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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jethpharm
Local uses of Aristolochia species and content of nephrotoxic aristolochic acid
1 and 2—A global assessment based on bibliographic sources
Michael Heinrich a,∗ , Jennifer Chan a , Stefan Wanke b , Christoph Neinhuis b , Monique S.J. Simmonds a,c
a
Centre for Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy, The School of Pharmacy, University London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK
Institut für Botanik, Zellescher Weg 20b, Technische Universität Dresden, 01062 Dresden, Germany
c
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AB, UK
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 9 April 2009
Received in revised form 20 May 2009
Accepted 28 May 2009
Available online 6 June 2009
Keywords:
Traditional medicine
Aristolochia
Aristolochic acids
Risk assessment
Toxicology
Nephropathy
Medicinal plants
Chinese herb nephropathy
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM)
a b s t r a c t
Aims of the study: More than 100 cases of nephropathy over the last 10 years caused by the systemic
and longer term application of Chinese snakeroot (Aristolochia fangchi) highlighted the risk of using
preparations which contain aristolochic acids. On the other hand anecdotal evidence highlights the
widespread use of Aristolochia species (Aristolochiaceae) in many regions of the world. Therefore, it was
our objective to systematically assess the scientific literature available on the local and traditional use of
Aristolochia spp. on a worldwide scale. Our review identifies core species which need to be investigated
and which may need monitoring (esp. in national and international trade).
Methods: An extensive review of the literature available in libraries in London on the uses of species of
Aristolochia was undertaken. Relevant information was extracted and entered into a database for analysis.
Results: Based on the assessment of 566 reference sources 685 individual sets of data were recorded.
Seven species – Aristolochia indica L. (Asia), Aristolochia serpentaria L. (North America), Aristolochia debilis
Sieb & Zucch. (China), Aristolochia acuminata Lam (India), Aristolochia trilobata L. (Central/South America,
Caribbean), Aristolochia clematitis L. (Europe) and Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. (Africa) – are reported
widely as being used medicinally. The medical uses vary, but of particular interest are uses in case
of gastrointestinal problems, which is likely to result in repeated exposure to the botanical drugs by
an individual. About half of all records relate to uses of Aristolochia species in Asia, one-third to the
Americas, a continent which has so far received practically no attention in terms of assessing the risk
of using species of Aristolochia. Of the 99 species (plus several identified at genus level only) for which
we were able to summarise ethnobotanical information, preliminary phytochemical information is only
available for 24 species and some of the most common ones including Aristolochia acuminata have so far
not been studied phytochemically.
Conclusions: Species of Aristolochia are used medicinally in many regions of the world and both from
an ethnopharmacological and a public health perspective this poses a risk. A systematic assessment of
the content of aristolochic acids in the most widely used species is needed to evaluate whether their
uses pose a potential health risk. In China and Europe species of Aristolochia have been associated with
nephropathy and it is important to evaluate whether nephropathy occurs in other parts of the world,
especially India and Central America where the use of species of Aristolochia are reported to be commonly
used in traditional medicine.
© 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The use of the genus Aristolochia (Aristolochiaceae) in traditional and local medicines (WHO, 2007) and herbal products
Abbreviations: AA, aristolochic acid (1 or 2); C. Am. & Mex., Central America and
Mexico (incl. the Caribbean); cult, cultivated; E, East/Eastern; N, North/Northern;
n.a., not available; S, South/Southern; STDs, sexually transmitted diseases; W,
West/Western.
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 20 77535844; fax: +44 20 77535909.
E-mail address: michael.heinrich@pharmacy.ac.uk (M. Heinrich).
0378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.05.028
has been of concern since the 1990s after an herb-based slimming formula used in a Belgium clinic contained Aristolochia
fangchi instead of Stephaniae tetrandrae. Aristolochia fangchi contains aristolochic acids (AAs), whereas Stephaniae tetrandrae does
not. After taking these AAs containing formula more than 100
patients were admitted to Belgian hospitals with renal failure
and severe atrophy of the proximal renal tubules. This inadvertent exchange of plant species ultimately resulted in many
patients suffering from end-stage renal failure and urethral damage (Tang and Eisenbrand, 1992; Bieler et al., 1997; Cosyns
et al., 1998; Lampert and Xu, 2002). Removal of the kidneys
and urethras in end-stage patients highlighted a high preva-
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M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
lence (46%) of urothelial carcinoma (Muniz Martinez et al.,
2002).
The renal toxicity associated with the use of herbal products
made with aristolochic acid containing plants from China has been
labelled, somewhat inappropriately, as “Chinese Herb Nephropathy” (CHN). Similarly, endemic (Balkan) nephropathy, a devastating
renal disease affecting people in rural areas of Bosnia, Bulgaria,
Croatia, Romania, and Serbia has been linked to the consumption
of AAs containing food. This form of nephropathy is characterized
by its insidious onset, invariable progression to chronic renal
failure and a strong association with transitional cell (urothelial)
carcinoma of the upper urinary tract (Grollman et al., 2007).
Species of Aristolochia have often been reported as important
medicinal plants in ethnobotanical studies. In Europe, species
of Aristolochia were already mentioned by the Greek scholar
Dioscorides (1st century, Gunther, 1933; Berendes, 1970; Beck,
2005) and aristolochic acid and extracts obtained from European
snakeroot (Aristolochia clematitis L.) were formerly licensed for use
against abscesses, eczemas and other long-lasting skin diseases
and as an non-specific stimulant of the immune system but in 1982
they were withdrawn due to suspected carcinogenic effects (BGA,
1981). Overall, members of the genus seem to have a long history
of medicinal use in Europe, Asia (incl. China), Africa, and Central
America (Chen, 1993; Muniz Martinez et al., 2002), which is also
exemplified in studies on indigenous Mexican medicine (Heinrich
et al., 1998 and references therein, Leonti et al., 2001; Giovannini
and Heinrich, 2009).
Aristolochia fangchii and 31 related species from the genus
are known to contain AAs, nitrophenanthrene carboxylic acids
responsible for the nephrotoxic and genotoxic effects associated
with CHN (Kumar et al., 2003). Two AAs considered to be of particular significance are aristolochic acid I (1) and aristolochic acid II
(Pokhrel and Ergil, 2000; Arlt et al., 2002). From the perspective of
molecular pharmacology a hallmark of the nephropathy caused by
AAs are covalent dA-aristolactam (AL) and dG-AL adducts formed
after metabolic activation. These adducts persist for an extended
period, which facilitates its detection in target tissues. AL-DNA
adducts are well known mutagens, leading Grollman et al. (2007) to
determine the p53 mutational spectrum of transitional cell cancers
in patients with endemic nephropathy. They also demonstrated
that DNA adducts derived from AAs are present in renal tissues of
patients with documented endemic nephropathy. These adducts
can be detected in transitional cell cancers, and A:T and T:A
transversions (Grollman et al., 2007 and references cited). These
effects can be linked to the medicinal uses of Aristolochia clematitis,
a plant widely distributed in Europe and also found in the Balkan
regions. Wheat germ has been reported to be contaminated by the
seeds of Aristolochia clematitis and this could be a source of how
AAs might be getting into the diet in these regions (Hranjec et al.,
2005). However, this has not yet been proven unequivocally.
There is a growing body of evidence from research in China and
Europe that exposure to AAs is associated with the rare form of
nephropathy that can result in the subsequent development of tran-
109
sitional cell cancer. Species of Aristolochia are widely distributed
in practically all continents, expect for Australia, a continent for
which only few species are known. Since ethnobotanical studies
indicate that members of the genus are frequently used medicinally a systematic assessment of any adverse reports associated
with the use of these species should be undertaken to evaluate
their toxicity and potential risk to users. The literature on the use
of the genus is scattered throughout the literature and currently
there is no review that brings together information about the diversity of species used, where they are used and whether they are
known to contain AAs. This review aims to fill this gap and provide a systematic assessment of which species of Aristolochia are
used medicinally and whether their use in traditional medicines
has implications for public health (Jaeger, 2005). Specifically, this
allows us to prioritise species for future phytochemical–analytical
research. Such a systematic review of existing bibliographic evidence has been used successfully, for example, in order to find new
lead plants in drug discovery (e.g. Adams et al., 2007).
2. Materials and methods
In order to assess the use and diversity of the species of Aristolochia used on a world-wide level, literature sources available
both online and in print were reviewed critically. Relevant bibliographic items were identified systematically in the relevant
libraries by searching for key terms including Aristolochia, ethnobotany, medicinal plants, Chinese herbs and botanical. Initially other
terms were considered such as natural products, pharmacognosy,
folk medicine and botany, but then excluded since their use did not
result in relevant references being found.
Six libraries with holdings both on useful/medicinal
plants/pharmacognosy and the history of medicine/pharmacy
were selected:
•
•
•
•
•
•
The Natural History Museum, London.
The Linnean Society, London.
Royal Horticultural Society, London.
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey.
Wellcome Library of Medicine, London.
The School of Pharmacy, University of London, London.
These libraries contain relevant literature, which span a wide
time period and most importantly cover the period prior to
the introduction of electronic databases. The books chosen were
searched for relevant information. Most but not all sources are
written in English.
Initially, the index of each book was scanned for the key word
Aristolochia. When this was not present, a second search was undertaken using the trivial or common English names, such as birthwort
or snakeroot. For those books that had no index or content pages
then the text was quickly looked at to establish whether the book
might contain relevant information. If these searches did not identify any key words, then the book was recorded as having no data.
However, when there was relevant information, this was noted on
the recording sheet.
A database search in BIOSIS Preview [keywords Aristolochia AND
codes 54000 (Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany) and
51522 (Plant Physiology – Chemical Constituents)]: was conducted
in order to identify key references. Each of the articles was checked
for its relevance by assessing the title and abstract before deciding
whether the article should be assessed in full. In addition and in
view of the fact, that specific genera are often not listed in databases,
the following specialist plant journals available to the authors were
searched for relevant information using the journals’ search facilities or manually (years included in brackets):
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110
•
•
•
•
•
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Economic Botany (2002–2007)
Fitoterapia (1999–2007)
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (start–2007)
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (1995–2007)
Phytotherapy Research (1997–2007)
The terms ‘Aristolochia, medicinal herb, Chinese, folk medicine,
traditional, ethnobotanical and ethnomedicine’ were used. These
terms had identified relevant publications in a pilot survey of the
Journal of Ethnopharmacology. Individually, the search results were
refined searching for the key word ‘Aristolochia’ anywhere in the
article. In the case of ‘Economic Botany’ and ‘The Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine’, this procedure was not required and
a single search was completed to find the key word ‘Aristolochia’
appearing anywhere in the article.
Taxonomic validity of all species was checked and here we report
both the names as they appear in the original article and the reassignment based on current nomenclature information available to
the authors.
3. Results and discussion
A total of 566 reference sources were consulted, 99 of these were
from the selected journals and 467 from books. Overall, 237 contained relevant information while the rest (329, 58.1%) contained
no relevant data. From these a total of 685 individual sets of data
about uses of members of the genus were recorded (Appendix A).
We concentrated on documents that focused directly on the use of
species of Aristolochia, and excluded, for example, use reports on
alcoholic extracts of caterpillars that had fed on Aristolochia trilobata
(Nossin and Weniger, 2009).
The names of the majority of species of Aristolochia cited in
the literature were the accepted Latin scientific binomial names
but in some cases names such as Aristolochia galen and Aristolochia
dioscorides had been used, which could not be assigned to a known
taxonomically valid species (see Appendix A). While these names
are not taxonomically accepted and might not be species of Aristolochia it was decided to keep them in the database in order to
achieve a more complete overview of the medicinal uses of plants
considered to be Aristolochia as recorded in the literature.
3.1. Data analysis
Of the 99 species of Aristolochia (excluding several identified at
genus level only) reported to be used medicinally 7 species were
recorded particularly frequently (Table 1, Fig. 1).
Other species cited more than five times are Aristolochia contorta (China, 20 records), Aristolochia manshuriensis (Asia, 18),
Aristolochia grandiflora (S. America, Central America/Mexico, 14),
Aristolochia elegans (S. America, Central America/Mexico, 12), ArisTable 1
The seven most frequently cited species of the genus Aristolochia based on a global
assessment of the genus’ medical use.
Species
Continent where species is
reported to be used
No. of records
Aristolochia indica
Aristolochia bracteolata
(incl. Aristolochia
bracteolate)
Aristolochia serpentaria
Aristolochia debilis
Aristolochia acuminata
(incl. Aristolochia
tagala)
Aristolochia trilobata
Aristolochia clematitis
Indian subcontinent
Africa
105
64
North America
China
India
54
38
34
Central America, Caribbean
Europe
34
34
Fig. 1. Aristolochia indica, the most frequently cited species (drawing by B. Schulz,
Universität Dresden).
tolochia heterophylla (Asia, 11), Aristolochia rotunda (Europe, 11),
Aristolochia maxima (S. America, Central America/Mexico, 10), Aristolochia albida (Africa, 8), Aristolochia reticulata (USA, 8), Aristolochia
fangchi (China, 8), Aristolochia mollisima (China, 7), Aristolochia
rugosa (S. America, Central America/Mexico, 7), Aristolochia seriaca
(Philippines, 7), Aristolochia triangularis (S. America, 6), Aristolochia
paucinervis (Western Mediterranean, 5), Aristolochia philippinensis (Philippines, 5). These data suggest that of the 25 species of
Aristolochia cited in the literature more than five times a greater
diversity of these species are being used in Asia and the Americas
than in other parts of the world. A geographical analysis of the data
(Table 2) for the genus shows that about half of all records relate
to uses of Aristolochia species in Asia, but that about one-third are
from the Americas, a continent which has so far received practically no attention in terms of assessing the risk of using species of
Aristolochia. There were fewer records for African (9%) and Europe
(6.6%) Aristolochia species being used, which is, of course, due to
multiple factors like differences in species richness or poorer coverage in terms of ethnopharmacological field studies in parts of
Africa.
Species were assigned to broad categories based on the organs
in the body they were used to treat or the symptoms associated
with an ailment. It was found that they are most commonly used
in the treatment of gastrointestinal complaints especially for the
treatment of diarrhoea, which accounts for 14.9% of all reported
uses (Table 3). Also, as implied by the common name of many
species, the use in the treatment of snakebites and poisoning is
common (10.2%) as is their use for the treatment of gynaecological
(113 reports/7.8%) conditions including the treatment of sexually
transmitted diseases (STDs) such as syphilis and gonorrhoea. This
also includes common female problems such as urine or bladder
problems, and complaints relating to the reproductive system such
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M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Table 2
Number of use reports for each of the major continents and number of species.
Continent
Number of citations (n = 685)
Percentage of total (%) (n = 685)
Number of species with recorded uses
Africa
America (including, Central, North and South)
54
221
7.9
32.3
Asia
Oceania
Europe
Not stated
339
3
45
23
49.5
0.4
6.6
3.3
17
Approx 45—N. America (14), S. America (33),
C. America (17)
50
3
5
Not included
as contraception as well as induction of labour and abortive purposes, treatments linked to a commonly used name for taxa from
the genus—birthwort. Species are used to treat conditions of the
central nervous system (6.8%). Local and traditional uses relating to
parasitology are another important group of use reports (5.9% of all
citations). This includes the treatment of malaria, intestinal worms
and as an insecticide (Appendix A).
There were a total of 80 citations (5.5%) listing species of Aristolochia being used for dermatological conditions. Many of the
sources did not specify the exact disease being treated, although
some mentioned their use in the treatment of eczema and also for
fungal skin conditions (Appendix A).
Other uses for species of Aristolochia are in cardiovascular and
respiratory conditions representing 4.6% and 2.0% of the citations,
respectively. Common uses for the genus in cardiovascular conditions are to treat hypertension or as a cardiotonic. A large proportion
of the citations fell under the category of ‘miscellaneous’ which
included the use of the genus in the treatment of cancer. Many
were placed in the “miscellaneous” category because the author
reported the species as being used ‘medicinally’ but provided no
specific information about the use (Appendix A).
3.2. Evidence for beneficial effects of Aristolochia species
There is some in vitro and in vivo pharmacological evidence to
support some of the uses of Aristolochia. For example, the antibacterial effects of extracts of Aristolochia paucinervis Pomel (e.g. Gadhi
et al., 1991; Mims et al., 2004) and Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. (as
Aristolochia bracteata Retz, Manikandar et al., 2006) could be relevant for the use of these species in the treatment of gastrointestinal
problems. Some evidence is available to support uses of Aristolochia
elegans in Mexcio for the treatment of stings and of the toxic effects
of venoms (Jiménez-Ferrer et al., 2005) as it reduced the toxicity
of the Mexican scorpion Centruroides limpidus Karsch. Tsai et al.
(1980) report effects of AAs in inactivating snake venoms in mice
in vivo. In the later study AAs were effective against Elapid venoms
Table 3
Medicinal uses of species of the genus Aristolochia.
Use
Number of citations,
total (n) = 1445
% of citations of the total
number of citations
Cardiovascular
Central nervous system
Bites and poison
Dermatology
Endocrinology
Gastrointestinal
Gynaecology including STDs
Infectious diseases
Musculoskeletal
Respiratory
Nephrology
Parasitology
Veterinary uses
Miscellaneous including
general ‘medicinal use’
29
99
147
80
17
215
113
78
67
67
73
85
8
227
2.0
6.8
10.2
5.5
1.2
14.9
7.8
5.4
4.6
4.6
5.1
5.9
0.6
15.7
(Naja naja atra and Bungarus multicinctus), but not effective against
Crotalid venoms (Trimeresurus mucrosquamatus, Agkistrodon acutus
and Trimeresurus gramineus).
Considerable research efforts have gone into the investigation
of the abortive activity of the genus (Haruna and Choudhury, 1997;
Jadhav and Bhutani, 2005), as exemplified by research on Aristolochia indica Linn. (Pakrashi and Shaha, 1978). A sesquiterpene
was identified as the active constituent, which they then administered to mice (Pakrashi and Shaha, 1977). This compound caused an
abortive effect that occurred between the 8th and 10th day of pregnancy. A dose-dependent abortive activity was observed with 97.1%
abortive activity when a dose of 100 mg/(kg body weight) was given
(Pakrashi and Shaha, 1977). The methyl ester of aristolochic acid,
extracted from Aristolochia indica, was also shown to have abortive
actions. When given to mice on the sixth and seventh day of pregnancy at a dose of 60 mg/(kg body weight), the abortive rate was
100% with a dramatic decrease in this value when given to mice on
the 10th (25%) and the 12th day (20%) (Pakrashi et al., 1975; Pakrashi
and Shaha, 1978).
There is a lack of pharmacological data to support the use of the
genus for the treatment of STDs or for the treatment of CNS conditions. However, there are some data to support the use of species
against parasites. Agarwal and Ghosh (1985) stated that Aristolochia
bracteolata Lam (named Aristolochia bracteata Retz. by the authors)
is useful in the treatment of roundworms by causing their expulsion. El Tahir et al. (1999) evaluated the anti-malarial activity of
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam (as Aristolochia bracteata) by testing
extracts from different parts of the plant against various strains of
Plasmodium falciparum. The methanol extract of the seeds had the
highest activity with an IC50 of 4 g/ml (El Tahir et al., 1999).
Additionally, Jbilou et al. (2008) investigated the activity of
Aristolochia baetica L. extract using methanol against Tribolium castaneum, a pest that is commonly found in grains. The growth of
the larvae was inhibited, the ␣-amylase activity was also decreased
and the amount of offspring produced was stopped completely. The
rationale behind the usage of the species in eczema is probably to
treat bacterial infections associated with the condition especially
ones caused by Staphylococcus aureus and sometimes by Streptococcus pyogenes. Experimental work has shown that inhibition of
these bacteria does occur. Kumar et al. (2006) used the root of Aristolochia indica L. and found that it was able to inhibit Staphylococcus
aureus. The essential oils found in the aerial parts of Aristolochia
indica was also found to inhibit the same bacteria indicating that
the effects are not limited to one part of the plant (Shafi et al.,
2002). This is also supported by Gadhi et al. (1991) using chloroform
extracts of Aristolochia paucinervis Pomel. The ethyl acetate and
butanol extracts, however, did not show any inhibitory effects. The
use of the genus in fungal skin infections is supported by research
by Gadhi et al. (2001b) who investigated the effects of the leaves of
Aristolochia paucinervis on various fungi that can cause skin infections and ringworm. The extracts used were hexane, chloroform and
ethyl acetate. The hexane extract was found to be the most effective
and upon investigation this extract was found to contain ‘chlorophyll, fatty acids and other constituents’, clearly not a sufficient
explanation for the species’ use. There was some form of inhibition
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M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
observed for each of the fungi tested. The fungi most inhibited were
Trichophyon tonsurans, Trichophyton schoenleinii, Trichophyton violaceum and Epidermophyton floccosum with a minimum inhibitory
concentration of 64 g/mL in the hexane fraction (Gadhi et al.,
2001b). In general the anti-microbial properties of the genus relate
to topical application of the plant extracts and thus may be of less
toxicological concern than when the extracts are taken orally.
Seventy eight references (5.4%) report Aristolochia species as
being used in the treatment of infectious diseases. Some of these
claims are supported by pharmacological data and as has already
been discussed, extracts from some species have been shown to
inhibit various Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Additionally, Machado et al. (2005) showed that Aristolochia cymbifera
inhibits methicillin-resistant bacteria.
Species of Aristolochia are also used in wound healing (Appendix
A). This use has been researched by Shirwaikar et al. (2003). They
observed that the ethanol extracts of the leaves of Aristolochia
bracteata (syn. of Aristolochia bracteolata) caused wounds in rats to
contract and they measured an increased presence of antioxidant
enzymes, resulting in an increase in the rate of wound healing. The
author suggests that this provides substantial evidence for its use
in wound healing (Shirwaikar et al., 2003).
A total of 4.6% of citations listed the use of the species in
muscoskeletal conditions (Appendix A). This includes rheumatism,
arthritis and gout. The use of the leaves and bark of Aristolochia
trilobata for this purpose is supported by Sosa et al. (2002) based
on studies with hexane, methanol and chloroform extracts on
the ear oedema of mice. The chloroform extract had the greatest activity, which was comparable to that of Indomethacin: an
anti-inflammatory drug indicated in the treatment of gout and
rheumatism (Sosa et al., 2002). AAs are believed to be partly responsible for the anti-inflammatory actions since they are able to inhibit
phospholipase A2, an enzyme which forms pro-inflammatory
mediators (Sosa et al., 2002). Binding to the phospholipase A2
enzyme resulting in a non-competitive inhibitor via the formation
of hydrogen bonds has been proposed as the underlying biochemical mechanism (Mors et al., 2000b). The anti-inflammatory actions
of the genus was also confirmed by Muschietti et al. (1996) who
in their study used water, dichloromethane and methanol extracts
of the root of Aristolochia triangularis Cham. There was also a
positive improvement in individuals who had taken Aristolochia
manshuriensis Kom. as part of a combination with another herbal
product for rheumatic lumbago (Chang and But, 2001).
The antihypertensive uses of Aristolochia manshuriensis are supported by Chang and But (2001) using intravenous administration
to dogs. They found that this caused an initial increase in blood pressure which was then followed by a decrease in the blood pressure
which was maintained. The effects were described as being similar
to that of Digitalis on the hearts of toads and guinea pigs (Chang and
But, 2001).
There are data to support uses of Aristolochia against coughs, for
various infections of the respiratory tract and for bronchitis. The
Table 4
Evidence for the presence of aristolochic acids 1 and 2 in recognised species of the genus based on published information.
Species (with name in the original reference given in brackets)
Ethnobotanical information
available (see Appendix A)
Aristolochic
acid 1
Aristolochic
acid 2
Reference
Aristolochia argentina Gris
Aristolochia auricularia Boiss.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. (Aristolochia baetica Linn.)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam (Aristolochia bracteata)
Aristolochia chilensis Bridges in Lindl.
Aristolochia cinnabarina C.Y. Cheng & J.L. Wu; possibly
Aristolochia tuberosa Liang et S.W. Hwang
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
Aristolochia cucurbitifolia Hayata
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc (syns: Aristolochia longa Thump,
Aristolochia recurvilabra Hance, Aristolochia sinarum Lindl.)
Aristolochia elegans Mast (Aristolochia hassleriana Chodat)
Aristolochia fangchi Wu
Aristolochia heterophylla Hemsl
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia kaempferi Willd (syns.: Aristolochia chrysops Stapf.,
Aristolochia feddei H. Lev, Aristolochia heterophylla Hernsl,
Aristolochia mollis, Aristolochia setchuenensis Franch,
Aristolochia shimadai Hayata)
Aristolochia kaempferi Willd (Aristolochia kankauensis Sasaki)
Aristolochia liukiuensis Hatus
Aristolochia kunmingensis C.Y.Cheng & J.S.Ma
Aristolochia kwangsiensis Chun & F.C. How (Aristolochia
austroszechuanica C.B. Chien & C.Y. Cheng)
Aristolochia sp. (Aristolochia longa L.)
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Priestap (1987)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Achenbach and Fischer (1997)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Pres
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
No
Pres
Pres
No
No
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Wu et al. (2004)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Yes
Pres
Pres
Aristolochia iquitensis O.C. Schmidt (Aristolochia macrophylla
Lam)
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
Aristolochia maurorum Linn.
Aristolochia mollis Stand & Stey (Syn)
Aristolochia mollisima Hance.
Yes
Pres
Pres
De Pascual Tesesa et al. (1983)
and Kumar et al. (2003)
Schaneberg et al. (2002)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Aristolochia moupinensis Franch
Aristolochia odoratissima L.
Aristolochia pontica Lam (Aristolochia ponticum)
Aristolochia serpentaria L.
Aristolochia trilobata L.
Aristolochia tubiflora Dunn
Aristolochia versicolor S.M. Hwang
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Pres
Kumar et al. (2003)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Wu et al. (2000)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Wu et al. (2001a,b)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Che et al. (1984)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Jou et al. (2004)
Wu et al. (2001a,b), Kumar et al.
(2003)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Jou et al. (2004)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Schaneberg et al. (2002)
Jou et al. (2004)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Kumar et al. (2003)
Author's personal copy
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
essential oils of Aristolochia indica L. inhibited Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a bacteria associated with lower respiratory tract infections
and commonly found in teenagers with cystic fibrosis (Mims et al.,
2004; Shafi et al., 2002). However, Gadhi et al. (1991) and Kumar et
al. (2006) were unable to demonstrate inhibition of Pseudomonas
aeruginosa. Although, Kumar et al. (2006) demonstrated inhibition
of Bordetella bronchiseptica when the root of Aristolochia indica L.
was used. Since this bacterium is involved in causing whooping
coughs, these results provide in vitro evidence for its use for this
purpose.
Aristolochia contorta Bunge has been found to have expectorant
activity. Although not very potent in rabbits, it was able to stop
bronchospasms in guinea pigs (Chang and But, 2001). Additionally,
effective treatment of bronchitis has also been seen with various
species of Aristolochia. Dosing with AAs resulted in a change in the
viscosity of the sputum indicating that AAs may play an active role
in the treatment of bronchitis (Chang and But, 2001).
The cytotoxic effects of Aristolochia species, listed in Table 1
under miscellaneous have been assessed in various studies. Ruffa et
al. (2002) used a methanol extract of the leaves of Aristolochia trilobata L. (named Aristolochia macroura Gomez by the authors) and
showed its inhibitory effect on the growth of Hep G2 cells, a heptocellular carcinoma cell. This effect was shown to be dose-dependant
(Ruffa et al., 2002).
Overall these data highlight that for some species there is a
substantial body of evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies for
pharmacological effects, which in part explains the therapeutic
importance of these species. However, this can, of course, not be
seen as a justification for the overall therapeutic benefits of the
species.
3.3. The presence of aristolochic acids in Aristolochia species
In this part we link the information available on local and other
uses of Aristolochia species with the limited information on the
species’ chemistry as it relates to the presence of AAs, most notably
AA1 and AA2. Unfortunately, it is not possible to get reliable data
to quantify the presence of AAs in these species. The majority of
research on the distribution of AA’s in Aristolochia has been undertaken on species of Aristolochia entering the trade in Europe, North
America and China (FDA, 2000) or those being used in traditional
medicine in China (Wu et al., 2007). Despite the recent concerns
about the toxicity associated with the AA’s in species of Aristolochia
used in traditional medicine the occurrence of these compounds
in many of the species being used in Central and South America or
Africa remains unclear (Cosyns, 2003). Although, AAs are thought
to occur in all species of Aristolochia (Wu et al., 2004) of the 99
species of Aristolochia covered in this review, only 23 (as well as
eight species for which no ethnobotanical information was found)
are reported to contain AAs (Table 3). Additionally nine species are
reported to contain AAs for which we have not found information
on local or traditional uses (Table 4).
Aristolochia indica, the most commonly recorded species, was
reported to only contain aristolochic acid 1 (Kumar et al., 2003). Of
the other most frequently used species there are no phytochemical data available for the AAs content of Aristolochia acuminata
(incl. Aristolochia tagala) and Aristolochia bracteolata was only
investigated as Aristolochia bracteata and Aristolochia baetica. No
data about the AAs content of the other frequently used species
are available including Aristolochia albida, Aristolochia grandiflora,
113
Aristolochia manshuriensis, Aristolochia rotunda, Aristolochia maxima, Aristolochia paucinervis, Aristolochia philippinensis, Aristolochia
reticulata, Aristolochia rugosa, Aristolochia seriaca and Aristolochia
triangularis. Overall the data are scarce and also very little information is available in terms of the phytochemical variability of the
species both in terms of which parts of the plant are used and
regional variability.
4. Conclusions
Our data demonstrates the worldwide importance of members
of the genus in practically all regions where Aristolochia species are
found. The data also demonstrates that many species seem to be
used relatively widely in these regions (e.g. Mexico/Central America, India, parts of Africa, Southern Europe). However, aside from
Chinese Herb Nephropathy associated with the use of Aristolochia
fangchi and the emerging data on Balkan Endemic Nephropathy
very limited epidemiological or clinical information is available
about any toxicity associated with the medicinal use of species of
Aristolochia. While some in vitro and in vivo pharmacological data
provide evidence for the rational for using members of the genus,
the long-term toxic effects seem to have remained unrecognised in
all cultures, which traditionally used Aristolochia species.
This bibliographic study has some limitations. An inclusive
review of all sources which include information on Aristolochia
species is not feasible. It has not been possible to cover information included on herbarium specimes. The majority of data are
from monographs, an often lesser used source of ethnopharmacological information. Here we focus on data that are based on
ethnobotanical reports and secondary sources, and this may have
resulted in some repetitions of data. Sources not available in English
were in most cases excluded. Clearly, national journals may contain
important additional information about the uses and chemistry of
species of Aristolochia. The amount of ethnobotanical data being
published in international journals varies from country-to-country
and from continent-to-continent, a factor that limits our ability to
collate information about the diversity of Aristolochia species being
used. However, the main goal of this work is to select species which
need to be prioritised for future research and which are likely to
require special attention in terms of monitoring there use in international and national trade. This study contributes to this selection
and highlights a core group of particularly widely used species.
Our data also highlight that there still is a huge gap in our
knowledge about the individual species’ phytochemistry and the
quantities of AAs found in them. Clearly concerted efforts are
needed to address both the research needs on the use of this
genus and on a systematic and worldwide assessment of the risks
associated with the species being used. More immediately, it is
important to initiate training and outreach programmes to highlight the potential risks of using species of Aristolochia.
Acknowledgements
This project was developed without external funding. We are
grateful to Christine Leon and Dr. Geoffrey Kite at the Royal Botanic
Gardens Kew, UK for input to various aspects of this work, to Mr.
Bernd Schulz, Dresden for an excellent botanical line drawing of
Aristolochia indica and to the many librarians for their invaluable
help including specifically the staff at the School of Pharmacy’s
Library (Peter Field and colleagues).
Author's personal copy
114
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A. Aristolochia species and their usage—a worldwide assessment based on bibliographic data
Species (name given in orignal sources)
Country (continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated
and other relevant uses
reported
Source
Aristolochia acuminata Lam. (as
Aristolochia acumianta) (possibly
Aristolochia albida) [(1)]
Indian Ocean Island
(Madagascar: Comoros,
Seychelles and Mascarenes)
(AF)
Indian Ocean Island (Magascar:
Comoros, Seychelles and
Mascarenes) (AF)
Root
Used in young children: made
into a poultice by crushing and
applied to the stomach. Used in
palpitations.
When drunk can be used as a
tonic and to reduce a fever,
treating heterosyphilitic
children.
Venereal diseases—when
combined with various other
plants.
Use not specified.
Gurib-Fakim and Brendler (2004)
Aristolochia acuminata Lam. [possibly
Aristolochia albida (1)]
Leaf
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham (2))
Kouthalai of Tirunelveli hills,
India (AS)
Leaf
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
E. India (AS) in Himalaya
n.a.
Andhra Pradesh, India (AS)
Root
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
India (AS)
Root
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Malay-Peninsula (AS)
Leaf
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Philippines (AS)
Root
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
India (AS)
Fruit and root
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
India (AS)
Leaf
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
India (AS)
Whole plant
Nepal eastwards-Himalaya and
in Assam Bihar. Also Konkan
southward-Western Ghats (AS)
Plant
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Kouthalai of Tirunelveli hills,
India (AS)
Root
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Kouthalai of Tirunelveli hills,
India (AS)
Leaf
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Variety of places including:
Coimbatorie, Madurai,
Kanniyakumaru, Nilgiri, Salem,
Tirunelveli, Sri Lanka, Burma
and Java (AS)
Root
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Philippines (AS)
Root
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Philippines (AS)
n.a.
Philippines (AS)
n.a.
Moluccas (AS)
Leaf
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
To increase the production of
breast milk and also as a
carminative agent.
As a tonic, carminative and also
as a emmenagogue i.e. to
promote menstrual bleeding.
Used for fevers, applied to the
head. For swollen limbs,
abdomen and bilious disorders
formincation.
Used as an emmenagogue, for
infantile lympanites, as a
carminative and a tonic.
Used as a treatment for
malaria, toothaches,
rheumatism, treating
snakebites and dyspepsia.
For the treatment of
stomachaches, for snakebites,
fevers and fits.
To treat bowel complaints.
Is a substitute of Aristolochia
indica and functions as a
carminative and promotion of
menstrual bleeding i.e. acts as
an emmenagogue and is also
used as a carminative.
Snakebites and scorpian bites,
mixed with leaves and seeds of
Aglaia roxburghiana.
Snakebites, scorpian bites and
insect bites—combined with
Cipadessa baccifera and Tragia
involucrate.
Used as a replacement for
Aristolochia indica L. and is
considered to have many
properties including as a
carminative, a tonic and
emmagogue.
as a carminativem an
emmenagogic and for infantile
lympaniles.
For the treatment of bowel
complaints.
Given as a tonic and as a
carminative. Women also take
this plant to induce
menstruation.
External use.
Gurib-Fakim and Brendler (2004)
Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu (2005)
Samant et al. (1998)
Pullaiah (2002)
Padua et al. (1999)
Perry and Metzger (1980)
Perry and Metzger (1980)
Jain and DeFilipps (1991)
Jain and DeFilipps (1991)
Jain and DeFilipps (1991)
Akhtur et al. (1992)
Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu (2005)
Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu (2005)
Yoganarasimhan (2000)
Quisumbing (1951)
Quisumbing (1951)
Quisumbing (1978)
Padua et al. (1999)
Author's personal copy
115
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Malaysia (AS)
Leaf
For fevers applied to the head.
Papua New Guiana
(AS)
Philippines (AS)
Leaf
India (AS)
(Mizoram)
N.E. India (AS)
Root
Has unspecified medicinal properties and is rubbed to the
head and drunk.
Tonic and also to promote menstural bleeding as an
emmenagogue. Also has uses in treating infantile lympanites.
Treatment of bowel complaints.
Padua et al.
(1999)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Manhanti
(1994)
Kumar (2002)
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Dodu Island, Papua
New Guinea (AS)
India (AS)
Root/bark
Root
Root and
leaf
Has analgesic properties and can be used for rheumatic pains
and toothaches as well as in snakebites. Other uses are as an
emmenagogue, as a tonic and a carminative.
Abortive.
India (AS)
Whole
plant
Root
India (AS)
Leaf
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Philippines (AS)
Leaf
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia tagala Cham)
Areas around India
(AS), including
Bengal, the Upper
gangetic plain,
Bundelkhan, Sind,
Konkondan,
Deecan and
Carnatic
Vietnam (AS)
Whole
plant
Bowel complaints.
Root
India (AS)
Root
Aristolochia acuminata Lam
(Aristolochia roxburghiana
Klotsch)
Aristolochia acutifolia
(Aristolochia Medicinalis R.E.
Schult)
Aristolochia albida Duch
India (AS)
n.a.
Used for its properties as a stomachic in the treatment of colic,
gastritis, diarrhoea, food poisoning, enteritis, furunculosis,
rheumatism, oedema, dysmenorrhoea and malaria.
Gastrointestinal complaints such as diarrhoea, colic, gastritis,
food poisoning, gastritis, dystentery. Other uses are in
rheumatism, oedema, tuberculosis, malaria, by women in
dysmenorrhoea, carminative, tonic and emmenagogue.
Use not specified.
Upper Amanzon
(Kubeomen) (SA)
Root
Epileptic like nature where individual has periodic attacks.
Schultes and
Raffauf (1990)
Various (AF)
Root
Neuwinger
(2000)
Aristolochia albida Duch
Various (AF)
Leaf
Aristolochia albida Duch
Root
Aristolochia albida Duch
Nigeria, Bauchi
State (AF)
Ghana (AF)
Treatment of all types of pains and cold related symptoms such
as a sore throat and coughs. Other uses are in worms,
treatment of inguinal, scrotal hernia, malaria, the sexually
transmitted disease, syphilis and as a snakebite antidote.
To treat guinea worms, acts as an aphrodisiac and can also be
used to treat coughs.
Antimicrobial activity, used in emesis and nausea.
Root
Aristolochia albida Duch
South Africa (AF)
n.a.
Remedy for guinea worms, a tonic as well as in fevers. Other
uses are in malaria, for its stomachic actions and as a local
analgesic.
Believed to have a ‘magical sense’.
Aristolochia albida Duch
Nigeria (AF) (AF)
Rhizomes
In the treatment of inflammation and various cancers.
Aristolochia albida Duch
Mali (AF)
n.a.
Aristolochia albida Duch
(Aristolochia densivenia Engl.)
E. Africa (AF)
n.a.
Antimicrobial activity, stomach tonic, malarial fevers and
parasites.
Antidote for snakebites and for arrow poison.
Aristolochia albida Duch
(Aristolochia densivenia Engl.)
‘Tanganyika’ (AF)
Root and
leaf
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia roxburghiana
Klotsch)
Aristolochia acuminata Lam.
(Aristolochia roxburghiana
Klotsch)
Bone fractures.
Cambie and
Brown (1997)
Bakshi et al.
(1999)
Bakshi et al.
(1999)
Bakshi et al.
(1999)
Gastrointestinal compliants such as for dyspepsia and colic.
Other uses are for snakebites and for toothaches.
Acts as an antidote for snakebites and used for rheumatism,
malaria, fevers and fits. Also given for gastrointestinal
complaints such as flactulence, stomachaches and flactulence.
Treatment of cancer.
Sexual stimulant and as a cough remedy.
Graham et al.
(2000) and
Masilungan et
al. (1971)
Kirikar and
Basu (1975)
Prajapati et al.
(2006)
Niir (2005)
Neuwinger
(2000)
Adamu et al.
(2005)
Iwu (1993)
Arnold et al.
(2002)
Abubakar et
al. (2007)
Lehman et al.
(2007)
Watt and
BreyerBrandwijk
(1962)
Watt and
BreyerBrandwijk
(1962)
Author's personal copy
116
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Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia albida Duch
(Aristolochia petersiana
Klottzsch)
Aristolochia albida Duch
(Aristolochia petersiana
Klottzsch)
Aristolochia albida Duch. (as
Aristolochia acumianta Lam.)
[(1)]
Aristolochia albida Duch. (as
Aristolochia acumianta Lam.)
[(1)]
Aristolochia albida Duch. (as
Aristolochia acumianta Lam.)
[(1)]
Aristolochia albida Duch
(Aristolochia petersiana
Klottzsch)
Aristolochia anguicida Jacq
E. Africa (AF)
Root
Coughs and sore throats. Antidote for arrow poison and
snakebites.
Kokwaro
(1976)
Ghana/West Africa
(AF)
Root
Fevers and for symptoms of colds such as a cough and in sore
throats. Other uses are in dysentery and also in snakebites.
Iwu (1993)
Madagascar (AF)
Root
Treatment of malaria, for worms and in fever.
Neuwinger
(2000)
Madagascar (AF)
Leaf (sap)
To treat dyspepsia
Neuwinger
(2000)
Madagascar (AF)
Stem
In the treatment of malaria.
Neuwinger
(2000)
Tropics (n.a.)
Root
In the treatment of malaria.
Leeuwenberg
(1987)
Root
Snakebites and stomachaches.
Morton
(1981)
Aristolochia anguicida Jacq
Guatemala, El
Savador & Bolivia
(CA/SA)
Brazil (SA)
n.a.
To prevent poisonin by snakes venoms and to kill the snake.
Aristolochia arcuata Mast.
Brazil (SA)
Vine
Malaria and for fevers.
Aristolochia argentina Gris
Argentina (SA)
n.a.
Digestive problems.
Aristolochia argentina Gris
Argentina (SA)
n.a.
Insecticide.
Aristolochia argentina Gris
Argentina (SA)
n.a.
Insecticide.
Aristolochia asclepiadifolia
Brandegee
Mexico (CA)
Plant
Known to have hypoglycaemic effects.
Aristolochia asclepiadifolia
Brandegee
Aristolochia asclepiadifolia
Brandegee
Aristolochia baetica L.
(Aristolochia boetica Linn) (3)
Aristolochia balansae Franch
Mexico (CA)
Root
Stomachaches and vomitting.
Mexico (CA)
Vine and
root
n.a.
To counteract the bites of black widow.
Indo-China (AS)
(AS)
Bark
Dystentary and anuria.
Aristolochia bilobata L.
Brazil (SA)
n.a.
Aristolochia bilobata L.
Root
Aristolochia birostris Duch
Haiti and the
Dominican
Republic (CA)
Brazil (SA)
As an alexiteric [against contagious and infectious diseases,
and the effects of poison in general].
Stimulant and tonic, as an emmenagogue and on ulcers.
Millspaugh
(1887)
Milliken
(1997)
Palacios et al.
(2007)
Broussalis et
al. (1999)
Broussalis et
al. (1999)
AndradeCetto and
Heinrich
(2005)
Leonti et al.
(2001)
Leonti et al.
(2001)
Millspaugh
(1887)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Millspaugh
(1887)
Morton
(1981)
Root
Given on prescription for rattlesnake poisoning.
Aristolochia birostris Duch
Brazil (SA)
Leaf
Aristolochia boliviensis Kuntze
Bolivian Chaco (SA)
Aerial parts
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Root
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
India – Andhra
Pradesh (AS)
Africa (AF)
Used to promote sweating (diaphoretic) (Oxford Concise
medical dictionary) and as an anticatarrhal agent
Use not specified but known to be used in this part of world.
Also shown to have activity against Plasmodium falciparum and
FBIT experimentally.
Promote healing of ulcers and for roundworms.
Seed
To treat convulsions.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Africa (AF)
Root
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Africa (AF)
Leaf
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Africa (AF)
Fruit
In the treatment of malaria, abdominal pain and scorpian
stings.
Has purgativa actions and is used in the treatment of flu,
vomitting and pneumonia. It can also be used for
polymeorrhea and treatment of oedema.
Has a purgative action.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Tamil Nadu (N.
India to Peninsular
India (AS))
Tamil Nadu (N.
India to Peninsular
India (AS))
India, Chittoor
District (AS)
Leaf
Eczema.
Root
Has purgative and anthelmintic actions and used in the
treatment of round worms.
Yoganarasimhan
(2000)
Leaf
Cuts and wounds as well as an anthelmintic and in the skin
disorder psoriosis.
Vedavathy et
al. (1997)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Germany (EU)
To prevent arthiritis, as a stimulant and an emmenagogue.
Mors et al.
(2000a)
Mors et al.
(2000a)
Bourdy et al.
(2004)
Parrotta
(2001)
Neuwinger
(2000)
Neuwinger
(2000)
Neuwinger
(2000)
Neuwinger
(2000)
Yoganarasimhan
(2000)
Author's personal copy
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Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
India (AS)
Root and
leaf
Prajapati et al.
(2006)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Pakistan
(Soutwest) (AS)
India (AS)
Herb
Used for many purposes such as by women for the treatment
of amenorrhoea and dysmenorrhoea but can also be used in
the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases: syphilis and
gonorrhoea. It is also used in the treatment of pain in the joints
and has anti-inflammatory actions. Other uses are in intestinal
worms, dyspepsia, intermittent fever, for skin diseases,
eczema, boils, ulcers, constipation and acts as an appetiser.
Additionaly, has thermogenic, sudorific, an anthemintic,
cathartic properties and is a bitter.
Has emmenaguem anthelmintic and purgative properties.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Whole
plant
Root
Emmenagogue and anthemlminic.
Fruit and
root
n.a.
Malaria and in HIV-1 patients.
Whole
plant
Whole
plant
Used as a bitter, a purgative and as an antielmintic.
Baquar and
Tasnif (1983)
Parrotta
(2001)
Baquar and
Tasnif (1983)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Pakistan
(Southwest W.)
(AS)
Sudan (AF)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
n.a. (AF)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Nepal (AS)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
India (AS)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
India-(hot arid
zones) (AS)
Seed
Soften the hair.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
India (AS)
Leaf
Eczema.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
India (AS)
Leaf
Antidote in snakebites.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
India (in the
Gangetic plain,
Gujarat, W. Bengal
and Peninsular)
(AS)
India (AS) (in the
low hills region and
the plains)
Nepal (AS)
Whole
plant
Used in worms because of its anthelmintic actions, in
carthartic and has antperiodic actions. Can also be used as an
emmenagogue to help in menstrual bleeding.
Root
In children, it is used in the treatment of eczema. Other uses
includes legs ulcers, as a larvicidal and antiggonorrhoeic.
Akhtur et al.
(1992)
Leaf
Eczema.
Stem
Has anti-microbial activity and can be used as an anthelmintic.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Nigeria (Bauchi
State) (AF)
India (AS)
Leaf
Wound and cuts healing. To speed up the process.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
India (AS)
Wound treatment.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
India (AS)
Leaf and
whole
plant
n.a.
Baral and
Kurmi (2006)
Adamu et al.
(2005)
Shirwaikar et
al. (2003)
Kumar et al.
(2007)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
India (AS)
Root
To expel roundworms.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Nepal (AS)
Root
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
India (AS)
India, Bengal, W.
Peninsula, Gujarati,
Deccan,Kerala and
Karnataka (AS)
Seed
Root and
leaf
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
n.a.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
India-plain regions
(AS)
India (AS)
Used to treat roundworms by causing their expulsion and is
falsely reputated in the treatment of snakebites.
Not stated.
Plant contains many medicinal properties such as
anti-inflammatory actions, acts as an emmenagogue, appetiser,
thermogenic as well as being bittter in taste. Medically, it is
used for the treatment of intestinal worms especially round
worms as well as in constipation and inflammation. It can also
be used for women with disturbances to their menstrual cycle
such as ammenorrhoea and dysmenorrhoea. Other uses
includes in skin disorders, eczema as well as boils and foul
ulcers. It can also be used in sexually transmitted diseases such
as syphilis and gonorrhoea. Intermittent fevers and anthralgia
can also be treated with this plant.
Used for foul ulcers and in the treatment of worms.
Root
Used to promote uterine contraction and to expel worms.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
India (AS)
Leaf
Used for eczema and for old foul ulcers. Also used for sexually
transmitted diseases such as sypilis and gonorrhoea.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Roundworms.
Mainly used in vetinary and is used as an antielmintic.
Used medicinally.
Used as a purgative and as an anthelmagodue.
Ali et al.
(2002)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Baral and
Kurmi (2006)
Schultes and
von Reis
(1995)
Schultes and
von Reis
(1995)
Upadhyay et
al. (2007)
Jain et al.
(2005)
Akhtur et al.
(1992)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Baral and
Kurmi (2006)
Naik (2004)
Sala et al.
(1993)
Jain (1968)
Jain and
DeFilipps
(1991)
Jain and
DeFilipps
(1991)
Author's personal copy
118
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country (continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
India (AS)
Whole
plant
Used for its purgative, antielmintic and emmonagogue
properties.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
India (AS)
n.a.
Used for stimulating phagocytosis.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Sudan (Eastern Nuba
mountains) (AF)
n.a. (n.a.)
Root
Used for scorpian stings and for treatment of abdominal pains.
n.a.
Used for treatment of worms and in ulcers.
S.W. Saudi
Arabia-near Mabayel
(AS)
Sudan (AF)
n.a.
Used for snakebites and in scorpian stings.
Jain and
DeFilipps
(1991)
Jain and
DeFilipps
(1991)
Ghazali et al.
(1987)
Bhattacharjee
and Micheal
(1998)
Abulfaith
(1987)
n.a.
Used in scorpian bites.
Africa (AF)
n.a.
India (AS)
n.a.
Used as an antidote for snakebites and scorpian stings and as a
cure for boils and guinea worm. Also used for animals in
vetinary practice.
Posesses antifungal action and used in treatment of scabies.
Not specified (AF)
Leaf
India (C. and E.
Himalaya (AS))
Tropical Africa (AF)
n.a.
Used for the treatment of eczema on children’s legs and on foul
and neglected ulcers.
Use not specified.
n.a.
For chronic ulcers and also in eczema.
India (AS)
n.a.
Scabies.
India (AS)
n.a.
Use not specified.
‘Arabia’ (AS)
n.a.
For various skin problems and in snake and scorpian bites.
Sudan (White Nile
Provinces) (AS)
India, Rajasthan (AS)
Anti-tumour agent.
India, Rajasthan (AS)
Whole
plant
Whole
plant
Leaf
India, Rajasthan (AS)
Seed
Used for ‘stiff hair’.
India (AS)
n.a.
Scabies and as an anthemintic.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
India, N.W. Udaipur
District (AS)
Leaf
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
India, Ganges and
South India (AS)
Herb, seed,
leaf and
almost all
parts
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
India (AS)
n.a.
Used in ethnovetinary medicine: it can be used in the
treatment of wounds and also in wounds where maggots are
present. Can also be used in lympanitis.
Anthelmintic and an emmagogue, to increase the
concentration of utenus during labour. When combined with
caster oil, it can be used in colic and tormina, ammenorrhoea,
dysmenorrhoea, where there is a complication in labour, in the
treatment of worms, intermittent fevers, for several sexually
transmitted diseases including syphilis and gonorrhoea and
also in skin diseases. It is also used as an antidote in where
there is snake poisoning.
For itching and as an athelmintic.
India, S. and banks of
Ganges (AS)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
N. India, Andra
Pradesh, Konkan,
Maharashtra,
Karataka & Bengal
(AS)
India, N., Andra
Pradesh, Konkan,
Maharashtra,
Karataka & Bengal
(AS)
India, N., Andra
Pradesh, Konkan,
Maharashtra,
Karataka & Bengal
(AS)
Whole
plant, leaf
and seed
Root, leaf
and entire
plant
The root is used by women in the treatment of various
complaints such as amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea and during
labour by increasing the number of contractions of the uterus.
Bitter in nature and has purgative, emmenagogue and
anthelmintic actions.
Root
Is an emmenagogue and used to increase the uterine
contracions as well in the treatment of roundworms by causing
their expulsion.
Joshi (2000)
Leaf
Used to aid the healng of foul and neglected ulcers. Also used
on the legs of children with ulcers.
Joshi (2000)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Boils.
Snakebites.
Chevaillier
(2001)
Sofowora
(1982)
Sofowora
(1982)
Sofowora
(1982)
Samant et al.
(1998)
Prendergast
et al. (1996)
Prendergast
et al. (1996)
Niir (2005)
Ghazanfar
(1994)
El-Ghazali et
al. (1994)
Katewa et al.
(2004)
Katewa et al.
(2004)
Katewa et al.
(2004)
Watt and
BreyerBrandwijk
(1962)
Trivedi and
Sharma
(2004)
Rastogi et al.
(1995)
Millspaugh
(1887)
Kapoor
(1990)
Joshi (2000)
Author's personal copy
119
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Pakistan, Gujarat,
the Decca, and
Bengal (AS)
Leaf
Dastur (1977)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Pakistan, Guajarat
(AS)
India, incl Bengal,
Bundel Khand Sind
(AS)
India, incl. Bengal
(AS)
Areas around India,
including Bengal,
the Upper gangetic
plain, Bundelkhan,
Sind, Konkondan,
Deecan and
Carnatic (AS)
Mexico, Pima Bajo
(CA)
Mexcio, Yaqui (CA)
Mexico, Wariji
(Guajirio) (CA)
Mexico, Beja
California Sur (CA)
USA, MontereyCalifornia)
(NA)
Root
Sexually transmitted diseases, syphilis and gonorrhoea and is
also used by women as an emmenagogue and causes the
contraction of the uterus during labour. Other uses are in the
treatment of worms and for wounds infested with maggots. It
has purgative and antiperiodic actions. It can also be used in
griping, colic, scabies and is used by children with eczema on
their legs and problems with bowels.
Roundworms by causing their expulsion. Also used to cause
contraction of the uterine during labour.
Roundworms by causing their expulsion and also as a cathartic.
Root
Used externally to treat ulcers that are foul and neglected and
in children for the treatment of eczema.
Roundworms by causing their expulsion.
Kirikar and
Basu (1975)
Kirikar and
Basu (1975)
Root
Stomach or kidney disorders.
Kay (1996)
Root
Root
Stomachaches.
Stomach or kidney disorders.
Kay (1996)
Kay (1996)
n.a.
Diabetes, diarrhoea and malaria.
Kay (1996)
Root
Moore (1993)
Aristolochia chamissonis
(Klotzsch) Duch
Aristolochia chilensis Bridges in
Lidl.
Aristolochia chiquitensis Duch
Brazil (SA)
Entire plant
Used as a simple bitter tonic which helps improve appetite as
well as restoring nitrogen metabolism. Other uses are to
increase the metabolism of liver protein, white blood cell
scavenging and causing an increase in metabolism by
stimulating macrophages.
In debility.
Chile (SA)
Root
Bolivia, Chaco (SA)
Aerial parts
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Various (EU)
n.a.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
C. & S. Europe (EU)
Root
Aristolochia clematitis L.
UK, E. Anglia (EU)
n.a.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Mediterranean
region (EU)
Stimulation of the immune system and gastrointestinal and
gall bladder colic where this is caused by an allergic reaction.
Aristolochia clematitis L. (4)
China (AS)
Aerial parts
in blossom
or root
otherwise
n.a.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
n.a. (n.a.)
n.a.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Fruit
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Serbia, Kopaonik
mountain (EU)
Serbia, Kopaonik
Mountain (EU
Bulgaria (EU)
Gynecolocical related complaints as well as in the treatment of
climacteric symptoms, wounds and ulcers. Used for ENT
treatments where the patient has undergome surgery.
Aromatic tonic containing antibacterial properties. Also used
to treat skin infections and wounds when applied externally.
Repel insects and human fleas.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Italy (EU)
Rhizomes
Wounds. Others used include: A.rotunda L. and Aristolochia
pistolochia L.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Greece, near
Portaria region
(EU)
C. & E. Europe (EU)
Leaf and
bark
To assist with parturition.
Whole
plant
Egypt (AF)
Fresh plant
and dried
root
Used by women for menstrual problems and as an abotrive.
Can also be used to treat snakebites, for arthiritis and
rheumatism where it is said to have a soothing effect and for
wounds and ulcers.
Diaphoretic, an emmenagogue and as a stimulant.
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam
(Aristolochia bracteata Retz)
Aristolochia brevipes Benth
Aristolochia brevipes Benth
Aristolochia brevipes Benth
Aristolochia brevipes Benth
Aristolochia californica Torr
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Aristolochia clematitis L. [not
native, possibly cult.]
n.a.
Leaf
Fresh plant
(part n.a.)
Root
Was drunk well in to the second half of the last century to
reduce abundant lochia (puerperal secretions).
Use not specified but known to be used
Used by women during childbirth and in to increase healing
times of wounds.
Not commonly used today but was in the past used in the
treatment of wounds, sores and snakebites. Also used by
women to induce menstruation and to prevention infection
after childbirth.
To assist with parturition and has other medicinal properties.
Absessess, joint pains, stomachaches and malaria.
Used for wounds where inflammation is present. Others
species include: A.rotunda L. and Aristolochia pistolochia L.
Dastur (1977)
Agarwal and
Ghosh (1985)
Wu et al.
(2004)
Wu et al.
(2004)
Bourdy et al.
(2004)
Sayre (2001)
Prajapati et al.
(2006)
Hartfield and
Joice (1994)
Gruenwald
(2004)
Gruenwald
(2004)
Gruenwald
(2004)
Jarić et al.
(2007)
Jarić et al.
(2007)
Leporatti and
Ivancheva
(2003)
Leporatti and
Ivancheva
(2003)
Brusser
(2004)
Schauenberg
(1977)
Manniche
(1989)
Author's personal copy
120
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia clematitis L. [not
native, possibly cult.]
Aristolochia clematitis L. [not
native, possibly cult.]
Egypt (AF)
Stem
Stimulate childbirth.
Egypt (AF)
n.a.
Aristolochia clematitis L. (cult.)
USA, S.W. and
Mexican West (NA)
Root bark
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
n.a.
n.a.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
USA, C. & S.m. (NA)
S.E Europe and E.
England (EU)
Europe (EU)
Prolapsuo uteri, to stimulate chilbirth and for disorders of the
womb. Other uses are in the treatment of bites of reptiles, for
sores on the head and for those who are unable to sleep.
Respiratory conditions: for the treatment of asthma cough as
well as in the treatment of kidney stones, the Spanish plague,
syphilis, to open obstructions in order to remove a cold and for
the treatment of a headache. It can also be used by women in
order to provoke menstruation and to accelerate birth.
Emmenagogue properties.
For childbirth.
Manniche
(1989)
Manniche
(1989)
n.a.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Europe (EU)
n.a.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Germany (EU)
n.a.
Skin—both diseases lasting for a long time and eczema,
abscess, stimulating the immune system in a non-specific way.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Europe (EU)
Root
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Central and South
Europe (EU)
Great Britain (EU)
Root and
whole herb
Root
For treating wounds, can be used as an aromatic and also as a
stimulant. Anti-inflammatory and immunostimulant action
but also mentions ‘other effects’.
Inducing abortion, childbirth and in treating wounds.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
N. Europe (EU)
n.a.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
S.W. Asia (AS)
Root
Aristolochia clematitis L.
European countries
Meditarrian,
Turkey and
Caucasus (EU)
n.a. (n.a.)
n.a.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Britian & N. Europe
(EU)
Europe (EU)
Aristolochia clematitis L.
n.a. (n.a.)
Aristolochia clematitis L. (cult.)
N. America (NA)
Aristolochia clematitis L. (cult.)
Japan (AS)
Aristolochia constricta Griseb
S. America (SA)
Whole
plant if in
flower,
otherwise,
use root
Flower
When in
flower,
then whole
plant.
Otherwise,
dried root
used
n.a.
When in
flower,
then whole
plant.
Otherwise,
dried root
used
When in
flower,
then whole
plant.
Otherwise,
dried root
used
Aerial parts
Used by women for its emmenagogue properties and oxytocic
properties, complications during labour and for amenorrhoea
and dysmenorrhoea. General uses are for muscular pains, to
increase the immune system and asthma.
For inducing abortion and decreasing menstrual flow. Also
used as a diuretic and in treatment of arthritis.
Amenorrhoea, to induce menstruation, purgative action and
also to induce abortion.
For reduction of a fever and as an emmenagogue.
Not commonly used today but was in the past used in the
treatment of wounds, sores, to ulcers and for the treatment of
snakebites. Also used by women to induce menstruation, as an
abortificant and to prevention infection after childbirth.
Skin disorders such as eczema, used in frost bile acne,
circulatory problems and intestinal disorders. Also used by
women in menstrual disorders.
Kay (1996)
Grieve (1974)
Barker (2002)
Kenner and
Requena
(2001)
Yaniv and
Bachrach
(2005)
Yaniv and
Bachrach
(2005)
Williamson
(2003)
Van Wyk and
Wink (2004)
Bianchini et
al. (1979)
Millspaugh
(1887)
Prajapati et al.
(2006)
Podlech
(1996)
Diaphoretic, an emmenagogue, febrifuge and an oxytocic
stimulant. It was uased by Egyptian in the treatment of
snakebites. Other uses are by women to promote urinary
contractions as well as for prevention of menstrual and
abdominal complaints, wounds and ulcers.
Applied externally to infected toe nails, in order to heal
wounds and for the treatment of eczema.
In the past, this plant was used in the treatment of rheumatism
and gout. It is now used as a diaphoretic, oxytoxic and as an
emmenagogue. The stem is used by women to induce
childbirth.
Lust (1986)
Colds, chills, fevers and in the treatment of asthma.
Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis
(2003)
Chevaillier
(2001)
In the past, this plant was used in the treatment of rheumatism
and gout. It is now used as a diaphoretic, oxytoxic and as an
emmenagogue. The stem is used by women to induce
childbirth.
Launert
(1981)
Chevaillier
(2001)
In the past, this plant was used in the treatment of rheumatism
and gout. It is now used as a diaphoretic, oxytoxic and as an
emmenagogue. The stem is used by women to induce
childbirth.
Chevaillier
(2001)
Prevention of snakebites, as an emmenagogue and as an
anthelmintics.
Capasso et al.
(2000),
Montes and
Wilkcomirsky
(1985)
Author's personal copy
121
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia constricta Griseb
Panama, Guaymi
(CA)
Panama, the Teribe
and San San rivers
in the province of
Bocas del Toro (CA)
Panama, Teribe and
San San Rivers,
Province of Bocas
del Toro (CA)
Japan & N. China
(AS)
Imported from
China to
Indo-China (AS)
Japan & N. China
(AS)
n.a.
Snakebites.
Gupta (1995)
Stem
Snakebites.
Gupta et al.
(2005)
Leaf
Leishmaniasis disease.
Gupta et al.
(2005)
Stem
Three main uses: increases circulation of blood, induces flow of
urine and used to reduce pain.
Used for its action as a purgative against rabies. Also used as a
sedative to aid sleeping and in the treatment of dystery.
Wee (1990)
Aristolochia constricta Griseb
Aristolochia constricta Griseb
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
Root
Leaf and
root
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
Japan, Korea &
China (AS)
Fruit and
root
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
Japan & N. China
(AS)
China (AS)
‘Indo-China’ (AS)
Fruit
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
Indigestion associated with pains in the stomach, hypertension,
diarrhoea and dysentary. It can also be used as an antidote for
snake poisoning and also for insect bite poisoning.
Used for the treatment of coughs and sputum and has various
properties such as a hallocingen, is immunostimulating,
antitumour effects and anti-hypotensive actvity so can be used
in the treatment of hypertension.and causes hallucinations.
In snake poisoning as an antidote.
Seed
Root
Medicinal use—specific use not mentioned
Purgative and in treatment of dystentary. Also been suggested
to prevent rabies.
Root
Snake and insect bites as well as different hernial disorders and
carbunicles. Also useful in the treatment of pain and distension
around the stomach region, to help to relieve general pain.
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
China, various
areas incl. Hebei,
Shan Xi, Henan
(AS)
China (AS)
Ripe fruit
Respiratory diseases, antitussive and antiasthmatic.
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
China (AS)
Ripe fruit
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
China (AS)
Ripe fruit
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
China, Northern
regions (AS)
n.a.
Hemmorhoidal bleeding, epistaxis, spitting blood,
hematochezia.
Acts as an antitussive and antiasmatic in the treatment of
respiratory diseases.
Similar uses as in native ranges.
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
China (AS)
n.a.
Similar uses.
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
Korea (AS)
Fruit
Same way as Aristolochia debilis.
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
China (AS)
Fruit
Sputum presenting with blood, coughs and asthma.
Aristolochia contorta Bunge (18)
El Salvador (CA)
Leaf
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
Fruit
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
China, various area
incl. Hebei, Shan Xi,
Henan (AS)
China (AS)
Fruit
Sexually transmitted diseases in women and given to children
for dystentery.
High blood pressure which would cause light headiness and
flushing, hemorrhoids and respiratory disorders such as
wheezing, coughing and removal of phlegm.
Cancer, as an antitussive and an expectorant.
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
China (AS)
Aerial parts
Diuretic effect so is used against oedema, antirheumatic.
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
China (AS)
Aerial parts
Antirheumatic and diuretic—used against oedema.
Aristolochia cordigera Willd ex
Klozsch
Aristolochia cordigera Willd ex
Klozsch
Brazil (SA)
Root
Brazil (SA)
Leaves
Aristolochia cordigera Willd ex
Klozsch
Aristolochia cucurbitifolia
Hayata
Brazil, Ceará (SA)
Root
Will promote menstrual bleeding and is an excitant. It is
indicated in the treatment of typhoid fever and in malaria.
In fevers since it promotes sweating and helps to reduce the
body temperature i.e. acts as a sudorific. (Oxford consise
medical dictionary) Other uses are in colds and bronchial
asthma.
Intermittent fevers.
Taiwan, Tainan (AS)
Leaf
Abdominal pain.
Aristolochia contorta Bunge
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Wee (1990)
Prajapati et al.
(2006)
Wee (1990)
Read (1936)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Bensky et al.
(1993)
Tang and
Eisenbrand
(1992)
Craker and
Simon (1989)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Institute of
Chinese
Materia
Medica
(1989)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Craker and
Simon (1989)
Morton
(1981)
Bensky et al.
(1993)
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Tang and
Eisenbrand
(1992)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Mors et al.
(2000a)
Mors et al.
(2000a)
Milliken
(1997)
Chang (2003)
Author's personal copy
122
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia cucurbitifolia
Hayata
Aristolochia cucurbitifolia
Hayata
Aristolochia cucurbitifolia
Hayata
Taiwan, Tainan (AS)
Leaf
Eye disorders.
Chang (2003)
Taiwan, Tainan (AS)
Leaf
Wounds.
Chang (2003)
Taiwan (AS)
n.a.
Snakebites, stomachaches, bechic, as an expectorant and for
febrifuge.
Aristolochia cymbifera Mart
Brazil (SA)
n.a.
Against poison, paralsis and disease symptoms.
Aristolochia cymbifera Mart &
Zucc
Aristolochia cymbifera Mart &
Zucc
S. America (SA)
n.a.
Snakebites, fever, ulcer and colic.
Brazil, Bahia to Rio
Grande do Sul (SA)
n.a.
Aristolochia cymbifera Mart &
Zucc
Aristolochia cymbifera Mart &
Zucc
Brazil (SA)
Wood and
bark
Root
Used internally and externally. When used externally, it is used
in the treatment of ulcers associated with dead skin, pain in
the joints (arthralgia), dandruff and in orchitis.
Infectous diseases.
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Millspaugh
(1887)
Van Wyk and
Wink (2004)
Mors et al.
(2000a)
Aristolochia daemoninoxia Mast
Guyana, Coastal
Region (SA)
Vine
Aristolochia daemoninoxia Mast
Guyana, Coastal
Region (SA)
Bark
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
Root
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
Root
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
Fruit
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
Aerial parts
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
(18)
C. Europe,
Meditarrian, seen
in Britin but is rare
and scattereed,
Turkey and
Caucasus (EU)
China, E. & Central
(AS)
n.a.
Has been shown to reduce the size of tumours and can be used
in the treatment of snakebites, for stomach pains and sore
throats. It also has analgesic properties.
Root, fruit
and vine
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (E. & Central)
(AS)
Root
Antidote for snakebites by expelling the poison. Other uses:
hypertension, swellings, indigestion associated with pain in
stomach region, summer diarrhoea and dystery.
Wounds.
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China, E. & Central
(AS)
Vine
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China, N. (AS)
Fruit
Stimulating circulation, to increase flow of urine, for relieving
pain and to give strength. Prescribed for pregnant women
presenting with dropsy and abdominal pain.
Various pulmonary diseases.
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
n.a.
Antihypertensive.
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
Root
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
Herb
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China, E. & Central
(AS)
n.a.
Antihypertensive agent, improve body defence mechanism by
increasing immunological activity.
In traditional medicines, it was used in the management of
pain, in the treatment of rheumatism and hypertension. In
modern medicine, it is used in hypertension, gastric spasms as
well as gastric pain. With the supervision of a Physician, it has
been used in the treatmet of infectious diseases, chronic bone
marrow infection, chronic bronchitis and also in chronic skin
infections.
Similar uses as in native ranges
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
China (AS)
Root
Ripe fruit
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
Stem and
root
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
Brazil (SA)
Various diseases and conditions. This includes in the treatment
of fever, intermittent fevers and various fevers as well as
diarrhoea and asthma. Can also be used in orchitis and
amennhoea as well as conditions relating to the GI treact such
as gout and.dyspepsia. Also reported for usage in malaria.
Contraceptive, abortifiacient, as emetic, in dropsy and also as
an antispasmodic.
When given as an enema, it is used in the treatment of thrush.
Other uses are in coughs, asthma, for the relief of indigestion
and as an antispasmodic.
Snakebites, insect bites, abdominal extension, dizinness,
hypertension, headache.
Arthritis, where there is an increased blood pressure and
treating snakebites.
Where there is an increase in blood pressure, for the treatment
of haemorrhoids and for respiratory disorders such as asthma,
bronchitis and coughs.
Antirheumatic and diuretic, against oedema.
Medicinal use—specific use not mentioned.
Acts as an antitussive and antiasmatic in the treatment of
respiratory diseases.
For hypertension, treatment of snakebites and skin diseases as
well as an antifebrile agent.
Machado et
al. (2005)
Botsaris
(2007)
LachmanWhite et al.
(1987)
LachmanWhite et al.
(1987)
Craker and
Simon (1989)
Sayre (2001)
Sayre (2001)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Podlech
(1996)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Huang (1993)
Huang (1993)
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Read (1936)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Ling (1995)
Author's personal copy
123
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
China (AS)
Fruit
Fruit
Ling (1995)
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
n.a.
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
Stem and
root
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China & Japan (AS)
Fruit
Supress asthma, to relieve a cough and to eliminate asthma.
Respiratory disorders such as pulmonary disorders, as an
antitussive and in the treatment of asthma and bronchitis
where it is used as an expectorant. Additionally, it is used by
those with an opium addition as well as for the treatment of
ascitis, itch and hemorrhoids.
Fistulae associated with pain and swelling, for haemorrhoids,
loss of voice, lung dyspepsia, coughs and expertoration of
blood vessels.
Inflammation and treatment of pain. It is also useful where
there is distension or pain around the chest, hypochondriac or
abdomen region where this is related to stagnation of the liver
or the stomach. It also acts to decrease the blood pressure, for
he treatment of boils and can give relief for snake and insect
bites.
Coughs and dyspepsia where there is retention of sputum.
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China & Japan (AS)
Fruit
Coughs and dyspnea.
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China & Japan (AS)
Root
Externally can be used for the treatment of poisonous
snakebites. Other uses are for rheumatic arthiritis and bone
injury as well as in stomachaches, bruising, sore throats,
toothaches and eczema.
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China & Japan (AS)
Root
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China & Japan (AS)
Herb
Stomachaches, snakebites, sore throats, toothaches, bone
injury, bruises, bruises, rheumatic arthritis and dizziness
associated with hypertension.
Coughs and dyspepsia.
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
Fruit
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
n.a.
Fruit
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
Chin, incl. Jiangsu,
Anhui, Zhejiana,
Jiangxi, Hubei,
Hunan (AS)
China, incl. Jiangsu,
Anhui, Zhejiana,
Jiangxi, Hubei,
Hunan (AS)
China (AS)
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
Root, stem
and fruit
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
Root
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
China (AS)
Plant
A stimulant and a tonic. Moreover, it is used as an antitussive
and as a carminative.
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
Japan & China, N.
(AS)
Leaf and
root
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
Japan & N. China
(AS)
Japan & N. China
(AS)
China (AS)
Stem
Indigestion associated with pains in the stomach, hypertension,
diarrhoea and dysentary. It can also be used as an antidote for
snake poisoning and also for insect bite poisoning.
Three main uses: increases circulation of blood, induces flow of
urine and used to reduce pain.
Snake poisoning as an antidote.
Root
China (AS)
China (AS)
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
(Aristolochia recurvilabra
Hance)
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc
(Aristolochia recurvilabra
Hance)
Aristolochia debilis Sieb & Zucc.
(Aristolochia contorta) (5)
Root
Root
Fruit
Pulmonary disorders and in the treatment of asthma due to its
properties as an antitussive and expectorant.
Gastritis-like disorders.
High blood pressure which would cause lightheadiness and
flushing, hemorrhoids and respiratory disorders such as
wheezing, coughing and removal of phlegm.
Snake and insect bites as well as in different hernial disorders
and carbunicles. Also useful in the treatment of pain and
distension around the stomach region and will help to relieve
general pain also.
Pain as well as rheumatism and hypertension in the past. It is
now used in the treatment of hypertension, skin infections,
infections of the bone marrow, bronchitis, gastric acid spasms
and gastric pain.
Sore throats, coughs and wheezing. Can additionally be used
for snakebites, Additional uses are in the treatment of nausea,
pain and abdominal pain.
Shown to be clinically effective in the treatment of
hypertension and is used for snakebites and dyspepsia.
Yen (1992)
Wu (2005)
Prajapati et al.
(2006)
Institute of
Chinese
Materia
Medica
(1989)
Institute of
Chinese
Materia
Medica
(1989)
Prajapati et al.
(2006)
Prajapati et al.
(2006)
Keys (1997)
Li et al. (2005)
Bensky et al.
(1993)
Bensky et al.
(1993)
Huang (1993)
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Wee (1990)
Wee (1990)
Wee (1990)
Shin-Chen
(2003)
Root
Various disorders of the digestive system, for example in
women and children, this plant can be used for chronic
refluxes. Further uses include in chronic diarrhoea, summer
diarrhoes and in dystentery. In expelling poison when bitten
by a snake.
Medicinal use—specific use not mentioned.
Vegatative
tissue
Pricking pain in epigastrium and also used in weak blood
circulation. Can also be used in Arthralgia.
Craker and
Simon (1989)
Read (1936)
Author's personal copy
124
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
“Aristolochia dioscorides”
(Round species) (nom. illeg.)
(possibly Arum dioscorides)
Aristolochia disticha Mast
n.a. (n.a.)
n.a.
For convulsions, spleen hardness, lung stuffiness and for
ruptures.
Culpeper
(1995)
Venezuela, Yutajé
(SA)
n.a.
Diarrhoea and as a contraceptive.
Uganda, Bulamogi
(AF)
Mexico, Morelos
(CA)
Leaf
For treating cows: used in treatment of ‘East coast fever’.
n.a.
Scorpion stings.
Root
Snakebites.
Aristolochia elegans Mast (cult.)
Uganda, Bulamogi
(AF)
Uganda (AF)
Root
Aristolochia elegans Mast (cult.)
Uganda (AF)
Seed
Abdominal complaints including pain and swelling associated
with this region.
Abdominal pain and malaria.
Aristolochia elegans Mast (cult.)
Uganda (AF)
Leaf
Against snakebites.
Aristolochia elegans Mast
Brazil, Minas,
Gerais, Rio de
Janeiro, sao Paulo
(SA)
Brazil, Ceará (SA)
n.a.
Against snakebites.
Roth and
Lindorf
(2002)
Tabuti et al.
(2003b)
JiménezFerrer et al.
(2005)
Tabuti et al.
(2003a)
Neuwinger
(2000)
Neuwinger
(2000)
Neuwinger
(2000)
Mors et al.
(2000a)
Root
Intermittent fever.
Mexico, Teenek
Tsabaal (CA)
Mexico (CA)
Root
Respiratory purposes: for the treatment of coughs.
Root
In Type 2 diabetes.
Mexico,
Chikindzonot,
Yucatán (CA)
Libya (AF)
Root
Type 2 diabetes.
Root and
leaf
Aristolochia elegans Mast (cult.)
Aristolochia elegans Mast
Aristolochia elegans Mast (cult.)
Aristolochia elegans Mast
Aristolochia elegans Mast
Aristolochia elegans Mast
(Aristolochia littoralis D.
Parodi)
Aristolochia elegans Mast
(Aristolochia littoralis D.
Parodi)
Aristolochia elegans Mast (cult.)
Aristolochia fangchi Wu
China (AS)
Root
Contains allantonin which is extracted for cosmetic purposes
and used as part of the ingredients in facial creams. Other uses
are in rheumatism, gout and as an emmenagogue.
Used as an antirheumatic and a diuretic.
Aristolochia fangchi Wu
China (AS)
n.a.
Not stated.
Aristolochia fangchi Wu
China (AS)
Root
Antirheumatic and diuretic.
Aristolochia fangchi Wu
China (AS)
Root
Diuretic effect so is used against oedema, antirheumatic.
Aristolochia fangchi Wu
China (AS)
Root
Aristolochia fangchi Wu
China (AS)
Aristolochia fangchi Wu
China (AS)
Root and
rhizome
n.a.
Rheumatic anthralgia (pain in the joints), oedema and oliguria
where there is minimal production of urine (Oxford consise
medical dictionary).
Used medicinally and for ‘wind-damp-dispelling’.
Aristolochia fangchi Y C Wu ex
LK Chow & SM Hwang
China (AS)
Root and
sStem
Aristolochia fimbriata Cham &
Schltdl
n.a. (n.a.) [possibly
South Africa]
n.a.
Will remove wind dampness and will treat any obstruction.
Other uses are in the treatment of pain, will help with
urination, oedema, thirst and a yellow and greasy coating
found on the tougue.
Reduce pain and fever. Other uses are for rheumatism and
arthritis as well as acting as a diuretic in the treatment of
hephritis and urosis.
Colds, chills, fevers and in the treatment of asthma.
Aristolochia foetida Kunth
n.a. (n.a.)
n.a.
Colds, chills, fevers and in the treatment of asthma.
Aristolochia fordiana Hemsl
Hong Kong (AS)
Root
Various pains, such as rheumatic bone pain, epigastric pain.
Also used for traumatic injury and snakebites.
Aristolochia fragrantissima Ruiz
Peru (SA)
n.a.
As an alexiteric.
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw.
(Aristolochia arborescens L.)
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw.
(Aristolochia arborescens L.)
Panama (CA)
Root
Snakebites.
Panama (CA)
Leaf and
root
Colds, gastrointestinal disorders such as dystentery and
sexually transmitted diseases. Other uses are to reduce fever,
to promote sweating and used by women as an emmenagogue.
Milliken
(1997)
Alcorn (1984)
AndradeCetto et al.
(2006)
AndradeCetto et al.
(2006)
Kotb (1985)
Tang and
Eisenbrand
(1992)
Van Wyk and
Wink (2004)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Craker and
Simon (1989)
Wiseman and
Ye (1998)
Bensky et al.
(1993)
Ling (1995)
Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis
(2003)
Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis
(2003)
Chinese
Medicinal
Herbs of
Hong Kong
(1978–1986)
Millspaugh
(1887)
Morton
(1981)
Morton
(1981)
Author's personal copy
125
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia aff. grandiflora Sw
Panama (Teribe
and San San rivers
in the province of
Bocas del Toro)
(CA)
Nigeria, Hausa and
Fulani (AF)
Nigeria, Hausa and
Fulani (AF)
Nigeria, Hausa and
Fulani (AF)
Leaf
Snakebites.
Gupta et al.
(2005)
Root
Snakebites and scorpian stings.
Ainslie (1937)
Flower
Worn as a charm against snakebites.
Ainslie (1937)
Used for its anthelmintic properties and can be used externally
for the treatment of pimples.
Ainslie (1937)
For convulsions, spleen hardness, lung stuffiness and for
ruptures.
Used medicinally.
Culpeper
(1995)
Velázquez et
al. (2003)
Mors et al.
(2000a)
Aristolochia gadakura [nom.
illeg.] = Aristolochia sp.
Aristolochia gadakura [nom.
illeg.] = Aristolochia sp.
Aristolochia gadakura [nom.
illeg.] = Aristolochia sp
“Aristolochia galen” [nom.
illeg.] = Aristolochia sp.
Aristolochia gibertii Hook
n.a. (n.a.)
Leaf
(sometimes
root)
n.a.
Paraguay (SA)
n.a.
Aristolochia gibertii Hook
(Aristolochia esperanzae var
cobra)
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw.
(Aristolochia glaucescens
Kunth)
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw.
(Aristolochia cordiflora Mutis
ex Kunth)
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw
Brazil, Mato Grosso
(SA)
n.a.
Abortive, in amenorrhoea, malaria, facial neuralgia and also in
treatment of scabies.
Peru (SA)
n.a.
Malaria and for fevers.
Milliken
(1997)
Panama, Guaymi
Indians (CA)
n.a.
For treatment of snakebites.
Gupta (1995)
Brazil (SA)
Stem
Traditionally as a febrifuge. Modern uses unknown.
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw
Honduras, rural
regions (CA)
Colombia, N.W.
(SA)
Jamaica (CA)
Root
Used by women during childbirth. It is used by midwives in
order to help in the process of removing the placenta.
Snakebites.
C. America to
Mexico (CA)
El Salvador (CA)
Root
Snakebites and scorpian stings.
Leaves
Skin diseases.
n.a.
Syphilitic sores and also rheumatism.
Stem and
root
n.a.
Cholera.
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw
Mexico, Yucatán
(CA)
Mexico, Yucatán
(CA)
Cuba (CA)
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw
Guatemala (CA)
Leaf
Used by women for its emmenagogue properties and can also
be used as an antispetic, to stop diarrhoea, to promote
sweating and for preventing rheumatism.
Poultice.
Giorgetti et al.
(2007)
Ticktin and
Dalle (2005)
Otero et al.
(2000)
Millspaugh
(1887)
Morton
(1981)
Morton
(1981)
Morton
(1981)
Morton
(1981)
Morton
(1981)
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw
Mexico, Yucatán
(CA)
Mexico, Yucatán
(CA)
Brazil, Minas
Gerais, Sao Paula,
Parana (SA)
Brazil (SA)
Leaf
Snakebites.
Root and
stem
n.a.
Rheumatism, acts on the nervous system for neualgia, can be
given as a tonic and has febrifuge actions.
Used for the same purpose as other [Brazilian] Aristolochia
species in general.
Morton
(1981)
Morton
(1981)
Morton
(1981)
Mors et al.
(2000a)
n.a.
As an emmenagogue, abortive and antiseptic; treatment of
wounds and skin diseases.
Wu et al.
(2004)
Zimbabwe (AF)
Root
Diarrhoea.
Aristolochia heppii Merxm
n.a. (AF)
Root
Aristolochia heppii Marxm
Tropics (possibly
Zaire) (n.a.)
South Africa (AF)
Root
Swollen legs, as an abortifacient, for abdominal pain and for
abortion purposes.
Diarrhoea.
Root
Abortifacient.
n.a. (n.a.)
n.a.
As an alexiteric.
India & Sri Lanka
(AS)
India (AS)
Seed
Biliosness and to reduce inflammation.
Root
Neuwinger
(2000)
Neuwinger
(2000)
Leeuwenberg
(1987)
Steenkamp
(2003)
Millspaugh
(1887)
Yoganarasimhan
(2000)
Williamson
(2003)
Vedavathy et
al. (1997)
Van Wyk and
Wink (2004)
Thakur et al.
(1989)
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw.
(Aristolochia gigantea Mark et
Zucc)
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw.
(Aristolochia gigantea Mark et
Zucc)
Aristolochia heppii Merxm
Aristolochia heppii Merxm.
Aristolochia hirsute [nom.
illeg.] = Aristolochia sp.
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Whole
plant
n.a.
As an alexiteric.
Leaf
Aristolochia indica L
India Chittoor
District (AS)
n.a. (n.a.)
Inducing abortion by preventing implantation and oestrogen
release.
Leucoderma.
n.a.
Contraceptive.
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Root
Leprosy and diarrhoea. Also acts as a carminative.
Aristolochia indica L
Author's personal copy
126
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Root
Antidote for snakebites.
Aristolochia indica L
n.a.
Use not specified.
Root and
rhizome
Leaf
Bitter tonic, as a gastric stimulant.
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS) (W., C., E.
Himalaya)
India, Andhra
Pradesh (AS)
India (AS)
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
n.a.
Snakebites and scorpian stings.
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Leaf
Ulcers and eczema (mixed with caster oil).
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Rhizome
Aristolochia indica L
Thailand (AS)
Leaf
Used in a variety of conditions and which includes as a bitter
tonic acting as a gastric stimulant and also in the treatment of
intermittant fevers.
Snakebites.
Thakur et al.
(1989)
Samant et al.
(1998)
Pullaiah
(2002)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Aristolochia indica L
Thailand (AS)
Root
Aristolochia indica L
‘Indo-China’,
Vietnam (AS)
n.a.
To reduce fever, as an emmenagogue i.e. to promote menstrual
bleeding, as an expectorant, as a tonic and also in anti-fertility.
Loss of appetite, dropsy and intermittent fever.
Aristolochia indica L
‘Indo-China’,
Vietnam (AS)
Root
Skin diseases.
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
India (AS)
Use not specified.
Not stated.
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
n.a.
Whole
plant
Leaf
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Rhizome
Useful in the treatment of inflammation but is also used in
cholera, bowel complaints and intermittent fevers in children.
Aphrodisiacs and is also useful in impotence.
Aristolochia indica L
Root
Emmenagogue and for snakebites, acts as an antidote.
Aristolochia indica L
Pakistan, E.
Chittagong (AS)
India (AS)
Leaf
Abortifacient properties as well as for snakebites, pain in the
breast region and for supparation.
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Seed
Joint pains and to reduce inflammation.
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
n.a.
Cholera and stimulating phagocytosis.
Aristolochia indica L
India, in the low
hills region and the
plains (AS)
India, in the low
hills region and the
plains (AS)
India (AS)
Root
Emmangogue in order to promote menstrual bleeding and as
an abortifacient. Can be used in the prevention of arthiritis,
alexeteric stimulant and in antiperiodic and leucoderma.
Poisoning by cobra.
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Leaf
India, mainly found
in S. & E. regions
(AS)
India (AS)
Stem and
root
Has anti-inflammatory properties and used in the prevention
of rheumatism as well as in as an antibilious. Can be given to
children in the treament of dyspnoea.
Used in treatment of irregular menstruation, indigestion and in
fevers. Acts as a stimulant and can be given as a tonic.
n.a.
As a bitter.
India,
Kancheepuram,
Tamil Nadu (AS)
n.a. (n.a.)
n.a.
For many different diseases. Specific not stated.
Root
Contraceptive activity.
Aristolochia indica L
India at low
elevations (AS)
Root
Aristolochia indica L
India, Kerala (AS)
n.a.
Ulcers, ‘vitiated conditions of Kapha and Vata’ as well arthralgia
inflammations, leprosy, vitiligo, skin diseases, disorders of the
digestive system such as dyspepsia and flactulence. It can also
be used in the treatment of intestinal worms as well as in
conditions such as strangury, cardiac debility, intermittent
fever, cough catarrah and various poisonous bites and stings. In
children, Aristolochia indica is used in abdominal disorders.
An ayurvedic drug.
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Seed
Coughs.
Padua et al.
(1999)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Niir (2005)
Naik (2004)
Sala et al.
(1993)
Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis
(2003)
Khan et al.
(1965)
Jain and
DeFilipps
(1991)
Jain and
DeFilipps
(1991)
Jain and
DeFilipps
(1991)
Akhtur et al.
(1992)
Akhtur et al.
(1992)
Akhtur et al.
(1992)
Bhattacharjee
and Micheal
(1998)
Bellamy and
Pfister (1992)
Muthu et al.
(2006)
Unny et al.
(2003)
Sala et al.
(1993)
Kaushik and
Dhiman
(1999)
Author's personal copy
127
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia indica L
Root
Given as a stimulant, for intermittent fever: to reduce fever, in
impotence, for treating snakebites and leucoderma. Also given
to children for trating bowel complaints.
Joshi (2000)
Stem and
root
Given as a small dose as a tonic and in controlled doses in
order to regulate menstruation and in promotion of digestion.
Jain (1968)
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Nepal and India,
Chittagog, Konkan,
Declan, Peninsula
(AS)
India, mainly in S.
and E. but
throughout in
plains and hilly
regions (AS)
Inida, Konkan (AS)
India (AS)
n.a.
Rhizome
Wiart (2000)
Wiart (2000)
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Vietnam (AS)
Burma (AS)
Philippines (AS)
Rhizome
Leaf
Rhizome
Aristolochia indica L
India, Chittoor
District (AS)
India, Chittoor
District (AS)
India, Chittoor
District (AS)
India, Santhal
Pargana (AS)
India, N.W. Udaipur
District (AS)
Stem
Combined with other herbal plants for colic during cholera.
Impotence, inflammation, emetic, tonice and in fever
associated with malaria.
Malaria, fever, oedema and appetite loss.
Skin disease—used internally and externally.
Used in poisionous bites of insects as an antidote. Other uses
include fever associated with malaria, irregular menses,
tiredness and intestinal disorders.
In the treatment of leucorrhea.
Aristolochia indica L
India, N.W. Udaipur
District (AS)
Root
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
n.a.
Aristolochia indica L
India, Assam (AS)
Root
Aristolochia indica L
India, Assam (AS)
Leaf
Ethnoventinary medicine: used for bone fractures, where the
uterus has dislocated and after the animal has given birth and
are weak.
Used by women with irregularites in their menstruation cycle
and for nervous and spasmoidic affections.
For complaints relating to the urinary and the spleen. Other
uses are in rheumatic pain and for snakebites.
For the treatment of snakebites and for cholera.
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
n.a.
Used for bowel complaints.
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Root
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Leaf
Used as an antidote to snakebites and poisonous insect bites. It
is a powerful emmenagogue, antithritic, white leprosy, cholera
and diarrhoea.
Has antiperiodic properties and acts as a stimulant and tonic.
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Bark
Aristolochia indica L
Root
Aristolochia indica L
India, tropical
regions incl.
Bengal, Kerala,
Konkan and the
Coromadal coast
(AS)
India, tropical
regrions incl.
Bengal, kerala,
Konkan and the
Coromadal coast
(AS)
Nepal & India,
Chittagog, Konkan,
Declan, Peninsula
(AS)
India, Assam (AS)
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
India, Assam (AS)
India, Assam (AS)
Australia (AU)
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Whole
plant
Root
Treatment of eczema.
Root
Used as an antidote for snakebites and scorpian stings as well
as in treating chronic fevers.
Used in ethnoventinary medicine: used to treat indigestion.
Whole
plant
For fevers and treating snakebites.
Used by children in the treatment of bowel complaints and in
the treatment of intermittent fevers.
Used internally and externally and is used in the treatment as
an antidote for the treatment of snakebites or poisonous
insects.
Wiart (2000)
Wiart (2000)
Wiart (2000)
Vedavathy et
al. (1997)
Vedavathy et
al. (1997)
Vedavathy et
al. (1997)
Varma et al.
(1999)
Trivedi and
Sharma
(2004)
Trivedi and
Sharma
(2004)
Srivastava
(1989)
Sharma
(2004)
Sharma
(2004)
Quisumbing
(1978)
Nadkarni
(1908)
Nadkarni
(1908)
Nadkarni
(1908)
Kapoor
(1990)
Leaf and
bark
Can be given in the treatment of intermittent fever and by
children in the treatment of various bowel complaints as well
as diarrhoea and cholera.
Kapoor
(1990)
Root,
rhizome,
leaf, stem
and seeds
Root and
rhizome
Stem
Seed
n.a.
Used to relieve burning sensation and has anthelmintic
actions. Other uses are in snake poisoning, skin diseases and to
heal wounds.
Joshi (2000)
Given as a tonic. In the treatment of dropsy and a gastric
stimulant. Also has emetic and emmenagogue actions.
Used to reduce fever, as tonic and a stimulant.
To reduce inflammation, biliosness and relieves dry coughs.
Used as an abortive.
Joshi (2000)
Root
Used for reduction of fever and in dyspepsia.
Leaf
Used for treating poisoning by cobra.
Aristolochia indica L
India and S.W. Asia
(AS)
India and S.W. Asia
(AS)
Fiji (AU)
n.a.
Chemicals present found to have antitumour activity.
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Leaf
Given as a tonic and used in syphilitic chachexia and for
syphiltic ulcers.
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Joshi (2000)
Joshi (2000)
Cribb and
Cribb (1981)
Cribb and
Cribb (1981)
Cribb and
Cribb (1981)
Cambie and
Ash (1993)
Behl et al.
(1993)
Author's personal copy
128
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia indica L
Nepal (AS)
Root, leaf,
seed and
fruit
Baral and
Kurmi (2006)
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Root
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Leaf
Used as a bitter, as an astrigent and a thermogent. Other uses
are as a purgative, as an anodyne, in problems relating to the
digestive system as a stomachic, an anthemintic and in the
treatment of dyspepsia. As a diretic, sudorific, emmenagogue
and a tonic. Has beneficial effects in ulcers, leprosy and skin
diseases such as leucoderma, intestinal worms, colic and flu
like symptoms such as a fever, cough and catarrah. It is given to
children in the treament of abdominal disorders.
Has a variety of uses and actions. Can be given as a tonic and is
often used as a stimulant. Additionally, it is an emmenagogue
and given to children with bowel complaints. Other uses are in
the skin condition, leucoderma and impotence.
Give after a snakebite and for coughs.
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Seed
Usedin biliousness, for inflammation and also dry coughs.
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Stem and
root
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Aristolochia indica L
Myanmar (AS)
Whole
plant
Root
Aristolochia indica L
Myanmar (AS)
Leaf
Gastrointestinal complaints such as as a digestion aid, as a
gastric stimulant and in dyspepsia. It is given to women in
order to control menstruation. Other uses are as a tonic and for
fevers.
Used by women as an abortificient. Also acts as a diuretic and
has anti-inflammatory actions.
Increase sweating, in the treatment of chronic arthiritis,
laryngeal disease, leucoderma, pyrexia and headches. An
antidote after bites by a snake or a scorpian. It is also used in
gastrointestinal disorders such as dysentery and given to
children in the treatment of diarrhoea. Women also take this
plant for amennhoea.
To treat ascities.
Aristolochia indica L
Myanmar (AS)
Leaf
Given as an antidote for snakebites.
Aristolochia indica L
Indo-Tiebtan (AS)
n.a.
Aristolochia indica L
India, Sri Lanka,
Nepal and
Bangladesh (AS)
India, Sri Lanka,
Nepal and
Bangladesh (AS)
India, Sri Lanka,
Nepal and
Bangladesh (AS)
India, Sri Lanka,
Nepal and
Bangladesh (AS)
India, E. Ghats (AS)
n.a.
Has a biter taste and is used in the treatment of parasitic
infestations as well as scorpian stings and ulcers.
As an appetiser, for various skin dieases, as an aphrodisiac and
an anthelminic.
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Bakshi et al.
(1999)
Bakshi et al.
(1999)
Bakshi et al.
(1999)
Bakshi et al.
(1999)
Bakshi et al.
(1999)
Soe and Ngwe
(2004)
Soe and Ngwe
(2004)
Soe and Ngwe
(2004)
Dash (1994)
Williamson
(2002)
Leaf
Snakebites.
Williamson
(2002)
Leaf and
bark
Given to children for the treatment of bowel complaints. Also
used for the treatment of diarrhoea and intermittent fevers.
Williamson
(2002)
Root and
rhizome
Diarrhoea and leprosy.
Williamson
(2002)
Root
Rashes.
India, Bidar district
(AS)
Whole
plant
To unduce abortion purposes.
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Aerial parts
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Root
Used for several reasons, can be used as a sedative, for the
prevention of intestinal worms and in cholera. Other uses are
in types of inflammation and for poisonous bites and stings.
Diarrhoea and cholera.
Ram et al.
(2004)
Vidyasagar
and
Prashantkumar
(2007)
Shafi et al.
(2002)
Aristolochia indica L
India, S.Tamilnadu
(AS)
India, Uttara
Kannada district of
Karnataka (AS)
India, Karnataka
(AS)
Root
As an antidote for those with snakebites.
Root
Skin diseases such as scabies and skin allergies.
Root
Externally as an antiseptic.
Nepal to India,
Chittagog, Konkan,
Declan, Peninsula
(AS)
India (AS)
Leaf and
bark
Given to children for the treatment of bowel complaints. Also
used in other gastrointestinal complaints such as cholera and
diarrhoea as well as for the treatment of intermittent fevers.
Root,
rhizome
and leaf
Root and
stem
Leucoderma and in the treatment of other skin disorders such
as infections. Can also be used in the treatment of the sexally
transmitted dieases, syphilis and gonorrhoea.
Used in ethnovetinary medicine agains snakebites, for
rheumatism, to alleviate aches and pains and to assist with
madness.
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
India, Sri Lanka,
Nepal and
Bangladesh (AS)
Kumar et al.
(2006)
Samy et al.
(2008)
Harsha et al.
(2003)
Kshirsagar
and Singh
(2001)
Joshi (2000)
Behl et al.
(1993)
Williamson
(2002)
Author's personal copy
129
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Seed
In inflammation, biliousness and in treatment of coughs.
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Seed
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Root
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Whole
plant
Joint pains, inflammation, biliousness, dry cough and in
children, it is used in dyspnea.
Acts as a stimulant and an emetic. Other uses are in the
treatment of fevers, to promote digestion as well as for treating
diarrhoea, regulating the mensturation cycle and applied to
wounds.
Snakebites.
Padua et al.
(1999)
Sala et al.
(1993)
Jain and
DeFilipps
(1991)
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
Root
Aristolochia indica L
India (AS)
n.a.
Aristolochia indica L
India and Pakistan
(AS)
India and Pakistan
(AS)
Leaf and
bark
Root and
stem
Root
Aristolochia indica L
India and Pakistan
(AS)
Nepa, low hills and
plain region. And
India, Lower Bengal
to Chittagong in
Decan, Peninsula
and Kongkan and
in the south region
(AS)
India and Sri Lanka
(AS)
Tibete
Aristolochia indica L
Bangladesh
Seed
Aristolochia indica L
Bangla Desh (AS)
Root
Aristolochia indica L
Bangla Desh (AS)
Leaf
Aristolochia indica L
India and adjacent
regions (AS)
Root, seed
and leaf
Aristolochia indica L (cult)
Aristolochia iquitensis O.C.
Schmidt (Aristolochia
macrophylla Lam)
Aristolochia kaempferi Willd
US, C. & S. (NA)
USA Cherokee (NA)
Root
Stem
China (AS)
Fruit
Aristolochia kaempferi Willd
(Aristolochia heterophylla
Hemsl)
Aristolochia kaempferi Willd
(Aristolochia heterophylla
Hemsl)
Aristolochia kaempferi Willd
(Aristolochia heterophylla
Hemsl)
Aristolochia kaempferi Willd
(Aristolochia heterophylla
Hemsl)
Aristolochia kaempferi Willd
(Aristolochia heterophylla
Hemsl)
China (AS) (C. &
S.W.)
Root
China (AS) (Hopeti
and Hunan)
n.a.
Similar uses as in native ranges.
Vietnam (AS)
n.a.
Oedema because of its diuretic properties and also for dysuria
China (AS)
Root
Oedema as well as for the treatment of urinary disorders and
gonorrhea.
Taiwan, Tiusinron
and Barisan
community in
Chistian district,
Kaohslung State
(AS)
Taiwan, Lilongshan
community in
Kuanshan district,
Kaohsiung state
(AS)
Leaf
Snakebites.
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Chang (2003)
Root
Snakebites.
Chang (2003)
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia indica L
Aristolochia kaempferi Willd
(Aristolochia heterophylla
Hemsl)
n.a.
Cholera and diarrhoea (anti-microbial actions: in this study,
there was inhibition of 11 micoorganisms tested).
As an emmenagogue, for prevention of arthritis and as a
stomachic.
Croup, for cholera and in various bowel complaints, also for
intermittent fever and for leucoderma patches.
Constipation, as a stimulant, tonic, a carminative and for its
emmenagogue properties. Prevention of arthritis and as a
febrifuge.
Leucoderma and for the treatment of poisoning by metals and
nacrotic plants since it has emetic properties.
A tonic, used as a stimulant and in the treament of leucoderma,
it also has emmenagogue properties and can be used in
snakebites since it also has emetic properties. Can also be
given to children in the treatment of flatulence and dyspepsia.
Leaf
Coughs.
n.a.
Snake and scorpian bites as well as treatment of ulcers. Has a
bitter taste.
Dry cough, treatment of inflammation and biliousness.
Aristolochic acid contained is used as an Ant tubercular agent.
Shown to have antifertility action in rats. Used in Bangla Desh
for impotence, itching, bowel complaints and intermittent
fevers.
Stomachic, tonic, antiperiodic and in children the leaf
preparation is used in the treatment of croup.
Used by women since it has antifertility actions, antiestrogenic
and anti-implantation effects. Other properties as
antitubericular, antifeedant, phagocytic, antispermatogenic
and anti-inflammatory actions
Used as a bitter principle.
Used by those with yellow urine.
All forms of pulomonary infections, ascites, heartburn and in
heartburn.
Sexually transmitted disease like gonorrhea, treatment of
urinary disorders and dropsy.
Jain and
DeFilipps
(1991)
Kumar et al.
(2006)
Millspaugh
(1887)
Dastur (1977)
Dastur (1977)
Dastur (1977)
Agarwal and
Ghosh (1985)
Yoganarasimhan
(2000)
Dash (1994)
Ghani (2003)
Ghani (2003)
Ghani (2003)
Sharma
(2004)
Nelson (1951)
Duke (1986)
Shin-Chen
(2003)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Author's personal copy
130
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia kaempferi Willd
(Aristolochia heterophylla
Hemsl)
Taiwan, Tyiuubusu
community in
Datiu District,
Hsinchu and
Lilongshan
community in
Kuanshan district,
Taitung town (AS)
Vietnam (AS)
Root
Abdominal pain.
Chang (2003)
Root
As a diuretic and is prescribed to patients in the treatment of
oedema and dysuria.
Duong (1993)
China (AS)
Root and
rhizome
Used as a medicinal and for ‘wind-damp-dispelling’.
Wiseman and
Ye (1998)
China (AS)
Fruit
Ascites, hemorrhoids, opium addition and for itching.
China (AS)
Fruit
Used in a variey of conditions such as in opium addiction,
heartburn, ascites, hemorrhoids and for lung aliments.
Amazon (SA)
n.a.
Snakebites.
Peru, Rio
Loretoyacu (SA)
Brazil, Ceará (SA)
Stem
Snakebites.
Root
Intermittent fever and is cited for usage in malaria.
Several uses including menstrual colic and inflammation of the
uterine.
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Chevaillier
(2001)
Schultes and
Raffauf (1990)
Milliken
(1997)
Albuquerque
et al. (2007)
Aristolochia kaempferi Willd
(Aristolochia heterophylla
Hemsl)
Aristolochia kaempferi Willd
(Aristolochia heterophylla
Hemsl)
Aristolochia kaempferi Willd
(Aristolochia heterophylla
Hemsl)
Aristolochia kaempferi Willd
(Aristolochia heterophylla
Hemsl)
Aristolochia klugii O.C. Schmidt
Aristolochia klugii O.C. Schmidt
Aristolochia labiata (Aristolochia
brasiliensis Mart and Zucc)
Aristolochia labiata (Aristolochia
brasiliensis Mart and Zucc)
Aristolochia liukiuensis Hatus
n.a. (AS)
Fruit, leaf,
whole
plant
Root
Aristolochia longa
L = Aristolochia sp. (7)
Aristolochia longa
L = Aristolochia sp. (8)
N. America (NA)
Root
Not stated.
MediterraneanIran
(AS)
Ireland (EU)
Root
Antidote for snakebites.
n.a.
Aristolochia longa
L = Aristolochia sp. (9)
Aristolochia macrophylla
Lam = Aristolochia sp. (10)
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
Germany (EU)
n.a.
Given to women for abortive purposes for its ability to remove
the dead child. Other uses are to remove all fluids in thw womb
after childbirth and can also be used to promote menstration
and urination. Also given to children for rickets.
To prevent arthiritis, as a stimulant and an ammenagogue.
N.E. India (AS)
Root
Applied externally for the treatment of swollen feet and legs.
China (AS)
Stem
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
Korea (AS)
Stem and
shoot
Used for treating problems relating to the urine and the
bladder region. Can be used for individuals with dribbling
urine or where the urine is dark urine because of heat in the
heart and scanty urine as well as for pain in the bladder region
where this is associated with damp heat due to pathogens.
Other uses are in the treatment of the sexually transmitted
disease, gonorrhea and will aid in promoting ‘galactation’
Other uses are for sore mouth, restlessness, and arthritis
whether this is rheumatoid or rheumatic.
Diuretic and antipyretic.
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
China (AS)
Vine
Stimulating circulation, for the treatment of amenorrhea,
galactogue, diabetes as well as dropsy.
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
China (AS)
n.a.
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
China (AS)
n.a.
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
China (AS)
Stem
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
China (AS)
Stem
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
China (AS)
Stem
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
Japan & N. China
(AS)
Stem
Promote urine, to cure oedema and acting as an expelling
agent for swelling. Can also be used for jaundice.
Used to help with urination, for damp heat strangury, swelling
associated with water. Also used by women to promote breast
milk and menstruation.
Oedema and pain associated with rheumatism. Species
functions as a diuretic and also to reduce fever and
inflammation.
Used in a variety of factors such as in combating heat,
promoting milk secretion, urethra infections.
Mouth and tongue ulcers, urinary system (Acute infections),
Amenorrhoea.
Used in fevers and in the treatment of diabetes. Other uses
includes an increase in the flow of urine and also to increase
menstrual bleeding and stimulation of milk flow after labour.
Aristolochia longa
L = Aristolochia sp. (9)
Brazil, N.E (SA)
As an antiphlogistic, detoxicant and anodyne.
Wu et al.
(2004)
Williamson
(2003)
Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis
(2003)
K’eogh (1986)
Millspaugh
(1887)
Duke (1986)
Wu (2005)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Ling (1995)
Yen (1992)
Tang and
Eisenbrand
(1992)
Huang (1993)
Craker and
Simon (1989)
Wee (1990)
Author's personal copy
131
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
Japan (AS)
n.a.
As a renal remedy.
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
China (AS)
Stem
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
China (AS)
n.a.
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
China (AS)
Vine
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
China (AS)
Stem
Diuretic and for its anti-inflammatory properties so can be
used in rheumatism and to help with swelling.
Relieve dysuria and to promote urination and lactation. Can
also used to clear heat and purge fire.
Diuretic and therefore used in oedema and has
anti-inflammatory properties so is used in rheumatism.
Stimulate circulation and in the treatment of amenorrhoea,
diabetes and dropsy.
Hashimoto et
al. (1999)
Lans (2007b)
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
China (AS)
n.a.
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
China (AS)
Stem
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom
China (AS)
Korea (AS)
n.a.
Stem and
shoot
Aristolochia maurorum Linn.
(11)
Jordan, Melka,
Wadi, Al-Arab (AS)
n.a.
Wounds, skin diseases and leprosy.
Aristolochia maurorum Linn.
Iraq (AS)
n.a.
Hepatic and diuretic purposes. Other uses are as an astrigent,
detergent and antiscorbutic.
Aristolochia maxima Jacq.
Mexico to
Venezuela (CA)
Root
Antidote for snakebites.
Aristolochia maxima Jacq
Venezuela (SA)
Leaf
Used in fevers when placed in an external bath.
Aristolochia maxima Jacq
n.a. (n.a.)
Root
Intermittent fever.
Aristolochia maxima Jacq
Mexico, Maya (CA)
Root and
whole
plant
Aristolochia maxima Jacq
Mexico, Maya (CA)
Root
Aristolochia maxima Jacq
Mexico, Nahua (CA)
n.a.
Gastrointestinal complaints by those who are ‘hot’ and drink a
cold drink causing them to become ill. Also used by those with
air in the stomach, dystentry and also for treating diarrhoea.
Also used in women’s health: for menstruation complaints
including pain associated with menstruation, dark blood and
to aid fertility.
Used in feminine problems and in conditions relating to the
gastrointestinal tract.
Gastrointestinal complaints.
Aristolochia maxima Jacq
Mexico, Maya (CA)
n.a.
Aristolochia maxima Jacq
Honduras (CA)
Flower, leaf
and stem
Aristolochia maxima L.
Stem
n.a.
Diarrhoea.
Leaf
Stomachaches.
Aristolochia mollisima Hance
Colombia and
Venezula (SA)
Venezuela, Coro
(SA)
Guatemala,
Huehuetanango
(CA)
China (AS)
Gastrointestinal complaints—most commonly for air in the
stomach, indigestion, diarrhoea and dystentery. Less
commonly Aristolochia maxima is used for nausea, vomitting,
green diarrhoea, stomachaches, cramps and colic.
Used for a variety of conditions such as in digestive problems
and dystentery as well as in bites from snakes or other insects.
Other uses are in fevers and in the treatment of aches and
pains.
Snakebites
To treat gout.
Aristolochia mollisima Hance
China (AS)
Whole
plant
Whole
plant
Aristolochia mollisima Hance
China (AS)
Flower
Aristolochia mollisima Hance
China (AS)
Whole
plant
Aristolochia mollisima Hance
China (AS)
Whole
plant
Aristolochia maxima L.
Aristolochia mollis Stand & Stey
It has been shown to be able to stimulate the myocardium and
to have antibacterial effects. It has been used to ‘combat
extensive heat’ as by women to increase or promote secretion
of milk. Oher uses are in urethritis, nephotic edema and
obstruction of the mammary gland.
Used to dredge the meridian passage, to cure rheumatism and
arthiritis.
Nephritic stones and urosis.
Decrease fever and to treat diabetes.
Treatment of pain for individuals with stomachaches,
toothaches and joint pains as well as dysfunction of the
tendons, bones and treating wounds.
Acts as a diuretic.
For aches and pains associated with rheumatoid arthiritis as
well as reducing general pain. Can also be used in treatment of
flactulence, cancer and to reduce swelling.
Treatment of cancer.
Yip et al.
(2005)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Huang (1993)
Ling (1995)
Ling (1995)
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Karim and
Quraan
(1985)
Al-Rawi and
Chakravarty
(1964)
Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis
(2003)
Milliken
(1997)
Milliken
(1997)
Ankli et al.
(1999)
Ankli et al.
(2002)
Heinrich et al.
(1998)
Heinrich et al.
(1998)
Lentz et al.
(1998)
Morton
(1981)
Morton
(1981)
Morton
(1981), Kufer
et al. (2005)
Kong et al.
(2000)
Wu (2005)
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Graham et al.
(2000) and
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Author's personal copy
132
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia mollissima Hance
China (AS)
n.a.
Used for its anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and in the
treatment of pain. It is given by practitioners in the treatment
of rheumatism, stomachaches and abdominal pain.
Aristolochia mollissima Hance
Aristolochia moupinensis Franch
China (AS)
China (AS)
n.a.
n.a.
Aristolochia ocbiculans Duchr
(nom. illeg.) possibly
Aristolochia orbicularis
Aristolochia odoratissima L.
Mexico, Teenek
Tsabaal (CA)
Root
Venezuela, N. (SA)
Stem
Aristolochia odoratissima L.
Venezuela, N. (SA)
Leaf
Gastritis-like disorders.
Uses not specifically mentioned but contains aristolochic acid
which is known to increase phagocytosis and improve body’s
ability to fight bacterial infections.
In respiratory problems or the treament of coughs by
loosening up the phlegm and also for wheezing. Also acts to
warm the body.
Diabetes, to increase appetite, to help with colds,
stomachaches, to treat bites of different animals, used by
women as an emmenagogue, has a verminfuge action and used
for a diarrhoea.
Disorders of the liver.
Yu et al.
(2007) and
Jiangsu New
Medical
College
(1977)
Li et al. (2005)
Duke and
Ayensu
(1985)
Alcorn (1984)
Aristolochia ovalifolia Duch.
Mexico, Zapotec nr.
M. Romero (CA)
México, Popoluca
(CA)
México, Popoluca
(CA)
México, Popoluca
(CA)
Tanzania, Dar es
Salaam (AF)
Morocco, Taounate
(AF)
Portugal, Sierra de
São Mamede (EU)
n.a.
For increasing the speed of labour.
n.a.
It is an aromatic bitter used in the treatment of stomachaches
and vomiting. Other uses include snakebites, colic and vertigo.
Stomachaches and for vomiting.
Aristolochia paucinervis Pomel
Aristolochia ovalifolia Duch.
Aristolochia ovalifolia Duch.
Aristolochia ovalifolia Duch.
Root
Root and
vine
Root
To counteract the bites of black widow.
Fruit
Used in a magical way and in pacifying children.
Root
Used in a decoction for snakebites. Also, shown to be effective
for Vipera latastei Boscá bites.
Morocco (AF)
n.a.
Has antibacterial properties.
Aristolochia paucinervis Pomel
Morocco (AF)
Rhizome
Skin infections.
Aristolochia paucinervis Pomel
Morocco (AF)
Rhizome
Upper abdominal pain and upper respiratory tract infections.
Aristolochia pentandra Jacq.
Mexico, Yucatán
(CA)
Root and
stem
Aristolochia pentandra Jacq.
Leaf
Aristolochia philippinensis Warb
Mexico, Yucatán
(CA)
Philippines (AS)
Given as a tonic, as a febrifuge, for its antirheumatic actions, as
an emmenagogue, gout and used for its actions on the nevous
system since it will relieve neuralgia.
Snakebites.
Root
Stomachic and emmenagogue properties.
Aristolochia philippinensis Warb
Philippines (AS)
Root
Stomachic and emmenagogue properties.
Aristolochia philippinensis Warb
Philippines (AS)
Root
Stomachic and emmenagogue.
Aristolochia philippinensis Warb
Philippines (AS)
Root
Carminative, febrifuge, ennenagogue, for the treatment of
stomachaches. Similar to that of Aristolochia sericea.
Aristolochia philippinensis Warb
Philippines (AS)
Root
Used as a violent abortive, as an uterine tonic and for gastralgia.
Aristolochia parensis Engl. ex.
Peter
Aristolochia paucinervis Pomel
(Aristolochia longa L)
Aristolochia paucinervis Pomel
Epilepsy.
Morton
(1981)
Morton
(1981)
Frei et al.
(1998)
Leonti et al.
(2002)
Leonti et al.
(2001)
Leonti et al.
(2001)
Moshi et al.
(2005)
El-Hilaly et al.
(2003)
CamejoRodrigues et
al. (2003)
Gadhi et al.
(2001a,b),
Bellakhdar
(1997),
Merzouki et
al. (1997),
Gadhi et al.
(1991)
Gadhi et al.
(1991),
Charnot
(1945),
Bellakhdar
(1997),
Merzouki et
al. (1997)
Gadhi et al.
(1991),
Bellakhdar et
al. (1991),
Benchaabane
and Abbad
(1997),
Bellakhdar
(1997)
Morton
(1981)
Morton
(1981)
Quisumbing
(1951)
Quisumbing
(1978)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Author's personal copy
133
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia pilgeriana O.C.
Schmidt
Aristolochia pilosa Kunth.
Amazon,
Loretoyaca (SA)
Colombia, N.W.
(SA)
Panama, Guaymi
Indians (CA)
Spain, Pallars,
Pyrenees, Catalonia
(EU)
S. Europe (EU)
n.a.
Use not specified.
Root
Snakebites.
n.a.
Snakebites.
Schultes and
Raffauf (1990)
Otero et al.
(2000)
Gupta (1995)
Aerial parts
Hepatobiliar inflammation.
Agelet and
Vallès (2003)
n.a.
Similar uses to Aristolochia serpentaria.
Thailand (AS)
Root
Used for longevity.
USA & Mexican
West (NA)
USA & Mexican
West (NA)
Nigeria (AF)
n.a.
Used in the treatment of sores and for ‘empacho’.
Millspaugh
(1887)
Chuakal et al.
(1997)
Kay (1996)
Root
Used for ‘empacho’.
Kay (1996)
Root
Treatment of diabetes.
UK (England) used
in England in 1632,
incl in
Pharmacopeia
Londoniensis,
1650) (EU) Also
USA, S.W. American
Indian (NA)
India (AS)
USA Texas (NA)
Rhizome
Stimulant and tonic properties—local and general effects.
Nervous, despondent and excitable conditions. Can be used in
low fevers and febile states.
Sodipe and
Sofowara
(1986)
Wallis (1960)
n.a.
Root
Use not specified.
Gastric stimulation and dyspepsia.
Aristolochia reticulata Nutt.
USA, collected in
Texas, Louisiana,
Arkansas and
Oklahoma (NA)
Aromatic bitter (helps with digestion) described for use in
commercial preparations.
Aristolochia reticulata Nutt.
Aristolochia reticulata Nutt.
USA, from Lousiana
to Texas (NA)
USA, C. & S. (NA)
Stem
(rhizomes)
with some
subaerial
Stems and
roots
remaining
n.a.
Aristolochia reticulata Nutt.
USA, Texas (NA)
Aristolochia reticulata Nutt.
USA, incl. US
Pharmacopoeia
(NA)
Root
Aristolochia ringens Vahl
S. America (SA)
n.a.
Given to individuals as a stimulant and as a tonic as well as
possessing diuretic properties. In the past it was used in the
treatment of dyspepsia and fevers but is now known to be
toxic.
Snakebites, fever, ulcer, colic.
Aristolochia ringens Vahl
Senegal (AF)
Root
Antidote for snakebites.
Aristolochia rodriguesii Hoehne
Brazil (SA)
Aristolochia rotunda L. (13)
Iran (AS)
Root, aerial
pts
n.a.
As an abortifacient and anti-inflammatory; treatment of
snakebites.
Tonic.
Aristolochia rotunda L. (14)
Egypt (AF)
n.a.
Aristolochia rotunda L.
Root
Aristolochia rotunda L.
UK and other
European countries
(EU)
Spain, Montseny
(EU)
Italy (EU)
It is pressumed that this species is used in the treatment of
snakebites.
Several uses including as an antitumour, immunomodulating
and antifertility agent.
Aristolochia rotunda L.
Aristolochia pilosa Kunth.
Aristolochia pistolochia L
Aristolochia pistolochia L
Aristolochia pothieri Pierre ex
Lec
Aristolochia quercetorum Standl
Aristolochia quercetorum Standl
Aristolochia repens Mills
Aristolochia reticulata Nutt. (12)
Aristolochia reticulata Nutt. (12)
Aristolochia reticulata Nutt.
Aristolochia rotunda L.
Rhizome
and roots
n.a.
Niir (2005)
Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis
(2003)
Evans and
Trease (1996)
Diaphoretic, a tonic and stimulaant. It can also be used as a
bitter, a general tonic and in the treatment of low fever.
An aromatic bitter and is used in the treatment of snakebites.
Coon (1979)
Not stated.
Millspaugh
(1887)
Foster (1995)
Aerial parts
Anti-inflammatory of the billiary.
n.a.
Specific conditions not stated, used medicinally for sheep.
Italy, Tuscany (EU)
n.a.
Antihypertensive.
Aristolochia rotunda L.
S. Europe (EU)
Root
Aristolochia rotunda L. (cult)
Ireland (EU)
Root
Ulcers and various skin complaints such as eczema. It has
antitussive, bronchosedative. Vulvenary and emmenagogue
properties.
For the prevention of convulsions and for clearing phlegm and
the bowel as well as for ulcers and splinters. Used by women to
promote menstuation and during childbirth. Can also be given
externally in the treatment of aches and bruises.
Nelson (1951)
Van Wyk and
Wink (2004)
Neuwinger
(2000)
Wu et al.
(2004)
Van Wyk and
Wink (2004)
Manniche
(1989)
Evans and
Trease (1996)
Bonet and
Vallès (2007)
Viegi et al.
(2003)
Manganelli et
al. (2000)
Chiej (1984)
K’eogh (1986)
Author's personal copy
134
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia rotunda L. (cult)
Britain (EU)
Root
Aristolochia rotunda L. (cult)
Germany (EU)
n.a.
Amenorrhoea to induce the menstruation, used for its
purgative action and also to induce abortion.
To prevent arthiritis, as a stimulant and an ammenagogue.
Aristolochia rotunda L. (cult)
USA, C. & S. (NA)
n.a.
Bianchini et al.
(1979)
Millspaugh
(1887)
Grieve (1974)
Aristolochia rugosa Lam
Trinidad and
Tobago (CA)
Trinidad and
Tobago (CA)
Whole
plant
Root
Aristolochia rugosa Lam
West Indies to
Trinidad (CA)
Root
Aristolochia rugosa Lam
Trinidad and
Tobago (CA)
n.a.
Aristolochia rugosa Lam
Trinidad and
Tobago (CA)
Trinidad and
Tobago (CA)
Root
Aristolochia rugosa Lam
Aristolochia rugosa Lam
Root
Used in the treatment of digestive disorders such as increasing
the appetite and to tone the digestive organs. Other uses are as
a stimulant, as a tonic and additionally as a diaphoretic and a
diuretic.
Used in the treatment of diabetes and hypertension.
Used for snakebites and in scorpian stings, as well as for
amenhorrhoea and dysmenorrhoes. Other uses are in
indigestion, heat, jaundice and pospartum depurants.
Given as a tea or an infusion in the treatment of indigestion,
heat or the absence of the menstrual bleeding (amenorrhoea)
and dymennorrhoea. Other uses are in snakebites and scorpian
stings as well as in liver problems such as in jaundice and in
postpartum depurants. It can also be used to control blood
pressure.
Used in the treatment of various problems relating to the
reproductive system. This includes infertility, childbirth,
menstrual pain and complaints that are unspecified. Other
uses include abortions and the removal of the placenta.
Stomach pains, colic and for poisoning.
Used by women after giving birth and also for menstruation
disturbances. Other uses are in urinary burning, treating
snakebites, scorpian stings, jaundice and burning when
urinating.
Antidote for snakebites.
Aristolochia rugosa Lam
(Aristolochia barbata Jacq)
Brazil (SA)
Rhizome
Aristolochia rumphii Koster
Lesser Sudan
Island, S.W.
Sulawesi and
Moluccas (AS)
Used in stomachaches, spasm and in constipation as well as in
intermittent fevers.
Aristolochia rumphii Koster
Indonesia (AS)
Root but
twigs also
sometimes
used
although
less
powerful
Root
Aristolochia saccata Wall
India (AS)
Rhizome
Aristolochia saccata Wall
E. Indian Himalaya
(AS)
E. Indian Himalaya
(AS)
Cyprus (EU)
n.a.
Various stomach complaints including pain of the stomach.
Other uses are in internal heamorrhage, disorder of the spleen
and urinary complaints.
Use not specified.
n.a.
Use not specified.
Root,
rhizome
and leaf
n.a.
Tinnitus, clearing the white region of the eye and also watering
of the eye, menstruation problems—either absent or delayed,
headache and migraine.
As an alexiteric.
Will aid in reducing a fever as well as posessing carminative
and emmagogue properties.
Pain associated with the stomach or abdominal region, has
abortive actions, a uterine tonic.
In fevers, as a carminative. Also as an emmenagogue.
Aristolochia saccata Wall
(Aristolochia cathcartii Hook)
Aristolochia sempervirens L.
Intermittent fevers, stomachaches and constipation.
Seaforth et al.
(1983)
Seaforth et al.
(1983)
Ayensu (1981)
Lans (2007a,b)
Lans (2007b)
Morton (1981)
Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis
(2003)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Jain and
DeFilipps
(1991)
Samant et al.
(1998)
Samant et al.
(1998)
Lardos (2006)
Millspaugh
(1887)
Quisumbing
(1978)
Quisumbing
(1978)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Aristolochia sempervirens Linn
(15)
Aristolochia sericea Benth. (16)
Colombia (SA)
Aristolochia sericea Benth (16)
Philippines (AS)
Whole
plant
Root
Aristolochia sericea Benth (16)
Philippines (AS)
Fresh plant
Aristolochia sericea Benth
(16)/Aristolochia imbricate
Mast.
Aristolochia sericea Benth
(16)/Aristolochia imbricate
Mast.
Aristolochia sericea Benth
(16)/Aristolochia imbricate
Mast.
Aristolochia sericea Benth
Philippines (AS)
Roots
Gastralgia and is also given as an uterine tonic to women after
childbirth. Acts also as a violent abortive.
Philippines (AS)
Whole
plant
Carminative, emmenagogue and febrifuge properties.
Quisumbing
(1951)
Philippines (AS)
Root
Gastralgia, as a uterine tonic and as an abortive.
Quisumbing
(1951)
Mexico (CA)
n.a.
Known to have hypoglycaemic effects.
Mexico (CA)
Flower
Known to have hypoglycaemic effects.
Andrade-Cetto
and Heinrich
(2005)
Andrade-Cetto
and Heinrich
(2005)
Aristolochia sericea Benth
(Aristolochia malacophylla
Standl.)
Philippines (AS)
Author's personal copy
135
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia serpentaria L
N America (NA)
n.a.
Fever Remedy.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA (NA)
Used for medicinal purposes.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA, E. Mississippi
(NA)
Rhizome
and roots
Rhizome
and roots
Chevaillier
(2001)
Youngken
(1918)
Wallis (1960)
Aristolochia serpentaria L
N. America (NA)
n.a.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA (NA)
Root
Aristolochia serpentaria L
n.a. (n.a.)
n.a.
Coughs, toothaches and snakebites. Other uses are in the
treatment of pain as well as cold related symptoms such as
headaches, coughs, fever and sore throats. Additionally, can be
used in the treatment of rheumatism, intestinal worms and
has antiseptic and antitumour activity.
To stop the effect of serpent’s bites.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
Canada (NA)
Root
Prevention of serpent bites.
Aristolochia serpentaria L (17)
United Kingdom
(EU)
n.a.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
Leaf
Aristolochia serpentaria L (17)
USA, N. & S.
Carolina, Georgia.
N. Florida (NA)
Egypt (AF)
Aristolochia serpentaria L (17)
Egypt (AF)
n.a.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA, Virginia (NA)
Rhizome
Given as a tonic and a diaphoretic. Other uses as a
antispasmodic and treating pain. It will help to reduce fevers
and additionally has actions on the nervous system.
For sprains. In America, it used used form the treatment of
snakebites, as a tonic, a stimulanf and in the treatment of
fevers, small pox, pneumonia and open wounds.
It is unknown whether this particular species is used, although
it is presummed that this is true and is used as a tonic and
diaphoretic. Other uses are in the treatment of infectous
diseases and for snakebites.
Given to children in the treatment of smallpox and to promote
sweating.
Gastric stimulation and dyspepsia.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA, Alleghenies
(NA)
N. America (NA)
Various countries
(EU)
USA, West region
to Kansas and
North region to
Connecticut (NA)
USA, Georgia (NA)
n.a.
As a tonic.
Manniche
(1989)
Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis
(2003)
Kamm (1938)
Root
n.a.
For serpent bites.
As a tonic, useful in sore throats and in fevers.
Graves (1990)
Graves (1990)
Rhizome
and roots
Used for its properties as a diaphoretic, a tonic and stimulaant.
It can also be used as a bitter, a general tonic and in the
treatment of low fever.
Coon (1979)
Leaf
Heart problems.
Root and
rhizome
Leaf
Used to check vomitting and is used for snake and spider bites.
Root
Fevers and as a vermifuge.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA N. American
Indians (NA)
N. American
Indians (NA)
USA, S. Carolina
(NA)
n.a. (NA)
Root
Smallpox, pneumonia, malaria and also in typhus fever.
Aristolochia serpentaria L (17)
Europe (EU)
n.a.
To promote sweating.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA, Virginia (NA)
n.a.
Used in folk medicine to treat cancer.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
Root
Snakebites.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA, Cherokees
(NA)
USA/Canada (NA)
n.a.
Bitter tonic.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA, Cherokee (NA)
n.a.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
n.a.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA, S. Carolina,
used by American
Slaves (NA) also
French West Indies
USA/Canada (NA)
Combined with other products in the treatment of pain and is
used alone in the treatment od skin conditions and snakebite
remedies.
Pneumonia.
Bolyard
(1981)
Bolyard
(1981)
Bolyard
(1981)
Bolyard
(1981)
Bhattacharjee
and Micheal
(1998)
Sumner
(2004)
Sumner
(2004)
Sumner
(2004)
Sumner
(2004)
Garett (2003)
n.a.
Used as a gargle and for individuals with bilious vomitting.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
N America (NA)
n.a.
Not mentioned but used as a ‘local medicine’.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
Aristolochia serpentaria L (17)
Aristolochia serpentaria L
Aristolochia serpentaria L
Aristolochia serpentaria L
Aristolochia serpentaria L
Aristolochia serpentaria L
Root
As a timulant and for its tonic properties—local and general
effects. Nervous, despondent and excitable conditions. Can be
used in low fevers and febile states.
Snakebites and dyspepsia.
Treatment of chills.
Van Wyk and
Wink (2004)
Still (1998)
Stephenson
and Churchill
(1834)
Stephenson
and Churchill
(1834)
Stephenson
and Churchill
(1834)
Mitchell
(1978)
Manniche
(1989)
Laguerre
(1987)
Stephenson
and Churchill
(1834)
Padua et al.
(1999)
Author's personal copy
136
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA, C. & S. (NA)
Aromatic bitter and is used in the treatment of snakebites.
Nelson (1951)
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA/Canada (NA)
Rhizome
and roots
Root
Millspaugh
(1887)
Aristolochia serpentaria L
Aristolochia serpentaria L
N. America (NA)
USA, Appalachia
(NA)
USA (NA)
n.a.
n.a.
For the alimentary tract which then can be used to determine
blood to abdominal viscera. Used for various gastric problems
such as nausea and vomitting and for flactulence.
Snakebites.
As a spasmoidal, diaphoretic and additionally as an
emmenagogues. Will help in dyspepsia.
To prevent poisoning.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA various
locations (NA)
Root
Aristolochia serpentaria L
UK, E. Anglia (EU)
n.a.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA, Eastern States
to Mississippi (NA)
Root
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA, incl. Texas
(NA)
Root
Aristolochia serpentaria L (17)
Europe (EU)
n.a.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA (NA)
Root
Aristolochia serpentaria L
N. America (NA)
n.a.
Used by individuals in a febile state ad those presenting with
low fever. It also acts as a stimulant and additionally has tonic
properties as well as being nervous despondent.
Acts to promote sweating and the appetite as well as an
expectorant. It is useful in fevers and various disorders of the
gastrointestinal system such as in indigestion and for
stomachaches. Other uses are in sore throats, fevers, for the
treatment of snakebites and for women to promote the
menstruation cycle.
Rarely used but was in the past used for rattlesnake and dog
bites associated with rabies and was used as a diaphoretic.
To increase the appetite and for infectous diseases. Other uses
are as a stimulating tonic, a diaphoretic, anodyne and was once
used in the treatment of snakebites. It can also be used in
infectous diseases that are still in their initial stages.
It is used as a bitter and as a vehicle for tonics.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA, Mohegan (NA)
Root
Wounds.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA, Choctaw (NA)
Root
Stomachaches.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
Root
Intestinal parasites.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA, Nanticoke
(NA)
USA, Natchez (NA)
Root
To reduce fevers.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA, Delaware (NA)
Root
Given as a tonic.
Aristolochia serpentaria L (17)
Europe (EU)
n.a.
Given as a remedy for snakebites.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA (NA)
n.a.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
n.a.
Root
To help with digestion.
Root
To help with digestion.
n.a.
Increasing good health since it acts as a strengthing agent.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA, S. Carolina
(NA)
USA Menominee
(NA)
USA, Chippewa
(NA)
USA, Montagnais
(NA)
USA/Canada (NA)
Given as a tonic and a stimulant and can be used to reduce
fever and is a diuretic.
Used to reduce fever.
n.a.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
USA (NA)
Wood
Aristolochia stahelii O.C.
Schmidt
French Guinea (SA)
Stem
Used for its antiseptic properties in the treatment of open
wounds and ulcers. In the past, it was used for various different
forms of fevers including remittents and intermittents.
Additionally used for tyhphoid and thypus fevr, for smallpox,
erysipelas and amenorrhoea. Acts as a stimulating diaphoretic
and for pneumonia.
Used as an aromatic stimulant and tonic. It also acts as a gastric
mucosa stimulant.
Drunk cold and used in malaria but country not stated.
Aristolochia serpentaria L
Aristolochia serpentaria L
Aristolochia serpentaria L
Aristolochia serpentaria L
n.a.
Snakebites and as a stimulant. Where an individual is
presenting with ‘offending matter’ this plant is also shown to
be useful in removing it by promoting sweating. It is used for
disorders of the gastrointestinal system such as dyspepsia,
flactulence, to improve digestion and appetite. Other uses are
in croup, sore throats, scarlet fever, smallpox, congestion of the
kidney and renal toper. It also acts on the nervous system and
is given to women to promote menstruation.
Emmenagogue properties.
Lipp (1996)
Krochmal et
al. (1971)
Krochmal and
Krochmal
(1975)
Hutchen
(1991)
Allen and
Hatfield
(2004),
Hartfield and
Joice (1994)
Greenish
(1933)
Foster and
Duke (1977)
Chevailler
(1996)
Chevailler
(1996)
Bellamy and
Pfister (1992)
Moerman
(1998)
Moerman
(1998)
Moerman
(1998)
Moerman
(1998)
Moerman
(1998)
Moerman
(1998)
Moerman
(1998)
Moerman
(1998)
Moerman
(1998)
Moerman
(1998)
Moerman
(1998)
Millspaugh
(1887)
Sayre (1917)
Milliken
(1997)
Author's personal copy
137
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia stahelii O.C.
Schmidt
Aristolochia stuckertii Speg.
French Guiana (SA)
Stem
Curing or in the prevention of malaria.
Argentina, Sierra
de Comechingones
(SA)
Mexico, Sinaloa
(CA)
Root
Root
Used in the prevention of hepatic affections and for the
prevention of rheumatic pains and has properties acting as a
disinfectant, as a diuretic and a diaphoretic.
An antidote for snakes.
Vigneron et
al. (2005)
Goleniowski
et al. (2006)
Aristolochia taliscana Hook. et
Arn.
Aristolochia theriaca
Mexico (CA)
n.a.
Cutaneous disease and shown to have antibacterial effects.
Brazil (SA)
Root
An antidote for snakes.
Aristolochia tomentosa Sims
(Aristolochia sipho L’Her)
Aristolochia tomentosa Sims
n.a. (n.a.)
n.a.
Alexiteric.
USA (n.a.)
n.a.
Alexiteric.
Aristolochia tomentosa Sims
USA, incl. Texas
(NA)
n.a.
Aristolochia tonduzii O.C.
Schmidt
Panama, Teribe and
San San rivers
Province of Bocas
del Toro (SA)
Panama, Guaymi
Indians (CA)
Brazil, mainly in
Rio Grande do Sur
(SA)
Stem
Acts to promote sweating and the appetite as well as an
expectorant. It is useful in fevers and various disorders of the
gastrointestinal system such as in indigestion and for
stomachaches. Other uses are in sore throats, fevers, for the
treatment of snakebites and for women to promote the
menstruation cycle. However, effects are not as strong as
Aristolochia serpentaria L.
Used where there is inflammation and pain.
n.a.
Snakebites and for shortness of breath.
Gupta (1995)
n.a.
Mors et al.
(2000a)
Aristolochia triangularis Cham
Argentina (SA)
n.a.
Can be used internally and externally. Externally, it is used for
skin diseases as well as alcers. When used in a bath, this is
used in the prevention of orchitis which is a pain in the joints,
Other uses externally includes as an emmenagogue, a tonic,
stimulant or as a diuretic. Internally, this plant is used in the
treatment of oedema, where there is inflammation of the
bladder (cystitis), malaria as well as for parasites where there
are intestinal worms.
Hypertension.
Aristolochia triangularis Cham.
Brazil S. (SA)
Dysentery and diarrhoea.
Aristolochia triangularis Cham
n.a. (SA)
Leaf and
stem
n.a.
Aristolochia triangularis Cham
n.a. (SA)
Bark
Aristolochia triangularis Cham
Argentina (SA)
Bark
Aristolochia trilobata L.
(Aristolochia macroura
Gomes)
Aristolochia trilobata L
Argentina (SA)
Whole
plant
An antidote as well as an abortive. Other uses are as an
emmenagogue, antiseptic and antirheumatic.
An antidote as well as an abortive. Other uses are as an
emmenagogue, antiseptic and antirheumatic.
Treatment of snakebites and rheumatism; as a circulatory
stimulant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic and abortive.
French Guiana (SA)
Leaf
Fevers.
Aristolochia trilobata L
Belize (CA)
Leaf
Use not specified.
Aristolochia trilobata L
Caribbean and
Northern part of S.
America (SA)
Peru (SA)
Leaf
Use not specified.
n.a.
Negative screening for anti-malaria, plant is inactive against
Plasmodium gallinaceum, Plasmodium cathemerium and
Plasmodium iophurae in chicken and ducklings.
Hysteria, an antifebrile abortive and also to stop diarrhoea.
Functions as an excitant, a bitter tonic and as a stomachic
antiseptic.
In gastralgia, for dandruff conditions as well as in orchitis
(testes inflammation) (Oxford Consise edical dictionary) and
chronic ulcers.
Mixed with absinthe in the treatment of gripe and stomach
pains.
Aristolochia taliscana Hook. et
Arn.
Aristolochia tonduzii O.C.
Schmidt
Aristolochia triangularis Cham
Aristolochia trilobata L
Aristolochia trilobata L
Brazil, Amazon to
Bahia (SA)
Root
Aristolochia trilobata L
Brazil, Amazon to
Bahia (SA)
Leaf
Aristolochia trilobata L
W. Indies—from the
British Honduras to
Panama. (CA)
Vine
(stem?)
Medicinal purposes.
Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis
(2003)
Yasunaka et
al. (2005)
Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis
(2003)
Millspaugh
(1887)
Millspaugh
(1887)
Foster and
Duke (1977)
Gupta et al.
(2005)
Lorca et al.
(2002)
De Souza et
al. (2004)
Muschietti et
al. (1996),
Zardini
(1984),
Toursarkissian
(1980),
Ahumada
(1967)
Ciccia et al.
(2000)
Mongelli et al.
(2000)
Wu et al.
(2004)
Milliken
(1997)
Milliken
(1997)
Milliken
(1997)
Milliken
(1997)
Mors et al.
(2000a)
Mors et al.
(2000a)
Honychurch
(1986)
Author's personal copy
138
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia trilobata L
W. indies—from the
British Honduras to
Panama (CA)
W. Indies—from the
British Honduras to
Panama (CA)
Guadeloupe, Marie
Galate (CA)
Guadeloupe, Marie
Galate (CA)
India, Shimoga
District of
Karnataka (AS)
Belize (CA)
Whole
plant
Snakebites.
Honychurch
(1986)
Root
To intoxicate a snake and make the snake harmless for a period
of time.
Honychurch
(1986)
n.a.
Used to cause vomiting in poisoning.
Leaf
n.a.
Used for ritual purposes, used against bad luck. Various
different species used.
Used but pharmacological effects have no direct evidence.
Honychurch
(1986)
Honychurch
(1986)
Mahishi et al.
(2005)
n.a.
Wounds: superficial and also deep wounds.
Aristolochia trilobata L
Trinidad and
Tobago (CA)
n.a.
Aristolochia trilobata L
Trinidad and
Tobago
Dominica (W.
Indies)
Brazil (SA) (Ceará)
Root
Used in the treatment of various problems relating to the
reproductive system. This includes infertility, childbirth,
menstrual pain and complaints that are unspecified. Other
uses include abortions and the removal of the placenta.
Stomach pains, colic and for poisoning.
n.a.
Intestinal worms.
Root
Intermittent fever.
Leaf
Fevers.
n.a.
Used in combination with absinthe in the treatment of gripe
and in stomach pains. Used to promote vomiting where there
is poisoning.
Aristolochia trilobata L
Brazil (SA),
Amazonas
West Indies to
Trinidad, Dominica,
Guadeloupe, Marie
Galante,
Martinique
Belize
Root
Fevers.
Aristolochia trilobata L
Honduras (CA)
n.a.
Aristolochia trilobata L
Brazil (SA)
n.a.
Aristolochia trilobata L
Trinadad (CA)
Leaf
Aristolochia trilobata L
Nicaragua, E. (CA)
Aristolochia trilobata L
Martinique (CA)
Leaf, whole
plant and
root
Leaf
Colic, for spasmodic vomitting, diarrhoea and in the treatment
of dystentery.
Used by women to get rid of unwanted pregnancy and for its
actions as an emmenagogue. Also acts as a stimulant.
Diabetes, hypertension, snakebites and used by women to
assist with menstruation and during childbirth.
Snakebites-both as an antidote and to treat effects as a result of
the bite.
Aristolochia trilobata L
Aristolochia trilobata L
Dominican
Republic, West
Indies (CA)
America (–)
Aristolochia trilobata L
Aristolochia trilobata L
Aristolochia trilobata L
Aristolochia trilobata L
Aristolochia trilobata L
Aristolochia trilobata L
Aristolochia trilobata L
Aristolochia trilobata L
Aristolochia trilobata L
Aristolochia trilobata L
Colic pains.
n.a.
Intestinal worms.
Has wound healing properties.
n.a. (n.a.)
Leaf and
bark
n.a.
Aristolochia trilobata L
Guyana (SA)
n.a.
Emmenagogue.
Aristolochia trilobata L
French Guiana (SA)
Leaf
Aristolochia trilobata L
(Aristolochia macroura
Gomes)
Aristolochia trilobata L
(Aristolochia macroura
Gomes)
Aristolochia trilobata L
(Aristolochia triloba Salsib)
Aristolochia trilobata L.
(Aristolochia macrota Duch.)
Aristolochia truncate Fielding &
Gardner
Aristolochia tuberose C.F. Liang
& S.M. Hwang
Aristolochia virgiana (nom.
illeg.) possibly Aristolochia
serpentaria
Argentina (SA)
n.a.
Brazil (SA)
n.a.
Curing or in the prevention of malaria and also as an alcolohic
bitter.
Abortifacient, as well as for its inflammatory actions and is
used in rheumatism and to stimulate the circulatory system. It
can also be used in snakebites.
As an alexiteri.c
French Guiana (SA)
n.a.
Surinam (SA)
Stem
n.a.
n.a.
Used in combination with other plants in curing or prevention
of malaria.
Used by women to help during childbirth and also used for
gastrointestinal disorders such as colic and stomachaches.
Malaria and in fever.
China (AS)
Root
Sore throats, venomous snakebites, and tuberculosis.
USA & Mexican
West (NA)
n.a.
Same as with other species and is additionally used as a
rattlesnake antidote.
To provide energy.
Camporese et
al. (2003)
Lans (2007a)
Lans (2007b)
Quinlan et al.
(2002)
Milliken
(1997)
Milliken
(1997)
Ayensu
(1981)
Morton
(1981)
Morton
(1981)
Morton
(1981)
Morton
(1981)
Coe and
Anderson
(2005)
Longuefosse
and Nossin
(1996)
Quinlan et al.
(2002)
Sosa et al.
(2002)
Millspaugh
(1887)
LachmanWhite et al.
(1987)
Vigneron et
al. (2005)
Ruffa et al.
(2002)
Millspaugh
(1887)
Vigneron et
al. (2005)
Morton
(1981)
Milliken
(1997)
Wu et al.
(2004)
Kay (1996)
Author's personal copy
139
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia vitiensis A.C. Smith
W.A. Sou
Aristolochia watsonii Wooton &
Standl
Fiji (AU)
n.a.
Not stated.
USA, W. Arizona to
W. Texas (NA)
Root
Aristolochia westlandii Hemsley
Vietnam (AS)
n.a.
Used by individuals who have been ill for a long period of time,
those with fevers and those suffering from hypertension since
it decreases vasoconstriction as well as for dry mouths by
increasing the amount of saliva being produced. Other
benificial uses are to improve meatbolism of amino acids and
proteins and is additionally used for the immune system by
increasing phagocytosis.
Oedema because of its diuretic properties and also for dysuria.
Parham
(1943)
Moore (1989)
Aristolochia westlandii Hemsley
Taiwan, Kwang
hung & Kwangsi
(AS)
China (AS)
n.a.
Swollen feet, an itch and rashes.
Root
Aristolochia westlandii Hemsley
Japan & N. China
(AS)
Root
Aristolochia westlandii Hemsley
Vietnam (AS)
Root
Aristolochia wrightii Seem
Resin
Root
Fevers.
Kay (1996)
Aristolochia yunnanensis Franch
Mexico,
Tarahumara (CA)
Mexico,
Tarahumara (CA)
China (AS)
To promote urine, to cure oedema and acting as an expelling
agent for swelling. Can also be used for jaundice.
Various skin complaints such as rashes and itches. Is also used
in ‘beri-beri aches’, numbness and in the treatment of swollen
feet.
Acts as a diuretic and is prescribed to patients in the treatment
of oedema and dysuria.
Stomach complaints.
Root
Aristolochia zollingeriana Miq.
China (AS)
Fruit, root
Aristolochia zoellingeriana Miq.
(Aristolochia kankauensis
Sasaki)
Aristolochia sp.
Taiwan (AS)
Fruits, roots
Treatment of gastrointestinal diseases, trichomoniasis, and
various pains.
Expectorant, painkiller, antitussive, antiasthmatic, and
analgesic; treatment of snakebite
Expectorant, antitussive, analgesic and antiasthmatic.
Wu et al.
(2004)
Wu et al.
(2004)
Wu et al.
(2004)
Amazona (SA)
n.a.
Snakebites and scorpian stings.
Aristolochia sp.
Ecuador (SA)
Plant
Stomachache.
Aristolochia sp.
USA & Mexican
West (NA)
USA & Mexican
West (NA)
USA, Appalachia
(NA)
Root
In the treatment of wounds and ulcers.
Schultes and
Raffauf (1990)
Schultes and
Raffauf (1990)
Kay (1996)
Herb and
root
Root
Toothaches.
Kay (1996)
Bolyard
(1981)
Aristolochia sp.
China (AS)
Stem
Aristolochia sp.
Egypt (AF)
n.a.
Used medicinally for many purposes and which includes as a
tonic, as a diaphoertic and a diuretic. Other uses as an
alexipharmic and also as a stimulant. It may also be given in
the treatment of epidemic diseases and various types of fevers
such as typhus fever and other malignant fevers. Additionally,
it is used as an anodyne, an aromatic, in chorosis, pneumonia,
vomitting, as a renal torpus, for croup, dyspepsia,
antispasmodic and emmenagogue.
Used by women after giving birth for the treatment of puffy
swelling and can be given to help supress a cough and acts as
an carminative.
Used to treat women when in confinement.
Aristolochia sp.
Brazil, N.E. (SA)
Aerial parts
Erysipela.
Aristolochia sp.
Israel (AS)
Vomiting.
Aristolochia sp.
Guyana (SA)
Stem and
root
Stem
Aristolochia sp.
Ottoman al-Sham.
(historical use) (SA)
n.a.
Aristolochia sp.
Mexico, Oaxaca
(CA)
Mexico to western
Panama (CA)
Root and
aerial parts
n.a.
Used in animal bites and for poison, used for various internal
diseases and in inflammation and heat as well as for pain. It is
also useful for teeth and where there are wounds and burns as
well as hemorrhoids and for sexual diseases.
Male and female genito-urinary problems.
Root
Aristolochia sp.
Argentina, N.W.
(SA)
Brazil (SA)
Leaf
Aristolochia sp.
Brazil, S.E. (SA)
n.a.
Aristolochia westlandii Hemsley
Aristolochia wrightii Seem
Aristolochia sp.
Aristolochia sp.
Aristolochia sp.
Aristolochia sp.
In respiratory diseases and treating coughs.
Analgesic and for the stomach complaints. It can be given for
female complaints and menstrual pain. Can also be used as a
contraceptive.
Inability to urinate, for presence of blood in urine, against
hepatic affections and vagnal mycosis.
Nausea and vomitting and other stomach complaints. Also
used in hepatic problems.
Used for many purposes which includes diuretic, to aid in
sleeping, as a sedative, stomachic, an antiseptic to help fight
bacteria, diaphoretic and emmenagogue and against asthma,
fever, pruritus and eczemas
Padua et al.
(1999)
Perry and
Metzger
(1980)
Ling (1995)
Wee (1990)
Duong (1993)
Kay (1996)
Wiseman and
Ye (1998)
Schauenberg
(1977)
Albuquerque
et al. (2007)
Lev and Amar
(2006)
Mohagheghzadeh
et al. (2006)
Lev (2002)
Frei et al.
(1998)
Lans (2007a)
Hilgert (2001)
Di Stasi et al.
(2002)
Oliveira et al.
(2007)
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140
M. Heinrich et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 125 (2009) 108–144
Appendix A (Continued )
Species (name given in orignal
sources)
Country
(continent)
Part used
Illnesses/conditions treated and other relevant uses reported
Source
Aristolochia sp.
Argentina,
Calchaquí Valley
Salta (SA)
Israel (AS)
Stem
To treat pains around the waist region.
Martínez et
al. (2004)
Used by women in the treatment of dysmenorrhoea as well as
in the treamtment of hard swellings, dysuria and wind warts.
Boils and in hard inflammation.
Lev (2007)
Mexico, Teenek
Tsabaal (CA)
n.a. (n.a.)
Stem and
root
Leaf
n.a.
Gets rid of birth and afterbirth.
Andes (SA)
n.a.
Used as an amulet as well as in various treatments. Treatment
examples includes paralysis, rheumatism and gout. Other uses
are in headaches and dizziness as well as for swollen feet. Can
also be used in problems relating to the respiratory system
such as for sinus, throat infections and tonsillitis.
Culpeper
(1995)
Bastian
(1987)
Aristolochia sp.
Aristolochia sp.
Aristolochia sp. (‘Long species’)
Aristolochia pragantissimi (nom.
illeg.) (possibly Aristolochia
fragrantissima)
Alcorn (1984)
Abbreviations used in the appendix: AF: Africa; AS: Asia; AU: Australia; CA: Central America and Mexico; EU: Europe; n.a.: (data) not available; NA: North America; SA: South
America.
(1) It is suggested that this is Aristolochia albida and not Aristolochia acuminata, as Aristolochia acuminata does not occur on Madagascar, see deGroot et al. (2006).
(2) Originally reported as Aristolochia tagala and here listed under Aristolochia acuminata.
(3) Aristolochia baetica is only known from Spain, Portugal, Morocco. The reference might be to Aristolochia clematitis as a cultivar.
(4) Not known from China. It can not be established what species the authors might refer to.
(5) Two totally different species.
(6) Name does not exist, from Nigeria only Aristolochia bracteolata and Aristolochia albida are known, might also refer to a Pararistolochia species.
(7) Does not occur in N. America but in Algeria, may be different species.
(8) Does not occur in Iran but only in Algeria, may be different species.
(9) Does not occur in north temperate Europe but in Algeria, possibly a commercial product or a different species.
(10) Sp. does not occur in India may be mixed up with similar species from Asia.
(11) May be misidentified and is Aristolochia clematitis instead.
(12) Not known to occur naturally here, only known to be present in USA.
(13) Neither known in the wild nor as a cultivated plants in Iran.
(14) Not known from Egypt or refers to one of the two species occurring in Egypt (Aristolochia maurorum, Aristolochia bracteoloata).
(15) A Mediterranean species not known from Colombia.
(16) Only known from Mexico and not from the Philippines.
(17) Only known from N. America.
(18) Only known from Asia.
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