of 1 A VDC is the lowest tier of local government. There are 3,915 VDCs in Nepal (NPC 2005). A district development committee (DDC) is on the top. There are altogether 75 DDCs, one each in the 75 districts. The number of VDCs in each district differs from district to district mainly based on population and geographical area of the district. VDCs and DDCs are an autonomous and corporate body with perpetual succession. 98 KSL region in general can have opportunity for representation and contribution in conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity for the region. SADAN places emphasis on conservation and management of biodiversity in forests, rangelands, protected areas, wetlands and agriculture. Against the backdrop of the status and objectives for various sectors discussed in four sections, this section summarizes specific existing or new policies that need to be pursued with greater effectiveness by GoN in order to achieve sustainable development as defined earlier. Nepal Biodiversity Strategy 2002 Nepal Biodiversity Strategy strives towards improvement in the degree of representation and effectiveness of the protected areas system and adjoining areas for protection of biodiversity. The NBS recognizes the need for a comprehensive approach that will aim to conserve forests, soil, water and biological diversity, while at the same time meeting basic needs of people who are dependent on these resources for their livelihoods. To this end, the NBS has adopted landscape planning approach to protect and manage biodiversity on a sustainable, long-term basis (GoN/MFSC 2002). What the NBS resolved in 2002 is now being promoted by the Interim Plan in 2008. With respect to developing ecotourism, NBS indicated that tourism in Nepal is concentrated mainly in a few protected areas (Chitwan, Annapurna, Sagarmatha and Langtang), which intensifies negative environmental impacts in these protected areas. The potential for developing sustainable tourism in other PAs, as well as other areas of natural and cultural heritage will therefore be explored and promoted. Efforts will also be made to seek maximum involvement of local people in promoting sustainable tourism (GoN/MFSC 2002). The strategies of the Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation sector of the Interim Plan reiterate the same point which NBS proposed in 2002. However, it remains to be seen whether Interim Plans strategies for tourism sector, i.e. “diversifying and expansion of tourism sector keeping in view regional balance; developing tourism sector through rural tourism so that it could help in increasing the living standard of people” remains a rhetoric or becomes a reality. National Biodiversity Coordination Committee (NBCC) has been established as proposed by the NBS. The primary task of NBCC, as proposed by NBS, is to develop policies for consideration by government and to provide institutional, political and operational guidance for implementation of the NBS through the Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan (MFSC 2002). It also proposed that the NBCC will approve and publish Annual Biodiversity Plan for the Parliament and Nepali people. It is the highest level of organizational structure proposed by the NBS for its implementation. Although it exists within the MFSC, it has failed to discharge its functions of National Biodiversity Coordination Committee (NBCC) in accordance with the National Biodiversity Committee (NBC). National Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan 2006-2010 The Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation took four years to develop and endorse National Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan (NBSIP) as proposed by the NBS in 2002. It is one of the principal tools to achieve the goals and objectives of NBS. The overall goal of NBSIP is to contribute to achieve the goals and objectives of NBS through its successful implementation for conservation of biological diversity, maintenance of ecological processes and systems and equitable sharing of benefits accrued. The NBSIP has identified 13 priority projects to be implemented from the 2006 to 2010. The only transboundary biodiversity conservation project included in the NBSIP is establishment of Kanchenjunga Tri-National Peace Park. The objective of this proposed project is to establish and manage a Tri-national Peace Park in the Kanchenjunga region. As the spirit of NBS for the forestry sector is to promote biodiversity conservation outside protected areas through people’s participation, the NBSIP proposed a project on Forests Biodiversity Conservation through Community Participation (outside protected areas). The objectives of this proposed project are to: • Conserve rich biodiversity in the large block of forest ecosystems that are poorly represented under PAs with active participation of local communities. 99 • • • Encourage farmers for domestication of medicinal plants having good market value for income generation. Ensure conservation of vegetation/habitat types in different ecosystems those that are in situ habitats of endemic and legally protected plants. Develop technologies for their conservation and sustainable usage. Baitadi, Darchula, Bajhang, and Humla Districts form KSL-Nepal. Both the above mentioned projects are yet to be implemented. If KSL is launched in the near future, it will contribute to conservation of biodiversity in the KSL region as well as contribute to partial implementation of one project proposed by NBSIP. National Agriculture Strategy BS 2061 Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) has developed a 20 year strategic framework to effectively implement programs captured under Agriculture Perspective Plan. This aims to mobilize agricultural and related natural resources on priority basis to meet the challenges of food security and poverty alleviation in Nepal. Legal measures The first civil code was adopted in 1854 and covered matters related to natural resources. Modern codification started in 1955. Interim Constitution of Nepal 2007 The Interim Constitution guarantees equal rights to all citizens (Article 13(1)). It also declares the right of every person to live in a clean environment to be a fundamental right (Article 16(1)). 2 This provision has potential for far-reaching effects in addressing the disproportionate distribution of environmental hazards in urban areas with respect to marginalized groups and poor communities. It is, however, less likely to ensure environmental justice to similarly disadvantaged groups residing in the country’s rural areas, who’s livelihoods in most cases depend on natural resources. The Interim Constitution guarantees all citizens the right to acquire, own, sell and otherwise dispose of property, subject to existing law (Article 19(1)). Citizens may move the Supreme Court for the enforcement of fundamental rights (Article 107(1)). The Interim Constitution also confers upon the Supreme Court extraordinary jurisdiction to enforce “any other legal right” (Article 107(2)). With respect to property rights, however, the Supreme Court has ruled that a person claiming their right to property has been infringed must first be able to prove that they possess title over the property in question (Nepali vs. Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (2048) 33 NKP 33). The state is required to make necessary arrangements to “maintain” a clean environment, to “give priority” to environmental protection and to the prevention of further damage, and to increase public awareness about “environmental cleanliness” (Article 35(5)). In addition to these general provisions, the state must make arrangements for “special protection” of the environment and of “rare” wildlife (Article 35(5)). The Interim Constitution also requires the state to provide for the protection of “forest, vegetation and biodiversity, its sustainable use and for equitable distribution of the benefits derived from it” (Article 35(5)). This clause has special significance for conservation of biological resources and for issues concerning access and benefit-sharing. Had this provision appeared in Part 3 of the Interim Constitution, which outlines fundamental rights, rather than in Part 4 dealing with the “responsibilities, directive principles and policies of the state”, access to resources and to the benefits arising out of resource use would have been a fundamental constitutional right. The Interim Constitution, therefore, provides that equitable distribution of benefits from the use of natural resources is a responsibility of the State, rather than a fundamental right of all citizens. If the state fails to fulfil these responsibilities, the matter cannot be taken to court by private citizens. 2 Prior to the promulgation of the Interim Constitution of Nepal 2007, people enjoyed right to clean and healthy environment as per the judgement of the Supreme Court (Leaders v. Godawari 4 SCB 1). 100 In “mobilizing” natural resources and heritage “that might be useful and beneficial to the interest of the nation,” the state is required to give priority to local people (Article 35(4)). In the past, however, public policy has deprived communities of tenure and the right to benefit from resources in their own areas. The ‘national interest’ and ‘public interest’ have too often been narrowly defined as the interests of a political and economic elite. If these terms continue to be defined in the future as they have been in the past, natural resource-dependent communities are not likely to receive any additional benefits. It states that every community enjoys the right to basic education in its mother tongue (Article 17(1)), and to preserve and promote its own language, script, culture, and heritage (Article 17(3)). Similarly, the state must pursue a policy aimed at identifying and protecting traditional knowledge, skills and practices (Article 35(18)). These provisions may prove to be important for conservation of biodiversity and traditional knowledge. Obligations of the State Nepal’s commitment to environmental conservation, equitable development and protection of human rights is enshrined in the Interim Constitution of Nepal 2007. The country’s international obligations under various Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) are given legal cover by the Nepal Treaties Act 1991, which explicitly provides for the primacy of international treaties over national law and requires implementing legislation to be framed at the national level. Nepal Treaties Act 1991 The Nepal Treaties Act concerns international agreements to which the government is a party 3. When a matter covered by a treaty conflicts with any law in force, the provisions of the treaty are to prevail over national legislation to the extent of the inconsistency (Section 9(1)). This principle has been upheld by the Supreme Court with respect to the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) (Paudel v. Ministry of Home Affairs (2058) 43 NKP 423). When a treaty to which the government is a signatory, but which has not been ratified, acceded to, approved or accepted by parliament, creates additional obligations that require the enactment of legislation, the government must enact laws for its execution in a timely fashion (Section 9(2)). Despite these statutory requirements, implementation at the national level has remained weak, especially in the case of MEAs, because the government has not enacted the required legislation 4. Nor has supremacy been recognized of MEAs over national legislation. Poor communities and marginalized groups in general bear the burden of this failure. In rural areas, for example, legislation required to implement certain MEAs would need to provide statutory cover for community rights with respect to access, use and benefit-sharing. Forest Act 1993 The State has absolute rights over forest resources in national forests. However, if the same resources are located within a community forest handed over to communities according to provisions of the Forest Act, members of the CFUG have the right over those resources but not over land. They can regulate access and sharing of the benefits as per their individual statutes. By allowing communities to manage forest resources, the Forest Act 1993 implicitly recognizes both community rights to forest resources and indigenous forest management practices 5. The law provides for the establishment of user groups and allows them to “utilize forest products by developing and conserving forests for the collective interest” (Section 41). User groups maintain a fund through which they finance their activities (Section 45). 3 4 5 Nepal is signatory to a number of MEAs, notably the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992), United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992) and Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (1971), some of which provide for sustainable use, benefit-sharing and public participation. Certain laws in force, although not enacted specifically to implement Nepal’s obligations under various MEAs, do nevertheless conform to such requirements. For example, the Forest Act and the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act contain some provisions which conform to the requirements of the CBD and the Ramsar Convention. The Forest Act 1993 (Section 74) repeals the Forest Act 1961 and the Forest Conservation (Special Arrangements) Act 1968. 101 The district forest officer (DFO) may hand over to registered CFUGs any part of a national forest to be managed as ‘community forest’ (Section 25(1)). This entitles user groups to develop, conserve, use and manage the forest. They may sell and distribute forest products according to a work plan, at a price determined by the user groups themselves. User groups may also make amendments to the work plan (Section 26(1)), but only if such alterations are not “likely to affect adversely the environment in a significant manner” (Section 26(2)). In theory, these provisions allow communities to participate in management and decision-making, and to share in the benefits from the use of forest resources. This, however, is not always true in practice. Similar to the provisions concerning community forestry, the Forest Act allows the government to hand over any part of a national forest as a ‘leasehold forest’ (Section 31) to any corporate body, industry or community (Section 32(1)). Such forests may be used for a number of purposes, including to sell and use forest products, promote plantation, set up tourist operations, and carry out agroforestry or wildlife farming, as long as these activities are compatible with conservation and development of the forest (Section 31). Leasehold forests may also be used to produce raw materials for industries based on forest products (Section 31(a)). Priority, however, is given to community forests: any part of a national forest suitable for community forest use cannot be handed over as leasehold forest (Section 30). In the case of both community forests and leasehold forests, ownership of the land on which these forests stand remains with the government (Section 67). Similarly, the government retains the right to use community forest and leasehold forest areas for “implementation of the plan having national priority” where no alternative is available, as long as no “significant” adverse effects are created (Section 68(1)). In the case of damage caused to an individual or community by any such measures, the government is required to make “proper arrangements in this regard” (Section 68(2)). Similarly, the Forest Act allows the government to hand over part of a national forest as a ‘religious forest’ (Section 35) to any religious body, group or community (Section 35(1)). Except for commercial purposes, such religious forests may be used for any religious purposes (Section 36). However, the groups are required not to create significant adverse impact on the environment, loss or damage of public and soil erosion in the watersheds while felling trees. The government is further empowered to designate any part of national forest which has environmental or scientific or cultural significance or any other special significance as protected forest (Section 23(1)). The Department of Forest is required to develop management plan and have it approved by the MFSC. It is the duty of the DFO is to execute the management plan as approved by the MFSC (Section 24(3)). National forests not handed over to communities are strictly regulated, and the FA contains detailed provisions aimed at restricting their use. A wide range of activities are prohibited in a national forest, including cultivating land, setting fires, constructing dwellings, grazing animals, cutting or damaging plants and trees, hunting, removing forest products, extracting sand or soil, burning charcoal, and damaging forest products while carrying out licensed felling activities (Section 49). The DFO is empowered to hear and decide cases related to forest offences involving a fine up to Rs 10,000 and/or imprisonment for a term of one year (Section 65(1)). This provision covers all forest offences listed in the FA as far as fines are concerned; only two offences carry a higher maximum prison sentence (Sections 50(1)(e) and 50(2)) but even here the cash fines fall within the limits set for DFO to hear and decide the case. The DFO’s decision may be challenged in an appellate court (Section 65(3)). User groups are also permitted to dispose of cases related to management and use of forest resources. CFUGs may impose penalties on group members found to be carrying out activities that contravene the work plan and recover damages (Section 29). 102 Forest Regulations Government-managed forests are administered according to a work plan which, among other things, specifies the quantity of forest products that may be collected and sold annually (Section 6(1)), and takes into account forest products “required by local people” (Section 3(1)(h)). Forest products cannot be taken, sold or transported without a licence (Section 7). Separate rules and procedures govern the sale and distribution of timber and firewood (Section 9), Acacia catechu (Section 10) and herbs (Section 11). Forest product supply committees may be established at the district level to sell timber and firewood for domestic use to “rural people” (Section 9(1)(a)), while the DFO may sell Acacia catechu by auction (Section 10). The collection of herbs and other forest products is also regulated with those wishing to do so required to submit an application to the DFO (Sections 11(1) and 14). Timber and firewood may, however, be supplied free of charge for the purpose of “traditional religious function[s] other than construction works” (Section 15). In addition, the government may ban the collection and sale of all forest products (Section 12). Grazing animals is not permitted in the areas covered by a work plan but elsewhere animals may be grazed with a licence (Section 19). Community forests are also managed according to a work plan, in this case prepared by the users group to which the forest has been handed over, and assisted by the DFO (Section 28). The DFO is authorized to alter, “with the consent” of the users group, and approve the work plan (Section 29(2)). User groups are permitted to collect and sell only those forest products specified in the work plan (Section 32(1)), and must rehabilitate the area after timber and other forest products have been taken (Section 32(2)). Industries based on forest products may be set up outside the area of the community forest, on the recommendation of the DFO (Section 32(4)). User groups are permitted to specify in the work plan activities that are prohibited in a community forest they have undertaken to manage. In addition, certain activities are specifically prohibited in the Regulations. These include clearing a forest area for agriculture (Section 31(1)(b)); capturing or killing wildlife in contravention of relevant laws (Section 31(1)(e)); extracting or transporting rocks, soil, pebbles or sand (Section 31(1)(f)); and carrying out any activity that may cause soil erosion (Section 31(1)(d)). User groups are also not permitted to mortgage or transfer ownership of land on which a community forest stands (Section 31(1)(a)). Homes may not be built inside a community forest (Section 31(1)(c)) but “houses or huts needed for security” may be constructed (Section 31(2)). User groups may obtain loans for these and other forest development activities by offering forest products as collateral (Section 31(2)). User groups are required to include in their operational plans provisions regarding penalties that will be imposed on members found to be violating the work plan (Section 28(1)(j)). The procedure for handing over a community forest is relatively simple (Section 29). A user group submits an application to the DFO who then undertakes necessary inquiries, studies and approves the work plan, and hands over management of the forest (Sections 29(1) and 29(2)). In exchange, user groups must furnish a bond, stating that they will comply with “the conditions prescribed by His Majesty's Government” (Section 29(2)). In handing over a community forest, the DFO is required to take into account not only the distance between the forest in question and the village where users are resident but also the “wishes as well as management capacity” of local users (Section 26(1)). Where local users wish to plant trees on public land outside a national forest, or have already done so, such areas may also be designated as community forest “on the condition that the concerned agency itself retains the ownership of land” (Section 26(2)). Other procedures, such as those concerning the Constitution and registration of user groups (Section 27), are somewhat more complicated. Once they have obtained management control of a community forest, user groups are required to comply with a number of operational procedures, such as issuing permits for various purposes (Sections 33(1) and 35), preparing and registering stamps (Section 34), informing the DFO about the “sale rate” of forest products (Section 32(3)), keeping accounts and maintaining records of all transactions (Section 33(3), and preparing receipts in triplicate (Section 33(2)). 103 Community forests may be resumed by the government if the user group is unable to fulfil the requirements of the work plan or has carried out activities that have a “substantial adverse effect on the environment”, or if laws have been violated (Section 37). In cases where the execution of a project of “national priority” in a forest area causes any loss or harm to local individuals or communities, compensation is to be paid by the “operators” of the project (Section 65(1)), who also bear the expense of cutting, processing and transporting forest products approved for use in the project (Section 65(2)). No such cases have been reported in the study sites. The remaining provisions of the Regulations concern the establishment and functioning of leasehold forests (Sections 39–54), religious forest (Sections 55–60), and private forests (Sections 61–64) 6. Environment Protection Act 1996 The Environment Protection Act 1996 obliges proponents to prepare an initial environmental examination (IEE) and/or environmental impact assessment (EIA) report in relation to prescribed plans, programs or projects which may cause changes in existing environmental conditions by physical activity, development activity or change in land use. Section 3 of the EPA requires the proponent to conduct an IEE and EIA in relation to prescribed proposals. It is apparent from this provision that any private party or government agency who wishes to implement any proposals prescribed in the Regulations must prepare either in IEE or EIA, as the case may be. After having prepared the IEE or EIA, the proponent is required to apply to the relevant government agency with the IEE or EIA report for approval of the proposal. Schedule 1 of the Environment Protection Regulations 1997 provides the list of proposals that require preparation of an IEE. These include, for example, preparation of management plan of a national park, wildlife reserve and conservation areas and buffer zone including wetlands and preparation of all types of District Forest Management Plan managed by the government; and construction of a resort, hotel and safari with capacity of 10-50 beds and small scale and educational institutes, teaching hospitals or any other construction by other than GoN and forest related agencies within the forest area, national park, reserve and conservation areas, buffer zones, wetlands areas and environmental conservation areas. Schedule 2 provides the list of proposals in relation to which EIA must be conducted. These include, for example, establishment of resort, hotel and safari with a capacity of more than 50 beds and medium and large scale educational institutions, teaching hospitals and industries and other construction work within a forest area, national park, reserve and conservation areas, buffer zones, wetlands area and environmental conservation areas and handing over of more than 500 hectares forest areas to a single community for its management and any proposal that will be implemented in national parks, wildlife reserves, wetlands and conservation areas. National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973 The National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973 takes a strict regulatory approach to the conservation of natural areas and wild species. The NPWCA empowers the government to create five types of protected areas and to transfer ownership of land for the purposes of declaring parks and reserves (Section 3 (1) and (2)). The NPWCA describes five categories of protected areas, namely national parks, wildlife reserves, controlled (strict) nature reserves, hunting reserves and conservation areas. Conservation Area is an area set aside to be managed in accordance with an integrated plan for the protection of natural environment and the sustainable use of natural resources (Section 2 (E1)). NPWCA defines wildlife as any wild animals including birds, fish and reptiles. Schedule 1 of the Act provides a list of protected wild animals. Complete protection is accorded to 26 species of mammals, nine species of birds and three species of reptiles (Section 10). Nepal’s 16 national parks and protected areas have contributed to the protection of biodiversity and habitat. The NPWCA prohibits, among other things, hunting of birds and animals; building any 6 The Forest Regulation 1995 repeals the following instruments: Forest Products Sale and Distribution Regulation 1970, Forest Protection (Special Arrangements) Regulation 1970, Panchayat Protected Forest Regulation 1978, Leasehold Forest Regulation 1978, Panchayati Forest Regulation 1978 and Private Forest Regulation 1984. 104 house, hut or other structure; clearing or cultivating any of the land or harvesting any crops; pasturing or watering any domesticated animals or birds; cutting, burning or damaging any tree, bush or other forest products; damaging forest products or harming wildlife, birds inside national park or reserves and blocking, diverting or placing hazardous or explosive materials in rivers, streams or any water fountain (Section 5). It needs to be noticed that the abovementioned activities are prohibited only in national parks and reserves. The Act levies a fine of Rs 500 to 1,000 or three months to two years imprisonment or both as punishments to any person who kills or injures protected birds. This Act was considered to be the most effective piece of legislation in the past. However, the Act is silent about transboundary landscape management. Buffer Zone Management Regulations The Buffer Zone Management Regulations 1996 (BZMR) has been promulgated under the National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973. It authorizes the Warden of a national park or reserve to prepare and submit buffer zone management work plan to DNPWC for community development, environmental conservation and balanced utilization of forest resources of buffer zones. It requires the following issues, among others, to be included in the work plan: • description of forests, bushes, grasslands and fallow land areas • status of forest boundaries • description of cultivated and fallow land • maps showing rivers, streams and other water resources • description of population, population density, forest areas and utilization of forest resources • description of forests that can be handed over as community, religious and private forests within the buffer zone • work plan to be implemented for forest development • work plan to be implemented for the community development • programs on soil conservation, tourism development environmental and historic heritage conservation, and • annual description of collection and utilization of forest resources; implementation of land use system. It is interesting to note that although the above list requires including maps showing rivers, streams and other water resources, it does not mention about including a plan or any provision for conservation of wetland resources. It is sad to note that the Warden or the person who is responsible for developing the work plan is even required to include programs for soil conservation, tourism development environmental and historic heritage conservation but nothing for conservation of wetlands. Further, Rule 7 of the BZMR makes the Warden responsible for conservation of (a) wildlife, (b) natural environment and natural resources, (c) biodiversity, (d) forests and (e) development works in the buffer zone area. Despite the fact that wetlands play a pivotal role in the conservation of wildlife and maintenance of biodiversity, the conservation of wetland has not been included in the responsibility of the Warden. 7.1.2 Hydrology and Water Resources Historically, rights over water resources lay with the king and were granted to subjects along with rights to land or forest. In eastern Nepal, meanwhile, traditional systems of water use and distribution was recognized by the state under earlier land administration arrangements, perhaps because it was next to impossible for the then rulers to extract land revenue and maintain control over the country's far-east without recognizing traditional systems. Formal state control over the water resources was consolidated in 1992 through the WRA. Earlier laws governing the use of water, such as the Canal Act 1963 and the Canal, Electricity and Related Water Resources Act 1967, prescribed licensing arrangements but made no explicit mention of state ownership. State ownership of water resources is provided statutory cover for the first time under the WRA. 105 Water Resources Act 1992 Under this law, all water resources are owned by the state (Section 3) 7. All water use, other than for specified, mainly domestic purposes, is regulated by means of licences (Sections 4 and 8). The law establishes the priority in which water resources are to be utilized (Section 7). The government may develop water resources, and acquire related land, equipment and structures “extensive public use”, upon payment of compensation (Section 10). The WRA allows for the formation of water users associations (WUAs) as a way for communities and groups to utilize water resources for collective benefit (Section 5). Such associations or organizations must be registered with the prescribed official or agency (Section 5(1)). Water-related projects initiated by the government may be handed over to WUAs, which then become the ‘owners’ of the infrastructure (Section 11). Water users groups also have the right to determine and levy fees on members of the group (Water Resources Regulation 1993, Section 5). Land or residential buildings may be used or acquired by the government on behalf of licence holders if required for the construction of a dam, barrage, canal or other waterworks, pipelines or water distribution facilities (Water Resources Act, Section 16). Although water users associations are also required to obtain licences, this provision is generally applied to commercial projects and not enforced stringently in the case of small drinking water schemes executed at the village level. Since ownership of water resources vests in the state, there is no provision for compensation when water resources on an individuals’ land are utilized by the state. Compensation is only offered for land, buildings or infrastructure if their acquisition is required (Section 10(3)), and for damage caused to them during the execution of a project (Sections 15 and 16). Irrigation Regulations 2000 Water users associations are required to hold elections periodically, and election procedures are to be specified in the statutes of each users association (Section 4). Usually, any general member may run for a position on the executive committee. Service charges are determined by a district-level committee comprising the chief of the district irrigation office, a representative of the district agriculture development office and the chairperson of the users association concerned (Section 26). The service charge may differ from one users association to the next, and may or may not take caste, gender or economic status into account while determining fees; the Regulations are silent on this matter. In some users associations, larger landowners are required to contribute more cash and labor for construction and maintenance of infrastructure than members with more modest holdings. Drinking Water Regulations 1999 Membership fee for users associations is to be mentioned in the statutes of the association concerned (Section 4(2)). The drinking water fee is fixed by a committee (Section 38). Members may also be required to provide cash and physical labour for the maintenance of infrastructure, as decided by the general body or executive committee of the association. While the fee for irrigation water use is progressive, based on the size of the landholding, fees charged by drinking water associations are the same for all members. Aquatic Animals Protection Act, 1961 The Aquatic Animals Protection Act 1961 is one of Nepal’s oldest pieces of legislation, indicating the early recognition of water, wetlands and aquatic life values. Water 8 has been defined as lakes, marshes, streams, rivers, rivulets, tanks, canals, channels, ponds, reservoirs, artificial reservoirs, wetlands, cages used for fishing and fish farming water in paddy fields and their sources (Section 2 (a)). It does not specify natural or artificial, static or flowing water, but the definition includes lakes, ponds, temporary steams, water courses and entire river systems. Its primary deficiency is the 7 The Water Resources Act 1992 (section 25) repeals the Canal, Electricity and Related Water Resources Act 1967. The Original Act had defined “water” as “lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, rivulets, banks, canals, channels, reservoirs, and their sources.” 8 106 omission of any explicit reference to wetlands. The Act defines “private water” as a lake, pond, ditch, pool, or reservoir which is on land utilised by a person, who has been paying land tax to the government (Section 2 (1)). Hence, the Act provides for privately-owned water bodies or wetlands as well but is silent about the wise use and management of such privately-owned wetlands. The policy gap is that no agency is specified as responsible for its administration and enforcement. Section 3 renders punishment to any party introducing poisonous, noxious, or explosive materials into a water source, or destroying any dam, bridge or water system with the intent to catch or kill aquatic life. The Act has been in effect since 1961, yet both noxious and explosive materials are increasingly used in water bodies throughout Nepal 9. It is assumed that poisons, explosives and electric current is being used in about 3,000 rivers out of 6,000 rivers in the country. One of the reasons of extinction of various species of birds is the use of poisons, explosives and current in rivers 10. There is no reported case of any person being prosecuted for violating the Act. This is clear evidence of the government’s ineffectiveness in developing a surveillance system for conserving aquatic life and wetland habitats. The Act empowers the government to prohibit catching, killing and harming certain kinds of aquatic animals through notification in the Nepal Gazette. No notice to this effect has ever been published by the government (Section 4). Similarly, closing the doors of a dam and any other structure or destroying fish ladder by any body other than the authorized officer is prohibited by the Act (Section 4). It also further empowers the government to prohibit catching, killing and harming certain kind of aquatic animals in a specified season and condition (Section 4 (b)). The Act further empowers the government to publish the notice in the Nepal Gazette to prohibit catching, killing and harming aquatic animals in a specified water bodies (Section 5). The Government shall have sole right over the aquatic animals in such water body. This Section gives overriding right to Government over aquatic animals in such water bodies, which is likely to curtail livelihood opportunity and traditional practices of local people. A notification published by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives on 5 August 2002 in Section 52 Number 17 of Nepal Gazette prohibits to: • capture, kill or harm three species of Schizothorax, 12 species of turtles, 2 species of crocodiles, river dolphin and 2 species of otter, • capture, kill or harm 4 species of Schizothorax , 2 species of Tor and 1 species of Neolissochilus from any of the water bodies in specific months of the seasons, • with respect to the aforementioned fish species, besides restricted months of the season, restriction is imposed to catch, kill or harm fish species in other months below the prescribed length (for Schizothorax <15 cm, Tor sps. <30 cm, Neolissochilus <20 cm). Fish species trapped smaller than the prescribed length in the net or hook should be released into the water, • kill, capture or harm smaller size of 46 recommended species of fish; any species trapped or captured in the net or hook below the recommended size should be released into the water, • allow to trap or kill smaller fishes than the prescribed size for research purpose after approval of the government or local authority, • capture or kill any types of aquatic life in the following places: - 1 km downstream and upstream of water body area in Koshi Barrage - 1 km downstream and upstream of water body in Gandak Barrage - 100 m downstream and 200 m upstream from the inlet in public lakes (from Barahi Temple to Ratna Mandir of Phewa Tal - 100m downstream and upstream of permanent dams of water resources project, and - At other side of the whole river or stream from the diversion. Such stringent provisions of the Act are good for conservation of aquatic life and biodiversity. However, they may not be in the best inetrest of wetland dependent indigenous community and is contradictory with the letter and spirit of the National Wetlands Policy which emphasizes 9 Gorkha Patra Daily (in Nepali), 14 January 1995, 12. A doctor commented that 11 people had recently been treated for wounds due to the practice of catching fish through the use of explosives. 10 Sudarshan Pradhan (2010) “Dhilai Nahos Jalachar Sanrachanma” 11 June 2010. Annapurna Post 6. 107 encouragement and promotion of people’s participation and involvement in management and conservation of wetlands. This violates the rights of indigenous and local people, particularly those who depend on fishing and aquatic resources. Pasture Land Nationalisation Act 1974 Pasture land means land which has been used only for pasturing animals with or without registering in a government office (Section 2 (a)). The Act nationalizes all pasture land within the country and vests ownership of such land on the government of Nepal from the commencement of the Act and ends the rights of owners of such land prior to the enactment of the Act (Section 3). However, the land owner can keep the land which has been used for pasture land if it is under the land ceiling prescribed by the prevailing law (Section 3 (a)). The Act provides that the Government of Nepal must determine judicious amount of compensation for owners of pasture land whose pasture land has been nationalized on the recommendation of the Committee set in accordance with the Regulations under the Act. The Government of Nepal is required to keep separate records of pasture land nationalized in accordance with Section 3 of the Act at the Land Revenue Office and give the land under the responsibility of relevant VDC for protection and utilization of such land for grazing animals (Section 5(1)). VDC is required to protect and improve pasture land which has come under its responsibility and it is prohibited from utilizing the land for any purpose other than grazing animals (Section 5 (2)). VDC must allow all people including those who have been grazing their animals from time immemorial by charging a fee up to Rs 3 each annually for big animals such as yak, cow, buffalo, horse and mule and up to Rs 1 each annually for small animals such as goat, sheep, mountain goat (Section 6(1)). The amount collected from grazing fee must be deposited in Village Development Council Fund. Although the Act was enacted in 1974, it entered into force only in three districts namely Kabhrepalanchowk, Sindhupalchowk and Rasuwa from 1976. Seed Act 1988 The objective of the Seed Act 1988 is quality seed production and distribution in order to increase the yields of agricultural crops. This Act has helped maintain crop diversification 11. The Act establishes a National Seed Committee to give advice to the government in order to formulate and implement a seed policy (Section 3). The powers and functions of the Board include: • to give advice to the Government on a national seed policy, • to maintain coordination between the private sector and the Government in relation to production and distribution of seeds, • to regulate and control quality of seeds produced within Nepal or imported from outside and sold in Nepal, • to approve, release and register new seed species as prescribed, • to provide ownership rights to breeders after testing specialty, uniformity and stability of new seed species, • to determine quality standard of seeds, • to determine and approve seed standards determined by national or foreign agencies, as required, • to give advice the government on listing of species and variety of seed, and • to cancel license of a person who has been operating a laboratory without renewing the license (Section 5 (1)- (8D)). Unfortunately the powers and functions of the National Seed Committee do not allow it to play a role in protecting the rights of indigenous people or local communities with respect to seeds preserved and refined by them for generations. The Government is empowered to establish a Seed Standard Control Center in order to perform works relating to controlling seed standards and functioning as the Secretariat of the National Seed Committee (Section7). The functions, duties and powers of the Seed Standard Control Center are to 11 Nepal Agriculture Association (1999), Plant Genetic Resources profiles Study 1995, 63. 108 prepare essential infrastructure relating to controlling quality of seed and certification of seed and to submit it to the National Seed Committee; and to issue certificates as required in accordance with methods, standards and criteria approved by the Committee. Section 11 of the Act empowers the Government to regulate and control the standard of any class or species of seed to be used for agricultural works, prescribing seeds of particular classes or species as scheduled seed by a notification published in the Nepal Gazette. Seed can be prescribed as seed of a class or species suitable for different areas. Section 13 of the SA prohibits the sale, holding with the intention of selling, giving, exchange or provision by any other means to another, scheduled seed: 1. 2. 3. 4. for which a class or species cannot be identified which does not comply with the minimum requirement of germination and purity which has been kept in a container without a label specifying the particulars, and which does not comply with other conditions as prescribed. For example, seed of a specified class or species which has been prescribed as being suitable for a particular area must not be sold in other areas. A person who desire to export or import scheduled seed of any class or species must obtain permission from the prescribed authority (Aection 15). However, an industry which has been established with an objective of exporting or importing seed may export or import the relevant seed by giving the prescribed particulars to the prescribed authority (Section 15 (3)). This provision is too generous to import or export companies. The Government should make sure that this generosity does not impact adversely on farmers. The maximum penalty under the SA is only Rs 300, which is unlikely to deter any potential offenders. It is surprising to learn that the Government which is prepared to go so far to protect seed breeders' rights completely ignores indigenous and local communities' rights to the seed which they have been improving, modifying and conserving for generations. The only provision which has been included in the Act by the amendment made to the Act in 2007 states that the ownership over local varieties of seed which has been used in Nepal traditionally shall be as prescribed (Section 18A). It is ironic that government officials who proposed amendment to the Act in 2007 could not clearly spell out those farmers shall have right over the seeds which they have been utilizing. To strike a balance between plant breeders' rights and farmers rights, the Government needs to either make appropriate changes to the SA, or enact a new Act protecting indigenous and traditional communities' rights. This Act entered into force in Bhaktapur, Kathmandu and Lalitpur District in 1989 and all of Nepal from June 2008. National Agriculture Policy 2004 The policy has provisions for leasing marginal, pasture, degraded forest and unused common lands to poor and marginalized population for cultivation of cash crops and horticulture—grass, forage, fodder, agroforestry, medicinal plants, sericulture and other perennial tree crops, which would contribute to land improvement and poverty alleviation. It also calls for improvement of degraded forests and natural water bodies for biodiversity conservation, as well as utilization and development of agro-forestry system. Besides, this policy stresses the importance of conservation farming through local participation in watershed management and control of riverbank-cutting. However, it does not specify any coordinated effort with other policies or agencies for achieving stipulated provisions. 109 7.1.3 Settlement, Demographic Patterns, Livelihood and Poverty Lands Act 1964 Until the 1960s, land was held under various forms of tenure, such as raikar 12, birta 13 and guthi, 14 or under the customary kipat system 15 (Takahatake 2001: 18). Formal administration was carried out by local-level state officials (tharis and subbas). 16 Beginning in 1960, the then political administration began to replace the traditional system of land administration with laws such as the Birta Abolition Act 1960, followed by the promulgation of the New Civil Code 1964 and the Land Administration Act 1967. The Lands Act aims to divert “inactive” capital and labor from land to other economic sectors, bring about an equitable distribution of cultivable land, improve the standard of living of “actual tillers” who depend on land for their livelihood, and maximize agricultural production (preamble) 17. This Act abolishes the zamindari system of land ownership (Section 3) 18. The term zamindari (or “jimidari”, as it appears in the Act) is defined as “any system of collecting land taxes according to law and depositing the proceeds thereof with His Majesty’s Government” and includes the kipat system (Section 2(h)). Land previously held under the zamindari system is to be registered in the name of the zamindar, in keeping with prescribed ceilings. Ceilings on ownership are specified in Section 7, and vary according to geographical location. The maximum size of an agricultural holding is 6.6 hectares, while the largest homestead may cover 0.66 hectares (Section 7). Land in excess of these ceilings is to be acquired by the “prescribed authority” (Section 15) upon payment of compensation (Section 19). The land so acquired may be sold or reallotted (Section 21) and, until the sale or reallotment is finalized, may be “given away” for cultivation on “any terms” to the former landowner or tenant, or any other person (Section 21A). Such land is to be distributed among Dalits, members of ethnic communities and bonded laborers who have been freed, with priority to people from the VDC or municipality from where the land has been confiscated (Section 21 as amended in 2002). Exemptions on these ceilings may be granted in the case of land held by the government itself, or by industries, or educational and medical institutions (Section 12). Other types of holdings that may also be exempted from ceilings include land held by “panchayat and class organizations of different tiers” (Section 12(b)), land used “under prescribed conditions for agricultural purposes prescribed by HMG” (Section 12(e)), land under jurisdiction of the guthi corporation (Section 12(f)), and land held by cooperative agricultural societies (Section 12(g)). Tenancy in land was abolished from 1996 by means of the Fourth Amendment to the Act (Section 25(1)) 19. The amendment allows tenants to retain 50% of land they were previously farming or 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 The raikar system of tenure has been described as a system of ‘state landlordism’ under which the rights of an individual to use the land are recognised by the state as long as taxes are paid (Regmi, 1965). Birta was land granted to a noble as a reward for services rendered to the state. Birta holdings were free of taxes and could be inherited (Chapagain et. al, 1999: 5–6). Under guthi tenure, land was held in trust by communities for the upkeep of religious or welfare institutions (IUCN RELPA, 2006: 95–128). Kipat is an ancient form of tenure under which a community was granted land by the king in recognition of traditional communal tenure (Chapagain et. al, 1999: 5). Rights under kipat tenure emerged not because of a royal grant, but because the owner, as a member of a particular ethnic community, was in customary occupation of lands situated in a particular geographical area (Regmi, 1999: 87). The kipat system was abolished in 1968, following the Second Amendment to the Land Act 1964 (Takahatake, 2001: 18). The subba was a headman or chieftain (Takahatake, 2001: 8), while the thari was a sub-headman (Jones, 1976: 63– 75). The Lands Act 1964 (section 64) repeals the Land and Cultivators’ Records Compilation Act 1956, Lands Act 1957, Land Rules 1960 and Agricultural (New Arrangements) Act 1963. Zamindars (literally, ‘land owners’) are large landlords. They serve as local functionaries for the government, and are empowered to collect land revenue and maintain law and order in the areas under their control. Prior to this amendment, tenancy rights could be inherited by family members upon the death of a tenant. 110 occupying or to accept a cash payment at the current value of the land to which the tenant is entitled (Section 26D). A unique feature of the Lands Act is its chapter on compulsory savings. All landowners and tenants are required to “save” a specified portion of the crop, which is to be deposited in a fund (Section 40). The cash equivalent may be deposited in certain cases, and in the case of cash crops other than food grains (Section 40(b)). The amount of the grain to be deposited is fixed either by committee, or by an organization or government official (Section 40). The fund so established is to be used for agricultural development and agricultural activities, giving priority to local needs (Section 40(c)). Funds are disbursed during the cropping period and realized with nominal interest during the harvesting season (Section 40(c)). Land Administration Act 1967 The Land Administration Act prohibits cultivation of any land area which has been used since time immemorial as a road, highway, grazing land, waterhole, public resting hut, cemetery or graveyard, and any other land area or “servitude land” which has been used for public purposes (Section 20). The Land Acquisition Act 1977 The Land Acquisition Act 1977 authorises the government to acquire any land, and as much land as it determines to be necessary, for public purposes (Section 3). The government is required to pay compensation and the amount awarded is to be decided by a four-member committee (Section 13(2). There is, however, no requirement that this amount be determined according to market value, nor that compensation be disbursed within a specified time (Section 16(2)(a)). The acquisition itself may not be appealed. Appeals concerning the amount of compensation are to be submitted to the Ministry of Home with in 15 days of the notification issued by the committee, and the decision of the Ministry is final (Section 25(7)). Once land has been acquired, the government is not required to use the land for the purpose for which it was originally acquired (Section 33). The land may subsequently be sold (Section 35). New Civil Code 1964 Chapter 8 of the New Civil Code 1964 prohibits cultivation on any land which has been used since time immemorial for grazing or watering cattle, or for roads, streets, graveyards or other public uses, (Chapter 8, Section 4). Land (Survey and Measurement) Act 1963 The Land (Survey Measurement) Act (LSMA) 1963 stipulates that land can be registered on the basis of an unofficial deed if it has been in the uninterrupted possession of an individual for 15 years (Section 6(5a)). This provision is only enforceable in the case of individual practice or possession. Public Roads Act 1974 The Public Roads Act 1974 empowers the government to acquire any land for the construction, development and improvement of public roads, in accordance with prevailing law related to land acquisition (Section 4). Similar provisions are also made in the Water Resources Act 1992 and the Electricity Act 1992, as well as other development-related legislation. 7.1.4 Cultural and Religious Heritage Sites Local Self Governance Act 1999 The Local Self Governance Act (LSGA) 1999 was enacted as part of Nepal’s efforts to support decentralization 20. Under this law, local government bodies including the DDCs and VDCs hold the right to manage specified natural resources. 20 The Local Self-Governance Act 1999 (section 268(1)) repeals the Decentralisation Act 1982, District Development Committee Act 1991, Municipality Act 1991 and Village Development Committee Act 1991. 111 A VDC 21, whose members are elected by qualified voters in the village development area (Section 12), is an autonomous body (Section 13), and performs functions in a variety of areas including agriculture, rural drinking water, irrigation, river control, the prevention of soil erosion, health, tourism and cottage industry (Section 28). Under the rubric of ‘forest and environment’, VDCs are empowered to prepare and implement programs with regard to forests, vegetation, biodiversity, soil conservation, and environmental conservation in the village development area (section 28(h)). A VDC has “full title” over certain property situated within the village development area, including “public properties” not owned by an individual or by the government or a DDC, including public drainage and sewerage; roads and bridges; ponds, water spouts, taps, wells and ghats; temples, inns, houses; and grazing fields (Section 68(1)(b)). “Natural heritage” is also included in this list of assets (Section 68(1)(d)), as are “forests according to existing forest laws or handed over by His Majesty's Government” (Section 68(1)(c)). This provision concerning forests is often mistakenly taken to mean that all forest areas in a VDC are the property of that VDC when in fact it is specifically stated that only forests granted under existing law, or forests handed over by the government, become VDC property. The LSGA provides that a VDC is permitted to sell its assets (Section 58(c)), but only with the prior approval of the government (Section 68(2)). VDCs may impose a variety of taxes and fees. These include land revenue or land tax, rent and tenancy tax, and a tax on “natural resources utilization” within the village development area (Ssection 55). It may impose service charges for drainage (Section 56) and collect various fees (Section 57). A VDC may also sell a variety of resources occurring in its area, including dried timber, fuel wood, twigs, branches, straw and grass from lands situated within its jurisdiction (Sections 58(d) and 58(e)), in addition to soil on “government barren land” located in the VDC area (Section 58(a)). A VDC is also permitted to sell “assets of the Village Development Committee” (Section 58(c)). VDCs exercise certain judicial powers. A VDC is authorised to hear and settle at first instance cases relating to land boundaries, public land, canals, dams and ditches, the allocation of water, and encroachment on roads (Section 33(a)); disputes over the use of a river bank or the “security” of public property (Section 33(j)); and cases concerning pasture, grass and fuel wood within its area (Section 33(l)). The DDC is an autonomous body (Section 177), with functions related to agriculture, land reform and land management, rural drinking water, irrigation, soil erosion, river control, health services, cottage industry, and tourism, among others (Section 189). It is also required to promote environmental conservation, and to develop and implement a plans to conserve soil, vegetation, forests and biological diversity (Section 189(1)(g)). A DDC has “title” over immovable property built or bought with funds allocated to it, and may not sell such property without the prior approval of the government (Section 231). At the same time, however, the DDC may impose levies on a variety of services, resources and resource-based activities, including taxes on bridges, irrigation, herbs, stone, slate, sand, bone and horns (Section 215); service charges on ditches and embankments (Section 216); and licence fees for fishing (Section 217). The DDC may also sell sand from rivers and canals, stones, soil and driftwood in its area, but is required to pay 35–50 per cent of the proceeds so collected to the VDC concerned (Section 218). 7.1.5 Tourism Ancient Monument Protection Act, 1956 Conservation of cultural heritage is mainly provided for by the Ancient Monuments Protection Act, 1956. The Act is one of the oldest pieces of legislation which is administered by the Department of Archaeology (DoA). It was promulgated with the explicit objective to “protect ancient monuments, restrict trade in archaeological objects as well as excavation in places where ancient monuments and archaeological and historical or artistic objects in order to maintain tranquillity and order” 21 The VDC is the lowest tier of local government. At present, Nepal has 3,915 VDCs. 112 (Preamble). It provides a detailed definition of ancient monuments, which include any monument, building, temple, monastery, stupa of historical, artistic, scientific, or architectural importance which is more than 100 years old (Section 2 (a)). It empowers the government to declare any area or place where an ancient monument is located as a protected monument area (Section 3). Ancient monuments have been divided on the basis of their ownership into two categories namely private ancient property and public ancient property, and on the basis of importance into three categories: international, national and local (Section 3A). Ownership of public ancient monuments has been vested on the Department of Archaeology and it is the duty of the DoA to protect, maintain and renovate public ancient monuments (Section 3B). Similarly, it is the duty of individual owner to protect, maintain and renovate private ancient monument located within protect ancient monument area (Section 3C (1)). If the private ancient property is located outside protected ancient monument area, the local authority or the individual owner is under the duty to protect, maintain and renovate private ancient property in accordance the directives of the DoA (Section 3C (3). The Act requires the Directors or trustees of religious temples of monasteries to invest up to 50 percent of the amount offered in such temples and monasteries for the protection of the temple or monastery and its environment (Section 3E). The government may purchase any ancient monuments for the purpose of ensuring its protection (Section 4). Further, the Act stipulates that any proposed developmental works which may impact upon heritage sites are to be done only pursuant to approval from the DoA, in accordance with prescribed designs and standards (Section 3(5)-(8)). Chief District Officer is required to find out the archaeological items in her/his area and write to Principal Archaeological Officer with all the details for the conservation of such items. Ancient monuments and archaeological items located on private property may be confiscated by the government, without compensation, where the proprietor has allowed such items to fall into a state of disrepair (Section 7). In relation to moveable cultural property, the Act requires compulsory registration of private collections of archaeological objects when the objects are more than 100 years old. In addition, it prohibits the transfer and trade of such objects (Section 13(2)). The Act establishes an Ancient Monument Fund for the protection of ancient monuments of historical and artistic importance. Tourism Act 1978 The main piece of legislation dealing with tourist activities is the Tourism Act of 1978. The object of this statute is to prescribe controls upon the operations of tourism industry, such as hotels, restaurants, and trekking industries. The only environmental code of conduct which has been provided by the Act is that a mountaineering expedition team is required to comply with the prescribed conditions in order not to pollute the environment at the time of mountaineering (Section 30(1)). In case, any loss or damage to the life of any person or governmental or non-governmental property is caused by reason of non-complying with the prescribed conditions mentioned above, the concerned mountaineering expedition team must pay the compensation as determined by Government of Nepal and if such team fails to pay them, the agency which has recommended such mountaineering expedition team must have to pay such compensation (Section 30 (2)). Similar, provision needs to be included for other tourism activities such as trekking and rafting. There is no reason to limit it to mountaineering expeditions only. The Government of Nepal is empowered to take deposit as prescribed from mountaineering expedition teams of prescribed Himalayan peak for garbage management (Section 31 (1)). The Government is required to return the deposit so taken to the concerned mountaineering expedition team after such team deposits the prescribed goods in the place determined by the Government upon completion of such expedition (Section 31(2)). The deposit amount must be transferred to the government account if the concerned mountaineering expedition team does not deposit the goods in the determined place and such goods may be sent back to the concerned place (Section 31(2)). It would have been useful for cleaning the mess created by mountaineering team which does not manage the garbage as required by the Act, if it had clearly mentioned that the deposit amount from mountaineering team who do not bring the garbage back must be utilized in collecting and disposing of the garbage. 113 In case, a leader or any member of a mountaineering expedition team violates this Act, Rules framed hereunder or any matter prescribed in conditions of the permit for mountaineering, the Government has the authority to revoke permit issued under this Act at any time (Section 34(1)). If any special situation arises in order to revoke the permission for mountaineering issued under this Act, the Government may revoke such permission with or without showing reasons thereof at any time (Section 34(2)). It is surprising why this discretionary power of the government is only limited to mountaineering activities. Such powers should also be given to the government for regulating other kinds of tourism activities and enterprise for conservation of environment and biodiversity. Nepal Tourism Board Act 1997 One of the objectives of Nepal Tourism Board is to develop, expand and promote tourism business while conserving and promoting natural and cultural heritage and environment of the country (Section 5 (b)). In line with the aforementioned objectives of the Board, powers and functions of the Board include: • • • • • • formulating and implementing necessary programs for infrastructure development, tourism service, facility expansion, human re source development, conservation of ecology of tourism sites and other programs in tourist destinations in order for establishment, improvement, development, extension, promotion and protection of tourism business (Section 6 (b)); motivating private sector for showing country’s religious and culturally important places/sites, high mountains and panoramic natural beauty to tourists by managing and effectively utilizing existing tourism related physical infrastructure (Section 6 (g)); developing Nepal as an adventurous and attractive tourist destination and operating in various parts of Nepal recreational and adventurous tourism activities based on water, land and air without causing adverse effect on original culture and tradition and encouraging the private sector to carry out such adventurous tourism activities (Section 6 (h)); encouraging participation of the local community in various activities related to protection of historically important places, temples and stupas (Section 6 (j)); giving priority to strengthen tourism infrastructures and facilities for rural tourist destinations by developing new tourist destinations and motivating local community to run various rural tourism developments programs; in order for developing religious tourism, protecting and promoting religious pilgrimage places, expanding facilities and servicess in such places of religious and cultural importance to attract more tourists, and developing such places as international religious centers (Section 6 (m)). The objectives and powers and functions of the Tourism Board would be useful for developing KSL area as a tourism center for cultural, natural, recreational and religious destinations which could contribute to conservation of biodiversity and poverty reduction in the area provided that the objectives and powers and functions of the Board are taken seriously by all the actors involved in tourism. As the Board is required to take both the private sector and local community along, it is very likely that their initiative will be successful in such areas. The Board has already made its presence felt in different parts of Nepal in promoting tourism. 7.1.6 Transboundary Movement of Animals/Diseases Livestock Health and Livestock Services Act 1998 The Act defines livestock as any kind of domestic or wild animals and includes birds and fish. Livestock products includes meat, blood, fat, gall bladder, milk, egg, bone, skin, horns, hooves, feathers, wool, hair, embryo, sperm, gland, urine, faeces and any unprocessed commodity made from them (Section 2 (b)). The Government of Nepal is obliged to establish temporary or permanent quarantine check post in any area of Nepal by publishing a notification in Nepal Gazette (Section 3). On the one hand, Section 3 obliges the government to establish quarantine check posts in different 114 areas of Nepal, on the other it gives discretionary power by not specifying that such check posts must be established in at least 10 or 12 entry or exit points of Nepal. Livestock, livestock products and livestock production equipment/inputs imported by importers must be kept in quarantine for certain period (Section 6 (1)). It is the duty of the importer to provide necessary feed, water and security for animals kept in quarantine post. Quarantine officer must issue an order to the importer for disposing of the animal after examination in case the animal kept dies during examination period in quarantine. The importer is not entitled to claim any compensation, in case an animal dies while in quarantine (Section 6 (4)). While importing animals, animal products and animal production equipment, the importer must import such things through quarantine check post (Section 9). The maximum fine for importing livestock, animal/livestock products and livestock production equipment/inputs from other areas is a maximum of Rs 25,000 and in case the livestock, animal/livestock products or livestock production equipment/inputs so imported are infected with contagious diseases the fine is double (Section 20 (1). The Government of Nepal may prohibit import of animals which are suffering from certain diseases. Quarantine Officer may prohibit livestock, animal/livestock products and livestock production equipment/input imported by the importer from bringing into the country in following conditions: a) there is epidemic of contagious disease in the place from where livestock, animal/livestock products or livestock production equipment. b) importer is unable to furnish certificate stating that the livestock, animal/livestock products or livestock production equipment/inputs which s/he is about the import are free from contagious disease and certificate of health, c) although certificates have been furnished as mentioned above, some animals are found dead due to contagious disease, and d) the vehicle which has been used for carrying animals is found to be infected with contagious diseases (Section 11 (a) to (d). Quarantine Officer is further empowered to order the importer to take livestock, animal/livestock products and livestock production equipment/inputs which have been prohibited in accordance with Section 11 above back to the country from where they were imported. If the Quarantine Officer finds that while keeping the livestock, animal/livestock products and livestock production equipment/inputs or while sending them back to the country from where they were imported, there is likelihood of spreading of contagious disease s/he may order the importer to dispose of or destroy such livestock, animal/livestock products and livestock production equipment/inputs. The Act requires the person who wishes to establish an industry for biologics, fingerlings hatchery, chicks, animal feed, or meat processing to obtain a recommendation letter from prescribed agency for the same. Similarly, export or import of biologics, fingerlings, chicks, animal feed also requires a recommendation letter from prescribed agency. 7.1.7 Bilateral Agreements within the Region There have been two recent agreements in the field of biodiversity conservation between Nepal and China, and between Nepal and India (DNPWC 2010). These two bilateral cooperation initiatives provide basis for regional landscape cooperation in the future. The Memorandum of Understanding on Cooperation in the Field of Forestry and Biodiversity Conservation between Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, GoN, and the State Forestry Administration, People’s Republic of China (PRC), signed on 3 June 2010, mentions commitment to implement the obligations of multilateral agreements and conventions to protect the environment and conserve biodiversity. Major areas of cooperation include formulating forestry policies and strategies, forest management and addressing adverse effects on forests, wildlife conservation including illegal hunting of animals and illegal trade of their body parts, scientific research, and public awareness. Similarly, a resolution was signed between National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, and National Tiger Conservation Authority, Government of Nepal, and the Ministry of Environment and Forests, 115 GoI, on 29 July 2010, on transboundary conservation, as an outcome of the Fourth Nepal-India Consultative Meeting. The resolution focused on areas of, inter alia, conservation of endangered species including tiger, rhino and elephant, capacity building, joint monitoring arrangements, and cooperation on recognized priority landscapes. 7.1.8 Inconsistencies in the Statutory Regime Inconsistencies in the statutory framework create loopholes which in turn create the potential for environmental injustice in the rural and natural resource context. The extent of the rights allocated by different laws to various user groups differs substantially (Table 3). Of the two types of users groups established under the Forest Act, only CFUGs are recognized as legal entities. Registered water user groups established under the Water Resources Act 1992 also are recognized as legal entities. The LSGA empowers VDCs to sell specified natural resources and products, and stipulates that the proceeds of such sales are to be deposited to the VDC fund (Sections 58(d) and 58(e), while the Forest Act empowers CFUGs to sell the same products (Sections 2(c) and 25(1)). Religious forest user groups established under the Forest Act do not have the right to sell forest products, nor do user committees established under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973. While there may be overlaps in the membership of a VDC and a user group or committee, these contradictory provisions concerning rights to use natural resources create the potential for conflict between local government and user groups (Joshi 1997). Table 7.1 Legal provisions governing natural resources Resource Legal Provisions Equitable access Participation in decisionmaking and management Equitable benefitsharing Rights Land - WRA LA LA Timber FA, WRA FA, LSGA, WRA FA FA Firewood FA, WRA FA, LSGA, WRA FA FA NTFPs FA, WRA FA, LSGA, WRA FA FA Grass/fodder FA, WRA FA, LSGA, WRA FA, LSGA FA Drinking water WRA LSGA, WRA WRA WRA Irrigation water WRA LSGA, WRA WRA WRA FA = Forest Act 1993 LA = Lands Act 1964 LSGA = Local Self Governance Act 1999, WRA = Water Resources Act 1992; Source: Belbase and Thapa 2007. Next step Although Nepal’s forestry and protected area legislation is considered as one of the best pieces of legislation, there is hardly any mention of transboundary landscape management. In spite of that, if any initiative is to be developed and implemented in KSL-Nepal, such initiative needs to take into account different pieces of legislation and policies which range from forestry to protected areas to seeds and tourism. Periodic plans do provide for scientific management of forest and protected areas. As one of the strategies of the Interim Plan is to adopt scientific management system for conservation of biodiversity and genetic resources, it creates enabling policy environment for MFSC to promote transboundary landscape management which implies using an integrated approach in the management of extended landscapes, defined by ecosystems rather than boundaries, in which both conservation and sustainable use of components of biodiversity are considered. Thus it could be inferred that the most recent Interim Plan supports such transboundary landscape management. In 2002, the Nepal Biodiversity Strategy adopted the landscape planning approach to protect and manage biodiversity on a sustainable, long-term basis. Nepal favors such transboundary initiative for conservation and sustainable development goals. However, the various legislations reviewed above are silent about transboundary conservation initiative. 116 It would be useful to take the local bodies and indigenous and local communities along in the KSL Conservation Initiative as the success of such initiative would also depend upon involvement of local bodies and local communities. Therefore, the first priority should be to involve these actors and stakeholders in the KSL Conservation Initiative. As there are different user groups such as community forest user groups in the proposed KSL area, it would be important to get their confidence and support. The more they are informed, consulted and involved in the Initiative, the less there will be chances for hindrances during development of the Regional Cooperation Framework and its implementation. As China, India and Nepal have their own different legal system, and also to err on the side of caution, it would be useful to first go for non-legally binding policy instrument which could be easily adopted by all three countries. As the countries start implementing the different components of the Initiative, they may prefer to develop a legally binding instrument. There might be more reception and cooperation from these country’s governments for an informal Regional Cooperation Framework. Some of the components could be later incorporated by individual countries in the selected policies and plans. There has been widespread appreciation and support for conservation area designated in accordance with the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act. It could be one of the most viable management options for KSL Conservation Initiative. As MFSC has in the past launched and provided legal basis for innovative model of forest and protected area management – community forestry, leasehold forestry, conservation area and buffer zone management- it again needs to take lead in transboundary landscape management for KSL. 117 8. Needs Assessment Framework This chapter draws upon information in previous chapters of the report. A needs assessment of the thematic areas has been made which is followed by objectives/activities and means of implementation with the aim to meet conservation and sustainable development goals (Table 8.1). The assessment serves as a guiding framework for development of a Regional Conservation Framework. The focal/thematic areas of KSL-Nepal are guided by international conservation agreements including the Convention on Biological Diversity, Millennium Development Goals, and UNFCCC agreements on adaptation and mitigation. Table 8.1 Framework of needs assessment and means of implementation Focal areas/Objectives Means of Implementation Focal area: Biodiversity Promote conservation of biodiversity, ecosystems, habitats and biomes • Incorporate provisions of biodiversity conservation in district plan of all districts • Effectively manage protected areas including recently declared Api-Nampa Conservation Area • Prepare Khaptad Daha for declaration of Ramsar Site • Conserve important plant and bird areas • Manage important biological corridors Promote conservation and documentation of species diversity Promote conservation of crop genetic diversity Promote sustainable use and consumption Control potential invasive alien species (IAS) Improve and maintain ecosystem services Target Area • Implement actions plans and improve population of threatened fauna (including snow leopard, musk deer, etc.) and flora (including medicinal plant species) • Exploration and documentation of flora and fauna • Effectively implement conservation of traditional crop varieties • Develop community gene bank • Regulate and monitor forest products through community participation • Implement forest certification mechanism in community forests for major NTFPs • Develop general methodology to monitor and control IAS • Maintain diverse ecosystems (forest, rangelands, wetlands) to deliver goods and services for food security Focal area: Socio-economy and Poverty Develop basic infrastructure • Integrate all construction activities, road, building, and and services in environment- industry following environment guidelines friendly manner • Maintain urbanization and settlement growth in harmony with social, environmental and cultural integrity • Promote development of renewable energy resources • Improve access to potable water and sanitation • Manage solid waste and other types of pollution Improve socio-economic • Develop sustainable plan for food security conditions of local residents • Improve access to livelihood options • Promote sustainable harvesting of wild species • Promote productivity of crops • Regulate trade in sustainable manner • Establish plant based industries for processing Focal area: Cultural identity and Traditional Knowledge Protect and promote cultural • Support religious, cultural and community institutions identity of KSL-Nepal • Phase-wise restoration and management of important historical, cultural and religious monuments Protect traditional knowledge • Document traditional knowledge and ensure IPRs through sui generis IPR system 118 All districts Bajhang, Rara and Darchula Khaptad NP All districts All districts including Karnali and Mahakali Rivers All districts All districts All districts Humla All districts All districts Baitadi and lower altitudes All districts All districts All districts All districts All districts All districts All districts with focus on Humla All districts All districts All districts All districts All districts All districts with focus on Humla and Darchula All districts Focal area: Tourism Promote sustainable tourism • All districts with focus Identify and develop trekking routes • Build infrastructure and encourage local-private sector on Humla and all protected areas and community groups to invest • Improve awareness • Monitor changes in society, economy, and environment Focal area: Capacity Building Build capacity of local • Improve coordination and monitoring capacity among All districts organizations and partners all government and non-government organizations in district • Integrate NGOs and other organizations • Support NGOs that are working in remote areas in the district Focal area: Climate Change Maintain and enhance • Initiate climate change research and monitoring with resilience of components of focus on impacts on the livelihoods of communities, and glacier biodiversity to adapt to changes climate change Focal area: Pollution Reduce pollution • Establish baseline information to monitor different types of pollution Focal area: Capacity Building Improve financial, human, • Ensure financial, human, technical and technological technical and technological resources by coordinating all stakeholders working at various capacity levels All districts with focus on high altitudes All districts with focus on rivers All districts Way Forward Conservation and sustainable development of the KSL-Nepal region needs implementation of programs at different levels. Global Level • Nepal has to purposefully improve financial, human, scientific, technical and technological capacity to implement Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiative in KSL-Nepal with the help of global assistance. Regional Level • Further regional collaboration with respect to conservation and sustainable development is essential to resolve transboundary issues. • A regional level approach should be undertaken to study the impact of climate change on biological resources, livelihoods, cultural integrity, and environmental issues related to upward-downward ecosystem services. National Level • Landscape level planning and monitoring should be strongly implemented for conservation and sustainable development. Local Level • It is essential to build the capacity of local institutions and involve community participation for successful implementation of the program. 119 References Adhikari, J. (2008) Food Crisis in Karnali: A Historical and Politico-economic Perspective. 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Available online at http://ir.lib.hiroshima- u.ac.jp/metadb/up/74007022/JIDC_08_01_08_Takahatake.pdf Tandon, V., N.K. Bhattarai and M. Karki (2001) Conservation Assessment and Management Prioritization (CAMP) Report. International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada and Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, HMG, Nepal. Tara Gaon Development Board (2008) Karnali Area Tourism Development Master Plan. A report submitted to the Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation, Katrhmandu, Nepal. The World Conservation Union, Regional Environmental Law Programme, Asia (IUCN RELPA) (2006) Resource Rights, Sustainable Livelihoods, Environmental Security and Conflict Mitigation in South Asia. Final report to the United States Agency for International Development. Tiwari, S., B. Adhikari, M. Siwakoti & K. Subedi (2005) An Inventory and Assessment of Invasive Alien Plant Species of Nepal, IUCN-The World Conservation Union Nepal, Kathmandu. www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2009-06/02/content_7964531.htm 126 Tucci, G. (1962) Nepal. The discovery of the Malla. Allen and Unwin, London. Tyson, J. (1954) Exploring the Api and Nampa group. Alpine J. 59 (289): 421-427. Village Development Committee Profile of Nepal (2008) A Socio-Economic Development Database of Nepal, Published by Intensive study and Research Centre, Kathmandu, Nepal. Ved D.K. & Tandon V. (1998) Conservation Assessment Management Plan (CAMP) Report for High Altitude Medicinal Plants of Jammu-Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Report. Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT), Bangalore, India. WCN (2005) Evaluation of the trans-boundary meetings between India and Nepal with a focus on illegal wildlife trade. 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Bot. 38: 1-30. 127 Annexes VDCs in KSL, Nepal Reference List 165 HUMLA 179 115 159 170 163 162 154 156 142 122 128 150 114 121 178 124 177 175 155 83 DARCHULA 171 149 131 133 132 134 135 120 148 112 151 123 126 146 152 138 127 117 125 119 147 77 28 143 46 74 84 39 98 19 14 71 110 102 137 35 31 108 23 4 40 60 44 61 30 76 86 69 73 91 34 27 105 67 104 10 15 2455 26 7 6 111 64 66 106 68 80 107 43 50 51 38 22 79 3 95 65 97 21 70 96 9092 109 9 18 81 5 20 16 94 103 89 52 2 87 17 57 48 93 1 78 99 33 47 59 41 85 72 53 37 25 58 82 56 62 29 32 63 13 8 49 164 BAJHANG 153 173 167 ó ô 161 172 158 174 169 168 160 176 157 166 !" ó ô ÷ ø !" # BAITADI District boundary VDC boundary 50 0 50 Kilometers N Annex 1a VDCs in KSL Nepal 128 Annex 1b VDC identification District VDC/municipality Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Amchaur Basantapur Basulinga Bhatana Bhumeshwar Bhumiraj Bijayapur Bishalpur Chaukham Dasharathchand Municipality Dehimandaun Deulek Dhungad Dilasaini Durgabhawani Durgasthan Gajari Giregada Gokuleshwar Gujar Gurukhola Gwalek Hat Hatairaj Kailpal Kataujpani Kotila Kotpetara Kulaun Kuwakot Mahadevsthan Mahakali Maharudra Malladehi Mathairaj Mauneli Melauli Nagarjun Nwadeu Nwali Pancheshwar Patan Rauleshwar Rim Rodidewal Rudreshwar Sakar Salena Sarmali Referenc e Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 District VDC/municipality Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Shankarpur Shikharpur Shivalinga Shivanath Shree Kedar Shrikot Siddhapur Siddheshwar Sigas Silanga Sitad Talladehi Thalakanda Udayadev Banjh Bhairavnath Bhamchaur Bhatekhola Byasi Chainpur Chaudhari Dahabagar Dangaji Datola Daulichaur Deulek Deulikot Dhamena Gadaraya Hemantawada Kadel Kailash Kalukheti Kanda Kaphalseri Khaptad National Park Khiratadi Koiralakot Kotbhairab Kotdewal Lamatola Lekgaun Luyata Majhigaun Malumela Mastadev Matela Maulali Melbisauni 129 Reference Number 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 District VDC/municipality Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Parakatne Patadebal Pauwagadhi Pipalkot Rayal Rilu Rithapata Senpasela Subeda Sunikot Sunkuda Surma Syadi Bhagawati Boharigaun Bramhadev Byas Chhapari Dandakot Dattu Dethala Dhap Dhari Dhaulakot Dhuligada Ghunsa Gokuleshwar Guljar Gwani Hikila Hunainath Huti Iyarkot Katai Khalanga Khandeshwari Khar Kharkanda Lali Latinath Malikarjun Referenc e Number 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 District VDC/municipality Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchula Darchaula Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Humla Pipalchauri Ranishikhar Rapla Riththa Chaupata Sarmauli Seri Shankarpur Shikhar Sipti Sitaula Sunsera Tapoban Uku Baraigaun Bargaun Chhipra Dandaphaya Darma Gothi Hepka Jair Kalika Khagalgaun Kharpunath Lali Limi Madana Maila Melchham Mimi Muchu Raya Rodikot Sarkideu Saya Shrimasta Shrinagar Simikot Syada Thehe 130 Reference Number 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 Annex 2. Breeds and productivity of animal species SN Animal species Animal categories Local 1 2 3 4 Improved Production zone Cattle Khaila Pahadi Jersey cross Jersey cross Milk: 2.5 l/d 4.5 l/d Gaddi Lime Yak Murrah MxL - Chauri - Milk: Milk: Milk: 720 l /lac Fiber: 0.3 kg/yr (fine) Milk:1495 l/ lac Fiber: 2-3 kg coarse/yr Khari K x Jam 1631 l/lac 1631 l/lac High hills High hills Milk: High hills High hills Mountain Buffalo Yak, chauri - Mountain Goats Sinhal Chyangra 5 Production level Milk, meat, fiber Local Improved Milk 0.25 l/d Meat* 18 kg at 18 month age Meat:* Pashmina: 0.25 kg Meat:* 18 kg at 18 month age hills High hills Mountain Sheep Baruwal Br x Polw Bhyanglung - 6 Pig Local 7 Poultry Shakhini 8 Horse, Donkey Local Wool:0.8 kg Meat: Wool:1.4 kg Meat: 18 kg at 18 month age Meat Meat:0.8 dress meat kg/bird Eggs: 16/280d Power: 80 kg/trip 131 Wool: 1.5 kg Hills, mountain Mountain Hills, mountain Hills & mountain Mountain Annex 3 Botanical explorations in KSL-Nepal (Humla, Bajhang, Darchula and Baitadi districts) from 1952 to 2009 __________________________________________________________________ Year Collectors Areas _____________________________________________________________________ 1952 1965 1965 1968 1972 1973 1976 1979 1980 1981 1981 1981 1982 1982 1983 O. Polunin, W. R. Sykes & L. H. J. Williams Humla J. D. A. Stainton Bajhang T. B. Shrestha Bajhang S. B. Malla Humla M. S. Bista & D. P. Joshi Baitadi J. F. Dobremez Bajhang H. Tabata, K. R. Rajbhandari and K. Tsuchiya Bajhang K. R. Rajbhandari & B. Roy Humla K. R. Rajbhandari & K. J. Malla Baitadi, Darchula P. R. Shakya, L. R. Sharma & K. R. Amatya Bajhang S. B. Malla & H. K. Saiju Baitadi I. Sharma, R. Joshi, R. Uprety & I. Pandey Baitadi M. M. Amatya & P. M. Regmi Darchula L. P. Kattel Bajhang H. Tabata, D. P. Joshi, K. Tsuchiya, N. Fujita, E. Suzuki, Y. Shimizu, F. Koike, M. Matsui & T. Yumoto Humla 1984 P. Pradhan, R. K. Uprety, N. Pradhan & N. Dabadi Bajhang 1984 P. R. Shakya, M. K. Adhikari & M. N. Subedi Baitadi, Bajhang 1985 P. R. Shakya, M. N. Subedi & R. Uprety Humla 1990 N. K. Bhattarai Bajhang 1991 K. R. Rajbhandari Bajhang 1991 M. Suzuki, H. Hatta, N. Kurosaki, M. Mikage, F. Miyamoto, K. R. Rajbhandari, H. Takayama & K. Terada Bajhang 2008 C. A. Pendry, S. R. Baral, S. Noshiro, S. Rajbhandari, P. P. Kurmi, B. Dell & B. Adhikari Humla 2009 H. Ikeda, C. Pendry, A. P. Bhattarai, G. D. Bhatt, S. Noshiro, M. Amano, T. Tanaka, Y. J. Wang, B. I. Dell & N. Yamamoto Bajhang _____________________________________________________________________ 132 Annex 4. Endemic Plants in Kailash Sacred Landscape - Nepal (Shrestha & Watson 2008, unpubl.) SN 1. Delphinium himalayai Munz Ranunculaceae Elevation ranges m 2400-4500 2. Draba poluniana Al-Shehbaz Brassicaceae Ca. 3800 + 3. Eskemukerjea megacarpum (Malick & Sengupta) Hara Galium saipalense Ehrend. & Schonb.Tem. Polygonaceae Ca. 2800 + Rubiaceae Ca. 4700m + 5. Lomatogonium graciliflorum H. Sm. Gentianaceae 3000-4500 + 6. Meconopsis simikotensis GreyWilson Papaveraceae 3500-4000 + SSW 4270 (BM) 7. Noccaea nepalensis AlShehbaz Brassicaceae Ca. 3200 + PSW 4199 (BM, E) 8. Oreocome depauperata Pimenov & Kljuykov Apiaceae 1700-3500 + Ras 9. Ranunculus himalaicus Tamura Ranunculaceae Ca. 4600 + E. Nepal 10. Rhodiola Crassulaceae himalensis (D. Don) S.H. Fu subsp. bouvieri (Raym.Hamet) H. Ohba 11. 4. Latin name Family Bai Baj Dar Hum + Other districts Jum, Dol, Mug, Mus, Mya, Kas, Ras Vouchers PSW 264 (BM) Doutful PSW 4247 (TI, BM) JEM Arnold 124 (BM!) Ruk, Mus, Man, Bag, Ram, San 3600-3900 + Scrophularia laportiifolia T. Yamaz. Scrophulariaceae 2700-2900 + 12. Taraxacum nepalense Soest Asteraceae 2700-3400 13. Vicatia nepalensis Kljuykov Apiaceae Ca. 2800 + Dol, Man, Mug, Mus, Bag, Ram, San JEM Arnold 325B (BM) Shakya, Subedi & Uprety 8701 (KATH). PSW 257 (BM). JF Duthie 5565 (DD, BM, K). Stainton 4928 (BM, BM). Bis Ram 505 (BM). + JDA Stainton 4929 (BM). KSL- Nepal districts: Bai= Baitadi, Baj = Bajhang, Dar = Darchula, and Hum = Humla. Other districts of occurrence: Bag = Baglung, Baju = Bajura, Dol = Dolpa, Jum = Jumla, Kas = Kaski, Man = Manang, Mug = Mugu district, Mus = Mustang, Mya = Myagdi, Ram = Ramechhap, Ras = Rasuwa, San = Sankhuwasabha, and Tap = Taplejung district 133 Annex 5. Enumeration of the Flowering (and non-flowering) plants in Kailash Sacred Landscape/Nepal (with emphasis on Humla district) Family Species Locality Elevation Habit Local Name Use value FUNGI Ophiocordycipitaceae Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G.H. Sung et al. Morchellaceae Morchella conica (L.) Pers. PTERIDOPHYTES (FERNS) Adiantaceae Adiantum sp. Adiantaceae Adiantum sp. Athyriaceae Diplazium stoliczae Dryopteridaceae Dryopteris barbigera Dryopteridaceae Dryopteris cochleata (D. Don) C. Chr. Dryopteridaceae Dryopteris sp. 1 Dryopteridaceae Dryopteris sp. 2 Ophioglossaceae Ophioglossum sp. Polypodiaceae Lepisorus sp GYMNOSPERMS Cupressaceae Cupressus torulosa D. Don Cupressaceae Juniperus indica Bertol. Cupressaceae Juniperus pseudosabina Fisch. & Mey. Ephedraceae Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf Pinaceae Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Mirb. Pinaceae Abies pindrow Royle Pinaceae Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don Pinaceae Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. Pinaceae Pinus involucrata Wall. Pinaceae Pinus macrophylla D. Don Pinaceae Pinus petiolaris Wall. Pinaceae Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Pinaceae Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jackson Pinaceae Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Taxaceae Tsuga dumosa (D. Don) Eichler ANGIOSPERMS (DICOTS) Acanthaceae Goldfussia capitata Ness. Acanthaceae Justicia adhatoda L. Aceraceae Acer acuminatum Wall. ex D.Don Aceraceae Acer caesium Wall. ex Brandis Near Saipal (Khagalgaun VDC), Humla Mekhala, Tugling, Humla Dandafaya, Humla Near Jabkung, Humla Mekhala, Humla Humla Humla Salli Khola to Kermi, Humla Salli Khola to Yablang, Humla Lower Jabkung, Humla Upper Jabkung, Humla 4000-4500 Herb Yarsagumba Plant: medicinal 3500-3900 Herb Guchchi chyau Edible mushroom 2900 3200 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Kalo neuro Vegetable Talakpa roofing material 2950 2800 3000 3300 Sunchera, Darchula Yari to Khagalgaun, Humla Dipukang - Api, Darchula Muchu, Humla; Naya Odar, Bajhang Salle khola, Humla Manal, Humla Chipra, Humla Chipra, Humla Dhansera - Nilkatti, Bajhang Mechhra - Kalagad, Darchula Chainpur, Bajhang Humla Yari, Humla Dandafaya, Humla Humla 1800 2400-4000 3200 2900-3200 2800-3200 2700 2100 2300-3600 4090 4020 3100 1100-2100 2500-3500 3100-3200 2100-3600 Tree Tree Shrub Shrub Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Sunchera, Darchula Mekhala, Mimi VDC, Humla Khaptad, Bajhang Yangar, Humla 1800 500-1600 2200-3200 2900 Shrub Tree Tree 140 Dhupi Sukpa (K) Dhupi Somlata Thinge salla (N) Firewood, incense firewood, timber Thansing (K) Lauth Salla Timber Asuro Ritual Tilailo making FURU (wooden bowl) Aceraceae Aceraceae Aceraceae Aceraceae Aceraceae Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Aquifoliaceae Araliaceae Araliaceae Asclepiadaceae Asclepiadaceae Asclepiadaceae Asclepiadaceae Asclepiadaceae Asteraceae Acer cappadocicum Gled. Acer caudatum Wall. A. oblongum Wall. ex DC. Acer pectinatum Wall. A. sterculiaceum Wall. Achyranthes aspera L. A. bidentata Bl. Amranthus caudatus L. A. spinosus L. Cyathula capitata Moq. Cyathula tomentosa (Roth) Moq Mangifera indica L. Pistasia chinensis Bunge subsp. integerrima (J.L. Stewart) Rech. f. Rhus javanica L. Chaerophyllum reflexum Lindl. Heracleum candicans Wall. Heracleum sp. Oreocome depauperata Pimenov & Kljuykov Pleurospermum benthamii (DC.) C.B. Clarke Pleurospermum dentatum (DC.) C.B. Clarke Sanicula elata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Selinum candoilei DC. Selinum wallichianum (DC.) Raizada & Saxena Vicatia coniifolia DC. Vicatia nepalensis Kljuykov Ilex dipyrena Wall. Hedera nepalensis K.Koch. Panax pseudo-ginseng Wall. Asclepias curassavica L. Cryptolepis buchananii Roem. & Schult. Cynanchum auriculatum Royle ex Wight Cynanchum canescens (Willd.) K. Schum. Vincetoxicum hirudinaria Medicus Adenocaulon himalaicum Edgew. Jabkung, Humla Khaptad, Bajhang Chainpur, Bajhang Khaptad, Bajhang Bajhang Upper Dojam; Pujarigaon, Bajhang Khaptad - Lokhada, Bajhang Mekhala, Humla Khalanga, Darchula Kermi, Humla Niglad, Baitadi Mekhala, Humla Humla 3100 3000-4000 1200 2700-3800 2600 2700-2900 2400 1000-2300 840 2700 1720 300-700 2100 Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Tree Tree Humla Kande - Dhalaune, Bajhang Near Jabkung, Humla Near Dandafaya, Humla Humla 1300-2400 2400 3200 2700 1700-3500 Tree Herb Herb Herb Herb Humla 3500-4000 Herb Mekhala, Humla 3200-4500 Herb Thin, Darchula Humla Mekhala, Humla 2390 3000-3800 3600-4200 Herb Herb Chankheli Lekh, Humla Darchula Humla; opakhe - Thin, Darchula Chipra, Humla Humla Satbanjh, Baitadi Chainpur, Bajhang Humla Humla Upper Jabkung, Humla Sat Thaple - Remi, Humla 3350 2800 2300 2200 2100-2500 1900 2000 2000-3700 141 3400 3200 Herb Tree Climber Shrub Firfire Apamarg Datiwan Rato Latte Van lude Kapase kuro Amp Ritual Chhetare fodder Endemic to Nepal Gannaino Pickle Endemic to Nepal Seto Kharsu Khorsani phool Climber Herb Herb Herb Vegetable Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Anaphalis busua (D. Don) DC. Anaphalis contorta (D.Don) Hook.f. Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) Benth. Anaphalis monocephala DC. Anaphalis royleana DC. Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims) C.B. Clarke Anaphalis triplinervis var. Intermedia (DC.) Airy Shaw Anaphalis triplinervis var. Monocephala (DC.) Airy Shaw Artemisia dubia Wall. ex Besser Artemisia gmelinii Weber ex. Stechm. Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Artemisia indica Willd. Anaphalis roxburghiana Wall. ex Besser Artemisia sieversiana Willd. Aster albescens (DC.) Hand.-Mazz. Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Aster falconeri ssp. Nepalensis Grierson Aster flaccidus Bunge Aster peduncularis ssp. Nepalensis Grierson Aster stracheyi Hook. f. Bidens bipinnata L. Bidens pilosa L. Carpesium nepalense Less. Cicerbita cynea (D. Don) Beauv. Cicerbita macrorhiza (Royle) Beauv. Cirsium wallichii DC. Cirsium sp. Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore Cremanthodium arnicoides (DC. ex Royle) R. Good Cremanthodium ellisii (Hook.f.) Kitam. Cremanthodium sp. Crepis sp. Doronicum roylei DC. Echinops niveus Wall. ex Royle Erigeron bellidioides (Buch.-Ham. ex Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Chankheli - Rimi, Humla Yari-Muchu, Humla Mechhra, Darchula Upper Jabkung, Herb Tapaun - Dhansera, Bajhang Lower Dojam; Thin, Darchula Near Saipal, Bajhang 3100 3400 3600 3300 4020 2300-2900 3939 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb 4090 Herb Muchu; Dhansera, Bajhang Khagalgaun, Humla ; ThinDandap, Darchula Mekhala, Mimi VDC Munya Lagna - Palsa, Humla Humla Dandafaya, Humla; Dhuli - Inuldar, Bajhang Dubai pass - Sunigad, Bajhang Dandafaya, Humla Ripa - Sunakhada, Humla 2950-3100 2500-3900 Herb Herb Titepati Pasan 300-2400 3200 2100-4300 2500-3500 Herb Herb Herb Herb Titepati 4100 2900 2000 Herb Herb Herb Nilkatti - Naya Odar, Bajhang Niglad, Baitadi Niglad - Chirkitte, Baitadi Chheti - Mechhra, Darchula Dhansera - Nilkatti, Bajhang Upper Jabkung, Humla Khaptad, Bajhang Hilsa, Humla Sailek, Baitadi 3850 1720 1720-1910 2840 3780 2900-3400 1400-3500 3900 1700 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb 4080 Herb 3600 3900 2400 3120 1500-1700 1400-4300 Herb Herb Herb Kariganga - Aletsoura, Bajhang Dubai pass - Sunigad, Bajhang Upper Seding, Humla Upper Seding, Humla Dharapori, Humla Chheti - Mechhra, Darchula Dadeldhura - Silinga, Baitadi Khaptad, Bajhang 142 Phosrosan Damana Kurro Kalo kurro Padke Ghans Anikale Jhar Herb Ritual D.Don) Benth. ex C.B. Clarke Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Balsaminaceae Berberidaceae Berberidaceae Berberidaceae Berberidaceae Berberidaceae Erigeron karvinskianus DC. Erigeron karvinskianus var. Mucronatus (DC.) Asch. Galinsoga parviflora Cav. Gerbera nivea Sch.-Bip Gnaphalium affine D. Don Gnaphalium hypoleucum DC. Gnaphalium luteo-album L. Inula cappa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) DC. Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss. Leontopodium himalayanum DC. Ligularia fischeri (Ledeb.) Turcz. Ligularia sp. Myriactis nepalensis Less. Saussurea gossipiphora D. Don Saussurea graminifolia Wall. ex DC. Saussurea obvallata (DC.) Sch.Bip Saussurea roylei (DC.) Sch.Bip Saussurea uniflora Wall. ex Sch.Bip. Saussurea sp. Senecio chrysanthemoides DC. Senecio graciliflorus DC. Siegesbeckia orientalis L. Soroseris sp Tanacetum dolichophyllum (Kitam.) Kitam. Taraxacum nepalense Soest Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg. Taraxacum tibetanum Hand.-Mazz. Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. Waldheimia glabra (Decne.) Regel Impatiens sulcata Wall. Berberis aristata DC. Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC. Berberis chitria Lindl. Berberis erythroclada Ahrendt B. glaucocarpa Stapf Chir, Bajhang Baitadi 1100 1500 Darma - Sali Salla, Humla Humla; Kuntisau, Darchula Baaskatne - Dilbagar, Bajhang Chhangru, Darchula Dandafaya, Humla Humla Humla Mechhra - Kalagad, Darchula Chheti - Mechhra, Darchula Humla Dopakhe, Darchula Mechhra - Kalagad, Darchula Dhansera - Nilkatti, Bajhang Mechhra - Kalagad, Darchula Gurel Lekh, Bajhang Dhansera - Nilkatti, Bajhang Humla Chauganfaya; Kuntisau, Darchula Nilkatti - Naya Odar, Bajhang Gogan - Niglad, Baitadi Tugling, Humla Upper Seding; Ghodilekh, Bajhang Baitadi Salle khola, Simkot Nara Pass, Humla Khateda - Patan, Baitadi Surma Sarovar, Bajhang Humla Yablang, Chipra, humla Muchu, Chipra, Humla Kermi, Humla Yari, Humla Lipra Khola, Humla 143 2270 2800-4500 1160 2900 2900 150-2500 3200-4300 3900 2200-4600 2200 4140 4100 4080 3350 3900 2500 3450 1420-1720 3400 3900-4000 2700-3400 2600-2900 3900 1880-1200 4150 1700-4100 2200-2800 2200-2900 2650 3800 2880 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Shrub Shrub Shrub Shrub Shrub Chitlange jhar Panda Bokre phool Kapase Phool Endemic to Nepal Gobejhar Jhurjhure Chutro Tilkhuro Berberidaceae Berberidaceae Berberis lycium Royle Berberis ulcina Hook.f. et Thomson Berberidaceae Betulaceae Podophyllum hexandrum Royle Alnus nepalensis D.Don Betulaceae Betulaceae Betula alnoides Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Betula utilis D. Don Betulaceae Betulaceae Betulaceae Bignoniaceae Boraginaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl. Carpinus viminea Lindl. Corylus jacquemontii Decne. Incarvillea arguta Royle Arnebia benthamii (Wall ex G. Don) I.M. Johnst. Cynoglossum furcatum Wall. Cynoglossum glochidiatum Wall. ex Benth. Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk. Eritrichium sp. (or Myosotis alpestris F.W. Schmidt) Hackelia uncinata (Royle ex Benth.) C.E. C. Fisch. Lindelofia longiflora (Benth.) Baill. Maharanga bicolor (Wall. ex G.Don) A.DC. Maharanga emodi (Wall.) A.DC. Onosma bracteata Wall. Trigonotis multicaulis (DC.) Benth. ex Clarke Trigonotis ovalifolia (Wall.) Clarke Trigonotis rotundifolia (Benth) Clarke Arabidopsis himalaica (Edgw.) O.E. Schulz Arabis pterosperma Edgew. Barbarea intermedia Boreau Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. Brassicaceae Cardamine hirsuta Hook.f. & Andres Near Seding, Humla Khaptad, Bajhang Salle khola, Upper Dojam; Dopakhe, Darchula Simkot, way to Seding, Humla Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Cardamine impatiens L. Cardamine violacea (D.Don) Wall. Draba poluniana Al-Shehbaz Way to Seding, Bajhang Khaptad, Bajhang Humla Boraginaceae Boraginaceae Boraginaceae Boraginaceae Boraginaceae Boraginaceae Boraginaceae Boraginaceae Boraginaceae Boraginaceae Boraginaceae Boraginaceae Brassicaceae Way from They to Chipra, Humla Dandafaya, Kalaune - Laune, Bajhang Near Saipal Salli Khola, near Chipra; Satbanjh, Baitadi Chainpur, Bajhang Near Seding, Humla; Tinkar Tipulchyakti, Darchula Near Dojam, Humla Ghatte Khola - Agra, Bajhang Dhuli, Bajhang Kermi, Humla Jabkung, Humla 2700 2500-2800 Shrub Shrub 3000-3500 19002800 2400 3000-3700 Herb Tree Laghupatra Utis Tree Tree Saur Bhuj 2400-2700 2100 3000 2700 3200 Tree Tree Tree Herb Herb Khadik Dante okhar Doli phool 840 840 2700 3300 Herb Herb Herb Herb Khaptad; Mechhra, Darchula 2700-4200 Herb Jabkung, Humla Khaptad, Bajhang Humla Rapla - Tangbang, Darchula Mechhra, Darchula 3200 2100-3000 2200-4500 1800 3600 Herb Herb Herb Khalanga, Darchula Khalanga, Darchula Kallas, Humla Pani Palbang Chainpur, Bajhang Khalagad - Dubaipas, Baitadi Near Jabkung, Humla 144 3100 4100 3200 Herb 3400 3000-3600 2200-3100 Herb Herb Herb 29503700 3600 2500-3600 3800 Herb Herb Herb Herb Fruit: medicinal firewood root in diarrhoea Tejraj Chalne Endemic to Nepal Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Buxaceae Buxaceae Campanulaceae Campanulaceae Campanulaceae Cannabaceae Draba sp. Erysimum sp. Megacarpea polyandra Benth. Noccaea nepalensis Al-Shehbaz Rorippa sp. Sisymbrium sp. Thlaspi arvense L. Buxus wallichiana Baill. Sarcococca hookeriana Wall. Campanula pallida Wall. Codonopsis rotundifolia Benth. Cyananthus lobatus Wall. ex Benth. Cannabis sativa L. Caprifoliaceae Caprifoliaceae Caprifoliaceae Caprifoliaceae Caprifoliaceae Caprifoliaceae Caprifoliaceae Caprifoliaceae Caprifoliaceae Caprifoliaceae Caprifoliaceae Caryophyllaceae Abelia triflora R. Br. ex Wall. Leycesteria formosa Wall. Lonicera angustifolia Wall. ex DC. Lonicera hispida Pall. ex Willd. Lonicera obovata Royle L. purpurascens Walp. Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardw. Lonicera spinosa (Jaquem. ex Decne.) Walp Lonicera webbiana Wall. ex DC. Lonicera sp. Triosteum himalayanum Wall. Silene baccifera (L.) Roth Celastraceae Chenopodiaceae Chenopodiaceae Commelinaceae Commelinaceae Convolvulaceae Convolvulaceae Convolvulaceae Convolvulaceae Coriariaceae Euonymus pendulus Wall. Chenopodium album L. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Cyanotis vaga (Lour.) Schult. & Schult. Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan Convolvus arvensis L. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Evolvulus alsinoides L. Porana paniculata Roxb. Coriaria nepalensis Wall. Yari, Humla Yari, Humla Jabkung, Humla Humla Yari to Muchu, Humla Simkot, Humla Way to Seding, Humla Melchham Khola - Lepra, Humla Sribhabar - Dhole, Baitadi Melchham, Humla Tapaun - Dhansera, Bajhang Surma Sarovar, Bajhang Chipra, Muchu; Baskatne- Dilbagar, Bajhang Muchu, Humla Way to Darma, Humla Humla Humla; East of Chhety, Bajhang Humla East of Chhety, Bajhang Yablang, Yari to Muchu Hilsa to Yari, Humla Humla Yablang to Yangar, Humla Kuntisau, Darchula Humla; Makarigad-Khandewori, Darchula Chainpur - Dhuli, Bajhang Dojam, Simkot; Bajhang Aagar - Dhalaun, Bajhang Dhuli, Bajhang Aagar - Dhalaun, Bajhang Near Dojam, Yari to Muchu Bithad, Bajhang Khateda - Patan, Baitadi Sunchera, Darchula Nalna, Chipra, Humla 145 3400 3400 3200 3200 3300 2950 3400 2500 2330 2700 3740 4150 1200-2200 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb 2600-3500 2700-3300 2600-3800 2900-4500 3500-4400 3200 2800-3400 3500-3800 Shrub 2600-4300 2900 3100 2100 Shrub Shrub 1900 1800-2950 1800-2400 2360 1840 2900-3400 2000 1880-1200 1800 2400 Tree Herb Herb Herb Endemic to Nepal Shrub Herb Telparo Nepali bish Herb Herb Bhang Pickle Shrub Shrub Shrub Shrub Shrub Shrub Kalo bhedkuri Herb Herb Climber Herb Tree Betu, Bethu Rato Latte Vegetable Cornaceae Cornaceae Corylaceae Crassulaceae Satbanjh, Baitadi Dhalaun, Bajhang Salli Pass to Kermi, Humla Darchula 1800 2300 3000 3600-3900 Crassulaceae Crassulaceae Crassulaceae Crassulaceae Cucurbitaceae Cucurbitaceae Cucurbitaceae Dipsacaceae Dipsacaceae Dipsacaceae Dipsacaceae Dipsacaceae Benthamidia capitata (Wall.) H. Hara Swida macrophylla (Wall.) Sojak Corylus jacquemontii Decne. Rhodiola himalensis (D. Don) S.H. Fu subsp. bouvieri (Raym.-Hamet) H. Ohba Rhodiola sp. Rhodiola crenulata (Hk. f. & Th.) H. Ohba Rhodiola wallichiana (Hook.) Fu Sedum multicaule Wall. Bryonia sp. Solena heterophylla Lour Trichosanthes lepiniana (Naud.) Cog. Dipsacus inermis Wall. Morina longifolia Wall. Morina nepalensis D.Don Morina polyphylla Wall. Pterocephalus hookeri (Clarke) Diels Humla Surma Sarovar, Bajhang Ghodilekh, Bajhang Humla Dharapori, Humla Humla Lipne - Chhare, Humla Humla Khaptad (Baitadi) Khaptad (Baitadi) Humla Tinkar, Darchula 3200-3800 4150 4000 1500-3200 2500 1600-3200 1810 1400-4100 3000-4200 3000-4500 3000-4300 3500 m Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Climber Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Mupapat Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus parvifolia Wall. ex Royle Hippophae salicifolia D. Don 1300-3000 2850 Tree Tree Guyali Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnaceae Ericaceae Hippophae tibetana Schltr. Populus ciliata Wall. ex Royle Cassiope fastigiata (Wall.) D.Don 3800 2850 3500-4000 Shrub Tree Shrub Ericaceae Ericaceae Ericaceae Ericaceae Ericaceae Ericaceae Ericaceae Ericaceae 1700 2600 3600 2700-4500 1300-4300 2800 3400-3900 3500 Tree Tree Tree Shrub Tree Tree Shrub Shrub Ericaceae Ericaceae Gaultheria fragrantissima Wall. Gaultheria nummularioides D. Don Gaultheria Royle Gaultheria trichophylla Royle Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude Lyonia villosa (Hook. f.) Hand.-Mazz. Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don Rhododendron anthopogon ssp. Hypenanthum (Balf. f.) Cullen Rhododendron arboreum Smith Rhododendron barbatum Wall. Humla Near Dojam, Humla; Kuntisau, Darchula Way to Lagerma, Humla Kermi, Humla Upper Seding, Humla; Gural Lekh, Bajhang Chir, Bajhang Bajhang Chainpur, Bajhang Khaptad (Baitadi) Humla; Kharilo Lekh, Bajhang Khaptad - Lokhada, Bajhang Near Nara Pass Nampa valley, Darchula 1500-3300 2700-3600 Tree Tree Lali gurans Chimal Ericaceae Ericaceae Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don Rhododendron cowanianum var. new? Humla; Dopakhe - Thin, Darchula Chankheli - Rimi, Humla; Khaptad (Baitadi) Humla; Kuntisau, Darchula Yari, Nara Pass, Humla 2800-4400 3800 Shrub Shrub Nilo chimal 146 Damaru Tree Herb Endemic to Nepal Dhasingare Angeri Angeri Sunpati Ericaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Rhododendron lepidotum Wall. ex G. Don Euphorbia cognata (Klotzsch & Garcke) Boiss. Euphorbia longifolia D.Don Euphorbia royleana Boiss. Euphorbia sikkimensis Boiss. Euphorbia wallichii Hook. f. Excoecaria acerifolia F. Didr. Glochidion velutinum Wight Phyllanthus emblica L. Phyllanthus urinaria L. Astragalus grahamianus Royle ex Benth. Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Caragana brevifolia Kom. Caragana brevispina Royle Caragana versicolor (Wall.) Benth. Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) Greene Chesneya nubigena (D.Don) Ali Fabaceae Fabaceae Cyclobalanopsis lamellosa (Sm.) Oersted Desmodium elegans DC. Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fagaceae Fagaceae Fagaceae Fagaceae Fagaceae Gentianaceae Gueldenstaedtia himalaica Baker Hedysarum kumaonensis Benth. ex Baker Indigofera exilis Grierson & D.G. Long Indigofera sp. 1 Indigofera sp.2 Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet Lespedeza sp. Mucuna nigricans (Lour.) Steud. Oxytropis sp. Piptanthus nepalensis (Hook.) D.Don Trifolium repens L. Quercus glauca Thunb. Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus Quercus floribunda A. Camus Quercus lanata Sm. Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. Gentiana robusta King ex Hook.f. Dandafaya; Api Khola, Darchula Kermi to Dhandkermi, Humla 3000 2600 Shrub Herb Humla Jhota, Bajhang Thin - Dandap, Darchula Ghodilekh, Bajhang Sera village, Bajhang Makarigad, Darchula Khateda - Patan, Baitadi Baitadi Hilsa to Yari, Humla 1700-2900 1000 2500 4000 1700 1540 1880-1200 1000 3500-4000 Upper Seding, Humla Lower Jabkung, Humla Nara Pass, Hilsa, Humla Darchula - Huti, Darchula Nara pass to Yari, upper Seding, Humla Humla Yablang to Dharapori; Nalna, Chipra, Humla Humla Muchu, Humla Dharapori, Humla Salli Pass, Humla Dharapori, humla Simkot, Yablang, Humla Dharapori, Humla Pangsera - Bagadi, Baitadi Humla Humla Simkot Talkot, Bajhang Kanda - Dhuli, Bajhang Thuli Gad, Baitadi Yapka khola to Dandafaya, Humla Humla Humla 4100 2900-3100 3300-4200 1100 3800-3900 Shrub Shrub Shrub 1500-3100 2600-3000 Tree Shrub 3300-4600 3000 2700 3000 2700 2500-3000 2500 770 Herb Herb Shrub Shrub Shrub Climber Herb 147 2000-3800 2950 1670 2180 2300 2400-2700 1700-3800 3500 Bhale sunpate leaves for incense Probably new to Nepal (?) Herb Siudi Dhuk Uttus Shrub Shrub Amala Ajata Probably new to Nepal (?) Shrub Rishing good fodder Sakino fodder Sakino Simi fodder Pulse Kauso Herb Shrub Herb Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Herb Tinpate Phalant Tikhe banjh Moru Banjh fodder, firewood Gentianaceae Gentianaceae Gentianaceae Gentianaceae Gentianaceae Geraniaceae Geraniaceae Gesneriaceae Gesneriaceae Gesneriaceae Grossulariaceae Grossulariaceae Grossulariaceae Grossulariaceae Grossulariaceae Hippocastanaceae Hydrangeaceae Hypericaceae Juglandaceae Juglandaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Halenia elliptica D.Don Lomatogonium graciliflorum H. Sm. Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Fleming) Karstrn Swertia ciliata (D. Don ex G. Don) B.L. Burtt Geranium donianum Sweet Geranium pratense L. Chirita biflora D. Don Corallodiscus lanuginosus (DC.) Burtt. Rhynchoglossum obliquum Blume Ribes acuminatum Wall. ex G. Don Ribes alpestre Wall. ex Decne. Ribes himalense Royle ex G. Don Ribes sp. Ribes takare D. Don Aesculus indica (Cambess.) Hook. Deutzia staminea R.Br. ex Wall. Hypericum dyeri Rehder Juglans regia L. Juglans regia L. var kamaonia L.. Ajuga bracteosa Wall. ex Benth. Clinopodium umbrosum (M. Bieb.) C. Koch Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. Coleus forskohlii Briq. Colquhounia coccinea Wall. Craniotome furcata (Link) Kuntze Dracocephalum wallichii Sealy Elsholtzia eriostachya (Benth.) Benth. Elsholtzia flava (Benth.) Benth. Elsholtzia fruticosa (D. Don) Rehder Elsholtzia ciliata (Thunb.) Hyland. Geniosporum coloratum (D. Don) O. Kuntze Isodon ternifolius (D. Don) Kudo Lamium album L. Humla Humla, Bajhang Khaptad, Bajhang Khaptad, Bajhang 2000-4500 3000-4500 1500-2500 Herb Herb Herb Herb Humla 2800-4000 Herb Humla Dandafaya, Humla Pari Bagar - Makarigad, Darchula Patpakha, Bajhang Satbanjh, Baitadi Chheti - Mechhra, Darchula Muchu, Humla Nilkatti - Naya Odar, Bajhang Hilsa, Humla Humla Satbanjh, Baitadi Yablang to Kermi, Humla Talkot - Aagar, Bajhang Near Sribhabar, Baitadi Yablang to Dharapori, Humla Kasoti - Chheti, Darchula Baitadi; Dojam, Humla 3200-4800 2900 1160 1500 1900-1500 2950 2900 3620 3600 2200-3300 1700 2600-2900 2100 2370 2400-2900 2550 1500-2800 Herb Herb Majhigaon, Bajhang Humla Tangbang, Darchula; Khagalgaun, Humla Satbangh, Baitadi Dhansera - Nilkatti, Bajhang Nayaodar - Topu, Bajhang Niglad - Chirkitte, Baitadi Dhuli, Bajhang; Humla Niglad - Chirkitte, Baitadi Dadeldhura - Silinga, Baitadi Baitadi Mt. Roshia, Bajhang 148 1200 1800-2500 1900-1500 4090 3220 1720-1910 100-4200 1720-1910 1730-1490 1500 2780 Shrub Shrub Shrub Shrub Shrub Tree Shrub Herb Tree Tree Herb Shrub Shrub Herb Shrub Endemic to Nepal Pangro Okhar Okhar Bilajor Dhusure Dhuchchu Batule silam Herb Lenja Ban silam Shrub Herb Herb Herb fruit edible Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamium sp. Leonurus cardiaca L. Leucas lanata Benth. Melissa axillaris (Benth.) Bakh. f. Micromeria biflora (D. Don) Benth. Origanum vulgare L. Phlomis setigera Falc. ex Benth. Phlomis bracteosa Royle ex Benth. Salvia sericea Wall. ex Benth. Salvia hians Royle ex Benth. Salvia lanata Roxb. Scutellaria scandens Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Stachys melissaefolia Benth. Thymus linearis Benth. ex Benth. Lauraceae Loganiaceae Loganiaceae Loranthaceae Malvaceae Malvaceae Meliaceae Meliaceae Menispermaceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Myricaceae Myrsinaceae Nyctaginaceae Oleaceae Lindera neesiana (Wall. ex Nees) Kurz Buddleja asiatica Lour. Buddleja tibetica W. W. Sm. Loranthus sp. Malva verticillata L. Sida acuta Burm. f. Toona ciliata (Endl.) M. Roem. Toona serrata (Royle) M. Roem. Cocculus laurifolius DC. Ficus benghalensis L. Ficus hispida L.f. Ficus palmata Roxb. Ficus racemosa L. Ficus religiosa L. Ficus semicordata Buch.-Ham ex Sm. Ficus auriculata Lour. Ficus sarmentosa Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. Morus sp. Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham ex D.Don Myrsine africana L. Boerhaavia diffusa L. Fraxinus floribunda Wall. Humla Tologaon, Darchula Satbangh, Baitadi; Humla Ganai Gad, Bajhang Dhole - Baitadi; Yangar, Humla Churani - Lambagar, Darchula Khaptad, Bajhang Dhansera, Bajhang Nayaodar - Topu, Bajhang Tapaun - Dhansera, Bajhang Yablang to Chaugafaya Satbangh, Baitadi Melchham Khola, Humla Nayaodar, Bajhang; Yari to Kermi, Humla Mekhala, Humla Mekhala, Humla Budhkhori, Bajhang Humla Dozam, Humla Chamelia river, Baitadi Darchula - Huti, Darchula Nalna, Chipra, Humla Khalanga, Darchula Dharapori, Mekhala, Humla Mekhala, Humla Humla Mekhala, Humla Mekhala, Humla Mekhala, Humla Patharkot, Baitadi Gadsera - Sawaradigad, Baitadi Humla Humla Near Barail, Baitadi Thota, Bajhang Deoli - Deolekh, Bajhang 149 Herb 2800 1900 1575 2250-2900 1050-3400 3050 3640 3220 3650 2400-2800 1900 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb 2520 2600-3700 Herb Ghodamarcha Herbal tea Tree Shrub Shrub Epiphyte Herb Sil timmur Bhimsenpati Pickle Ritual Tree Tree Tuni 1800-2700 350-2000 3100 2800 1350 900 2400 1100 2300 450-1100 600-2300 350-1000 150-1500 200-1700 1500 1700 1200-2300 1420 1000 1740 Shrub Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Shrub Tree Tree Climber Sajiwan fodder Ape Kankarne Laphe sag Tilphora Bar Pipal Timila Ban timila Sete kath Punarnava Lankuri Ritual Fodder Fodder Ritual Oleaceae Oleaceae Oleaceae Oleaceae Oleaceae Oleaceae Oleaceae Oleaceae Oleaceae Onagraceae Onagraceae Onagraceae Onagraceae Oxalidaceae Papaveraceae Jasminum humile Lour. Jasminum humile L. Jasminum officinale L. Jasminum sp. Olea cuspidata Wall. Olea glandulifera Wall. Osmanthus fragrans Lour. Syringa emodi Wall. Syringa emodi Wall. ex Royle Circaea alpina L. Circaea repens Wall. Epilobium sikkimense Hausskn. Oenothera rosea L'Herit ex Ait. Oxalis corniculata L. Corydalis govaniana Wall. Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Parnassiaceae Pedaliaceae Phytolaccaceae Plantaginaceae Plantaginaceae Polygalaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Corydalis chaerophylla DC. Corydalis cornuta Royle Corydalis elegans Hook. f. & Thomson Corydalis filiformis Royle Corydalis meifolia Wall. Papaver dubium var. Glabrum Koch Meconopsis horridula Hook.f. & Thoms. Meconopsis simikotensis Grey-Wilson Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle Martynia annua L. Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. Plantago erosa Wall. Plantago himalaica Pilger Polygala persicarifolia DC. Aconogonum molle (D. Don) H. Hara Aconogonum molle (D. Don) Hara var. Thin, Darchula Yablang to Kermi, Humla Yablang, Humla Humla Darma - Lothi Khola, Humla Chainpur, Bajhang Patan, Baitadi Chankheli - Rimi, Humla Humla Surma Sarovar, Bajhang Shing Danda, Humla Ghodi Lekh, Baitadi Chainpur, Bajhang Near Salli Pass, Humla Seding, Humla; Surma Sarovar, Bajhang Pategaon - Badigaon, Bajhang Near Chhety, Bajhang Surma Sarovar, Bajhang Ghodi Lekh, Baitadi Surma Sarovar, Bajhang Ganger, Baitadi Humla Humla Nara pass to Yari, Humla Simalgad, Bajhang Humla Muchu, Simkot, Humla Humla Khagalgaun, Humla Mekhala, Mimi VDC Seding, Humla 2300 2700-2800 2600-2800 1800 1400 1400 2900 2500-3600 4150 2850 4000 1650 3000 3500 2190-3350 2800 4150 4000 4400 3100 3500-4000 3900 1000 2200-3200 2900-3000 2900 2500 2100-4000 3600 Climber Shrub Shrub Climber Silingi Tree Tree Herb Herb Herb Herb Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Aconogonum rumicifolium (Royle ex Bab.) H. Hara Bistorta affinis (D.Don) Greene Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene Bistorta macrophylla (D. Don) Sojak Seding, Humla Upper Seding, Humla Khaptad, Bajhang Upper Jabkung, Humla 150 Bhutkesh Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Endemic to Nepal Gridhamki Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb frondosum (Meisn.) H. Hara Polygonaceae Jai 3800 Herb 4100 3500-4800 3400 Herb Herb Herb Dable Thotne Bud: vegetable Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Primulaceae Primulaceae Primulaceae Primulaceae Primulaceae Primulaceae Primulaceae Primulaceae Primulaceae Punicaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Eskemukerjea megacarpum (H. Hara) H. Hara Fagopyrum esculentum Moench Fagopyrum tartaricum (L.) Gaertn. Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill Rheum australe D. Don Rheum moorcroftianum Royle Rumex hastatus D.Don. Rumex nepalensis Spreng Rumex sp. Androsace muscoidea Duby Androsace primuloides D.Don Androsace robusta (Kunth) Hand.-Mazz. Androsace sarmentosa Wall. Androsace strigillosa Franch. Primula atrodentata W.W. Sm. Primula drummondiana Craib Primula macrophylla D.Don Primula sp. Punica granatum L. Aconitum bisma (Buch.-Ham) Rapaics Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. Ranunculaceae Aconitum spicatum (Bruhl) Stapf Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Aconitum violaceum Jacquem. ex Stapf Actaea spicata L. Adonis aestivalis L. Adonis chrysocyathus Hook.f. et Thomson Anemone biflora Anemone elongata D.Don Anemone obtusiloba D.Don Anemone polyanthes D. Don Anemone rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex DC. Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Anemone rupestris Wall. Anemone rupicola Cambess. Anemone tetracephala Chauganfaya to Dandafaya, Humla Khagalgaun, Humla Yablang, Humla; Khaptad region Yari, Humla Mekhala, Humla Humla Kermi, Humla Simkot to Yari, Humla Humla Khaptad, Bajhang Kermi, Humla Near Tugling, Humla Nara Pass, Jabkung, Humla Upper Seding, Humla Nara to Yari, Humla Khaptad, Bajhang Humla Humla Dhandkermi, Humla Mekhala, Humla Mekhala, Humla Above Khagalgaun, near Tugling, Humla Tugling, Humla; Mechhra - Kalagad, Darchula Surma Sarovar, Bajhang Upper Jabkung, Humla Khanglagaon - Pahung, Humla Dozam Khola, Humla Dandafaya, Humla Khaptad, Humla Kalagad - Dubaipass, Bajhang Surma Sarovar, Bajhang Patha - Chetti, Darchula; Khaptad, Humla Humla Way to Seding; Chhetti, Bajhang Near Seding, Humla 151 2600 Herb 2500 m 2800 3700 3600-4200 3600-4400 2700 2900-3800 2500 3600-4200 3600-4200 3000-3400 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Tree Herb Herb Herb Herb 3500-3900 Herb 4400 3400 2900 3900 2950 1800-3700 2900-3500 2700-4400 1600-4000 Herb Herb 3000-4800 3000-3600 3700-4500 Herb Herb Herb 3300-5600 2800 3400 3200-3600 4200 4000 3400-3800 3400-5600 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Endemic to Nepal Phapar Tite phapar Cereal grain Padamchal Rhizome:medicinal Hale Darim Atis Kangarate Root: medicinal Root: medicinal Roots: medicinal Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Anemone vitifolia Buch.-Ham. ex DC. Aquilegia pubiflora Wall. ex Royle Caltha palustris L. Clematis barbellata Edgew. Clematis buchananiana DC. Clematis montana Buch.-Ham. ex DC. Clematis sp. Delphinium brunonianum Royle Delphinium densiflorum Duthie ex Huth Delphinium himalayai Munz Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculus adoxifolius Hand.-Mazz. Ranunculus brotherusii Freyn Ranunculus himalaicus Tamura Ranunculus hirtellus Royle ex D.Don Ranunculaceae Ranunculus munroanus J. R. Drumm. Ex Dunn Ranunculus tricuspis Maxim. Thalictrum alpinum L. Thalictrum chelidonii DC. Thalictrum cultratum Wall. Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Rhamnaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Thalictrum dalzellii Hook. Thalictrum elegans Wall. ex Royle Thalictrum foliolosum DC. Thalictrum rostellatum Hook. f. & Thomson Thalictrum saniculiforme DC. Trollius pumilus D. Don Sageretia thea var. Bornmuelleri (Schneid.) H. Hara Cotoneaster affinis Lindl. Cotoneaster frigidus Wall. ex Lindl Rosaceae Cotoneaster microphyllus Wall. ex Lindl. Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Cotoneaster sp. Cotonesater nitidus Jacques Cotonesater acuminatus Lindl. Dore Pani - Bagadi, Baitadi Chhetti - Marma, Bajhang Lawne - Saingaon, Bajhang Khaptad, Bajhang Kermi, Humla Upper Jabkung, Humla Upper Jabkung, Humla Upper Seding, Humla Surma Sarovar, Bajhang Upper Seding; Mekhala, Mimi VDC; Bajhang Kalagad - Dubaipass, Bajhang Way to Lagerma, Humla Humla Near Ingaldwar, Bajhang; Seding, Humla Saipal - Aletsoura, Bajhang 1540-580 2900 2900-3600 3000-3200 2700 3400 3600 4500 4400 3600-4200 Herb Herb Herb Climber Climber Climber Climber Herb Herb Herb 4100 3700 4600 3650-4100 Herb Herb Herb Herb 4212 Herb Dozam Khola, Humla Seding, Humla Chheti - Lukhani, Darchula Muchu, Humla; Dhansera - Nilkatti, Bajhang Malikhola, Spiti, Darchula Saipal, Bajhang Humla Chankheli, Humla Dhuli - Kanda, Bajhang Saipal, Bajhang Kumlim - Dozam, Humla 3900 3650 Herb Herb Herb Herb Chipra, Humla Kermi, Humla; Khandeswori , Darchula Hilsa to Dandafaya, Lower Jablung, Humla Yari to Muchu, Humla Chhangru, Darchula Thogundanda - Surmasarovar, Humla 152 3400-3800 1810-1660 3878 1300-3400 3200 2272 3700 2600 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb 2600 2250-3200 Shrub Shrub 2500-4000 Shrub 2900-3700 2900 2800 Shrub Shrub Shrub Kaptase Root: medicinal Endemic to Nepal Ruis Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Cotonesater affinis Lindl. Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Focke Fragaria nubicola Lindl. ex Lacaita Geum elatum Wall. ex G. Don Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Geum roylei Wall. Malus pumila Mill. Potentilla argyrophylla var. Atrosanguinea (Lodd.) Hook. f. Potentilla argyrophylla Wall. ex Lehm. Potentilla atrosanguinea (Lodd.) Hook.f. Potentilla commutata Lehm. Potentilla cuneata Wall. ex Lehm Potentilla curviseta? Potentilla eriocarpa Wall. ex Lehm. Potentilla fructicosa L. Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Potentilla indica (Andrews) Wolf Potentilla josephiana H. Ikeda & H. Ohba Potentilla kleiniana Wight & Arn. Potentilla leuconota D. Don Potentilla microphylla D.Don Potentilla saundersiana Royle Potentilla sp. Prinsepia utilis Royle Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud. Prunus davidiana (Carriere) Franchet Prunus napaulensis (Seringe) Steud. Prunus persica (L.) Batsch Prunus rufa Hook f. Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Pyrus sp Rosa brunonii Lindl. Rosaceae Rosa microphylla Lindl. Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosa moschata J. Herrmann Rosa sericea Lindl. Rosa sp. Dozam, Humla Muchu to Kermi, Herb Dandafaya, Herb Khaptad, Kalagad - Dubaipass, Bajhang Dhuli – Chainpur, Bajhang Kermi, Simkot Mechhra, Darchula 2800 2600-2900 2900 2500-4400 Shrub Herb Herb Herb 2400 2600-3200 3600 Herb Tree Herb Chaurpani, Bajhang Seding, Herb Mechhra - Kalagad, Darchula Hilsa, Herb Yari, Herb Mechhra, Darchula Yari to Muchu, Humla; Tinkar, Darchula Baitadi Khaptad, Humla Khalanga, Darchula Chankheli Lekh, Humla Humla Lower Jabkung, Humla Simkot, Humla Kermi, Dandafaya, Humla Khaptad, Humla Kermi, Yari to Muchu, Humla Salle khola, Humla Kermi, Yalbang, Humla Upper Jabkung, Humla Dharapori, Humla Chipra, Humla Humla; Tipulchyakti - Dopakhe, Darchula Muchu, Humla; Chheti - Nechhra, Darchula Dandafaya, Khagalgaun, Humla Yari to Yablang, Humla Dhandkermi, Humla 3787 3700 3970 3500 3800 3640 3100-3500 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Shrub 1500 2400-4150 1100 3360 3780 2950 2950 2600-2900 2100-3500 2400-3400 2800 2600-3000 3400 2300 2400 1500-2500 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Shrub Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Shrun 2800-3000 Shrub 2400 3000-3800 2800 Herb Shrub Shrub 153 Syau Fruit edible Chiniya phal Banchoti Dhutilo edible oil Khamo,Khampu Aare Chuli, Aaru fruit edible fruit edible Fruit edible Mel fruit edible Aarai Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rubus ellipticus Sm. Rubus foliolosus D.Don Rubus hoffmeisterianus Kunth & Bouche Rubus hypargyrus Edgew. Rubus nepalensis (Hook.f.) Kuntze Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rubus paniculatus Sm. Sibbaldia cuneata Hornem. ex Kuntze Sibbaldia parviflora Willd. Sibbaldia purpurea Royle Sorbaria tomentosa (Lindl.) Rehder Sorbus cuspidata (Spach) Hedlund Sorbus foliolosa (Wall.) Spach. Sorbus lanata (D. Don) Schauer Rosaceae Sorbus microphylla Wenzing Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Salicaceae Sorbus vestita (G. Don) Hedlung Spiraea arcuata Hook. f. Spiraea micrantha Hook. f. Spirea sp. Galium asperifolium Wall. Galium hirtiflorum Req. ex DC. Galium paradoxum Maxim. Galium saipalense Ehrend. & Schonb.Tem. Galium sp. Leptodermis lanceolata Wall. Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Fleming Skimmia anquetilia N.P. Taylor & Airy Shaw Populus ciliata Wall. ex Royle Muchu to Yablang, Humla Salicaceae Salicaceae Salicaceae Salicaceae Salicaceae Salicaceae Salix babylonica L. Salix calyculata Hook.f. ex Andersson Salix denticulata Andersson Salix hylematica Schneid. Salix lindleyana Anderss. Salix sp. Dharapori, Humla Upper Seding, Humla Khaptad, Bajhang Khaptad, ajhang Near Saipal, Bajhang Humla Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Rutaceae Humla Salli Pass, Humla Humla Khaptad, Humla Khaptad, Humla; Rapla - Tangbang, Darchula Chipra, Humla Khaptad, Bajhang Aletsoura, Bajhang Surma Sarovar, Bajhang Kuntisau, Darchula; Yablang, Humla Upper Seding, Humla Chheti - Nechhra, Darchula Chheti - Nechhra, Darchula; Khaptad, Bajhang Kuntisau, Darchula; Khaptad, Bajhang Dandap, Darchula Dhansera - Nilkatti, Bajhang Melchham Khola, Humla Humla Upper Jabkung, Humla Muchu, Humla Lower Jabkung, Humla Bajhang Humla Talkot, Bajhang Dhandkermi, Humla Khaptad, Bajhang 154 1700-2300 3000 2300 2600 1800-3200 Shrub Shrub Shrub Shrub Herb 2600 3400-4500 4333 4140 2400-3000 3800 3200 2500-3400 Climber Herb Herb Hern Shrub Shrub Shrub Shrub 3000-4500 Shrub 2600 3770 2450 Shrub Shrub Shrub Shrub Herb Herb Herb Herb 3300 2900 3000 4700 Rato Aishelu Thebleti firewood Bajhar Endemic to Nepal Herb 2230-1660 2400 2600-3000 2800 3000 2400 4000 2400-3000 2500-4500 4363 Climber Shrub Mujeto Dye Tree Bhotepipal Firewood Tree Shrub Tree Tree Tree Sambucaceae Sambucaceae Sambucaceae Santalaceae Sapotaceae Saxifragaceae Saxifragaceae Saxifragaceae Saxifragaceae Saxifragaceae Saxifragaceae Saxifragaceae Saxifragaceae Saxifragaceae Saxifragaceae Saxifragaceae Schisandraceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Sambucus adnata Wall. ex DC. Viburnum cotinifolium D.Don Viburnum sp. Thesium himalense Royle Bassia butyracea Roxb. Saxifraga filicaulis Wall. ex Ser. Astilbe rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Astilbe rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Bergenia ligulata (Wall.) Engl. Saxifraga andersonii Engl. Saxifraga diversifolia Wall. ex Ser. Saxifraga kumaunnsis Engl. Saxifraga mucronulata Royle Saxifraga pallida Wall. ex Ser. Saxifraga sibirica L. Schisandra grandiflora (Wall.) Hk. f. & Th. Buchnera hispida Buch.-Ham. Centranthera nepalensis D. Don Euphrasia himalaiyica Wett. Hemiphragma heterophyllum Wall. Lancea tibetica Hook. f. et Thoms. Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Mazus surculosus D.Don Mimulus nepalensis Benth. Neopcrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) Hong. Pedicularis gracilis Wall. ex Benth. Pedicularis hookeriana Wall. ex Benth. Pedicularis bifida (D. Don) Pennell Pedicularis hoffmeisteri Klotzsch Pedicularis sp. Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora Pennell Scrophularia edgeworthii Benth. Scrophularia elatiior Benth. Scrophularia decomposita Royle Scrophularia laportiifolia T. Yamaz. Sopubia trifida Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Baitadi Jabkung, Humla Dandafaya, Humla Upper Jabkung, Humla Khateda - Patan, Baitadi Lipra Khola – Melcham, Humla Rimi, Humla Lower jabkung, Humla Dandafaya, Upper Dojam, Humla Jabkung, Humla Nara Pass, Humla Thogundanda, Bajhang Kalagad - Dubaipass, Bajhang Dhansera - Nilkatti, Bajhang Marghor, Humla Surma Sarovar, Bajhang Dhuli - Inuldar, Bajhang; Humla Khateda - Patan, Baitadi Gauna, Baitadi Simikot, Humla Near Jabkung, Humla Talkot - Nayaodar, Bajhang; Seding, Humla Dandafaya, Humla Baitadi Mekhala, Humla 1500 3100 2800 3600 880-1200 2980 2500 3000 2900-3000 3200 4300 3500 4200 4100 4100 4150 2100-3300 1880-1200 890 3100 3300 3700 2900 1500 m 3600-4200 Herb Khaptad Lekh, Bajhang Munya Lagna - Palsa, Humla Silinga - Khateda, Baitadi Seding, Humla Humla Gorkhali Lekh, Bajhang Munya Lagna - Palsa, Humla Niglad - Chirkitte, Baitadi Saipal, Bajhang Darchula Rasa - Roshiadanda, Bajhang; 2900 3500 1490-1880 3600 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb 155 3570 3500 1720-1910 2700-2900 2260-2540 Chari bhango Tree Shrub Herb Tree Chiuri Thulo aushadhi Herb Herb Herb Herb Climber Simpade Paat Singate Herb Herb Herb Herb Katuki Rhizome: medicinal Endemic to Nepal Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Simaroubaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Staphyleaceae Symplocaceae Tamaricaceae Thymelaeaceae Thymelaeaceae Thymelaeceae Thymelaeceae Tiliaceae Toricelliaceae Ulmaceae Ulmaceae Ulmaceae Urticaceae Urticaceae Urticaceae Urticaceae Urticaceae Urticaceae Urticaceae Urticaceae Urticaceae Vandellia crustacea Benth. Verbascum thapsus L. Veronica persica Poir. Wulfenia amherstiana Benth. Picrasma quassioides (D. Don) Benn. Datura stramonium L. Datura suaveolens Humb. et Willd. Hyoscyamus niger L. Mandragora caulescence C.B. Clarke Nicandra physalodes Gaertn. Physochlaina praealta (Decne.) Miers Solanum nigrum L. Solanum erianthum D. Don Solanum tuberosum L. Staphylea emodi Wall. ex Brandis Symplocos crataegoides Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Myricaria rosea W.W.Sm. Daphne bholua Buch.-Ham ex D.Don Daphne retusa Hemsl. Stellera chamaejasme L. Wikstroemia canescens Meisn. Grewia sp. Torricellia tiliifolia DC. Celtis australis L. Ulmus brandisiana Schneid. Ulmus wallichiana Planch. Boehmeria platyphylla D. Don Boehmeria rugulosa Wedd. Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis Girardinia heterophylla Decne. Gonostegia hirta (Blume) Miq. Laportea bulbifera (Sieb. et Tucc.) Wedd. Lecanthus peduncularis (Royle) Wedd. Pilea cordifolia Hook. f. Pilea symmeria Wedd. Humla Darchula Yari to Muchu, Baitadi Nara Pass to Yari, Humla Dhalaun - Rasa, Bajhang Khalangagaon - Pahung, Humla Baitadi Gadsera, Baitadi Yari to Muchu, Humla Humla Khalanga, Darchula Yari to Muchu Bajhang Huti, Darchula Simkot-Yari, Humla Chainpur, Bajhang Satthaple - Remi, Humla 840 1500-3400 3700 2400-2260 3300 1500 1550 3400 3500 840 3200 2000 1100 2900-3700 2600 Muchu, Humla Khaptad, Bajhang Chhangru, Darchula Near Yari, Humla Yapka khola to Dandafaya, Humla Yablang to Salli Khola, Humla Sunchera, Darchula Yablang, Humla Near Dhuli, Bajhang Upper Dojam, Humla Gadsera - Sawaradigad, Baitadi Kinara = Chainpur, Bajhang Upper Dojam, Humla Niglad, Baitadi Baitadi Mt. Roshia, Bajhang Rimi, Humla Near Thogundanda, Bajhang Niglad,.Baitadi 2850 2000-2900 3300 3500-4000 2700-2900 2800 1750 2800 2650 2900 1700 1390-1310 2900 1720 1500 2515 2500 2800 1720 156 Herb Herb Shrub Shrub Herb Herb Shrub Herb Herb Herb Herb Dhaturo Dhaturo Ishmagoli Jangali bihi Dursul Aalu Tree Shrub Shrub Shrub Herb Shrub Tree Dambu, Hambu Leaf medicinal Lek Buins Riga fodder Tree Tree Tree Shrub Shrub Herb Herb Khadik fruit edible Herb Herb Getha Allo Chiple ghans Patle sisnu Khole jhar Urticaceae Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae Valerianaceae Urtica hyperborea Jacquem. ex Wedd. Nardostachys grandiflora DC. Valerianaceae Valeriana hardwickii Wall. Valerianaceae Valeriana jatamansii Jones Verbenaceae Caryopteris wallichiana Schan. Verbenaceae Holmskioldia sanguinea Retz. Verbenaceae Lippia nodiflora (L.) L. C. Richg. ex Mich. Verbenaceae Vitex negundo L. Violaceae Viola biflora L. Violaceae Viola betonicifolia Sm. Violaceae Viola pilosa Blume Viscaceae Viscum album L. Vitaceae Ampelocissus rugosa (Wall.) Planch. Vitaceae Vitis heyneana Roem. & Schult. Vitaceae Tetrastigma serrulatum (Roxb.) Planch. ANGIOSPERMAE (MONOCOTS) Alliaceae Allium hypsistum Steam Alliaceae Allium wallichii Kunth Araliaceae Aralia cachemirica Decne. Araliaceae Eleutherococcus cissifolius (Seem.) Harms. Araliaceae Hedera nepalensis K. Koch Araliaceae Panax pseudo-ginseng Wall. Araceae Arisaema consanguineum Schott Araceae Arisaema flavum (Forsk.) Schott Araceae Arisaema flavum ssp. Abbreviatum (Schott) J. Murata Araceae Arisaema griffithii Schott Araceae Arisaema jacquemontii Blume Araceae Arisaema propinquum Schott Araceae Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott Araceae Arisaema utile Hook. f. ex Schott Asparagaceae Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Asparagaceae Asparagus racemosus Willd. Convallariaceae Smilacina purpurea Wall. (Liliaceae) Chhanna, Bajhang; Dharapori, Humla Humla Mekhala, Humla 1650-3300 Herb 4100-5100 3650-4300 Herb Herb Humla Simkot, Chipra, Humla Baaskatne - Dilbagar, Bajhang Simal Bagar, Bajhang Jodar, Bajhang Khalanga, Darchula Dandafaya, Humla Wangri, Humla Dyola, Baitadi Dharapori, Humla Near Dojam, Humla Bokche Gauda - Yanchu, Humla Salli Pass to Kermi, Humla 1200-4000 2900 1160 1000 1000 840 3000 3100 2350 2300 3100 2100 3000 Herb Herb Mekhala, Humla Mekhala, Seding, Humla Khandeswori-Kautalgad, Darchula Talkot - Naya Odar, Bajhang 5500 2400-4650 2210 Herb Herb Jimbu Ban lasun Dal kabro Tipulchyakti - Dopakhe, Darchula Marghor Lekh, Humla Aagar - Dhalaun, Bajhang Near Dojam, Humla Yanchui Khola - Kharpunath, Humla 2400 3100 1700-2400 2900 2150 Climber Shrub Herb Herb Herb Dudhelo Mangan Tinchu Chipra, Humla Kallas, Humla Khaptad, Bajhang Kaligad valley, Bajhang Kaligad valley, Bajhang Jabkung, Humla Mekhala,; Chipra, Humla Humla 2300 2700 2500-3800 2400 2900 3100 2300 2500-3800 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb 157 Bhulte, Jatamasi Medicinal Samayo, Root: medicinal Jure phool Kurkure jhar Simali Herb Herb Herb Shrub Climber Climber Climber Pickle Pickle Twig: vegetable Banko Banko Kurilo Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Dioscoreaceae Carex atrofusca Schkuhr Carex inanis Clarke Carex lehmannii Drejer Carex myosurus Nees Carex nivalis Boott Carex nubigena Tilloch & Taylor Cyperus niveus Retz. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperus squarrosus L. Eleocharis palustris (L.) Roemer & Schultes Eriophorum comosum (Wall.) Clarke Kobresia duthiei Clarke Kobresia nepalensis (Nees) Kuek. Kobresia royleana (Nees) Kuek. Kobresia sp 1 Kobresia sp 2 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscoreaceae Dioscoreaceae Iridaceae Iridaceae Juncaceae Juncaceae Juncaceae Juncaceae Juncaceae Juncaceae Juncaceae Juncaceae Juncaceae Juncaceae Juncaceae Juncaginaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex.Griseb Dioscorea sp. Iris kemaonensis D.Don ex Royle Iris sp. Juncus articulatus L. Juncus benghalensis Kunth Juncus chrysocarpus Buchenau Juncus concinnus D. Don Juncus effusus L. Juncus himalensis Klotzsch Juncus inflexus L. Juncus himalensis Klotzsch Juncus membranaceous Royle ex D.Don Juncus thomsonii Buchenau Juncus sphacelatus Decne Triglochin palustris L. Allium wallichii Kunth Aletris pauciflora Klotzsch) Hand.Mazz. Allium prattii C. H. Wright Khaptad, Bajhang Dhuli - Inuldar, Bajhang Chankheli Lagna, Humla Thin, Darchula Surma Sarovar, Bajhang Chankheli Lagna, Humla Dilbagar, Bajhang Lothi Khola, Humla Rapla - Tangbang, Darchula Khaptad, Bajhang Darchula - Huti, Darchula Saipal, Bajhang Saipal, Bajhang Saipal, Bajhang Humla Humla Chipra, Yapka khola to Dandafaya, Humla Humla Humla Seding, Humla Dandafaya, Humla Khaptad, Bajhang Marghor Lekh, Humla Khaptad, Bajhang Talkot - Aagar, Bajhang Dhalaun - Rasa, Bajhang Chankheli Lagna, Humla; Khaptad Kanda, Bajhang Baitadi Khaptad, Bajhang Khaptad, Bajhang Aletsoura, Bajhang Chhangru, Darchula Pategaon - Badigaon, Bajhang Kariganga - Aletsoura, Bajhang Chheti – Mechhra, Darchula 158 4000-5500 2450 3450 2300 4150 3450 1150 1680 2000 2000-3800 900 3878 3878 3878 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb 2100-2400 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Climber 450-3100 2500-3300 3700 3000 3000 3200 3000 2000 2700 3200-5200 2270 3200-5200 3000-3700 2700-5200 4348 2900 2190-2300 4090 3500 Climber Climber Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Khinkhine medicinal Ban lasun Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Asparagus curillus Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb. Cardiocrinum giganteum (Wall.) Makino Clintonia udensis Trautv. & Meyer Clintonia udensis var. Alpina (Baker) H. Hara Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Lilium nepalense D. Don Lloydia longiscapa Hook. Lloydia serotina (L.) Reichenb. Lloydia sp. Ophiopogon wallichianus (Kunth) Hook. f. Paris verticillatum (L.) All. Paris polyphylla Sm. Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle Polygonatum hookeri Baker Polygonatum singalilense H. Hara Polygonatum verticilatum (L.) All. Streptopus simplex D. Don Trillidium govanianum (Royle) Kunth Aerides multiflorum Roxb. Aorchis spathulata (L.) Vermeulen Cephalanthera longifolia (L.) Fritsch Chusua pauciflora (Lindl.) P. F. Hunt Coelogyne cristata Lindl. Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo Epipactis helleborine (L.) Crantz Epipactis veratrifolia Epipactis royleana Lindl. Boiss. & Hohen. Eria lasiopetala (Willd.) Ormerod Goodyera repens (L.) R. Br. Habenaria arietina Hook. f. Habenaria stenopetala Lindl. Lindl. Herminium duthiei Hook. f. Herminium josephii Rchb. f. Herminium lanceum (Sw.) J. Vuijk Herminium monophyllum (D. Don) Hunt & Bangh, Bajhang Dhuli - Inuldar, Bajhang Khaptad, Bajhang Dhuli, Bajhang 1000 2510 3200-4000 3000 Herb Surma Sarovar, Bajhang Near Saipal, Khagal Gaun VDC, Humla Kasoti - Chheti, Darchula Upper Seding, Humla Aletsoura, Bajhang Nara to Yari, Humla Way to Darma, Humla Ghodilekh, Bajhang Rimi - Chankheli, Humla Salle khola to Kermi, Humla Upper Seding, Humla Dhungadanda, Bajhang Jabkung, Humla Ghodilekh, Bajhang Khaptad, Bajhang Sundi Khola, Bajhang Manane Lekh, Bajhang Surma Sarovar, Bajhang Kalla - Poom gaon, Humla Chir, Bajhang Mekhala, Mimi VDC, Humla Phucha, Humla North of Chainpur, Bajhang Upper Seding, Humla Rupal, Bajhang Ghodi Lekh, Baitadi Kasoti, Darchula Dhalaun, Bajhang Chankheli, Humla Chheti - Mechchra, Darchula Talkot - Aagar, Bajhang Ganna - Nalabagar, Baitadi 3500 3300-3700 Herb Herb Kokili Podya 2550 3900 4363 3800 3300 4000 2600 2800 4000 3386 3300 3333 3090 960 4000 2800 2700 1650 3500-4200 2600 1900 3800 1000 3030 2430 2300 3500 3400 1660-1840 1000 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Khiraule 159 Herb Khiranglo Satuwa Khiraulo Panchaunle Ritual Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Summer. Luisia zeylanica Lindl. Malaxis acuminata D. Don Malaxis cylindrostachya (Lindl.) Kuntze Neottia listeroides Lindl. Neottianthe cucullata var. Calcicola (W. W. Sm.) Soo Oberonia falconeri Hook. f. Peristylus constrictus (Lindl.) Lindl. Peristylus elizabethae (Duthie) R. K. Gupta Peristylus fallax Lindl. Pholidota articulata Lindl. Platanthera clavigera Lindl. Platanthera edgeworthii (Collett) R. K. Gupta Platanthera latilabris Lindl. Lindl. Satyrium nepalense D. Don Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames Trudelia alpina (Lindl.) L. A. Garay Eulophia dabia (D. Don) Hochr. Agrostis micrantha Steud. Agrostis munroana Aitch. & Hemsl. Agrostis pilosula Trin. Apluda mutica L. Aristida adscensionis L. Arundinella setosa Trin. Arundo donax L. Avena sativa L. Bothriochloa ischaemum (L.) Keng Bothriochloa pertusa (L.) A. Camus Briza media L. Calamagrostis lahulensis G. Singh Calamagrostis pseudophragmites (Haller f.) Koeler Capillipedium assimile Stapf Capillipedium parviflorum (R. Br.) Stapf Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin. Pangsera - Bagadi, Baitadi Pasela - Banjh, Bajhang Dopakhe - Thin, Darchula Marghor Lekh, Humla Above Suma Kharka, Humla 770 2372 2700 3100 3850 Chir, Bajhang Dhik Gad - Gokule, Baitadi Tipulchyakti, Darchula District 1100 600 2850 Herb Herb Herb Pategaon - Badigaon, Bajhang Paribagar - Makarigad, Darchula Thin, Darchula Dhalaun, Bajhang 2190-2230 1250 2300 1940 Herb Herb Durpa, Humla Thin, Darchula Chhangru, Darchula Chir, Bajhang Humla Talkot - Setibagar, Bajhang Kuntisau, Darchula Kuntisau, Darchula Aagar - Dhalaun, Bajhang Aagar - Dhalaun, Bajhang Kharpu, Humla; Roshia Danda, Bajhang Rasa - Roshia Danda, Bajhang Yari to Yablang, Humla Phucha, Humla Rimi Gaon, Humla Chankheli Lagna, Humla Nampa Gad, Darchula Kuntisau, Darchula 2900 2300 2900 1100 2000 1450 2550 1550 2100 2100 2100-2300 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb 2100 2500-3400 2650 2400 3500 3000 2550 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb herb herb 1800 2200 2000 herb herb herb Dumli - Rapla, Darchula Aagar - Dhalaun, Bajhang Talkot - Aagar, Bajhang 160 Vegetable Thulo narkat Jau Vegetable Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Cymbopogon distans (Steud.) W. Watson Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Dactylis glomerata L. Danthonia cumminsii Hook. f. Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees & Arn. ex Munro Deyeuxia pulchella (Griseb.) Hook.f. Drepanostachyum falcatum (Nees) Keng f. Drepanostachyum intermedium (Nees) Keng f. Deschampsia caespitosa (L.) P. Beauv. Digitaria abludens (Roem. & Sch.) Veldkamp Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler Digitaria cruciata (Steud.) A. Camus D. Digitaria ternata (A. Rich.) Stapf Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) P. Beauv. Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Elymus nutans Griseb. Eragrostis nigra Nees ex Steud. Eulalia mollis (Griseb.) Kuntze Eulalia trispicata (Schult.) Henrard Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.) C. E. Hubb. Festuca gigantea (L.) Vill. Festuca ovina L. Festuca rubra L. Helictotrichon junghuhnii (Buse) Henrard Heteropogon contortus (L.) Roem. & Schult. Melica onoei Franch. & Sav. Microstegium nudum (Trin.) A. Camus Miscanthus nepalensis (Trin.) Hack. Muhlenbergia himalayensis Hook. f. Muhlenbergia huegelii Trin. Oplismenus compositus (L.) P. Beauv. Oplismenus hirtellus ssp. Undulatifolius (Ard.) U. Scholz Oryzopsis aequiglumis Duthie ex Hook. f. Oryzopsis munroi Stapf ex Hook. f. Talkot - Aagar, Bajhang Mekhala, Humla Dhalaun - Rasa, Bajhang Khaptad, Bajhang Mekhala, Humla 2000 100-3000 2500 2930 1000-2000 herb herb herb herb Bamboo Humla Mekhala, Humla Humla 2900-4600 1500-2000 Herb Herb Herb Chankheli - Rimi, Humla Lothi Khola, Humla 2900 1680 Herb Herb Lothi Khola, Humla Dumli - Rapla, Darchula Ruga - Luma gaon, Humla Rapla, Darchula Darchula - Huti, Darchula Kaliganga, Bajhang Rasa - Roshia Danda, Bajhang Dhalaun - Rasa, Bajhang Aagar – Dhalaun, Bajhang Badigaon - Dantola, Bajhang Khaptad - Talkot, Bajhang Khaptad; Saipal, Bajhang Saipal, Bajhang Dhalaun - Rasa, Bajhang Talkot - Aagar, Bajhang 1680 1800 1900 1800 900 3939 2100 2050 2000 1800 3600-5600 2900-3900 2300 2000 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Dandap, Darchula Jimkot - Khaptad, Bajhang Dhalaun - Rasa, Bajhang Rapla - Tangbang, Darchula Dhalaun - Rasa, Bajhang Talkot - Aagar, Bajhang Talkot - Aagar, Bajhang 2500 2100 2250 1800 2500 2000 2000 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Thin - Dandap, Darchula Lothi Khola - Melchham, Humla 2500 2120 Herb Herb 161 Dubo Tama bans Nigalo tusa grains as cereal Cereal grain Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Ruscaceae Smilacaceae Trilliaceae (Liliaceae) Zingiberaceae Pennisetum flaccidum Griseb. Pennisetum orientale Rich. Phacelurus speciosus (Steud.) C. E. Hubb. Phleum alpinum L. Poa calliopsis Litv. ex Ovcz. Pogonatherum crinitum (Thunb.) Kunth Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) Clayton Saccharum rufipilum Steud. Saccharum spontaneum L. Sacciolepis indica (L.) Chase Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. Setaria verticillata (L.) P. Beauv. Sporobolus piliferus (Trin.) Kunth Stipa staintonii Bor Themeda anathera Nees ex Steud.) Hack. Themeda triandra Forssk. Tripogon filiformis Nees ex Steud. Trisetum spicatum (L.) K. Richt. Glyceria tonglensis C.B.Clarke Hordeum vulgare L. Oryza sativa L. Panicum miliaceum L. Paspalum sp. Poa annuna L. Poa pagophila Bor Poa sikkimensis (Stapf) Bor Polypogon fugax Nees ex Steud. Stipa sibirica (L.) Lam. Thamnocalamus spathiflorus (Trin.) Munro Ophiopogon intermedius D.Don Smilax aspera L. Trillidium govanianum (D.Don) Kunth Roscoea purpurea Smith Tinkar, Darchula Chainpur, Bajhang Dandap, Darchula Kariganga, Bajhang Allechaur, Bajhang Kinada - Chainpur, Bajhang Darchula - Huti, Darchula Pala - Kuntisau, Darchula Talkot - Aagar, Bajhang Jimkot - Khaptad, Bajhang Badigaon, Bajhang Darchula - Huti, Darchula Dumli - Rapla, Darchula Chankheli Lagna, Humla Talkot - Aagar, Bajhang Rasa - Roshia Danda, Bajhang Dhalaun - Rasa, Bajhang Khaptad, Bajhang Humla Kermi to yari, Humla Dharapori (Cultivated), Humla Khagalgaun, Dharapori, Humla Dharapori Khaptad (Baitadi) Khaptad (Baitadi) Humla Humla Humla Khaptad, Bajhang Khaptad, Bajhang Mekhala, Humla Khaptad, Bajhang Khaptad, Bajhang 162 3500 1350 2500 Herb Herb Herb 3939 4363 1400 1200 2300 1900 1600 2100 900 1800 3500 2000 2100 2500 2930 2300-3500 2800-3600 2400 2500 2500 2300-3500 3600-5200 3200-4400 1500-3600 2600-3200 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb 1200-3000 1200-2600 1500-3000 Uwa Dhan Chino Vegetable Kukurdaino Annex 6. Useful species of plants recorded in Thehe and Chhipra VDCs (the table consists of selected species of plants having medicinal, food and socio-cultural importance only). Sn 1 Species Abies pindrow Royle Family Pinaceae Local name Gobre (N) 2 Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Mirb. Pinaceae Gobrya (N) 3 Locality Manal Altitude 2700 m Parts use* Use Tr As a flag pole Tr As a flag pole Acer caesium Wallich ex Brandis Aceraceae Jabkung-Seding 34003800 m Tilaailo (N), Dalaba (D) Manal 2700 m Wd Knotty burs of trunk in the preparation of drinking cups 4 Acer cappadocicum Gled. Aceraceae Tilaailo (N), Chajat (D) Jabkung 3100 m Wd 5 Aconitum spicatum (Bruhl) Stapf Ranunculaceae Bish (N), Dhuk (D) Tugling 3400 m Rt Knotty burs in the preparation of drinking cups; best preferred than A. caesium Poison; traded 6 Nyalu (D) Tugling 3350 m Pt, Lf Petiole in pickle, tender leaves as vegetable Bhuj (D) Seding 3700 m Rt, St Root in dycentry, stomach trouble; stem eaten raw 8 Aconogonum molle (D. Don) Polygonaceae Hara var. frondosum (Meisn.) H. Hara Aconogonum rumicifolium (Royle Polygonaceae ex Bab.) Hara Allium wallichii Kunth Amaryllidaceae Gokpa above Phwaso 3640 m Wp Cooked as vegetable or used as condiment 9 10 Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl. Arisaema flavum (Forsk.) Schott Betulaceae Araceae Utis (N), Ning (D) Banko (N), Dhol (D) Chhipra Manal 2300 m 2700 m Bk,Rn Wp Bark paste in injuy; resin to treat internal injuries Cooked as vegetable 11 Arisaema griffithii Schott Araceae Dhoka (N), Dhwaki (D) Jabkung 3100 m Lf,Rt Cooked as vegetable; also useful to treat malaria 12 Boraginaceae Maharangi (N), Kumrti (D) Tikpa (D) Seding 3800 m Rt Rootstock yield red dye to color woolen commodities Manal 2700 m Rt Tubers to treat toothache. 14 Arnebia benthamii (Wall ex G Don) IM Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Berberis aristata DC. Berberidaceae Chotto (N) Hildum chhada 2450 m Fr, Bk Ripe fruits eaten raw; inner bark to extract yellow dye 15 Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC. Berberidaceae Tilkhudo (N) Dozam 2600 m Fr, Bk Ripe fruits eaten raw; inner bark to extract yellow dye 16 Berberis lycium Royle Berberidaceae Chotto (N) Hildum chhada 2450 m Fr, Bk Ripe fruits eaten raw; inner bark to extract yellow dye 17 Berginia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb Saxifragaceae Tanki medok Dozam 2600 m Rh In fever 18 Betula utilis D. Don Betulaceae Bhuj (N), Takpa (D) Manal 2700 m 19 Bistorta macrophylla (D. Don) Sojak Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. Cardamine impatiens L. Polygonaceae Ranbu (D) above Phwaso 3640 m Wd, Rn, Lf Wood for the preparation of plough and churning stick known as 'Baldwa'; resin as a substitute of tea ('takchya') Sd Seeds eaten raw, also taken to treat blood dycentry Brassicaceae Chalne saag Jabkung 3100 m Lf Brassicaceae Khaplongma (D) Jabkung 3100 m Lf Tender leaves cooked as vegetable Pinaceae Diyar (N) Chhipra 2300 m Wp 23 Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don Chenopodium album L. Chenopodiaceae New, Betu Jabkung 3000 m Lf,Sh Plant is considered as sacred and planted in the temple area Cooked as vegetable 24 Coleus forskohlii Briq. Lamiaceae Sujauno (N) Chhipra 2250 m Rt 25 Corylus jacquemontii Decne. Corylaceae Rigo (N), Ruj (D) Manal 2700 m Sd 26 Cotoneaster frigidus Wall. Rosaceae Rains (N), Chhabra (D) Manal 2700 m Wd To treat diarrohea, indigestion, dysentery; also as condiment and in pickle Nuts are eaten as food; nut are also given to treat sore throat To prepare blade (locally 'Phaal' ) of plough ('Pangba') 27 Cynanchum auriculatum Wight Asclepiadaceae Jabak 2650 m Rn White sap of the plant to heal wounds 7 13 20 21 22 Liliaceae 163 Tender leaves cooked as vegetable 28 Asclepiadaceae Medok serbo (D) above Jabkung 3200 m Rt In asthma Orchidaceae 3550 m Rt Ranunculaceae Hattajadi (N), Wanbolakpa (D) Mangromulo Tugling 30 Cynanchum canescens (Willd.) K. Schum. Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo Delphinium brunonianum Royle above Seding 4300 m Rt In cuts and wounds; roasted tubers eaten as potato; traded. Insectiside; traded 31 Delphinium himalayai Munz Ranunculaceae Atis (N), Alusi (D) Manal 2700 m Rt In cough and cold, fever, headache, vomitting; traded 32 Desmodium elegans DC. Fabaceae Chamla (N), Thinga (D) Manal 2700 m St As cordage to hang bee hives on rocks 33 Dipsacus inermis Wall. Dipsacaceae Khanikol (D) above Jabkung 3200 m Lf, Sh Tender shoots cooked as vegetable 34 Drepanostachym intermedium (Nees) Keng f. Poaceae Nigalo (N) Chhipra 2400 m St 35 Dozam 2600 m Lf Jabkung 3000 m Rh Craks/ Sprains, stem eaten raw (sour in taste) 37 Dryopteris cochleata (D. Don) C. Dryopteridaceae Neuro, Lingudo Chr. Eskemukerjea megagacarpum Polygonaceae Kima-lang-lang, Kyun(H. Hara) H. Hara lang-lang (D), Bhote khair (N) Eulophia dabia (D. Don) Hochr. Orchidaceae Kala dana To prepare different articles; also used to prepare outer frame of 'chalni' (a meshed utensil consisting of a round frame surrounding a mesh made up of goat leather with large pore size and used to sieve wheat, barley, etc.) Tender shoots cooked as vegetable Dozam area 2600 m Wp Tender shoots in medicine; tubers are traded 38 Ficus palmata Forssk. Moraceae Bedu (N) Baijubara 2500 m Fr Ripe fruits eaten; planted as shade and fodder tree 39 Rosaceae Kappu above Phwaso 3640 m Fr Ripe fruits eaten 40 Fragaria nubicola Lindl. ex Lacaita Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don Liliaceae Podya (D) Tugling 3500 m Rt Root extrat given to livestock as antidote; traded 41 Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis Urticaceae Allo (D) above Dozam 2700 m Lf,Rt Vegetable, fibre 42 Hippophae salicifolia D. Don Elaeagnaceae Dalechuk (N) Thehe 2500 m Fr 43 Hippophae tibetana Schltr. Elaeagnaceae Tarechuk, Bhuinchuk (N) Rakarbu 3900 m Fr Ripe fruits are eaten raw, also taken to cure stomachache, cough and and cholera and as anthelmintic; also used to make fresh pickle Ripe fruits are eaten to cure work infestation and cholera; also used to make pickle 44 Asteraceae Lande joba (D) Naksupa Juglandaceae Okhar 46 Inula cappa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) DC. Juglans regia L. var kamaonica C. DC. Juniperus indica Bertol. Cupressaceae Sukpa Dozam-Jabkung 26003300 m above Phwaso 3640 m Lf,Wd 47 Jurinea dolomaea Boiss. Asteraceae Dhupjadi Rakarbu 4000 m Rt 48 Leucas lanata Benth. Lamiaceae Ganaune Bhad (N) Chhipra 2200 m Lf.St 49 Lonicera sp. Caprifoliaceae Ghyaghar Jabak 2700 m Pith 29 36 45 164 2700 Wp Fr, Wd Plant is used for spititual treatment of a persion by a shaman Edible oil, dye; nuts eaten fresh; also planted Leaves in incense; wood to make two types of vessels: (i) a big vessel or churn (locally known as 'twadam') for keeping curd, in which curd is stirred vigorously to produce butter; and (b) a small vessel locally known as 'Pari' for milking. Medicne; traded Poison to bed bug and lice; juice is applied to treat lice on goats Intact stem pith is used to prepare different shaped decorative objects; during festivals a rounded object prepared from the pith is kept on the top of religious effigy in place of butter 50 Megacarpia polyandra Benth. Brassicaceae Rugi (D) Tugling 3500 m Lf 51 Morchella conica Morchallaceae Guchhi chyau (N) Puyam (D) Tugling 3500 m Wp 52 Morus sp. Moraceae Kimu (N) Chhipra 2300 m Fr Cooked as vegetable; it is believed that its consumption is useful to treat malaria Whole mushroom is either roasted or cooked as vegetable; slightly toxic in empty stomach; highly traded. Ripe fruits are eaten 53 Nardostachys grandiflora DC. Valerianaceae Bhulte/Jatamasi Chhuda longbo 4300 m Rh Insence; traded 54 Scrophulariaceae Katuki Chhuda longbo 3900 m Rh,Rt Headache, cold, fever; traded 55 Neopcrorhiza scrophulaiifolia (Peennell) Hong. Origanum vulgare L. Lamiaceae Ghodamorcha, Tulasi above Chhipra 2500 m Lf,Fl 56 Oxyria digyyna (L.) Hill Polygonaceae boke, bojo (N) Seding 3700 m Lf,Pt 57 Paris polyphylla Smith Liliaceae Sato, Satuwa Chhipra 3200 m Rt A herbal tea prepared from its leaves are given to treat asthma, cold and cough As cooling agent, often eaten when thirst; also used in bloody dysentery Medicine; traded 58 Parnassiaceae Nirbisi (N, D) Phwaso 3550 m Rt 59 Parnassia nubicola Wallich ex Royle Phytolacca acenosa Roxb. Phytolaccaceae Jarko, Jarkung (N) Jabak 2700 m St,Lf 60 Picea smithiana (Wallich) Boiss. Pinaceae Jam (D), Thingo (N) Manal 2700 m Wd As a flag pole 61 Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jackson Pinaceae Phwaso 3500 m Wd As a flag pole 62 Pistasia chinensis Bunge subsp. integerrima (J.L. Stewart) Rech. f. Pleurospermum benthamii (DC.) C.B. Clarke Podophyllum hexandrum Royle Anacardiaceae Khote sallo, Paphe sallo (N); Thesing (D) Kakarsilo (N) Chhipra 2300 m Insect gall Medicine; traded Apiaceae Haroma Jabkung 3100 m St Berberidaceae Tito kankro (N) above Jabkung 3200 m Fr Eaten raw, it is beneficial for stomach, indegestion; also prepared pickle from the young stem Fruit eaten raw, also used in cold Nigali sag (D) above Jabkung 3200 m Lf, Rt 63 64 65 66 Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Liliaceae Royle Polygonatum verticilatum (L.) All. Liliaceae 67 Prinsepia utilis Royle 68 To treat cuts and wounds, and eye infection (eye ripening) Young stem and leaves are cooked as vegetable Tender shoot and leaves cooked as vegetable; tubers as medicine Tender shoot and leaves cooked as vegetable Lf Rosaceae Nigali sag, Khilaudo (D) Jabkung-Tugling 31003500 m Dhutelo (N) Hildum chhada 2450 m Prunus davidiana (Carriere) Franchet Prunus napaulensis (Seringe) Steud. Prunus rufa Hook f. Rosaceae Khambu (N), Khabu (D) Dozam area 2650 m Fr,Sd Rosaceae Aryaa (N); Are (D) Gyal dorje 2900 m Fr, Wd Edible oil highly preferred by most of the people; oil is also traded in small extent Ripe fruits eaten; seeds yield edible oil; oil is applied to treat joint pains Ripe fruits are edible Rosaceae Aryaa (N); Are (D) above Jabkung 3300 m Fr Ripe fruits are edible 71 Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Rosaceae Mel (N) Chhipra 2300 m Fr 72 Rheum australe D. Don Polygonaceae above Jabkung 3300 m Rh,Pt 73 Rheum moorcroftianum Royle Polygonaceae Padamchalno (N), Aarthakpa, Kangmara (D) Padamchalno (D,N) Ripe fruits eaten, fruit pulp also mixed with tobacco and smoked for taste and aroma; fruits are also eaten as cooling agent, fruit pulp is to treat heart pain Dye (yellow/red); petiole in pickle; traded above Phwaso 3640 m Rh,Pt Dye (yellow/red); petiole in pickle; traded 74 Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don Ericaceae Lek dhupi (N), Balu (D) above Phwaso 3640 m Lf Incense 69 70 165 Sd 75 Rhododendron campanulatum D. Ericaceae Don Ratokpa (D) above Phwaso 3640 m Wd 76 Rato balu above Jabkung 3300 m Lf 77 Rhododendron lepidotum Wallich Ericaceae ex G. Don Rhus chinensis Miller Anacardiaceae Bhange chuk (N) Chhipra 2300 m Fr 78 Rosa sericea Lindl. Rosaceae Sebling (D) Jabak 2850 m Fl, Rt 79 Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Fleming Rubiaceae Mujetho (N) Chhipra 2400 m Rt Roots yield red or brown dye used to color cloth 80 Rubus ellipticus Sm. Rosaceae Aainselu Dozam 2600 m Fr Ripe fruits eaten 81 Rubus paniculatus Sm. Rosaceae Kalo aainselu above Dozam 2700 m Fr Ripe fruits eaten 82 Rumex nepalensis Spreng Polygonaceae Hale (N), Suyokpa (D) Phwaso 3550 m Rh 83 Rumex sp. Polygonaceae Kirmothakthak Tugling 3500 m Lf 84 Silene sp. Caryophyllaceae Naro (N, D) Jabkung 3100 m Rt 85 Smilicina purpurea Wallich Liliaceae Jabkung 3300 m Lf 86 Sorbus lanata (D. Don) Schauer Rosaceae Thaing (D), Salli saag (N) Laha Tambal Rootstock to treat fractured and injuries; also to extract dye to color goat hair leaves are sour in taste and used in pickle or cooked as vegetable As detergenet; roots are chopped, dried and crushed to make powder, which is stored as used when needed Cooked as vegetable 2800 m Fr 87 Stellera chamaejasme L. Thymeliaceae Jharan (N) Naksupa, near Namul khola above Jabkung 3500 m Rt Ripe fruits are eaten, the plant is used as an wild stock for apple grafting In swellings and fracture 88 Swertia ciliata (D. Don ex G. Don) B.L. Burtt Syringa emodi Wallich ex Royle Gentianaceae above Phwaso 3640 m Wp In cough, cold, fever Oleaceae Chiraiyto (N), Gaytik (D) Aadi Methe 3150 m Lf As herbal tea Asteraceae Bayojadi (D) Seding 3900 m Rt In indigestion Taxaceae Launtho (N), Sangasing (D) above Jabkung 3200 m Wd, Bk In the preparation of a small vessel for churning Tibetan tea; also used to prepare wodden pestle known as 'Mujul'; bark yields dye for cororing woolen commodities Herbal tea given to treat asthma, cold and cough 89 90 91 Tanacetum dolichophyllum (Kitam.) Kitam Taxus wallichiana Zucc. 92 Thymus linearis Benth. ex Benth. Lamiaceae Ghodamorcha above Chhipra 2500 m Lf,Fl 93 Tsuga dumosa (D. Don) Eichler Aggar (N) above Chhipra 2500 m Wp 94 Lapchikpa (D) Manal 2700 m Lf, Rt 95 Typhonium diversifolium Wall. ex Araceae Schoot Ulmus wallichiana Planch. Ulmaceae 2700 m Wd,Bk 96 Urtica dioica L. 2600 m Lf,Sh Pinaceae Urticaceae Tyaktyak (N), Tyaksing Manal (D) Sisnoo (N), Ja (D) Dozam 166 To prepare kitchen utensils, such as ladle (a spoon with a long handle and a deep bowl, used to serve soup and other liquids) Incense Ripe fruits are dried and make powder which is used as pickle Root as substitute of tea; flower juice in eye pain Plant is highly sacred; a small peice of wood is needed in defferent religious occassions, such as marriage, funeral rites, obsequies rites, fire offering etc.; wood is specially valued to prepare 'doli' a kind of palanquin consisting of a covered seat for bride. People believed that it is very auspecious and holly if a dead body is burnt with the help of its wood. Wood paste is applied on forehead as 'chandan'. Tubers and leaves are cooked as vegetable Bark is used to prepare a cord ('halludo' or 'Jhutak') which is attached to yoke of a plough pole Tender parts cooked as vegetable 97 Urticaceae 98 Urtica hyperborea Jacquem. ex Wedd. Valeriana hardwickii Wall. Valerianaceae Samayo/ Sugandhawal Phwaso 3640 m Rt Tender parts cooked as vegetable; highly preferred than U. dioica Incense and medicine 99 Valeriana jatamansii Jones Valerianaceae Samayo/ Sugandhawal Chhipra 2400 m Rh,Rt Incense and medicine; traded Loranthaceae Jobjon (D), Ainjeru (N) 2550 m Wp, Fr Plant extract to treat broken bones 100 Viscum sp. Chyangja (D) Seding Syakri 3900 m Lf *Parts use: Bk – bark; Lf – leaf; Pt – petiole; Rh – rhizome; Rn – resin, latex; Rt – root, root tuber; Sh – shoot; St – stem; Tr – trunk; Wd – wood; WP – whole plant. 167 Annex 7. Potential List of Mammals from KSL Nepal SN 1 Order/Family/Common Name ORDER - PHOLIDOTA Family - Manidae Chinese Pangolin 2 ORDER : INSECTIVORA Family - Talpidae Himalayan Mole 3 Family - Soricidae Himalayan Water Shrew 4 Horsfield's Shrew 5 Elegant Water Shrew 6 7 8 Eurasian Pygmy Shrew Bailey's Shrew Brown-toothed Shrew 9 Gruber's Shrew 10 Indian Long-tailed Shrew 11 Himalayan Shrew 12 13 House Shrew Yellow-throated Shrew 14 15 ORDER : CHIROPTERA Family - Pteropodidae Indian Short-nosed Fruit Bat Indian Flying Fox 16 Fulvous Fruit Bat 17 Family - Rhinolophidae Pearson's Horseshoe Bat 18 Rufous Horseshoe Bat 19 Family - Hipposideridae Himalayan Roundleaf bat 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Scientific Name Manis pentadacyla GoN CITES IUCN NRDB P II NT v2.3 S Region MH Site MH HL 6 1 0 3 0 1 Euroscaptor micrura LC v2.3 Chimarrogale himalayica Crossidura horsfieldi Nectogale elegans Sorex minutus Soriculus baileyi Soriculus caudatus Soriculus gruberi Soriculus leucops Soriculus nigriscens Suncus murinus Suncus stoliczkanus LC v2.3 MH 4 1 0 LC v2.3 HL WP 0 0 1 LC v2.3 MH 4 1 0 2 4 5 1 0 0 1 1 1 2 1 0 LC v2.3 4 1 1 LC v2.3 5 0 1 LC v2.3 LC v2.3 6 2 0 0 1 1 LC v2.3 4 1 1 LC v2.3 6 1 0 LC v2.3 4 1 0 Rhinolophus pearsonii Rhinolophus rouxi LC v2.3 0 1 1 LC v2.3 0 1 0 Hipposideros armiger LC v2.3 3 1 1 3 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2 0 1 LC v2.3 LC v2.4 LC v2.3 LC v2.6 Cynopterus sphinx Pteropus giganteus Rousettus leschenaulti II Family - Vespertilionidae Eastern Barbestelle Barbastella leucomelas Bent Wing Bat Miniopterus schreibersii Little Tube-nosed Bat Murina aurata Brown Long-eared Bat Plectotus auritus ORDER : PRIMATES Family - Cercopithecidae Assamese Macaque Macaca assamensis Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta* Hanuman Langur Semnopithecus MH LC v2.3 III MH LC v3.1 NT v2.3 MH WP HL LC v2.3 P 168 II VU v2.3 V 5 1 0 II I NT v2.3 NT v2.3 S S 21 18 1 1 1 1 entellus* 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 ORDER : CARNIVORA Family - Canidae Golden Jackal Grey Wolf Asiatic Wild-dog, Dhole Bengal Fox Red Fox Family - Ursidae Brown Bear Himalayan Black Bear 43 Family - Ailuridae Red Panda Family - Mustelidae Hog Badger Common Otter Stone Marten (Beech) Yellow-throated Marten Mountain Weasel Yellow-bellied Weasel Siberian Weasel Family - Viverridae Masked Palm Civet Family - Herpestidae Indian Grey Mongoose 44 Family - Felidae Golden Cat 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Canis aureus* Canis lupus* Cuon alpinus Vulpes bengalensis Vulpes vulpes* P III II II III LC v3.1 LC v3.1 EN v3.1 LC v3.1 V V S 22 9 14 12 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 III LC v3.1 S 10 1 1 3 12 0 1 1 1 9 1 1 1 11 4 16 5 3 5 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 Ursus arctos* Ursus thibetanus* P I I LC v2.3 VU v2.3 V V Ailurus fulgens P I EN v2.3 E Arctonyx collaris Lutra lutra Martes foina Martes flavigula* Mustela altaica Mustela kathiah Mustela sibirica I III III III III III LC v2.3 NT v3.1 LC v2.3 LC v2.3 LC v2.3 LC v2.3 LC v2.3 S S Paguma larvata III LC v2.3 6 1 1 Herpestes edwardsii* III LC v2.3 12 1 0 I VU v3.1 V 4 1 0 II I I LC v3.1 VU v3.1 LC v3.1 S V S 18 6 20 1 1 1 1 0 1 P P I I EN v3.1 VU v3.1 E V 8 8 0 1 1 0 P I LC v3.1 V 10 1 1 II LC v2.3 2 0 1 17 1 1 Catopuma temminckii Jungle Cat Felis chaus* Marbled Cat Felis marmorata Common Leopard Panthera pardus* Snow Leopard Panthera uncia* Clouded Leopard Pardofelis nebulosa Leopard Cat Prionailurus bengalensis ORDER : PERISSODACTYLA Family - Equidae Tibetan Wild Ass Equus kiang* ORDER : ARTIODACTYLA Family - Suidae Wild Boar Sus scrofa* Family - Moschidae Musk Deer Moschus chrysogaster* Family - Cervidae Sambar Deer Cervus unicolor Barking Deer Muntiacus muntjak* Family - Bovidae Wild Yak Bos mutus* Himalayan Thar Hemitragus jemlahicus* Himalayan Goral Naemorhedus goral* HL HL WP HL HL HL MH HL HL LC v2.3 P NT v2.3 E 10 1 1 LC v2.3 LC v2.3 S 6 17 1 1 0 1 I VU v2.3 VU v2.3 C S 3 14 0 1 1 1 I NT v2.3 S 12 1 1 I P 169 HL 59 Mainland Serow 60 Bharal (Blue Sheep) 61 Tibetan Antelope 62 ORDER : RODENTIA Family - Scuiridae Irrawaddy Squirrel 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 Orange-bellied Himalayan Squirrel Himalayan Marmot Black Giant Squirrel Himalayan Striped Squirrel Family - Pteromyidae Particoloured Flying Squirrel Hodgson's Flying Squirrel Red Flying Squirrel 71 Hairy-footed Flying Squirrel Family - Muridae Himalayan Field Mouse 72 Wood Rat 73 Lesser Bandicoot Rat 74 75 76 Fawn Colored Mouse House Rat White-bellied Rat 77 Turkestan Rat 81 Family - Hystricidae Indian Crested Porcupine ORDER : LAGOMORPHA Family - Leporidae Indian Hare (Rufoustailed) Woolly Hare Family - Ochotonidae Long-eared Pika 82 Nubrica Pika 83 Royle's Pika 78 79 80 Capricornis sumatraensis Pseudois nayaur* Pantholops hodgsoni* I P I Callosciurus pygerythrus Dremomys lokriah Marmota bobak* Ratufa bicolor Tamiops macclellandi II VU v2.3 S LC v3.1 S EN v3.1 C 10 1 1 HL 5 1 1 HL 0 0 1 VU v2.3 3 1 0 LC v2.3 5 0 1 HL MH 4 2 2 0 1 1 1 0 1 MH 5 1 0 NT v2.3 3 1 1 LC v2.3 6 0 1 LC v2.3 LC v2.3 LC v2.3 S Hylopetes alboniger Petaurista magnificus Petaurista petaurista Belomys pearsonii EN v2.3 NT v2.3 MH WP 1 1 0 Apodemus gurkha Apodemus sylvaticus Bandicota bengalensis Mus cervicolor Mus musculus Niviventer niviventer Rattus turkestanicus LC v2.3 es 0 0 1 LC v3.1 HL 3 0 1 LC v2.3 6 1 0 LC v2.3 LC v2.3 LC v2.3 4 9 4 1 0 1 1 1 0 LC v2.3 5 0 1 Hystrix indica* LC v2.3 14 1 0 Lepus nigricollis LC v2.3 11 1 0 Lepus oiostolus* LC v2.3 HL 4 0 1 Ochotona macrotis Ochotona nubrica Ochotona roylei* LC v2.3 HL 4 0 1 HL 0 0 1 7 0 55 1 56 LC v2.3 LC v2.3 170 V Sources: B.P.P. 1995a, b, c; DNPWC/MFSC/GoN 2005; Bhuju et al. 2007; Siwakoti & Basnet 2007; NHM/TU & IUCN 2059-BS; Suwal & Verheugt 1995; Humla D.F.O. 2062/63BS and *species are verified in KSL field visit (Humla), 2010. Legends and Summary IUCN = IUCN Red List Category P = Protected by NPWC Act 1973 CR = Critically Endangered EN = Endangered CITES VU = Vulnerable Appendix I * 26 species from Humla NT = Near Threatened Appendix II LC = Least Concern Appendix III DD = Data Deficient v2.3 = IUCN Red List of Threatened Species version 2.3 (1994) NRDB (Nepal Red Data Book) Status v3.1 = IUCN Red List of Threatened Species version 3.1 (2001) C = Critically endangered E = Endangered Region (Spatial confinement) V = Vulnerable HL = Confined to Highlands S = Susceptible MH = Confined to Midhills Sites WP = Confined to Western Part of Nepal PAs, RS, WHS of Nepal (total 24) es = Nepal Endemic: Himalayan Field Mouse (Apodemus gurkha) 171 Annex 8. Potential list of birds from KSL SN Order/Family/ Scientific name Common Name ORDER : GALLIFORMES SS NG /P CITES IUCN NRDB Regio n Site MH HL Family - Phasianidae 1 Chukar Alectoris chukar* ra LC 7 1 1 2 Hill Partridge Arborophila torqueola* r LC 7 1 1 3 Cheer Pheasant Catreus wallichii* r 5 1 1 4 Black Francolin Francolinus francolinus* r 13 1 0 5 Blood Pheasant Ithaginis cruentus r 6 0 1 6 Snow Partridge Lerwa lerwa r 6 0 1 7 Himalayan Monal Lophophorus impejanus* r LC S 9 1 1 8 Kalij Pheasant Lophura leucomelanos r LC S 15 1 0 9 Tibetan Partridge Perdix hodgsoniae r LC 3 0 1 10 Koklas Pheasant Pucrasia macrolopha* r LC S 5 1 1 11 Tibetan Snowcock Tetraogallus tibetanus r LC S HL 6 0 1 12 Himalayan Snowcock Satyr Tragopan Tetraogallus himalayensis r HL 5 0 1 Tragopan satyra r 7 1 1 13 P I VU E LC II LC S LC P I I HL HL LC P III NT E ORDER : ANSERIFORMES Family - Anatidae 14 Northern Pintail Anas acuta w III LC 12 1 1 15 Northern Shoveler Anas clypeata w III LC 9 0 1 16 Common Teal Anas crecca w III LC 13 1 1 17 Eurasian Wigeon Anas penelope* w III LC 11 0 1 18 10 1 1 19 Mallard Teal) Garganey LC 8 1 0 20 Gadwall LC 11 0 1 21 Greylag Goose Anser anser w LC S 5 1 1 22 Bar-headed Goose Anser indicus w LC S 12 0 1 23 Common Pochard Aythya ferina w LC 11 0 1 LC 11 1 1 (Laysan Anas platyrhynchos* w Anas querquedula w Anas strepera w 24 Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula w 25 Ferruginous Pochard Aythya nyroca* w 26 Common Goldeneye Bucephala clangula 27 Common Merganser Mergus merganser 28 29 S LC III NT S 11 0 1 w LC V 4 0 1 w LC 8 1 1 Red-crested Pochard Rhodonessa rufina w LC 9 1 1 Ruddy Shelduck wa LC 16 1 1 Tadorna ferruginea* III ORDER : PICIFORMES Family - Picidae 30 Rufous Woodpecker Celeus brachyurus r LC S 10 1 0 31 Dendrocopos auriceps r LC S 7 1 1 Dendrocopos canicapillus r LC 8 1 0 Dendrocopos himalayensis r LC 7 1 1 Dendrocopos hyperythrus r LC 7 1 1 Dendrocopos macei r LC 13 1 0 36 Brown-fronted Woodpecker Grey-capped Pigmy Woodpecker Himalayan Woodpecker Rufous-bellied Woodpecker Fulvous-breasted Woodpecker Eurasian Wryneck Jynx torquilla m LC 9 1 0 37 Speckled Piculet Picumnus innominatus r LC 8 1 1 38 Grey-headed Woodpecker Picus canus* r LC 17 1 0 32 33 34 35 172 S 39 Lesser Yellownape Picus chlorolophus r LC 8 1 0 40 Greater Yellownape Picus flavinucha r LC 11 1 0 41 Scaly-bellied Picus squamatus* Woodpecker Family - Megalaimidae r LC 10 1 1 42 Blue-throated Barbet Megalaima asiatica* r LC 14 1 0 43 Coppersmith Barbet Megalaima haemacephala r LC 11 1 0 44 Lineated Barbet Megalaima lineata r LC 7 1 0 45 Great Barbet Megalaima virens* r LC 14 1 1 46 Brown-headed Megalaima zeylanica Barbet ORDER : UPUPIFORMES r LC 4 1 0 r LC 18 1 1 Family - Upupidae 47 Common Hoopoe Upupa epops* ORDER : CORACIIFORMES Family - Coraciidae 48 Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis r LC 12 1 0 49 Dollarbird Eurystomus orientalis r LC 8 1 0 Alcedo atthis r LC 15 1 1 Family - Alcedinidae 50 Common Kingfisher Family - Dacelonidae 51 White-throated Kingfisher Family - Cerylidae Halcyon smyrnensis* r LC 17 1 1 52 Crested Kingfisher Megaceryle lugubris r LC 8 1 1 53 Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis r LC 9 1 0 Merops leschenaulti s LC 10 1 0 Merops orientalis 0 Family - Meropidae 54 55 Chestnut-headed Bee-eater Green Bee-eater s LC 10 1 56 Blue-tailed Bee-eater Merops philippinus s LC 7 1 0 57 Blue-bearded Bee- Nyctyornis athertoni eater ORDER : CUCULIFORMES r LC 7 1 0 s LC 8 1 0 S Family - Cuculidae 58 Grey-bellied Cuckoo Cacomantis passerinus 59 Banded Bay Cuckoo Cacomantis sonneratii r LC 7 1 0 60 Pied Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus s LC 10 1 0 61 Eurasian Cuckoo Cuculus canorus* sa LC 20 1 1 V 62 Indian Cuckoo Cuculus micropterus s LC 16 1 1 63 Lesser Cuckoo Cuculus poliocephalus s LC 10 1 1 64 Oriental Cuckoo Cuculus saturatus* s LC 16 1 1 65 Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopacea* r LC 15 1 1 66 Large Hawk Cuckoo Hierococcyx sparverioides s LC 12 1 1 67 Common Hawk Hierococcyx varius* Cuckoo Green-billed Phaenicophaeus tristis Malkoha Drongo Cuckoo Surniculus lugubris r LC 12 1 0 r LC 15 1 0 s LC 10 1 0 9 1 0 68 69 ORDER : PSITTACIFORMES Family - Psittacidae 70 Plum-headed Parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala r 173 II LC S 71 72 73 Alexandrine Parakeet Slaty-headed Parakeet Rose-ring Parakeet Psittacula eupatria r II LC Psittacula himalayana* r II LC Psittacula krameri r III LC 8 0 0 S 12 1 1 S 12 1 0 ORDER : APODIFORMES Family - Apodidae 74 House Swift Apus affinis* ra LC 15 1 0 75 Common Swift Apus apus* rsa LC 6 0 1 76 Alpine Swift Tachymarptis melba* r?a LC 15 1 1 77 Fork-tailed Swift Apus pacificus r?a LC 13 1 1 78 Himalayan Swiflet Collocalia brevirostris* r LC 14 1 1 79 White-throated Hirundapus caudacutus Needletail Family - Hemiprocnidae s? LC 9 1 1 r LC 6 1 0 80 Crested Treeswift Hemiprocne coronata ORDER : STRIGIFORMES Family - Strigidae 81 Short-eared Owl Asio flammeus w II LC S 7 0 1 82 Spotted Owlet Athene brama* r II LC S 13 1 0 83 Little Owl Athene noctua r II LC S 3 1 0 84 Eurasian Eagle Owl Bubo bubo* r II LC V 7 0 1 85 Collared Owlet Glaucidium brodiei r II LC 9 1 1 86 Asian Barred Owlet Glaucidium cuculoides r II LC 16 1 1 87 Jungle Owlet Glaucidium radiatum r II LC 9 1 0 88 Brown Hawk Owl Ninox scutulata r II LC S 8 1 0 89 Collared Scops Owl Otus bakkamoena r II LC S 8 1 0 90 Moutain Scops Owl Otus spilocephalus r II LC S 8 1 0 91 Oriental Scops Owl Otus sunia r II LC V 92 Tawny Owl Strix aluco r II LC 93 Brown Wood Owl Strix leptogrammica r II LC V 5 1 0 10 1 1 5 1 0 Family - Caprimulgidae 94 Savanna Nightjar Caprimulgus affinis r LC 5 1 0 95 Grey Nightjar Caprimulgus indicus r LC 13 1 1 96 Large-tailed Nightjar Caprimulgus macrurus r LC 11 1 0 ORDER : COLUMBIFORMES Family - Columbidae 97 Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica r LC 8 1 0 98 r LC 10 1 1 99 Speckleted Wood Columba hodgsonii* Pigeon Snow Pigeon Columba leuconota* ra 100 Blue Rock Pigeon rc 101 102 Common Pigeon Hill Pigeon 103 Spotted Dove 104 LC 10 1 1 LC 18 1 1 w? LC 3 0 1 Columba rupestris r LC 6 0 1 Streptopelia chinensis r LC 21 1 1 r LC 9 1 1 105 Eurasian Collared Streptopelia decaocto Dove Oriental Turtle Dove Streptopelia orientalis* rc LC 21 1 1 106 Red-collared Dove r LC 7 1 0 107 Yellow-footed Green Treron phoenicoptera Pigeon Wedge-tail Green Treron sphenura* Pigeon ORDER : GRUIFORMES r LC 8 1 0 r LC 10 1 0 108 Columba livia* Wood Columba palumbus Streptopelia tranquebarica 174 III S Family - Gruidae 109 Demoiselle Crane Grus virgo w III LC S 9 1 0 Family - Rallidae 110 Common Coot Fulica atra m LC 13 1 1 111 Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus rw LC 11 0 1 1 ORDER : CICONIIFORMES Family - Scolopacidae 112 Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos m LC 14 1 113 Little Stint Calidris minuta w LC 5 0 1 114 Temminck’s Stint Calidris temminckii w LC 8 1 1 115 Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago w LC 10 1 1 116 Solitary Snipe Gallinago solitaria rm LC 8 1 1 117 Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata w LC 4 1 1 118 Phalaropus lobatus m LC 1 0 1 119 Red-necked Phalarope Eurasian Woodcock Scolopax rusticola r LC 11 1 1 120 Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola w LC 10 0 1 121 Tringa nebularia sw LC 12 0 1 122 Common Greenshank Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus w LC 17 1 1 123 Common Redshank Tringa totanus w LC 11 0 1 9 0 1 V HL WP Family - Jacanidae 124 Pheasant-tailed Hydrophasianus chirurgus Jacana Family - Charadriidae s LC 125 Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus m LC V 5 0 1 126 Ibisbill Ibidorhyncha struthersii* r LC S 6 1 1 127 Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius rw LC 8 1 0 128 Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius mongolus w LC 5 0 1 129 River Lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii r LC 7 1 0 130 Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus r LC 12 1 0 131 Northern Lapwing Vanellus vanellus w LC 6 0 1 LC 4 0 1 LC 7 0 1 4 0 1 Family - Laridae 132 Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica m 133 Brown -headed Gull Larus brunnicephalus* w 134 Heuglin’s Gull Larus heuglini w II LC V V 135 Pallas’s Gull Larus ichthyaetus w LC 136 Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus w LC 7 0 1 7 0 1 ORDER : FALCONIFORMES Family - Accipitridae 137 Shikra Accipiter badius r II LC 14 1 0 138 Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis* r II LC 12 1 1 139 Eurasian Sparrowhawk Besra Accipiter nisus* r II LC 18 1 1 Accipiter virgatus r II LC S 13 1 1 V 12 1 1 S 12 1 1 14 1 1 140 S w II 142 Cinereous (Black) Aegypius monachus Vulture Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos NT r II LC 143 Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis w II LC 144 Common Buzzard Buteo buteo japonicus w II LC S 13 1 1 145 Upland Buzzard Buteo hemilasius rw II LC S 12 1 1 146 Long-legged Buzzard Eurasian Buteo rufinus w II LC S 11 0 1 w II LC 12 1 0 141 147 Marsh Circus aeruginosus 175 Harrier 17 1 1 S 7 1 1 S 8 1 0 LC S 8 1 0 II LC S 13 1 1 II CR C 10 1 1 rm II LC 10 1 0 ra II LC S 13 1 1 CR C 10 1 0 II VU E 7 1 0 r II LC 7 1 1 rw II LC 13 1 1 rm II LC 12 1 1 r II LC 21 1 1 rm II EN S 13 1 S 148 Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus w II LC 149 Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus w II NT 150 Pied harrier Circus melanoleucos w II LC 151 Black-shouldered Kite Lammergeier Elanus caeruleus rs II Gypaetus barbatus* ra Gyps bengalensis rm 154 White-rumped Vulture Eurasian Griffon Gyps fulvus 155 Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis* 156 Gyps tenuirostris r 157 Slender-billed Vulture Pallas's Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus w 158 Bonelli's Eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus 159 Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus* 160 Black Eagle Ictinaetus malayensis 161 Black Kite Milvus migrans 162 Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus* 163 Osprey Pandion haliaetus 164 Oriental Honey- Pernis ptilorhyncus buzzard Red-headed Vulture Sarcogyps calvus 152 153 rw II LC rm II LC 12 1 1 12 1 0 r II CR S 12 1 1 s II LC S 18 1 1 167 Crested Serpent Spilornis cheela Eagle Mountain Hawk Spizaetus nipalensis Eagle Family - Falconidae r II LC S 11 1 0 168 Amur Falcon Falco amurensis m II LC S 9 0 1 169 Merlin Falco columbarius* w II LC 5 0 1 170 Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus r I LC E 12 1 1 171 Oriental Hobby Falco severus rm II LC E 7 1 0 172 Eurasian Hobby Falco subbuteo rw II LC 12 1 1 173 Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus* rwa II LC 19 1 1 174 Collared Falconet Microhierax caerulescens r II LC 8 1 0 165 166 ORDER : PODICIPEDIFORMES Family - Podicipedidae 175 Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus w LC S 11 1 1 176 Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis m LC V 5 1 1 177 Little Grebe rw LC 9 1 1 r LC 13 1 1 Tachybaptus ruficollis ORDER : PELECANIFORMES Family - Phalacrocoracidae 178 Great Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo ORDER : CICONIFORMES Family - Ardeidae 179 Grey Heron Ardea cinerea rw LC 10 1 1 180 Indian Pond Heron Ardeola grayii r LC 14 1 0 181 Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis r III LC 16 1 0 182 Great Egret Casmerodius albus* r III LC 10 1 1 183 Little Egret Egretta garzetta r III LC 10 1 0 184 Intermediate Egret Mesophoyx intermedia r LC 9 1 0 r LC 9 1 0 Family - Threskiornithidae 185 Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa Family - Ciconiidae 176 S 186 187 Woolly-necked Storked Black Stork Ciconia episcopus r Ciconia nigra w P II LC S 12 1 0 LC E 8 1 1 ORDER : PASSERIFORMES Family - Irenidae Chloropsis aurifrons r LC 9 1 0 189 Golden-fronted Leafbird Orange-bellied Leafbird Family - Laniidae Chloropsis hardwickii r LC 9 1 0 190 Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus w LC 11 1 191 Long-tailed Shrike Lanius schach r LC 20 1 192 Grey-backed Shrike Lanius tephronotus* rc LC 18 1 1 193 Bay-backed Shrike Lanius vittatus m LC 9 1 0 r LC 9 1 0 r LC 17 1 0 12 1 0 1 188 1 Family - Corvidae 194 195 196 Common Green Cissa chinensis Magpei Large Cuckooshrike Coracina macei Coracina melaschistos r LC 197 Black-winged Cuckooshrike Common Raven Corvus corax r LC 8 0 198 Large-billed Crow Corvus macrorhynchos* r LC 22 1 1 199 House Crow Corvus splendens r LC 15 1 0 200 Grey Treepie Dendrocitta formosae r LC 12 1 0 201 Rufous Treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda r LC 13 1 0 202 Eurasian Jay Garrulus glandarius r LC 5 1 0 203 Black-headed Jay Garrulus lanceolatus* r LC 7 1 1 204 r LC 12 1 0 205 Bar-wing Flycatcher- Hemipus picatus shrike Spotted Nutcraker Nucifraga caryocatactes* r LC 11 1 1 206 Long-tailed Minivet Pericrocotus ethologus* r LC 18 1 1 207 Scarlet Minivet Pericrocotus flammeus r LC 16 1 0 208 r LC 3 0 1 209 Hume’s Pseudopodoces humilis* Groundpecker Yellow-billed Chough Pyrrhocorax graculus* ra LC 6 0 1 210 Red-billed Chough Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax* ra LC 10 1 1 211 Red-billed Blue Magpie Yellow-billed Blue Magpie Eurasian Golden Oriole Maroon Oriole Urocissa erythrorhyncha r LC 16 1 0 Urocissa flavirostris r LC 9 1 1 Oriolus oriolus* r LC 13 1 0 Oriolus traillii r LC 11 1 0 212 213 214 HL 215 Black-hooded Oriole Oriolus xanthornus r LC 8 1 0 216 r LC 14 1 0 217 White-throated Rhipidura albicollis Fantail Yellow-bellied Fantail Rhipidura hypoxantha r LC 16 1 1 218 Bronzed Drongo Dicrurus aeneus s LC 14 1 0 219 Spangled Drongo Dicrurus hottentottus r LC 13 1 0 220 Ashy Drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus* sa LC 21 1 1 221 Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus* r LC 16 1 0 222 Lesser Racket-tailed Dicrurus remifer Drongo Asian Paradise Terpsiphone paradisi Flycatcher Family - Cinclidae s LC 8 1 0 r LC 8 1 0 White-throated Dipper Brown Dipper Cinclus cinclus* ra LC 4 1 1 Cinclus pallasii* ra LC 12 1 1 223 224 225 177 Family - Muscicapidae White-capped Water Redstart Oriental Magpie Robin Grey-headed Canary Flycatcher Hill Blue Flycatcher Chaimarrornis leucocephalus* Copsychus saularis r LC 16 1 1 r LC 16 1 0 Culicicapa ceylonensis r LC 19 1 1 Cyornis banyumas r LC Cyornis rubeculoides m LC 10 1 0 Enicurus immaculatus r LC 8 1 1 232 Blue-throated Flycatcher Black-backed Forktail Spotted Forktail r LC 9 1 1 233 Slaty-backed Forktail Enicurus schistaceus r LC 8 1 1 234 Little Forktail Enicurus scouleri* r LC 9 1 1 235 Ficedula hyperythra r LC 8 1 0 Ficedula strophiata r LC 14 1 1 Ficedula superciliaris s LC 15 1 1 238 Snowy-browed Flycatcher Rufous-gorgeted Flycatcher Ultramarine Flycathcher Slaty-blue Flycatcher r LC 15 1 1 239 Little Pied Flycatcher Ficedula westermanni r LC 14 1 1 240 Grandala Grandala coelicolor* r LC 6 0 1 241 Hodgsonius phaenicuroides s LC 9 1 1 242 White-bellied Redstart Indian Blue Robin Luscinia brunnea s LC 15 1 1 243 Siberian Rubythroat Luscinia calliope w LC 7 1 0 244 White-tailed Rubythroat Bluethroat Luscinia pectoralis* ra LC 12 1 1 Luscinia svecica w LC 10 1 0 Blue-capped Rock Monticola cinclorhynchus* Thrush Chestnut-bellied Monticola rufiventris Rock Thrush Blue Rock Thrush Monticola solitarius* s LC 15 1 1 r LC 11 1 1 r LC 11 1 1 Asian Brown Flycatcher Rusty-tailed Flycatcher Dark-sided Flycatcher Verditer Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica s LC 9 1 0 Muscicapa ruficauda s LC 11 1 1 Muscicapa sibirica* s LC 15 1 1 226 227 228 229 230 231 236 237 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 Enicurus maculatus Ficedula tricolor* 5 V S s LC 18 1 1 Blue Whistiling Myophonus caeruleus* Thrush Small Niltava Niltava macgrigoriae ra LC 19 1 1 s LC 6 1 0 Rufous-bellied Niltava Desert Wheatear Niltava sundara rs LC 12 1 1 Oenanthe deserti* m LC 8 1 1 Phoenicurus coeruleocephalus Phoenicurus erythrogaster* r LC 8 1 1 rw LC 6 0 1 Phoenicurus erythronota w LC 3 0 1 Phoenicurus frontalis* rw LC 10 1 1 261 Blue-capped Redstart White-winged Redstart Rufous-backed Redstart Blue-fronted Redstart Hodgson's Redstart Phoenicurus hodgsoni w LC 8 1 1 262 Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros* ma LC 16 1 1 263 rw LC 6 1 1 r LC 16 1 1 265 White-throated Phoenicurus schisticeps Redstart Plumbeous Water Rhyacornis fuliginosus* Redstart Pied Bushchat Saxicola caprata r LC 14 1 0 266 Grey Bushchat ra LC 17 1 1 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 264 Eumyias thalassina* Saxicola ferrea* 178 HL 267 Common Stonechat Saxicola torquata* rwa LC 19 1 1 268 Golden Bush Robin Tarsiger chrysaeus r LC 9 1 1 269 Tarsiger cyanurus* r LC 10 1 1 Tarsiger indicus r LC 10 1 1 Turdus albocinctus r LC 12 1 1 Turdus boulboul r LC 12 1 0 273 Orange-flanked Bush Robin White-browed Bush Robin White-collared Blackbird Grey-winged Blackbird Eurassian Blackbird Turdus merula* sw LC 8 1 1 274 Dusky Thrush Turdus naumanni w LC 3 1 0 275 Chestnut Thrush Turdus rubrocanus sw LC 6 0 1 276 Turdus ruficollis w LC 17 1 1 277 Dark-throated Thrush Tickell's Thrush Turdus unicolor s LC 13 1 0 278 Mistle Thrush Turdus viscivorus r LC 7 1 1 279 Orange-headed Thrush Scaly Thrush Zoothera citrina sw LC 11 1 0 Zoothera dauma s LC 13 1 1 281 Long-tailed Thrush Zoothera dixoni r LC 7 1 1 282 Pain-backed Thrush Zoothera molissima r LC 8 1 1 283 Long-billed Thrush Zoothera monticola r LC V 8 1 0 284 Pied Thrush Zoothera wardii s LC S 8 1 1 0 270 271 272 280 UR Family - Sturnidae 285 Jungle Myna Acridotheres fuscus r LC 15 1 286 Common Myna Acridotheres tristis r LC 19 1 1 287 Spot-winged Starling Saroglossa spiloptera r LC 5 1 0 288 Chestnut-tailed Starling Brahminy Starling Sturnus malabaricus r LC 13 1 0 Sturnus pagodarum r LC 9 1 0 289 S Family - Sittidae 290 Kasmir Nuthatch Sitta cashmirensis r LC 2 0 1 291 Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch Velvet-fronted Nuthatch White-tailed Nuthatch White-cheeked Nuthatch Wallcreeper Sitta castanea r LC 17 1 0 Sitta frontalis r LC 11 1 0 Sitta himalayensis r LC 8 1 0 Sitta leucopsis* r LC 3 1 1 Tichodroma muraria r LC 12 1 1 Certhia familiaris r LC 9 1 1 Certhia himalayana r LC 6 1 1 r LC 10 1 1 r LC 8 1 1 292 293 294 295 Family - Certhiidae 296 297 298 299 Eurasian Treecreeper Bar-tailed Treecreeper Rusty-flank Creeper Winter Wren Tree Certhia nipalensis Troglodytes troglodytes Family - Paridae 300 Fire-capped Tit Cephalopyrus flammiceps r LC 6 1 0 301 Coal Tit Parus ater r LC 9 1 0 302 Grey-crested Tit Parus dichrous r LC 9 1 1 303 Great Tit Parus major* r LC 19 1 0 304 Spot-winged Tit Parus melanolophus* r LC 4 1 1 305 Green-backed Tit Parus monticolus* r LC 12 1 1 306 Rufous-vented Tit Parus rubidiventris* rw LC 10 1 1 307 Rufous-naped Tit Parus rufonuchalis* r LC 4 0 1 308 Black-lored Tit Parus xanthogenys r LC 13 1 1 179 HL 309 Yellow-browed Tit Sylviparus modestus r LC 6 1 0 Family - Aegithalidae 310 Black-throated Tit Aegithalos concinnus r LC 11 1 1 311 White-throated Tit Aegithalos niveogularis r LC 5 1 1 White-cheeked Tit Aegithalos leucogenys r LC 0 0 1 312 HL WP Family - Hirundinidae 313 Asian House Martin Delichon dasypus* ra LC 9 1 1 314 Nepal House Martin Delichon nipalensis* ma LC 15 1 1 315 Hirundo daurica m LC 16 1 1 316 Red-rumped Swallow Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica* m LC 18 1 1 317 Eurasian Crag Martin Hirundo rupestris* ra LC 10 1 1 318 Plain Martin Riparia paludicola r LC 10 1 0 319 Sand Martin Riparia riparia r LC 9 0 1 r LC 11 1 1 Family - Regulidae 320 Goldcrest Regulus regulus* Family - Pycnonotidae 321 Ashy Bulbul Hemixos flavala r LC 6 1 0 322 Black Bulbul Hypsipetes leucocephalus* ra LC 15 1 1 323 Mountain Bulbul Hypsipetes mcclellandii r LC 8 1 324 Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer* r LC 16 1 1 325 Himalayan Bulbul Pycnonotus leucogenys* r LC 16 1 1 326 Black-crested Bulbul Pycnonotus melanicterus r LC 9 1 0 Family - Cisticolidae 327 Zitting Cisticola Cisticola juncidis r LC 8 1 0 328 Hill Prinia Prinia atrogularis* r LC 2 0 1 329 Grey-crown Priniya Prinia cinereocapilla r VU 7 1 0 330 Striated Prinia Prinia criniger r LC 13 1 1 331 Grey-breasted Prinia Prinia hodgsonii r LC 9 1 0 Zosterops palpebrosus r LC 20 1 1 Tesia castaneocoronata r LC 9 1 0 334 Chestnut-headed Tesia Grey-bellied Tesia Tesia cyaniventer r LC 10 1 0 335 Common Tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius* r LC 17 1 0 336 White-browed Tit Warbler Yellowish-bellied Bush Warbler Grey-sided Bush Warbler Aberrant Bush Warbler Brownish-flanked Bush Warbler Blyth’s Reed Warbler Leptopoecile sophiae r LC 2 0 1 Cettia acanthizoides r LC 6 1 1 Cettia brunnifrons r LC 15 1 1 Cettia flavolivacea* ra LC 12 1 Cettia fortipes fortipes* r LC 4 1 1 Acrocephalus dumetorum m LC 9 1 0 r LC 17 1 1 S Family - Zosteropidae 332 Oriental White-eye Family - Sylviidae 333 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 Tickell's Leaf Phylloscopus affinis* Warbler Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita* w LC 344 Smoky Warbler Phylloscopus fuligiventer m LC 345 Dusky Warbler Phylloscopus fuscatus w 346 Yellow-browed Warbler Ashy-throated Warbler Phylloscopus inornatus 347 Phylloscopus maculipennis HL S 11 1 0 14 1 0 LC 10 1 0 rm LC 17 1 1 r LC 10 1 1 180 S Phylloscopus magnirostris s LC 16 1 1 Phylloscopus occipitalis w LC 11 1 0 Phylloscopus chloronotus* r LC 15 1 1 351 Large-billed Leaf Warbler Western Crowned Warbler Lemon-rumped Warbler Buff-barred Warbler Phylloscopus pulcher m LC 14 1 1 352 Blyth's Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus reguloides s LC 18 1 1 353 Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides* s LC 18 1 1 354 Tytler’s Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus tytleri* m NT 1 1 0 355 Hume's Warbler Phylloscopus humei r LC 7 356 Golden-spectacled Warbler Chestnut-crowned Warbler Grey-hooded Warbler Black-faced Warbler Seicercus burkii r LC 17 1 1 Seicercus castaniceps r LC 7 1 0 Seicercus xanthoschistos* r LC 18 1 1 Abroscopus schisticeps r LC 6 1 0 Black-faced Laughingthrush White-throated Laughingthrush Grey-sided Laughingthrush Chestnut-crowned Laughingthrush White-crested Laughingthrush Streak Laughigthrush Spotted Laughingthrush Rufous-chinned Laughingthrush Striated Laughingthrush Variegated Laughingthrush Rusty-cheeked Scimitar Babbler Streak-breasted Scimitar Babbler White-browed Scimitar Babbler Scaly-breasted Wren Babbler Pygmy Wren Babbler Garrulax affinis r LC 6 0 1 Garrulax albogularis r LC 9 1 1 Garrulax caerulatus r LC 3 1 0 Garrulax erythrocephalus r LC 9 1 1 Garrulax leucolophus r LC 7 1 0 Garrulax lineatus* ra LC 11 1 1 Garrulax ocellatus r LC 8 1 1 Garrulax rufogularis r LC 3 1 0 Garrulax striatus r LC 8 1 0 Garrulax variegatus* r LC 7 1 1 Pomatorhinus erythrogenys r LC 10 1 0 Pomatorhinus ruficollis r LC 5 1 0 Pomatorhinus schisticeps r LC 7 1 0 Pnoepyga albiventer r LC 9 1 1 Pnoepyga pusilla r LC 8 1 0 Stachyris pyrrhops r LC 9 1 0 376 Black-chinned Babbler Spiny Babbler Turdoides nipalensis r LC 7 1 0 377 Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus r LC 10 1 0 378 Red-billed Leiothrix Leiothrix lutea r LC 6 1 0 379 Actinodura nipalensis r LC 6 1 0 Pteruthius flaviscapis r LC 4 1 0 Pteruthius xanthochlorus r LC 6 1 0 Alcippe vinipectus r LC 11 1 1 383 Hoary-throated Barwing White-browed Shrike Babbler Green Shrike Babbler White-browed Fulvetta Blue-winged Minla Minla cyanouroptera r LC 6 1 0 384 Chestnut-tailed Minla Minla strigula r LC 10 1 1 385 Whiskered Yuhina Yuhina flavicollis r LC 7 1 0 386 Striped-throated Yuhina Black-chinned Yuhina Yuhina gularis* r LC 10 1 1 Yuhina nigrimenta r LC 1 1 0 348 349 350 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 380 381 382 387 181 II S E S MH MH es V 388 Rufous Sibia Heterophasia capistrata r LC 9 1 1 389 Great Parrotbill Conostoma oemodium r LC V 5 1 1 390 Black-throated Parrotbill Family - Alaudidae Paradoxornis nipalensis r LC S 7 1 1 391 Oriental Skylark Alauda gulgula r LC 13 1 1 392 Hume’s Short-toed Calandrella acutirostris* Lark Horned Lark Eremophila alpestris* r LC 8 1 1 r LC 4 0 1 r LC 9 1 0 r LC 11 1 1 396 Thick-billed Dicaeum agile Flowerpecker Fire-breasted Dicaeum ignipectus Flowerpecker Mrs Gould’s Sunbird Aethopyga gouldiae r LC 9 1 1 397 Fire-tailed Sunbird Aethopyga ignicauda* s LC 8 1 1 398 Green-tailed Sunbird Aethopyga nipalensis r LC 10 1 1 399 Aethopyga saturata r LC 9 1 0 400 Black-throated Sunbird Crimson Sunbird Aethopyga siparaja r LC 12 1 0 401 Purple Sunbird Nectarinia asiatica r LC 12 1 0 393 HL Family - Nectariniidae 394 395 Family - Passeridae 402 Red-throared Pipit Anthus cervinus w LC 7 0 1 403 Olive-backed Pipit Anthus hodgsoni* r LC 20 1 1 404 Rosy Pipit Anthus roseatus* ra LC 17 1 1 405 Upland Pipit Anthus sylvanus* r LC 10 1 1 406 Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis trivialis w LC 5 1 1 407 White Wagtail Motacilla alba alboides* ra LC 18 1 1 408 Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea* r LC 19 1 1 409 Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola* m LC 15 1 1 410 Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava beema* w LC 12 1 1 411 Motacilla maderaspatensis r LC 11 1 1 Prunella atrogularis r LC HL 4 0 1 413 White-browed Wagtail Black-throated Accentor Alpine Accentor Prunella collaris* r LC 7 0 1 414 Brown Accentor Prunella fulvescens r LC HL 5 0 1 415 Altai Accentor Prunella himalayana w LC 8 1 1 416 Robin Accentor Prunella rubeculoides r LC 6 0 1 417 Rufous-breasted Accentor Black-winged Snowfinch House Sparrow Prunella strophiata r LC 9 1 1 Montifringilla adamsi r LC 6 0 1 Passer domesticus* 412 418 ra LC 18 1 0 ra LC 18 1 1 421 Eurasian Tree Passer montanus* Sparrow Russet Sparrow Passer rutilans* r LC 7 1 1 422 Baya Weaver r LC 8 1 0 423 Scaly-breasted Lonchura punctulata Munia Family - Fringillidae r LC 11 1 0 424 Spectacled Finch Callacanthis burtoni w LC 1 1 0 425 European Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis r LC 4 1 1 426 Yellow-breasted Greenfinch Dark-rumped Rosefinch Common Rosefinch Carduelis spinoides* r LC 12 1 1 Carpodacus edwardsii r LC 3 1 0 Carpodacus erythrinus* ra LC 16 1 1 LC 8 1 0 419 420 427 428 429 Dark-breasted Rosefinch Ploceus philippinus Carpodacus nipalensis r 182 UR 430 Beautiful Rosefinch Carpodacus pulcherrimus* r LC 10 1 1 431 Carpodacus puniceus* r LC 7 0 1 Carpodacus rhodochrous* r LC 8 1 1 Carpodacus rodopeplus* r LC 8 1 1 434 Red-fronted Rosefinch Pink-browed Rosefinch Spot-winged Rosefinch Great Rosefinch Carpodacus rubicilla r LC HL 5 0 1 435 Streaked Rosefinch Carpodacus rubicilloides* r LC HL 6 0 1 436 r LC 7 1 1 437 White-browed Carpodacus thura Rosefinch Vinaceous Rosefinch Carpodacus vinaceus r LC 2 0 1 438 Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs w LC 4 0 1 439 Brambling Fringilla montifringilla w LC 3 1 1 440 Crested Bunting Melophus lathami r LC 14 1 0 441 Brandt’s Mountain Leucosticte brandti* Finch Plain Mountain Finch Leucosticte nemoricola* r LC 7 0 1 r LC 9 1 1 432 433 442 UR 443 Red Crossbill Loxia curvirostra r LC 6 1 1 444 Collared Grosbeak Mycerobas affinis r LC 9 1 1 445 White-winged Grosbeak Spot-winged Grosbeak Gold-naped Finch Mycerobas carnipes r LC 11 0 1 Mycerobas melanozanthos* r LC 5 1 1 Pyrrhoplectes epauletta r LC 5 0 1 Pyrrhula erythrocephala r LC 10 1 1 449 Red-headed Bullfinch Brown Bullfinch Pyrrhula nipalensis r LC 7 1 0 450 Fire-fronted Serin Serinus pusillus* ra LC 4 1 1 451 Tibetan Siskin Carduelis thibetana w LC 4 1 1 452 Rock Bunting Emberiza cia* rc LC 7 1 1 453 Yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella w LC 1 1 0 454 Emberiza fucata r LC 7 1 0 455 Chestnut-eared Bunting Pine Bunting Emberiza leucocephalos w LC 2 0 1 456 Little Bunting Emberiza pusilla w LC 10 446 447 448 UR 1 1 388 288 Sources: B.P.P. 1995a, b, c; DNPWC/MFSC/GoN 2005; Bhuju et al. 2007; Siwakoti & Basnet 2007; NHM/TU & IUCN 2059-BS, Fleming et al. 1976; Inskipp 1989; Grimmet et al. 1998, 2000; Baral & Inskipp 2004, 2005; DF5YsWP, Humla 2066/63BS and *species are verified in KSL field visit (Humla), 2010. Legends and Summary P = Protected by NPWC Act 1973 CITES Appendix I Appendix II Appendix III IUCN = IUCN Red List Category CR = Critically Endangered EN = Endangered VU = Vulnerable NT = Near Threatened LC = Least Concern Legends and Summary SS - Seasonal status r – resident m – migratory s - summer visitor s - summer visitor w - winter visitor c – common a - abundant 183 Region (Spatial confinement) HL = Confined to Highlands MH = Confined to Midhills Sites PAs, RS, WHS of Nepal (total 24) NRDB (Nepal Red Data Book) Status C = Critically endangered E = Endangered V = Vulnerable S = Susceptible Annex 9. Potential list of Herpeto from KSL Nepal SN Scientific names 1 Order/Family/ Local Names ORDER : ANURA Family: Bufonidae Himalayan Toad NG/P CITES 2 Black0spined Toad Bufo melanostictus 3 Family: Pelobatidae Khaptad pelobatid toad Scutiger nepalensis 4 Nyingchi high altitude toad 5 Sikkimese pelobatid toad 6 Family: Ranidae Skittering Frog 7 Bajang frog Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis Paa ercepeae 8 Indian Rice Frog Rana limnocharis 9 Small paa frog Paa minica 10 Langtang frog Paa polunini 11 Indian Bull Frog II 12 Indian Borrowing Frog Hoplobatrachus tigerinus Sphaerotheca breviceps 13 ORDER: TESTUDINES Family: Testuninidae Elongated Tortoise Indotestudo elongata II 14 ORDER : SAURIA Family: Agamidae Common Garden Lizard 15 16 Large mountain lizard Kashmir agama 17 Agaupani forest agama 18 Kumaon mountain lizard 19 Theobald's Toad Agama 20 Family: Gekkonidae Nepalese rock gecko 21 Family: Scincidae Himalayan ground skink 22 Nepalese ground skink 23 24 Brahminiy Skink Glacier Ground Skink 25 Family: Varanidae Bengal Monitor IUCN NRDB LC v3.1 LC v3.1 Bufo himalayanus VU v3.1 LC v3.1 LC v3.1 Scutiger nyingchiensis Scutiger sikimmensis Calotes versicolor versicolor Oriotiaris major Laudakia tuberculata Oriotiaris dasi LC v3.1 NT v3.1 LC v3.1 VU v3.1 LC v3.1 LC v3.1 LC v3.1 EN v2.3 Region Site MH HL 3 1 0 5 1 0 MH 4 1 0 HL WP 0 0 1 HL 1 0 1 2 1 0 1 1 0 3 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 6 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 14 1 0 HL WP 1 4 0 0 1 1 MH WP MH WP 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 6 2 1 1 0 1 6 1 0 MH S(es) S(es) S(es) MH WP MH WP S DD v3.1 Oriotiaris kumaonensis Phrynocephalus theobaldi (es) Cyrtopodion nepalense Asymblepharus himalayanus Asymblepharus nepalensis Mabuya carinata Asymblepharus ladacensis MH WP (es) HL WP I Varanus bengalensis bengalensis 184 S 26 Yellow Monitor 27 ORDER : SERPENTES Family: Colubridae Mountain Keelback 28 29 Buff0striped Keelback Common Cat Snake 30 31 32 Eastern Trinket Snake Himalayan Trinket Snake Red0bellied Kukri Snake 33 Asiatic Rat Snake 34 Boulenger's Keelback 35 36 Olive oriental slender snake St. John's keelback water snake 37 Family: Viperidae Himalayan Pit Viper 38 Mountain Pit Viper Varanus flavescens P Amphiesma platyceps Amphiesma stolata Boiga trigonata triogonata Elaphe cantoris Elaphe hodgsoni Oligodon erythrogaster Ptyas mucosus mucosus Amphiesma parallelum Trachischium laeve Xenochrophis piscator sanctijohannis I II LC v2.3 S S MH Gloydius himalayanus Ovophis monticola monticola 8 1 0 3 0 1 8 7 1 1 0 0 0 4 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 9 1 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 1 1 0 3 1 1 3 1 0 30 11 Sources: B.P.P. 1995a, b; DNPWC/MFSC/GoN 2005; Bhuju et al. 2007; Siwakoti & Basnet 2007; NHM/TU & IUCN 2059-BS, Shah 1995 and Shah 2004 185 Annex 10. Potential list Fish from KSL Nepal SN Order/Family/Local Names Scientific Names River 1 ORDER: CLUPEIFORMES Family - Clupeidae Suia, Sidhri, Suhia Family - Notopteridae Mohi, Chital Gudusia chapra K,M 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Golhi, Patara, Mohi, Chitala ORDER : CYPRINIFORMES Family - Cyprinidae Katle Mada, Dhawai NRDB MH HL 6 - - 5 - - 8 - - K,M 4 5 - 1 - 4 - - 4 3 1 1 - 3 1 5 4 1 - - 3 3 - - Notopterus chitala (HamiltonBuchanan) Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis Amblypharyngodon mola (HamiltonBuchanan) V Site Harda, Bhegna, Karangi, Chakale Fageta, Poti, Faktar Guderi, Fageta, Jhojho, Chilti, Faketo Fageta, Lam Fageta Rato machha Bhakur, Katla Rewa, Chaguni, Patharchatti, Kubre Aspidoparia morar (HamiltonBuchanan) Barilius barna Barilius bendelisis (HamiltonBuchanan) Barilius vagra Carassius carassius Catla catla (Hamilton-Buchanan) Chagunius chagunio (HamiltonBuchanan) K,M Palanka, Chelhwa Deduwa, Malaguddi, Planka, Chela Naini, Mrigal, Jhilke Chela cachius (Hamilton-Buchanan) Chela laubuca K,M K,M Cirrhinus mrigala (HamiltonBuchanan) Cirrhinus reba (Hamilton-Buchanan) Danio aequipinnatus Danio dangila (Hamilton-Buchanan) Danio devario (Hamilton-Buchanan) Esomus dandricus (HamiltonBuchanan) Garra annandalei (Hora) K,M 5 - - K,M K M K,M 8 1 2 3 6 1 - K,M 4 1 - Garra gotyla (Gray) Labeo angra Labeo bata (Hamilton-Buchanan) Labeo boga (Hamilton-Buchanan) Labeo calbasu (Hamilton-Buchanan) Labeo coeruleus Labeo dero (Hamilton-Buchanan) Labeo dyocheilus K,M 1 1 - - Rewa Bhitti Nepti, Pothi, Danio Chitahari, Pothi, Chitharipoti Dedhawa, Darai, Flying barb, dadewa Bucluna, Lohari, Lahare Buduna Buduna Thed,Thaid Bata, rohu Boga, Jhilke, Tikuali Kalbasu, Basarhii Roi, Rohu Gurdi, Rahu, Kathlegi Kalanch, Garde, Brahmaputra rohu, Calbasu K K,M K,M V S S K K,M K,M K K,M K,M,S S 3 4 3 3 5 1 3 4 Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch) Labeo pangusia (HamiltonBuchanan) Oxygaster (Salmostoma) phulo Puntius (Cyclocheilichthys) apogon (Valenciennes) K K S S 0 3 - - K S S 2 2 - - S 30 31 Garde, Boi, Finged lipped, carp Termassa, Pangusia, Kalaacha 32 33 Darai Bukuda 34 Puntius sarana (Hamilton-Buchanan) K,M 6 - - 35 36 Kande, Bhitti, Sidhri, Bhitte, Olive barb Sidre, Firefin barb, Poti, Bhitte Dedhawa, Darai, Rasbora Puntius ticto (Hamilton-Buchanan Rasbora (Parluciosoma) daniconius (Hamilton-Buchanan) K,M 3 4 - - 37 Chuche Asala Schizotharaichthys annandalei 1 1 - 186 (es) 38 42 43 44 Chuche Asala, Kunar snow trout Chuche Asala, poit nose snow trout Sunaula Asala Bucche Asala, Spotted snow trout Asala, Soal, Puko, Buche Asla Asala Chepti 45 Dark Mahseer Tor chelynoides (McClelland 46 Mosal mahseer Tor mosal (Hamilton-Buchanan) 47 Mahaseer, Himalayan golden mahseer Pahale sahar Tor putitora (Hamilton) 48 Sahar, satto Family - Psilorhynchidae Titari, Dhami Patharchatti, Tite Tor tor 39 40 41 48 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 Family - Homalopteridae Tita kabri, Burmese loach Family - Cobitidae Baghi, almora loach Baghi Gettu, Singhi, Hora loach Getu, Baghi Latani, Lata Schizotharaichthys labiatus (McClelland) Schizotharaichthys progastus Schizothorax molesworthii Schizothorax plagiostomus (Heckel) Schizothorax richardsonii Schizothorax sinuatus Semiplotus (Cyprinon) semiplotus (McClelland) - - K,M S V 0 4 1 1 V 1 - - K,M S 3 0 2 K,M V 4 1 - E 5 1 - K,M 2 - - Botia almorhae (Gray) Botia dario (Hamilton-Buchanan) Botia dayi (Hora) Botia lohachata (Chaudhuri) Lepidocephalichthys (Lepidocephalus) nepalensis K,M K,M K 1 1 2 3 1 - - K,M 6 - - K,M 3 1 - 3 1 - 2 4 1 1 - 2 - - 2 - - 3 - - 61 62 63 64 Gadela Gadela Copper Mahseer, Katle Gadela Noemacheilus rupecola var. inglishi Noemacheilus rupecola Neolissochilus hexagonolepis Noemacheilus savona (HamiltonBuchanan) 65 Baga Lata, Gongota loach Somileptes gongota (HamiltonBuchanan) 67 Family - Amblycipidae Pichhi, Bindhar 68 Family - Bagridae Bagrid Catfish, Tista batasio Rita, Chona, Belaunda Family - Siluridae 4 Balitora brucei (Gray) Nemacheilus multifaciatus (Day) Noemacheilus (Nemacheilus) beavani Noemacheilus (Nemacheilus) botia (Hamilton-Buchanan) 72 V 1 - gadela Gadela, Pate goira, Kancheni, loach Natwa, Bhoti, Daadegoira, Baghilata 71 K,M - 58 59 70 1 0 3 Lepidocephalichthys (Lepidocephalus) guntea Tengra, Lachawz, Palawa, Junge, GANGETIC MYSTUS \ TENGER Tengra, Kanti, Giant river catfish Tengra, STRIPED DWARF CATFISH \ TERNGER KANTI - K,M Lata, Nakata, Goira, Guntea loach 69 0 Psilorhynchus homaloptera Psilorhynchus sucatio (HamiltonBuchanan) 57 60 K,M K,M K,M Amblyceps mangois (HamiltonBuchanan) Batasio batasio (HamiltonBuchanan) Mystus cavasius (HamiltonBuchanan) K 0 - - M 4 - - Mystus (Aorichthys) seenghala (Sykes) Mystus vittatus (Bloch) K,M 3 - - K,M 4 - - Rita rita (Hamilton-Buchanan) K 4 - - 187 73 Pabata, Chachara, Chali, BUTTER-CATFISH \ PAPTA Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch) K,M 5 - - 74 75 Pabda, PABDAH CATFISH Buhari, Padni, Barahi, BOAL \ BUHANI Family - Schibeidae Patasi, Patanga, Sutara, Satara, GANGETIC AILIA Ompok pabda (Hamilton-Buchanan) Wallago attu K K,M 1 7 - - Ailia coila (Hamilton-Buchanan) K,M 3 - - 77 Jalkapur, GARUA BACHCHA, GUARCHCHA Clupisoma garua (HamiltonBuchanan) K,M 4 - - 78 Bachora, Chekri, BATCHWA VACHA Eutropiichthys vacha (Hamilton Buchanan) K,M 4 - - 79 80 81 GOONGWAREE VACHA Jalkapur, Patasi Jalkapur, MURIYS VACHA Eutropiichthys goongware (Sykes) Pseudeutropius atherinoids (Bloch) Pseudeutropius marius (HamiltonBuchanan) K K,M K 3 1 - - 82 Gonch, Gonchara, SILONDIA VACHA Family - Sisoridae Gonch, GANGETIC GOONCH Silonia silondia (Hamilton-Buchanan) K 1 - - Bagarius bagarius (HamiltonBuchanan) Bagarius yarrellii (Sykes) Euchiloglanis hodgartii (Hora) Gagata cenia (Hamilton-Buchanan) K,M 4 1 - K S K,M 1 4 - - 0 0 0 2 1 - - 76 83 84 85 86 GOONCH \ GOUNCH Tilkabri, TELCAPRE Tikthigogta, Padana, GAGATA \ GANFAK 87 88 89 90 GANGETIC GAGATA TORRENT CATFISH KAPRE Tengana, Tilkabre Kapree 91 92 Kathiyal, Kavre Khasre, Kavre 93 Khasre, Kavre 94 Karsingha, CAPRE 95 96 Kavre Kabre, SULCATUS CATFISH \ GOTEL Family - Chacidae Pauwa, Bheda, Kirkire, CHACA \ PAUNA Family - Saccobranchidae Singhi, STINGING CATFISH Family - Claridae Mungri, MAGUR \ MANGUR, MUNGAR ORDER - BELONIFORMES Family - Belonidae Sui, Kauwo, Chuchhe Bam, FRESHWATER GARFISH KAUWA ORDER - ANGUILLIFORMES Family - Anguillidae Rajabam, eel ORDER - CHANNIFORMES Family - Channidae Sauri, Saul, GIANT 97 98 99 100 101 102 Gagata gagata (Hamilton-Buchanan) Glyptosternum maculatum (Regan) Glyptosternum blythii Glyptothorax cavia (HamiltonBuchanan) Glyptothorax garhwali Glyptothorax nelsoni Ganguly, Datta & Sen Glyptothorax stoliczkae (Steindachner) Glyptothorax pectinopterus (McClelland) Glyptothorax trilineatus (Blyth) Pseudecheneis sulcatus (McClelland) M K,M,S 0 0 K,S 3 1 - S K,M,S 2 4 1 - Chaca chaca (Hamilton-Buchanan) K 1 - - Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) K,M 8 - - Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus) K,M 7 - - 7 - - 4 1 - 7 - - Xenentodon cancila (HamiltonBuchanan) Anguilla bengalensis (Gray) M Channa marulius (Hamilton- K,M 188 V SNAKEHEAD Chringe, ASIATIC SNAKEHEAD \ GARAHI Buchanan) Channa orientalis Bloch & Schneider K 1 - - 104 Garahi, Gauri, SPOTTED SNAKEHEAD HELAE Channa punctatus (Bloch) K,M 6 - - 105 Saura, Sauri Channa striatus (Bloch) ORDER - SYNBRANCHIFORMES Family - Synbranchidae Bam Amphipnous cuchia ORDER - PERCIFORMES Family - Chandidae Nata, Chanda, Gurda Chanda nama (Hamilton-Buchanan), Family - Nandidae Khesalei, BADIS, DWARF Badis badis (Hamilton-Buchanan) CHAMELEONFISH \ PASARI 7 - - 6 1 - K,M 5 - - K, M 3 - - 103 106 107 108 Dhala, Dhalai, MOTTLED NANDUS Family - Anabantidae Kabai, CLIMBING PERCH KABAI Family - Belontidae Sunkatta, Goila Katara, Bhotia, STRIPLED GOURAMI, Kotari Nandus nandus (HamiltonBuchanan) K,M 7 - - Anabas testudineus (Bloch) K, M 3 - - Crossocheilus burmanicus Hora Colisa (Crossocheilus) fasciatus (Bloch & Schneider) K,M 7 - - 113 Kotri, Mate budua Colisa Crossocheilus) latius (Hamilton-Buchanan) K,M 2 - - 114 Family - Gobidae Bulla, TANK GOBY Glossogabius giuris (HamiltonBuchanan) K,M 4 - - 2 - - 6 - - 6 - - K,M 2 - - M 0 - - 109 110 111 112 115 116 117 118 119 ORDER - MASTACEMBELIFORMES Family - Mastcembelidae Gainchi, BAMI,GAINCHI Macrognathus aral (Bloch & Schneider) Chusi Bam, Kande Ban, TIREMastacembelus armatus (Lacepede) TRACK, SPINY EEL GARCHI,CHUCHEBAM Kath Gainchi Mastacentbelus pancalus (HamiltonBuchanan) ORDER : MUGILIFORMES Family - Mugulidae Ladhiya, Rewa, YELLOWTAIL Sicamugil cascasia (HamiltonMULLET Buchanan) ORDER : TETRAODONTIFORNiES Family - Tetroadontidae Pokcha, OCELLATED Tetraodon cutcutia PUFFER FISH K,M K,M V 4 Juke machha reported from Humla Sources: B.P.P. 1995a, b; DNPWC/MFSC/GoN 2005; Bhuju et al. 2007; Shrestha 1994, 1995 and DF5YsWP, Humla 2066/63BS, Bhattarai et al. 2062-BS, WSHL 2007 Rivers M - Mahakali river K- Karnali river S - Seti river 189 Annex 11. Endangered, Threatened and Protected Flora and Fauna of Api-Nampa Conservation area S.N Scientific Name A. Floral Species 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 Dactyaloriza hatagirea Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora Nardostachys grandiflora Valeriana jatamansii Rauvolfia serpentina Abies spectabilis Taxus wallichina Aconitum hetrophyllum Meconopsis regia Common Name Panch Aule Kutki Jatamansi Sugandabala Sarpaganda Talispatra Himalayan Yew Bikh Himalayan Yellow Poppy Jhyau Sungava Chirayato Family Orchidaceae Scrophulariaceae Valerianaceae Valerianaceae Apocynaceae Pinaceae Pinaceae Ranunculaceae Papaveraceae 11 Lichens 12 Orchids Orchidaceae 13 Gentianaceae Swertia chirayita B. Fauna - Mammals 1 Goral Bovidae Naemorhedus goral 2 Musk deer Cervidae Moschus chrysogaster 3 Red panda Ailuridae Ailurus fulgens 4 Snow leopard Felidae Uncia uncial 5 Himalayan black Bear Ursidae Selenarctos thibetanus 6 Yak Bovidae Bos grunniens 7 Himalayan Tahr Bovidae Hemitragus Jemlahicus 8 Jackal Canidae Canis aurevs C. Fauna – Birds 1 Danfe Phasianidae Lophophorus impejanus 2 Monal Phasianidae Tragopan Satyra Source: Api-Nampa Conservation area Management Plan, DNPWC 2009 190 Status Code IUCN CITES V V E R - II II II II II II III V II E E E V V V - I I I I I K III E I III Legal Status P P P P P P P P P P - Annex 12a. Mammal diversity of Rara national park Name of Species Family Common Name CITES Status Ailirus fulgens Ailuridae Red panda Hemitragus jemalhicus Bovidae Himalayan thar Nemorhaedus goral Bovidae Goral Nemorhaedus sumatraensis Bovidae Dremomys lokriah Callosciurinae Tamiops macclellandi Callosciurinae Canis aureus Canidae Canis lupus Canidae Cuon alpinis Canidae Indian wild dog Vulpes bengalensis Canidae Indian fox Vulpes vulpes Canidae Red fox Macac assamensis Ceropithecidae Macaca mulatta Ceropithecidae Rhesus macaque C/II Presbytis entullus Ceropithecidae Common languor C/II Muntiacus muntajk Cervidae Catopuma temminckii Felidae Felis chaus Felidae Jungle cat C/II Panthera pardus Felidae Leopard C/I Panthera uncial Felidae Pardofelis mamorata Felidae Pardofelis nebulos Felidae Prionailurus bengalensis Felidae Hipposideros armiger Hipposoderidae Lutra lutra Lutranae Manis Pentadactyla Manidae Moschus chrysogaster Moschidae Moschus moschiferus Moschidae Mus musculus Muridae Martes flavigula Mustelidae Mustela altaica Mustelidae Mustela sibirica Ochotona macrotis Petaurista peturista Pteromyidae Hylopetes alboniger Pteromyidae Petaurista magnificus Pteromyidae Petaurista pturista Pteromyidae Trogopterus peasonii Pteromyidae Ratufa bicolor Sciuridae Chimarrogale himalayica Soricidae Nectogale elegans Soricidae Soriculus baileyi Soricidae Soriculus caudatus Soricidae Soriculus gruberi Soricidae Soriculus leucops Soricidae Soriculus nigrescens Soricidae Suncus marinus Soricidae Suncus stoliczkanus Soricidae Sus scrofa Suidae C Jackal C/III P/I C/II C Common otter P/I Musk deer Yellow-throated marten C/III Mustelidae Himalayan weasel C/III Ochotonidae Himalayan mouse hare (Giant ik ) flying squirrel Flying squirrel Wild boar C 191 Talpa macrura Talpidae Ursus selenarctos thibetans Ursidae Ursus arctos Ursidae Ursus thibetanus Ursidae Barbastella leucomelas Vespertilionidae Plecotus auritus Vespertilionidae Himalayan black bear Source: BPP (1995) Note: C= Common, P = Protected R= Rare: I, II, III=CITES APPENDIX, * =Probable Annex 12b. Endemic fish of RNP Name of Species Familay Common Name Schizothorax macrophthalus Cuprinidae Snow trout Schizothorax nepalensis Cuprinidae Snow trout Schizothorax raraensis Cuprinidae Snow trout Source: Rara NP Management plan 2009 192 Annex 12c. Birds of Rara National park Name of Species Family Common Name Accipiter gentilis Accipter chrysaetos Accipter nisus Accipter trivirgatus Accipter virgatus Aquila chrysaetos Aquila nipalensis Buteo buteo Buteo rufinus Buteo hemilasius Circus aeruginosus Circus cyaneus Circus macrourus Gypaetus barbatus Gyps himalayensis Hieraaetus fasciatus Ictinaetus malayensis Milvus migrans Neophron percnopteris Pandion haliaetus Spizaetus nipalensis Sarcogyps vulture Alauda gulgula Calandrella acutirostris Calandrell Alcedo athis Anas acuta Anas clypeata Anas crecca Anas formosa Anas penelope Anas platyrchynchos Anas stepera Anser anser Anser Indicus Apus apus Aythya ferina Aythya fuligula Aythya nyroca Bucephala clangula Calandrella acutairastris Mergus merganser Netta rufina Tadorna ferruginea Hirundapus caudacatus Ardea cinerea Botaurrus stellaris Egreta alba Megalaima virens Caprimulgus indicus Actitis hypolucos Caladris minuta Caladris timmincki Charadrius mongolus Gallinago gallinago Phalaropus lobatus Scolopax rusticola Tringa glareola Tringa nibularia Tringa ocropus Tringa totanus Cinslus pallasii Certhia himalayana Accipitrade Accipitrade Accipitrade Accipitrade Accipitrade Accipitrade Accipitrade Accipitridae Accipitrade Northern goshawk CITES Status C Northern sparrowhawk C Steppe eagle Eurasian buteos R Accipitrade Accipitrade Accipitrade Accipitrade Accipitrade Accipitrade Accipitridae Accipitrade Accipitrade Accipitrade Accipitrade Accipitrade Alaudidae Alaudidae Marsh harrier Hen harrier Pallid harrier Lammergeier Himalayan griffon vulture Alcedinadae Anatidae Anatedae Anatidae Anatodae Anatadae Anatidae Anatidae Anatodae Anatedae Anatidae Anatidae Anatidae Anatidae Anatidae Alaudidae Anatidae Anatidae Anatidae Apodidae Ardeidae Ardeidae Ardeidae Capitonidae Caprimulgidae Charadriidae Charadriidae Charadriidae Charadriidae Choradriidae Choradriidae Charadriidae Choradriidae Charidiriidae Choradriidae Charadriidae Cinclidae Cirthedae Eagle Black kite Egypteon vulture Osprey Mountain hawk eagle Red headed vulture Oriental skylark Hume's short toed lark C C R C Pintail Shoveler Common teal Eurasian wigeon Mallrd Widgeon C/III Bar headed goose R Pochard Tufted duck Ferruginous duck Golden Eye Hume's short-toed lark Red crested pochard Ruddy shelduck White-throated needletail Greater heron Great white egret C C Common snipe Red necked phalarope Wood sandiper Greenshank Green Sandiper Brown dipper Bar-tailed treecreeper 193 C Certhia nipalensis Certhia familaris Columba hodgsonii Columba rupestris Columbia leuconota Columbia livia Streptopelia orientalis Pericrocotus ethologrs Corvus corax Corvus macrorhynchos Cuculus canorus Garrulus lanceolatus Nucifraga caryocatactes Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax Urocissa flavirostris Urocissa erythrorhuncha Dicrurus leucophaeus Emberiza cia Falco subbeuteo Falco tinnuculus Carduelis carduelis Carduelis spinoides Carpidacu erythrinus Carpidacus pulcherrimus Carpidacus puniceus Carpidacus rhodochrous Carpidacus rubiccilloides Carpodacus pulcherrinus Cerinus thibetanus Frilngilla montifringilla Fringilla coelebs Fringilla montifringilla Leucosticte nemoricola Luecosticte nemoricola Mycerobas affinis Pyrrhula erythrocephala Serinus pusillus Anthropoides virgo Ptyonoprogne rupestris Riparia riparia Lanius schach Lanius tephronotus Larus argentatus Larus brunnicephalus Larus rudibundus Larusfuscus Gelochelidon nilotica Larus ichthyaetus Montacilla cinerea Anthus hodgsoni Athus cervinus Motacilla alba Motacilla cinerea Motacilla citreola Motacilla flave Alcippe cinipectus Cettia brunnifrons Cettia fortipes Chaimarrornis leucocephalus Enicurus maculatus Enicurus scouleri Ficedula strophiata Cirthedae Cirthidae Columbidae Columbidae Columbidae Columbidae Columbidae Compephagidae Corvidae Corvidae Corvidae Corvidae Corvidae Corvidae Corvidae Corvidae Dicruridae Emberizidae Falconidae Falconidae Fringillida Fringillidae Fringillidae Fringillidae Fringillidae Fringillidae Fringillidae Fringillidae Fringillidae Fringillidae Fringillidae Fringillidae Fringillidae Fringillidae Fringillidae Fringillidae Fringillidae Gruidae Hirundinidae Hirundinidae Jacanidae Jacanidae Laradae Laradae Laradae Laradae Laridae Laridae Moticilladae Moticillidae Moticillidae Moticillidae Moticillidae Moticillidae Moticillidae Muscicapidae Muscicapidae Muscicapidae Muscicapidae Muscicapidae Muscicapidae Muscicapidae Ficedula superciliaris Ficedula tricolor Garrulax lineattus Garrulax ocellatus Muscicapidae Muscicapidae Muscicapidae Muscicapidae Rusty-flanked teeecreeper Common treecreeper Snow pigeons Rock Pigeon Rufous turtle dove Long-tailed minivet Jungle crow Common mynah Common cuckoo Lanceolated jay Eurasian Nutcracker Red-billed chough Yellow-billed blue magpie Red-billed Blue magpie Ashy drongo Rock bunting Hobbies Kestrel Eurasian goldfinch Yello-breasted greenfinch Common rosefinch Beautiful rosefinch Red-breasted rosefinch Pink-browed rose finch Crimson-eared rosefinch Beautiful rose finch Brambling Common chaffinch Brambling Plain mountain finch Plain mountain finch Collared grosbeak Red-headed bullfinch Red-fronted serin Collared sand martin Long-tailed strike Grey-backed shrike Gull billed turn Great black headed gull Grey wagtail Olive-backed pipit Red-throated pipit White wagtail Grey wagtail Citrine wagtail Yellow wagtail White-browed gulvetta Grey-sided bush warbler White-capped redstar Spotted Fork tail Little forktail Oravge-gorgetted flaycatcher Ultramarine flycatcher Slaty-blue flycatcher Streaked laughing-thrush Spotted laughing-thrush 194 *C C C C/III C C C C C C C C C - C C R C* C C C C C C C C R * Garrulax variegatus Heterophasia capistrats Luscinia cyane Minla strigula Muscicapa ruficauda Muscicapa sibirica Myiophoneus caeruleus Oenanthe deserti Phoenicurus caefulioceohalus Phoenicurus erythronotus Phoenicurus frontalis Phoneicurus caeruleocephalus Phoneicurus frontalis Phoneicurus ochruros Phylloscopus affinis Phylloscopus fuscatus Phylloscopus inornatus Phylloscopus maculipennis Phylloscopus magnirostaris Phylloscopus occipitalis Phylloscopus proregulus Phylloscopus pulcher Phylloscopus pulcher Phylloscopus reguloides Phylloscopus trochiloides (nitides) Pnoepyga albiventer Regulus regulus Rhipidura albicolis Rhipidura hypoxantha Rhyacornis fuliginosus Saxicola ferrea Saxicola torguata Sercercus burkii Sercercus xanthoschistos Tarsiger cyanurus Turdus albocinctus Turdus ruficollis Turdus unicolor Turdus viscivorous Yuhina gularis Zoothera dixoni Aethopyga nipalensis Aegithalos concinnus Aegithalos niveogularis Aegithalos niveogularis Parus dichorous Parus major Parus melanolophus Parus monticolus Parus rubidiventris Parus rufonuchalis Parus xanthogenys Sitta cashmirensis Sitta leucopsis Phalacrocorax carpo Alectoris chukar Catreus wallichii Ithaginis cruentus Lophophorus impejanus Lophora leucomelana Pucrasia macrolopha Tetraogallus himalayensis Dendrocopos himalayendis Dendrocopus himalayensis Picus sqamatus Passer montanus Muscicapidae Streaked laughing thrush Muscicapidae Black-capped sibia Muscicapidae Indian blue robin Muscicapidae Chestnut-tailed Muscicapidae Rufous-tailed flycatcher Muscicapidae Asian sooty flycatcher Muscicapidae Blue whistling thrush Muscicapidae Desert wheatear Muscicapidae Blue-headed redstart Muscicapidae Rufous-backed redstart Muscicapidae Blue-headed redstart Muscicapidae Blue-capped redstare Muscicapidae Blue-redstart Muscicapidae Black redstart Muscicapidae Tickell's leaf warbler Muscicapidae Dusky warbler Muscicapidae Yellow-browned warbler Muscicapidae Grey-faced leaf warbler Muscicapidae Large-billed leaf warbler Muscicapidae Western crowned warbler Muscicapidae Palla's leaf warbler Muscicapidae Orange barred leaf warbler Muscicapidae Orange-barred warbler Muscicapidae Blyth's crowned leaf warbler Muscicapidae Green/greenish warbler Muscicapidae Greater scaly-breasted wren-babbler Muscicapidae Goldcrest Muscicapidae Muscicapidae Yellow-bellied fantail Muscicapidae Plumbeous restart Muscicapidae Dark grey bush chat Muscicapidae Common stonechat Muscicapidae Golden-spectacled warbler Muscicapidae Grey-hooded wargler Muscicapidae Orange-flanked bush-robin Muscicapidae White-collared blackbird Muscicapidae Dark-throated thrush Muscicapidae Tickell's thrush Muscicapidae Mistle thrush Muscicapidae Stripe-throated yuhina Muscicapidae Long-tailed mountains thrush Nectariniidae Green-tailed shrike Paridae Black-throated tit Paridae White-throated tit Paridae Black-throated tit Paridae Grey crested tit Paridae Grea tit Paridae Spot-winged black tit Paridae Green-backed tit Paridae Rufous-napped black tit Paridae Rufous-vented black tit Paridae Black-lored tit Paridae Kasmir nuthatch Paridae White-checked nuthatch Phalacrocoracidae Large coromorant Phasianidae Phasianidae Phasianidae Phasianidae Himlayan monal Phasianidae Kalij pheasant Phasianidae Phasianidae Picidae Himalayan pied woodpecker Picidae Picidae Scaly-bellied green woodpecker Ploceidae Eurasian tree sparrow 195 C C C C C C C C C C * * R C GT *P R C/III C Podiceps nigrticolis Podiceps cristatus Podiceps nigrcollis Tachybaptus ruficollis Prumella himalayana Prunella astrogularis Prunella collaris Prunella flavescens Prunella strophiata Pycnonotus leucogeyns Fulica atra Gallnula chloropus Sitta eutopaea Strix aluco Acridotheres tristis Upupos epops Source: BPP 1995 Note: C= common, P= Protected, R= 1999), III= CITES Appendix (1995). Podicipadae Podicipedodae Podicipedodae Podicipedodae Prunellidae Prunellidae Prunellidae Prunellidae Prunellidae Pycnonotidae Ralliedae Ralliedae Sittidae Strigidae Sturnidae Upupidae Black-Necked Grebe Little Grebe Altai accentor Black-throated accentor Alpine accentor Brown accentor Rufous-breasted accentor White-cheeked bulbul Common coot Moorhen or Indian gallinule Eurasian nuthatch Tawny awl Common raven Common hoopoe C ? C C C C R C C? C Rare (Qualitative assessment), GT= Globally Threatened (Birdlife International, 196 Annex 13. Commonly traded plant species/products from Baitadi, Darchula, Bajhang and Humla districts S. No. Commonly traded plant species/products 1 Aconitum spicatum 2 Acorus calamus 3 Asparagus racemosus 4 Asphalt organic exudate (silajit) 5 Astilbe rivularis 6 Bauhinia vahlii 7 Berberis asiatica 8 Bergenia ciliate 9 Betula utilis 10 (Bikhfej) 11 Carcuna zedoaria 12 Centella asiatica 13 Cinnamommum glaucescens 14 Cinnamommum tamala 15 Cordyseps sinensis 16 (Daruhaldi) 17 Delphinium himalayai 28 Dioscorea deltoidea, D. bulbifera 19 Ephedra gerardiana 20 Eulophia species 21 Fritiilaria cirrhosa 22 (Halik) 23 Juniperus indica 24 (Kakuli Jara) 25 (Katush) 26 Lindera neesiana 27 Morchella conica 28 Morchella species 29 Nardostachys grandiflora 30 Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora 31 Orchid (Jibanti) 32 Paris polyphylla 33 Machilus species (Pawan ko bokra) 34 Persea odoratissima 35 Phyllanthus emblica 36 Pistacea chinensis 37 Daphnephyllum species (Raktachandan) 38 Rheum australe 39 Rubia manjith 40 Salla ko simta 41 Sapindus mukerossi 42 Saussurea lappa 43 Selinum tenuifolium 44 (Setak chini jara) 45 (Sunpati) 46 Swertia chirayita 47 (Thingure salla) 48 Tribulus terrestris 49 Usnea longissima 50 Valeriana jatamansii 51 Xanthoxylum oxyphyllum (Source: Annual reports from District forest office) Family Ranunculaceae Araceae Lilliaceae Saxifragaceae Malvaceae Berberridaceae Saxifragaceae Betulaceae Zingiberaceae Umbelliferae Lauraceae Lauraceae Hypocreaceae Zingiberaceae Ranunculaceae Diascoreaceae Ephedraceae Lilliaceae Cupressaceae Lauraceae Morchellaceae Morchellaceae Valerianaceae Scrophulariaceae Orchidaceae Lilliaceae Lauraceae Lauraceae Euphorbiaceae Anacardiaceae Polygonaceae Rubiaceae Sapendaceae Compositae Umbelliferae Gentianaceae Pinaceae Zygophyllaceae Usneaceae Valerianaceae Rutaceae 197 Annex 14. Population distribution in different VDCs/Municipality in each district District VDC Area (sq.km) Population in 2001 Baitadi Amchaur 29.12 2042 2401 4443 794 898 5025 38.6 152.58 Baitadi Basantapur 12.65 1091 1317 2408 453 512 2723 46.3 190.36 Baitadi Basulinga 16.74 1497 1674 3171 565 639 3586 46.8 189.43 Baitadi Bhatana 15.70 1667 1696 3363 549 621 3803 37.0 214.20 Baitadi Bhumeshwar 18.87 1505 1660 3165 581 657 3579 51.5 167.73 Baitadi Bhumiraj 23.90 1888 1880 3768 617 698 4261 33.6 157.66 Baitadi Bijayapur 22.61 1905 1879 3784 610 690 4279 38.6 167.36 Baitadi Bishalpur 20.14 1762 1818 3580 566 640 4049 40.5 177.76 Baitadi Chaukham 39.56 1451 1362 2813 446 504 3181 47.5 71.11 Baitadi 54.97 8697 9648 18345 3481 3937 20747 60.0 333.73 Baitadi Dasharathchand Municipality Dehimandaun 12.74 1866 1991 3857 734 830 4362 59.7 302.75 Baitadi Deulek 8.38 999 1143 2142 378 427 2422 49.0 255.61 Male No. of Proj. Literacy households populatio Rate 2001 2009 n 2009 Female Total Pop. Density Baitadi Dhungad 26.01 1073 1246 2319 405 458 2623 31.6 89.16 Baitadi Dilasaini 22.14 2772 2694 5466 909 1028 6182 34.6 246.88 Baitadi Durgabhawani 11.23 1097 1276 2373 433 490 2684 57.0 211.31 Baitadi Durgasthan 20.32 1828 1969 3797 659 745 4294 53.5 186.86 Baitadi Gajari 39.33 1909 1885 3794 615 696 4291 44.3 96.47 Baitadi Giregada 27.86 1412 1684 3096 587 664 3501 47.2 111.13 Baitadi Gokuleshwar 16.69 1903 2191 4094 783 886 4630 51.0 245.30 Baitadi Gujar 15.31 1324 1435 2759 527 596 3120 52.6 180.21 Baitadi Gurukhola 16.41 1890 2127 4017 667 754 4543 49.4 244.79 Baitadi Gwalek 23.60 1555 1843 3398 643 731 3843 57.6 143.98 Baitadi Hat 7.68 1018 1025 2043 325 368 2311 49.3 266.02 Baitadi Hatairaj 12.96 528 592 1120 179 202 1267 60.9 86.42 Baitadi Kailpal 20.18 1368 1591 2959 489 553 3346 56.2 146.63 Baitadi Kataujpani 29.44 2123 2210 4333 760 860 4900 42.3 147.18 Baitadi Kotila 14.20 1586 1618 3204 542 613 3624 45.5 225.63 Baitadi Kotpetara 40.11 2731 2752 5483 907 1026 6201 32.9 136.70 Baitadi Kulaun 20.17 1318 1449 2767 443 501 3129 39.3 137.18 Baitadi Kuwakot 21.47 2208 2204 4412 722 817 4990 32.8 205.50 Baitadi Mahadevsthan 21.32 1604 1673 3277 538 608 3706 46.1 153.71 Baitadi Mahakali 12.34 1420 1557 2977 439 496 3480 40.1 241.25 Baitadi Maharudra 13.06 2011 2077 4088 656 742 4623 51.1 313.02 Baitadi Malladehi 32.37 1889 1928 3817 657 743 4317 40.9 117.92 Baitadi Mathairaj 17.30 1457 1395 2852 483 546 3225 42.9 164.86 Baitadi Mauneli 11.38 1292 1543 2835 498 563 3206 43.3 249.12 Baitadi Melauli 29.83 2299 2375 4674 688 778 5286 49.3 156.69 Baitadi Nagarjun 11.90 912 1184 2096 411 465 2370 61.1 176.13 Baitadi Nwadeu 28.18 1946 1953 3899 660 746 4410 27.8 138.36 Baitadi Nwali 14.34 1457 1487 2944 494 559 3329 50.6 205.30 Baitadi Pancheshwar 25.61 1590 1739 3329 560 633 3765 37.6 129.99 Baitadi Patan 20.35 2852 2799 5651 1075 1216 6391 67.3 277.69 Baitadi Rauleshwar 22.19 1723 2004 3727 750 848 4215 36.7 167.96 Baitadi Rim 22.18 1946 2054 4000 678 767 4524 36.4 180.34 Baitadi Rodidewal 23.82 1614 2042 3656 727 822 4135 48.0 153.48 Baitadi Rudreshwar 28.64 1647 1656 3303 569 644 3735 49.7 115.33 Baitadi Sakar 25.59 1655 1746 3401 549 621 3846 41.8 132.90 Baitadi Salena 20.00 1481 1704 3185 538 608 3602 55.5 159.25 Baitadi Sarmali 40.11 3255 3120 6375 976 1104 7210 37.1 158.94 Baitadi Shankarpur 18.80 1039 1110 2149 437 494 2430 55.6 114.31 198 Baitadi Shikharpur 50.18 2421 2503 4924 793 897 5569 42.9 98.13 Baitadi Shivalinga 67.48 1710 1812 3522 588 665 3983 23.0 52.19 Baitadi Shivanath 26.62 2550 2557 5107 784 887 5776 45.7 191.85 Baitadi Shree Kedar 11.04 1069 1168 2237 378 427 2530 68.7 202.63 Baitadi Shrikot 14.77 1542 1775 3317 599 677 3751 50.1 224.58 Baitadi Siddhapur 33.93 1070 1142 2212 351 397 2502 54.3 65.19 Baitadi Siddheshwar 45.16 1969 2045 4014 729 824 4540 58.4 88.88 Baitadi Sigas 38.12 1711 1799 3510 677 766 3970 33.9 92.08 Baitadi Silanga 26.50 1311 1370 2681 440 498 3032 59.2 101.17 Baitadi Sitad 22.23 2091 2299 4390 673 761 4965 27.4 197.48 Baitadi Talladehi 10.47 1309 1498 2807 531 601 3175 25.6 268.10 Baitadi Thalakanda 26.09 1215 1248 2463 416 470 2786 22.0 94.40 Baitadi Udayadev 19.02 1967 2243 4210 661 748 4761 36.3 221.35 1491.41 113037 120865 233902 Subtotal 42373 47671 264641 Bajhang Banjh 27.70 1930 2188 4118 744 860 4761 36.6 148.66 Bajhang Bhairavnath 22.67 2084 2154 4238 725 827 4900 37.0 186.94 2017 2026 4043 606 701 4674 27.7 136.04 628 3537 32.9 182.41 Bajhang Bhamchaur 29.72 Bajhang Bhatekhola 16.77 1417 1642 3059 543 Bajhang Byasi 31.74 1948 2081 4029 638 738 4658 42.5 126.94 2594 2547 5141 925 1069 5944 49.9 124.81 250.87 Bajhang Chainpur 41.19 Bajhang Chaudhari 14.31 1659 1931 3590 619 716 4150 38.2 Bajhang Dahabagar 240.75 2674 2639 5313 923 1067 6143 20.4 22.07 1622 1860 3482 624 721 4026 29.6 118.11 1180 1205 2385 450 520 2757 19.0 25.27 Bajhang Dangaji 29.48 Bajhang Datola 94.38 Bajhang Daulichaur Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang Bajhang 202.64 2037 1881 3918 624 721 4530 23.8 19.33 Deulek 11.74 1809 1776 3585 572 661 4145 37.9 305.37 Deulikot 40.44 2989 3138 6127 1009 1167 7084 35.9 151.51 Dhamena 171.50 1098 1171 2269 379 438 2623 38.3 13.23 1558 1541 3099 508 587 3583 44.9 71.19 Gadaraya 43.53 Bajhang Hemantawada 12.04 1502 1525 3027 484 560 3500 40.6 251.41 Bajhang Kadel 24.40 2067 2212 4279 768 888 4947 39.3 175.37 Bajhang Kailash 34.16 943 888 1831 290 335 2117 33.0 53.60 Bajhang Kalukheti 13.22 1301 1361 2662 477 551 3078 42.9 201.36 Bajhang Kanda 1463.97 839 876 1715 292 338 1983 18.4 1.17 Bajhang Kaphalseri Khaptad National Park 56.68 2683 2661 5344 832 962 6178 24.3 94.28 Bajhang 69.72 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.00 Bajhang Khiratadi 45.60 3037 3454 6491 1150 1330 7504 27.6 142.35 Bajhang Koiralakot 15.62 1491 1728 3219 566 654 3722 48.1 206.08 Bajhang Kotbhairab 11.06 1515 1754 3269 590 682 3779 42.2 295.57 1340 1598 2938 512 592 3397 35.8 152.07 763 906 1669 304 351 1930 47.9 110.60 Bajhang Kotdewal 19.32 Bajhang Lamatola 15.09 Bajhang Lekgaun 44.82 1909 2021 3930 616 712 4544 35.1 87.68 Bajhang Luyata 31.08 1257 1486 2743 490 567 3171 42.6 88.26 Bajhang Majhigaun 18.02 2005 2094 4099 701 810 4739 39.6 227.47 Bajhang Malumela 17.32 1005 1122 2127 361 417 2459 36.7 122.81 1169 1186 2355 391 452 2723 34.7 64.03 Bajhang Mastadev 36.78 Bajhang Matela 15.07 1103 1228 2331 381 440 2695 41.3 154.68 Bajhang Maulali 12.28 1374 1613 2987 581 672 3453 35.0 243.24 Bajhang Melbisauni 52.28 1242 1509 2751 547 632 3181 39.2 52.62 Bajhang Parakatne 31.75 1818 2113 3931 703 813 4545 42.4 123.81 Bajhang Patadebal 13.19 1133 1266 2399 463 535 2774 34.1 181.88 Bajhang Pauwagadhi 10.20 847 940 1787 332 384 2066 29.5 175.20 Pipalkot 62.87 1945 2064 4009 672 777 4635 32.7 63.77 Rayal 33.50 2904 3187 6091 1011 1169 7042 33.0 181.82 Bajhang Bajhang 199 Bajhang Rilu 36.11 1800 1962 3762 677 783 4349 30.1 104.18 Bajhang Rithapata 25.35 1194 1218 2412 424 490 2789 45.5 95.15 Bajhang Senpasela 35.08 2661 2784 5445 876 1013 6295 31.3 155.22 1832 2107 3939 733 847 4554 37.9 174.60 Bajhang Subeda 22.56 Bajhang Sunikot 16.34 807 918 1725 303 350 1994 32.7 105.57 Bajhang Sunkuda 44.93 2751 3159 5910 1033 1194 6833 30.6 131.54 Surma 67.49 1309 1296 2605 453 524 3012 24.5 38.60 Syadi 29.22 2335 2334 4669 695 804 5398 30.3 159.79 3455.68 80497 86350 166847 28597 33049 192901 16.23 1490 1546 3036 546 631 3507 54.1 187.06 18.81 1858 2006 3864 676 781 4464 51.9 205.42 308.22 Bajhang Bajhang Subtotal Darchula Bhagawati Darchula Boharigaun Darchula Bramhadev Darchula Byas 6.45 988 1000 1988 319 369 2297 40.5 563.79 326 327 653 149 172 754 50.2 1.16 Darchula Chhapari Darchula Dandakot 19.06 1411 1397 2808 454 524 3244 48.9 147.32 12.20 952 1094 2046 358 414 2364 64.6 167.70 Darchula Dattu Darchula Dethala 10.22 1029 1202 2231 405 468 2577 63.4 218.30 27.09 1681 1894 3575 600 693 4130 47.5 131.97 Darchula Dhap Darchula Dhari 49.25 2345 2543 4888 786 908 5647 57.1 99.25 32.94 1924 1975 3899 671 775 4504 42.2 118.37 Darchula Dhaulakot Darchula Dhuligada 12.55 1289 1292 2581 411 475 2982 47.7 205.66 46.04 1814 1918 3732 634 732 4311 33.0 81.06 Darchula Ghunsa Darchula Gokuleshwar 319.96 655 638 1293 182 210 1494 45.2 4.04 13.01 1726 1721 3447 631 729 3982 53.8 264.95 Darchula Guljar Darchula Gwani 115.11 1830 1818 3648 584 675 4214 40.0 31.69 Darchula Hikila Darchula Hunainath Darchula Huti Darchula Iyarkot 30.54 2087 2109 4196 749 865 4847 37.9 137.39 16.66 1318 1265 2583 399 461 2984 47.7 155.04 11.57 755 876 1631 296 342 1884 41.8 140.97 427.62 6.30 1284 1410 2694 439 507 3112 49.8 69.39 1041 1067 2108 323 373 2435 27.4 30.38 22.44 1427 1438 2865 479 553 3310 52.0 127.67 33.69 3004 2760 5764 1173 1355 6659 71.5 171.09 179.62 1336 1251 2587 376 434 2989 53.0 14.40 25.87 1881 1785 3666 623 720 4235 40.1 141.71 Darchula Kharkanda Darchula Lali 16.01 1331 1643 2974 528 610 3436 47.7 185.76 29.63 1437 1651 3088 597 690 3564 55.8 104.22 Darchula Latinath Darchula Malikarjun 47.64 1898 2022 3920 632 730 4528 42.5 82.28 18.77 1123 1126 2249 422 488 2598 39.4 119.82 Darchula Katai Darchula Khalanga Darchula Khandeshwari Darchula Khar Darchula Pipalchauri Darchula Ranishikhar Darchula Rapla Darchula Riththa Chaupata 9.09 1037 1100 2137 347 401 2469 46.2 235.09 13.37 1109 1178 2287 374 432 2642 42.3 171.05 178.78 613 594 1207 227 262 1394 45.3 6.75 18.87 2271 2493 4764 859 992 5503 51.4 252.46 Darchula Sarmauli Darchula Seri 19.19 2005 2309 4314 810 936 4984 41.7 224.80 19.68 1081 1065 2146 379 438 2479 33.7 109.04 Darchula Shankarpur Darchula Shikhar 19.00 1454 1542 2996 541 625 3461 61.8 157.68 14.60 1206 1254 2460 409 472 2842 48.6 168.49 Darchula Sipti Darchula Sitaula 38.41 1806 1831 3637 642 742 4204 30.8 94.69 122.45 1285 1327 2612 428 494 3017 45.1 21.33 Darchula Sunsera Darchula Tapoban 75.48 1603 1608 3211 545 630 3709 51.1 42.54 15.24 1039 1076 2115 357 412 2443 52.9 138.78 Darchula Uku Subtotal 22.69 1877 2054 3931 668 772 4541 61.2 173.25 2337.69 59626 62205 121831 21028 24292 140740 519 530 1049 177 206 Humla Baraigaun 21.49 1220 18.2 48.81 Humla Bargaun 46.29 549 474 1023 145 169 1190 34.0 22.10 Humla Chhipra 33.59 464 455 919 177 206 1069 29.3 27.36 200 Humla Dandaphaya 39.59 887 778 1665 284 330 1937 30.6 42.06 Humla Darma 80.92 846 765 1611 307 357 1874 29.5 19.91 Humla Gothi 25.33 580 572 1152 188 219 1340 37.2 45.48 Hepka 177.45 583 538 1121 189 220 1304 27.4 6.32 54.49 862 887 1749 316 368 2035 22.6 32.10 Humla Humla Jair Humla Kalika Humla 85.35 1261 1169 2430 412 479 2827 22.5 28.47 662 615 1277 202 235 1486 37.4 4.48 635 1308 228 265 1522 29.4 1.77 33.81 Khagalgaun 285.36 Humla Kharpunath 737.62 673 Humla Lali 38.84 673 640 1313 223 259 1528 22.6 Limi 1199.15 452 535 987 182 212 1148 9.0 0.82 34.89 667 616 1283 206 240 1493 31.1 36.77 123.96 1537 1460 2997 528 614 3487 27.6 24.18 27.26 393 375 768 137 159 894 22.7 28.17 511 465 976 179 208 1135 29.4 1.53 519 502 1021 172 200 1188 35.8 1.36 23.22 Humla Humla Madana Humla Maila Humla Humla Melchham Mimi 638.43 Humla Muchu 753.29 Humla Raya 68.87 833 766 1599 279 325 1860 17.3 1148 1022 2170 385 448 2525 24.4 25.45 Humla Rodikot 85.25 Humla Sarkideu 104.72 882 752 1634 313 364 1901 26.0 15.60 Humla Saya 42.95 Humla 21.12 483 424 907 152 117 1055 18.1 482 433 915 157 183 1065 26.2 1.64 Shrimasta 556.45 Humla Shrinagar 65.04 1259 1135 2394 349 406 2785 18.1 36.81 Humla Simikot 35.03 1263 1213 2476 408 475 2881 38.2 70.68 Syada 89.93 834 796 1630 261 304 1896 18.0 18.13 Thehe 573.97 1117 1048 2165 396 461 2519 28.6 3.77 6003.68 20939 19600 40539 6952 8029 47164 98950 113041 645446 Humla Humla Subtotal Total 13288.46 274099 289020 563119 201 Annex 15. Important natural, cultural, religious and trade centers in the KSL Nepal Humla District Mountain Ranges: A) Nalakangkad range: Nalakangkad (7337m), Tankh Himal, Chalna Himal B) Jarkar range, Nampa Chalang, Saipal Range (7036m) Trade Centers Simikot: Simikot is headquarters of the district and is situated at 2900m above sea level. A fort is located in the western side of the place and at the base of mountain there was swamp (Sim) land. Therefore the place was named as Simikot. Simikot is at 10 days walk from Jumla and is 192km from the zonal headquarters. Darma: It lies at south-east corner of the district at an elevation of 1600 msl along the side of Tanke khola. This is the main agricultural production site of the district. The government has also established a horticultural farm in the place. It is at four days walk from Simikot and two days walk from Gamgadhi. Sorugalfa: The region is extended along the sides of Humla Karnali up to the southern border of the district. This region was very famous for cotton farming. The cotton was used to knitting the clothes before an easier access to cheaper clothes in the market. The trend is in practice in these days also with the help of the traditional equipments. Paddy farming is also a common agricultural practice in the region. The Tamang trader those come from the northern parts, exchange paddy from the place. Limi: Limi, located at an elevation of 3659 msl, is inhabited by Tamangs, and the main source of income for these people is livestock farming and business. They import salt and wool from Tibet and export cereals, timber and furu (a wooden tea bowl) to Tibet. The gompa located at the Halji village is the largest and the th most important among the gompas of the district. The gompa contain a statue of 12 century made by a very famous Tibetan lama of that time. Large number of Tibetan pilgrims comes to the place. Reling: It is a great holy place of the Buddhists living in the mid-parts of the districts. A famous gompa is located at that place and a feast is celebrated here on Jestha Poornima. Since the place is located at high altitude, remains covered with snow for six months. Kharpunath: The place is located near the junction of Humla Karnali and Dojam khola. This is one of the main holy places of the district. Great feasts are celebrated here on Maghe Sankranti and Shivaratri. Around the place there are hot springs named agni-kunda, doodh-kunda, and rakta-kunda. Muchu: The place is located south to the Limi at an elevation of 2868 msl on the side of Humla karnali. A beautiful village named Tumkot lies 3km west to the place, where a famous gompa is also located. Bajhang District Mountain ranges: Nampa (6757m)- Bankiya lekh (6936m)- Saipal (7036m)- Kapkot (6373m), Khyuri khala (5992m) Main Places: Chainpur: It is the headquarters of the district and is located at an elevation of 1227 m asl near the junction of Seti River and Baauli Gad. There is a palace of Bajhangi king and the place is also known as Hattisar. One can see there the remnants of the places for horseracing. There is also a famous Hanuman temple, and a Ramji temple, as the religious places. The place is 64km from Doti, 171km from Jhulaghat, and 173km from the China border. Jayaprithvinagar: This place is about 22km south-west to the Chainpur, previously known as Mellak. Due to its natural beauty and clean environment, King Jayaprithvi Bahadur Singh had planned to make there a summer palace and a town. Surmasarovar: This is very beautiful lake situated on the foot of Himalaya. The lake is regarded as a great holy place and the pilgrims come here on Shravan ekadashi. A small river named Suligad originates from the lake and the local people believe that gold is found in the concrete of the river. Dhuli: This place is located 80km north to the Chainpur at an elevation of 1463 m asl. This is the last northern village of the district and it takes 3 days walk to reach at the China border. 202 Thalhara: This is a historical place. The place was capital of Thalhari king at the time of Baisi-Chaubisi kings. The palace of the last Thalhari king Govind Narayan Singh is now provided for a secondary school. Here is also a famous temple of Bhairab. Khaptad Lekh: This lekh has its own religious, social and economic importance for the hilly districts of the Seti zone. It lies at the junction of Bajhang, Bajura, and Achham districts. The Khaptad lekh has highest peak of 3276m asl and is very famous for medicinal herbs and rattans. The village near to the lekh also has small enterprise based on the rattans. Lekh also have a mine of mica, which was used to export to India in the past. It is a great religious place for Hindus, having feast at Dashahara. Darchula District Mountain Ranges: Byash-Rhishi Himal range, Jaskar range The famous mountains are: Api Himal (7134m): Famous local name ‘Mayur’ or Kapoo lekh and Nampa Himal (6757m) There is a famous pass between Byash-Rhishi and Jaskar ranges, known as Tinkar Bhanjyang (6097m). Main Places: Darchula Khalanga: This place is adjacent to the Dharchula of India, and connected with a bridge. Khalanga is the headquarters of Darchula district located at an elevation of 915 masl and 80km from the headquarters of Baitadi district. Tapoban: This place is located on the side of Mahakali River, at the Dhari VDC, and is a famous holy place. Here is a hot spring, where the pilgrims go for bathing. Long ago, the pilgrims and the local peoples used to cook rice by putting it directly into this water. According to Hindu Mythology, the place was used for meditation by Rhishis. Gokuleshwor Temple: This place is located on the side of Chaulani river of Gokule. A great feast is celebrated here at Shivaratri. Large amount of woolen and other local products are traded at the place during the feast. This place is about 61km far from the Darchula Khalanga. Malikarjun: There is a mountain between Lekam and Gwani VDCs, at the peak of which is a famous temple of Malikarjun. Feasts are celebrated twice a year at this place. This place is 40km far from the Khalanga. Joljivi: The place is about 32km south to the Khalanga. The greatest feast of Far West Nepal is celebrated here for five days. The feast starts from the last of Kartik and large number of traders from different districts of Nepal as well as from India and Tibet come here for business. Large amounts of local woolen products, horses as well as all the things necessary for livelihood are traded during the feast. The place is located at the bank of Mahakali River and linked with India through a bridge. There is also a local custom office called Chhoti Bhansar. Chhangru: (3354m asl) The village is located 144km north to Khalanga. The village is quite remote and there is great scarcity of drinking water. The place is very difficultly accessible from Nepal’s side (6 days walk from Khalanga), therefore, an alternative route through India (4 days walk) is used to reach the village. However, typical Bhotia culture and tradition can be observed at the place. Tinkar: (3963m asl) This village is about 8 km east to Chhangru and is last village of the Byash region. Taklakot is at about one day walk from the place. Therefore, the place has been an important trade place of the region. During the trade, cereals, spices, gud (local sugarcane product) are exported to Tibet; whereas, the wool and salt are imported. Ukoo: The small valley is located on the side of Mahakali River and is important from architectural viewpoint. It is believed that the place was inhabited by the local rulers of historical time. There is a description about Ukoo in the Kanakpatra of Jumleshwar Punya Malla of Sahke Sanvat 1259. Here is a remnant of a huge temple which is called ‘Mahal’ by the local people and large amount of ancient carving are found at the place. Beautifully carved pieces stones are found in the region when one digs deeper in the soil. Baitadi District: Main Places: Khalanga Bazar: (1524m) Khalanga bazaar is the headquarters of Baitadi district and is the main market of the district. The bazaar lies on the main route and therefore, except the district residents, citizens of the 203 Dadeldhura, Doti and Bajhang district go to India through this bazaar. Chainpur of Bajhang lies 96km, Silhadhi lies 83km and Dadeldhura lies 48 km from the place. Shera gaun: This village is located near the junction of Mahakali and Chaulani rivers. Here is the largest cemetery of the region. The village is about 6km from Jhulaghat, one of the markets at Indian border. Here is a large and very fertile plain land called Phant. Some of the peoples of the region are also involved in the fishery. Patan: This place is about 19km east to the Khalanga bazaar. The main river of the region is Surnaya gad and Patan lies on the main route from Dadeldhura to Baitadi and therefore have importance for trade. Jhulaghat: This place lies on the eastern bank of Mahakali River. Here is a main custom office of the region. The market is established at very steep place and therefore, there is no any place to buildup new houses in the future. Killekot: This place is about 1.5km south to the Khalanga bazaar, where are the remnants of forts and a palace. A Durga Bhawani temple is located near to the palace and large number of goats and buffaloes are sacrificed here during Badadashain. This place was used by the kings of Chand generation for the judgments. Temple of Dewalghaat: The place lies near to the Kullekot and several temples are located at that place. According to local peoples, these temples were built-up by the Pandawps; whereas some others think that these were made during the time of Chand rulers. Temple of Tripurasundari: The temple is also known as the ‘Rana Shaini Bhagwati’. Very famous feast of the district is celebrated here during Vijayadashami and thousands of goats and buffaloes are sacrificed here in a day. Peoples from the neighboring districts as well as from the different parts of India come here to participate in the feast and worship the goddess. Jagannath temple: This is one of the oldest temples of the district located near the Khalanga. The burocrates (employees) transferred to the district first make worship at the temple and donate 2rupee before joining their duty. Ishwari Ganga: This is regarded as main place of Gagannath and which is located in a cave. This is a holy place of the district and large feast is celebrated here during Magh1st. Patal Bhumeshwar: This place lies east to the Satbaaj horticulture centre. Here is a lake and a cave, the depth and distance and direction of which could not be measured till today. This is also a holy place for Hindus. Raulakedar: This place is near Warayal VDC at an altitude of 2744m asl. According to the local peoples, a king of Dipayal named Naag Malla sent his bramin to the place to make regular reporting about Baitadi district. But, the Chanda rulers of Baitadi arrested him and killed at that place. A statue of shiva and some old weapons are still found there. Thehimandu Bhagwati: Thehimandu Bhagwati is one of the seven Bagwatis of the district, also known as Ninglashaini Bhagwati. Local people believe that the Bhagwati originated from a tiller of rattan (nigala) of the th place. Great feasts are celebrated here during Bhadra 8 and during Vijayadashami. Major routes Major routes and the time of travel in these routes are listed below. 1. Jumla Khalanga to Simikot trail: Khalanga bazaar to Patmara: Patmara to Bumara (should cross dori lekh): Bumara to chautha: Chautha to Pina (should cross Ghucchi lekh): Pina to Gam (Srinagar): Gam to Rhuga Rhuga to Lhuga: Lhuga to Banba: Banba to Rimi (Should cross Chankheli lekh): Rimi to Darma: Darma to Melchham: Melchham to Pooma: 204 4hrs 4hrs 4hrs 7hrs 2hrs 2hrs 2hrs 3hrs 8hrs 2hrs 6hrs 3hrs Pooma to Kalansh: Kalansh to Foocha: Foocha to Durpa (Shouldd cross Margor lekh): Durpa to Kharpel: Kharpel to Kharpunath (bridge at Dojamkhola): Kharpunath to Shyamney: Shyamney to Simikot: 1hr 3hrs 9hrs 1hr 2hrs 2hrs 2hrs Simikot to Tibet: Two ways: - 1) Simmikot- Nara Lagna (through Yari route) 2) Simikot- Til (Limi route) 1) Yari route: Simikot- Dandaphya: 2.5hrs Dandaphya- Tuling: 1hr Tuling- Dharapori: 2.5hrs Dharapori- Kermi: 5hrs Kermi- Yalwang: 5hrs Yalwang- Yangar: 1hr Yangar- Muchu: 3.5hrs Muchu- Tumkot: 1hr Tumkot-Yari: 4hrs Yari- Nara Lagna: 3hrs Nara Lagna- Hilsa 2. 5 hrs 2) Limi Route Simikot- Dandaphya: 2.5hrs Dandaphya- Tuling: 1hr Tuling- Hyakpa: 2hrs Hyakpa- dhinga: 3hrs Dhinga- Jang (Limi) Should cross Nyalu Lagna: 3days Note: - Of the suitable routes, Yari route is the main trade route of the district to Tibet. Bajhang district Chainpur- Jhulaghat route: This is the most important route to India through Baitadi district. Total length of the route is 179km and takes 7 days walk from Chainpur. Chainpur- Northern border route: This route is about 179km long and very difficult since one should cross very high passes to reach the border. The route remains open only from Asar to Bhadra. Chainpur-Silgadhi route: This route links Chainpur to headquarters of the Doti district and is 64km long. Darchula Main trekking routes are as follows: Baku bato- Ukoo: Mul bato Dumling- Rapla: Kalagad- Bramlek Mul Bato-Hikila: Shribagad pool-Madi: Hapusain bato-Chhapari: Hoperigad-Sipti: Khalanga-Sitola: Chumchum gad-Ghusa: Sadikucha-Deythala: Gokule-Gokuleshwar: Gwani-kadaparidhar: Bhartola khola-Pasti: Sakar-Dhap: 9.6km 8km 11.2km 12.8km 6.4km 9.6km 12.8km 19.2km 9.6km 8km 12.8km 9.6km 4.8km Baitadi Good facility of transportation from Terai districts to Baitadi. Attariya station (Kailali)- Dadeldhura (Amargadhi highway): 130km Dadeldhura- Baitadi (Dashrath chand Highway): 120km 205 Other Pilgrimage routes are as follows: 1) Baitadi- Dadeldhura- Doti- Bajura (Badimalika) route 2) Baitadi- Dadeldhura- Doti (Khaptad) route 3) Dadeldhura- Baitadi- Gokule route (Gokuleshwar) 4) Dadeldhura- Patan- Melauli Route (Baitadi Melauli Bhagwati temple) 5) Doti- Dadeldhura- Patan- Baitadi (Tripurasundari) route 6) Bajhang- Patan- Ningalashaini/ Theyhimandu (Baitadi) route Existing infrastructures and facilities: Facilities Medical facilities Accommodation Communication Accessibility Tourism Infrastructures Energy Other Services Baitadi Hospital, health posts, private clinics, Ayurved clinic Guest houses, hotels, eco-lodges, tea houses Post offices, telecommunication, radio, internet Airport, bus stations, helipads Darchula Hospital, health posts Bajhang Hospital, health posts, Ayurved clinic Guest houses, tea Guest houses, tea houses, hotels houses, hotels Post offices, Post offices, telecommunicatio telecommunication, n, radio, internet radio Bus stations, Bus stations (in helipads area adjacent to Baitadi), helipads Humla Hospital, health posts, rescue centers Guest house, tea house, eco-lodge, base camps Post offices, telecommunication, radio, internet Airport, bus stations (at Jumla), helipads, SimikotHilsa road is under construction through foodfor work programme Visitor information Visitor information Visitor information Visitor information centres, centres, porter shelters, centres, porter centres, porter tourist information boards, tourist information boards shelters, tourist shelters, tourist sign posting, view points, information information boards porter shelters, snow poles, boards kerosene and stove depots Hydropower (supplied Hydropower Micro-hydro plants, Micro-hydropower plants, from other districts), station (Chamelia- Solar solar under Hydropower station construction), (under construction: micro-hydro Pancheshwar), microplants, bio gas, hydro plants, solar, biogas, LP gas LP gas, Solar Police station, banking, Police station, Police station, Police station, money money exchanger banking, money banking, money exchanger exchanger exchanger 206 207 KNP  RSWR  SPNP      Conservation 114 8 awareness    Cross border 25 4 issues     Crop damage 147 7        Current security 181 10 situation        Dam Building 175 9    Fishing 68 5   Forest fire 56 5          Grazing 270 13           Hunting 219 14         Illegal settlements 171 12          Illegal harvest of 200 13 Timber     Invasion of alien 72 5 species  Landslides 71 3       NTFP collection 157 9          Over cutting of 212 10 Fuel Wood       Retaliatory killing 60 6    Shifting cultivation 58 4 or slash and burn       Socio-economic 119 7 condition       Stone and sand 93 6 collection        Tourism and 152 8 recreation Source: Rapid Assessment and Prioritization of Protected Area Management in Nepal. WWF Nepal 2005. RNP RBNP DHWR ACA MCA LNP SHNP RCNP PWR SNP MBNP KCA KTWR Occurance of pressure Cumulative pressure Annex 16 Principal Pressures Faced by the Protected Areas of Nepal -                                          