Molecular phylogenetics of Alooideae (Asphodelaceae)

Barnabas Daru

Asphodelaceae subfam. Alooideae (Asparagales) currently comprises five genera, four of which are endemic to southern Africa. Despite their importance in commercial horticulture the evolutionary relationships among the genera are still incompletely understood. This study examines phylogenetic relationships in the subfamily using an expanded molecular sequence dataset from three plastid regions (matK, rbcLa, trnH-psbA) and the first subunit of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS1). Sequence data were analysed using maximum parsimony and Bayesian statistics, and selected morphological traits were mapped onto the molecular phylogeny. Haworthia is confirmed as being polyphyletic, comprising three main clades that largely correlate with current subgeneric circumscriptions. Astroloba and Gasteria are evidently each monophyletic and sister respectively to Astroloba and H. subg. Robustipedunculares. Chortolirion is shown to be deeply nested within Aloe and is formally included in that genus. Aloe itself is clearly polyphyletic, with the dwarf species A. aristata allied to Haworthia subg. Robustipedunculares. The taxonomic implications of these findings are examined but branch support at critical lower nodes is insufficient at this stage to justify implementing major taxonomic changes.

Phylogenetic analysis of plastid (rbcLa, matK, trnH-psbA and the trnL intron) and nuclear (ITS1) sequence datasets in a wide sampling of species of Asphodelaceae: Alooideae provides a generally well-resolved phylogeny. Among traditionally accepted genera only Astroloba and Gasteria are supported as monophyletic. Species of Haworthia are distributed among three clades corresponding to the current subgenera. Aloe s. l. (including Chortolirion) segregates into six, well-supported clades corresponding respectively to sections Dracoaloe (= Aloidendron), Kumara + Haemanthifoliae, Macrifoliae, Aristatae, Serrulatae, and the remainder of the genus. The first three clades are retrieved as early branching lineages, whereas A. sects. Aristatae and Serrulatae are strongly supported as members of a clade including Astroloba + Haworthia subg. Robustipedunculatae. We examine possible options for recircumscribing the genera of Alooideae as reciprocally monophyletic entities. Although morphological and molecular data are consistent with expansion of Aloe to include all members of Alooideae, we accept and implement an alternative option maintaining historical usage in the group as far as possible. Astroloba and Gasteria are retained as currently circumscribed; Haworthia is restricted to H. subg. Haworthia; the genus Tulista is accepted for members of H. subg. Robustipedunculatae, with the new combination T. minima ; and H. subg. Hexangulares is treated as the genus Haworthiopsis with the new combinations H. koelmaniorum , H. pungens , and H. tessellata . The genus Aloe is restricted to the clade comprising the ‘true aloes’, with Aloidendron, Aloiampelos, and Kumara accepted as segregates, the latter broadened to include A. haemanthifolia as K. haemanthifolia . Aloe aristata is segregated in the monotypic genus Aristaloe as A. aristata and Aloe sect. Serrulatae is treated as the new genus Gonialoe with the species G. dinteri , G. sladeniana , and G. variegata.

Molecular phylogenetics of Alooideae (Asphodelaceae) by Barnabas Haruna Daru Dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree MAGISTER SCIENTIAE in BOTANY in the FACULTY OF SCIENCE at the UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG, SOUTH AFRICA Supervisor: Prof. M. van der Bank Co-supervisor: Dr. O. Maurin January 2012 ! ! DECLARATION I declare that this dissertation has been composed by myself and the work contained within, unless otherwise stated, is my own. Barnabas Haruna Daru (January 05, 2012) ii ! ! ! TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration .......................................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iii Index to tables .................................................................................................................... vi Index to Figures ............................................................................................................... viii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... xii Foreword .......................................................................................................................... xiii List of Abbreviations ..................................................................................................... xivv Abstract ............................................................................................................................ xvi Chapter One: General Introduction and Objectives 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES ............................................... 1 1.1 Family Asphodelaceae .................................................................................................. 1 1.1.1 Subfamily Asphodeloideae ........................................................................................ 2 1.1.2 Subfamily Alooideae ................................................................................................. 2 1.2 Review of the genera within Alooideae ........................................................................ 4 1.2.1 Aloe L. (1753) ............................................................................................................ 4 1.2.2 Astroloba Uitew. (1947) ............................................................................................ 6 1.2.3 Chortolirion A.Berger (1908) .................................................................................... 7 1.2.4 Gasteria Duval (1809) ............................................................................................... 8 1.2.5 Haworthia Duval (1809) ............................................................................................ 9 1.3 Objectives of the study ............................................................................................ 10 iii ! ! ! Chapter Two: Material and Methods 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS .................................................................................... 19 2.1 Choice of gene regions................................................................................................ 19 2.2 Taxon sampling........................................................................................................... 19 2.3 DNA extraction, amplification and sequencing .......................................................... 20 2.4 Phylogenetic analyses and tree construction............................................................... 21 2.5 Coding of morphological characters ........................................................................... 23 Chapter Three: Results 3. RESULTS ..................................................................................................................... 49 3.1 Molecular Evolution ................................................................................................... 49 3.2 Combined plastid data................................................................................................. 49 3.3 ITS1 data ..................................................................................................................... 50 3.4 Combined plastid and nuclear dataset (rbcLa + matK + trnH-psbA + ITS1) ........... 550 3.5 Evolution of morphological traits ............................................................................... 53 Chapter Four: Discussion and Conclusions 4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................ 70 4.1 Phylogenetic Relationships within Alooideae ............................................................ 70 4.1.1 Relationships within Aloe ........................................................................................ 71 4.1.2 Relationships within Haworthia .............................................................................. 72 4.1.3 Relationships within smaller segregate genera ........................................................ 74 4.2 Evolution of selected morphological characters in Alooideae ................................... 74 iv ! ! ! 4.3 Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 79 Chapter Five: References REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 82 Appendix I Abstracts of all papers presented at conferences ........................................... 91 Appendix II Paper submitted to Taxon – 15 December 2011 (under review) .................. 94 Appendix III Taxonomic changes in Alooideae resulting from the current study ........... 95 ! v ! ! ! INDEX TO TABLES Chapter One: General Introduction and Objectives Table 1.1 Alooideae genera (Van Wyk et al., 1993; Smith & Steyn, 2004; Klopper et al., 2010) ................................................................................................................................. 11 Table 1.2 Proposed families within Asparagales from 1981 to 2009. Names in brackets are the combination of groups belonging to that family ................................................... 12 Table 1.3 History of genera recognised within Asphodelaceae from 1981 to 2010 ......... 13 Table 1.4 Historical bibliographical notes on genus Haworthia (Author dates are based on Scott (1985) and Bayer (1999) .................................................................................... 14 Chapter Two: Material and Methods Table 2.1 Table of taxa, voucher information, and accession numbers from GenBank. DNA sequences obtained from GenBank are indicated by 1Treutlein et al., 2003a, 2 Treutlein et al., 2003b, and 3Kim et al., 2010. Original publication dates and synonyms were obtained from The Plant List Version 1 (2010) ...................................................... 25 Table 2.2 Gene regions and primers used for amplifying the cpDNA and nrDNA in the current study...................................................................................................................... 39 Table 2.3 Characters, character states, and explanatory notes on characters used in the cladistic analyses of the morphological data matrix. ........................................................ 40 Table 2.4 Character states for the 20 morphological characters scored for accessions included in the moelcular analyses. .................................................................................. 41 Chapter Three: Results Table 3.1 Statistics from MP analyses obtained from separate and combined datasets. .. 56 vi ! ! ! Table 3.2 Characters states for nine selected autapomorphic traits which have been employed in previous Alooideae systematics. ................................................................ 567 vii ! ! ! INDEX TO FIGURES Chapter One: General Introduction and Objectives Figure 1.1 (a) Global distribution of all Alooideae genera highlighted in red. Distributions of (b) Gasteria; (c) Haworthia; (d) Astroloba; (e) Aloe; (f) Chortolirion. Adapted from Smith & van Wyk (1991), Bayer (1999) and Viljoen (1999). .......................................... 15 Figure 1.2 (a) Aloe peglarae Schönland, and (b) A. plicatilis with distichous leaf arrangement. Photo: O. Maurin. ....................................................................................... 16 Figure 1.3 (a) Astroloba rubriflora (L.Bolus) G.F.Sm. & J.C.Manning, (b) Astroloba corrugata N.L.Mey. & Gideon F.Sm.and (c) A. spiralis (L.) Uitewaal showing the densely packed triangular leaves (Photo: M.B.Bayer)...................................................... 16 Figure 1.4 (a) Chortolirion angolense showing leaves and underground bulb, and (b) zygomorphic flowers (b). Photo: Sean Gildenhuys (a) and www.lifestyleseeds.co.za (b)16 Figure 1.5 (a) Gasteria croucheri (Hook.f) leaves with bands of whitish spots and (b) secund inflorescence of G. carinata var. retusa van Jaarsv. Photo: O. Maurin. .............. 18 Figure 1.4 Haworthia mirabilis (Haw.) Haw. showing (a) succulent leaves and, (b) bilabiate flower. Photo: O. Maurin. .................................................................................. 18 Chapter Two: Material and Methods Figure 2.1 Organisation of the ITS region. Green area represents ITS region sequenced in the study. Arrows indicate orientation and approximate position of primer sites. Adapted from Baldwin et al. (1995)................................................................................................ 47 Figure 2.2 Distribution of Alooideae collected in the wild and grown at Sheilam Nursery, Gariep Nursey and Kirstenbosch Botanical Garden, used in this study (yellow circles). 47 viii ! ! ! Chapter Three: Results Figure 3.1 Simplified tree topologies showing relationships among Alooideae for the plastids, nuclear and combined dataset. ............................................................................ 58 Figure 3.2 One of the most parsimonious trees obtained from the maximum parsimony (MP) analyses of the combined plastid data set (rbcLa + matK + trnH-psbA) for Alooideae plus outgroups (TL = 752; CI = 0.72; RI = 0.91). Numbers above the branches are MP bootstrap support. ................................................................................................. 60 Figure 3.3 One of the most parsimonious trees obtained from the maximum parsimony (MP) analyses of the ITS1 data set for Alooideae (TL = 346; CI = 0.64; RI = 0.92)....... 62 Figure 3.4 Majority-rule consensus tree obtained from the Bayesian analysis of the combined plastid and nuclear internal transcribed spacer (ITS) data set for Alooideae plus outgroup (TL = 1159; CI = 0.63; RI = 0.89). Numbers above the branches are MP bootstrap support and ones below are BI posterior probabilities. ..................................... 64 Figure 3.5 Distribution of morphological traits along phylogeny of Alooideae. All trait values are centred and scaled, resulting in circles of different colours. The colours of the symbols are proportional to the absolute value of each trait ............................................ 65 Figure 3.6 Parsimony-based reconstructions of a) habit character (character 1), b) leaf insertion (character 2), and c) leaf tubercles (character 5) on the majority-rule consensus tree from the combined data. ............................................................................................ 66 Figure 3.7 Parsimony-based reconstruction of a) flower orientation (character 11), b) perianth symmetry (character 14), and c) perianth tube (character 17) on the majority-rule consensus tree from combined molecular data. ................................................................ 65 ix ! ! ! Figure 3.8 Parsimony-based reconstruction of a) perianth shape (character 18), b) stamen inclusion (character 20), and c) tepal fusion (character 19) on the majority-rule consensus tree from combined molecular data. ................................................................................. 65 x ! Acknowledgments ! ! ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisor, Prof. Michelle van der Bank for her constant support and insightful guidance. She made sure I had the practical, financial and intellectual tools to accomplish this work. I thank my co-supervisor Dr. Olivier Maurin, University of Johannesburg, South Africa for ensuring that this thesis is well written and the project carried out very well. Thank you very much. Ledile Mankga, Kowiyou Yessoufou, Jephris Gere, Philip Rousseau, Ronny Kabongo, Bezeng Simeon, Theresa Sethusa, Mark Cooper and Bruce Lububi as well as Salome Malgas have been my colleagues, office, lab companions and friends for 24 months and have provided honest, precise, and always helpful critical comments. I like to thank Erin Corstorphine and Maria (Masha) Kuzmina of the International Barcode of Life Project, Biodiversity Institute of Ontario, University of Guelph Canada for helping me with DNA sequencing. I am very grateful. The following people supplied plant samples and are greatly acknowledged: Dr Felix Forest of Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Bruce M. Bayer, Sean Gildenhuys of Gariep Plants Pretoria, Wesley Chin and his father, Drs John Manning, Ernst van Jaarsveld and Stephen Boatwright of Kirstenbosch Gardens, Cape Town. Profs Vincent Savolainen and Mark Chase; Drs Martyn Powell, Luis Valente and Jan Schnitzler; Abel Gizaw and Adam Britton provided useful comments and provided some research articles for the thesis. The following people helped in one way or the other especially in terms of logistics: Flip Minaar, Anne Fourie (Librarian of SANBI, Pretoria) and Tinus Fourie. Oageng Kale, Pamela Sekoto and Francois Joshua helped me particularly in the lab – thank you very much. My parents Mr. Haruna Daru and Mrs. Christiana Daru for the ‘good genes’ and my siblings; Patrick, Rifkat, John, Rita, Nanbam and Lydia as well as my nieces and xi ! Acknowledgments ! ! nephews (Nash P, Sekyen, Retji, Leyitnaan, Katlong, Terkuma, Durnaan, Naanman, Joshua, Jighitnaan). Thanks for visiting me during the spring break here in Johannesburg: Patrick, Pamela, Nash P, Sekyen, Retji, Leyitnaan – I love you all. I appreciate the friendship of Halimat Suberu, Wussi Turaki, Toyin Ojo, families of Dr Esther Akinlabi, Dr Peter and Mrs. Oluwatoyin Olubambi who have been my source of motivation and encouragement throughout this study. Staff and students of the African Centre for DNA Barcoding, University of Johannesburg, are greatly acknowledged as well as staff of University of Jos, Nigeria, particularly Prof H. B. Mafuyai, Drs Georgina Mwansat, Shiiwua Manu and Fidelis Tiseer, Mrs. Cecelia and Mr. Nannim Nanvyat (Zoology Dept). Thanks for believing in me. Funding for this project was provided by the Royal Society of London and the National Research Foundation (NRF), South Africa. This project was also partly funded by the Government of Canada through Genome Canada and the Ontario Genomics Institute (2008-OGI-ICI-03). The Almighty God through Jesus Christ has been my source of inspiration and help throughout this study (John 1:3). To You I dedicate this project. xii ! Foreword ! ! FOREWORD This study is a contribution to the phylogenetic understanding of Alooideae (Asphodelaceae) and follows on the efforts of Reynolds (1966), Van Jaarsveld (1994), Bayer (1999), Treutlein et al. (2003a, b), and Vosa (2004). These taxonomic treatments provided the baseline for the evaluation of hypotheses presented in this study. The dissertation is presented in five chapters. Chapter one presents the general synopses, motivation and objectives of the study. Chapter two provides details of the sampling, methodology and phylogenetic analyses used. In Chapter three, the results of the phylogenetic relationships within the subfamily Alooideae is presented. Appendices include abstracts of papers presented at conferences as well as paper submitted to Taxon. Preliminary findings of the study was presented at the 2011 Congress of the Southern African Society of Systematic Biology (SASSB) and earned me the award for the Best MSc Presentation. Appendix III resulted from collaborative research with John Manning and Stephen Boatwright and form part of the paper submitted to Taxon (Appendix II). All analyses, tables, images and figures used in the dissertation are by the author, unless otherwise stated. ! xiii ! List of abbreviations ! ! LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS °C = Degrees Celsius A.Berger = Alwin Berger (1871-1931) ABI = Applied Biosystems, Inc ACCTRAN = Accelerated transformation optimisation ACDB = African Center for DNA Barcoding AIC = Akaike Information Criterion Aloes = Aloe APG = Angiosperm Phylogeny Group Baijnath = Baijnath, Himansu (1943-) BI = Bayesian inference Bp = base pair BP = Bootstrap Percentage (support) ca. = approximately CBOL PG = Consortium for the Barcode of Life Plant Working Group CI = Consistency Index Corp. = Corporation CTAB = Hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide DELTRAN = Delayed transformation optimisation. DMSO = Dimethyl Sulfoxide DNA = Deoxyribonucleic acid EtOH = Ethanol F = Forward primer GenBank = National Center for Biotechnology Information GTR+I+G = General Time Reversible + Gamma + Proportion Invariant i.e. = id est (that is) xiv ! List of abbreviations ! ! Inc. = Incorporated iso. = Isotype ITS = Internal Transcribed Spacer JRAU = Herbarium of the University of Johannesburg (UJ), Johannesburg, South Africa K = Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, United Kingdom Kunth = Kunth, Karl Sigismund (1788-1850) L. = Linnaeus (von Linné), Carl (1707-1778) M.Bieb. = Marschall von Bieberstein, Friedrich August (1768-1826) m = meter MCMC = (Bayesian) Markov Chain Monte Carlo min. = Minimum min = Minutes mm = millimeter Moench. = Moench, Conrad (1744-1805) MP = Maximum Parsimony MRCA = Most recent common ancestor MulTrees = Multiple equally parsimonious trees Mya = Millions years ago NaCl = Sodium Chloride No. = Number nom. cons. = nomen conservandum nrDNA = nuclear ribosomal deoxyribonucleic acid NRF = National Research Foundation (South Africa) PAUP = Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony software program PCR = Polymerase chain reaction Poelln. = von Poellnitz, Karl (1896-1945) xv ! List of abbreviations ! ! PP = Posterior probabilities PVP = Polyvinyl pyrolidone R = Reverse primer rbcL = ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase gene RBG Kew = the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew RI = Retention Index s.l. = sensu lato s.s. = sensu stricto SANBI = South African National Biodiversity Institute sect. nov. = section novis SEM = Scanning Electron Microscope sp. nov. = species novis (new species) Syn = Synonymous TBR = Tree-bisection-reconnection TIM + G = Transitional Model + Gamma TL = Tree length TReeBoL Africa = DNA Barcoding Africa Trees trnH-psbA = spacer between trnH and psbA genes Uitew. = Uitewaal, Antonius Josephus Adrianus (1899-1963) UK = United Kingdom USA = United States of America UV = Ultraviolet µl = microliter xvi ! Abstract ! ! ABSTRACT Alooideae (Asparagales–Asphodelaceae) currently comprises five genera, four of which are endemic to southern Africa. Despite their importance in commercial horticulture, evolutionary relationships among the genera are still incompletely understood, and the generic taxonomy remains unresolved. This study addresses generic delimitation in subfamily Alooideae using an expanded molecular dataset from three plastid regions (rbcLa, matK and trnH-psbA) and the first subunit of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS1). Sequence data were analysed using maximum parsimony and bayesian statistics, and selected morphological traits were mapped onto the molecular phylogeny. Among the polytypic genera, only Astroloba and Gasteria were retrieved as monophyletic. Haworthia is shown to be polyphyletic and to comprise three main clades largely correllated with current subgeneric circumscriptions. The taxonomic implications of these findings are discussed. xvi ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! CHAPTER(ONE( General(Introduction(and(Objectives( Photo: O. Maurin ! 0 ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! 1.#GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES# In this chapter, I present an overview of Alooideae taxonomy and phylogenetics and state the objectives of my study. The classification system of APG III (2009) placed members of Alooideae i.e. Asphodelaceae (sensu Mabberley, 2008) within the family Xanthorrhoeaceae yet, most molecular studies in Alooideae systematics retained Alooideae as a subfamily within Asphodelaceae (e.g. Chase et al., 2000; Treutlein et al., 2003a, b; Klopper et al., 2010; Ramdhani et al., 2011). I have adopted the latter classification system throughout the dissertation. 1.1 Family Asphodelaceae Asphodelaceae is a monocotyledon family in the order Asparagales and comprises about 13 genera and ± 800 species (Klopper et al., 2010). Members of this family are distributed in xeric and mesic regions of the temperate, subtropical and tropical zones of the Old World (including Africa, Eurasia, Australia, New Zealand) with the main centre of distribution in southern Africa (Van Wyk et al., 1993; Smith & van Wyk, 1998; Treutlein et al., 2003a, b; Klopper et al., 2010). Many species of Asphodelaceae are cultivated as ornamentals with some listed on the IUCN Redlist of species (IUCN, 2001). For example, Aloe bowiea Schult. & Schult.f., Bulbine frutescens (L.) Willd. var. chalumnensis Baijnath ined., Gasteria baylissiana Rauh, G. ellaphieae Van Jaarsv., G. glomerata Van Jaarsv., Haworthia bryunsii M.B.Bayer, H. springbokvlakensis C.L.Scott, H. woolleyi Poelln. and Kniphofia acrea Codd have been listed as threatened in the wild with extinction by version 3.1 of the IUCN categories and criteria (Victor & Dold, 2003). Asphodelaceae is divided into two subfamilies, based on vegetative and reproductive characters: Asphodeloideae and Alooideae (Treutlein et al., 2003a, b; Klopper et al., 2010). 1 ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! 1.1.1 Subfamily Asphodeloideae Subfamily Asphodeloideae consists of the genera Trachyandra Kunth., Asphodelus L., Asphodeline Rchb., Eremurus M. Bieb., Bulbine Wolf., Jodrellia Baijnath, Bulbinella Kunth and Kniphofia Moench (Smith & van Wyk, 1998; Klopper et al., 2010). These genera are widespread throughout the temperate and subtropical regions of Africa, SaudiArabia, Madagascar and some of the Mascarene Islands off the east coast of Africa. The subfamily has varying proportions of small to large chromosomes with a basic set of six chromosomes (2n = 12).! 1.1.2 Subfamily Alooideae Subfamily Alooideae (Aloaceae sensu Smith & Steyn, 2004) of the family Asphodelaceae is an Old World group (Fig. 1.1a) often characterised by conspicuous leaf succulence, cresentiform or cymbiform leaf outline in cross-section, and a rarely altered diploid karyotype n = 7 (Taylor, 1925; Smith & van Wyk, 1998). Cladistically this character represents a synapomorphy for all taxa of Alooideae. It also represents a sharp discontinuity between the Asphodeloideae and Alooideae, and suggests a distinct barrier for gene interchange (Smith & van Wyk, 1991, 1998). Representatives of the subfamily also share some chemical characters, notably the presence of anthrone-C-glycosides in their leaves and of 1-methyl-8-hydroxyanthraquinones in their roots (Smith & van Wyk, 1998). Modern taxonomy of the Alooideae begins with Linnaeus (1753), whose concept of the genus Aloe L. was rather heterogeneous one. Of the 16 names that he included in this genus, four are not members of Alooideae (three are now in Sansevieria and one is in Kniphofia). The remainder, grouped by flower size and shape, are currently segregated among Aloe (four species), Gasteria (one species), Astroloba (one species) and Haworthia (five species). Linnaeus’ preliminary groupings were subsequently 2 ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! formalised, first at sectional level within Aloe (Linnaeus, 1774) and later by the recognition of the segregate genera Gasteria, defined by the moderately large, curved and often gasteriform flowers, and Haworthia, with very much smaller, whitish flowers (Duval, 1809). Haworthia was later further split when those species with often actinomorphic flowers were removed from those with bilabiate flowers into the small genus Astroloba Uitewaal (Roberts, 1965). Three additional small genera have since been recognised: Chortolirion, Lomatophyllum and Poellnitzia. Lomatophyllum consists of about 14 species from Madagascar and the Mascarene islands and it is now included in the genus Aloe (Klopper et al., 2010) and the monotypic Poellnitzia rubriflora (L.Bolus) Uitewaal was recently included in Astroloba as A. rubriflora (L.Bolus) Gideon F.Sm. & J.C.Manning, (Manning & Smith, 2000; Germishuizen et al., 2006). Thus the current classification of the subfamily (reviewed in Klopper et al., 2010) recognises the following five genera: Aloe, Astroloba, Chortolirion, Gasteria, and Haworthia (Table 1.1). Alternative classification systems are briefly discussed below. Classification system suggested by Cronquist (1981) ! The classification system employed by Cronquist (1981) for flowering plants is based solely on morphological features. He placed Alooideae genera in the order Liliales within families Aloeaceae and Liliaceae (Table 1.2). The systematic framework for Liliales laid down by Cronquist (1981) was based on the unifying synapomorphy of seed-coat micromorphology (the characteristic black seeds caused by phytomelan incrustation of the seed coat in most capsular and berry-fruited taxa). Cronquist (1981) maintained families such as Alliaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Agavaceae, Iridaceae, and Orchidaceae within Liliales, but lumped most of the rest into a single family Liliaceae, which included taxa from both orders Asparagales and Liliales. Other authors over the years adopted this system but 3 ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! modified the spelling of the family name from “Aloeaceae” sensu Cronquist (1981) to “Aloaceae” (e.g. Glen & Hardy, 2000; Smith & Steyn, 2004). Classification system suggested by Mabberley (2008) ! The classification upheld by Mabberley (2008) recognised the family Asphodelaceae (Asparagales) to consist of 14 genera (Table 1.3) with 800 species. Mabberley (2008) noted a superficial resemblance between Asphodelaceae, Hyacinthaceae and Anthericaceae. In his system, two subfamilies are recognised: Alooideae (pachycaul trees with secondary growth to succulent rosettes) and Asphodeloideae (herbaceous plants). Classification system by APG III (2009) and Chase et al. (2009) ! The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG III, 2009) reduced the numbers of families within Asparagales to 15 (Table 1.2). All members of Alooideae i.e. Asphodelaceae (sensu Mabberley, 2008) were placed within Xanthorrhoeaceae. Chase et al. (2009) however, in a subfamilial classification of Asparagales (Amaryllidaceae, Asparagaceae and Xanthorrhoeaceae), recommended that Xanthorrhoeaceae be split into three subfamilies (Asphodeloideae, Hemerocallidoideae and Xanthorrhoeoideae) to simplify taxonomic delimitation in this family. 1.2 Review of genera within Alooideae 1.2.1 Aloe L. (1753) The genus Aloe, with about 400 species native to Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and Madagascar plus other islands in the western Indian Ocean (Fig. 1.1e), is the largest within the Alooideae (Reynolds, 1966; Viljoen, 1999; Glen & Hardy, 2000; Klopper & Smith, 2007). Its species are characterised by tough, spiked/toothed leaves with astringent/unpalatable juice, sunken pores, vivid (red, white, or sometimes bicoloured) flowers, and wind-dispersed seeds. There are however numerous exceptions. Some Aloe 4 ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! species, have tall inflorescences with reddish-toned flowers with erect to spreading pedicels. Polystichous leaf arrangements in spiral rosettes with spiny margins are typical of most Aloe species (Fig. 1.2a) others have leaves arranged distichously in two vertical rows on opposite sides of an axis. Aloe plicatilis (L.) Mill. (Fig. 1.2b) for example, often called “fan aloe”, is characterised by its leaf clusters resembling an open fan with margins almost smooth, except for some small teeth in the upper part and an arborescent growth habit. Other exceptions within the genus include a wide variation in growth form (trees, shrubs and stemless, sometimes geophytic perennials), margin almost entire to toothed) and surface (smooth to verrucose), flower size, shape, symmetry and colour (small to large, campanulate to tubular or gasteriform, actinomorphic to bilabiate, and pallid to brightly coloured), and fruit characteristics (small to large and dry to fleshy). Aloe is one of the genera within Alooideae that has been studied the most comprehensively. Recent studies include phytochemical analysis (Viljoen et al., 1998; Viljoen, 1999; Grace et al., 2010), leaf morphology (Grace et al., 2009), molecular evidence (Adams et al., 2000a, b) and ecology (Botes et al., 2008) all of which are based on the work done by Reynolds (1966). Ecologically, due to the ease of hybridisation between Aloe species, often flowering simultaneously and mostly ornithophilous, Botes et al. (2008) indicated that co-flowering Aloe species partitioned flower-visiting birds through differences in floral morphology and nectar traits. Species that share bird pollinators tend to flower sequentially or utilise different pollen placement sites on the same birds. Aloe inconspicua Plowes is however pollinated exclusively by insects (Amegilla fallax, Apidae) that visit its flowers for nectar and pollen (Hargreaves et al., 2008). It has white flowers, strongly zygomorphic with perianth tubes curved upwards. Recent molecular evidence suggests that insect-pollination is the ancestral state for Alooidea, with the ancestral Aloe species postulated to originate in the highlands of south-east Africa and 5 ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! spreading during the Tertiary era (Holland, 1978). These differences in pollination system, flowering phenology, and biogeography may suggest taxonomic affinities within the Aloe genus and also enable a greater number of Aloe species to coexist. However, detailed pollination and biogeographic studies of Aloe species, just like other Alooideae genera, is lacking. 1.2.2 Astroloba Uitew. (1947) Astroloba is a clump forming, Haworthia-like perennial succulent endemic to the Western and Eastern Cape regions of South Africa (Mabberley, 2008; Fig. 1.1d). This genus contains six species plus Poellnitzia rubriflora L.Bolus from Western Cape recently transferred to Astroloba (as A. rubriflora (L.Bolus) Gideon F.Sm. & J.C.Manning) by Manning & Smith (2000) due to its close vegetative similarity to some species of Astroloba, as well as similarities in lipophilic anthronoid aglycones. It was essentially distinguished from Astroloba by its inclined racemes of secund, orange-red flowers with connivent tepals, apparently an adaptation to sunbird pollination (Manning & Smith, 2000). The six species of Astroloba are typically multi-stemmed at ground level with stems totally covered by hard, spirally arranged, stiff, pungent leaves (Fig. 1.3). The abaxial side of the leaf is tuberculate or smooth. The inflorescences are axillary racemes with simple or branched peduncles. The flowers are pedicellate with a straight tubular perianth (Smith, 1995b; Manning & Smith 2000). Astroloba is vegetatively very similar to some species of Haworthia and the two are distinguished solely by floral symmetry. Flowers of Astroloba are actinomorphic with tepals spreading at the tips (star-shape) whereas the perianth in Haworthia is irregular and nearly always bilabiate. 6 ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! 1.2.3 Chortolirion A.Berger (1908) Chortolirion comprises a single species, C. angolense (Baker) A.Berger (Mabberley, 2008). This monotypic genus has an underground bulb (Fig. 1.4a) and narrow grass-like leaves weakly armed with small, white marginal teeth (Smith & Van Wyk, 1993; Smith, 1995b) which die back to ground level during fire or in winter, a character unique to this genus. Its flowers closely resemble those of Haworthia species (Fig. 1.4b) and it has been included in that genus in the past (Obermeyer, 1973) but has generally been retained as distinct from it on the basis of the distinct, bulb-like swelling of the leaf bases (Smith, 1995a). Chortolirion is also characterised by spirally twisted, graminoid, deciduous leaves (Smith & van Wyk, 1993). Furthermore, Chortolirion has a widespread northern distribution in Angola, Botswana, Namibia and the summer rainfall areas in South Africa (Fig. 1.1f), whereas Haworthia is predominantly restricted to the winter rainfall regions in the Western and Northern Cape provinces (Fig. 1.1c). Chortolirion, just like most Alooideae genera, have witnessed some taxonomic controversy over the years so that a considerable number of synonyms have been attributed to it. Smith & van Wyk (1993) using leaf anatomy found that the distribution of tissues in the leaves of C. angolense is similar to that described for grass-like Aloe species in sect. Leptoaloe Berger (e.g. Aloe verecunda Pole-Evans, A. boylei Baker, and the graminifoliate Haworthia blackburniae Baker). This relationship was confirmed by a recent molecular study (Treutlein et al., 2003b). Remarkably, it shares a xerophytic character with other xerophytes such as sunken and protected stomata. A distinctive palisade layer immediately inside the epidermis is conspicuous, although this has not been accepted as a generic marker to delimit this monotypic genus (Smith et al., 1996). It however shares the presence of inner bundle sheath-caps consisting of thin-walled parenchymatous cells with other alooid genera. 7 ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! 1.2.4 Gasteria Duval (1809) Linnaeus (1753) in Species Plantarum included Gasteria under the name Aloe disticha (Gasteria disticha sensu Van Jaarsveld, 1994). In 1809 Duval formally described Gasteria, recognising 43 species. Since then many new species have been described. Finally in 2007, Van Jaarsveld arranged Gasteria into two sections, Longiflorae and Gasteria, based on the shape and epidermal texture of the leaf and recognised 23 species. This classification system is widely accepted and the most comprehensive work on the genus to date. Gasteria is endemic to South Africa with the greatest concentration occurring in the Eastern Cape Province (Fig. 1.1b). Only one species, Gasteria pillansii Kensit, extends beyond South Africa’s borders and crosses the Orange River into southern Namibia (Van Jaarsveld, 2007). Gasteria is defined as a monophyletic group within Alooideae based on floral morphology, vegetative characters and molecular data (Zonneveld & Van Jaarsveld, 2005; Treutlein et al., 2003b). It is distinguished from most, but not all aloes by its inclined racemes of pendulous, curved flowers (Fig. 1.5b) sometimes swollen at the base (gasteriform). Sunbirds (Nectariniidae) and insects pollinate the flowers of Gasteria. Bimodal karyotype is uniform in all Gasteria species with eight large and six small chromosomes (Vosa & Bennett, 1990). The leaves of Gasteria are triangular in section and firm-textured and mostly dark green with bands of whitish spots (Fig. 1.5a), and the margins are horny but never spiny (Van Jaarsveld, 2007). Brandham (1977) evaluated the inheritance of leaf pigmentation in Gasteria and showed that despite their wide morphological diversity the ‘spotted’ Gasteria species have identical genetic systems controlling the distribution of leaf pigmentation, which underlines their basic genetic similarities. Today Gasteria species are threatened in the wild due to succulent collectors and agricultural practices. 8 ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! 1.2.5 Haworthia Duval (1809) Haworthia includes approximately 61 species and numerous infra-specific taxa (Bayer, 1999; 2002; Mabberley, 2008). Most species are highly localised and are largely restricted to the southern regions of South Africa, with outliers in the Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal and Free State provinces of South Africa, Swaziland, Mozambique and Namibia (Fig. 1.1c). Haworthia species are small succulent herbs (Fig. 1.6a) with their leaves arranged in a rosette. The size and shape of the leaves are variable, even within species. The flowers are small, tubular, bilabiate and white. Haworthia has a long history of taxonomic changes (Table 1.4) since Linnaeus (1753) broadly placed it within “aloes” and Duval formally described it in 1809. In 1999, Bayer subdivided Haworthia into three subgenera namely H. subgenus Haworthia, H. subgenus Hexangulares, and H. subgenus Robustipendunculares (see also Vosa, 2004). This was based on morphological characters as well as continuity of characters in relation to their geographical distribution. Subgenus Haworthia has a wide range of distribution from the Western to the Eastern Cape Provinces including the Free State. Flowers with elongated triangles petals as well as perianths that are triangular in cross-section (e.g. Haworthia mirabilis; Fig. 1.6b) unified members of this subgenus. Haworthia subgenus Hexangulares occurs in the Eastern Cape Province with a disjunct distribution of H. limifolia Marloth in the Swaziland-Mpumalanga area. Flowers are six-sided at the base. Only four species (Haworthia marginata (Lam.) Stearn, H. pumila (L.) Duval, H. minor (Aiton) Duval and H. kingiana Poelln.) are recognised within H. subgenus Robustipendunculares. They are distributed exclusively in the Western Cape Province and it is characterised by robust tubular perianths. Two recent molecular studies (Treutlein et al., 2003a; Ramdhani et al., 2011) recovered the above-mentioned subgenera but demonstrated that Haworthia was paraphyletic. Sampling in both studies were however limited. 9 ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! 1.3 Objectives of the study From the above it is evident that evolutionary relationships among the Alooideae genera are still incompletely understood and the generic taxonomy remains uncertain. As yet, no adequately sampled and well-supported phylogenetic analysis exists on which to base a classification for Alooideae. Treutlein et al. (2003b) offered three alternative scenarios for resolving this problem but however refrained from implementing any of them. This study was thus aimed at addressing previous morphological and molecular hypotheses on generic circumscriptions and affinities among the five genera of Alooideae using molecular sequence data. The specific objectives of the study were to: 1) Reconstruct a phylogeny for Alooideae (154 species representing all five genera and 20 sections within Aloe, incorporating a wide range of vegetative and floral diversity in the subfamily) using DNA sequences from the internal transcribed spacers (ITS1) of nuclear ribosomal DNA and three plastid regions (rbcLa, trnHpsbA and matK). 2) Mapped morphological trait data onto the phylogeny to determine the distribution of these characters in order to investigate whether these traits are phylogenetically structured. 3) Data from 1 and 2 were then used to: a) clarify phylogenetic relationships among the genera, b) assess the monophyly of various groups within Alooideae, and c) reconcile the current taxonomy with the molecular data. 10 ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! Table 1.1 Alooideae genera (Van Wyk et al., 1993; Smith & Steyn, 2004; Klopper et al., 2010) ! Currently recognised Alooideae genera References Names not upheld Aloe Linnaeus: 319 Reynolds (1966, Catevala Medikus: 67 (1786) pro parte; (1753) 1969), Glen & Kumara Medikus: 69 (1786); Rhipidodendrum Hardy (2000), Willdenow 164 (1811); Pachidendron Germishuizen et al. Haworth: 35 (1821); Bowiea Haworth: 299 (2006) (1824) non J.D. Hooker: t. 5619 (1867); Agriodendron Endlicher: 144 (1836); Succosaria Rafinesque: 137 (1840); Busipho Salisbury: 76 (1866); Ptyas Salisbury: 76 (1866); Chamaealoe A.Berger: 43 (1905); Leptaloe Stapf: t. 9300 (1933) Aloinella Lemee: 27 (1939) non Cardot: 76 (1909); Guillauminia Bertrand: 41 (1956); P.V.Heath: 153 (1993); Lomatophyllum Willdenow: 5 (1811) Gasteria Duval: 6 Van Jaarsveld (1992, Atevala Rafinesque: 136 (1840); Papilista (1809) 1994, 2007) Rafinesque: 137 (1840) Haworthia Duval: 7 Bayer (1999) Catevala Medikus: 67 (1786) pro parte; (1809) nom. cons. Apicra Willdenow: 167 (1811) non Haworth: 61 (1819); Kumaria Rafinesque: 137 (1840); Tulista Rafinesque: 137 (1840) Chortolirion A.Berger: Smith (1995a) ! Astroloba Uitewaal: 53 Roberts (1965), Apicra Haworth: 61 (1819) non Willdenow: (1947) Smith (1995b), 167 (1811); Poellnitzia Uitewaal Succulenta Manning & Smith 22:61 (1940) 72 (1908) (2000) 11 ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! Table 1.2 Proposed families within Asparagales from 1981 to 2009. Names in brackets are the combination of ‘groups’ belonging to the family. ! Cronquist (1981) Order: Liliales ! ! Agavaceae Mabberley (2008) Order: Asparagales Alliaceae Agapanthaceae Amaryllidaceae Aloeaceae Cyanastraceae Dioscoreaceae Haemodoraceae Hanguanaceae Liliaceae ! ! Iridaceae Philydraceae Pontederiaceae Smilacaceae Asparagaceae (Agavaceae, Anthericaceae, Aphyllanthaceae, Behniaceae, Convallariaceae, Dracaenaceae, Eriospermaceae, Herriaceae, Hyacinthaceae) Asphodelaceae Asteliaceae Blandfordiaceae Boryaceae Doryanthaceae Hemerocallidaceae Hypoxidaceae Iridaceae Ixioliriaceae Lanariaceae Orchidaceae Stemonaceae Taccaceae Velloziaceae Xanthorrhoeaceae ! Tecophilaeceae ! Xanthorrhoaceae ! Xeronemataceae APG II (2003) Order: Asparagales ! ! Agavaceae (Anemarrhenaceae, Anthericaeae, Behniaceae, Herreriaceae) Asparagaceae ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Ruscaceae (Convallariaceae, Dracaenaceae, Eriospermaceae, Nolinaceae) ! ! ! Xanthorrhoeaceae (Asphodelaceae, Hemerocallidaceae, Phormiaceae). ! APG III (2009) Order: Asparagales ! ! Amaryllidaceae (Agapanthaceae) Asparagaceae (Agavaceae, Aphyllanthaceae, Hesperocallidaceae, Hyacinthaceae, Laxmanniaceae, Ruscaceae, Themidaceae) ! Asteliaceae Blandfordiaceae Boryaceae Doryanthaceae ! Hypoxidaceae Iridaceae Ixioliriaceae Lanariaceae Orchidaceae Ruscaceae Tecophilaeceae ! Xanthorrhoaceae (Asphodelaceae, Hemerocallidaceae) Xeronemataceae ! 12 ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! Table 1.3 History of genera recognised within Asphodelaceae from 1981 to 2010. Cronquist (1981) Smith & van Wyk (1991) Mabberley (2008) Klopper et al. (2010) Family: Aloeaceae Family: Asphodelaceae Family: Asphodelaceae Family: Asphodelaceae Aloe L. Aloe L. Aloe L. Aloe L. ! ! Asphodeline Reichb. Asphodeline Reichb. ! ! Asphodelus L. Asphodelus L. ! Astroloba Uitew. Astroloba Uitew. Astroloba Uitew. ! ! Bulbine Wolf. Bulbine Wolf. ! ! Bulbinella Kunth. Bulbinella Kunth. ! Chortolirion A.Berger Chortolirion A.Berger Chortolirion A.Berger ! ! Eremurus M.Bieb. Eremurus M.Bieb. Gasteria Gasteria Gasteria Duval Gasteria Duval Haworthia (including Astroloba, Chortolirion, and Poellnitzia) Haworthia Duval Haworthia Duval Haworthia Duval ! ! Jodrellia Baijnath Jodrellia Baijnath KniphofiaMoench. KniphofiaMoench. KniphofiaMoench. KniphofiaMoench. LomatophyllumWilld. LomatophyllumWilld. LomatophyllumWilld. ! ! PoellnitziaUitew. ! ! ! ! Trachyandra Kunth. Trachyandra Kunth. 13 ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! Table 1.4 Historical bibliographical notes on genus Haworthia (Author dates are based on Scott (1985) and Bayer (1999). ! Author (Date) Placement of Haworthia Reference Linnaeus (1753) “Aloes” In Species Plantarum Part I (first edition) (1753) Linnaeus (1762) “Aloes” In Species Plantarum Part I (second edition) (1762) Burman (1768) “Aloes” In Appendix: Florae Capensis Prodromus in Flora Indica (1768) Miller (1768) “Aloes” In Gardeners’ Dictionary, ed. 8 (1768) Aiton (1789) “Aloes” Hortus Kewensis Vol. 1, pp. 466-471 (1789). Willdenov (1799) “Aloes” Species Plantarum 2: 184-192 (1799) De Candolle (17991801) “Aloes” “Aloes” illustrations: Plantarum historia succulentarum (Histoire des plantes grasses) Jacquin (1804) “Aloe” “Aloes” illustrations (1804) Thunberg (1785) “Aloe” Dissertation on the genus “Aloe” (1785) Friedrich Medicus (1786) “Aloe” genus Catevala First to subdivide and separate genus Aloe (today’s Aloe + Haworthia) from genus Catevala Haworth (1804) “Aloe” section Paviflorae “A new arrangement of the genus Aloe” in Trans. Linn. Soc. 7:1-28 (1804). Duval (1809) Haworthia Plantae succulentae in Horto Alenconio, separated genera Haworthia and Gasteria from Aloe (1809). Willdenov (1811) Generic name: Apicra for Paviflorae Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl. Mag. 5: 167 (1811) Aiton (1811) “Aloes” Hortus Kewensis ed. 2, 2:292-301 (1811) Haworth (1812-27) Haworthia In Synopsis plantarum succulentarum pp. 90-99, accepted Duval’s genera Haworthia and Gasteria Schultes & Schultes (1829) Reverted to “Aloe” in broad Linnaean sense Roemer and Schultes, Systema Vegetabilium 7: 682715 (1829) Salm-Dyck (1836-63) “Aloe” in the broad sense Monographiae Generum Aloes et Mesembryantheni Kunth (1843) “Aloe” in a broad sense Enumeratio Plantarum, Vol 4, gave Apicra and Haworthia separate status as sections (1843). Baker (1870-71; 1896) Haworthia Baker (1880) Aloineae Saunders, Refugium Botanicum Vol. 4; Flora Capensis Vol.6: 332-355 (edited by Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer) (1896) “A synopsis of Aloineae and Yuccoideae” in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Vol. 18 (1880); Berger (1908) Haworthia Engler’s Pflanzenreich 4, 38: 74-114 (1908). Smith (1942) Haworthia J. S. Afr. Bot. 8: 247. Collections donated to Kirstenbosch in 1957 Uitewaal (1938-1951) Haworthia Possibly the greatest European student of Haworthia. Published widely in Succulenta. Bayer (1962, 1976; 1982; 1999, 2002) Haworthia Haworthia Handbook (1976), and The New Haworthia Handbook (1982, 1999, 2002); Haworthia revisited (1999); Haworthia update. (1999) 14 ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! a b c e f d Figure 1.1 (a) Global distributions of all Alooideae genera highlighted in red. Distributions of (b) Gasteria; (c) Haworthia; (d) Astroloba; (e) Aloe; (f) Chortolirion. Adapted from Smith & van Wyk (1991), Bayer (1999) and Viljoen (1999). 15 ! ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! Figure 1.2 (a) Aloe peglarae Schönland and (b) A. plicatilis with distichous leaf arrangement. Photo: O. Maurin Figure 1.3 (a) Astroloba rubriflora (L.Bolus) G.F.Sm. & J.C.Manning, (b) Astroloba corrugata N.L.Mey. & Gideon F.Sm. and (c) A. spiralis (L.) Uitewaal showing the densely packed triangular leaves (Photo: M.B.Bayer). Figure 1.4 (a) Chortolirion angolense showing leaves and underground bulb and (b) zygomorphic flowers. Photo: Sean Gildenhuys (a) and www.lifestyleseeds.co.za (b) 16 ! General Introduction and Objectives ! ! ! Figure 1.5 (a) Gasteria croucheri (Hook.f) leaves with bands of whitish spots and (b) the secund inflorescence of G. carinata var. retusa van Jaarsv. Photo: O. Maurin Figure 1.6 (a) Haworthia mirabilis (Haw.) Haw. Showing succulent leaves and (b) bilabiate flower. Photo: O. Maurin 17 ! ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! CHAPTER(TWO( Material(and(Methods( ! ! ! ! ! ! 18 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS 2.1 Choice of gene regions The first subunit of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS1; Fig. 2.1) and three plastid regions (matK, rbcLa and trnH-psbA) were chosen to reconstruct a phylogeny of Alooideae in order to add to the already existing phylogenies of Chase et al. (2000) and Treutlein et al. (2003b). Also, these regions have been shown to be useful in resolving phylogenetic relationships at various taxonomic levels in other plant groups (e.g. Hillis & Dixon, 1991; Baldwin et al., 1995; Small et al., 2004). 2.2 Taxon sampling Representatives of all five genera accepted in subfamily Alooideae (including 154 species and subspecies) were analysed for the four gene regions mentioned above. I included 20 species of Gasteria, 69 Haworthia, 60 Aloe from 20 sections (including Lomatophyllum), four Astroloba (including Poellnitzia) and one Chortolirion species in the analyses. Samples were collected from living material in private and national collections in South Africa (Sheilam Nursery, Robertson; Gariep Nursery, Pretoria; University of Johannesburg (JRAU); Kirstenbosch Botanical Gardens, Cape Town). Most of these accessions were originally wild-collected (Figure 2.2). Representatives of Anthericaceae (Anthericum liliago L.), Asphodelaceae: Asphodeloideae (Asphodeline lutea (L.) Reichb., Bulbine frutescens (L.) Willd., Bulbine semibarbata (R.Br.) Haw., Eremurus spectabilis M.Bieb., Bulbine fistulosa (Chiov.) Baijnath, Kniphofia galpinii Baker, and Kniphofia uvaria (L.) Oken), Tecophilaeaceae (Tecophilaea cyanocrocus Leyb. and Zephyra elegans D.Don), and Xanthorrhoeaceae (Xanthorrhoea resinosa Pers. and Xanthorrhoea sp.) were selected as outgroups based on previous molecular and morphological studies within Asparagales (Smith & van Wyk, 1991; Chase et al., 2000; Treutlein et al., 2003a, b; Devey et al., 2006). These samples were obtained from the DNA 19 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Bank at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (UK). Voucher specimen information and GenBank accession numbers are listed in Table 2.1. Taxonomic concepts in Gasteria and Haworthia follow Van Jaarsveld (2007) and Bayer (1999), respectively. 2.3 DNA extraction, amplification and sequencing Total genomic DNA was extracted from either fresh or silica gel dried leaf material using the 10× CTAB method described by Doyle & Doyle (1987). Polyvinyl pyrolidone (2% PVP) was added to reduce the effect of high polysaccharide concentrations in the samples. All samples were purified using QIAquick purification columns (QIAgen, Inc., Hilden, Germany) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Primers used for the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the cpDNA rbcLa, matK, and trnH-psbA, were rbcLa-F: rbcLa-R, Kim Ki-Joong-3F: Kim Ki-Joong-1-R (CBOL Plant Working Group, 2009), and psbAF: trnH-R (Sang et al., 1997), respectively. The ITS1 region was amplified using the primer combination ITS18: ITS5 (Treutlein et al., 2003a). The PCR amplification primers were also used as cycle sequencing primers (Table 2.2). PCR amplification for rbcLa and matK was carried out at the Canadian Centre for DNA Barcoding (CCDB), Biodiversity Institute of Ontario, University of Guelph, Canada. Details of the project including voucher information, GPS coordinates, pictures and DNA barcodes are available on BOLD (http://www.boldsystems.org) (Ratnasingham & Herbert, 2007) within the project file ‘Alooideae of Africa’ (ALOAF). Sequencing of ITS1 and trnHpsbA as well as some additional matK and rbcLa was carried out at the African Centre for DNA Barcoding (ACDB) of the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. All PCR amplifications were performed using ReadyMix Master mix (Advanced Biotechnologies, Epsom, Surrey, UK). Bovine serum albumin (3.2%) was added to both nuclear and plastid 20 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! reactions, whereas 4.5% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was added only to matK and ITS1 amplifications. These additives serve as stabilisers for enzymes, reduce problems with secondary structure and improve annealing (Palumbi, 1996). PCR reaction amplification was performed using the following programs: for rbcLa and trnH-psbA, pre-melt at 94°C for 3 min, denaturation at 94°C for 1 min, annealing at 48°C for 1 min, extension at 72°C for 1 min (for 28 cycles), followed by a final extension at 72°C for 7 min; for matK, the protocol consisted of pre-melt at 94°C for 1 min, denaturation at 94°C for 30 s, annealing at 50°C for 40 s, extension at 72°C for 40 s (for 35 cycles), and a final extension at 72°C for 5 min. The ITS1 protocol consisted of pre-melt at 94°C for 3 min, denaturation at 94°C for 1 min, annealing at 48°C for 1 min, extension at 72°C for 3 min (for 26 cycles), followed by a final extension at 72°C for 7 min. Prior to cycle sequencing, PCR products were visualised on a 1.5% agarose gel and subsequently purified using QIAquick (Qiagen Inc.) silica columns according to the manufacturer’s protocol. The PCR products were purified using QIAquick (Qiagen Inc.) silica columns according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Cycle sequencing reactions for all genes used in this study were performed using ABI PRISM® BigDye® Terminator v3.1 Cycle Sequencing Kit (Applied Biosystems, Inc., California, USA). Cycle sequenced products were precipitated in ethanol and sodium acetate to remove excess dye terminators before sequencing on an ABI 3130x1 genetic analyser. 2.4 Phylogenetic analyses and tree construction Complementary strands were assembled and edited using Sequencher 4.8 (Gene Codes, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA). The sequences were aligned using Multiple Sequence Comparison by Log-Expectation (MUSCLE v. 3.8.31; Edgar, 2004) and the alignment finally adjusted manually in PAUP* (v. 4.0b.10; Swofford, 2002) without difficulties because of low levels of insertions/deletions except for the trnH-psbA region of which 15.5% regions were excluded 21 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! from analyses due to alignment difficulties at positions 1-24, 123-202; 272-290; 830-839 of the aligned matrix. The aligned matrices are available from the author (darunabas@gmail.com). The separate datasets were assessed for congruence by means of visual inspection of the individual bootstrap consensus trees. The bootstrap trees were declared incongruent in cases where they exhibit “hard” (high bootstrap support) instead of “soft” (low bootstrap support; Seelanan et al., 1997) incongruence. Maximum parsimony analyses (MP) were performed on the ITS1, combined plastid, and total combined datasets whereas Bayesian inference (BI) analysis was employed only on the combined data set. Maximum parsimony analyses were performed using PAUP* version 4.0b.10 (Swofford, 2002). Tree searches were conducted using 1 000 random sequence additions, retaining 10 trees at each step, with treebisection-reconnection (TBR) branch swapping and MulTrees in effect. Resulting trees were then used in a second search with the same parameters, however, without a limit for the number of trees per replicate (swopping to completion). Delayed transformation (DELTRAN) character optimisation was used instead of acceleration of transformation (ACCTRAN) for calculating branch lengths, because of reported errors with version 4.0b.10 of PAUP* (http://paup.csit.fsu.edu/problems.html). Branch support was estimated using bootstrap analysis (Felsenstein, 1985) with 1 000 replicates, simple sequence addition, no swapping, with MulTrees in effect saving 10 trees per replicate. The following scale for evaluating bootstrap support (BP) was applied: weak (50-74%), moderate (75-84%) or high (85-100%). Bayesian inference analysis (BI; Huelsenbeck & Ronquist, 2001; Ronquist & Huelsenbeck, 2003) was performed using MRBAYES v. 3.1.2. For each matrix (ITS1, rbcLa, matK, trnH-psbA) the most appropriate model was selected based on Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) implemented in MODELTEST v. 3.06 (Posada & Crandall, 1998). The model 22 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! TRN+G was selected for ITS1, TVM+G for matK, HKY+G for rbcLa and TVM+1+ G for trnH-psbA. I used 2 000 000 generations with a sample frequency of 200. Partition analysis was run for the combined dataset. The log-likelihood scores were plotted to determine the point of stationarity, and all trees prior to stationarity were discarded as the “burn-in” phase (1000 trees). All remaining trees were imported into PAUP* 4.0b.10 and a majority-rule consensus tree was produced showing the frequencies (posterior probabilities or PP) of all observed bi-partitions. The following scale was used to evaluate the PPs: below 0.95, weakly supported; 0.95-1.0, strongly supported. To map the BP and PP values (MrBayes tree) onto the tree, the nexus tree file from the Bayesian analysis was rescaled using the ape vs. 2.0-1 (Paradis et al., 2004) and adephylo vs. 1.1 (Jombart & Dray, 2010) packages implemented in R (R Development Core Team, 2011). 2.5 Coding of morphological characters A matrix of 20 morphological characters was prepared for the 154 species of Alooideae included in the analyses. Most morphological studies in Alooideae systematics employed these diagnostic characters (often chosen at species level) to infer relationships within the subfamily (Germishuizen et al., 2006; Gildenhuys, 2007; Glen & Hardy, 2000; Glen & Smith, 1995; Jeppe, 1969; Bayer, 1982, 1999, 2002, 2009; Klopper & Smith, 2007; Meyer & Smith, 1998, 2001; Mössmer et al., 1995; Reynolds, 1966, 1969; Smith et al., 1995; Smith & Steyn, 2005; Smith, 1995a, b; Van Jaarsveld et al., 1994; Van Jaarsveld & van Wyk, 2004, 2005, 2006; Van Jaarsveld, 1992, 1994, 1998, 2001; Van Wyk & Smith, 2003). To test for phylogenetic structure in morphological characters, the R function ‘table.phylo4d’ implemented in the R package adephylo vs. 1.1 (Jombart & Dray, 2010) was used. By plotting phylogeny and traits simultaneously, this function allows a direct visualisation of phylogenetic structure in morphological traits. 23 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! The patterns of evolution of these characters were examined by reconstructing them onto the majority-rule consensus tree produced by the BI analysis using Mesquite vs 2.75 (Maddison & Maddison, 2011). Morphological characters and character-states are defined in Table 2.3 and the data matrix used for character reconstructions is shown in Table 2.4. All trait values are centred and scaled into binary values. These values are represented using coloured symbols, with the different colours proportional to the absolute value of each trait. 24 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Table 2.1 Table of taxa, voucher information, and accession numbers from GenBank. DNA sequences obtained from GenBank are indicated by 1 Treutlein et al., 2003a, 2Treutlein et al., 2003b, and 3Kim et al., 2010. Original publication dates and synonyms were obtained from The Plant List Version 1 (2010). ! Original Publication Details Aloe L. Section Aloe Aloe arenicola Reynolds Aloe pearsonii Schönland Aloe perfoliata L. (TYPE) Synonym(s) Distribution GenBank Accession Number Voucher (herbarium) trnH-psbA ITS rbcLa matK J. S. African Bot. 4: 21 (1938) Rec. Albany Mus. 2: 229 (1911) Sp. Pl. 319 (1753) — — Aloe albispina Haw., Aloe brevifolia Haw. [nom. illegit.], Aloe commelyni Willd., Aloe comptonii Reynolds, Aloe depressa Salm-Dyck ex Steud. [nom. inva.], Aloe distans Haw., Aloe flavispina Haw., Aloe mitriformis Mill., Aloe mitriformis DC. [nom. illegit.], Aloe mitriformis Willd. [nom. illegit.], Aloe mitriformis var. albispina (Haw.) A.Berger, Aloe mitriformis var. angustior Lam., Aloe mitriformis var. commelyni (Willd.) Baker, Aloe mitriformis var. comptonii (Reynolds) Zonn., Aloe mitriformis subsp. distans (Haw.) Zonn., Aloe mitriformis var. elatior Haw., Aloe mitriformis var. flavispina (Haw.) Baker, Aloe mitriformis var. humilior Haw.,Aloe mitriformis var. humilior Willd., Aloe mitriformis var. pachyphylla Baker, Aloe mitriformis var. spinosior Haw., Aloe mitriformis var. spinulosa (Salm-Dyck) Baker, Aloe mitriformis var. xanthacantha (Willd.) Baker, Aloe nobilis Haw., Aloe parvispina Schönland, Aloe perfoliata var. brevifolia Aiton, Aloe perfoliata var. mitriformis (Mill.) Aiton, Aloe reflexa Marum ex Steud., Aloe spinulosa Salm-Dyck, Aloe xanthacantha Willd. Western Cape Northern Cape, Namibia Eastern and Western Cape OM3018 (JRAU) OM2955 (JRAU) BHD391 (JRAU)BHD461 (JRAU) OM2819 (JRAU) JQ024863 JQ024868 — JQ025268 JQ025269 JQ025315 JQ024528 JQ024487 JQ024526 JQ024527 JQ024111 JQ024154 JQ024155 JQ024156 Gard. Chron. n.s., 1874(1): 566 (1874) Aloe bainesii Dyer, Aloe bainesii Dyer var. barberae (Dyer) Baker, Aloe zeyheri Baker [nom. illegit.] BHD192 (JRAU) JQ024864 JQ025262 JQ024489 JQ024113 Aloe eminens Reynolds and P.R.O.Bally J. S. African Bot. 24: 187 (1958) — Eastern Cape, KwazuluNatal, Mpumalanga, Swaziland Northern Somalia BHD474 (JRAU) JQ039258 JQ025369 — — Section Anguialoe Aloe alooides (Bolus) Druten Bothalia 6: 544 (1956) Mpumalanga BHD476 (JRAU) JQ039243 JQ025325 — — Aloe spicata L.f. Suppl. Pl. 205 (1782) Aloe recurvifolia Groenew., Notosceptrum alooides (Bolus) Benth., Urginea alooides Bolus Aloe sessiliflora Pole-Evans OM1522 (JRAU) JQ039282 JQ025290 — — Aloe vryheidensis Groenew. Tijdschr. Natuurk. Wetensch. Kunsten 38 (1935) Kwazulu-Natal, Limpopo, Mpumalanga, Swaziland Kwazulu-Natal, Limpopo, Mpumalanga BHD467 (JRAU) JQ039288 JQ025308 — — Section Aloidendron Aloe barberae Dyer Aloe dolomitica Groenew. Section Arborescentes 25 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Aloe arborescens Mill. Gard. Dict. ed. 8 3 (1768) Aloe perfoliata var. arborescens (Mill.) Aiton, Catevala arborescens (Mill.) Medik. Eastern and Western Cape, Gauteng, Kwazulu-Natal, Limpopo, Mpumalanga, North-West, Botswana, Swaziland BHD420 (JRAU) JQ039246 JQ025326 JQ024486 JQ024110 Section Aristatae Aloe aristata Haw. Philos. Mag. J. 67: 280 (1825) Aloe aristata Haw. var. leiophylla Baker, Aloe aristata Haw. var. parvifolia Baker, Aloe ellenbergeri Guillaumin, Aloe longiaristata Schult. and Schult.f. Eastern and Western Cape, Free State, Kwazulu-Natal, Limpopo BHD459 (JRAU) BG HeidelbergBG Jena JQ039247 JQ025312 AY3236511 AY3236521 AJ5123191 AY3236341 AJ5114071 AY3237131 Aloes S. Afr. Veld 287 (1971) — Namibia BHD386 (JRAU) JQ039254 JQ025303 JQ024500 JQ024125 Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 10: 2 (1889) — Free State, Northern Cape, Namibia BHD388 (JRAU) JQ039266 JQ025305 JQ024514 JQ024140 Gard. Chron. III, 1905(2): 102 (1905) — Kwazulu-Natal, Limpopo, Mpumalanga, Botswana, Swaziland OM1625 (JRAU) JQ039249 JQ025299 — — Philos. Trans. 66: 310 (1776) Rhipidodendrum dichotomum (Masson) Willd. Northern Cape, Namibia OM2953 (JRAU) — JQ025368 JQ024501 JQ024126 Aloe dichotoma Masson subsp. pillansii (L.Guthrie) Zonn. Bradleya 20: 10 (2002) Aloe pillansii L.Guthrie Northern Cape, Namibia BHD390 (JRAU) JQ039255 JQ025372 JQ024502 JQ024127 Aloe dichotoma Masson subsp. ramosissima (Pillans) Zonn. Bradleya 20: 10 (2002) Aloe dichotoma Masson var. ramosissima (Pillans) Glen and D.S.Hardy, Aloe ramosissima Pillans Namibia OM2954 (JRAU) JQ039256 JQ025367 JQ024503 JQ024128 Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 36: 63 (1905) Bothalia 12: 62 (1976) — — Northern and Western Cape Eastern Cape BHD462 (JRAU) BHD381 (JRAU) JQ039271 JQ039277 JQ025267 JQ025324 — JQ024530 — JQ024158 Gard. Dict. ed. 8 7 (1768) Aloe disticha L. var. plicatilis L., Aloe flabelliformis Salisb., Aloe lingua Thunb., Aloe linguaeformis L.f. [nom. illegit.], Aloe tripetala Medik., Kumara disticha Medick., Rhipidodendron distichum (Medick.) Willd., Rhipidodendron plicatile (L.) Haw. Western Cape BHD193 (JRAU) BG Heidelberg, Germany 9286 JQ039278 JQ025373 AY3236621 JQ024531 AY3236131 JQ024159 AY3236931 Fl. Pl. South Africa 18: 707 (1938) — Limpopo RL1193 (JRAU) JQ039270 JQ025348 — — J. S. African Bot. 13: 101 (1947) Aloe kraussii Baker var. minor Baker, Aloe myriacantha (Haw.) Schult. and Schult.f. var. minor (Baker) A.Berger, Leptaloe albida Stapf Mpumalanga, Swaziland BHD475 (JRAU) JQ039242 JQ025366 — — — Aloe challisii van Jaarsv. and A.E.van Wyk Aloe chortolirioides A.Berger Aloe 43: 36 (2006) — Mpumalanga BHD471 (JRAU) JQ039250 JQ025355 — — Pflanzenr. IV, 38: 171 (1908) — BHD477 (JRAU) JQ039251 JQ025374 — — Aloe ecklonis Salm-Dyck Aloes Mesembr. 2: 21 (1849) Aloe agrophila Reynolds BHD465 (JRAU) JQ039257 JQ025307 — — Aloe fouriei D.S.Hardy and Glen Limpopo, Mpumalanga, Swaziland Eastern Cape, Free State, Kwazulu-Natal, Limpopo, Mpumalanga Limpopo, Mpumalanga BHD469 (JRAU) JQ039261 JQ025358 — — Fl. Pl. Africa 49: 1941 (1987) Section Asperifoliae Aloe dewinteri Giess ex Borman and Hardy Aloe hereroensis Engl. Section Chabaudia Aloe chabaudii Schönland Section Dracoaloe Aloe dichotoma Masson Section Echinatae Aloe melanacantha A.Berger Aloe pictifolia Hardy Section Kumara Aloe plicatilis (L.) Mill. Section Latebracteatae Aloe lutescens Groenew. Section Leptoaloe Aloe albida (Stapf) Reynolds — 26 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Aloe nubigena Groenew. Aloe saundersiae (Reynolds) Reynolds Aloe verecunda Pole-Evans Aloe vossii Reynolds Section Macrifoliae Aloe ciliaris Haw. Aloe commixta A.Berger Aloe gracilis Haw. Aloe striatula Haw. Aloe tenuior Haw. Section Pachydendron Aloe angelica Pole-Evans Aloe excelsa A.Berger Aloe ferox Mill. Aloe petricola Pole Evans Aloe rupestris Baker Aloe thraskii Baker Section Paniculatae Aloe buhrii Lavranos Aloe kouebokkeveldensis van Jaarsv. and A.B.Low Aloe reynoldsii Letty Aloe striata Haw. Aloe striata Haw. subsp. karasbergensis (Pillans) Glen and D.S.Hardy Tijdschr. Natuurk. Wetensch. Kunsten 14: 3 (1936) J. S. African Bot. 13: 103 (1947) — Limpopo, Mpumalanga BHD353 (JRAU) JQ039274 JQ025356 — — Leptaloe saundersiae Reynolds Kwazulu-Natal BHD463 (JRAU) JQ039281 JQ025345 — — Trans. Roy. Soc. South Africa 5: 703 (1917) J. S. African Bot. 2: 65 (1936) — BHD444 (JRAU) JQ039286 JQ025346 — — — Gauteng, Limpopo, Mpumalanga Limpopo BHD0464 (JRAU) JQ039287 JQ025347 — Philos. Mag. J. 67: 281 (1825) Pflanzenr. IV, 38: 260 (1908) — — Eastern and Western Cape Western Cape BHD431 (JRAU) BHD405 (JRAU) JQ024866 JQ039252 JQ025292 JQ025329 JQ024496 JQ024497 — — JQ024121 JQ024122 Philos. Mag. J. 67: 280 (1825) Philos. Mag. J. 67: 281 (1825) Philos. Mag. J. 67: 281 (1825) Aloe laxiflora N.E.Br. — Aloe tenuior Haw. var. decidua Reynolds, Aloe tenuior Haw. var. densiflora Reynolds, Aloe tenuior Haw. var. glaucescens Zahlbr., Aloe tenuior Haw. var. rubriflora Reynolds, Aloe tenuior Haw. var. viridifolia van Jaarsv. Eastern and Western Cape Eastern Cape, Limpopo Eastern and Western Cape, Kwazulu-Natal, Mpumalanga BHD399 (JRAU) BHD191 (JRAU) BHD393 (JRAU) BHD415 (JRAU) JQ039263 JQ024872 JQ039284 JQ025330 JQ025291 JQ025331 JQ024510 JQ024538 JQ024541 JQ024136 JQ024166 JQ024169 Fl. Pl. South Africa 14: 554 (1934) Notizbl. Königl. Bot. Gart. Berlin 4: 247 (1906) Gard. Dict. ed. 8 22 (1768) — Limpopo OM2960 (JRAU) JQ039244 JQ025310 — JQ024109 — Limpopo, Botswana OM1621 (JRAU) JQ039259 JQ025301 — — Aloe candelabrum A.Berger [nom. illegit.], Aloe ferox var. galpinii (Baker) Reynolds, Aloe ferox var. incurva Baker, Aloe ferox var. subferox (Spreng.) Baker, Aloe galpinii Baker, Aloe horrida Haw., Aloe muricata Haw., Aloe pallancae Guillaumin [nom. inva.], Aloe perfoliata var. ferox (Mill.) Aiton, Aloe pseudoferox Salm-Dyck, Aloe subferox Spreng., Aloe supralaevis var. erythrocarpa Baker, Busipho ferox (Mill.) Salisb. [nom. inva.], Pachidendron ferox (Mill.) Haw., Pachidendron pseudoferox (Salm-Dyck) Haw., Pachidendron supralaeve (Haw.) Haw. Eastern and Western Cape, Kwazulu-Natal, Limpopo BHD407 (JRAU) JQ039260 JQ025327 — — Trans. Roy. Soc. South Africa 5: 707 (1917) Fl. Cap. 6: 327 (1896) J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 18: 180 (1880) — Limpopo, Mpumalanga OM2959 (JRAU) JQ039276 JQ025300 JQ024529 JQ024157 Aloe nitens Baker [nom. illegit.] — Kwazulu-Natal, Swaziland Kwazulu-Natal BHD468 (JRAU) BHD411 (JRAU) JQ039280 JQ039285 JQ025317 JQ025319 — JQ024542 — JQ024170 J. S. African Bot. 37: 37 (1971) Aloe 41: 36 (2004) — — Northern Cape Western Cape BHD402 (JRAU) BHD378 (JRAU) JQ024865 JQ024867 JQ025263 JQ025264 JQ024494 JQ024518 JQ024118 JQ024144 Fl. Pl. South Africa 14: 558 (1934) Trans. Linn. Soc. London 7: 18 (1804) S. African J. Bot. 53: 491 (1987) — Eastern Cape BHD379 (JRAU) JQ024869 JQ025265 JQ024532 JQ024160 — Eastern and Western Cape BHD400 (JRAU) JQ024870 JQ025260 JQ024534 JQ024162 Aloe karasbergensis Pillans Northern Cape BHD408 (JRAU) JQ039283 JQ025306 JQ024536 JQ024164 27 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Aloe striata Haw. subsp. komaggasensis (Kritz. and van Jaarsv.) Glen and D.S.Hardy S. African J. Bot. 53: 491 (1987) Aloe komaggasensis Kritz. and van Jaarsv. Northern Cape BHD417 (JRAU) JQ024871 JQ025261 JQ024537 JQ024165 S. African J. Bot. 53: 490 (1987) Aloe barbertoniae Pole-Evans, Aloe comosibracteata Reynolds, Aloe davyana Schönland, Aloe davyana var. subolifera Groenew., Aloe graciliflora Groenew., Aloe labiaflava Groenew., Aloe longibracteata Pole-Evans, Aloe mutans Reynolds, Aloe verdoorniae Reynolds Free State, Gauteng, Kwazulu-Natal, Limpopo, Mpumalanga, North-West, Swaziland BHD380 (JRAU) JQ039264 JQ025304 JQ024512 JQ024138 Section Proliferae Aloe brevifolia Mill. Gard. Dict. Abr. ed. 6 8 (1771) Aloe brevifolia Mill. var. postgenita (Schult. and Schult.f.) Baker Western Cape BHD460 (JRAU) JQ039248 JQ025314 — — Section Purpurascentes Aloe microstigma Salm-Dyck Aloes Mesembr. 2: 26 (1849) — BHD392 (JRAU) JQ039272 JQ025323 JQ024525 JQ024152 Aloe succotrina Weston Encycl. 1: 85 (1783) Aloe perfoliata L. var. purpurascens Aiton, Aloe perfoliata L. var. succotrina (Lam.) Aiton, Aloe purpurascens (Aiton) Haw., Aloe sinuata Thunb., Aloe sinuata Willd. [nom. illegit.], Aloe soccotorina Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe soccotrina Garsault, Aloe soccotrina DC. var. purpurascens (Aiton) Ker Gawl., Aloe succotrina Lam. var. saxigena A.Berger, Aloe vera Mill. [nom. illegit.] Northern and Western Cape, Namibia Western Cape BHD424 (JRAU) JQ024873 JQ025266 JQ024539 JQ024167 Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 38: 86 (1905) — Western Cape BHD385 (JRAU) JQ039253 JQ025328 JQ024499 JQ024124 Gard. Dict. ed. 8 16 (1768) Aloe glauca Mill. var. elatior Salm-Dyck, Aloe glauca Mill. var. humilior Salm-Dyck, Aloe glauca Mill. var. major Haw., Aloe glauca Mill. var. minor Haw., Aloe glauca Mill. var. muricata (Schult.) Baker, Aloe glauca Mill. var. spinosior Haw., Aloe muricata Schult. [nom. illegit.], Aloe perfoliata var. glauca (Mill.) Aiton, Aloe rhodacantha DC. Aloe perfoliata var. lineata Aiton Northern and Western Cape BHD419 (JRAU) JQ039262 JQ025313 JQ024508 JQ024134 Eastern and Western Cape BHD416 (JRAU) JQ039267 JQ025320 JQ024520 JQ024147 Aloe muirii Marloth Eastern and Western Cape BHD412 (JRAU) BHD387 (JRAU) JQ039269 JQ025322 JQ025321 JQ024521 JQ024522 JQ024148 JQ024149 Bradleya 16: 114 (1998) Lomatophyllum anivoranoense Rauh and Hebding North-Eastern Madagascar BHD473 (JRAU) JQ039245 JQ025371 — — J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 22: 529 (1887) Bradleya 16: 114 (1998) Aloinella haworthioides (Baker) Lemée, Leemea haworthioides (Baker) P.V.Heath Lomatophyllum propaguliferum Rauh and Razaf. Central Madagascar BHD190 (JRAU) JQ039265 JQ025357 JQ024513 JQ024139 Central to Eastern Madagascar BHD472 (JRAU) JQ039279 JQ025359 — — Fl. Pl. Africa 28: 1091 (1951) — Zimbabwe, Mozambique (Chimanimani Mountains) BHD470 (JRAU) JQ039273 JQ025302 — — Section Pictae Aloe greatheadii var. davyana (Schönland) Glen and D.S.Hardy Section Rhodacanthae Aloe comosa Marloth and A.Berger Aloe glauca Mill. Aloe lineata (Aiton) Haw. Aloe lineata (Aiton) Haw.var. muirii(Marloth) Reynolds Madagascan Aloes Aloe anivoranoensis (Rauh and Hebding) L.E.Newton and G.D.Rowley Aloe haworthioides Baker Aloe propagulifera (Rauh and Razaf.) L.E.Newton and G.D.Rowley Taxonomic Status Unknown Aloe munchii Christian Trans. Linn. Soc. London 7: 18 (1804) Aloes S. Afr. 205 (1950) Astroloba Uitewaal 28 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Astroloba corrugata N.L.Mey. and Gideon F.Sm. Bothalia 28: 61 (1998) Apicra aspera var. major Haw., Haworthia aspera var. major (Haw.) Parr, Haworthia corrugata (N.L.Mey. and Gideon F.Sm.) M.Hayashi Western Cape BHD219 (JRAU) JQ039290 JQ025350 JQ024545 JQ024173 Astroloba foliolosa (Haw.) Uitewaal Succulenta (Netherlands) 28: 54 (1947) Aloe foliolosa Haw., Apicra foliolosa (Haw.) Willd., Astroloba smutsiana nom. prov. Reinecke, Astroloba spiralis subsp. foliolosa (Haw.) L.E.Groen, Haworthia foliolosa (Haw.) Haw. Eastern Cape BHD228 (JRAU) JQ039291 JQ025351 JQ024547 JQ024175 Astroloba herrei Uitewaal Desert Pl. Life 20: 37 (1948) Astroloba dodsoniana Uitewaal, Haworthia dodsoniana (Uitewaal) Parr, Haworthia harlandiana Parr Western Cape BHD225 (JRAU) JQ039292 JQ025349 JQ024548 JQ024176 Astroloba rubriflora (L.Bolus) Gideon F.Sm. and J.C.Manning Bothalia 30: 53 (2000) Aloe rubriflora (L.Bolus) G.D.Rowley, Apicra jacobseniana Poelln., Apicra rubriflora L.Bolus, Haworthia rubriflora (L.Bolus) Parr, Poellnitzia rubriflora (L.Bolus) Uitewaal, Poelnitzia rubriflora var. jacobseniana (Poelln.) Uitewaal Western Cape BHD229 (JRAU) JQ039293 JQ025297 JQ024549 JQ024177 Pflanzenr. IV, 38: 73 (1908) Catevala angolensis (Baker) Kuntze, Chortolirion bergerianum Dinter, Chortolirion stenophyllum Berger, Chortolirion subspicatum (Baker) A.Berger, Chortolirion tenuifolium (Engl.) A.Berger, Chortolirion tenuifolium Berger, Haworthia angolensis Baker, Haworthia stenophylla Baker, Haworthia subspicata Baker, Haworthia tenuifolia Engl. Eastern and Northern Cape, Free State, Gauteng, Kwazulu-Natal, Limpopo, Mpumalanga, North West, Botswana, Namibia, Swaziland BHD466 (JRAU) JQ039295 JQ025344 — — Philos. Mag. Ann. Chem. 2: 351 (1827) Aloe 41: 81 (2004) Aloe disticha L., Ptys disticha (L.) Salisb. [nom. inva.] Western Cape OM2778 (JRAU) JQ024879 JQ025278 JQ024560 JQ024187 — Eastern Cape OM2793 (JRAU) JQ024880 JQ025279 JQ024561 JQ024188 Bradleya 9: 100 (1991) Pl. Succ. Horto Alencon. 6 (1809) — Aloe bicolor (Haw.) Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe boureana Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe dictyodes Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe formosa (Haw.) Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe guttata Salm-Dyck, Aloe lingua Ker Gawl. [nom. illegit.], Aloe maculata Thunb. [nom. illegit.], Aloe maculata var. obliqua Aiton, Aloe marmorata Steud., Aloe nigricans var. fasciata Salm-Dyck, Aloe obliqua (Aiton) Haw. [nom. illegit.], Aloe planifolia Baker [nom. illegit.], Aloe vittata Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe zeyheri Salm-Dyck, Gasteria bicolor Haw., Gasteria bicolor var. fallax (Haw.) van Jaarsv., Gasteria bicolor var. liliputana (Poelln.) van Jaarsv., Gasteria biformis Poelln., Gasteria caespitosa Poelln., Gasteria chamaegigas Poelln., Gasteria colubrina N.E.Br., Gasteria fasciata (Salm-Dyck) Haw., Gasteria formosa Haw., Gasteria herreana Poelln., Gasteria kirsteana Poelln., Gasteria liliputana Poelln., Gasteria lingua (Ker Gawl.) A.Berger [nom. illegit.], Gasteria loeriensis Poelln., Gasteria longiana Poelln., Gasteria longibracteata Poelln., Gasteria maculata Haw., Gasteria maculata var. dregeana A.Berger, Gasteria maculata var. fallax Haw., Gasteria marmorata Baker, Gasteria multiplex Poelln., Gasteria nigricans var. Eastern Cape Eastern Cape OM2772 (JRAU) OM2788 (JRAU) JQ024884 JQ024886 JQ025283 JQ025274 JQ024566 JQ024569 JQ024193 JQ024196 Chortolirion A.Berger Chortolirion angolense (Baker) A.Berger Gasteria Duval Section Gasteria Gasteria disticha (L.) Haw. Gasteria doreeniae van Jaarsv. and A.E.van Wyk Gasteria glomerata van Jaarsv. Gasteria obliqua (Aiton) Duval 29 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! fasciata (Salm-Dyck) Haw., Gasteria picta Haw., Gasteria planifolia (Baker) Baker, Gasteria retata Haw., Gasteria multiplex Poelln., Gasteria nigricans var. fasciata (Salm-Dyck) Haw., Gasteria picta Haw., Gasteria planifolia (Baker) Baker, Gasteria retata Haw., Gasteria salmdyckiana Poelln., Gasteria spiralis Baker, Gasteria spiralis var. tortulata Baker, Gasteria variolosa Baker, Gasteria zeyheri (Salm-Dyck) Baker Gasteria pillansii Kensit var. ernesti-ruschii (Dinter and Poelln.) van Jaarsv. Gasteria pillansii Kensit var. pillansii Gasteria rawlinsonii Oberm. Section Longiflorae Haw. Gasteria acinacifolia (J.Jacq.) Haw. Aloe 29: 17 (1992) Gasteria ernesti-ruschii Dinter and Poelln. Northern Cape, Namibia OM2779 (JRAU) — JQ025285 JQ024570 JQ024197 Unknown Gasteria neliana Poelln. Northern Cape OM2781 (JRAU) JQ024874 JQ025284 JQ024553 JQ024180 Fl. Pl. Africa 43: t. 1701 (1976) — Eastern Cape OM2775 (JRAU) JQ024889 JQ025288 JQ024573 JQ024200 Suppl. Pl. Succ. 49 (1819) Aloe acinacifolia J.Jacq., Aloe acinacifolia var. minor Salm-Dyck, Aloe candicans (Haw.) Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe ensifolia (Haw.) Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe nitens Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe pluripunctata Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe venusta Schult. and Schult.f., Gasteria acinacifolia var. ensifolia (Haw.) Baker, Gasteria acinacifolia var. nitens (Haw.) Baker, Gasteria acinacifolia var. pluripunctata (Haw.) Baker, Gasteria acinacifolia var. venusta (Haw.) Baker, Gasteria candicans Haw., Gasteria ensifolia Haw., Gasteria fuscopunctata Baker, Gasteria huttoniae N.E.Br., Gasteria inexpectata Poelln., Gasteria linita Haw., Gasteria lutzii Poelln., Gasteria nitens Haw., Gasteria pluripunctata Haw., Gasteria venusta Haw. Eastern Cape OM2790 (JRAU) JQ024875 JQ025271 JQ024554 JQ024181 Gasteria batesiana var. dolomitica van Jaarsv. and Van Wyk Aloe 36(4) 74 (1999) — Mpumalanga OM2777 (JRAU) JQ024876 JQ025273 JQ024555 JQ024182 30 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Gasteria carinata (Mill.) Duval var. carinata Unknown Gasteria carinata var. retusa van Jaarsv. Aloe 29: 15 (1992) Gasteria croucheri (Hook.f.) Baker Gasteria ellaphieae van Jaarsv. J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 18: 196 (1880) Cact. Succ. J. (Los Angeles) 63: 3 (1991) J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 18: 195 (1880) Cact. Succ. J. (Los Angeles) 70: 65 (1998) Aloe 29: 12 (1992) Gasteria excelsa Baker Gasteria glauca van Jaarsv. Gasteria nitida var. armstrongii (Schönland) van Jaarsv. Gasteria polita van Jaarsv.(TYPE) Gasteria pulchra (Aiton) Haw. Gasteria tukhelensis van Jaarsv. Gasteria vlokii van Jaarsv. Aloe angulata Willd., Aloe angulata var. truncata Willd., Aloe carinata Ker Gawl., Aloe carinata var. subglabra Haw., Aloe excavata Willd., Aloe glabra (Haw.) Salm-Dyck, Aloe laetepunctata (Haw.) Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe laevis Salm-Dyck, Aloe lingua var. angulata Haw., Aloe lingua var. multifaria Haw., Aloe linguiformis DC. [nom. illegit.], Aloe pseudoangulata Salm-Dyck, Aloe pusilla Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe subcarinata Salm-Dyck, Aloe sulcata Salm-Dyck, Aloe tristicha Medik., Aloe undata Schult. and Schult.f., Gasteria angulata (Haw.) Duval, Gasteria angulata (Willd.) Haw. [nom. illegit.], Gasteria angulata var. truncata (Willd.) A.Berger, Gasteria bijliae Poelln., Gasteria carinata var. falcata A.Berger, Gasteria carinata var. glabra (Salm-Dyck) van Jaarsv., Gasteria carinata var. latifolia A.Berger, Gasteria carinata var. parva (Haw.) Baker, Gasteria carinata var. strigata (Haw.) Baker, Gasteria disticha var. angulata (Willd.) Baker, Gasteria excavata (Willd.) Haw., Gasteria glabra Haw., Gasteria humilis Poelln., Gasteria laetepunctata Haw., Gasteria laevis (Salm-Dyck) Haw., Gasteria pallescens Baker, Gasteria parva Haw., Gasteria parvifolia Baker, Gasteria patentissima Poelln., Gasteria porphyrophylla Baker, Gasteria schweickerdtiana Poelln., Gasteria strigata Haw., Gasteria subcarinata (Salm-Dyck) Haw., Gasteria sulcata (Salm-Dyck) Haw., Gasteria trigona var. kewensis A.Berger, Gasteria undata Haw. Gasteria retusa (van Jaarsv.) van Jaarsv. Western Cape OM2780 (JRAU) JQ039297 JQ025275 — — Western Cape OM2798 (JRAU) JQ024877 JQ025276 JQ024556 JQ024183 Aloe croucheri Hook.f., Gasteria disticha var. natalensis Baker — Eastern Cape, KwazuluNatal Eastern Cape OM2773 (JRAU) OM2791 (JRAU) OM2782 (JRAU) JQ024878 JQ025277 JQ024186 JQ024881 JQ025280 JQ024559 JQ024558 JQ024562 — Eastern Cape OM2789 (JRAU) JQ024882 JQ025281 JQ024564 JQ024191 — Eastern Cape OM2771 (JRAU) JQ024883 JQ025282 JQ024565 JQ024192 Gasteria armstrongii Schönland, Gasteria armstrongii Schoenland — Eastern Cape OM2792 (JRAU) JQ024885 JQ025272 JQ024567 JQ024194 Western Cape OM2784 (JRAU) JQ024887 JQ025286 JQ024571 JQ024198 Aloe maculata var. pulchra Aiton, Aloe obliqua DC., Aloe pulchra (Aiton) Jacq., Gasteria poellnitziana H.Jacobsen [nom. inva.] Eastern Cape OM2785 (JRAU) JQ024888 JQ025287 JQ024572 JQ024199 Bothalia 35: 164 (2005) — Kwazulu-Natal OM2774 (JRAU) JQ024890 JQ025289 JQ024574 JQ024201 Cact. Succ. J. (Los Angeles) 59: 170 (1987) — Western Cape OM2786 (JRAU) JQ039298 JQ025298 JQ024575 JQ024202 Cact. Succ. J. (Los Angeles) 73: 127 (2001) Syn. Pl. Succ. 86 (1812) JQ024189 Haworthia Duval subgenus Haworthia 31 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Haworthia angustifolia Haw. Philos. Mag. J. 67:283 (1825) Catevala angustifolia (Haw.) Kuntze, Haworthia chloracantha var. angustifolia (Haw.) Halda, Haworthia chloracantha subsp. angustifolia (Haw.) Halda Eastern Cape BHD234 (JRAU) JQ039299 — JQ024593 JQ024219 Haworthia arachnoidea (L.) Duval (TYPE) Pl. Succ. Horto Alencon. 7 (1809) Aloe arachnoidea (L.) Burm.f., Aloe pumila var. arachnoidea L., Apicra arachnoides (L.) Willd., Catevala arachnoidea (L.) Medik., Haworthia pallida var. paynei L. Bolus. Western Cape BHD029 (JRAU) BHD030 (JRAU) JQ024891 JQ024892 — JQ024601 JQ024602 JQ024226 Haworthia bayeri J.D.Venter and S.A.Hammer Haworthia blackburniae W.F.Barker Cact. Succ. J. (Los Angeles) 69: 75 (1997) J. S. African Bot. 3: 93 (1937) — Eastern and Western Cape BHD110 (JRAU) JQ039301 JQ025360 JQ024615 JQ024239 Haworthia blackburniae Poelln. [nom. illegit.] Western Cape BHD198 (JRAU) JQ024893 JQ025226 JQ024616 JQ024240 Haworthia blackburniae W.F.Barker var. derustensis M.B.Bayer Haworthia Revisited 41 (1999) Haworthia derustensis (M.B.Bayer) M.Hayashi Western Cape BHD243 (JRAU) JQ039302 JQ025361 JQ024617 JQ024241 Haworthia blackburniae W.F.Barker var. graminifolia (G.G.Sm.) M.B.Bayer Haworthia Revisited 42 (1999) Haworthia blackburniae subsp. graminifolia (G.G.Sm.) Halda, Haworthia graminifolia G.G.Sm. Western Cape BHD201 (JRAU) JQ039303 JQ025362 JQ024618 JQ024242 Haworthia chloracantha Haw. Saxifrag. Enum. 2: 57 (1821) Western Cape BHD075 (JRAU) JQ039305 JQ025363 JQ024625 JQ024249 Haworthia cooperi Baker Haworthia cooperi Baker var. doldii M.B.Bayer Haworthia cymbiformis (Haw.) Duval Haworthia cymbiformis (Haw.) Duval var. ramosa (G.G.Sm.) M.B.Bayer Haworthia cymbiformis (Haw.) Duval var. setulifera (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer Refug. Bot. 4: t. 233 (1870) Haworthiad 16: 65 (2002) Aloe chloracantha (Haw.) Schult. and Schult.f., Catevala chloracantha (Haw.) Kuntze Catevala cooperi (Baker) Kuntze Haworthia doldii (M.B.Bayer) M.Hayashi Eastern Cape Eastern Cape BHD133 (JRAU) BHD209 (JRAU) JQ024895 JQ024896 JQ025227 JQ025228 JQ024631 JQ024634 JQ024255 JQ024258 Pl. Succ. Horto Alencon. 7 (1809) Haworthia Revisited 60 (1999) Aloe cymbiformis Haw., Catevala cymbiformis (Haw.) Kuntze, Haworthia planifolia Haworthia cymbiformis f. ramosa (G.G.Sm.) M.B.Bayer, Haworthia ramosa G.G.Sm. Eastern Cape BHD322 (JRAU) JQ024898 JQ025229 JQ024645 JQ024269 Eastern Cape BHD321 (JRAU) JQ024897 JQ025231 JQ024644 JQ024268 Haworthia Revisited 62 (1999) Haworthia cymbiformis f. obesa (Poelln.) Pilbeam, Haworthia cymbiformis var. obesa Poelln., Haworthia planifolia var. setulifera Poelln. Eastern Cape BHD320 (JRAU) BHD325 (JRAU) JQ024899 JQ024900 JQ025230 JQ025232 JQ024648 JQ024649 JQ024272 JQ024273 Haworthia decipiens Poelln. Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 28: 103 (1930) Haworthia Revisited 67(1999) — Eastern and Western Cape BHD132 (JRAU) JQ024901 JQ025233 JQ024652 JQ024276 Eastern Cape BHD196 (JRAU) JQ024902 JQ025250 JQ024654 JQ024278 Haworthiad 16: 63 (2002) Haworthia bolusii var. pringlei (C.L. Scott) M.B.Bayer, Haworthia pringlei C.L.Scott Haworthia virella (M.B.Bayer) M.Hayashi BHD328 (JRAU) JQ024903 JQ025234 JQ024656 JQ024280 Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 42: 271 (1937) Haworthia retusa subsp. emelyae (Poelln.) Halda, Haworthia retusa var. emelyae (Poelln.) Halda Western Cape BHD105 (JRAU) JQ024904 JQ025236 JQ024661 JQ024285 Haworthia emelyae Poelln. var. comptoniana (G.G.Sm.) J.D.Venter and S.A.Hammer Cact. Succ. J. (Los Angeles) 69: 77 (1997) Haworthia comptoniana G.G.Sm., Haworthia retusa var. comptoniana (G.G.Sm.) Halda Eastern Cape BHD220 (JRAU) JQ039307 JQ025364 JQ024663 JQ024287 Haworthia floribunda Poelln. Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 40: 149 (1936) Cact. Succ. J. Gr. Brit. 7: 40 (1938) Haworthia Revisited 86 (1999) Haworthia chloracantha var. floribunda (Poelln.) Halda Western Cape BHD077 (JRAU) JQ024906 JQ025251 JQ024666 JQ024290 Aloe herbacea Mill. Western Cape BHD237 (JRAU) — — JQ024685 JQ024307 Haworthia pallida var. flaccida (M.B.Bayer) M.Hayashi Western Cape BHD333 (JRAU) JQ024907 JQ025252 JQ024686 JQ024308 Haworthia Revisited 87 (1999) Haworthia pallida var. paynei (Poelln.) Poelln., Haworthia paynei Poelln. Western Cape BHD373 (JRAU) JQ024908 JQ025254 JQ024687 JQ024309 Haworthia decipiens var. pringlei (C.L.Scott) M.B.Bayer Haworthia decipiens Poelln. var. virella M.B.Bayer Haworthia emelyae Poelln. Haworthia herbacea (Mill.) Stearn Haworthia herbacea (Mill.) Stearn var. flaccida M.B.Bayer Haworthia herbacea (Mill.) Stearn var. paynei (Poelln.) 32 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! M.B.Bayer Haworthia lockwoodii Archibald Haworthia maculata (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer Fl. Pl. South Africa 20: t. 792 (1940) Haworthia Handb. 130 (1976) Haworthia mucronata subsp. lockwoodii (Archibald) Halda Haworthia intermedia var. maculata (Poelln.) Esterhuizen, Haworthia schuldtiana var. maculata Poelln. Haworthia dekenahii G.G.Sm., Haworthia retusa var. dekenahii (G.G.Sm.) M.B.Bayer Western Cape BHD213 (JRAU) — JQ025378 JQ024711 JQ024336 Western Cape BHD203 (JRAU) JQ024911 JQ025237 JQ024715 JQ024340 Haworthia magnifica Poelln. var. dekenahii (G.G.Sm.) M.B.Bayer Haworthia marumiana Uitewaal var. archeri (W.F.Barker ex M.B.Bayer) M.B.Bayer Haworthia marxii Gildenh. Aloe 34: 6 (1997) Western Cape BHD092 (JRAU) JQ024912 JQ025238 JQ024716 JQ024341 Haworthia Revisited 104 (1999) Haworthia archeri W.F.Barker ex M.B.Bayer Northern and Western Cape BHD235 (JRAU) JQ024913 JQ025248 JQ024727 JQ024352 Haworthia mirabilis (Haw.) Haw. Aloe 44: 4 (2007) — Western Cape BHD339 (JRAU) JQ024914 JQ025249 JQ024728 JQ024353 Syn. Pl. Succ. 95 (1812) Aloe mirabilis Haw., Apicra mirabilis (Haw.) Willd., Catevala mirabilis (Haw.) Kuntze, Haworthia beukmanii, Haworthia retusa var. mirabilis (Haw.) Halda, Haworthia willowmorensis Poelln. Western Cape BHD032 (JRAU) JQ039317 JQ025365 JQ024650 JQ024274 Haworthia mirabilis (Haw.) Haw. var. paradoxa (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer Haworthia mirabilis var. calcarea M.B.Bayer Aloe 34: 6 (1997) Haworthia magnifica var. paradoxa (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer, Haworthia paradoxa Poelln. Western Cape BHD044 (JRAU) JQ024915 JQ025254 JQ024749 JQ024373 Haworthia Revisited 110 (1999) Western Cape BHD232 (JRAU) JQ024916 JQ025246 JQ024771 JQ024397 Haworthia mirabilis var. triebneriana (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer Haworthia Revisited 113 (1999) Haworthia calcarea (M.B.Bayer) M.Hayashi, Haworthia rossouwii var. calcarea (M.B.Bayer) M.B.Bayer Haworthia mirabilis f. rubrodentata (Triebner and Poelln.) Pilbeam, Haworthia nitidula Poelln., Haworthia rossouwii Poelln., Haworthia triebneriana Poelln., Haworthia triebneriana var. depauperata Poelln., Haworthia triebneriana var. multituberculata Poelln., Haworthia triebneriana var. napierensis Triebner and Poelln., Haworthia triebneriana var. pulchra Poelln., Haworthia triebneriana var. rubrodentata Triebner and Poelln., Haworthia triebneriana var. subtuberculata Poelln., Haworthia triebneriana var. turgida Triebner, Haworthia willowmorensis Poelln. Western Cape BHD020 (JRAU) JQ024917 — JQ024773 JQ024399 Haworthia monticola Fourc. var. asema M.B.Bayer Haworthia mucronata Haw. var. habdomadis (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer Haworthia mucronata Haw. var. morrisiae (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer Haworthia Revisited 117 (1999) Haworthia Revisited 120 (1999) Haworthia asema (M.B.Bayer) M.Hayashi Western Cape BHD251 (JRAU) JQ024918 JQ025255 JQ024780 JQ024405 Haworthia habdomadis Poelln., Haworthia inconfluens var. habdomadis (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer Western Cape BHD347 (JRAU) — JQ025379 JQ024784 JQ024409 Haworthia altilinea var. morrisiae Poelln., Haworthia altilinea f. subglauca Poelln., Haworthia habdomadis var. morrisiae (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer, Haworthia inconfluens var. morrisiae (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer, Haworthia mucronata f. subglauca (Poelln.) Poelln., Haworthia sakaii M.Hayashi Western Cape BHD349 (JRAU) JQ024920 JQ025240 JQ024785 JQ024410 Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 49: 29 (1940) 33 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Haworthia mucronata var. bijliana (Poelln.) ined. Unknown Haworthia altilinea f. inconfluens Poelln., Haworthia bijliana Poelln., Haworthia bijliana var. joubertii Poelln., Haworthia fergusoniae Poelln., Haworthia habdomadis var. inconfluens (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer, Haworthia inconfluens (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer, Haworthia mucronata var. inconfluens (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer, Haworthia mucronata f. inconfluens (Poelln.) Poelln.), Haworthia setata var. bijliana (Poelln.) Poelln. Western Cape BHD350 (JRAU) JQ024919 JQ025239 JQ024782 JQ024407 Haworthia mucronata var. rycroftiana (M. B. Bayer) M.B. Bayer Haworthia mutica Haw. Haworthia Revisited 124 (1999) Haworthia rycroftiana M.B.Bayer Western Cape BHD345 (JRAU) JQ024921 JQ025241 JQ024787 JQ024412 Saxifrag. Enum. 2: 55 (1821) Western Cape BHD102 (JRAU) JQ024922 JQ025242 JQ024797 JQ024421 Haworthia mutica Haw. var. nigra M.B.Bayer Haworthia outeniquensis M.B.Bayer Haworthia pulchella M.B.Bayer var. globifera M.B.Bayer Haworthia pygmaea Poelln. Haworthia Revisited 126 (1999) Haworthia Revisited 130 (1999) Haworthia Revisited 136 (1999) Aloe mutica (Haw.) Schult. and Schult.f., Haworthia retusa var. mutica (Haw.) Halda Haworthia silviae var. nigra (M.B.Bayer) M.Hayashi Western Cape BHD072 (JRAU) JQ024923 JQ025243 JQ024798 JQ024422 — Western Cape BHD356 (JRAU) JQ024924 JQ025256 JQ024807 JQ024431 Haworthia globifera (M.B.Bayer) M.Hayashi Western Cape BHD206 (JRAU) JQ024925 JQ025257 JQ024813 JQ024437 Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 27: 132 (1929) — Western Cape BHD358 (JRAU) JQ039320 JQ025333 JQ024816 JQ024440 Haworthia reticulata (Haw.) Haw. Syn. Pl. Succ. 94 (1812) Western Cape BHD117 (JRAU) JQ024927 JQ025244 JQ024819 JQ024443 Haworthia retusa (L.) Duval Pl. Succ. Horto Alencon. 7 (1809) Haworthia Handb. 153 (1976) Aloe reticulata Haw., Apicra reticulata (Haw.) Willd., Catevala reticulata (Haw.) Kuntze, Haworthia haageana Aloe retusa L., Apicra retusa (L.) Willd., Catevala retusa (L.) Medik Haworthia arachnoideae var. semiviva (Poelln.) Halda, Haworthia bolusii var. semiviva Poelln. JQ024928 JQ025245 JQ024832 Northern and Western Cape BHD027 (JRAU) BHD120 (JRAU) BHD360 (JRAU) JQ024929 JQ025247 JQ024844 JQ024456 JQ024455 JQ024467 Haworthia semiviva (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer Haworthia springbokvlakensis C.L.Scott Haworthia truncata Schönland J. S. African Bot. 36: 288 (1970) Trans. Roy. Soc. South Africa 1: 291 (1910) Haworthia retusa var. springbokvlakensis (C.L.Scott) Halda — Eastern Cape BHD362 (JRAU) — — JQ024847 JQ024470 Western Cape BHD210 (JRAU) JQ039323 JQ025375 JQ024848 JQ024471 Haworthia variegata L.Bolus J. Bot. 67: 137 (1929) Western Cape BHD367 (JRAU) JQ039324 JQ025376 JQ024850 JQ024473 Haworthia vlokii M.B.Bayer Haworthia Revisited 160 (1999) J. S. African Bot. 8: 245 (1942) Haworthia chloracantha var. variegata (L.Bolus) Halda, Haworthia chloracantha subsp. variegata (L.Bolus) Halda — Western Cape BHD249 (JRAU) JQ024930 JQ025258 JQ024858 JQ024481 — Western Cape BHD200 (JRAU) JQ024931 JQ025259 JQ024859 JQ024482 Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 41: 217 (1937) Haworthia chloracantha var. zantheriana (Poelln.) Halda Eastern Cape BHD230 (JRAU) JQ039326 JQ025370 JQ024860 JQ024483 Syn. Pl. Succ. 92 (1812) Aloe attenuata Haw., Apicra attenuata (Haw.) Willd., Catevala attenuata (Haw.) Kuntze, Haworthia attenuata var. britteniae Poelln., Haworthia attenuata var. clariperla (Haw.) M.B.Bayer, Haworthia pumila subsp. attenuata (Haw.) Halda Eastern Cape BHD253 (JRAU) BHD264 (JRAU) BHD265 (JRAU) JQ039300 JQ025311 JQ024610 JQ024609 JQ024608 JQ024234 JQ024233 JQ024232 J. S. African Bot. 47: 789 (1981) Haworthia retusa var. bruynsii (M.B.Bayer) Halda Eastern Cape BHD374 (JRAU) JQ039304 JQ025334 JQ024622 JQ024246 Haworthia wittebergensis W.F.Barker Haworthia zantneriana Poelln. Haworthia subgenus Hexangulares Uitewaal ex M.B.Bayer Haworthia attenuata Haw. Haworthia bruynsii M.B.Bayer 34 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Haworthia coarctata Haw. Philos. Mag. J. 66: 301 (1824) Aloe coarctata (Haw.) Schult. and Schult.f., Catevala coarctata (Haw.) Kuntze, Haworthia reinwardtii var. coarctata (Haw.) Halda, Haworthia reinwardtii subsp. coarctata (Haw.) Halda Eastern Cape BHD327 (JRAU) JQ024894 JQ025296 JQ024629 JQ024253 Haworthia coarctata var. adelaidensis (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer Haworthia Revisited 172 (1999) Haworthia coarctata subsp. adelaidensis (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer, Haworthia coarctata f. bellula (G.G.Sm.) Pilbeam, Haworthia reinwardtii var. adelaidensis Poelln., Haworthia reinwardtii var. bellula G.G.Sm., Haworthia reinwardtii var. riebeekensis G.G.Sm. Eastern Cape BHD326 (JRAU) JQ039306 JQ025335 JQ024630 JQ024254 Haworthia fasciata (Willd.) Haw. Saxifrag. Enum. 2: 54 (1821) Eastern Cape BHD330 (JRAU) BHD331 (JRAU) JQ024905 JQ025270 JQ024664 JQ024665 JQ024288 JQ024289 Haworthia glauca (Salm-Dyck) Baker J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 18: 203 (1880) Aloe fasciata (Willd.) Salm-Dyck ex Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe fasciata var. major Salm-Dyck, Aloe subfasciata Salm-Dyck ex Schult. and Schult.f., Apicra fasciata Willd., Catevala fasciata (Willd.) Kuntze, Catevala subfasciata (Salm-Dyck ex Schult. and Schult.f.) Kuntze, Haworthia browniana Poelln., Haworthia fasciata f. browniana (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer, Haworthia fasciata var. major (Salm-Dyck) Haw., Haworthia fasciata f. ovatolanceolata Poelln., Haworthia fasciata f. sparsa Poelln., Haworthia fasciata f. subconfluens (Poelln.) Poelln., Haworthia fasciata var. subconfluens Poelln., Haworthia fasciata f. vanstaadensis Poelln., Haworthia fasciata f. variabilis Poelln., Haworthia pumila subsp. fasciata (Willd.) Halda, Haworthia subfasciata (Salm-Dyck ex Schult. and Schult.f) Baker Catevala glauca (Baker)Kuntze, Haworthia reinwardtii subsp. glauca (Baker) Halda, Haworthia reinwardtii var. glauca (Baker) Halda Eastern Cape BHD061 (JRAU) BHD062 (JRAU) BHD370 (JRAU) JQ039308 JQ025336 JQ024673 JQ024674 JQ024676 JQ024295 JQ024296 JQ024298 Haworthia koelmaniorum Oberm. and D.S.Hardy var. mcmurtryi (C.L.Scott) M.B.Bayer Haworthia limifolia Marloth Haworthia Revisited 181 (1999) Haworthia mcmurtryi C.L.Scott Mpumalanga BHD336 (JRAU) BHD337 (JRAU) JQ024909 JQ024910 JQ025293 JQ025294 JQ024690 JQ024689 JQ024312 JQ024311 Trans. Roy. Soc. South Africa 1: 409 (1910) — Kwazulu-Natal, Mpumalanga JQ039311 JQ039312 JQ025341 JQ025342 Haworthia limifolia Marloth var. ubomboensis (I.Verd.) G.G.Sm. Haworthia longiana Poelln. J. S. African Bot. 16: 3 (1950) Haworthia ubomboensis I.Verd., Haworthia ubomboensis Verdoorn Swaziland BHD135 (JRAU) BHD159 (JRAU) BHD173 (JRAU) BHD175 (JRAU) BHD183 (JRAU) BHD221 (JRAU) JQ039313 JQ025343 JQ024702 JQ024697 JQ024694 JQ024693 JQ024707 JQ024710 JQ024326 JQ024321 JQ024317 JQ024316 JQ024331 JQ024335 Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 41: 203 (1937) J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 18: 203 (1880) Haworthia pumila subsp. longiana (Poelln.) Halda Eastern Cape JQ039314 JQ025316 Aloe nigra (Haw.) Schult. and Schult.f., Apicra nigra Haw., Catevala nigra (Haw.) Kuntze Eastern and Western Cape BHD048 (JRAU) BHD049 (JRAU) BHD224 (JRAU) JQ039318 JQ025352 JQ024714 JQ024712 JQ024799 JQ024339 JQ024337 JQ024423 Haworthia reinwardtii (SalmDyck) Haw. Haworthia reinwardtii (SalmDyck) Haw. var. brevicula G.G.Sm. Saxifrag. Enum. 2: 53 (1821) Aloe reinwardtii Salm-Dyck, Catevala reinwardtii (Salm-Dyck) Kuntze Haworthia reinwardtii var. diminuta G.G.Sm. Eastern Cape BHD254 (JRAU) JQ039321 JQ025332 JQ024817 JQ024441 Eastern Cape BHD359 (JRAU) JQ024926 JQ025295 JQ024818 JQ024442 Haworthia sordida Haw. Saxifrag. Enum. 2: 51 (1821) Aloe sordida (Haw.) Schult. and Schult.f., Catevala sordida (Haw.) Kuntze, Haworthia scabra subsp. sordida (Haw.) Halda, Haworthia scabra var. sordida (Haw.) Halda Eastern Cape BHD205 (JRAU) JQ039322 JQ025354 JQ024845 JQ024468 Haworthia nigra (Haw.) Baker J. S. African Bot. 10: 11 (1944) 35 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Haworthia venosa (Lam.) Haw. Haworthia venosa Haw. subsp. granulata (Marloth) M.B.Bayer Haworthia subgenus Robustipedunculares M.B.Bayer Haworthia kingiana Poelln. Haworthia marginata (Lam.) Stearn Haworthia minor (Aiton) Duval Saxifrag. Enum. 2: 44 (1821) Haworthia Handb. 120 (1976) Aloe venosa Lam., Catevala venosa (Lam.) Kuntze Haworthia granulata Marloth, Haworthia scabra subsp. granulata (Marloth) Halda Western Cape Northern and Western Cape BHD246 (JRAU) BHD088 (JRAU) JQ039325 — JQ025309 JQ025377 JQ024852 JQ024853 JQ024474 JQ024475 Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 41: 203 (1937) Cact. Succ. J. Gr. Brit. 7: 39 (1938) Haworthia pumila var. kingiana (Poelln.) Halda, Haworthia subfasciata var. kingiana (Poelln.) Poelln. Aloe albicans Haw., Aloe laevigata Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe marginata Lam., Aloe ramifera Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe virescens (Haw.) Schult. and Schult.f., Apicra albicans (Haw.) Willd., Catevala marginata (Lam.) Kuntze, Haworthia albicans (Haw.) Haw., Haworthia albicans var. virescens (Haw.) Baker, Haworthia laevis Haw., Haworthia marginata var. laevis (Haw.) H.Jacobsen, Haworthia marginata var. ramifera (Haw.) H.Jacobsen, Haworthia marginata var. virescens (Haw.) Uitewaal, Haworthia ramifera Haw., Haworthia virescens Haw., Haworthia virescens var. minor Haw. Western Cape BHD335 (JRAU) BHD435 (JRAU) BHD439 (JRAU) BHD026 (JRAU) JQ039309 JQ039310 JQ039316 JQ039315 JQ025339 JQ025340 JQ025337 JQ025338 JQ024688 JQ024310 JQ024719 JQ024344 Pl. Succ. Horto Alencon. 7 (1809) Aloe brevis Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe erecta (Haw.) Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe erecta var. laetivirens SalmDyck, Aloe granata Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe margaritifera var. major Aiton, Aloe margaritifera var. minima Aiton, Aloe margaritifera var. minor Aiton, Aloe minor (Aiton) Schult. and Schult.f., Apicra granata Willd., Apicra maxima (Haw.) Steud., Apicra minor (Aiton) Steud., Catevala minima (Aiton) Kuntze, Haworthia brevis Haw., Haworthia erecta Haw., Haworthia granata (Willd.) Haw., Haworthia granata var. polyphylla Haw., Haworthia major (Aiton) Duval, Haworthia margaritifera var. corallina Baker, Haworthia margaritifera var. erecta (Haw.) Baker, Haworthia margaritifera var. granata (Willd.) Baker, Haworthia minima (Aiton) Haw., Haworthia minima var. poellnitziana (Uitewaal) M.B.Bayer, Haworthia mutabilis Poelln., Haworthia poellnitziana Uitewaal, Haworthia pumila subsp. minima (Aiton) Halda, Haworthia uitewaaliana Poelln. Western Cape BHD341 (JRAU) — — JQ024733 JQ024358 Western Cape 36 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Haworthia pumila (L.) Duval Pl. Succ. Horto Alencon. 7 (1809) Aloe arachnoides var. pumila (L.) Aiton, Aloe granata Salm-Dyck [nom. illegit.], Aloe margaritifera (L.) Burm.f., Aloe margaritifera var. maxima Haw., Aloe papillosa Salm-Dyck, Aloe pumila L., Aloe pumila var. margaritifera L., Aloe semiglabrata (Haw.) Schult. and Schult.f., Aloe semiglabrata Salm-Dyck, Aloe semiglabrata var. major Salm-Dyck, Aloe semiglabrata var. maxima (Haw.) Salm-Dyck, Aloe semiglabrata var. minor Salm-Dyck, Aloe semiglabrata var. multipapillosa Salm-Dyck, Aloe subalbicans Salm-Dyck, Aloe subalbicans var. acuminata Salm-Dyck, Aloe subalbicans var. laevior Salm-Dyck, Apicra margaritifera (L.) Willd., Catevala margaritifera (L.) Kuntze, Catevala semiglabrata (Haw.) Kuntze, Haworthia corallina Baker, Haworthia margaritifera (L.) Haw., Haworthia margaritifera var. laevior (SalmDyck) Uitewaal, Haworthia margaritifera var. semimargaritifera (Salm-Dyck) Baker, Haworthia margaritifera var. subalbicans (Salm-Dyck) A.Berger, Haworthia maxima (Haw.) Duval, Haworthia semimargaritifera var. major (Salm-Dyck) Haw., Haworthia semimargaritifera var. maxima (Haw.) Haw., Haworthia semimargaritifera var. multiperla Haw., Tulista margaritifera (L.) Raf. Western Cape BHD222 (JRAU) JQ039319 JQ025353 JQ024815 JQ024439 Sp. Pl. 310 (1753) Anthericum amoenum Salisb. [nom. illegit.], Anthericum intermedium Willk. [nom. inva.], Anthericum liliago var. australe Willk., Anthericum liliago subsp. macrocarpum Boros, Anthericum liliago f. macrocarpum (Boros) Soó, Anthericum liliago var. multiflorum P.Küpfer, Anthericum liliago var. sphaerocarpum P.Küpfer, Anthericum macrocarpum Boros, Anthericum nonramosum Gilib. [nom. inva.], Liliago vulgaris C.Presl., Ornithogalum gramineum Lam. [nom. illegit.], Phalangites liliago (L.) Bubani, Phalangites acuminatum Dulac, Phalangites lilaceum St.-Lag., Phalangites liliaginoides Schltdl., Phalangites liliago (L.) Schreb., Phalangites renarnii Booth ex Schltdl. Europe, Turkey Chase515 (K) — — — — Bonplandia (Hannover) 10: 370 (1862) Tecophilaea cyanocrocus var. leichtlinii Regel, Tecophilaea cyanocrocus var. regelii Baker, Tecophilaea cyanocrocus var. violacea, Zephyra cyanocrocus (Leyb.) Ravenna Dicolus caerulescens Phil., Zephyra amoena Miers Chile Chase447 (K) — — — — Chile Chase1575 (K) — — — — Asphodelus luteus L., Asphodelus sibiricus Schult. and Schult.f. [nom. illegit.], Dorydium luteum (L.) Salisb. [nom. inva.] South-eastern Europe to Turkey UCI Arb.3440 JQ039289 — — — OUTGROUP TAXA Asparagaceae Anthericum liliago L. Tecophilaeaceae Tecophilaea cyanocrocus Leyb. Zephyra elegans D.Don Edinburgh New Philos. J. 1832(Oct.): 236 (1832) Xanthorrhoeaceae Asphodeline lutea (L.) Reichb. Fl. Germ. Excurs. 116 (1830) 37 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Eastern, Northern and Western Cape, Free State, Gauteng, Kwazulu-Natal, Limpopo, Namibia, Swaziland Van Wyk4115 (JRAU) JQ039294 — AJ512323.12 AJ511414.12 Australia, except Northern Territory K.Dixon s.n. (KPBG) — — — — Israel, Lebanon, North Caucasus, South European Russia, Transcaucasia, Armenia, Georgia, Asiatic Turkey, Ukraine Eritrea Chase490 (K) JQ039296 — — — Chase3941 (K) JQ039327 — — — Kwazulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, Swaziland Northern and Western Cape IPMB040340 (HEID) IPMB040342 (HEID) — — AJ512329.12 AJ511423.12 — — AJ512330.12 AJ511425.12 Acoroides resinifera Sol. ex Kite [nom. illegit.], Xanthorrhoea hastilis R.Br., Xanthorrhoea hastilis Sm. [nom. illegit.], Xanthorrhoea resinifera (Sol. ex Kite) E.C.Nelson and D.J.Bedford [nom. illegit.] Australia Chase192 (NCU) — — HM640546.13 HM6406633 — — Western Australia Western Australia Brummitt21391 Brummitt, George and Oliver21376 JQ039328 JQ039329 — — — — — — Bulbine frutescens (L.) Willd. Enum. Pl. 372 (1809) Anthericum frutescens L., Anthericum fruticosum Salisb. [nom. illegit.], Anthericum incurvum Thunb., Anthericum multiceps Poelln., Anthericum rostratum Jacq., Bulbine caulescens L., Bulbine frutescens var. incurva (Thunb.) Rowley, Bulbine frutescens var. rostrata (Jacq.) Rowley, Bulbine incurva (Thunb.) Spreng., Bulbine rostrata (Jacq.) Willd., Phalangium frutescens (L.) Kuntze, Phalangium rostratum (Jacq.) Kuntze Amaryllis semibarbata (R.Br) Steud., Anthericum semibarbatum R.Br., Bulbine floribunda Schrad. ex Benth., Bulbine semibarbata f. gracilescens Domin, Bulbinopsis semibarbata (R.Br.) Borzì, Phalangium semibarbatum (R.Br.) Kuntze, Triglochin racemosa Endl. Ashodelus regius Heynh., Eremurus bachtiaricus Boiss., Eremurus caucasicus Steven, Eremurus libanoticus Boiss., Eremurus sibiricus Weinm., Eremurus tauricus Weinm. Bulbine semibarbata (R.Br.) Haw. Saxifrag. Enum. 2: 33 (1821) Eremurus spectabilis M.Bieb. Cent. Pl. Ross. Merid. 2 (1810) Jodrellia fistulosa (Chiov.) Baijnath Kew Bull. 32: 576 (1978) Bulbine breviracemosa Poelln., Bulbine fistulosa Chiov. Kniphofia galpinii Baker Fl. Cap. 6: 281 (1896) — Kniphofia uvaria (L.) Oken Allg. Naturgesch. 3(1): 566 (1841) Aletris uvaria (L.) L., Aloe longifolia Lam., Aloe rigida Salisb. [nom. illegit.], Aloe uvaria L., Kniphofia aloöides Moench, Kniphofia bachmannii Baker, Kniphofia burchellii (Sweet ex Lindl.) Kunth, Kniphofia occidentalis A.Berger, Kniphofia odorata Heynh. [nom. illegit.], Kniphofia uvaria (L.) Hook., Kniphofia uvaria var. glaucescens G.Nicholson, Kniphofia uvaria var. nobilis (Guillon) Baker, Kniphofia uvaria var. serotina Baker, Triclissa uvaria (L.) Salisb. [nom. illegit.], Tritoma burchellii Sweet ex Lindl., Tritoma canari Carrière, Tritoma glauca H.Vilm., Tritoma nobilis Guillon,Tritoma recurva H.Vilm., Tritoma saundersii Carrière, Tritoma uvaria (L.) Ker Gawl., Tritomanthe uvaria (L.) Link, Tritomium uvaria (L.) Link, Veltheimia speciosa Roth, Veltheimia uvaria (L.) Willd. Xanthorrhoea resinosa Pers. Syn. Pl. 1: 370 (1805) Xanthorrhoea sp. (stemless) Xanthorrhoea sp. (with.trunk) — — 38 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Table 2.2 Gene regions and primers used for amplifying the cpDNA and nrDNA in the current study. Region Size (bp) Primer sets (Sequence 5’-3’) Reference cpDNA regions trnH-psbA 812 trnH Rev: CGC GCA TGG TGG ATT CAC AAT CC Sang et al., 1997 psbA Fwd: GTT ATG CAT GAA CGT AAT GCT C matK rbcLa 945 552 3F KIM: CGT ACA GTA CTT TTG TGT TTA CGA G CBOL Plant Working 1R KIM: ACC CAG TCC ATC TGG AAA TCT TGG TTC Group, 2009 rbcL-barcode-F: ATG TCA CCA CAA ACA GAG ACT AAA GC CBOL Plant Working rbcL-barcode-R: GTA AAA TCA AGT CCA CCY CG Group, 2009 Nuclear region ITS1 482 ITS 18-F: GTC CAC TGA ACC TTA TCA TTT AGA GG Treutlein et al., ITS S5: TTC GGG CGC AAC TTG CGT TC 2003a, b 39 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Table 2.3 Characters, character states, and explanatory notes on characters used in the cladistic analyses of the morphological data matrix. ! 1. Habit: stemless = 0; caulescent = 1; arborescent (tree-like, with leafless, dichotomously branched stems) = 2 2. Leaf insertion: spiral or polystichous = 0; distichous = 1 3. Leaf margins: smooth or entire = 0; toothed or bristled = 1 4. Leaf maculation (spots): immaculate = 0; maculate = 1 5. Leaf tubercles: concolorous or absent = 0; white = 1 6. Leaf apex: acute = 0; truncate = 1 7. Inflorescence: unbranched = 0; branched = 1 8. Inflorescence: raceme erect/decumbent and symmetrical = 0; raceme oblique and secund = 1 9. Inflorescence: flowers less than pedicel length apart or equal to = 0; flowers more than pedicel length apart = 1 10. Inflorescence: raceme unicoloured = 0; raceme bicoloured = 1 11. Flower orientation at anthesis: spreading = 0; pendulous = 1 12. Flower arrangement: raceme elongate = 0; raceme capitate = 1 13. Flower shape: rotate = 0; campanulate = 1; tubular = 2 14. Perianth symmetry: actinomorphic = 0; weakly bilabiate = 1; strongly bilabiate = 2 15. Pedicel length: ¼ or more longer than perianth = 0; less than ¼ length of the perianth = 1 (perhaps consider using 1/3) 16. Perianth colour: white/cream/greenish = 0; yellow/orange/red = 1 17. Perianth tube: straight = 0; curved upwards = 1 18. Perianth: cylindrical and tapering into pedicel = 0; inflated basally or truncated = 1 19. Tepals: both whorls connate basally = 0; both whorls connate ½ or more of length = 1; only outer whorls connate for half or more of length = 2 20. Stamens: as long as/longer than perianth = 0; shorter than perianth = 1 40 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Table 2.4 Character states for the 20 morphological characters scored for accessions included in the molecular analyses Taxon Morphological characters 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Aloe albida 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 2 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 Aloe alooides 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe angelica 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0/1 1 0/1 1 2 1 0/1 1 1 0 0 0 Aloe anivoranoensis 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe arborescens 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe arenicola 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 Aloe aristata 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 Aloe barberae 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe brevifolia 0 0 1 0/1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 1 0/1 0/1 0 0 Aloe buhrii 0 0 0/1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0/1 2 0 0/1 1 0 1 0 0 Aloe chabaudii 0 0 1 0/1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0/1 2 0 0 1 1 1 2 0 Aloe challisii 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 Aloe chortolirioides 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe ciliaris 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe commixta 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0/1 1 1 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe comosa 2 0 1 0 0 0 0/1 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 1 0/1 0 0 0 0 Aloe dewinteri 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe dichotoma 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe dichotoma subsp. pillansii 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe dichotoma subsp. ramosissima 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe ecklonis 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 0 1 0/1 0 0 0 Aloe eminens 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0/1 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 Aloe excelsa 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0/1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe ferox 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 1 0/1 0 0 0 Aloe fouriei 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Aloe glauca 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 0/1 0/1 0 0 41 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Aloe gracilis 1 0 1 0 0 0 0/1 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 Aloe greatheadii subsp. davyana 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 1 1 2 0 Aloe haworthioides 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Aloe hereroensis 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 0 1 1 0 2 0 Aloe kouebokkeveldensis 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 2 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 Aloe lineata 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 Aloe lineata var. muirii 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 Aloe lutescens 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe melanacantha 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe microstigma 0/1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 2 1 0/1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe munchii 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0/1 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 Aloe nubigena 1 0/1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 2 0 0/1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe pearsonii 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 1 1 0 0 2 0 Aloe perfoliata 1 0 1 0/1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe petricola 0 0 1 0 0 0 0/1 0/1 1 1 1 0 2 1 1 0/1 1 0 0 0 Aloe pictifolia 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe plicatilis 2 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe plicatilis 2 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe propagulifera 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 Aloe reynoldsii 0/1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0/1 1 2 0 1 1 0/1 1 2 0 Aloe rupestris 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe saundersiae 0 0 1 0/1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0/1 1 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 Aloe spicata 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe striata 0/1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0/1 1 1 2 0 1 1 0/1 1 2 0 Aloe striata subsp. karasbergensis 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0/1 1 0/1 1 0/1 2 1 1 1 0/1 1 2 0 Aloe striata subsp. kommagasensis 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0/1 1 1 2 1 1 1 0/1 1 2 0 Aloe striatula 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe succotrina 0/1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 42 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Aloe tenuior 1 0 1 0 0 0 ? 0 1 1 0/1 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 Aloe thraskii 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0/1 0 0 2 0/1 1 1 1 0 0 0 Aloe verecunda 1 0/1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 2 0 0/1 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe vossii 0/1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Aloe vryheidensis 1/2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 Anthericum liliago ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Asphodeline lutea ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Astroloba corrugata 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 Astroloba foliolosa 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 Astroloba herrei 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Astroloba rubriflora 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0/1 0 2 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 Bulbine frutescens 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bulbine semibarbata 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Chortolirion angolense 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 Eremurus spectabilis ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Gasteria acinacifolia 0 0 0/1 1 0/1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Gasteria batesiana var. dolomitica 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Gasteria carinata var. carinata 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Gasteria carinata var. retusa 0 1 0 0 1 0/1 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Gasteria croucheri 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 0 Gasteria disticha 0 1 0 1 1 1 0/1 0 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Gasteria doreeniae 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 0/1 1 Gasteria ellaphieae 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Gasteria excelsa 0 0 0 1 0 0/1 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Gasteria glauca 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 ? ? ? Gasteria glomerata 0 1 0 0 1 1 0/1 0/1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Gasteria nitida var. armstrongii 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Gasteria obliqua 1 0/1 0 1 0/1 1 1 0/1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 43 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Gasteria pillansii var. ernesti-ruschii 0 1 0 1 1 0/1 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 Gasteria pillansii var. pillansii 0 1 0 1 1 0/1 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 Gasteria polita 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 0 Gasteria pulchra 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Gasteria rawlinsonii 1 1 0/1 0/1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Gasteria tukhelensis 0 0 0/1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 0/1 Gasteria vlokii 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Haworthia angustifolia 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 ? Haworthia arachnoidea 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia arachnoidea 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia attenuata 0 0 0 0 1 0 0/1 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia bayeri 0 0 0/1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia blackburniae 0 0 0/1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia blackburniae var. derustensis 0 0 0/1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia blackburniae var. graminifolia 0 0 0/1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia bruynsii 0 0 0 0 0/1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia chloracantha 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia coarctata var. adelaidensis 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia coarctata 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia cooperi 0 0 0/1 0 0 0/1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia cooperi var. doldii 0 0 0/1 0 0 0/1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia cymbiformis 0/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia cymbiformis var. ramosa 0/1 0 0 0 0 ? 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia cymbiformis var. setulifera 0/1 0 0 0 0 ? 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia decipiens 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia decipiens var. pringlei 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia decipiens var. virella 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia emelyae 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 44 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Haworthia emelyae var. comptoniana 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia fasciata 0/1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia floribunda 0 0 0/1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia glauca 1 0 0/1 0 0/1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia herbacea var. flaccida 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia herbacea var. paynei 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0/1 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia kingiana 0 0 0 0 0/1 0 0/1 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia kingiana 0 0 0 0 0/1 0 0/1 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia koelmaniorum var. mcmurtryi 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia limifolia 0 0 0 0 0/1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia limifolia var. ubomboensis 0 0 0 0 0/1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia lockwoodii 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia longiana 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia maculata 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia magnifica var. dekenahii 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia marginata 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia marginata 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia marumiana var. archeri 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia marxii 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia mirabilis 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia mirabilis var. calcarea 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia mirabilis var. paradoxa 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia mirabilis var. triebneriana 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia monticola var. asema 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia mucronata var. bijliana 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia mucronata var. habdomadis 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia mucronata var. morrisiae 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia mucronata var. rycroftiana 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 45 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! Haworthia mutica 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia mutica var. nigra 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia nigra 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia outeniquensis 0 0 1 0/1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia pulchella var. globifera 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia pumila 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia pygmaea 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia reinwardtii 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia reinwardtii var. brevicula 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia reticulata 0/1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia retusa 0 0 0/1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia semiviva 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia sordida 0 0 0 0 0 0/1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia truncata 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia variegata 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia venosa 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia venosa var. granulata 0/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia vlokii 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia wittebergensis 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Haworthia zantneriana 0 0 0 0/1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 Jodrellia fistulosa ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Kniphofia galpinii ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Kniphofia uvaria ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Tecophilaea cyanocrocus ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Xanthorrhoea resinosa ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Xanthorrhoea sp. ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Zephyra elegans ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ! 46 ! Chapter two: Material and Methods ! ! ! Figure 2.1 Organisation of the ITS region. Green area represents ITS region sequenced in the study. Arrows indicate orientation and approximate position of primer sites. Adapted from Baldwin et al. (1995). ! Figure 2.2 Distribution of Alooideae collected in the wild and grown at Sheilam Nursery, Gariep Nursery and Kirstenbosch Botanical Garden, used in this study (yellow circles). 47 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! CHAPTER(THREE( Results( H. cymbiformis var. ramosa virella H. decipiens var. lei s var. pring ii H. decipien i var. dold is H. cooper biform H. cym ra setulife is var. . marxii biform H a H. cym miviv H. se rcheri a var. . vlokiis iana H ensi arum erg ae b H. m itte mely a H. w H. e ibund a tus flor H. H. re iana ner tica ieb mu ra . tr H. . nig rea va r ar a xa ilis a v alc o ii tic r. c rad ah a rab mi mu va pa en id H. H. ilis var. dek lacc . b ra is ar r. f mi bil a v va H. mira ific ea c n H. ag rba m e H. H. h ● H. he ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● as ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● lir io A n Al loe ang ub oe lu ol sp re te en .k om Alo yno scen se Alo ma e s lds s ek t ou eb Al gas riat ii Alo okke oe b ensis a e s vel uhr d a Alo un ens ii e v der is si er A ecu ae Alo loe vo nda e ch ssii Aloe allis Aloe fourie ii H. ko elman Aloe ecklon i io is nu ru H. koe lmanio m var. mc bigena m rum v ar. mc urtryi murt Aloe ar ryi ista Aloe aris ta tata Aloe aristata Astroloba rubriflo ra Astroloba foliolosa Astroloba herrei to iat str Al oe ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● or Ch ● lia ifo in sis m a en gr rust r. va r. de a ae ni e v i ur ia ● nsi kb urn iae c illa la kb rn a .p p . b lac kbu tilis s sim H . b ac ca lis ub sis mo H . bl pli ati ma s a r . ic o H e ● Aloloe pldichototoma a subsp A oe ich om t l d o A h ● e c e Alo oe di rbera scens ● AlAloe biane frute ibarbata m b Bul ine se istulosa ● f ulb ● BJodrelhlioafia uvalpriainii ● Knip hofia ga tabilis c ● KEnreipmurus snpeelutea ● hodeli a sp. sp A ● Xanthorrhoe ea sp. ● Xanthoorrrrhhooea resinosa ● Xanth Zephyra elegans ● Tecophilaea cyanocrocus ● Anthericum liliago G. polita ● G. doreeniae G. disticha tukhelensi ● GG.. pu s lchr ● GG. glomeraata . glau ca ● ● GG. .orawlinson b G. v liqua ii G. lokii ● G. excels ● G. ellaph a G bate ieae ● ● GG. a. cnitidasiana va in va r . c G a aci r. ar . dolo ms mi G . ca rina foli ● ● ● ● ● G G. p. crourinatata var a trongii tica . i c H . pi llan her var. retu . c lla si i ca sa oa ns i v rin ● rc ii ar. ata ta va e ta r. rn pi est lla i− ns ru sc ii hii a ul sis ic ev en br laid r. va ade . ii dt ar ar a v nw at ii ei rct dt . r a ar H . co inw H re ra H. nig ca i u H. la nsi g u H. . bry ida nsis boe H sord iana bom H. long ta r. u a H. fasci lia va H. limifo ia H. limifol a ulata H. imifoli ar. gran H. l enosa v H. v nosa H. ve enuata H. att giana H. kin ginata H. mar H. pumila H. kingiana H. marginata Astroloba corrugata ac H . m ea . a Al va retic cula oe r. u t Al com pay lata a ● Alo oe g mi nei r x e ● Alo stri acili ta ● Alo e cil atula s ia e ● Alo e c Aloe tenui ris hor o tol albid r ●● ● Aloe Aloe irioid a mel emin es ● a e n a Aloe can ns t h p Aloe earsoniia ● Aloe arenicola ● ● perfo li ata Aloe su ● ● ccotrin a Aloe gl au Aloe brev ca ifo ● Aloe haworth lia ioides Aloe anivoranoens is Aloe dewinteri Aloe propagulifera ● ● Aloe hereroensis ● a yan dav . var ii ● Aloe greathead sbergensis subsp. kara ● eidensis Aloe striata Aloe vryh audii ● ab Aloe ch unchii ● m Aloe tricola ● ● pe Aloe excelsa Aloe ngelica ● a s e e Alo alooid a s Aloe e comotris ● Alo rupes skii ● e a a ● o r l A e th eat Alo e lin uirii i ● ● Alo ar. m uiri a a v r. m gm ● eat va sti lia lin ata icro ctifo ens e e x i o Al e lin loe m e p resc fero ta A Alo rbo oe ica Alo a Al sp oe oe Al Al ● ● H rb H. cymbiformis var. setulifera H. cooperi H. mucronata var . habdomadis H. lockwoo H. pulche dii H. muc lla var. globifera ronata var. rycr H. mu oftiana H. mu cronata va r. morr c ro nata H. ar is v a a r. bijli iae H. a chnoid a na H. d rachno ea id e c e ipie a H. H. chlor ns H. pygm acanth a H. varieg aea H. trun ata H em cata H. . mo elyae va H an nti H . za gus cola r. c H . b ntn tifo va omp H . ou ayer eria lia r. as tonia . m te i em na na a ira niq bi uen lis sis ! ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 48 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! 3. RESULTS 3.1 Molecular Evolution The statistics from MP analyses for the single plastid analysis, combined plastid (rbcLa + matK + trnH-psbA), ITS1 and the combined plastid and nuclear datasets are shown in Table 3.1. Of the plastid regions used, matK had a significantly higher number of variable sites (33%; Table 3.1) than trnH-psbA (16%) or rbcLa (14%). The number of potentially informative characters for matK (21%) is much higher than for the two other plastid regions, rbcLa and trnH-psbA (10% and 9% respectively). The ITS1 region had significantly more variable sites (40%) compared to the plastid regions. It also evolves at a much faster rate than the plastid genes (2.1 changes per variable site) with a lower consistency index (CI). Results from the following analyses are presented: simplified tree topologies of the combined plastid regions (rbcLa + matK + trnH-psbA), ITS1 and combined plastid and nuclear regions (Fig. 3.1), combined plastid regions (rbcLa + matK + trnH-psbA; Fig. 3.2), ITS1 (Fig. 3.3) and combined plastid and ITS1 (rbcLa + matK + trnH-psbA + ITS1; Fig. 3.4). The MP analyses were largely congruent with the Bayesian analyses, and therefore results are displayed on the same tree (Fig. 3.4). 3.2 Combined Plastid Data Individual plastid sequence analyses (results not shown) were topologically consistent (negligible to zero incongruence), and for the purpose of the results and discussion were combined and treated as a single analysis. The MP analysis yielded 661 most parsimonious trees of 752 steps with a CI of 0.72 and a RI of 0.91 (Table 3.1). One of the most parsimonious trees is illustrated in Fig. 3.2. Alooideae is strongly supported as monophyletic (BP = 94; Fig. 3.2). Although resolution in the plastid tree were relatively poor, possibly due to a lack of sufficient informative sequence variation, we observed eight clades (A, B, C, D, E, 49 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! F, G and H) while the internal groups for each clade were retrieved as a polytomy. 3.3 ITS1 data Analyses resulted in 314 equally most parsimonious trees with TL = 346, CI = 0.64, and RI = 0.92. One of the most parsimonious trees is illustrated in Fig. 3.3. Seven major clades were recovered; Haworthia subg. Haworthia, H. subg. Robustipendunculares, Gasteria, Astroloba, Aloe sect. Macrifoliae, tree Aloes, and remaining Aloe species. The tree Aloe species (A. barberae, A. eminens and A. dichotoma) were retrieved as the early diverging lineage to the subfamily Alooideae. 3.4 Combined plastid and nuclear dataset (rbcLa+matK+trnH-psbA+ ITS1) Results of the combined plastid analysis are topologically congruent with those of the ITS analysis, and all data were therefore combined. Congruence between the ITS and plastid datasets was addressed by comparisons of bootstrap percentages from separate analyses. Bootstrap trees were considered incongruent only when hard (i.e. with high bootstrap support) instead of “soft” (with low bootstrap support) incongruence was displayed (See Wiens, 1998). The aligned combined dataset (rbcLa + matK + trnH-psbA + ITS1) included 2518 characters of which 604 (24%) are variable. The MP analysis yielded 5020 equally most parsimonious trees of 1159 steps with a CI of 0.63 and a RI of 0.89 (Table 3.1). A monophyletic Alooideae was recovered with high support (Fig. 3.4; BP = 93; PP = 1.00). It resolves eight major clades represented in different colours in Fig. 3.4: Aloe plicatilis and the remaining tree Aloes, Haworthia subg. Haworthia, the climbing Aloes, the true Aloe species, ‘Haworthioid’ clade (H. subg. Robustipendunculares + Astroloba + Aloe aristata), Haworthia subg. Hexangulares, and Gasteria. While the combined data recovered eight clades, the plastid data retrieved five with clades A, B, D, and E, grouping together. The ITS1 data recovered seven clades 50 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! compared to eight in the combined data. The tree Aloe species — The analysis indicates an isolated position for Aloe plicatilis in a polytomy with Haworthia subg. Haworthia but without BP support and weak support in the BI analysis (PP = 0.58); and for A. eminens in the clade including A. perfoliata but without BP support and weak support in the BI analysis (PP = 0.58). The other tree Aloe species (A. barberae, A. dichotoma, and A. pillansii) were retrieved as a monophyletic clade with moderate support in MP analysis and strong support in the BI analysis (BP = 76; PP = 1.00). The A. plicatilis, A. eminens and A. barberae lineages constitute the early diverging elements in subfamily Alooideae. Haworthia subg. Haworthia — This clade is well supported in the MP and BI analyses (BP = 98; PP = 1.00). This clade resolved (BP = 96; PP = 1.00) the grass-like Haworthia blackburniae as the earliest-diverging lineage to the other Haworthia species, which were unresolved. Climbing Aloes — This group, representing Aloe sect. Macrifoliae (Aloe ciliaris, A. commixta, A. gracilis, A. striatula, and A. tenuior) was recovered in both analyses as a strongly supported clade (BP = 95; PP = 1.00). The true Aloes — This group, which comprises the majority of Aloe species plus Chortolirion (coloured brown; Fig. 3.4) was retrieved as a group with strong support (PP = 1.00) in the BI. Several internal clades, none of which correspond exactly to current sections recognised in the taxonomy of the genus, were well supported in the BI analysis. Among these, the majority of the grass Aloes (sect. Leptoaloe) grouped together (BP = 89; PP = 1.00) in a clade comprising Chortolirion angolense, A. kouebokkeveldensis, A. buhrii, A. lutescens, A. reynoldsii, A. spicata, A. striata subsp. komaggasensis, and A. striata subsp. striata. In the MP tree, it was recovered as part of a larger polytomy with no bootstrap 51 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! support. A second clade comprised several of the ‘single-stemmed Aloes’ (Aloe sect. Pachydendron) plus other species, with weak MP support (BP = 61) but strong support in the BI analysis (PP = 1.00). A third clade comprising a heterogenous assemblage of Aloe species (A. excelsa, A. petricola, A. munchii, A. chabaudii and A. vryheidensis) was well supported in the BI (BP = 53; PP = 0.99). The fourth clade also recovered a heterogenous mix of Aloe species containing the type of the genus, A. perfoliata with weak to moderate support (BP = 53; PP = 0.92). ‘Haworthioid’ clade (Haworthia subg. Robustipendunculares, Astroloba, Aloe aristata, and H. koelmaniorum) — This clade was strongly supported (BP = 92, PP = 1.00) as sister to the Gasteria–Hexangulares clade but was only moderately supported as monophyletic in the BI (BP = 58; PP = 0.68). Haworthia koelmaniorum var. mcmurtryi (BP = 99; PP = 1.00), also Hexangulares was retrieved with weak BI support (PP = 0.68) as the earliestdiverging lineage in the clade. There is moderate to strong support (BP = 77, PP = 0.95) for a sister relationship between Aloe aristata and H. subg. Robustipendunculares + Astroloba. The remaining species of H. subg. Robustipendunculares (highlighted in chartreuse) were recovered with strong support (BP = 100; PP = 1.00) but are only weakly supported in BI (PP = 0.74) as sister to a moderately to well supported (BP = 79; PP = 1.00) Astroloba. Haworthia subg. Hexangulares — H. subg. Hexangulares (Fig. 3.4) was recovered in both MP and BI with moderate to strong support (BP = 80; PP = 1.00) in a clade with Gasteria. Relationships between Haworthia attenuata, the rest of subg. Hexangulares and Gasteria remain unresolved. 52 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! Gasteria — Gasteria species form a well-supported monophyletic clade in both analyses (BP = 97; PP = 1.00) (Fig. 3.4). The clade is recovered in all trees as one element of a moderately to well supported trichotomy (BP = 80; PP = 1.00) that includes the species of Haworthia subg. Hexangulares. 3.5 Evolution of morphological traits Among 20 morphological traits that were analysed, habit, leaf arrangement, leaf maculation and tuberculation, inflorescence branching and orientation, inflorescence shape and colour, perianth orientation at anthesis, perianth symmetry and colour, perianth shape and curvature, tepal connation, and stamen length are all shown to be homoplasious (Tables 2.3 and 2.4; Fig. 3.5). Table 3.2 presents summary of the characters and character states constructed for nine of the 20 morphological characters for Alooideae. These traits are selected because of their importance in generic and infrageneric delimitation within Alooideae (see also Figs. 3.6Aabc, 3.7abc and 3.8abc ). In Gasteria, only G. obliqua and G. rawlinsonii exhibit caulescence (character 1; Fig. 3.6a). Among members of Haworthia subg. Hexangulares almost equal numbers exhibit caulescence and acaulescence. Members of subg. Robustipendunculares are all stemless but all Astroloba species (including Poellnitzia) are caulescent. An arborescent habit is characteristic of only a few species of Aloe, namely A. plicatilis (sect. Kumara) and members of sect. Pachydendron and Dracoaloe. Most members of Alooideae have a polystichous leaf arrangement (character 2; Fig. 3.6b). Exceptions include a few Gasteria species, which show a distichous leaf arrangement in the juvenile stage. Most become polystichous later in the adult stage with the exception of 53 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! Gasteria obliqua, which retains the distichous leaf arrangement into the adult stage. Other species with a distichous leaf arrangement are Aloe nubigena, A. plicatilis, A. verecunda and Haworthia truncata. A toothed or bristled leaf margin (character 3) is characteristic of all species except members of Haworthia subg. Hexangulares, in which the leaf margins are entire. Maculate leaves (character 4) are consistently present in all Gasteria species and also in several aloes, including Aloe aristata and the grass Aloes (sect. Leptoaloe). Leaf tubercles (character 5; Fig. 3.6c) are also characteristic of all Gasteria species plus Aloe aristata, and also all species of Haworthia subg. Hexangulares and Robustipedunculares. Most members of Alooideae have acute leaf apices (character 6) except some Gasteria and Haworthia species, which have truncate to blunt apices. Five of the 20 Gasteria species (G. disticha, G. tukhelensis, G. glomerata, G. obliqua and G. ellaphieae) have branched inflorescences (character 7) and this trait is also found in all species of Astroloba and Haworthia subg. Robustipendunculares, but not in subg. Hexangulares and Haworthia. Various species of Aloe also have branched inflorescences. A secund inflorescence (character 8) is characteristic of all Gasteria species, and also of Astroloba (Poellnitzia) rubriflora, Haworthia venosa var. granulata, Aloe excelsa, A. petricola and A. striata var. karasbergensis. Relatively lax inflorescences (character 9) are characteristic of most Alooideae. Only a few Aloe species exhibit bicoloured racemes (character 10; e.g. A. striata, A. lutescens, A. spicata, A. pictifolia, A. thraskii, A. rupestris, A. comosa). Pendulous flowers (character 11; Fig. 3.7a) are found in most Aloe species and in Gasteria. Capitate inflorescences (character 12) are found among relatively few, unrelated Aloe species (sect. Leptoaloe plus A. chabaudii, A. munchii and A. striata subsp. karasbergensis). 54 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! Strongly bilabiate flowers (character 14; Fig. 3.7b) are diagnostic for Haworthia subg. Haworthia and Hexangulares plus Chortolirion angolense but H. subg. Robustipendunculares and several Aloe species, notably A. albida, have ± zygomorphic flowers. A short pedicel (character 15) is characteristic of all Alooideae. Flower colouring is strongly correlated with current generic circumscriptions. All the Gasteria species have unusual, bicoloured flowers; and all Haworthia species; Chortolirion and all but one Astroloba species have white/cream/greenish flowers. The great majority of Aloe species have orange/red flowers but isolated species have whitish flowers. Perianth curvature (character 17; Fig. 3.7c) is also associated with current generic circumscriptions. All species of Chortolirion, Gasteria and Haworthia subg. Haworthia and Hexangulares have curved perianth tubes whereas Astroloba, H. subg. Robustipendunculares and the majority of Aloe species have straight perianth tubes. Basally inflated flowers (character 18; Fig. 3.7a) are characteristic of Gasteria but also of several Aloe species. All Gasteria species and some Aloe species have both tepal whorls connate for half or more of their length (character 19; Fig. 3.7c) but a number of Aloe species have flowers in which only the outer tepals are connate for half or more of length. Included stamens (character 20; Fig. 3.7b) are typical of Chortolirion, Gasteria and Haworthia but are also found in various Aloe species. 55 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! Table 3.1 Statistics from MP analyses obtained from separate and combined datasets. rbcLa matK trnH-psbA ITS1 157 Combined plastid (rbcLa + matK + trnH-psbA) 172 156 Combined plastid + ITS1 172 No. of taxa included 172 172 No. of included characters 552 789 768 2109 409 2518 No. of constant characters 472 531 645 1648 244 1914 No. of variable sites 80 (14%) 258 (33%) 123 (16%) 461 (22%) 165 (40%) 604 (24%) No. of parsimony informative sites 55 (10%) 165 (21%) 70 (9%) 290 (14%) 92 (22%) 376 (15%) No. of trees (Fitch) 523 408 101 661 314 5020 No. of steps (Tree length) 120 408 194 752 346 1159 CI 0.74 0.75 0.74 0.72 0.64 0.63 RI 0.91 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.92 0.89 Average number of changes per variable site (number of steps/ number of variable sites) Model selected by AIC 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.6 2.1 1.9 HKY+ G TVM+G TVM+I+ G TRN+G GTR+I+G AIC = Akaike information criterion; CI = consistency index; RI = retention index 56 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! Table 3.2 Characters states for nine selected autapomorphic traits which have been employed in previous Alooideae systematics. Character Character state Species Growth habit Stemless Most Gasteria; half of Hexangulares; Robustipendunculares Caulescent Gasteria obliqua; half of Hexangulares; all Astroloba (including Poellnitzia); Arborescent A. plicatilis (sect. Kumara); sect. Pachydendron and Dracoaloe. Most Alooideae; Leaf insertion Spiral/polystichous Distichous Leaf maculation Immaculate Maculate Flower orientation at anthesis Spreading Pendulous Perianth symmetry Actinomorphic Weakly bilabiate Strongly bilabiate Perianth curvature Straight Curved upwards Perianth Stamen inclusion Cylindrical and tapering into pedicel Inflated basally or truncated Exserted Inserted Tepal connation Both whorls connate basally Both whorls connate ½ or more of length Only outer whorls connate ½ or more of length Gasteria obliqua; Aloe nubigena, A. plicatilis, A. verecunda and Haworthia truncata. Most Alooideae All Gasteria; several Aloe species e.g. A. aristata and Aloe sect. Leptoaloe. Chortolirion, Astroloba, Haworthia and a few Aloe Most Aloe and Gasteria species. Robustipendunculares and several Aloe e.g. A. albida Gasteria species Haworthia subg. Haworthia and Hexangulares plus Chortolirion angolense Astroloba, Robustipendunculares and majority of Aloe Chortolirion, Gasteria; Haworthia subg. Haworthia and Hexangulares Most Aloe; Astroloba; Chortolirion; Haworthia subg. Haworthia and Hexangulares Gasteria and several Aloe species. Most Aloe species Chortolirion, Gasteria and the three Haworthia subgenera The three Haworthia subgenera; Astroloba and some Aloe species Gasteria and some Aloe species A few Aloe species 57 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! (A) Plastids (B) ITS1 (C) Combined Gasteria (N = 20) Gasteria (N = 20) Gasteria (N = 20) 80 52 Hexangulares (N = 15) 1.00 Robustipendunculares (N = 5) 94 Aloe haworthioides Astroloba (N = 4) Hexangulares (N = 16) 92 1.00 Hexangulares (N = 4) - Haworthia attenuata 62 77 58 0.95 Aloe aristata (N = 3) Robustipendunculares (N = 5) 0.68 Aloe aristata (N = 3) 65 Hexangulares (N = 14) 56 Haworthia koelmaniorum (N = 2) 68 76 Aloe aristata (N = 3) Aloe sect. Leptoaloe (N = 7) - Aloe sect. Macrifoliae (N = 5) Chortolirion angolense Single-stemmed Aloe spp. (N = 12) Haworthia subg. Haworthia (N = 49) Aloe sect. Leptoaloe (N = 6) Astroloba (N = 4) Haworthia subg. Haworthia (N = 44) 1.00 92 Robustipendunculares (N = 5) Haworthia koelmaniorum (N = 2) 0.97 Astroloba (N = 4) 0.74 61 - True Aloe spp. (N = 46) Other true Aloe spp. (N = 21) 0.53 96 Chortolirion angolense Chortolirion angolense Haworthia subg. Haworthia (N = 49) 93 1.00 Aloe plicatilis (N = 2) Single-stemmed Aloe spp. (N = 12) Aloe sect. Macrifoliae (N = 3) Tree Aloe spp. (N = 5) Outgroups (N = 13) 94 Aloe eminens Aloe barberae Aloe dichotoma (N = 3) Aloe sect. Macrifoliae (N = 5) Aloe plicatilis (N = 2) Tree Aloe spp. (N = 5) Outgroups (N = 13) Figure 3.1 Simplified tree topologies showing relationships among Alooideae genera for the plastids, nuclear and combined dataset. 58 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! 60 63 91 64 63 H 77 96 61 65 64 G 97 67 52 99 67 62 99 99 54 F 97 65 98 76 88 64 57 83 98 D 59 100 Gasteria tukhelensis Gasteria pulchra Gasteria glomerata Gasteria glauca Gasteria carinata var. retusa Gasteria carinata var. carinata Gasteria rawlinsonii Gasteria obliqua Gasteria vlokii Gasteria polita Gasteria excelsa Gasteria ellaphieae Gasteria doreeniae Gasteria disticha Gasteria croucheri Gasteria batesiana var. dolomitica Gasteria nitida var. armstrongii Gasteria acinacifolia Gasteria pillansii var. ernesti-ruschii Gasteria pillansii var. pillansii Haworthia nigra Haworthia bruynsii Haworthia coarctata var. adelaidensis Haworthia reinwardtii Haworthia sordida Haworthia glauca Haworthia coarctata Haworthia reinwardtii var. brevicula Haworthia longiana Haworthia fasciata Haworthia limifolia var. ubomboensis Haworthia limifolia Haworthia limifolia Haworthia venosa var. granulata Haworthia venosa Aloe haworthioides Haworthia attenuata Haworthia pumila Haworthia kingiana Haworthia kingiana Haworthia marginata Haworthia marginata Aloe aristata Aloe aristata Aloe aristata Astroloba corrugata Astroloba herrei Astroloba foliolosa Astroloba rubriflora Haworthia koelmaniorum var. mcmurtryi Haworthia koelmaniorum var. mcmurtryi Haworthia mucronata var. habdomadis Haworthia lockwoodii Haworthia pulchella var. globifera Haworthia monticola var. asema Haworthia decipiens var. pringlei Haworthia mucronata var. rycroftiana Haworthia mucronata var. morrisiae Haworthia mucronata var. bijliana Haworthia arachnoidea Haworthia arachnoidea Haworthia maculata Haworthia decipiens var. virella Haworthia decipiens Haworthia cymbiformis var. setulifera Haworthia cymbiformis var. ramosa Haworthia cymbiformis var. setulifera Haworthia cymbiformis Haworthia cooperi var. doldii Haworthia cooperi Haworthia herbacea var. paynei Haworthia reticulata Haworthia wittebergensis Haworthia vlokii Haworthia mirabilis var. paradoxa Haworthia herbacea var. flaccida Haworthia floribunda Haworthia marxii Haworthia marumiana var. archeri Haworthia semiviva Haworthia mirabilis var. calcarea Haworthia mirabilis var. triebneriana Haworthia retusa Haworthia mutica var. nigra Haworthia mutica Haworthia magnifica var. dekenahii Haworthia emelyae Haworthia outeniquensis Haworthia variegata Haworthia truncata Haworthia angustifolia Haworthia zantneriana Haworthia mirabilis Haworthia emelyae var. comptoniana Haworthia chloracantha Haworthia bayeri Haworthia pygmaea Haworthia blackburniae var. graminifolia Haworthia blackburniae var. derustensis Haworthia blackburniae Gasteria Hexangulares I Aloe haworthioides Hexangulares I Robustipendunculares Aloe aristata Astroloba Hexangulares II Haworthia subg. Haworthia [Fig 3.2b] 59 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! [Fig 3.2a] 85 75 50 65 96 85 96 91 79 80 61 50 81 70 92 C 62 B 95 81 64 83 100 100 90 100 98 58 100 79 100 100 Aloe kouebokkeveldensis Aloe buhrii Aloe striata subsp. kommagasensis Aloe reynoldsii Aloe striata Aloe fouriei Aloe nubigena Aloe challisii Aloe lutescens Aloe vossii Aloe verecunda Aloe saundersiae Chortolirion angolense Aloe ecklonis Aloe spicata Aloe ferox Aloe arborescens Aloe microstigma Aloe pictifolia Aloe lineata var. muirii Aloe lineata var. muirii Aloe lineata Aloe thraskii Aloe rupestris Aloe comosa Aloe alooides Aloe angelica Aloe munchii Aloe excelsa Aloe petricola Aloe chabaudii Aloe vryheidensis Aloe striata subsp. karasbergensis Aloe hereroensis Aloe greatheadii var. davyana Aloe dewinteri Aloe anivoranoensis Aloe propagulifera Aloe perfoliata Aloe pearsonii Aloe arenicola Aloe melanacantha Aloe tenuior Aloe ciliaris Aloe striatula Aloe plicatilis Aloe plicatilis Aloe gracilis Aloe commixta Aloe brevifolia Aloe glauca Aloe chortolirioides Aloe albida Aloe succotrina Aloe dichotoma subsp. pillansii Aloe eminens Aloe dichotoma Aloe dichotoma subsp. ramosissima Aloe barberae Bulbine frutescens Bulbine semibarbata Jodrellia fistulosa Kniphofia uvaria Kniphofia galpinii Eremurus spectabilis Asphodeline lutea Xanthorrhoea sp. Xanthorrhoea sp. Xanthorrhoea resinosa Zephyra elegans Tecophilaea cyanocrocus Anthericum liliago Section Leptoaloe Chortolirion Single− stemmed Aloes [E] True Aloes Section Macrifoliae [A] Tree Aloes Outgroups Figure 3.2 One of the most parsimonious trees obtained from the maximum parsimony (MP) analyses of the combined plastid data set (rbcLa + matK + trnH-psbA) for Alooideae plus outgroups (TL = 752; CI = 0.72; RI = 0.91). Numbers above the branches are MP bootstrap support. 60 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! H58 88 63 62 50 62 61 99 58 94 68 58 63 52 76 74 52 62 59 64 79 84 100 D 98 68 89 C 96 66 Gasteria vlokii Gasteria tukhelensis Gasteria rawlinsonii Gasteria pulchra Gasteria polita Gasteria pillansii var. ernesti-ruschii Gasteria pillansii var. pillansii Gasteria glomerata Gasteria glauca Gasteria excelsa Gasteria ellaphieae Gasteria doreeniae Gasteria disticha Gasteria croucheri Gasteria carinata var. retusa Gasteria carinata var. carinata Gasteria obliqua Gasteria batesiana var. dolomitica Gasteria nitida var. armstrongii Gasteria acinacifolia Haworthia pumila Haworthia kingiana Haworthia kingiana Haworthia marginata Haworthia marginata Astroloba corrugata Astroloba herrei Astroloba foliolosa Astroloba rubriflora Haworthia reinwardtii Haworthia coarctata Haworthia coarctata var. adelaidensis Haworthia reinwardtii var. brevicula Aloe aristata Aloe aristata Aloe aristata Haworthia venosa subsp. granulata Haworthia limifolia Haworthia koelmaniorum var. mcmurtryi Haworthia koelmaniorum var. mcmurtryi Haworthia glauca Haworthia fasciata Haworthia sordida Haworthia nigra Haworthia limifolia var. ubomboensis Haworthia limifolia Haworthia bruynsii Haworthia longiana Haworthia attenuata Haworthia venosa Haworthia cymbiformis var. setulifera Haworthia cymbiformis Haworthia cooperi var. doldii Haworthia bayeri Haworthia decipiens var. pringlei Haworthia decipiens var. virella Haworthia cymbiformis var. ramosa Haworthia cymbiformis var. setulifera Haworthia cooperi Haworthia pulchella var. globifera Haworthia marxii Haworthia mucronata var. habdomadis Haworthia lockwoodii Haworthia marumiana var. archeri Haworthia semiviva Haworthia mucronata var. rycroftiana Haworthia mucronata var. morrisiae Haworthia mucronata var. bijliana Haworthia decipiens Haworthia herbacea var. flaccida Haworthia mutica var. nigra Haworthia magnifica var. dekenahii Haworthia mirabilis Haworthia mirabilis var. paradoxa Haworthia herbacea var. paynei Haworthia mirabilis var. calcarea Haworthia reticulata Haworthia mutica Haworthia maculata Haworthia retusa Haworthia chloracantha Haworthia floribunda Haworthia variegata Haworthia pygmaea Haworthia emelyae Haworthia truncata Haworthia emelyae var. comptoniana Haworthia monticola var. asema Haworthia zantneriana Haworthia wittebergensis Haworthia vlokii Haworthia outeniquensis Haworthia blackburniae var. graminifolia Haworthia blackburniae var. derustensis Haworthia blackburniae Aloe tenuior Aloe ciliaris Aloe commixta Aloe striatula Aloe gracilis Gasteria Robustipendunculares [F] Astroloba Hexangulares Aloe aristata [G] Haworthia subg. Hexangulares Haworthia subg. Haworthia Aloe Section Macrifoliae [Fig 3.3b] 61 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! [Fig 3.3a] 85 75 50 65 96 85 96 91 79 80 61 50 81 70 92 C 62 B 95 81 64 83 100 100 90 100 98 58 100 79 100 100 Aloe kouebokkeveldensis Aloe buhrii Aloe striata subsp. kommagasensis Aloe reynoldsii Aloe striata Aloe fouriei Aloe nubigena Aloe challisii Aloe lutescens Aloe vossii Aloe verecunda Aloe saundersiae Chortolirion angolense Aloe ecklonis Aloe spicata Aloe ferox Aloe arborescens Aloe microstigma Aloe pictifolia Aloe lineata var. muirii Aloe lineata var. muirii Aloe lineata Aloe thraskii Aloe rupestris Aloe comosa Aloe alooides Aloe angelica Aloe munchii Aloe excelsa Aloe petricola Aloe chabaudii Aloe vryheidensis Aloe striata subsp. karasbergensis Aloe hereroensis Aloe greatheadii var. davyana Aloe dewinteri Aloe anivoranoensis Aloe propagulifera Aloe perfoliata Aloe pearsonii Aloe arenicola Aloe melanacantha Aloe tenuior Aloe ciliaris Aloe striatula Aloe plicatilis Aloe plicatilis Aloe gracilis Aloe commixta Aloe brevifolia Aloe glauca Aloe chortolirioides Aloe albida Aloe succotrina Aloe dichotoma subsp. pillansii Aloe eminens Aloe dichotoma Aloe dichotoma subsp. ramosissima Aloe barberae Bulbine frutescens Bulbine semibarbata Jodrellia fistulosa Kniphofia uvaria Kniphofia galpinii Eremurus spectabilis Asphodeline lutea Xanthorrhoea sp. Xanthorrhoea sp. Xanthorrhoea resinosa Zephyra elegans Tecophilaea cyanocrocus Anthericum liliago Section Leptoaloe Chortolirion Single− stemmed Aloes [E] True Aloes Section Macrifoliae [A] Tree Aloes Outgroups Figure 3.3 One of the most parsimonious trees obtained from the maximum parsimony (MP) analyses of the ITS1 data set for Alooideae (TL = 346; CI = 0.64; RI = 0.92). 62 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! − 0.77 58 0.98 63 0.83 61 − 0.95 0.57 H 70 0.99 97 1.00 80 1.00 G 92 − 1.00 0.93 88 1.00 − − 0.74 54 0.99 − − 0.98 0.55 78 0.55 − 1.00 57 0.78 1.00 − 0.64 67 81 0.88 − 1.00 0.75 82 1.00 92 1.00 − 0.67 100 1.00 − 0.74 F 77 0.95 100 75 1.00 79 0.97 0.99 58 0.68 100 1.00 99 1.00 61 0.93 89 1.00 85 − 1.00 − 95 0.77 0.59 1.00 56 0.97 − 0.60 91 − 1.00 − 0.51 55 0.92 0.99 86 1.00 61 1.00 71 1.00 70 1.00 66 51 0.89 84 0.90 53 0.93 0.99 E − 1.00 − 53 0.73 0.92 90 1.00 − 0.60 80 1.00 80 0.73 G. polita G. doreeniae G. disticha G. tukhelensis G. pulchra G. glomerata G. glauca G. rawlinsonii G. obliqua G. vlokii G. excelsa G. ellaphieae G. batesiana var. dolomitica G. nitida var. armstrongii G. acinacifolia G. carinata var. retusa G. carinata var. carinata G. croucheri G. pillansii var. ernesti-ruschii G. pillansii var. pillansii Haworthia coarctata Haworthia reinwardtii var. brevicula Haworthia coarctata var. adelaidensis Haworthia reinwardtii Haworthia nigra Haworthia glauca Haworthia bruynsii Haworthia sordida Haworthia longiana Haworthia fasciata Haworthia limifolia var. ubomboensis Haworthia limifolia Haworthia limifolia Haworthia venosa var. granulata Haworthia venosa Haworthia attenuata Haworthia kingiana Haworthia marginata Haworthia pumila Haworthia kingiana Haworthia marginata Astroloba corrugata Astroloba herrei Astroloba foliolosa Astroloba rubriflora Aloe aristata Aloe aristata Aloe aristata H. koelmaniorum var. mcmutryi H. koelmaniorum var. mcmutryi Aloe nubigena Aloe ecklonis Aloe fouriei Aloe challisii Aloe vossii Aloe verecunda Aloe saundersiae Aloe kouebokkeveldensis Aloe buhrii Aloe striata subsp. kommagasensis Aloe striata Aloe reynoldsii Aloe lutescens Chortolirion angolense Aloe spicata Aloe ferox Aloe arborescens Aloe microstigma Aloe pictifolia Aloe lineata var. muirii Aloe lineata var. muirii Aloe lineata Aloe thraskii Aloe rupestris Aloe comosa Aloe alooides Aloe angelica Aloe excelsa Aloe petricola Aloe munchii Aloe chabaudii Aloe vryheidensis Aloe perfoliata Aloe arenicola Aloe pearsonii Aloe melanacantha Aloe chortolirioides Aloe albida Aloe brevifolia Aloe glauca Aloe striata subsp. karasbergensis Aloe greatheadii subsp. davyana Aloe propagulifera Aloe dewinteri Aloe anivoranoensis Aloe haworthioides Aloe hereroensis Aloe succotrina Gasteria Hexangulares I Robustipendunculares Astroloba Aloe aristata Hexangulares II Section Leptoaloe Single− stemmed True Aloes Aloes [Fig 3.4b] 63 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! [Fig 3.4a] 53 − 0.65 0.61 − 0.62 − 0.59 61 − 0.96 0.56 − 0.61 63 0.80 58 0.92 − 0.99 − 0.79 − 0.76 − 0.53 − 70 0.82 0.88 − 0.74 D 61 0.82 100 1.00 98 1.00 100 1.00 93 1.00 87 74 0.99 95 0.96 1.00 67 0.94 97 1.00 C 80 1.00 B A 100 1.00 100 1.00 93 76 1.00 1.00 − 1.00 99 90 1.00 1.00 100 − 1.00 0.51 63 0.90 74 100 0.92 1.00 100 99 1.00 1.00 Haworthia herbacea var. paynei Haworthia reticulata Haworthia maculata Haworthia herbacea var. flaccida Haworthia magnifica var. dekenahii Haworthia mirabilis var. paradoxa Haworthia mirabilis var. calcarea Haworthia mirabilis var. triebneriana Haworthia retusa Haworthia mutica var. nigra Haworthia mutica Haworthia marumiana var. archeri Haworthia semiviva Haworthia marxii Haworthia floribunda Haworthia emelyae Haworthia wittebergensis Haworthia vlokii Haworthia cymbiformis var. setulifera Haworthia cymbiformis Haworthia cooperi var. doldii Haworthia decipiens var. pringlei Haworthia decipiens var. virella Haworthia cymbiformis var. ramosa Haworthia cymbiformis var. setulifera Haworthia cooperi Haworthia mucronata var. habdomadis Haworthia lockwoodii Haworthia pulchella var. globifera Haworthia monticola var. asema Haworthia mucronata var. rycroftiana Haworthia mucronata var. morrisiae Haworthia mucronata var. bijliana Haworthia arachnoidea Haworthia arachnoidea Haworthia decipiens Haworthia outeniquensis Haworthia chloracantha Haworthia pygmaea Haworthia variegata Haworthia truncata Haworthia emelyae var. comptoniana Haworthia angustifolia Haworthia zantneriana Haworthia bayeri Haworthia mirabilis Haworthia blackburniae var. graminifolia Haworthia blackburniae var. derustensis Haworthia blackburniae Aloe tenuior Aloe ciliaris Aloe striatula Aloe gracilis Aloe commixta Aloe plicatilis Aloe plicatilis Aloe dichotoma subsp. pillansii Aloe dichotoma Aloe dichotoma subsp. ramosissima Aloe eminens Aloe barberae Bulbine frutescens Bulbine semibarbata Jodrellia fistulosa Kniphofia uvaria Kniphofia galpinii Eremurus spectabilis Asphodeline lutea Xanthorrhoea sp. Xanthorrhoea sp. Xanthorrhoea resinosa Zephyra elegans Tecophilaea cyanocrocus Anthericum liliago Haworthia subg. Haworthia Section Macrifoliae Aloe plicatilis Tree Aloes Outgroups Figure 3.4 Majority-rule consensus tree obtained from the Bayesian analysis of the combined plastid and nuclear internal transcribed spacer (ITS1) data set for Alooideae plus outgroup (TL = 1159; CI = 0.63; RI = 0.89). Numbers above the branches are MP bootstrap support and ones below are BI posterior probabilities. 64 ! Chapter three: Results ! Per_col Per_tube 16 17 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Stamens Ped_length 15 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 20 Per_symmetry 14 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Tepals Fl_shape 13 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 19 Fl_arrange 12 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Perianth Fl_orient 11 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 18 Inflo_col 10 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Inflo_raceme ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 9 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Inflo_sym ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 8 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Inflo_branching Leaf_apex 6 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 7 Leaf_tubercles 4 Leaf_mac 3 4 1 Leaf_margins 0 3 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Leaf_insert ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 2 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Habit ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 1 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Gasteria ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Hexangulares I● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Robustipen− ● ● dunculares ● ● ● ● Astroloba ● ● Aloe aristata ● ● ● Hexangulares II● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● True Aloes ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Haworthia ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Tree Aloes ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Outgroups ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 5 ! G. polita G. doreeniae G. disticha G. tukhelensis G. pulchra G. glomerata G. glauca G. rawlinsonii G. obliqua G. vlokii G. excelsa G. ellaphieae G. batesiana var dolomitica G. nitida var armstrongii G. acinacifolia G. carinata var. retusa G. carinata var. carinata G. croucheri G. pillansii var. ernesti−ruschii G. pillansii var. pillansii H. coarctata H. reinwardtii var. brevicula H. coarctata var. adelaidensis H. reinwardtii H. nigra H. glauca H. bruynsii H. sordida H. longiana H. fasciata H. limifolia var. ubomboensis H. limifolia H. limifolia H. venosa var. granulata H. venosa H. attenuata H. kingiana H. marginata H. pumila H. kingiana H. marginata Astroloba corrugata Astroloba herrei Astroloba foliolosa Astroloba rubriflora A. aristata A. aristata A. aristata H. koelmaniorum var. mcmurtryi H. koelmaniorum var. mcmurtryi A. nubigena A. ecklonis A. fouriei A. challisii A. vossii A. verecunda A. saundersiae A. kouebokkeveldensis A. buhrii A. striata subsp. kommagasensis A. striata A. reynoldsii A. lutescens Chortolirion angolense A. spicata A. ferox A. arborescens A. pictifolia A. microstigma A. lineata var. muirii A. lineata var. muirii A. lineata A. thraskii A. rupestris A. comosa A. alooides A. angelica A. excelsa A. petricola A. munchii A. chabaudii A. vryheidensis A. striata subsp. karasbergensis A. greatheadii var. davyana A. hereroensis A. propagulifera A. dewinteri A. anivoranoensis A. haworthioides A. brevifolia A. glauca A. succotrina A. perfoliata A. arenicola A. pearsonii A. melanacantha A. eminens A. chortolirioides A. albida A. tenuior A. ciliaris A. striatula A. gracilis A. commixta H. herbacea var. paynei H. reticulata H. maculata H. herbacea var. flaccida H. magnifica var. dekenahii H. mirabilis var. paradoxa H. mirabilis var. calcarea H. mutica var. nigra H. mutica H. mirabilis var. triebneriana H. retusa H. floribunda H. emelyae H. wittebergensis H. vlokii H. marumiana var. archeri H. semiviva H. marxii H. cymbiformis var. setulifera H. cymbiformis H. cooperi var. doldii H. decipiens var. pringlei H. decipiens var. virella H. cymbiformis var. ramosa H. cymbiformis var. setulifera H. cooperi H. mucronata var. habdomadis H. lockwoodii H. pulchella var. globifera H. mucronata var. rycroftiana H. mucronata var. morrisiae H. mucronata var. bijliana H. arachnoidea H. arachnoidea H. decipiens H. chloracantha H. pygmaea H. variegata H. truncata H. emelyae var. comptoniana H. monticola var. asema H. angustifolia H. zantneriana H. bayeri H. outeniquensis H. mirabilis H. blackburniae var. graminifolia H. blackburniae var. derustensis H. blackburniae A. plicatilis A. plicatilis A. dichotoma subsp. pillansii A. dichotoma A. dichotoma subsp. ramosissima A. barberae Bulbine frutescens Bulbine semibarbata Jodrellia fistulosa Kniphofia uvaria Kniphofia galpinii Eremurus spectabilis Asphodeline lutea Xanthorrhoea sp. Xanthorrhoea sp. Xanthorrhoea resinosa Zephyra elegans Tecophilaea cyanocrocus Anthericum liliago Figure 3.4: Morphological trait distribution along phylogeny of Alooideae. All trait values are centred and scaled, resulting in circles of different colours. Figure 3.5 Distribution of morphological traits along phylogeny of Alooideae. All trait values are centred and scaled, resulting in circles of different colours. The colours of the symbols are proportional to the absolute value of each trait. 65 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! = stemless = caulescent = arborescent a b = polystichous = distichous = concolorous = white c C Figure 3.6 Parsimony-based reconstructions of a) habit character (character 1), b) leaf insertion (character 2), and c) leaf tubercles (character 5) on the majority-rule consensus tree from the combined molecular data. 66 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! = spreading = pendulous a b = actinomorphic = weakly bilabiate = strongly bilabiate = straight = curved upwards Cc Figure 3.7 Parsimony-based reconstructions of a) flower orientation (character 11), b) periath symmetry (character 14), and c) perianth tube (character 17) on the majority-rule consensus tree from the combined molecular data. 67 ! Chapter three: Results ! ! = cylindrical and tapering into pedicel = inflated basally a b = exserted = included = both whorls connate basally = both whorls connate 1/2 or more of length = only outer whorls connate for 1/2 or more of length c Figure 3.8 Parsimony-based reconstructions of a) periath shape (character 18), b) stamen inclusion (character 20), and c) tepal fusion (character 19) on the majority-rule consensus tree from the combined molecular data. 68 ! Chapter four: Discussion and Conclusion ! ! CHAPTER(FOUR( Discussion(and(Conclusion( ! 69 ! Chapter four: Discussion and Conclusion ! ! 4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 4.1 Phylogenetic Relationships within Alooideae Based on congruence between the plastid and nuclear DNA data sets, the discussion is restricted to results obtained from the combined data set (Fig. 3.4). Results strongly confirm the monophyly of Alooideae as previously shown by Linnaeus (1753) and more recently by Treutlein et al. (2003a, b) and Ramdhani et al. (2011). Furthermore, the genus Aloe is polyphyletic as currently circumscribed, with all other genera of Alooideae nested in different parts of Aloe. The analysis identifies seven primary monophyletic lineages in Alooideae, corresponding to the following currently recognised generic and infrageneric groups: 1. Aloe sect. Dracoaloe + Aloe sect. Aloidendron 2. Aloe sect. Macrifoliae 3. Haworthia subg. Haworthia 4. Haworthia subg. Robustipendunculares + Astroloba + Aloe sect. Aristatae 5. Haworthia subg. Hexangulares 6. Gasteria 7. Remaining Aloe spp. This topology is congruent with that derived earlier by Treutlein et al. (2003b) with much smaller taxon sampling and analysis of just two plastid gene regions. Among the smaller segregate genera, only Gasteria and Astroloba are retrieved as monophyletic (Chortolirion is monotypic). The analysis indicated that Haworthia is not monophyletic but rather represents three lineages corresponding more or less to the subgenera proposed by Bayer (1982, 1999). 70 ! Chapter four: Discussion and Conclusion ! ! 4.1.1 Relationships within Aloe Relationships within Aloe sect. Dracoaloe + sect. Aloidendron ! The analysis did not retrieved the ‘tree aloes’ sensu Van Wyk & Smith (2003) as a monophyletic group, but rather as two separate lineages. Lineage 1 includes sections Aloidendron + Dracoaloe which appears to be the earliest diverging lineage within the subfamily. Aloe section Dracoaloe (A. dichotoma, A. dichotoma subsp. ramosissima, and subsp. pillansii) known as the “Quiver tree” (Van Wyk & Smith, 2003), occurs in the Northern Cape region and Namibia. Capitate raceme is typical of this group (Glen & Hardy, 2000). The section Aloidendron comprise only of Aloe barberae Dyer, which is the largest African Aloe species (growing up to 10-18 m tall). It is distributed along the eastern coast of southern Africa (Mpumalanga, Swaziland, KwazuluNatal, Eastern Cape and Mozambique). Aloe plicatilis (lineage 2) (also tree Aloe sensu Van Wyk & Smith, 2003, endemic to the Cape Floristic region) did not group with the other ‘tree aloes’, but was retrieved as the early diverging lineage to Haworthia subgenus Haworthia. Although all three sections share a tree-like growth form, arborescence appears to have developed convergently in several Aloe lineages. I also recovered a strong support for A. eminens grouping with A. barberae (A. bainesii sensu Reynolds, 1966). This grouping might be a confirmation of their similar arborescent habit, although they are geographically isolated (A. barberae from South Africa and A. eminens from Somalia) plus the slight differences in some floral details, my analysis places them together as part of the earliest diverging lineage within Alooideae. Relationships within Aloe section Macrifoliae ! Aloe sect. Macrifoliae, the ‘rambling Aloes’ (sensu Van Wyk & Smith, 2003), comprising five closely related species (A. ciliaris, A. commixta, A. gracilis, A. striatula, and A. tenuior), is recovered as a strongly supported clade sister to the true aloes + all segregate genera. The cane-like stems of these 71 ! Chapter four: Discussion and Conclusion ! ! species, with their slender, sheathing, unspotted and mesophytic leaves with minute marginal teeth are unique to members of this section (Glen & Hardy, 2000). Relationships within the true Aloe species ! The relationships among the remaining species of Aloe included in the analysis are poorly resolved. Although some of the currently recognised sections may be monophyletic, other sections are clearly not, and a much more extensive sampling is required to evaluate taxonomic and evolutionary relationships among them. The position of Chortolirion is noteworthy, where it is deeply embedded within this group, as part of a clade including most of the grass aloes. However the precise relationships are still unclear. Close morphological similarity in vegetative parts, namely the grass-like leaves with bulb-like swelling, and the small, bilabiate flowers, to species such as A. bowiea and A. inconspicua suggest a close relationship to sect. Leptoaloe. This resemblance between Chortolirion and the grass aloes was also pointed out in previous studies (e.g. Mabberley, 2008; Treutlein et al., 2003b). 4.1.2 Relationships within Haworthia Relationships within Haworthia subg. Haworthia ! Species of H. subgenus Haworthia comprise a strongly supported monophyletic clade, defined morphologically by the basally triangular perianth, obclavate flowers and upcurved style (Bayer, 1982, 1999). Additional support for this comes from Smith et al. (2001), which reported the occurrence of lower (< than 50 %) sucrose concentrations in H. subg. Haworthia in contrast to higher (> 60 %) sucrose concentrations in subg. Hexangulares and Robustipendunculares. Relationships within Haworthia subg. Robustipendunculares + Astroloba + Aloe sect. Aristatae ! Haworthia subg. Robustipendunculares is a small group of three species (Haworthia marginata, H. kingiana, and H. pumila) that is well-supported as monophyletic 72 ! Chapter four: Discussion and Conclusion ! ! and sister to Astroloba. Members of subg. Robustipendunculares are often large in size, about 100-300 mm across (with the largest been H. pumila) and restricted to the southern parts of the Western Cape, from Worcester to Mossel Bay. It is defined morphologically by its more or less straight perianth abruptly joined to the pedicel (Bayer, 1982, 1999). The flower type found in H. subg. Robustipendunculares is not dissimilar to that in Astroloba, differing essentially in its slight zygomorphy. Members of Robustipendunculares are often robust with attenuate leaves, often scabrid and patterned with white tubercles (Bayer, 1999). Sister to subg. Robustipendunculares + Astroloba is Aloe aristata, which is unique in the genus Aloe by having “Haworthia-like” leaves with dry awn-tipped apices and white tubercles (Glen & Hardy, 2000). The sister relationship between Astroloba and Haworthia subg. Robustipendunculares is further supported by similarities in nectar sucrose proportions (Van Wyk et al., 1993). Relationships within Haworthia subg. Hexangulares ! Bayer (1999) recognised 16 species within H. subg. Hexangularis. The current analysis however, indicates that H. subg. Hexangulares is polyphyletic, with H. koelmanniorum more closely related to H. subg. Robustipendunculares. Haworthia koelmanniorum occupies an isolated position sister to subg. Robustipendunculares + Astroloba + Aloe aristata. The geographical distribution of this species is also disjunct from that of other species of Haworthia. Significantly, species of Hexangulares display the largest vegetative diversity in Haworthia with some closely resembling members of Astroloba and Robustipendunculares respectively, in their vegetative morphology. 73 ! Chapter four: Discussion and Conclusion ! ! 4.1.3 Relationships within smaller segregate genera Relationships within Astroloba ! Astroloba, consisting of 6 species, are retrieved as a monophyletic clade sister to Haworthia subg. Robustipendunculares. The genus is morphologically defined by its caulescent habit with stiff, imbricate leaves, and small, actinomorphic flowers with included stamens. Results from this study confirm the inclusion of Poellnitzia rubriflora within Astroloba. Relationships within Gasteria ! Gasteria forms a strongly supported monophyletic clade with several morphological synapomorphies, notably the unarmed, verrucose leaves and inclined secund inflorescences of pendulous, gasteriform flowers with a well-developed floral tube (Van Jaarsveld, 2007). Bimodal karyotype is uniform in all Gasteria species and consists of eight large and six chromosomes (Vosa & Bennett, 1990). 4.2 Evolution of selected morphological characters in Alooideae I analysed 20 morphological characters commonly used to differentiate between Alooideae species, following extensive literature review (as presented in section 2.5). I then reconstructed the likely evolutionary history of nine morphological characters that are important in generic and infrageneric delimitation within the subfamily Alooideae onto the majority rule consensus tree from the BI. The importance of these selected characters in Alooideae systematics are not only employed in previous Alooideae systematics (e.g. Bayer, 1999; Smith & van Wyk, 1991; Van Jaarsveld, 1994), they are shown to be unique to certain clades in this study. Habit. ! Acaulescence is plesiomorphic within Alooideae, with certain lineages characterised by secondary caulescence and arborescence (Fig. 3.6a). Caulescence has 74 ! Chapter four: Discussion and Conclusion ! ! developed several times in the subfamily, including Aloe itself (notably section Macrifoliae) and in some of the segregate genera, notably Astroloba and also some species of Gasteria and Haworthia subg. Hexangulares. Arborescence is relatively uncommon in the subfamily but is characteristic of species in Aloe sect. Aloidendron and Dracoaloe, the clade including A. eminens. It is implicit in previous classifications (e.g. Reynolds, 1966; Holland, 1978) that arborescence in Aloe is the derived state. Although the cytogenetic analysis by Brandham (1983) proposed that scandent Aloe species with usually relatively mesophytic leaves, e.g. A. tenuior Haw. and A. ciliaris Haw. (sect. Macrifoliae), represent the primitive state in Aloe species, our analysis suggests that caulescence is derived in the genus. Smith & van Wyk (1991) argued that both small, highly succulent taxa and arborescent forms were derived from a mesophytic, comparatively acaulescent taxon. The current study supports this hypothesis, showing that arborescence in Aloe is found not only in early diverging lineages but also in others deeply embedded within Aloe, and that the grass Aloes (sect. Leptoaloe) are clearly derived. Leaf insertion ! Polystichous leaf insertion is common within the subfamily, and distichous leaf insertion is rare, having evolved independently several times in Aloe, once in Haworthia and possibly once in Gasteria (Fig. 3.6b). Distichy is evidently the juvenile condition, present in all Aloe and Gasteria seedlings, and its persistence in adult plants is best interpreted as neoteny. The ecological advantages are unclear. Leaf tuberculation ! The presence of white tubercles on the leaves is largely restricted to Gasteria and Haworthia subg. Hexangulares and Robustipendunculares but tubercules are also developed in some Aloe species (e.g. Aloe aristata, A. haworthioides and A. verrecunda) and in the genus Chortolirion (Fig. 3.6c). Tuberculation is certainly a derived 75 ! Chapter four: Discussion and Conclusion ! ! condition, as hypothesised by Smith & van Wyk (1991). In Gasteria, Van Jaarsveld (1994) has proposed that its evolution was driven by the absence of the bitter constituent typical of Aloe species, suggesting that the rigid tubercles may make the leaves less palatable. This remains to be tested. Perianth colour ! Vivid, yellow, orange or reddish flowers are clearly plesiomorphic for the subfamily, and are strongly associated with ornithophily. The whitish or greenish perianth that is characteristic of Haworthia and Astroloba (excluding Poellnitzia) and several species of Aloe, especially several members of sect. Leptaloae, appear to be adaptations to entomophily (Botes et al., 2008; Hargreaves et al., 2008) and are derived. Flower orientation at anthesis ! Representatives of Astroloba, Chortolirion and Haworthia, bear flowers ascending on vertical peduncles. This is hypothesised by Smith & Van Wyk (1991) to be the derived condition, which developed in response to a specialised, insect pollination syndrome. Pendulous flowers at anthesis are found in all Gasteria and some Aloe species. Flower orientation in Gasteria appears to be an adaptation to bird pollination, the horizontal peduncles acting as perches for bird visitors such as sunbirds (Nectariidae; Smith & Van Wyk, 1991), enabling easy access to nectar reward. Tepal connation ! The perianth in Alooideae comprises six tepals arranged in two whorls of three each, variously connate into a short or prominent tube. The plesiomorphic condition is for the tepals to be basally connate only, and this is charateristic even in bird pollinated Aloe species (Fig. 3.8c). In several of the ornithopilous Aloe species, however, the outer tepal whorl is connate in the basal half, forming a distinct perianth tube. Tepals with both whorls connate for half or more of their length are diagnostic for Gasteria, Astroloba (Poellnitzia) rubriflora, and Aloe kouebokkeveldensis and appear to have evolved 76 ! Chapter four: Discussion and Conclusion ! ! independently in these three lineages from ancestral types with tepals connate at the base only. Floral syndromes indicate that all of these taxa are bird pollinated and the results from this study suggest that in Gasteria and Astroloba these are secondary modification of an entomophilous Haworthia-type flower rather than developments from a more typical Aloetype flower. Haworthia-type flowers are small, spreading flowers with whitish, sometimes strongly bilabiate perianths, and included anthers are diagnostic of the genus Haworthia (Bayer, 1999). Cladistic analysis suggests that this flower type is homoplasious, and that it has evolved independently at least three and possibly four times (once each in Chortolirion and H. subg. Haworthia and once or twice in subg. Hexangulares/Robustipendunculares with possible reversals in A. aristata and Gasteria) (Figs. 3.7a & b). Relatively short-tubed whitish or sometimes cream flowers in some Aloe species (e.g. Aloe inconspicua) have been revealed as an adaptation to insect pollination (Botes et al., 2009). Although still recognisably ‘Aloe-like’, the flowers of bee-pollinated Aloe species (sensu Botes et al., 2009) such as A. linearifolia and A. minima, display several characteristics of the Haworthia-flower apart from reduced size, namely their nearly horizontal orientation, whitish and weakly bilabiate perianth, and sometimes included stamens. In term of perianth symmetry, Smith & van Wyk (1991) suggested that zygomorphy (as revealed from the flowers of Astroloba, Chortolirion and Haworthia) represents an advanced state derived from the plesiomorphic actinomorphic pattern, and the results in this study confirmed this hypothesis. Gasteria-type flowers are curved and flask-shaped with an ovoid, inflated tube at least half as long as the perianth, and included or shortly exserted stamens, is characteristic of the genus Gasteria. The flowers in the genus are also often bicoloured, with greenish tips to the tepals, and are borne secund on inclined racemes. Flask-shaped flowers with inflated bases 77 ! Chapter four: Discussion and Conclusion ! ! occur widely in Aloe and have evidently evolved several times (Fig. 3.8a), although in this genus the stamens are often but not always exserted (Fig. 3.8b). Similar flowers are characteristic also of Poellnitzia but here are uniquely held erect on an inclined raceme. A well-developed perianth tube formed by the fusion of both tepal whorls has evolved independently in Gasteria, Astroloba and Aloe kouebokkeveldensis (Fig. 3.8c). 78 ! Chapter four: Discussion and Conclusion ! ! 4.3 Conclusions Results of this study were largely conducted with new data collected for four gene regions (rbcLa, matK, trnH-psbA and ITS1), with greater sampling than in any previously published analyses (e.g. Treutlein et al., 2003a, b; Ramdhani et al., 2011) and essentially congruent with those of earlier studies. Evidence from morphological (Smith & Steyn, 2004), cytological (Taylor, 1925), cladistic (Smith & Van Wyk, 1991; Klopper et al., 2010) and chemical analyses (Viljoen et al., 1998; Viljoen, 1999) have been routinely applied to the current classification of Alooideae, which recognises five genera. These studies, although unable to resolve the relationships within the subfamily, provided a working hypothesis for this study. Gasteria is well defined morphologically by its verrucose, edentate leaves and inclined inflorescences with ± secund, ‘gasteriform’ flowers, and it is not coincidental that it was one of the earliest groups of species to be recognised. The phylogenetic analysis places Gasteria sister to Haworthia subg. Hexangulares, which includes species with remarkably similar leaves, and the unique Gasteria-type flowers, are most parsimoniously interpreted as a reversion to bird-pollination from the entomophilous Haworthia-type flower with included stamens. One of the most unexpected results of the analyses is the apparent convergent evolution of the Haworthia-type flower. It appears to have evolved at least three times: at least twice and possibly three times in Haworthia itself and independently in Chortolirion. The close phylogenetic association between Poellnitzia, Astroloba and Haworthia subg. Robustipendunculares is reflected in the vegetative similarity among these three genera, and the floral differences between them are in effect very minor, relying on differences in perianth symmetry, size and colour. Indeed, Manning & Smith (2000) proposed the inclusion of Poellnitzia in Astroloba and this was confirmed in the current study. It is significant that Aloe aristata, treated as the monoptypic sect. Aristatae on the basis of its distinctive foliage 79 ! Chapter four: Discussion and Conclusion ! ! (edentate, aristate and strikingly marked with transverse verrucae), is shown to be closely allied with H. sect. Robustipendunculares + Astroloba. Vegetatively, A. aristata would fit perfectly in H. sect. Robustipendunculares. It is thus clear that few of the characters used to define genera within Alooideae at present are autapomorphies, and Aloe already includes most of the variation evident in the subfamily. Furthermore, Aloe is shown to be polyphyletic with the other four Alooideae genera nested in different parts of Aloe. There is an increasing trend to align classifications with phylogenies at all taxonomic levels, and for taxa to be circumscribed as monophyletic lineages (Backlund & Bremer, 1998). In Alooideae there are essentially just two options available. The first ! splitter’s approach ! requires the recognition of at least four and possibly more additional segregates among Aloe in order to render a rump Aloe monophyletic, plus the fragmentation of Haworthia into three smaller genera. 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Taxon 52: 193—207. Van Jaarsveld EJ, Low B, van Wyk AE. 2004. Aloe kouebokkeveldensis: a new species from the Western Cape. Aloe 41: 36—37. Van Jaarsveld EJ, van Wyk AE. 2004. Gasteria doreeniae, a new species from the Eastern Cape. Aloe 41: 81—83. Van Jaarsveld EJ, van Wyk AE. 2005. Gasteria tukhelensis, a new species from Kwazulu-natal, South Africa. Bothalia 35: 164—166. Van Jaarsveld EJ, van Wyk AE. 2006. Aloe challisii, a new cliff-dwelling aloe from Mpumalanga, and a checklist of the obligate cliff-dwelling aloes in South Africa and Namibia. Aloe 43: 36—41. Van Jaarsveld EJ. 1992. The genus Gasteria: A Synoptic Review. Aloe 29: 5—33. Van Jaarsveld EJ. 1994. Gasterias of South Africa. A new revision of a major succulent group. Cape Town: Fernwood Press in association with the National Botanical Institute, South Africa. Van Jaarsveld EJ. 1998. A new taxon and new combinations in the Gasteria carinata complex. Cactus and Succulent Journal (US) 70: 65—71. Van Jaarsveld EJ. 2001. Gasteria polita van Jaarsv., a new species from the Western Cape. Cactus and Succulent Journal (US) 73: 127—130. Van Jaarsveld EJ. 2007. The genus Gasteria: A Synoptic Review (new taxa and combinations). Aloe 44: 84—104. 89 ! References ! ! Van Wyk BE, Smith GF. 2003. Guide to Aloes of South Africa. Briza Publications, Pretoria, South Africa. Van Wyk BE, Whitehead CS, Glen HF, Hardy DS, Van Jaarsveld EJ, Smith GF. 1993. Nectar Sugar Composition in the Subfamily Alooideae (Asphodelaceae). Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 21: 249—253. Victor JE, Dold AP. 2003. Threatened plants of the Albany centre of Floristic Endemism, South Africa. South African Journal of Science 99: 437—446. Viljoen AM, Van Wyk BE, Van Heerden FR. 1998. Distribution and chemotaxonomic significance of flavonoids in Aloe (Asphodelaceae). Plant systematics and evolution 211:31—42. Viljoen AM. 1999. A chemotaxonomic study of phenolic leaf compounds in the genus Aloe. Ph.D. thesis, Rand Afrikaans University, Johannesburg. Vosa CG, Bennett ST. 1990. Chromosome studies in the southern African flora. 58-94. Chromosome evolution in the genus Gasteria Duval. Caryologia 43: 235—247. Vosa CG. 2004. On the classification of some species of the genus Haworthia, subgenus Haworthia (Asphodelaceae). Caryologia 57: 395—399. Wiens JJ. 1998. Testing phylogenetic methods with tree-congruence: Phylogenetic analysis of polymorphic morphological characters in phrynosomatid lizards. Systematic Biology 47:427—444. Zonneveld BJM, van Jaarsveld EJ. 2005. Taxonomic implications of genome size for all species of the genus Gasteria Duval (Aloaceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution 251: 217—227. 90 ! Appendices ! ! APPENDIX I This appendix includes all abstracts of papers presented at conferences. PAPER PRESENTATIONS Molecular phylogeny of Haworthia (Asphodelaceae): Evidence from plastid and nuclear DNA sequences Barnabas H. Daru1, Olivier Maurin1, Norman Maclean2, Bruce M. Bayer3, and Michelle van der Bank1 1 African Centre for DNA Barcoding, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, P. O. Box 524 Auckland Park, 2006 Johannesburg, South Africa. 2 School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton, Hants, SO16 7PX, United Kingdom. 3 PO Box 960, 7579 Kuilsriver, Western Cape, South Africa. Haworthia Duval (Asparagales: Asphodelaceae: Alooideae) is endemic to southern Africa with modifications to withstand relatively waterless or desert environments. There is considerable variation in form between members of the genus and also, to a lesser extent, between populations of the same species. It is likely that cryptic species are yet to be described. Despite their importance in commercial horticulture, little is known about their evolutionary history and their genetic diversity, and the taxonomy remains unresolved. In the current study, generic limits of Haworthia were addressed using molecular sequenced data from three plastid (rbcLa, matK and trnH-psbA) and the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS1). Representatives of other genera within Alooideae were also included to infer the placement of the three subgenera of Haworthia within Alooideae. Preliminary findings were discussed. Oral Presentation: 2011 Congress of the Southern African Society for Systematics Biologists (SASSB), Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa. Awarded the Best MSc Oral presentation SASSB Congress 2011. 91 ! Appendices ! ! ! Phylogeny of the subfamily Alooideae (Asphodelaceae): Paraphyly of Aloe and Haworthia and consequences for classification Barnabas H. Daru1,3,4, Olivier Maurin1, John C. Manning2, James S. Boatwright2,3, and Michelle van der Bank1 1 African Centre for DNA Barcoding, University of Johannesburg, P. O. Box 524 Auckland Park, 2006 Johannesburg, South Africa. 2 Compton Herbarium, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Private Bag X7, Claremont 7735, South Africa. 3 Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, Johannesburg, South Africa. 4 Author for correspondence (darunabas@gmail.com) Abstract This study addresses generic delimitation of subfamily Alooideae (Asphodelaceae) using DNA sequences from plastid (rbcLa, matK and trnH-psbA) and nuclear (ITS1) regions plus morphological trait data. The plastid and nuclear DNA were analysed using maximum parsimony and bayesian statistics. The morphological data was mapped unto the molecular phylogeny. Parsimony and bayesian analyses of cpDNA and ITS1 combined together yielded two clades in Alooideae. The findings were discussed. Keywords—Asphodelaceae, ITS1, matK, molecular phylogeny, morphology, nomenclature, rbcLa, trnH-psbA, taxonomy Oral Presentation: South African Academy for Science and Arts Conference, University of Johannesburg, South Africa (2011) 92 ! Appendices ! ! Phylogeny of the subfamily Alooideae (Asphodelaceae): Paraphyly of Aloe and Haworthia and consequences for classification Barnabas H. Daru1,3,4, John C. Manning2, James S. Boatwright2,3, Olivier Maurin1, and Michelle van der Bank1 1 African Centre for DNA Barcoding, University of Johannesburg, P. O. Box 524 Auckland Park, 2006 Johannesburg, South Africa. 2 Compton Herbarium, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Private Bag X7, Claremont 7735, South Africa. 3 Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, Johannesburg, South Africa. 4 Author for correspondence (darunabas@gmail.com) Abstract Alooideae (Asparagales–Asphodelaceae) currently comprises five genera, four of which are endemic to southern Africa. Despite their importance in commercial horticulture, evolutionary relationships among the genera are still incompletely understood, and the generic taxonomy remains unresolved. This study addresses generic delimitation in subfamily Alooideae using an expanded molecular sequenced datasets from three plastid regions (rbcLa, matK and trnH-psbA) and the first subunit of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS1). Sequence data were analysed using maximum parsimony and bayesian statistics, and selected morphological traits were mapped onto the molecular phylogeny. Among the polytypic genera, only Astroloba and Gasteria were retrieved as monophyletic. Haworthia is shown to be polyphyletic and to comprise three main clades largely correllated with current subgeneric circumscriptions. The taxonomic implications of these findings are examined and a revised, phylogeny-driven generic classification is proposed in which the genus Aloe is expanded to include all members of Alooideae. Keywords—Asphodelaceae, ITS1, matK, molecular phylogeny, morphology, nomenclature, rbcLa, trnH-psbA, taxonomy Oral Presentation: South African Association of Botanists (SAAB) 38th Annual Conference, University of Pretoria, South Africa (2012). 93 ! Appendices ! ! APPENDIX II Paper submitted to Taxon – 15 December 2011 (under review). Phylogeny of the subfamily Alooideae (Asphodelaceae): Paraphyly of Aloe and Haworthia and consequences for classification Barnabas H. Daru1,7, John C. Manning2,3, James S. Boatwright2,4, Olivier Maurin1, Bruce M. Bayer4, Norman Maclean5, Maria Kuzmina6 and Michelle van der Bank1 1 African Centre for DNA Barcoding, University of Johannesburg, P. O. Box 524 Auckland Park, 2006, Johannesburg, South Africa. 2 Compton Herbarium, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Private Bag X7, Claremont, 7735, South Africa. 3 Research Centre for Plant Growth and Development. School of Biological and Conservation Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, South Africa. 4 Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, Johannesburg, South Africa. 5 Sheilam Nursery, PO Box 960, Kuilsriver, 7579, Western Cape, South Africa. 5 School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton, Hants, SO16 7PX, United Kingdom. 6 International Barcode of Life Project, Biodiversity Institute of Ontario, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada. 7 Author for correspondence (darunabas@gmail.com) Abstract Alooideae (Asparagales–Asphodelaceae) currently comprises five genera, four of which are endemic to southern Africa. Despite their importance in commercial horticulture, evolutionary relationships among the genera are still incompletely understood, and the generic taxonomy remains unresolved. This study addresses generic delimitation in subfamily Alooideae using an expanded molecular sequenced datasets from three plastid regions (rbcLa, matK and trnH-psbA) and the first subunit of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS1). Sequence data were analysed using maximum parsimony and bayesian statistics, and selected morphological traits were mapped onto the molecular phylogeny. Among the polytypic genera, only Astroloba and Gasteria were retrieved as monophyletic. Haworthia is shown to be polyphyletic and to comprise three main clades largely correllated with current subgeneric circumscriptions. The taxonomic implications of these findings are examined and a revised, phylogeny-driven generic classification is proposed in which the genus Aloe is expanded to include all members of Alooideae. Keywords Asphodelaceae, ITS1, matK, molecular phylogeny, morphology, nomenclature, rbcLa, trnH-psbA, taxonomy. ! 94 ! Appendices ! ! APPENDIX III The taxonomic changes in Alooideae resulting from the current study. TAXONOMY Aloe L., Sp. Pl.: 319. 1753. Type species: A. perfoliata L. I. Section Aloidendron A.Berger in Bot. Jahrb. 36: 48. 1905. Type: Aloe barberae T.Dyer II. Section Dracoaloe A.Berger in Bot. Jahrb. 36: 48. 1905. Type: Aloe dichotoma Masson III. Section Kumara (Medik.) Baker in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 18: 155. 1880. Type: Aloe plicatilis (L.) Mill. IV. Section Reticulatae Salm-Dyck in Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 10. 1836–1863. Lectotype species, here designated: Aloe reticulata Haw. =Haworthia Duval, Pl. Succ. Horto Alencon.: 7. 1809. nom. cons., syn. nov. Type: Haworthia arachnoidea (L.) Duval. 95 ! Appendices ! ! =Apicra Willd., Mag. Neuesten Entdeck. Gesammten Naturk. Ges. Naturf. Freunde Berlin 5: 167. 1811. nom. illegit. pro Haworthia Duval – Type: not designated. = Aloe section Retusae Salm-Dyck in Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 9. 1836–1863., syn. nov. – Lectotype species, here designated: Aloe retusa L. = Aloe section Limpidae Salm-Dyck in Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 11. 1836–1863., syn. nov. – Lectotype species, here designated: Aloe cymbifolia Schad. [=Aloe cymbiformis Haw.]. [note: as there is no nominate species in this section, the first listed species is chosen as lectotype]. = Aloe section Setatae Salm-Dyck in Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 12. 1836–1863., syn. nov. – Lectotype species, here designated: Aloe setosa Schult. & Schult.f. [=Aloe arachnoidea (L.) Thunb.]. = Aloe section Loratae Salm-Dyck in Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 13. 1836–1863., syn. nov. – Lectotype species, here designated: Aloe chloracantha (Haw.) Schult. & Schult.f. 1. Aloe arachnoidea [as arachnoides] (L.) Thunb., Fl. Cap.: 311. 1823. ≡ Aloe pumila var. arachnoidea L., Sp.Pl.: 322. 1753. ≡ Haworthia arachnoidea (L.) Duval., Pl.Succ. Horto Alencon.: 7. 1809. – Type: Illustration in Commelin Praeludea Bot.: t. 27. 1703. (lecto, designated by Scott, 1977); South Africa, [Western Cape], Buitenstekloof, Langvlei, Bayer 153 (NBG, epi., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 2. Aloe bayeri (J.D.Venter & S.A.Hammer) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia bayeri J.D.Venter & S.A.Hammer in Cact. Succ. J. (US) 69: 75. 1997. –Type: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], hills S of Uniondale, Steyner s.n. (NBG, holo.). 96 ! Appendices ! ! 3. Aloe blackburniae (W.F.Barker) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia blackburniae W.F.Barker, J. S. Afr. Bot 3: 93. 1937. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], Calitzdorp, Reynolds 1842 (NBG, holo.; BOL, PRE, iso.). 4. Aloe bolusii (Baker) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia bolusii Baker, J. Linn. Soc. 18: 215. 1880. – Type: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], Graaff-Reinet, Bolus 158 (K, holo.; BOL, iso.). 5. Aloe chloracantha (Haw.) Schult. & Schult. f., Syst. Veg. 7(1): 641. 1829. ≡ Haworthia chloracantha Haw., Saxifrag. Enum. 2: 57. 1821. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], N of Herbertsdale, Bayer s.n. (NBG, neo., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 6. Aloe cymbiformis Haw., Trans. Linn. Soc. 7: 8. 1804. ≡ Haworthia cymbiformis (Haw.) Duval, Pl. Succ. Horto Alencon.: 7. 1809. – Type: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], Walmer, Smith 2844 (NBG, neo., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 7. Aloe denticulata (Haw.) Schult. & Schult. f., Syst. Veg. 7(1): 639. 1829. ≡ Haworthia denticulata Haw., Rev. Pl. Succ.: 58. 1821. – Type: Illustration in K (lecto., designated by Bayer, 1999). =Haworthia aristata Haw., Suppl. Pl. Succ.: 51. 1819., non Aloe aristata Haw. 1825. – Type: Illustration in K (lecto., designated by Bayer, 1999); South Africa, [Eastern Cape], Dead Man’s Gulch, Smith 3550 (NBG, epi., designated by Bayer, 1999). 8. Aloe emelyae (Poelln.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia emelyae Poell., Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 42: 271. 1937. – Type: Unpublished photograph “Haworthia Emelyae v. P.” (B, lecto., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 97 ! Appendices ! ! 9. Aloe floribunda (Poelln.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia floribunda Poelln., Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 40:149. 1936. – Type: Unpublished photograph “Haworthia floribunda v. P.” (B, neo., designated by Bayer, 1982); South Africa, [Western Cape], Black Down, 3.2 km N of Heidelberg, Bayer 158 (NBG, epi., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 10. Aloe heidelbergensis (G.G.Sm.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Hawortia heidelbergensis G.G.Sm. in J. S. Afr. Bot. 14: 42. 1948. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], W of Heidelberg, Smith 6566 (NBG, holo.; NBG, iso.). 11. Aloe herbacea Mill., Gard. Dict. ed. 8: Aloe No. 18. 1768. ≡ Haworthia herbacea (Mill.) Stearn in Cact. J. (Croydon) 7: 40. 1938. – Type: Illustration in Boerhaave, Ind. Alter Hort. Lugd.-Bat. 2: ad p. 131. 1720 (lecto, designated by Bayer, 1972b); South Africa, [Western Cape], N of Ribbokkop, SW of Worcester, Bayer 161 (NBG, epi., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 12. Aloe lockwoodii (Archibald) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia lockwoodii Archibald in Fl. Pl. S. Afr.: ad t. 792. 1940. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], Laingsburg, Lockwood Hill 215 (GRA, holo.). 13. Aloe magnifica (Poelln.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia magnifica Poelln., Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 33:240. 1933. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], Riversdale, Ferguson s.n. (BOL, lecto., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 14. Aloe maraisii (Poelln.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia maraisii Poelln, Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg 38: 194. (1935). – Type: Unpublished photograph “Haworthia Maraisii v. P.” (B, lecto., designated by Bayer, 1999). 98 ! Appendices ! ! 15. Aloe marumiana (Uitewaal) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia marumiana Uitewaal in Cact. & Vetpl. 6:33. 1940. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], Ladismith ex hort. Stellenbosch sub No. 6610 (AMD, holo.). 16. Aloe mirabilis Haw. in Trans. Linn. Soc. London 7: 9. 1804. ≡ Haworthia mirabilis (Haw.) Haw., Syn. Pl. Succ.: 95. 1812. – Type: Curtis’s Bot. Mag.: t. 1354. 1811. (epi., designated by Bayer, 1977); South Africa, [Western Cape], Skuitsberg, between Caledon and Greyton, Bayer 2453 (NBG, epi., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 17. Aloe monticola (Fourc.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia monticola Fourc., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr. 21: 78. 1937. – Type: South Africa, George and Uniondale Districts, Fourcade 2498 (K, holo.). 18. Aloe mucronata (Haw.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia mucronata Haw., Suppl. Pl. Succ.: 50. 1819. – Type: Unpublished illustration “Haworthia mucronata Haw.” (k, lecto., designated by Bayer 1999). 19. Aloe mutica (Haw.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia mutica Haw., Saxifrag. Enum 2: 55. 1821. – type: Illustration in Excelsa 8: 50. 1978. (lecto., designated by Bayer 1978); South Africa, [Western Cape], Bredasdorp to Swellendam, NE of Soesrivier bridge, Bayer s.n. (NBG, epi., designated by Breuer & Mitzing, 1997). 20. Aloe nortieri (G.G.Sm.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia nortieri G.G.Sm. in J. S. Afr. Bot. 12: 13. 1946. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], Doorn River between Clanwilliam and Vanrhynsdorp, Smith 6115 (NBG, holo.; NBG, iso.). 21. Aloe outeniquensis (M.B.Bayer) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia outeniquensis M.B.Bayer, Haworthia Revisited: 130. 1999. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], Moerasrivier, Venter, Marx & Kent 94/61 (NBG, holo.). 99 ! Appendices ! ! 22. Aloe parksiana (Poelln.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia parksiana Poelln., Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 41: 205. 1937. – Type: Illustration published in Desert Pl. Life 10: 48. 1938 “Haw. Parksiana v. P.” (lecto., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 23. Aloe pilifera (Baker) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia pilifera Baker, Saund. Ref. Bot. 4: t. 234. 1871. – Type: Illustration in Saund. Ref. Bot. 4: t. 234. 1871. (lecto., designated by Bayer, 1999). =Haworthia cooperi Baker, Saund. Ref. Bot. 4: t. 233. 1871., non Aloe cooperi Baker (1874) – Type: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], without precise locality, Cooper s.n. (K, holo.). 24. Aloe pringlei (C.L.Scott) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia pringlei C.L.Scott in Bradleya 12: 103. 1994. – Type: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], Adelaide Distr., Scott s.n. (PRE, holo.). =Haworthia decipiens Poelln, Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 28: 103. 1930., non Aloe decipiens Schult. & Schult. f. (1829) [=Aloe nitida Salm-Dyck] – Type: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], Zuurberg at Georgida, Fourcade 4367 (BOL, neo., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 25. Aloe pubescens (M.B.Bayer) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia pubescens M.B.Bayer in J.S. Afr. Bot. 38: 125. 1972. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], Sandberg Hills, 12 km SSE of Worcester, Bayer 161 (NBG, holo.). 26. Aloe pulchella (M.B.Bayer) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia pulchella M.B.Bayer in J. S. Afr. Bot. 39: 232. 1973. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], Avondrust, SE of Touwsrivier, Bayer 162 (NBG, holo.). 100 ! Appendices ! ! 27. Aloe pygmaea (Poelln.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia pygmaea Poelln., Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 27: 132. 1929. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], hills E of Great Brak River, Fourcade 4759 (BOL, neo., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 28. Aloe reticulata Haw. in Trans. Linn. Soc. London 7: 9. 1804. ≡ Haworthia reticulata (Haw.) Haw., Syn. Pl. Succ.: 94. 1812. – Type: Illustration in Curtis’s Bot. Mag.: t. 1314. 1810. (neo., designated by Bayer, 1972a); South Africa, [Western Cape], Ribbokkop, 19.2 km SW of Worcester, Bayer 160 (NBG, holo.). 29. Aloe retusa L., Sp. Pl.: 322. 1753. ≡ Haworthia retusa (L.) Duval., Pl. Succ. Alencon.: 7. 1809. – Type: Illustration in Commelin, Horti Med. Amstelad. 2: t. 6. 1701. (lecto., designated by Scott, 1985); South Africa, [Western Cape], Blikbonnie, 2 km E of Riversdale, Dekenah s.n. (NBG, epi., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 30. Aloe semiviva (Poelln.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia bolusii var. semiviva Poelln. in Repert Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 44: 40. 1928. ≡ Haworthia semiviva (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer, Haworthia Handbook: 153. 1976. – Type: Illustration in Succulenta (Netherlands) 22: 25. 1940. “Haw. Bolusii var. semiviva v. P. Typ.” (lecto., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 31. Aloe serrata (M.B.Bayer) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia serrata M.B. Bayer in J. S. Afr. Bot. 39: 249. 1973. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], Oudekraalkop, 40 km SW of Heidelbereg, Bayer 166 (NBG, holo.). 32. Aloe springbokvlaktensis (C.L.Scott) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia springbokvlaktensis [as springbokvlakensis] C.L.Scott in J. S. Afr. Bot. 36: 101 ! Appendices ! ! 287. 1970. – Type: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], Steytlerville, Farm Springbokvlakte, Scott 245 (PRE, holo.). 33. Aloe stenophylla Schult. & Schult. f., Syst. Veg. 7(1): 641. 1829. – Type: Illustration in Salm-Dyck Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1 sect. 13: fig. 2. 1836– 1863. (neo, designated by Bayer, 1999); Epitype: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], Highlands, Cooke s.n. (NBG, epi, designated by Bayer, 1999). =Haworthia angustifolia Haw. in Philos. Mag. J. 66: 283. 1825. non Aloe angustifolia Haw. 1819. [= Aloe africana Mill.] – Type: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], 34 km from Grahamstown to Alicedale, Bruyns 1653 (NBG, neo, designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 34. Aloe translucens Haw. in Trans. Linn. Soc. London: 10. 1804. ≡ Haworthia translucens (Haw.) Haw., Suppl. Pl. Succ.: 52. 1819. – Type: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], 2 km E of Hankey, Bayer 4476 (NBG, neo, designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). =Haworthia gracilis Poelln., Feddes. Repert. Spec. Nov. 27: 133. 1929. – Type: Illustration in B.; South Africa, [Eastern Cape], Helspoort, Britten s.n. (PRE, epi., designated by Bayer, 1999). 35. Aloe truncata (Schönland) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia truncata Schönland in Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr. 1: 391. 1910. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], a farm 11.2 km from Oudtshoorn, Britten s.n. (K., holo.). 36. Aloe turgida (Haw.) Schult. & Schult. f., Syst. Veg. 7(1): 635. 1829. ≡ Haworthia turgida Haw., Suppl. Pl. Succ.: 52. 1819. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], 102 ! Appendices ! ! Swellendam, Breede River Bridge, Bayer 2420 (NBG, neo., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 37. Aloe punctulata Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, nom. nov., pro Haworthia variegata L.Bolus in J. Bot. Soc. S. Afr.: 137. 1929., non Aloe variegata L. (1753) – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], Still Bay, Botterkloof, Ferguson s.n. (BOL, holo.). 38. Aloe venteri Boatwr. & J.C.Manning nom. nov. pro. Haworthia maculata (Poelln.) M.B.Bayer in Haworthia Handbook: 130. 1976. ≡ Haworthia schuldtiana var. maculata Poelln., in Repert. Spec. Bot. Regni Veg. 49: 25. 1940., non Aloe maculata All. 1773. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], Worcester, Venter 6 (BOL, lecto., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997) = Haworthia intermedia Poelln., Kakteenkunde 9: 133. 1937., non. Aloe intermedia Haw. 1804. [=Aloe carinata Mill.]. – Type: Unpublished photograph, “Haworthia intermedia v. P.” (B, lecto., designated by Bayer, 1999); South Africa, [Western Cape], Buitenstekloof, Bayer 4461 (NBG, epi., designated by Bayer, 1999). 39. Aloe vlokii (M.B.Bayer) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia vlokii M.B.Bayer in Haworthia Revisited: 160. 1999. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], Swartberg Mountains, Vlok sub Venter 91/2 (NBG, holo.). 40. Aloe wittebergensis (W.F.Barker) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia wittebergensis W.F.Barker in J. S. Afr. Bot. 8: 245. 1942. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], Witteberg, Pieterse s.n. (NBG, holo.). 41. Aloe zantneriana (Poelln.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia zantneriana Poelln. in Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 41: 217. 1937. – Type: Illustration 103 ! Appendices ! ! in Desert Pl. Life 9: 90. 1937. “Haworthia Zantneriana v. P.” (lecto., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). V. Section Macrifoliae (Haw.) Glen & D.S.Hardy, FSA 5 (1, 1): 92. 2000. Type: Aloe ciliaris Haw. VI. Section Aristatae (A.Berger) Glen & D.S.Hardy, FSA 5 (1, 1): 31. 2000. Type: Aloe aristata Haw. VII. Section Poellnitzia (Uitewaal) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. et stat. nov. ≡ Poellnitzia Uitewaal in Succulenta 22: 61. 1940. – Type: Apicra rubriflora L.Bolus [=Poellnitzia rubriflora (L.Bolus) Uitewaal]. 1. Aloe rubriflora (L.Bolus) G.D.Rowley in Cactus & Succulent Journal of Great Britain 43: 2. 1981. ≡ Apicra rubriflora L. Bolus in Ann. Bolus Herb. 3: 13. 1920. – Type: South Africa [Western Cape], Bonnie Vale [Bonnievale], Smith s.n. BOL45213 (BOL, holo.). VIII. Section Imbricatae Salm-Dyck in Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 1. 1836–1863. Lectotype species, designated here: Aloe imbricata Haw. [=Aloe spiralis L.]. =Section Foliolosae Salm-Dyck in Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 2. 1836–1863, syn. nov. Lectotype species, here designated: Aloe foliolosa Haw. 104 ! Appendices ! ! =Astroloba Uitewaal in Succulenta 5: 53. 1947, syn. nov. Type: Astroloba pentagona (Ait.) Uitewaal [=Aloe spiralis L.]. 1. Aloe bullulata Jacq., Fragm. Bot. 72. t. 109. ≡ Astroloba bullulata (Jacq.) Uitewaal in Succulenta 5: 53. 1947. – Type: Illustration in Fragm. Bot. 72. t. 109. 2. Aloe congesta Salm-Dyck in Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 2, fig. 1. 1836–1863. ≡ Astroloba congesta (Salm-Dyck) Uitewaal in Succulenta 5: 54. 1947. – Type: Illustration in Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 2, fig. 1. 1836–1863. 3. Aloe corrugata (N.L.Mey. & G.F.Sm.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Astroloba corrugata N.L.Mey. & G.F.Sm. in Bothalia 28: 61. 1998. – Type: South Africa, Western Cape, 7.5 km W of Warmwaterberg turnoff on Montagu-Ladismith road, Van Jaarsveld 13913 (PRE, holo.). 4. Aloe foliolosa Haw. Trans. Linn. Soc. London 7: 7. 1804. ≡ Astroloba foliolosa (Haw.) Uitewaal in Succulenta 5: 54. 1947. – Type: Illustration in Curtis’s Bot. Mag. t. 1352. 1811. [This illustration was drawn from Masson’s original introduction cultivated by Haworth and is accepted as the type in the absence of a specimen.]. 5. Aloe herrei (Uitewaal) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Astroloba herrei Uitewaal in Desert Pl. Life 20. 37. 1948. – Type: Uniondale, Herre s.n. “Stellenbosch 5703” (?STEU, holo.). 6. Aloe spiralis L., Sp. Pl. 1: 322. 1753. ≡ Astroloba spiralis (L.) Uitewaal in Succulenta 5: 53. 1947. Type: “Aloe Afr. erecta rotundata etc. Comm.” in Dillenius, Hort. Eltham. 1: 16, t. 13, f. 14. 1732. (lecto., designated by Wijnands, 1983). 105 ! Appendices ! ! IX. Section Margaritiferae Salm-Dyck in Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 6. 1836–1863. ≡ Haworthia section Margaritiferae (SalmDyck) Haw. in Handbuch der Succulenten Pflanzen: 710. 1954. Lectotype, here designated: Aloe pumila L. [=Haworthia margaritifera (L.) Haw.] ≡Haworthia subgenus Robustipedunculatae (Uitewaal) M.B.Bayer [as Robustipedunculares Uitewaal ex M.B.Bayer] in Haworthia Handbook: 14. 1976. Haworthia [unranked] Robustipedunculatae Uitewaal in Succulenta 51. 1947. Lectotype, designated by Bayer in Haworthia Handbook: 14. 1976: Haworthia margaritifera (L.) Haw. [= Aloe pumila L.]. = Aloe section Albicantes Salm-Dyck in Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 5. 1836–1863., syn. nov. – Type: Aloe albicans Haw. [=Aloe marginata Lam.] [Note: this section is monotypic]. 1. Aloe granata (Willd.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Apicra granata Willd. in Berl. Mag.: 269. 1811. – Type: not seen. =Haworthia minima (Ait.) Haw., Syn. Pl. Succ.: 92. 1812. ≡ Aloe margaritefera var. minima Ait., Hort. Kew 1:468. 1789. – Type: Illustration in Dillenius, Hort. Eltham.: t. 16, f. 18. 1732 (lecto., designated by Scott, 1985). 2. Aloe kingiana (Poelln.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia kingiana Poelln. In Feddes Repert. 41: 203. 1937. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], Great Brak, Dekenah 201 (NBG, neo., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997.). 106 ! Appendices ! ! 3. Aloe marginata Lam., encycl. 1: 89. 1783. ≡ Haworthia marginata (Lam.) Stearn in Cact. J. (Croydon) 7: 34. 1938. – Type: Illustration in Commelin, Praeludia Bot.: t. 30. 1703 (lecto., designated by Scott, 1985). 4. Aloe pumila L., Sp. Pl.: 322. 1753. ≡ Aloe pumila var. margaritifera L., Sp. Pl.: 322. 1753. ≡ Aloe margaritifera (L.) Burm. f., Prodr. Fl. Cap.: 10. 1768. ≡ Haworthia margaritifera (L.) Haw., Suppl. Pl. Succ.: 55. 1819. ≡ Haworthia pumila (L.) M.B.Bayer, Haworthia revisited: 214. 1999.– Type: Illustration in Commelin, Hort Med. Amstelad. Pl. Rar. 2: 19, t. 10. 1701 (lecto., designated by Scott, 1978). [Although Breuer and Metzing (1997) treated the species under the name H. margaritifera, Scott’s (1978) lectotypification renders this name homotypic with Aloe pumila L., which as the autonym has statutory priority (Jarvis, 2007).]. X. Section Parviflorae Haw. in Trans. Linn. Soc. London 7: 6. 1804. ≡ Aloe subgenus Parviflorae (Haw.) Salm-Dyck in Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1. 1836–1863. Lectotype species, here designated: Aloe viscosa L. [the first species listed by Haworth in his A. section Parviflorae is here chosen as lectotype] ≡Haworthia section Hexangulares Uitewaal in Succulenta 5: 51. 1947, syn. nov. ≡ Haworthia subgenus Hexangulares (Uitewaal) M.B.Bayer [as Uitewaal ex M.B.Bayer] in Haworthia Handbook: 14. 1976. – Lectotype species, designated by Bayer (1976): Haworthia coarctata Haw. = Aloe section Triquetrae Salm-Dyck in Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 3. 1836–1863., syn. nov. –Lectotype species, here designated: 107 ! Appendices ! ! Aloe cordifolia (Haw.) Schult. & Schult.f. [=Aloe viscosa L.] [note: as there is no nominate species in this section, the first listed species is chosen as lectotype]. = Aloe section Tortuosae Salm-Dyck in Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 4. 1836–1863., syn. nov. – Lectotype species, here designated: Aloe tortuosa Haw. [= Aloe viscosa L.] = Aloe section Luridae Salm-Dyck in Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 7. 1836–1863., syn. nov. – Lectotype species, here designated: Aloe scabra (Haw.) Schult. & Schult.f. [Note: As there is no nominate species in this section, the first listed species is chosen as lectotype]. = Aloe section Tessellatae Salm-Dyck in Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 8. 1836–1863., syn. nov. – Lectotype species, here designated: Aloe tessellata (Haw.) Schult. & Schult.f. [=Aloe venosa Lam.]. 1. Aloe attenuata Haw., Trans. Linn. Soc. 7: 11. 1804. ≡ Haworthia attenuata (Haw.) Haw., Syn. Pl. Succ.: 92. 1812. – South Africa, [Eastern Cape], Sandland, 20 km E of Paternsie, Perry 660 (NBG, neo., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 2. Aloe brucei Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, nom. nov. pro Haworthia pungens M.B.Bayer in Haworthia Revisited: 188. 1999. non Aloe pungens A.Berger (1908). – Type: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], Joubertina, Bruyns 7090 (BOL, holo.). 3. Aloe bruynsii (M.B.Bayer) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia bruynsii M.B.Bayer in J.S. Afr. Bot. 47: 789. 1981. – Type: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], SE of Steytlerville, Rossouw 456 (NBG, holo.). 108 ! Appendices ! ! 4. Aloe coarctata (Haw.) Schult. & Schult. f., Syst. Veg. ed 15, v. 7(1): 647. 1829. ≡ Haworthia coarctata Haw., Phil. Mag. 44: 301. 1824. – Type: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], 16 km from Grahamstown to Bathurst, Smith 7092 (NBG, neo., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 5. Aloe fasciata (Willd.) Salm-Dyck in Schult. & Schult. f., Syst. Veg. ed 15, v. 7(2): 1713. 1830. ≡ Apicra fasciata Willd. In Ges. Naturf. Freunde Berlin Mag. Neuesten Entdeck. Gesammten Naturk. 5: 270. 1811. ≡ Haworthia fasciata (Willd.) Haw., Saxifrag. Enum. 2: 54. 1821. – Type: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], Hankey, Stayner s.n. (NBG, neo., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 6. Aloe glabrata Salm-Dyck, Hort. Dyck.: 325. 1834. ≡ Haworthia glabrata (Salm-Dyck) Baker, J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 18: 206. 1880. – Type: Illustration in Salm-Dyck, Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1 sect. 3: fig. 7 [sect. 6, fig. 13] (neo., designated by Smith & Greyling, 1990). 7. Aloe glauca (Baker) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia glauca Baker, J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 18: 203. 1880. –Type: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], Cape, without precise locality, Cooper s.n. (K., holo.). 8. Aloe koelmaniorum (Oberm. & Hardy) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia koelmaniorum [as koelmaniora] Oberm. & Hardy, Fl. Pl. Afr.: t1502. 1967. – Type: South Africa, [Mpumalanga], Groblersdal, Hardy & Mauve 2267 (PRE, holo.). 9. Aloe limifolia (Marloth) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia limifolia Marloth, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr. 1: 409. 1910. – Type: Mozambique, W of Delagoa Bay, Marloth 4678 (PRE, holo.). 109 ! Appendices ! ! 10. Aloe longiana (Poelln.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia longiana Poelln. in Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 41: 203. 1937. – Type: unpublished photographic icon, “Haworthia Longiana v. P.” (B, lecto. designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 11. Aloe nigra (Haw.) Schult & Schult. f., Syst. Veg. ed 15, v. 7(1): 647. 1829. ≡ Apicra nigra Haw. in Philos. Mag. J 64: 302. 1824. ≡ Haworthia nigra (Haw.) Baker in J. Linn. Soc., Bot 18: 203. 1880. –Type: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], Campherspoort [Kamferspoort], Barker 5099 (NBG, neo., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 12. Aloe reinwardtii Salm-Dyck in Observ. Bot. Horto Dyck: 37. 1821. ≡ Haworthia reinwardtii (Salm-Dyck) Haw., Saxifrag. Enum. 2: 53. 1821. – Type: Illustration in Salm-Dyck, Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1 sect. 6: fig. 12. 1836– 1863. (neo, designated by Scott, 1981a); South Africa, [Eastern Cape], near top of hill above Ncera River Bridge, Smith 3563 (NBG, epi., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 13. Aloe scabra (Haw.) Schult. & Schult. f., Syst. Veg. ed 15, v. 7(1): 644. 1829. ≡ Haworthia scabra Haw., Suppl. Pl. Succ.: 58. 1819. – Type: South Africa, without precise locality, illustration in Cact. Succ. J. (Los Angeles) 52: 274. 1980. (lecto., designated by Scott, 1980). 14. Aloe sordida (Haw.) Schult. & Schult. f., Syst. Veg. ed 15, v. 7(1): 644. 1829. ≡ Haworthia sordida Haw. in Saxifrag. Enum. 2: 51. 1821. – Type: South Africa, without locality, illustration in Salm-Dyck, Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 7: fig. 1. 1836–1863. (neo, designated by Scott, 1985). 110 ! Appendices ! ! 15. Aloe venosa Lam., Encycl. 1: 89. 1873. ≡ Haworthia venosa (Lam.) Haw., Saxifrag. Enum.: 51. 1821. – Type: South Africa, without locality, illustration in Commelin, Praeludia Bot.: t. 29. 1703. (lecto., designated by Scott, 1978); South Africa, [Western Cape], Swellendam, W of Breede River Bridge, Bayer 168 (NBG, epi., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). 16. Aloe viscosa L., Sp. Pl.: 322. 1753. ≡ Haworthia viscosa (L.) Haw., Syn. Pl. Succ.: 90. 1812. – Type: Illustration in Commelin, Praeludia Bot.: t. 31. 1703. (lecto., designated by Scott, 1981b); South Africa, [Western Cape], Calitzdorp, Blackburn Valley, Barker 5073 (NBG, epi., designated by Breuer & Metzing, 1997). XI. Section Curviflorae Haw. in Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 7: 12. 1804. – Lectotype species, here designated: Aloe verrucosa Mill. [=Aloe carinata Mill.] [Note: the species is selected as lectotype being the first listed in Haworth’s section]. =Gasteria Duval, Plantae succulentae in Horto Alenconio: 6. 1809. ≡ Aloe section Gasteria [as Gasteriae] (Duval) Salm-Dyck, Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1: sect. 29. 1836–1863., syn. nov. – Lectotype, designated by Maire in Flore de l’Afrique du nord 5: 71. 1958.: Gasteria angustifolia (Ait.) Duval. [= Aloe disticha L. non Thunb.]. =Gasteria section Breviflorae Haw., Rev. Pl. Succ.: 47. 1821. nom. nud. =Gasteria section Longiflorae Haw., Rev. Pl. Succ.: 47. 1821. nom. nud. =Gasteria section Mediocres Haw., Rev. Pl. Succ.: 47. 1821. nom. nud. 111 ! Appendices ! ! 1. Series Bifariae Haw. in Trans. Linn. Soc. London 7: 12. 1804. Lectotype species, here designated: Aloe verrucosa Mill. [=Aloe carinata Mill.] [note: the species is selected as lectotype being the first listed in Haworth’s series and displaying the characteristics of the series.]. 1.1 Aloe acinacifolia J.Jacq., Ecloge pl. rar.: 49. 1811–1816. ≡ Gasteria acinacifolia (J.Jacq.) Haw., Suppl. Pl. succ.: 49. 1819. – Type: South Africa, without precise locality, illustration in J.Jacq., Ecloge pl. rar. t. 31. 1811–1816. 1.2. Aloe armstrongii (Schönland) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Gasteria armstrongii Schönland in Records of the Albany Museum 2: 258. 1912. – Type: South Africa, without precise locality, Drège 566 (GRA, holo.). 1.3. Aloe batesiana (G.D.Rowley) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Gasteria batesiana G.D.Rowley in National Cactus & Succulent Journal 10: 32. 1955. – Type: South Africa, without locality, Rowley s.n. (RNG, neo., designated by Van Jaarsveld, 1992). 1.4. Aloe carinata Mill., Gard. Dict. ed. 8. 1768. ≡ Gasteria carinata (Mill.) Duval in Plantae succulentae in Horto Alenconio: 6. 1809. – Type: South Africa, without precise locality, illustration in Commelin, Hort. Med. Amst. t. 9. 1701., (lecto. designated by Wijnands, 1983). 1.5. Aloe croucheri Hook. f. in Curtis’s Bot. Mag. 95: t. 5812. 1869. ≡ Gasteria croucheri (Hook. f.) Baker in J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 18: 196. 1880. – Type: South Africa, without precise locality, Cooper s.n. (K, holo.). 112 ! Appendices ! ! 1.6. Aloe ellaphieae (Van Jaarsv.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Gasteria ellapieae Van Jaarsv. in Journal of the Cactus & Succulent Society (US) 63: 3. 1991. – Type: South Africa [Eastern Cape], 20 km W of Patensie, Van Jaarsveld et al. 9904 (NBG, holo.). 1.7. Aloe fuscopunctata (Baker) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Gasteria fuscopunctata Baker in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 18: 195. 1880. – Type: South Africa, “C. B Spei”, Cooper s.n. (?K). [Note: selection of this name is based on the synonymy given in Van Jaarsveld (2007). In an earlier treatment (Van Jaarsveld, 1994) this species was treated under the synonymy of G. acinacifolia]. =Gasteria excelsa Baker in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 18: 195. 1880. non Aloe excelsa A.Berger (1906) – Type: South Africa [Eastern Cape], Chalumna River, Cooper s.n. (K, holo.). 1.8. Aloe nitida Salm-Dyck, Catalogue raisonne des especes d’Aloes: 13. 1817. ≡ Gasteria nitida (Salm-Dyck) Haw. in Philosophical Mag. 2: 359. 1827. –Type: South Africa, without locality, illustration in Salm-Dyck, Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi 1 sect. 29: fig. 17. 1836–1863 (neo., designated by Van Jaarsveld, 1992). 1.9. Aloe polita (Van Jaarsv.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Gasteria polita Van Jaarsv. in Cactus & Succulent Journal (US) 73: 127–130. 2001. – Type: South Africa [Western Cape], Whisky Creek, Plettenberg Bay, Van Jaarsveld & Kok 13742 (NBG, holo.). 1.10. Aloe pulchra (Ait.) Jacq., Pl. Rar. Hort. Schon.: t. 419. 1805 “1804”. ≡ Aloe maculata var. pulchra Ait. in Hort. Kew.: 469. 1789. ≡ Gasteria pulchra (Ait.) Haw., Synopsis Plantarum Succulentarum: 86. 1812. – Type: South Africa, without precise 113 ! Appendices ! ! locality, illustration in Miller, Fig. Pl.: t. 292. 1759 (lectotype designated by Van Jaarsveld, 1992). 1.11. Aloe thunbergii (N.E.Br.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb.nov. ≡ Gasteria thunbergii N.E.Br. in Bothalia 1: 140. 1923. – Type: South Africa, without precise locality, Thunberg s.n. UPS-THUNB 8595 (UPS-THUNB, holo.). 1.12. Aloe tukhelensis (Van Jaarsv.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Gasteria tukhelensis Van Jaarsv. in Bothalia 35: 164. 2005. –Type: South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal, Ngubevu, Van Jaarsveld et al. 17996 (NBG, holo.). 1.13. Aloe vanjaarsveldii Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, nom. nov. pro Gasteria glauca Van Jaarsv. in Cactus & Succulent Journal (US) 70: 65. 1998, non Aloe glauca Mill. (1768) – Type: South Africa [Eastern Cape], Kouga River, E of Guernakop, Van Jaarsveld & Welsh 14670 (PRE, holo.). 1.14. Aloe vlokii (Van Jaarsv.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Gasteria vlokii Van Jaarsv. in Cactus and Succulent Journal (US) 59: 170. 1987. –Type: South Africa [Western Cape], Waboomsberg, Vlok 880 (NBG, holo.). 2. Series Pictae Haw. in Trans Linn. Soc. London 7: 14. 1804. Type: Aloe obliqua Haw., nom. illegit. [=Gasteria bicolor Haw.] 2.1. Aloe baylissiana (Rauh.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Gasteria baulissiana Rauh. in J. S.Afr. Bot. 43: 187. 1977. – Type: South Africa [Eastern Cape], Farm Oudekraal, S of Somerset-East, Bayliss 2796 (HEID, holo.; PRE, iso.). 114 ! Appendices ! ! 2.2. Aloe bicolor (Haw.) Schult. & Schult. f., Syst. Veg. ed 15, v. 7: 682. 1829. ≡ Gasteria bicolor Haw. in Philosophical Mag. 57: 275. 1826. – Type: South Africa, without locality, illustration in Salm-Dyck, Monographia generum Aloes & Mesembryanthemi 1 sect. 29: fig. 5. 1836–1863 (neo., designated by Van Jaarsveld, 1992). 2.3. Aloe brachyphylla Salm-Dyck in Monographia generum Aloes & Mesembryanthemi 1 sect. 29: fig. 8. 1836–1863. ≡ Gasteria brachyphylla (Saml-Dyck) Van Jaarsv. in Aloe 29:19. 1992. – Type: South Africa, without locality, illustration in Saml-Dyck, Monographia generum Aloes & Mesembryanthemi: t. 8. 1836–1863 (lecto., designated by Van Jaarsveld, 1992). 2.4. Aloe disticha L. Sp. Pl.: 321. 1753. ≡ Gasteria disticha (L.) Haw. in Philosophical Mag. 2: 352. 1927. –Type: South Africa, without precise locality, illustration in Commelin, Hort. Med. Amst. t. 8. 1701 (lecto., designated by Wijnands, 1983). 2.5. Aloe doreeniae (Van Jaarsv. & A.E.van Wyk) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Gasteria doreeniae Van Jaarsv. & A.E.van Wyk in Aloe 41: 81. 2004. – Type: South Africa, Eastern Cape, Swartwaterspoort, W of Riebeeck East, Quart 448 (NBG, holo.). 2.6. Aloe glomerata (Van Jaarsv.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Gasteria glomerata Van Jaarsv. in Bradleya 9: 100. 1991. – Type: South Africa, [Eastern Cape], Kouga Dam, 25 km W of Patensie, Van Jaarsveld & Sardien 11054 (NBG, holo.). 2.7. Aloe neliana (Poelln.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Gasteria neliana Poelln. in Feddes Rep. 27: 139. 1930. non Aloe pillansii L.Guthrie (1928)–Type: South Africa, Clanwilliam, Poellnitz 559 (holo., supposedly in STE, specimen not found). 115 ! Appendices ! ! =Gasteria pillansii Kensit in Trans. Roy. Soc. S. A. 1: 163. 1909. – Type: South Africa [Western Cape], Clanwilliam, Pillans 833 (BOL, holo.; PRE, iso.). 2.8. Aloe rawlinsonii (Oberm.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Gasteria rawlinsonii Oberm., Flow. Pl. Afr. 43: t. 1701. 1976. – Type: South Africa [Eastern Cape], Willowmore Distr., Baviaanskloof, Rawlinson s.n. PRE34421 (PRE, holo.). 2.9. Aloe retusa (Van Jaarsv.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Gasteria carinata var. retusa Van Jaarsv. in Aloe 29: 15. 1992. ≡ Gasteria retusa (Van Jaarsv) Van Jaarsv. in Aloe 44: 100. 2007. – Type: South Africa, [Western Cape], Orange Grove near De Wet, Van Jaarsveld & Steyner 4656 (NBG, holo.). XII. et seq. Remaining sections of Aloe s.s. (including Lomatophyllum, Chortolirion), following Glen & Hardy (2000) and Reynolds (1966, 1969). Section Chortolirion (Berger) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, stat. et sect. nov. ≡ Chortolirion Berger in Pflanxenr. 4, 38, 3, 2: 723. 1908., syn. nov. – Type: Chortolirion angolense (Bak.) Berger [=Aloe tenuifolia (Engl.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning] 1. Aloe tenuifolia (Engl.) Boatwr. & J.C.Manning, comb. nov. ≡ Haworthia tenuifolium Engl. In Bot. Jahrb. 10: 2, t. 1. 1889. – Type: South Africa, [Northern Cape], near Kuruman, Marloth 1049 (B, holo.; PRE, iso.). =Haworthia angolensis Bak. in Trans. Linn. Soc. Bot. 1: 263. 1878. ≡ Chortolirion angolense (Bak.) Berger Berger in Pflanxenr. 4, 38, 3, 2: 723. 1908., non Aloe angolensis Bak. – Type: Angola, Huilla, Welwitsch 3756 (BM, holo.). 116 !

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