Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
Detailed Botanical Assessment for proposed Kalukundi
Copper-Cobalt Mining Project ESIA
Client
Envirolution Consulting
Unit 25 Sunninghill Office Park
4 Peltier Road, Sunninghill, 2157
Author
Jamie Pote
Postnet Suite 277, Private bag x1672
Grahamstown, 6140
Email: jamiepote@aerosat.co.za
Cell: (+27) 083 743 9353, Fax: (+27) 086 690 3704
12 May 2008
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May 2008
Indemnity and conditions relating to this project
The findings, results, observations, conclusions and recommendations given in this report are based
on the author’s best scientific and professional knowledge as well as available information. The
report is based on survey and assessment techniques which are limited by time and budgetary
constraints relevant to the type and level of investigation undertaken and the author reserves the
right to modify aspects of the report including the recommendations if and when new information
may become available from ongoing research or further work in this field, or pertaining to this
investigation.
Although the author exercises due care and diligence in rendering services and preparing
documents, he accepts no liability, and the client, by receiving this document, indemnifies the
author against all actions, claims, demands, losses, liabilities, costs, damages and expenses arising
from or in connection with services rendered, directly or indirectly by the author and by the use of
this document.
Author
The author (Jamie Pote) has a BSc honours degree in Botany and Environmental Science, specialising
in Ecology, Rehabilitation and Invasive Alien Plant management with 5 years part-time and 3 years
full time experience in southern Africa across a broad spectrum of habitats and operations (mining,
other developments, conservation).
Copyright
This report must not be altered or added to without the prior written consent of the author. This
also refers to electronic copies of this report that are supplied for the purposes of inclusion as part of
other reports, including main reports. Similarly, any recommendations, statements or conclusions
drawn from or based upon this report must refer to this report. If these form part of a main report
relating to this investigation or report, this report must be included in its entirety as an appendix or
separate section to the main report.
Limitations of the study
A number of limitations affect the compilation of the report including:
1. No high-resolution satellite imagery was available during the compilation of the report due
to almost permanent cloud cover during the rainy season (October through March). This has
had limitations on the detailed mapping of vegetation (as per the Terms of Reference) within
the concession area and also resulted in less detailed surveying of flora due to increased
time pressures;
2. The time frame in which all the field survey was conducted was very limited and the floral
survey was conducted during January and March 2008, whilst optimal flowering period is at
the beginning and end of the rainy season (October/November and April). Many species do
however flower sporadically throughout the year enabling the successful identification of
some species that do not flower during the abovementioned peak flowering periods. Species
identification was completed as best possible within the limitations of these constraints and
final identification of some species was not possible. Relevé sampling during non-flowering
season is time-consuming and a transect approach was favoured which limits the
quantitative value of the assessment (as per the Terms of Reference).
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3. Fieldwork conducted during the rainy season resulted in at least three full days worth of
time being lost because of very wet conditions during the planned fieldwork period, which
was determined in the Terms of Reference for this study. A second trip was conducted for
the botanical assessment to overcome this problem, but time constraints have imposed
some limitations on the report content. A detailed Riparian Vegetation Index was also not
conducted (as per the original Terms of Reference) since accessible sites tended to be highly
modified, which may have resulted in skewed results being obtained.
Definitions and terminology used in this report:
Aglomeration degrade (Fr): built-up/degraded land.
Annual: Completing the cycle from seed to death in one year or season.
Arboreal: Living in trees
Biennial: Completing the cycle from seed to death in tow years or seasons.
Boundary: Landscape patches have a boundary between them which can be defined or fuzzy
(Sanderson and Harris 2000). The zone composed of the edges of adjacent ecosystems is the
boundary.
Champs/Clairere seche (Fr): Clearings/fields
Composition: refers to the number of patch types (see below) represented on a landscape,
and their relative abundance.
Connectivity: the measure of how connected or spatially continuous a corridor, network, or
matrix is. For example, a forested landscape (the matrix) with fewer gaps in forest cover
(open patches) will have higher connectivity.
Corridors: have important functions as strips of a particular type of landscape differing from
adjacent land on both sides.
Disturbance: an event that significantly alters the pattern of variation in the structure or
function of a system, while fragmentation is the breaking up of a habitat, ecosystem, or
land-use type into smaller parcels. Disturbance is generally considered a natural process.
ECO/ESO: Environmental Site/Control Officer – person responsible for the Day-to-Day
Environmental Management on-site during construction.
Ecocline: a type of landscape boundary, with a gradual and continuous change in
environmental conditions of an ecosystem or community. Ecoclines help explain the
distribution and diversity of organisms within a landscape because certain organisms survive
better under certain conditions, which change along the ecocline. They contain
heterogeneous communities which are considered more environmentally stable than those
of ecotones.
Ecosystem: All of the organisms of a particular habitat, such as a lake or forest, together
with the physical environment in which they live
Ecotone: the transitional zone between two communities. Ecotones can arise naturally,
such as a lakeshore, or can be human-created, such as a cleared agricultural field from a
forest. The ecotonal community retains characteristics of each bordering community and
often contains species not found in the adjacent communities. Classic examples of ecotones
include fencerows; forest to marshlands transitions; forest to grassland transitions; or landwater interfaces such as riparian zones in forests. Characteristics of ecotones include
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May 2008
vegetational sharpness, physiognomic change, and occurrence of a spatial community
mosaic, many exotic species, ecotonal species, spatial mass effect, and species richness
higher or lower than either side of the ecotone.
Edge: the portion of an ecosystem near its perimeter, where influences of the adjacent
patches can cause an environmental difference between the interior of the patch and its
edge. This edge effect includes a distinctive species composition or abundance in the outer
part of the landscape patch. For example, when a landscape is a mosaic of perceptibly
different types, such as a forest adjacent to a grassland, the edge is the location where the
two types adjoin. In a continuous landscape, such as a forest giving way to open woodland,
the exact edge location is fuzzy and is sometimes determined by a local gradient exceeding a
threshold, such as the point where the tree cover falls below thirty-five percent.
Emergent trees: Trees that grow above the top of the canopy
Endemic: Referring to a species that is native to a particular place and found nowhere else.
Exotic: Non-Native; introduced from elsewhere, may also be a weed or invasive species.
Fragmentation: causes land transformation, an important current process in landscapes as
more and more development occurs.
Function: refers to how each element in the landscape interacts based on its life cycle
events.
Gallery forest: A forest along a river or stream
Heterogeneity: A landscape with structure and pattern implies that it has spatial
heterogeneity or the uneven, non-random distribution of objects across the landscape.
Indigenous: Native; naturally occurring.
Invasive: a non-indigenous plant or animal species that adversely affect the habitats it
invades economically, environmentally or ecologically.
Matrix: the “background ecological system” of a landscape with a high degree of
connectivity.
Network: an interconnected system of corridors while mosaic describes the pattern of
patches, corridors and matrix that form a landscape in its entirety.
Patch: a term fundamental to landscape ecology, is defined as a relatively homogeneous
area that differs from its surroundings. Patches are the basic unit of the landscape that
change and fluctuate, a process called patch dynamics. Patches have a definite shape and
spatial configuration, and can be described compositionally by internal variables such as
number of trees, number of tree species, height of trees, or other similar measurements.
Pattern: is the term for the contents and internal order of a heterogeneous area of land.
Refuge: a location of an isolated or relict population of a once widespread animal or plant
species
Rill: A very small stream of water
Riparian: pertaining to, situated on or associated with a river bank
Savanne Boisse (Fr): Forest Savanna
Savanne Herbeuse (Fr): Grassy Savanna
Shrub: A woody plant that produces no trunk but branches from the base.
STEP: Sub-Tropical Ecosystem Planning.
Understory: the area of a forest which grows in the shade of the canopy. Plants in the
understory consist of a mixture of seedlings and saplings of canopy trees together with
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understory shrubs and herbs. Young canopy trees often persist as suppressed juveniles for
decades while they wait for an opening in the forest overstory, which will enable their
growth into the canopy. On the other hand, understory shrubs are able to complete their life
cycle in the shade of the forest canopy.
Structure: is determined by the composition, the configuration, and the proportion of
different patches across the landscape.
Terre Inondables (Fr): Dambo wetland/Riparian, including wet areas; and
Tributary/Drainage line: A small stream or river flowing into a larger one.
Understory: "The lowest forest level, between the ground and 10 meters.
Vegetation Dense/Foret (Fr): Dense Forest Savanna
Weed: a native or non-native plant that grows and reproduces aggressively. Weeds may be
unwanted because they are unsightly, or they limit the growth of other plants by blocking
light or using up nutrients from the soil. They also can harbour and spread plant pathogens.
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1 Executive summary
A. Vegetation Description
The project region is within the Miombo woodland belt of central Africa. Regionally, 475 higher
plants have been identified. Based on the literature, many more species have the potential to exist
in the region. However, the local area is relatively fragmented and modified by man, reducing the
numbers of species that presently exist. The following natural habitats can be distinguished within
the study area:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Miombo woodland
Copper-cobalt outcrop associated vegetation
Dambo Wetland
Gallery forest
All habitat types support numerous species of flora and are of some value regardless of the state of
disturbance. However, it is notable that three of the most biologically valuable habitat types (gallery
forest and the two copper-cobalt habitats) are rare and already under threat in baseline conditions.
Of all vegetation types, the Miombo woodland has the greatest flora species diversity. Miombo
woodland is under pressure from human activities. Clearing for agricultural purposes, charcoal and
fuelwood collection, urbanization, infrastructure and industrial development are all reducing the size
of the Miombo woodland community. The copper-cobalt habitat types also have high flora species
diversity. Many of the species have a restricted distribution. Habitat potentially classifiable as
‘critical’ under the guidelines of the World Conservation Union (IUCN) was identified on the CopperCobalt Rocky outcrops. In the past, artisanal mining impacted these habitat types.
Shifting agricultural practices are common and result in abandoning of sections of the land, likely
due to the soil becoming too impoverished or perhaps because weed infestation was too high.
Natural vegetation is generally re-establishing in these highly disturbed areas.
The Kisankala and Kii rivers can generally be regarded as degraded. In the upper reaches, this is
mainly due to the extent of deforestation in the catchments as well as poor cropping activities into
riparian zones. Both of these activities cause extensive sedimentation in the rivers. However, a few
areas along the margins of the rivers (Kisankala and Kii) still exist where the riparian forests are
intact. In the lower catchment, the level of degradation is greater due to artisanal ore-washing.
B. Social and cultural environment relating to flora and vegetation
Natural Resources and Rural Livelihoods
The Kisankala community is dependent on natural resources occurring in the vicinity of their homes ,
providing a variety of uses such as fuel (charcoal), timber (for poles and building), food (including
fruits, mushrooms, roots and leaves), medicines (all parts used, but leaves predominant in the
region).
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C. Direct and Indirect Impacts
Fourteen issues relating to environmental impacts have been identified and deemed important, as
follows:
1) Direct localised loss of rare habitats, in copper-cobalt vegetation communities within the
concession;
2) Direct localised loss of local endemic/protected species, in copper-cobalt vegetation
communities within the concession;
3) Direct localised loss of biodiversity including rare habitats and local endemic species, in
Miombo vegetation communities;
4) Direct localised loss of Miombo vegetation habitat;
5) Direct localised loss of habitat within the riparian vegetation communities;
6) Improved access to rare habitats and local endemic species leading to removal of rare
species;
7) Reduction in connectivity of habitats affecting movements of wildlife species that may be
pollinators or dispersal agents of flora within Miombo;
8) Reduction in connectivity of habitats affecting movements of wildlife species that may be
pollinators or dispersal agents of flora within Copper deposits;
9) Introduction of exotic species (terrestrial and aquatic);
10) Changes in water flows or quality from development associated with mining during
operations may affect adjacent Riparian plant communities (including Gallery Forest and
Dambo Wetlands);
11) Long-term changes in Miombo Woodland may occur as a result of dewatering activities that
could lower the water table in the affected area;
12) Destruction of natural habitats in downstream areas (terrestrial and aquatic) in the case of a
tailings storage facility failure;
13) Indirect loss of habitat quality due to dust, sedimentation and air quality associated with the
mining process;
14) Intensification of utilization of areas outside of the concession area as a result of
displacement of people from within the concession area.
D. Cumulative Impacts
Cumulative impacts identified included:
1. Permanent and seasonal changes to Riparian vegetation downstream of the concession as a
result in dewatering, seasonal extraction and returns, the exact extent and subsequent
result of which is poorly understood at this stage;
2. Permanent and seasonal changes to Miombo vegetation in the area as a result of continuous
dewatering is likely to affect groundwater levels permanently, which may have a long term
effect on structure, function and composition of the Miombo woodland vegetation within
the study area and outside area of influence.
3. Relocation and densification of Kisankala village and the subsequent reliance on vegetation
in surrounding areas is likely to result in permanent increased harvesting of Miombo for
charcoal, timber, agriculture and food harvesting.
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4. Possible long-term additional vegetation clearing activities to access new deposits, present
but not yet fully prospected and not forming part of this assessment.
5. Due to the poor levels of development and infrastructure within the DRC, the long-term
potential exists for the growth of new cities because of economic opportunities, outside of
the existing Kolwezi, Likasi, Lubumbashi areas, which could result in loss of vegetation at a
mass scale, as can be seen on the outskirts and surrounds of these cities presently.
E. Conclusions
Mining activities will result in the removal of natural copper-cobalt outrop vegetation, although
there will be relocation of Species of Special Concern and creation of artificial habitat. No species
extinction is expected to occur. Mining activities will result in clearing of Miombo vegetation for
infrastructure and waste rock dumps. No species extinction is expected to occur. Upgrading of
roads is expected to result in a short term increase in vegetation loss and soil erosion, but in the
long-term improved roads are likely to reduce erosion relating to stormwater runoff.
F. The way forward
Detailed Botanical/Ecological Assessment during early spring before commencement of mining.
Floral survey of all outcrops before commencement of mining to be undertaken in parallel to
preparation, relocation and construction activities with input from local flora expertise.
Experimentation with horticultural aspects of the local flora (seed germination, biophysical
requirements, etc.).
A long-term monitoring programme should be initiated during construction and conducted during
operations and after mine closure for a suitable time period.
a. An annual/bi-annual audit should be conducted to assess the various facets relating to
vegetation by a qualified botanist in conjunction with local copper flora experts;
b. An annual Landsat image should be obtained and classified (early at the end of the rainy
season) to assess any indirect changes in vegetation that may occur as a result of
dewatering, dust plumes and other indirect impacts of mining activities.
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2 Table of Contents
1
Executive summary ......................................................................................................................... v
2
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... viii
3
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1
3.1
Copper-Cobalt Flora ................................................................................................................ 1
3.1.1
Typical Copper Communities of the Katanga Province ................................................... 2
3.1.2
Types of mineral workings and associated pollution ...................................................... 3
3.2
Miombo Woodland ................................................................................................................. 3
3.2.1
Biodiversity Features....................................................................................................... 5
3.2.2
Types and Severity of Threats ......................................................................................... 6
3.2.3
Justification of Ecoregion Delineation ............................................................................ 6
3.3
Riparian Vegetation (Dambo) ................................................................................................. 7
3.3.1
4
Project description .......................................................................................................................... 9
4.1
5
6
Anthropogenic disturbances typical in riparian areas .................................................... 7
Description of alternatives ...................................................................................................... 9
Methodology: Performance Standard 1 ....................................................................................... 11
5.1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 11
5.2
Objective ............................................................................................................................... 12
5.3
Terms of Reference ............................................................................................................... 12
5.4
Scope of the Work................................................................................................................. 12
5.5
Methods ................................................................................................................................ 12
5.5.1
Field Floral Survey ......................................................................................................... 12
5.5.2
Vegetation Unit Mapping .............................................................................................. 13
5.5.3
Ecological Integrity and Sensitivity Assessment ........................................................... 13
5.5.4
Review of existing studies ............................................................................................. 13
Vegetation and Flora ..................................................................................................................... 13
6.1
Regional and National Conservation Institutions ................................................................. 13
6.2
Landsat Classification ............................................................................................................ 14
6.3
Vegetation Mapping ............................................................................................................. 15
6.4
Vegetation Description ......................................................................................................... 16
6.4.1
Miombo woodland ........................................................................................................ 16
6.4.2
Copper-Cobalt Outcrop associated Vegetation (Metalliferous Flora) .......................... 17
6.4.3
Wetland (Dambo) and Riparian areas ........................................................................... 18
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6.4.4
7
Gallery forest................................................................................................................. 19
Floral composition ................................................................................................................ 19
6.6
Species of Special Concern (Protected and Endemic Flora) ................................................. 26
6.6.1
Endemic Flora................................................................................................................ 26
6.6.2
Protected Flora ............................................................................................................. 27
6.6.3
Alien Invasive Species ................................................................................................... 27
Ecological State and Sensitivity of Vegetation .............................................................................. 27
Perceived Reference State (PRS)........................................................................................... 27
7.1.1
Miombo woodland ........................................................................................................ 27
7.1.2
Copper-Cobalt Outcrop associated Vegetation (Metalliferous Flora) .......................... 28
7.1.3
Wetland (Dambo) and Riparian areas ........................................................................... 28
7.1.4
Gallery forest................................................................................................................. 28
7.2
Present Ecological State (PES) ............................................................................................... 28
7.2.1
Miombo woodland ........................................................................................................ 28
7.2.2
Copper-Cobalt Outcrop associated Vegetation (Metalliferous Flora) .......................... 28
7.2.3
Wetland (Dambo) and Riparian areas ........................................................................... 29
7.2.4
Gallery forest................................................................................................................. 29
7.3
Vegetation Sensitivity Assessment ....................................................................................... 31
7.3.1
Miombo woodland ........................................................................................................ 31
7.3.2
Copper-Cobalt Outcrop associated Vegetation (Metalliferous Flora) .......................... 31
7.3.3
Wetland (Dambo) and Riparian areas ........................................................................... 31
7.3.4
Gallery forest................................................................................................................. 31
Social and cultural environment relating to flora and vegetation ................................................ 35
8.1
9
May 2008
6.5
7.1
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Botanical Assessment Report
Natural Resources and Rural Livelihoods.............................................................................. 35
8.1.1
Rural Livelihoods ........................................................................................................... 35
8.1.2
General Findings ........................................................................................................... 38
8.1.3
Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 39
Prediction of environmental impacts ........................................................................................... 40
9.1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 40
9.2
Protected Areas .................................................................................................................... 40
9.3
Natural Habitats and Biodiversity Threats ............................................................................ 40
9.4
Existing Impacts .................................................................................................................... 40
9.5
Proposed Project Actions ...................................................................................................... 41
9.6
General Impact Rating Scale for Specialists/ Baseline data .................................................. 42
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9.6.1
The Severity/ Beneficial Scale ....................................................................................... 42
9.6.2
Spatial and Temporal Scales ......................................................................................... 43
9.6.3
The Degree of Certainty and the Likelihood Scale ........................................................ 44
9.6.4
The Environmental Significance Scale........................................................................... 45
9.6.5
Absence of Data ............................................................................................................ 45
9.7
Identified environmental impacts......................................................................................... 46
9.7.1
Direct localised loss of rare habitats, in copper-cobalt vegetation communities within
the concession .............................................................................................................................. 46
9.7.2
Direct localised loss of local endemic species, in copper-cobalt vegetation
communities within the concession ............................................................................................. 47
9.7.3
Direct localised loss of biodiversity including rare habitats and local endemic species
or protected flora, in Miombo vegetation communities .............................................................. 48
9.7.4
Direct loss of Miombo vegetation habitat .................................................................... 49
9.7.5
Direct loss of habitat within the riparian vegetation communities .............................. 49
9.7.6
species
Improved access to rare habitats and local endemic species leading to removal of rare
50
9.7.7
Reduction in connectivity of habitats affecting movements of wildlife species that may
be pollinators or dispersal agents of flora within Miombo. ......................................................... 51
9.7.8
Reduction in connectivity of habitats affecting movements of wildlife species that may
be pollinators or dispersal agents of flora within Copper outcrops. ............................................ 51
9.7.9
Introduction of exotic species (terrestrial and aquatic) ............................................... 52
9.7.10 Changes in water flows or quality from development associated with mining during
operations may affect adjacent Riparian plant communities (including Gallery Forest and
Dambo Wetlands) ......................................................................................................................... 53
9.7.11 Long-term changes in Miombo Woodland may occur as a result of dewatering
activities that could lower the water table in the affected area .................................................. 53
9.7.12 Destruction of natural habitats in downstream areas (terrestrial and aquatic) in the
case of a tailings storage facility failure. ....................................................................................... 54
9.7.13 Indirect loss of habitat quality due to dust/mud, sedimentation/siltation and air
quality associated with the mining process .................................................................................. 54
9.7.14 Intensification of utilization of areas outside of the concession area as a result of
displacement of people from within the concession area ........................................................... 55
9.8
Cumulative Impacts .............................................................................................................. 56
9.9
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 57
10
Recommendations .................................................................................................................... 61
10.1
Mine Layout .......................................................................................................................... 61
10.1.1
Option B layout ............................................................................................................. 61
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10.1.2
Option C layout ............................................................................................................. 61
10.1.3
Waste Rock Dumps ....................................................................................................... 61
10.1.4
Relocated Kisankala Village ........................................................................................... 62
10.2
Mine Environmental Management Plan ............................................................................... 62
10.3
National and Regional Conservation Planning ...................................................................... 63
11
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 63
12
Way forward ............................................................................................................................. 63
12.1
Additional studies required................................................................................................... 63
12.2
Monitoring ............................................................................................................................ 63
13
Environmental Management Plan ............................................................................................ 65
13.1
Objective ............................................................................................................................... 65
13.2
Detailed Floral survey ........................................................................................................... 65
13.3
Materials ............................................................................................................................... 65
13.3.1
Shrubs and trees ........................................................................................................... 67
13.3.2
Grass.............................................................................................................................. 68
13.3.3
Mulch ............................................................................................................................ 70
13.3.4
Slope stabilizers and anti-erosion measures ................................................................ 71
13.3.5
Soil stabilizers ................................................................................................................ 72
13.3.6
Topsoil and subsoil ........................................................................................................ 72
13.3.7
Boulders and rocks ........................................................................................................ 72
13.4
Facilities................................................................................................................................. 72
13.4.1
Seed store ..................................................................................................................... 72
13.4.2
Site-specific nursery ...................................................................................................... 72
13.4.3
Irrigation........................................................................................................................ 73
13.5
Vegetation clearing and relocation ....................................................................................... 73
13.5.1
13.6
Infrastructural Requirements .................................................................................... 73
Construction .......................................................................................................................... 76
13.6.1
Preparation of ground surfaces .................................................................................... 76
13.6.2
Soil stabilization ............................................................................................................ 77
13.6.3
Slope modification and stabilization ............................................................................. 78
13.6.4
Timing of planting ......................................................................................................... 80
13.6.5
Planting guidelines ........................................................................................................ 80
13.6.6
Traffic on revegetated areas ......................................................................................... 83
13.6.7
Establishment................................................................................................................ 83
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13.7
May 2008
Rehabilitation and mine closure ........................................................................................... 85
13.7.1
Rehabilitation Objective.............................................................................................. 85
13.7.2
Rehabilitation Plan ........................................................................................................ 85
13.7.3
Monitoring and Reporting .......................................................................................... 87
13.8
14
Botanical Assessment Report
Testing ................................................................................................................................... 87
13.8.1
Seed ............................................................................................................................... 87
13.8.2
Responsibility for establishing an acceptable cover ..................................................... 87
References ................................................................................................................................ 89
Appendix 1: Maps ................................................................................................................................. 90
Appendix 2: Plates ................................................................................................................................ 93
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3 Introduction
The project region is within the Miombo woodland belt of central Africa. Regionally, 475 higher
plants have been identified. Based on the literature, many more species have the potential to exist
in the region. However, the local area is relatively fragmented and modified by man, reducing the
numbers of species that presently exist. The following natural habitats can be distinguished within
the study area:
1. Copper-cobalt outcrop associated vegetation
a. Uapaca robynsii shrubby savanna belt;
b. Loudetia simplex-Monocymbium ceresiiforme steppe savanna with Acalypha
cupricola as characteristic copper differential;
c. Xerophyta spp. stone-packed steppe;
d. Crevice vegetation on rocky outcrops;
e. Hymenocardia acida wooded savanna;
f. Haumaniastrum robertii sward on reworked copper soil;
g. Rendlia altera sward on compacted soil;
h. Bulbostylis pseudoperennis sward.
2. Miombo woodland
3. Dambo Wetland
4. Gallery forest
3.1 Copper-Cobalt Flora
The Katangan Copper Bow (Francois, 1973), known for its copper/cobalt deposits (Malaisse, 1999)
has shown to contain a number of endemic floral species showing high levels of endemism and often
recorded from a narrow distribution range. Heavy metal ore bodies occur throughout the Katangan
Copper Bow and the Zambian Copperbelt on about 70 sites. They are expressed in more than 120
metalliferous deviating features, in the form of grasslands, mostly developed on hills emerging from
the medium middle plateau covered with Miombo woodland. These grasslands support several
unique plant community types, including a Uapaca robynsii shrubby savanna belt, a Loudetia
simplex– Monocymbium ceresiiforme steppe savanna, a Xerophyta spp. Stonepacked steppe and
other herbaceous swards (Malaisse et al., 1994). Extractive heavy metal activity started a long time
ago in South Central Africa where copper was already an important commodity of trade. Copper
metallurgy has been reported as already existing during the 14th century in Katanga (De Plaen et al.,
1982). Several sites of exploitation of copper minerals and of furnaces traditionally used in precolonial days for the production of small copper crosses were respectively located from excavations
on rocky slopes and by the remains of old furnaces, but even more effectively by the presence of
carpets of Haumaniastrum katangense (S. Moore) P. A. Duvigneaud & Plancke. The presence of this
annual metallophyte away from copper outcrops on man-made substrates which are slightly or
heavily mineralized has led to interesting archaeological discoveries and is an original approach to
phytoarchaeology. With the development of the heavy metal industry during the beginning of the
colonial period, some severe pollution events occurred involving air, soil and water contamination.
Recent political changes in Democratic Republic of Congo have induced important modifications to
ore exploitation policy. If some multinational groups or companies were obliged by financial backers
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to realize biodiversity studies, and previous environmental approaches allowing to estimate the
natural destruction before work, the exploitation of others layers was granted to smaller
unscrupulous groups. Many smaller mining companies have been allowed to commence mining
without undertaking preliminary environmental studies. Consequently, the setting up and
publication of any phytogeochemical information, incomplete as it is, constitutes a high importance
documentation origin.
Among the 120 metalliferous deviating features (copper-cobalt outcrops) noted in Katanga, only 54
have been explored geobotanically (Leteinturier, 1999). This has led to the establishment of an
unpublished preliminary inventory of about 400 higher plants that have been collected and
deposited at the Belgian National Herbarium (BR). These plants were observed in eight different
plant communities. The ecological characteristics of the particular flora observed on mine workings
in Katanga includes annual, herbaceous dicotyledons as well as grasses and sedges. It comprises
both plants mainly occurring in the natural vegetation of the copper-cobalt outcrops and alien
species frequent on Katangan mine workings in the form of grasslands, mostly developed on hills
emerging from the medium middle plateau covered with Miombo woodland. These grasslands
support several unique plant community types, including a Uapaca robynsii shrubby savanna belt, a
Loudetia simplex– Monocymbium ceresiiforme steppe savanna, a Xerophyta spp. Stonepacked
steppe and other herbaceous swards (Malaisse et al., 1994).
3.1.1
Typical Copper Communities of the Katanga Province
The eight plant communities with metalliferous deviating features in the Katangan Copper Bow and
in the Copperbelt (Figure 3.1) as described by Leteinturier (1999) are:
A. Uapaca robynsii shrubby savanna belt;
B. Loudetia simplex-Monocymbium ceresiiforme steppe savanna with Acalypha cupricola as
characteristic copper differential;
C. Xerophyta spp. stone-packed steppe;
D. Crevice vegetation on rocky outcrops;
E. Hymenocardia acida wooded savanna;
F. Haumaniastrum robertii sward on reworked copper soil;
G. Rendlia altera sward on compacted soil;
H. Bulbostylis pseudoperennis sward.
Variations of these described vegetation communities can be identified within the Copper outcrops
of the study areas, with some differences in composition.
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Figure 3.1: The eight plant communities with metalliferous deviating features in the Katangan Copper Bow and in the
Copperbelt (source: Leteinturier, 1999).
3.1.2
Types of mineral workings and associated pollution
The main kinds of heavy metal mineral workings common within the Katanga Bow as well as
anthropogenic heavy metal pollution processes include (Leteinturier, 1999):
1. Pre-colonial sites of metallurgy, present
o along streams
o in Miombo woodlands
2. Prospecting trenches from early colonial times including:
a. the bottom of the trench
b. the bare vertical faces with shaded conditions,
c. the exposed, dry rocky skeletal fragmented rocks accumulated on the upper side of
the trench.
3. Open quarries
4. Heaps of overburden materials with
a. soils formerly overlying mineralization;
b. large blocks of rocks and pitheads
5. Railway tracks enriched with cupriferous rocks
6. Alluvial mineralized deposits downstream processing plants polluted by waste waters
7. Soil-surfaced paths and trackways reinforced with “sterile rocks” and the adjacent affected
areas.
8. Sites of mineral separation and washing
9. Settling tanks where mineralized muds are discharged
10. Heavy metal enriched dusts deposited downwind of smelting works
3.2 Miombo Woodland
Miombo woodland is characterized by the dominance of trees in the genera Brachystegia and
Julbernardia and covers an estimated 2.7 million square km in southern, central and eastern Africa
(Frost, 1996). In Zambia, Miombo woodland covers 53% of the country (Chidumayo, 1997) and is
economically important for the supply of timber, poles, firewood and charcoal (Fanshawe, 1971;
Chidumayo, 1997). Modern man has lived in Miombo woodlands for at least 55 000 years (Lawton,
1978) and through cultivation, grazing and burning has played a key role in the modification and
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transformation of the landscape in Miombo woodlands (Frost, 1996). Different kinds of shifting
cultivation are practiced in Miombo woodland (Araki, 1992; Chidumayo, 1987; Stromgaard, 1985;
Trapnell, 1953) and these are often blamed for causing deforestation (Ministry of Environment and
Natural Resources, 1994). Serious deforestation often occurs when there is a shortage of land and
the fallow period is reduced, especially around villages and along major roads (Araki, 1992;
Chidumayo, 1987; Sprague and Oyama, 1999). The high dependency of urban households on
firewood and charcoal for cooking in many southern African countries also contributes to
deforestation of Miombo woodland and this has raised fears about land degradation because of loss
of soil productivity (Moyo et al., 1993; Chidumayo, 1989). Such deforestation also has implications
for global climate change through the emission of greenhouse gases.
The vegetation of the mining concession has been described as tropical dry forest (Atlas du Congo,
1998) and chiefly falls into the Zambezian Domain (White, 1965). Covering all of central Angola and
extending into the Democratic Republic of Congo, the extensive Angolan Miombo Woodlands are
part of an even larger Miombo ecosystem that covers much of eastern and southern Africa. The
Miombo is characterized by several unique ecological factors, including its propensity to burn, the
importance of termites, and the unusual browsing conditions found here.
Most of the Angolan Miombo Woodland is found at elevations between 1,000 and 1,500 m above
sea level. The ecoregion lies mainly in the Cubango-Zambezi Basin, which is an extensive area of
gently undulating hills drained by rivers that flow eastwards into the Zambezi River. It is also drained
by the endorheic Cuando-Cubango system and the Cunene River. The northern portion of the
ecoregion is part of the Congo Basin, while in the west, it extends onto the Old Plateau which
includes the highlands of Huíla, Huambo, and Bié (Huntley 1974).
The geology of the area comprises a mixture of gritty sandstones of the Karoo sediments, deep
aeolian sands of the Pleistocene Kalahari system and gneisses, gneissic granites and metamorphosed
sediments of the Precambrian basement complex (Huntley 1974). The combination of the crystalline
nature of many of the rocks, low relief, moist climate and warm temperatures has produced highly
weathered soils that are commonly more than 3 m deep (Frost 1996). The soils are typically welldrained, highly leached and nutrient-poor and tend to be acid with low organic matter. In some
areas, drainage is restricted by shallow depth, low relief, clay subsoils or indurated laterite, and this
may result in seasonal waterlogging.
The area experiences a tropical climate with rainfall strongly concentrated in the summer months.
Rainfall increases, and temperatures decrease, with decreasing latitude and increasing elevation.
Mean annual rainfall in the ecoregion ranges from less than 800 mm in the south to about 1,400 mm
in the north and west (Huntley 1974). Mean maximum temperatures are around 30° C in the south,
falling to about 27° C over most of the area, and declining to about 24° C at the higher elevations.
Minimum temperatures range from 15° to 18° C in the low-lying areas to 9° C over much of the
higher elevation areas in the western and central parts of the ecoregion.
The vegetation comprises extensive woodlands with a canopy height from 5 to 10 m, little or no
shrub layer and grassy ground cover. These are interspersed with grassy plains and drainage lines, as
well as patches of denser forest. The physiognomy and floristic composition varies considerably
across the ecoregion (Huntley 1974).
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Miombo woodland is distinguished from other African savanna, woodland and forest formations by
the dominance of tree species in the family Fabaceae, subfamily Caesalpinioideae, particularly in the
genera Brachystegia, Julbernardia, and Isoberlinia which are seldom found outside Miombo
(Campbell et al. 1996). The more widespread large tree species in the Angolan Miombo ecoregion
are Brachystegia spiciformis, Julbernardia paniculata, and Copaifera baumiana, while Brachystegia
floribunda, B. boehmii, B. gossweileri, B. wangermeeana, B. longifolia, B. bakerana, Guibourtia
coleosperma, and Isoberlinia angolensis are locally dominant (Werger and Coetzee 1978, Huntley
1994, Dean 2000). The grass layer is up to 2 m tall and several species of Loudetia, Hyparrhenia,
Tristachya, and Monocymbium ceresiiforme predominate. Most of the Miombo tree and shrub
species shed their leaves in the late dry season, and the Miombo vegetation is bare for a short time,
usually less than three months. A few weeks to a month before the onset of the rains, the trees flush
again and colour the countryside with their predominantly bright reddish new foliage. Brilliant green
young foliage is also found in some species (Werger and Coetzee 1978). Most of the Miombo trees
and shrubs also flower in the same period immediately before the rainy season
(September/October).
On seasonally waterlogged soils along drainage lines, especially on Kalahari sands, the woodland
gives way to grasslands dominated by Loudetia, Andropogon, Trachypogon, and Tristachya species
(Huntley 1974). Open woodlands with scattered Uapaca, Piliostigma, Annona, Entadopsis, and
Erythrina species often develop on the ecotone between the woodland edge and drainage lines
(Dean 2000). In some parts in the centre and the northeast of the ecoregion, extensive gallery
forests occur along rivers flowing into the Congo River Basin. These represent part of a transition
with the Guineo-Congolian Center of Endemism to the north (White 1983, Huntley 1994).
Fire is an important ecological factor in Miombo woodland. The strong seasonality in precipitation
leaves the vegetation dry for several months of the year, and thunderstorms at the start of the rainy
season can easily set the vegetation alight (Werger and Coetzee 1978). In addition to being naturally
fire-prone, the vegetation has been regularly set alight by humans for agriculture, hunting, to chase
snakes away and to improve pastures. Humans have probably burned the vegetation for millennia
(Frost 1996). Late dry season fires are particularly destructive to trees, as their great intensity
coincides with trees breaking their dormancy. Where they occur regularly, they result in more open
savanna with scattered fire-tolerant trees.
Human populations in Miombo woodland areas are generally low, due to the nutrient-poor soils that
limit agricultural potential, as well as the widespread presence of tsetse fly (Glossina spp.). Tsetse
flies are vectors of trypanosomiasis that affects humans as well as domestic livestock. In most of
Angola, human population density is less than five people per km2 (Huntley and Matos 1994)
although the human population is not evenly distributed throughout the ecoregion. Population
density increases in the higher elevation areas in the southwest, but population densities are lowest
in the southeast, and large areas are nearly uninhabited.
3.2.1
Biodiversity Features
Overall species richness of the ecoregion’s flora is high, though the diversity of canopy tree species is
relatively low. Miombo is notable among dry tropical woodlands for the dominance of tree species
with ectomycorrhizal rather than vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal associations (Frost 1996). These
may enable them to exploit porous, infertile soils more efficiently than groups lacking
ectomycorrhizae. Many of the fungal species involved in these associations produce mushrooms,
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some of which are edible. This has resulted in a culture of mushroom-gathering among indigenous
people that is widespread in Miombo, but largely absent in other tropical African woodlands.
Within the Miombo vegetation, "islands" of other vegetation types, such as eutrophic savanna on
richer soils, river terraces and floodplains, provide superior forage.
Invertebrates (termites and caterpillars in particular) are important ecological agents in Miombo
woodlands and probably remove more biomass than large mammals. While termite consumption is
continuous throughout the year, caterpillars feed in spectacular outbreaks that can remove
considerable proportions of leaf biomass of their preferred forage species (Frost 1996). Termites are
widespread and produce enormous mounds throughout the Miombo region. These mounds change
soil properties and produce patches rich in nutrients and organic matter within an otherwise
nutrient-poor landscape. They support vegetation markedly different in structure and composition
from the rest of the ecoregion. The Angolan termite mound flora has been poorly studied compared
to that of many other areas, but general trends apply, such as an increased incidence of woody
plants with small or sclerophyllous leaves, prickles or thorns, and animal-dispersed seeds. The fauna
of termite mounds is also distinctive as the mounds provide shelter, lookout points and food such as
fruit and insects. Characteristic food webs develop on active and deserted termite mounds (Malaisse
1978, Frost 1996).
3.2.2
Types and Severity of Threats
Hunting for subsistence and for valuable body parts of some species, much of it illegal, is the most
serious threat to the wildlife in the region. Wildlife had already been decimated outside protected
areas prior to independence (Huntley 1974), and the civil war, shortage of food in many areas, and
lack of security hinder measures to control poaching and manage protected areas.
Most of the ecoregion is sparsely settled at present. Thus, habitat fragmentation and modification
through settlement and agriculture, woodcutting and livestock impacts are minimal in much of the
Angolan Miombo woodlands. Around cities, however, human population pressure is more intense
and Huntley (1974) described the vegetation and soils in these areas as degraded. The present
extent and severity of degradation are not documented.
The breakdown in the distribution of fuel supplies has forced more and more people to cut trees for
firewood and charcoal manufacture (Huntley and Matos 1994). Charcoal manufacture in Miombo
woodlands has resulted in large cleared areas that are slow to recover (Dean 2000). The impact of
this is, again, highest around cities.
3.2.3
Justification of Ecoregion Delineation
The Angolan Miombo Woodland ecoregion falls within the Zambezian Regional Center of Endemism
outlined by White (1993). Bordered on the east by the Zambezi River, it forms the western portion of
‘wetter Zambezian Miombo woodland,’ and includes ‘mosaic of Brachystegia bakerana thicket and
edaphic grassland,’ which shares similar faunal patterns.
This ecoregion is part of larger complex of Caesalpinoid woodland ecoregions that support wet and
dry Miombo, mopane, thicket, dry forests, Baikiaea woodland, and flooded grassland habitats,
among others. The dominance of Caesalpinoid trees is a defining feature of this bioregion (i.e., a
complex of biogeographically related ecoregions). Major habitat types (e.g., mopane and Miombo)
and the geographic separation of populations of large mammals are used to discriminate ecoregions
within this larger region. All of these ecoregions contain habitats that differ from their assigned
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biome or defining habitat type. For example, patches of dry forest occur within larger landscapes of
Miombo woodlands in several areas. More detailed biogeographic analyses should map the less
dominant habitat types that occur within the larger ecoregions.
This type of vegetation is also characteristic of lower Katanga and is dominated by leguminous trees
of Brachystegia ssp. and Julbernardia paniculata (Benth Malaisse et al., 1975). It is generally derived
from the Guineo – Congolian type of vegetation and is typified by remnants of tropical forest species
assemblages and occasional occurrence of such species is common in areas where disturbances are
few. The vegetation is affected by settlements, artisanal mining, exploration activities, and
cultivation of agricultural crops. The effect is apparent from the introduction of exotic shrub and tree
species within and around settlements and the frequent use of fire in surrounding woodlands for
field clearance. Vegetation suppression is also a major factor along the powerline that passes
through the area. Harvesting for various forest products including poles/timber, firewood and herbal
medicines is another activity that has contributed to the visible alteration of the woodland structure.
Regeneration in various forms and stages of growth is evident around the mining concession. Woody
species commonly found regenerating in abandoned fields and around the settlement included
Diplorhynchus condylocarpon, Uapaca kirkiana, Uapaca bangweolensis, Albizia adianthifolia,
Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia, Combretum zeyherii, Monotes katangensis, Monotes angolensis,
and Erythrophleum africanum.
3.3 Riparian Vegetation (Dambo)
3.3.1
Anthropogenic disturbances typical in riparian areas
Human alterations of riparian areas
Because humans worldwide use more than half of the geographically accessible river runoff, their
significant impact on the structure and functioning of riparian areas is not surprising. Effects include
changes in the hydrology of rivers and riparian areas, alteration of geomorphic structure, and the
removal of riparian vegetation.
Hydrologic and Geomorphic Alterations
Manipulation of the hydrologic regime via the construction of dams and other structures and
irrigation has served to disconnect rivers from their riparian areas. Changes in hydrologic
disturbance regimes and patterns of sediment transport include alteration of the timing of
downstream flow, attenuation of peakflows, and other effects. Dams have an immediate upstream
effect—the complete loss of riparian structure and functioning due to inundation. Downstream
effects include changes in the transport of sediment due to retention behind the dam such that
channels below a dam can become increasingly “sediment starved.” A second type of downstream
alteration is related to the pattern of river flow following dam construction. Large dams can dampen
the magnitude of high flows that would occur normally, increase the duration of moderate flows, or
even dewater downstream reaches causing substantial declines of riparian forests.
Channelization converts streams into deeper, straighter, and often wider waterbodies to facilitate
conveyance of water downstream so that the immediate floodplain area will not flood as long or as
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deeply, resulting in reduced soil water content. Channelization has the direct effect of destroying
riparian vegetation via the use of heavy equipment or by moving the stream channel to a new
location where no natural riparian vegetation exists. Indirectly, channelization reduces the
survivability of riparian vegetation by lowering the water table and reducing the frequency of
overbank flow. The increased flow capacity afforded by channelization compresses the period of
water conveyance, making streams “flashier” and increasing erosion rates.
Water withdrawals, both from surface waters and groundwater, can have serious deleterious effects
on riparian area functioning caused by the lowering of water tables in the vicinity of riparian
vegetation. Groundwater pumping for water supply is increasingly common. Because groundwater
and surface water are generally connected in floodplains, declines in groundwater level can
indirectly be caused by surface water withdrawals or by the regulation of surface water flow by dam
construction. Lowering groundwater levels by just one meter beneath riparian areas is sometimes
sufficient to induce water stress in riparian trees.
Phreatophytic (water-loving) plants historically have been cleared from riparian areas in arid and
semiarid climates because they have been viewed as competing with other users of water,
particularly irrigated agriculture and municipalities. However, phreatophyte eradication destroys
nearly all ecological and geomorphic benefits provided by riparian vegetation, including stabilization
of alluvial fill, shading, and provision of wood and microhabitats.
Agriculture
A second major impact to riparian areas is their conversion to other plant species via land uses such
as forestry, crop agriculture, and livestock grazing. The periodic removal of trees by forestry has the
potential to alter the long-term composition and character of riparian forests. Where large portions
of the standing timber is harvested or where the period between harvest operations is short,
substantial changes to the composition, structure, and function of riparian forests will almost
certainly result. The harvest of riparian forests can increase the amount of solar radiation reaching a
stream, which can increase water temperatures and affect aquatic primary production. The removal
of vegetative cover can impair the ability of riparian areas to retain water, sediment, and nutrients
such as nitrogen and phosphorus. In general, the effects of forestry on riparian structure and
function are much greater when forests are clear-cut or harvested right up to streambanks and lake
shorelines.
Traditional agriculture is probably the largest contributor to the decline of riparian areas. Conversion
of undeveloped riparian land to agriculture has the potential to decrease infiltration and increase
overland flow volumes and peak runoff rates. This results in high erosion rates that inundate riparian
vegetation with sediment and limit the filtering functions of the riparian area.
The primary effects of livestock grazing include the removal and trampling of vegetation, compaction
of underlying soils, and dispersal of exotic plant species and pathogens. Grazing can also alter both
hydrologic and fire disturbance regimes, accelerate erosion, and reduce plant or animal reproductive
success and/ or establishment of plants. Long-term cumulative effects of domestic livestock grazing
involve changes in the structure, composition, and productivity of plants and animals at community,
ecosystem, and landscape scales. Livestock have a disproportionate effect on riparian areas because
they tend to concentrate in these areas, which are rich in forage and water. Although native
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ungulates can inflict similar types of damage to riparian vegetation, their impact is generally much
less than that of livestock in areas that support both.
Industrial, Urban, and Recreational Impacts
A variety of mining practices can severely degrade riparian areas. Depending upon the type, size, and
location of the mining operation, total hillsides can be excavated and their stream systems moved or
buried. Mining spoils are sometimes deposited along stream channels and can destroy riparian
vegetation, particularly if they contain toxic metals such as arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper,
lead, mercury, and zinc. When a mining operation exposes large areas of bare ground, substantial
increases in overland flow and sediment production can occur during rainfall. Unless a well-designed
and operated system of detention ponds is in place, such runoff may greatly increase sediment
delivery to nearby riparian areas.
Bridges or culverts require the construction of abutments along the bank to provide roadway
support. Because the abutments physically constrain the stream, future lateral adjustments by the
stream are effectively eliminated. Highway systems and urban roads outside of riparian areas can
also increase peak overland flow, thus fundamentally altering the hydrologic disturbance regime of
adjacent riparian areas.
Increasee in impervious surfaces profoundly modifies watershed hydrology and vegetation, and
consequently the structure and functioning of riparian areas. As vegetation is replaced by
impervious surfaces (roads, buildings, parking lots), infiltration, groundwater recharge, groundwater
contributions to streams, and stream base flows all decrease, while overland flow volumes and peak
runoff rates increase. Stream channels respond by increasing their cross-sectional area to
accommodate the higher flows. This channel instability triggers a cycle of streambank erosion and
habitat degradation in riparian areas similar to that seen with channelization. Above a certain
percent imperviousness (approximately 10 to 20 percent), urban stream quality is consistently
classified as poor. A secondary effect of urbanization is caused by changes in how overland flow and
shallow subsurface flow enter and transverse riparian areas following development. Development
promotes the formation of concentrated flows that are less likely to be dispersed within riparian
areas, greatly reducing their potential for pollutant removal. For the most part, urbanization and
development permanently impair the functioning of riparian areas.
The introduction of exotic plant and animal species for various purposes has had a substantial effect
on riparian areas. The most common concern about exotic organisms is their displacement of native
species and the subsequent alteration of ecosystem properties. This situation has been exacerbated
by a reduction in flood flows caused by dams and by the lowering of water tables caused by water
withdrawal.
4 Project description
As per the EAP and project description in the full ESIA report.
4.1 Description of alternatives
Two mine layout alternatives for the positioning of the Plant, Tailings Storage Facility (TSF) and mine
village as follows:
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The first alternative being “Option B” with the processing plant north of the existing
powerline servitude on the eastern boundary and the tailings storage facility directly south
of the powerline servitude (Figure 4.1);
The second alternative being “Option C” with the Tailings Storage Facility and processing
plant on the western boundary south of the Kisankala River (Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.1: Layout alternative B, with plant and tailings storage facility to the southeast.
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Figure 4.2: Layout Option C, with plant and tailings storage facility to the north-west.
5 Methodology: Performance Standard 1
5.1 Introduction
Performance Standard 1 underscores the importance of managing social and environmental
performance throughout the life of a project (any business activity that is subject to assessment and
management). An effective social and environmental management system is a dynamic, continuous
process initiated by management and involving communication between the client, its workers, and
the local communities directly affected by the project (the affected communities). Drawing on the
elements of the established business management process of “plan, implement, check, and act,” the
system entails the thorough assessment of potential social and environmental impacts and risks
from the early stages of project development, and provides order and consistency for mitigating and
managing these on an ongoing basis. A good management system appropriate to the size and nature
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of a project promotes sound and sustainable social and environmental performance, and can lead to
improved financial, social and environmental project outcomes.
5.2 Objective
To identify and assess social and environment impacts, both adverse and beneficial, in the
project’s area of influence;
To avoid, or where avoidance is not possible, minimize, mitigate, or compensate for adverse
impacts on workers, affected communities , and the environment;
To ensure that affected communities are appropriately engaged on issues that could
potentially affect them;
To promote improved social and environment performance of companies through the
effective use of management systems.
5.3 Terms of Reference
To undertake appropriate studies to determine the terrestrial flora within the Study Area
and assess its conservation status and ecological importance, and make recommendations
to minimise/ mitigate impacts.
A basic modified Riparian Vegetation Index will also be performed to assess the health of
riparian vegetation.
5.4 Scope of the Work
Undertake floral survey and vegetation assessment to determine species composition,
assessment of the ecological integrity and ecological status of the terrestrial and riparian
habitats using recognised methodologies.
Undertake desktop study to determine conservation status of the respective flora.
Liaise with other specialists where necessary
Participate in workshops with specialists and attend meetings with the project managers
during report compilation.
5.5 Methods
5.5.1
Field Floral Survey
Site visits were conducted during January 2007 and again during March 2007. The focus of the
survey was on areas that had not been adequately covered during the previous environmental
assessment, as per the Environmental Adjustment Plan (EAP). The focus was thus on four key areas
deemed to be inadequately covered in the EAP, as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Copper outcrops
Non-tree flora within the Miombo woodlands
Riparian areas
Non-Timber Wood Products and species used by the local inhabitants
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In order to achieve this, a botanical collection was made concentrating on the specific habitats
indicated above. All key outcrops were visited and a list of species present compiled; the
surrounding Miombo woodland was also surveyed, focusing in areas that would be affected by the
proposed mining project and a list of species compiled; riparian areas were visited and surveyed. A
transect was conducted with four local people from Kisankala village, who were deemed to be
experts on local flora The object was to identify plants that were said to have useful properties,
focusing on medicinal and food species.
During the second site visit, the survey of the copper outcrops was intensified, with specialist
assistance from Mr Bruno Mongoli, a PhD student from Lubumbashi University who is an expert on
the local copper-cobalt flora,. The survey specifically focused on identifying and surveying the
copper endemics. A collection was made of surveyed flora and additional assistance was obtained
from Mr Emile Kisimba whom is a technician of the Lubumbashi Botany department Herbarium, with
many years experience under the supervision of Prof. Mallaisse. Mr Kisimba was the most
knowledgeable expert in the identification of local species available. As far as possible, when
identifying species, the most recent name has been used, but in some cases, where there is
uncertainty, the most widely used name has been used. In addition some species are in the process
of being fully described and published so could only be determined to Genus level. The collection
will ultimately be housed at the Lubumbashi university herbarium, with an on-site field herbarium
compiled for the duration of mining.
5.5.2
Vegetation Unit Mapping
Since no satellite imagery was made available during the writing of this report, no vegetation
mapping was completed.
5.5.3
Ecological Integrity and Sensitivity Assessment
Vegetation was assessed for various ecological indicators including levels of degradation, erosion,
floral diversity, sensitivity to disturbances and rehabilitation potential. A series of photographs have
been included in this report to indicate some key features of the vegetation within the concession
(Appendix 2: Plate 1 to Plate 18)
5.5.4
Review of existing studies
This report also serves to consolidate all information available concerning the flora of the study area
and relevant literature that is pertinent to this particular study. Available literature has been
included in the report as far as possible, to supplement findings.
6 Vegetation and Flora
6.1 Regional and National Conservation Institutions
Formal conservation within the DRC is relatively extensive, although civil historical unrest has led to
declining infrastructure with a resulting collapse of formal conservation networks. Reports of
hunting, looting; intimidation and murder of park officials in National Parks in the DRC appears to be
a frequent occurrence. Two official National Parks are present in the region, namely the Upemba
National Park, occurring north-east of the mining concession and Kundelungu National Park, sited
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just east of Likasi. An additional declared reserve is at Kolwezi, but is categorized as a ‘Hunting Zone’
according to the UNEP-WCMP. Copper-cobalt flora is unlikely to be well-represented and protected
within the Upemba National Park, and the contribution of the Kundulungu National Park to the
conservation of the endemic copper flora is unknown. It is possible that some of the central and
eastern copper bow flora is represented within this protected area.
6.2 Landsat Classification
Due to the absence of high resolution aerial photography, vegetation mapping has been based on
the Landsat classification undertaken for the EAP (sensu AMC, 2007; Map 2 & Map 1). This has been
adjusted and modified based on field observations (including GIS mapping of main units) and
available low resolution aerial imagery. The spatial accuracy of this data is limited by the accuracy of
handheld GPS units and is not of survey accuracy.
Regional land classification based on United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) standards
indicates medium to low potential for sustainable development. This classification is mainly based
on regional soil classification and the deeply developed, extremely weathered, iron and aluminium
rich soils characteristic of the area. These soils are nutrient deficient and have poor water retention
abilities, though they are easily worked. Landsat 7 satellite data has been used to identify and
outline the distribution of land cover found in the Kalukundi area. Based on satellite data
interpretation and field observations, the natural land cover in the area can generally be described
as predominantly woodland dissected by the Kisankala Stream and Kii River with associated riparian
forest. Agricultural land is located outside the permit area at the confluence of the Kii and Kisankala
watercourses. Kisankala Village in the centre of the permit area forms the only major settlement. A
land classification map has been produced from analysis and interpretation of the satellite data and
from field observations. The satellite data used was a quarter LANDSAT 7 Enhanced Thematic
Mapper scene acquired in June 2002 (Landsat-7 ETM+, 174-67). The quarter scene covering 8,100
km2 was of good quality with no cloud cover. The data has a resolution of 30 metres for 5 spectral
bands and 15 metres for a panchromatic band. The classification follows common and well
researched classification methods and was verified by thorough ground truthing. The higher
resolution panchromatic data allowed mapping of roads and watercourses, the 5 bands in the visible
and infrared spectra were used for vegetation classification and identification of agriculture land,
wetlands and settlements.
Six land cover classes were selected from observations made on the ground. These are:
Savannah / grassland;
Dambo/wetland;
Dense vegetation/forest;
Woodland;
Clearing/field; and
Built-up/degraded land.
Land class, definition and image characteristics are described in Table 6.1. Map 1 shows the
distribution of land classes and proportional land cover within the mine permit area.
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Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
Table 6.1: Land class definition and characteristics (sensu AMC, 2006).
Land Class
Definition
Image character
% coverage
Woodland
Often typical Miombo
Woodland. Well distributed
Reflectance in the near infrared
spectral band with more signal
from the soil than in dense
vegetation. Large and uniform
areas.
70%
Dense
vegetation/
Forest
Dense vegetation often along
watercourses and sometimes
on wetland.
Very strong signal in the nearinfrared spectrum. As strips along
Watercourses and as “islands” in
wetlands.
1.6 %
Built-up/
Degraded
land
Land used for housing and bare
agricultural land. Generally rural
villages (Kisankala village)
High reflectance in all bands.
Forming patchy features
0.2 %
Clearing/
Fields
Open non-forested land.
Vegetated with grass or crops.
Strong reflectance from mineral
soil and some reflectance in the
near-infrared spectrum.
13 %
Dambo/
Wetland
Permanently or temporarily
waterlogged area. No or few
trees. Mostly sedges and
grasses.
High absorption due to wetness
but some response from
vegetation. Commonly forming
lake or drainage patterns.
13.4 %
Open
Savanna
Open Savanna Grassland. Few
trees mostly grass found on
plateaux or upland areas.
Strong reflectance from mineral
soil and some reflectance in the
near infrared spectrum.
2.2 %
Built-up or degraded land in this case is clearly seen as the area occupied by Kisankala
Village.
Dense vegetation/forest occurs along watercourses where human exploitation is minimal
and soil conditions favourable. This vegetation type when found away from the main
drainage network is present as very dense woodland and along watercourses as riparian
forest (Gallery Forest).
The clearing/field category includes agriculture land, grassland and to some extent other
woodland and forest openings. Part of the existing artisanal workings fall into this category,
due to the lack of vegetation on the siliceous hills where the fragments are prominent. This
is due to the copper poisoning which results in the development of copper clearings.
There is much evidence of logging and charcoal burning by the local inhabitants residing
within and surrounding the concession.
6.3 Vegetation Mapping
No high-resolution imagery was available during the timeframe of this assessment, due to
unfavourable weather conditions, so imagery as used in the EAP has been utilised (Map 1). A basic
15
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
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May 2008
map has been compiled to indicate important features such as location of the outcrops, rivers, as
well as some roads, Dambo wetland and Gallery Forest (Map 2).
6.4 Vegetation Description
All habitat types support numerous species of flora and are of some value regardless of the state of
disturbance. However, it is notable that three of the most biologically valuable habitat types (gallery
forest and the two copper-cobalt habitats) are rare and already under threat in baseline conditions.
Of all vegetation types, the Miombo woodland has the greatest flora species diversity. Miombo
woodland is under pressure from human activities. Clearing for agricultural purposes, charcoal and
fuelwood collection, urbanization, infrastructure and industrial development are all reducing the size
of the Miombo woodland community. The copper-cobalt habitat types also have high flora species
diversity. Many of the species have a restricted distribution. Habitat potentially classifiable as
‘critical’ under the guidelines of the World Conservation Union (IUCN) was identified on the CopperCobalt Rocky outcrops. In the past, artisanal mining impacted these habitat types.
Shifting agricultural practices are common and result in abandoning of sections of the land, likely
due to the soil becoming too impoverished or perhaps because weed infestation was too high.
Natural revegetation is generally re-establishing in these highly disturbed areas.
The Kisankala and Kii rivers can generally be regarded as degraded. This is mainly due to the extent
of deforestation in the catchments as well as poor cropping activities into riparian zones. Both of
these activities cause extensive sedimentation in the rivers. Further downstream, outside of the
concession, the riparian vegetation is highly disturbed through artisanal ore washing. However, a
few areas along the margins of the rivers (Kisankala and Kii) still exist where the riparian forests are
intact.
6.4.1
Miombo woodland
The most prevalent vegetation unit, covering vast areas.
Defining characteristics: typical Miombo species dominate this vegetation unit, with a distinct grass
layer covering the understory. Canopy cover, influenced by anthropogenic clearing of vegetation for
timber, charcoal crop production varies from area to area. Where there was no evidence of
vegetation removal the canopy tends to be medium dense (50 – 75% cover) but this is reduced
depending on the extent of tree removal.
Termiteria are common, often associated with distinct species including species such as Azanza
garckeana, Allophylus africanus, Combretum molle, Erythrina abyssinica, Mystroxylon aethiopicum,
Carissa edulis, Markhamia obtusifolia and Premna senensis.
Indicator species: Typical tree species include Brachystegia spiciformis, Combretum molle,
Combretum platypetalum, Cussonia arborea, Diplorhynchus condylocarpon, Ekebergia benguelensis,
Hymenocardia acida, Hymenodictyon floribundum, Monotes africana, Pavetta schumanniana,
Pericopsis angolensis, Psorospermum febrigum, Pterocarpus angolensis, Strychnos spinosa, Swartzia
madagascarensis, Syzygium guinese subsp. huillense, Uapaca kirkiana, Uapaca nitida var.
musocolowe and Zanthoxylum sp. Numerous herb shrub and grass species were also recorded as
well as various fungi, which are an important component of the Miombo. Weedy species were
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Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
present in disturbed areas (including road verges and along pathways, but none appeared to be
highly invasive or problematic at present.
Description: Typical Miombo woodland with disturbed areas.
6.4.2
Copper-Cobalt Outcrop associated Vegetation (Metalliferous Flora)
A number of plant communities can be distinguished in mineralized sites associated with coppercobalt outcrops (Map 2). They contain a number of endemic and non-endemic species known as
metalliferous flora, which are able to grow on sites with the soil having a high copper/cobalt
content.
Shrubby Savanna belt
Defining characteristics: Characterised by the small tree Uapaca robynsii, occurring on lower slopes
of outcrops and on aspects not having exposed copper-cobalt outcrops. Derived from Miombo
Woodland and with soils which do not have the especially high copper-cobalt levels of areas with
exposed ore.
Indicator species: Uapaca robynsii
Description: Typical of the community described above.
Copper-Cobalt steppe-savannah
Defining characteristics: Occurring on the lower slopes of the copper cobalt hills, this grassdominated vegetation occurs on soils derived from the copper cobalt outcrop and tends to be
restricted to the aspect where the outcrop is exposed. Aspects not having exposed copper-cobalt
outcrops tend to be vegetated with a number of typical, but most likely slightly copper tolerant
Miombo species. Although some species are common to the surrounding Miombo, a distinct suite
of dominant species can be identified, of which a number are endemic to this type of habitat and
their distribution is restricted to the Katanga Copper Belt (or parts thereof).
Indicator species: Dominant species include the grasses Pennisetum polystachium, Loudetia simplex,
Monocymbium ceresiiforme, Diheteropogon sp. and Digitaria nitens; the Herbs Acalypha cupricola,
Indigophora sutherlandioides and, Adenodolichos rhomboides as well as varius members of the
Iridaceae (Gladiolus spp.) and Cyperaceae (Bulbostylis spp., Cyperus spp.).
Description: Typical of the community described above.
Stone-Packed Steppe
Defining characteristics: Dominated by Xerophyta spp. (Resurrection plant).
Indicator species: Xerophyta sp.
Description: Large exposed boulders on the surface of the outcrop, with abovementioned species
occurring between and on boulders.
Crevice vegetation
Defining characteristics: Contains a wide variety of copper endemics particularly belonging to the
Lamiaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Pteridophyta (ferns). Large boulders (as above) provide habitat for
numerous species that tend to grow from small crevices and depressions in the rocks.
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Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
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May 2008
Indicator species:
Haumaniastrum robertii, Haumaniastrum rosulatum, Haumaniastrum
timpermanii and Cheilanthes inaequalis.
Description: Large exposed boulders on the surface of the outcrop, with abovementioned species
occurring in crevices.
Hymenocardia acida wooded savanna;
Defining characteristics:
Indicator species: Hymenocardia acida
Description: Typical the community described above.
Haumaniastrum robertii sward on reworked copper soil;
Defining characteristics: Secondary in nature, found on soils that have been disturbed – associated
with mine disturbance.
Indicator species:
timpermanii
Haumaniastrum robertii, Haumaniastrum rosulatum and Haumaniastrum
Description: Typical of the community described above.
Rendlia altera sward on compacted soil;
Defining characteristics: Not observed in the concession, secondary in nature on compacted soils
associated with mining activities.
Bulbostylis pseudoperennis sward.
Defining characteristics: Secondary vegetation on piles of compacted high copper soils removed
from artisanal mining pits.
Indicator species: Bulbostylis pseudoperennis
Description: Typical of the community described above.
6.4.3
Wetland (Dambo) and Riparian areas
Defining characteristics: In general Dambos are characterized by grasses, rushes and sedges (Photo
4), contrasting with surrounding Miombo woodland. They are substantially dry at the end of the dry
season, revealing grey soils or black clays, but unlike flooded grasslands, they retain wet lines of
drainage through the dry season. They are inundated (waterlogged) in the wet season but not
generally above the height of the vegetation. Any open water surface is usually confined to streams,
rivers and small ponds or lagoons at the lowest point, generally near the centre. Dambos are
defined as seasonally waterlogged, predominantly grass covered, depressions bordering headwater
drainage lines. However distinction can be made between ‘hydromorphic/phreatic’ Dambos
(associated with headwaters) and ‘fluvial’ Dambos (associated with rivers).
Indicator species: Typical species composition includes grasses (Diheteropogon grandiflorus,
Digitaria nitans, Monocymbium ceresiiforme, Sporobolus sp., Tristachia sp., Monocymbium sp., and
Andropogon schirensis); various sedges (Cyperaceae spp.) and some herbs, Irids and small shrubs
(Loudetia simplex, Blepharis acuminata, Gnidia kraussiana, Tinnea coerulea, Triumpheta likasiensis,
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Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
Disa welwitschii, Ocimum obovatum, Vernonia rigidifolia, Haumaniastrum timpermanii, Protea
welwitschii, Protea angolensis and Diospyros pallens). A small copper-cobalt outcrop is present
adjacent to the Kisankala Dambo on the northern edge, which may have some influence on its
species composition with some typically copper flora species occurring. Twenty-three plant species
were recorded in total in the Kisankala Dambo.
Description: In terms of the habitat on site, a moderate sized, intact Dambo is present at the upper
reach of the Kisankala stream (Map 2), feeding into the stream via a natural spring, which is
surrounded by a small pocket of Gallery Forest. The Dambo is predominantly intact with an unsurfaced road running at right angles through its centre. Siltation of the Dambo is currently
occurring during heavy rainfall from runoff from the road network and the nearby Kisankala village.
The upper catchment of the Kii River is likely to historically have had a small Dambo present, but is
disturbed through agricultural activities, although it was not being heavily cultivated during the site
visit. Similar to the Kisankala stream, the spring feeding the Kii stream is surrounded by a small
pocket of gallery forest.
The portions of the river downstream of the spring tend to be vegetated with a mix of Dambo
(having characteristic sedges and reeds present), Gallery Forest (dominated by trees rather than
sedges), and cultivated or agricultural areas (disturbed/transformed), making it difficult to
determine the original composition.
6.4.4
Gallery forest
Defining characteristics: Found along the margins of the rivers and streams, consisting of a dense
canopy of trees.
Indicator species: Typical tree species include Raphia farinera, Ilex mitis and various lianas.
Description: Occurrence of Gallery forest tends to be scant along the Kii and Kisankala rivers isolated
to pockets along the edges of the streams (Map 2). This is partly due to vegetation removal along
the river margins to make way for agricultural activities (crop cultivation) and for use as timber; as
well as the Dambo wetland being present. Without having historical information regarding
composition of Dambo and Gallery Forest, it is difficult to determine the original (i.e. pre
Anthropogenic disturbance) distribution thereof, but it can safely be assumed that Gallery Forest has
been substantially reduced in extent. Some pockets of Gallery Forest are found along the river
margins.
6.5 Floral composition
Regionally, 475 higher plants have been identified as being present, and based on the literature,
many more species have the potential to exist in the region. However, the local area is relatively
fragmented and modified by man, potentially reducing the numbers of species that presently exist.
Leteinturier (2002; Table 6.2) identifies 34 flora copper-cobalt endemic species as follows:
Table 6.2: Copper-Cobalt endemics identified by Leteinturier (2002) as being present within the Katangan Copper Bow.
Botanical Name
Acalypha cupricola*
Actiniopteris kornasii
Family
Euphorbiaceae
Actiniopteridaceae
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Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Name
Ascolepis metallorum
Basananthe cupricola
Becium grandiflora var metallorum*
Becium grandiflorum*
Bulbostylis cupricola *
Bulbostylis fusiformis *
Bulbostylis pseudoperennis *
Cheilanthes aff. perlanata sp. Nov *
Commelina zigzag *
Crepidorhopalon perennis
Crotalaria cobalticola *
Crotalaria peschiana*
Cyanotis cupricola *
Cyperus kibweanus *
Dissotis derriksiana *
Eragrostis dikuluwensis *
Faroa chalcophila *
Faroa malaissei *
Hartliella cupricola
Haumaniastrum robertii *
(~Acrocephalus robertii)
Justicia metallorum *
Monadenium cupricola *
Pandiaka carsoni
Pellaea pectiniformis*
Silene burchelli
Silene cobalticola
Streptocarpus rhodesianus *
Thesium pawlowskianum
Vernonia duvigneaudii*
Vernonia ledocteana*
Vigna dolomitica
Wahlenbergia malaissei*
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
Family
Cyperaceae
Passifloraceae
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Cyperaceae
Cyperaceae
Cyperaceae
Adiantaceae
Commelinaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Commelinaceae
Cyperaceae
Melastomataceae
Poaceae
Gentianaceae
Gentianaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Lamiaceae
Acanthaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Amaranthaceae
Adiantaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Gesneriaceae
Santalaceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Fabaceae
Campanulaceae
* Species either recorded as being present or having the potential to be present within the copper-cobalt outcrops within the concession.
Within the study area a total of 266 plant species were identified during the field trips during
January and March 2008, with an additional 11 species occurring but not identifiable to Family or
Genus level due to lack of flowering material. The most represented Families are:
1. Fabaceae:
38 species
2. Poaceae:
24 species
3. Asteraceae:
18 species
4. Lamiaceae:
16 species
5. Rubiaceae:
12 species
6. Euphorbiaceae:
11 species
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May 2008
Of the identified species, Miombo Woodland was the most diverse, having 183 species recorded,
followed by Copper Outcrops (69 species); Riparian (35 species); Dambo (24) and Disturbed areas
having approximately 17 species recorded respectively.
All habitat types support numerous species of flora and are of some value regardless of the state of
disturbance. However, it is notable that the most biologically valuable habitat types (riparian and the
copper-cobalt habitats) are rare and already under threat in baseline conditions. Of all vegetation
types, the Miombo woodland has the greatest flora species diversity. Miombo woodland is under
pressure from numerous human activities. Clearing for agricultural purposes, charcoal and fuelwood
collection, urbanization, infrastructure and industrial development are all reducing the size of the
Miombo woodland community. The copper-cobalt habitat types also have high flora species
diversity. Many of the species do however have a restricted distribution. In the past, artisanal
mining affected these habitat types.
Shifting agricultural practices are common and result in abandoning of sections of the land, likely
due to the soil becoming too impoverished or perhaps because weed infestation was too high.
Natural revegetation is generally re-establishing in these highly disturbed areas, although species
diversity was found to be lowest in recently disturbed areas (of the 17 species, most common are
grasses and ruderal weeds).
Table 6.3 provides a list of floral species identified on site, with their respective habitats indicated.
Table 6.3: Species present on the concession, with habitat indicated.
Botanical Name
Family
Strata
Riparian
Miombo
P
P
Dambo
Outcrops
Acacia seyal
Fabaceae
Tree
Acalypha cupricola
Euphorbiaceae
Herb
Acalypha senensis
Euphorbiaceae
Herb
Aciphylla boehmii
Apiaceae
Adenodolichos rhomboides
Fabaceae
Adenostephila sp
Annonaceae
Aeollanthus saxatilis
Lamiaceae
Herb
P
Aeollanthus sp.
Lamiaceae
Herb
P
Aeollanthus subacaulis var. ericoides
Lamiaceae
Herb
P
Aeschynomene pararubrofanariceae
Lamiaceae
Herb
Aframomum albovianum
Zingiberaceae
Herb
Albizia adianthifolia
Fabaceae
Tree
Albizia antunesiana
Fabaceae
Tree
P
Albizia sp.
Fabaceae
Tree
P
Allophylus africanus
Sapindaceae
Tree
P
Aloe sp.
Aloaceae
Shrub
P
Andropogon schirensis
Poaceae
Grass
Andropogon sp.
Poaceae
Grass
Anemia sp.
Schizaeaceae
P
Anisophylla pomifera
Rhizophoraceae
P
Anthocleista schweinfurthii
Gentianaceae
Asparagus sp.
Asparagaceae
Herb
P
Aspidia sp.
Asteraceae
Herb
P
Asteraceae sp.
Asteraceae
Herb
Barleria descampsii
Acanthaceae
Herb
Begonia sp.
Begoniaceae
Herb
Bidens oligoflora
Asteraceae
Herb
Disturbed
P (E)
P
P
Herb
P
P
P
21
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
Botanical Name
Family
Strata
Riparian
May 2008
Miombo
Dambo
Outcrops
Blepharis acuminata
Acanthaceae
Herb
Blepharis cuanzensis
Acanthaceae
Herb
Boophone sp.
Amaryllidaceae
Herb
P
Boscia sp.
Capparaceae
Tree
P
Bowiea sp.
Asclepiadaceae
Climber
P
P
Brachystegia boehmii
Fabaceae
Tree
Brachystegia longifolia
Fabaceae
Tree
Brachystegia spiciformis
Fabaceae
Tree
P
P
Brachystegia stipulata
Fabaceae
Tree
P
Bridelia duvigneaudii
Euphorbiaceae
Buchnera quadrifaria
Scrophulariaceae
Herb
Bulbophyllum congolanum
Orchidaceae
Herb (Arb)
P
Bulbophyllum oreonastes
Orchidaceae
Herb (Arb)
P
Bulbostylis filamentosa
Cyperaceae
Sedge
P
Bulbostylis pseudoperennis
Cyperaceae
Sedge
P (E)
Cantherellus elongisporus
Fungi
Fungi
P
Canthium venosum
Rubiaceae
Tree
P
Chamaecrista mimosoides
Fabaceae
Herb
P
Cheilanthes inaequalis
Pteridaceae
Herb
Chlorophytum sp. 1
Liliaceae
Herb
Chlorophytum sp. 2
Liliaceae
Herb
Clemaspora sp.
Rubiaceae
Tree
Clematopsis homblei
Ranunculaceae
Herb
Clerodendrum buchneri
Lamiaceae
Tree
Clerodendrum capitatum
Lamiaceae
Tree
Cof landolophia
Apocynaceae
Tree
P
Combretum mechowianum
Combretaceae
Tree
P
Combretum molle
Combretaceae
Tree
P
Combretum platypetalum
Combretaceae
Tree
Combretum sp.
Combretaceae
Tree
P
P
Combretum zeyherii
Combretaceae
Tree
P
P
Commelina africana
Commelinaceae
Herb
Commelina africana subsp. africana
Commelinaceae
Herb
P
P
Commelina diffusa
Commelinaceae
Herb
Commelina erecta
Commelinaceae
Herb
P
Crassocephalum rubens
Asteraceae
Herb
P
Crotalaria cobalticola
Fabaceae
Herb
Crotalaria sp.
Fabaceae
Herb
Cryptosepalum maraviense
Apocynaceae
Cussonia arborea
Araliaceae
Tree
Cynorkis hanningtonii
Orchidaceae
Herb
Cyperaceae sp.
Cyperaceae
Sedge
P
Cyperus alternifolius
Cyperaceae
Sedge
P
Cyperus margaritaceus
Cyperaceae
Sedge
P
P
Cyperus sp.
Cyperaceae
Sedge
P
P
Cyphia sp.
Lobeliaceae
Herb
P
Dasystachys colubrina
Anthericaceae
Tree
P
Dasystachys sp.
Anthericaceae
Tree
Desmodium repandum
Fabaceae
Herb
P
Desmodium salicifolium
Fabaceae
Tree
P
Desmodium sp.
Fabaceae
Herb
Disturbed
P
P
P
P
P
22
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P (E)
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Name
Botanical Assessment Report
Family
Strata
Riparian
May 2008
Miombo
Dambo
Outcrops
Diaphananthe fragrantissima
Orchidaceae
Herb (Arb)
P
Diaphananthe rutila
Orchidaceae
Herb (Arb)
P
Dicoma poggei
Asteraceae
Herb
Dicoma sp.
Asteraceae
Herb
P
P
Digitaria nitens
Poaceae
Grass
P
P
Digitaria sp.
Poaceae
Grass
P
P
Diheteropogon grandiflorus
Poaceae
Grass
Diheteropogon sp.
Poaceae
Grass
P
Dioscorea dumetorum
Dioscoreaceae
Climber
P
Diospyros pallens
Ebenaceae
Tree
Diplolophium zambesianum
Apiaceae
Diplorhynchus condylocarpon
Apocynaceae
Tree
Disa welwitschii
Orchidaceae
Herb
Dissotis derriksiana
Melastomataceae
Herb
P
Dolichos sp.
Fabaceae
Herb
P
Droogmansia munamensis
Fabaceae
Herb
P
Dyschoriste verticillaris
Acanthaceae
Herb
P
Ekebergia benguelensis
Meliaceae
Tree
P
Elephantopus mollis
Asteraceae
Herb
P
Eragrostis chapelieri
Poaceae
Grass
P
Eragrostis racemosa
Poaceae
Grass
P
Eragrostis sp.
Poaceae
Grass
Erigeron sp.
Asteraceae
Herb
Erythrina abyssinica
Fabaceae
Tree
Erythrophleum africanum
Fabaceae
Tree
Eucomis sp.
Amaryllidaceae
Herb
Euphorbia ingens
Euphorbiaceae
Tree
Faroa malaissei
Gentianaceae
Herb
Faurea rochetiana
Proteaceae
Tree
P
Faurea saligna
Proteaceae
Tree
P
Ficus spp.
Moraceae
Tree
P
Friesodielsia obovata
Annonaceae
Tree
P
Garcinia huillensis
Clusiaceae
Tree
P
Gardenia jovis-tonantis
Rubiaceae
Tree
Gladiolus cf. robiliartianus
Iridaceae
Herb
P
Gladiolus sp.
Iridaceae
Herb
P
Gloriosa superba
Colchicaceae
Climber
P
Glycine sp.
Fabaceae
Herb
P
Gnaphalium luteo-album
Asteraceae
Herb
Gnidia kraussiana
Thymelaeaceae
Herb
Habenaria amoena
Orchidaceae
Herb
Haumaniastrum robertii
Lamiaceae
Herb
Haumaniastrum rosulatum
Lamiaceae
Herb
Haumaniastrum timpermanii
Lamiaceae
Herb
Heteropogon contortus
Poaceae
Grass
P
Hexalobus monopetalus
Annonaceae
Tree
P
Hibiscus acetosella
Malvaceae
Herb
P
Hibiscus rodantes
Malvaceae
Herb
Hymenocardia acida
Euphorbiaceae
Tree
Hymenodictyon floribundum
Rubiaceae
Hypoestes verticillaris
Acanthaceae
Disturbed
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
23
P
P
P (E)
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P (E)
P
P
P
P
P
P
P (E)
P
P
P
P
P
P
Herb
P
P
P
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Name
Botanical Assessment Report
Family
Strata
Tree
Riparian
May 2008
Miombo
Dambo
Outcrops
Ilex mitis
Aquifoliaceae
Indet
Cucurbitaceae
Indigofera spicata
Fabaceae
Herb
Indigofera sutherlandioides
Fabaceae
Herb
Ipomoea alpina
Convolvulaceae
Climber
Ipomoea sp.
Convolvulaceae
Climber
Iridaceae sp.
Iridaceae
Herb
P
Iridaceae sp.
Iridaceae
Herb
P
Isoberlinia sp.
Fabaceae
Tree
P
Julbernardia paniculata
Fabaceae
Tree
P
Justicia sp. (metallorum)
Acanthaceae
Herb
Keetia crassum (fm. Canthium crassum)
Rubiaceae
Landolphia parvifolia
Apocynaceae
Lannea stuhlmanni
Anacardiaceae
P
Lannea versicolor
Anacardiaceae
P
Lapeirousia welwitschii
Iridaceae
legume
Fabaceae
P
legume
Fabaceae
P
Lonchocarpus sp.
Fabaceae
Loranthus sp.
Loranthaceae
Small Tree
P
Loudetia aff. simplex
Poaceae
Grass
P
Manihot esculentus
Euphorbiaceae
Shrub
P
Maprounea africana
Euphorbiaceae
Mariscus compactus
Cyperaceae
Sedge
P
Markhamia obtusifolia
Bignoniaceae
Tree
P
Marquesia acuminata
Dipterocarpaceae
P
P
Marquesia macroura
Dipterocarpaceae
P
P
Melinis repens
Poaceae
Memecylon flavovirens
Melastomataceae
Monocymbium ceresiiforme
Poaceae
Grass
P
Monotes africana
Dipterocarpaceae
Tree
P
Monotes angolensis
Dipterocarpaceae
Tree
P
Monotes katangensis
Dipterocarpaceae
Tree
Mucuna poggei
Fabaceae
Climber
Ochna pulchra
Ochnaceae
Tree
Ochna schweinfurthiana
Ochnaceae
Tree
Ochna schweinfurthii
Ochnaceae
Tree
Ocimum 3
Lamiaceae
Herb
Ocimum homblei
Lamiaceae
Herb
Ocimum obovatum
Lamiaceae
Herb
Ocimum sp
Lamiaceae
Herb
Olax obtusifolium
Oleaceae
Oplismenus sp.
Poaceae
Grass
Ornithogalum sp.P
Amaryllidaceae
Herb
P
Ornithogalum sp.2
Amaryllidaceae
Herb
P
Panicum chionachne
Poaceae
Grass
Parinari capensis
Chrysobalanaceae
Tree
P
Parinari curatellifolia
Chrysobalanaceae
Tree
P
Parinari curatifolia
Chrysobalanaceae
Tree
P
Parinari spp
Chrysobalanaceae
Tree
P
Passiflora sp.
Passifloraceae
Climber
P
Disturbed
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P (E)
P
Tree
P
Herb
P
P
P
P
P
P
Grass
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
24
P
P
P
P
P
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Name
Botanical Assessment Report
Family
Strata
Riparian
May 2008
Miombo
Pavetta schumanniana
Rubiaceae
Tree
Pennisetum polystachion
Poaceae
Grass
Pericopsis angolensis
Fabaceae
Peucedanum nyassicum
Apiaceae
Herb
P
Peucedanum wildemanianum
Apiaceae
Herb
P
Phyllanthus muellerianus
Euphorbiaceae
Tree
P
Phyllocomos lemaireanus
Ixonanthaceae
Piliostigma thonningii
Fabaceae
Climber
P
Pimpinella acutidentata
Apiaceae
Herb
P
Pleiotaxis rogersii
Asteraceae
Herb
P
Pleiotaxis dewevrei
Asteraceae
Herb
P
Poaceae sp.
Poaceae
Grass
Polygala sp.
Polygalaceae
Herb
Protea angolensis
Proteaceae
Shrub
P
Protea gaguedi
Proteaceae
Shrub
P
Protea petiolaris
Proteaceae
Shrub
P
Protea welwitschii
Proteaceae
Shrub
P
Pseudoeriosema andongense
Fabaceae
Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia
Euphorbiaceae
Psorospermum febrifugum
Clusiaceae
Tree
P
Pterocarpus angolensis
Fabaceae
Tree
P
Raphia farinera
Arecaceae
Rothmannia engleriana
Rubiaceae
Rourea orientalis
Connaraceae
Sacciolepis transbarbata
Poaceae
Salacia rhodesiaca
Celastraceae
Tree
P
Sansevieria sp.
Hyacinthoides
Herb
P
Satyrium buchananii
Orchidaceae
Herb
P
Satyrium sp.
Orchidaceae
Herb (Arb)
P
Scabiosa sp.
Dipsacaceae
Herb
P
Securidaca longipedunculata
Polygalaceae
Tree
P
Setaria barbata
Poaceae
Grass
Setaria pallida-fusca
Poaceae
Grass
P
P
Smilax anceps (kraussiana)
Smilacaeae
Climber
P
P
Solanum incanum
Solanaceae
Herb
P
Solanum mauritianum
Solanaceae
Shrub
P
Solanum nigrum
Solanaceae
Herb
P
Sopubia mayombensis
Scrophulariaceae
Herb
Sopubia neptunii
Scrophulariaceae
Herb
Spermacoce dibrachiata
Rubiaceae
Sphenostylis marginata var. erecta
Fabaceae
Herb
Sporobolus sp.
Poaceae
Grass
Spuriodaucus quarrei
Apiaceae
Stephania abyssinica
Menispermaceae
Climber
Streptocarpus sp. (rhodesianus)
Gesneriaceae
Herb
Strobilanthes linifolia
Acanthaceae
P
Strophanthus kombe
Apocynaceae
P
Strophanthus sarmentosus
Apocynaceae
Strychnos spinosa
Loganiaceae
Tree
P
Strychnos cocculoides
Loganiaceae
Tree
P
Strychnos innocua
Loganiaceae
Tree
P
Dambo
Outcrops
Disturbed
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
Tree
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P (E)
P
25
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Name
Botanical Assessment Report
Family
Strata
Riparian
Tree
May 2008
Miombo
Strychnos pungens
Rubiaceae
Stylosanthes sp.
Fabaceae
Swartzia madagascariensis
Fabaceae
Tree
P
Syzygium caudatum
Myrtaceae
Tree
P
Syzygium guineense subsp. huillense
Myrtaceae
Tree
P
Temnocalyx fuchsioides
Rubiaceae
Tree
P
Temnocalyx verdickii (Fadogia verdickii)
Rubiaceae
Shrub
P
Tephrosia elegans
Fabaceae
Herb
P
Tephrosia ringoetii
Fabaceae
Herb
Terminalia mollis
Combretaceae
Tree
Tinnea coerulea
Lamiaceae
Herb
Tristachya inamoena
Poaceae
Triumfetta likasiensis
Tiliaceae
Uapaca kirkiana
Euphorbiaceae
Tree
P
Uapaca nitida var musocolowe
Euphorbiaceae
Tree
P
Vangueriopsis lanciflora
Rubiaceae
Tree
P
Vellozia equisetifolia
Velloziaceae
Vernonia chloropappa
Asteraceae
Herb
Vernonia melleri
Asteraceae
Herb
Vernonia rigidifolia
Asteraceae
Herb
Vernonia sp. P
Asteraceae
Herb
Vernonia sp. 2
Asteraceae
Herb
Vernonia sp. 3
Asteraceae
Herb
Vernonia stenosepala
Asteraceae
Herb
Vigna sp.
Fabaceae
Herb
Virecteria major
Rubiaceae
Vitex madiensis
Lamiaceae
Tree
P
Vitex mombassae
Lamiaceae
Small Tree
P
Wahlenbergia sp.
Campanulaceae
Herb
P
Xerophyta sp.
Velloziaceae
Shrub
Zanthoxylum sp.
Rutaceae
Tree
Zonotriche dichroa
Poaceae
Dambo
Outcrops
Disturbed
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P = Present; (E) = Species listed by Leteinturier (2002) as being copper-cobalt endemics; (arb) = Arboreal.
* Where possible specimens have been identified to the lowest possible level, but in some cases it was only possible to determine to Genus or Family level.
* Certain cases are recorded where the Botanical name and also local name could not be determined, but specimens were collected and recorded and being
used (indicated ‘Indet’)
6.6 Species of Special Concern (Protected and Endemic Flora)
6.6.1
Endemic Flora
Copper-Cobalt flora recorded as being present, listed as being endemic by Leteinturier (2002)
include:
Justicia sp. (metallorum), Bulbostylis pseudoperennis, Acalypha cupricola, Crotalaria
cobalticola, Faroa malaissei, Dissotis derriksiana, Streptocarpus sp. (rhodesianus) and
Haumaniastrum robertii.
Copper-Cobalt endemics listed as endemics by Leteinturier (2002) deemed to potentially be present
but not recorded during field surveys: Acalypha cupricola, Becium grandiflora var metallorum,
Becium grandiflorum, Bulbostylis cupricola, Bulbostylis fusiformis, Bulbostylis pseudoperennis,
26
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
Cheilanthes aff. perlanata sp. Nov, Commelina zigzag, Crotalaria cobalticola, Crotalaria peschiana,
Cyanotis cupricola, Cyperus kibweanus, Dissotis derriksiana, Eragrostis dikuluwensis, Faroa
chalcophila, Faroa malaissei, Haumaniastrum robertii (Acrocephalus robertii), Justicia metallorum,
Monadenium cupricola, Pellaea pectiniformis, Streptocarpus rhodesianus, Vernonia duvigneaudii,
Vernonia ledocteana and Wahlenbergia malaissei. Time and seasonal constraints limited the ability
to exhaustively search for these, but investigations that are more detailed will be required to
determine their presence or absence. It is recommended that before construction or earth-moving
activities commence on the outcrops a detailed investigation be undertaken (with the assistance of
local experts) to ascertain the presence or absence of species not recorded during this baseline
study.
6.6.2
Protected Flora
Recorded flora were screened for possible listing on the IUCN list of protected flora, but no species
found within the concession are categorized on the list. It is however highly likely that this could be
due to insufficient data for the region and the Democratic Republic of Congo in particular. No
national lists for the DRC are available at present. Groups known to contain species tending to have
either highly localized distributions or potential to be listed as protected species (based on the IUCN
criteria) include the following Orchidaceae:
Bulbophyllum congolanum, Bulbophyllum oreonastes, Cynorkis hanningtonii, Diaphananthe
fragrantissima, Diaphananthe rutila, Disa welwitschii, Habenaria amoena, Satyrium buchananii and
Satyrium sp.
6.6.3
Alien Invasive Species
Alien invasive species found scattered throughout the concession area included various Solanum
species in disturbed areas around fields and the village, particularly Solanum mauritianum, a bird
dispersed species that is likely to become problematic in the future if left unchecked. No other alien
invasive species of particular concern were found to occur in both terrestrial and riparian habitats,
although various common weedy species are present, usually as isolated individuals or in small
patches. Tithonia diversifolia (Asteraceae) was however found along road verges and river margins
on the main Kolwezi - Likasi road outside of the concession.
7 Ecological State and Sensitivity of Vegetation
7.1 Perceived Reference State (PRS)
Whilst the exact original vegetation that would have been present without human influence is not
known (partly due to lack of historical information and long anthropogenic association in the region
between humans and Miombo) some general assumptions can be made as follows:
7.1.1
Miombo woodland
Typical of the intact portions of Miombo Woodland still present, with a distinct tree and grass/herb
strata present, with a healthy mix of various cohorts (age-categories).
27
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
7.1.2
Copper-Cobalt Outcrop associated Vegetation (Metalliferous Flora)
Typical of the intact portions of the copper outcrops, with the various communities present as
described above.
7.1.3
Wetland (Dambo) and Riparian areas
Undisturbed Dambo at the source of rivers and tributaries and dotted along the course of the river
where conditions permit (seep environments) with a mix of typical riparian vegetation (composed of
sedges grasses and other semi aquatic species) along the course of the rivers with pockets of Galley
Forest depending on biophysical conditions (soil type, depth, sensitivity to fire, etc).
7.1.4
Gallery forest
Typically composed of a narrow band of large trees along the river margins composed of
hydromorphic tree species, depending on localized environmental conditions.
7.2 Present Ecological State (PES)
Present Ecological State has been assessed for the four key vegetation types found within the
concession. Since historical data is lacking, some estimations have been required. A summary of
factors that were recorded is provided in Table 7.1.
7.2.1
Miombo woodland
Relative remaining intact habitat:
Greater than 50% of the Miombo Woodland within the concession is still fully or partially intact, with
a range of disturbances from large areas relatively undisturbed (intact structure, function and
composition) through to large areas that are highly disturbed with high levels of vegetation clearing
and cultivation (structure, function and composition highly modified).
Disturbances:
1. Anthropogenic clearing of vegetation for habitation, charcoal, timber and crop cultivation;
2. Some livestock grazing present;
3. Seasonal burning during dry winter months;
Level of Degradation:
Low to High depending on the area of the concession. Areas adjacent to Kisankala village, roads,
pathways and commonly used routes (such as to artisanal mine areas and fields near rivers) tend to
be more degraded than outlying parts relative to the Kisankala village.
7.2.2
Copper-Cobalt Outcrop associated Vegetation (Metalliferous Flora)
Relative remaining intact habitat:
Less than 50% of the outcrops within the concession are still fully or partially intact, with a range of
disturbances from large areas relatively undisturbed (intact structure, function and composition)
through to large areas that are highly disturbed with high levels of excavation from artisanal mining,
prospecting and commercial mining (structure, function and composition highly modified).
28
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
Disturbances:
1. Anthropogenic disturbances relating to mining activities (artisanal mining and prospecting
activities;
a. Principal – almost 100% transformed, with some small outcrops still almost
completely undisturbed to the north;
b. Anticline – mostly transformed, on top of portion where camp is located and mined
section to the south;
c. Kalukundi – Intact on the northern side and top with some artisanal pits; main
workings on the eastern side with some trenching on the south;
d. Kii – largely undisturbed on the northern side and top; major workings on the
eastern side from artisanal mining;
e. Kesho - mostly transformed, especially where original Swanmines activities
occurred; some portions of some communities still intact.
Level of Degradation:
Low to Very High depending on area. Areas that have been heavily mined tend to be completely
transformed with vegetation of a secondary nature, but original habitat is still present, although
patchy.
7.2.3
Wetland (Dambo) and Riparian areas
Relative remaining intact habitat:
Greater than 50% of the Riparian areas within the concession are still fully or partially intact, with a
range of disturbances from large areas relatively undisturbed (intact structure, function and
composition) through to large areas that are highly disturbed with high levels of disturbance
(structure, function and composition highly modified).
Disturbances:
1. Anthropogenic clearing of vegetation for crop cultivation along river banks with localised
disturbances to riparian vegetation due to activities such as ore washing, bathing, laundry,
mud quarrying for building; digging of small wells for drinking water;
2. Some ad hoc livestock grazing present (goats, pigs and chickens);
3. Seasonal burning during dry winter months;
4. Existing road passes directly through the Dambo with excessive runoff and high levels of
sedimentation (silt accumulation);
Level of Degradation:
Low to High depending on area. Areas adjacent to Kisankala village, roads, pathways and commonly
used routes tend to be more degraded than outlying parts relative to the Kisankala village. Outlying
areas tend to be favoured for crop cultivation.
7.2.4
Gallery forest
Relative remaining intact habitat:
Some intact pockets of Gallery Forest still fully or partially intact along the river course, with a range
of disturbances from some patches relatively undisturbed (intact structure, function and
29
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
composition) through to patches that are highly disturbed with high levels of vegetation clearing
and/or disturbance (structure, function and composition highly modified).
Disturbances:
1. Anthropogenic clearing of vegetation for crop cultivation along river banks with localised
disturbances to riparian vegetation due to activities such as ore washing, bathing, laundry,
mud quarrying for building; digging of small wells for drinking water;
2. Existing ore washing area below Kisankala village with excessive runoff and very high levels
of sedimentation (silt accumulation).
Level of Degradation:
Low to High depending on area. Areas adjacent to Kisankala village, roads, pathways and commonly
used routes tend to be more degraded than outlying parts relative to the Kisankala village. Outlying
areas tend to be favoured for crop cultivation.
30
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
7.3 Vegetation Sensitivity Assessment
7.3.1
Miombo woodland
Sensitivity to Disturbance: Low
Rehabilitation potential: High
Resilience: High
Distribution: Widespread
Relative Conservation importance: Low
7.3.2
Copper-Cobalt Outcrop associated Vegetation (Metalliferous Flora)
Sensitivity to Disturbance: Very High
Rehabilitation potential: Low
Resilience: Low
Distribution: Localised (Katangan Bow)
Relative Conservation importance: Very High
7.3.3
Wetland (Dambo) and Riparian areas
Sensitivity to Disturbance: Moderate
Rehabilitation potential: Moderate
Resilience: Moderate
Distribution: Localised to river areas, but widespread in the region
Relative Conservation importance: Very High
7.3.4
Gallery forest
Sensitivity to Disturbance: High
Rehabilitation potential: Moderate
Resilience: Low
Distribution: Localised to river areas, but widespread in the region
Relative Conservation importance: Very High
31
May 2008
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
Table 7.1: Summary of ecological factors assessed for various areas within the concession.
Copper Outcrops
Miombo
Kalukundi
Kii
Kesho
Miombo
(Plant
Option A)
Miombo
(TSF
Option B)
Miombo
(TSF
Option A)
Kisankala
village
(current)
Kisankala
Village
(proposed)
Waste Rock
Dumps
Mine
Village
(Option C)
Mine
Village
(Option B)
Dambo
Anticline
Miombo
(Plant
Option B)
Riparian
Principal
Aspect
All
All
All
All
All
Level
Level
Level
Level
North
Level
Level
Level
Level
All
All
Slope
Steep
Steep
Steep
Steep
Steep
Level
Level
Level
Level
Level
Level
Level
Level
Level
Gentle
Gentle
Topography
Complex
Complex
Complex
Complex
Complex
Flat
Flat
Flat
Flat
Flat
Flat
Flat
Flat
Flat
Gentle
Gentle
Substrate
Rock/Soil
Rock/Soil
Rock/Soil
Rock/ Soil
Rock/ Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Total Cover (%)
± 50
± 50
± 50
± 50
± 50
>90
>90
>90
>90
<10
>90
>90
>90
>90
>90
>95
Tree Canopy Cover (%)
<15
<15
<15
<15
<15
>75
>75
>75
>75
>10
>75
>75
>75
>75
50
<1
Shrub Cover (%)
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<1
Herb Cover (%)
<25
<25
<25
<25
<25
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
>10
<5
Grass Cover (%)
<25
<25
<25
<25
<25
>50
>50
>50
>50
<10
>50
>50
>50
>50
50
>95
Bare soil/rock (%)
± 50
± 50
± 50
± 50
± 50
<10
<10
<10
<10
>90
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
Estimated Tree Height (m)
<10m
<10m
<10m
<10m
<10m
>15m
>15m
>15m
>15m
>15m
>15m
>15m
>15m
>15m
>15m
<1m
Grazing (livestock):
None
None
None
None
None
Some
Some
Some
Some
Mod
Some
Some
Some
Some
Low
Low
Grazing/Browsing (game)
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Agriculture (commercial)
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Agriculture (subsistence)
None
None
None
None
None
Low
Low
Low
Low
Mod
Low
Low
Low
Low
Mod
Low
Mining/Quarrying
Very High
High
High
High
Very High
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Forestry (plantation)
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Forestry (indigenous)
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Conservation (flora)
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Conservation (fauna)
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Wetland/Dam
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Present
Recreational (sport)
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Criteria
Landscape Description
Community Description
32
Land Uses
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
Copper Outcrops
May 2008
Miombo
Kalukundi
Kii
Kesho
Miombo
(Plant
Option A)
Miombo
(TSF
Option B)
Miombo
(TSF
Option A)
Kisankala
village
(current)
Kisankala
Village
(proposed)
Waste Rock
Dumps
Mine
Village
(Option C)
Mine
Village
(Option B)
Dambo
Anticline
Miombo
(Plant
Option B)
Riparian
Principal
Recreational (hiking)
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Residential (urban)
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Residential (village)
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Present
None
None
None
None
None
None
Residential (homestead)
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Existing Erosion
Mod
Mod
High
High
High
None
None
None
None
Very High
None
None
None
None
Mod
Mod
Vegetation Clearing (timber/charcoal)
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Mod
Low
Very High
Mod
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Vegetation Clearing (crops)
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Mod
Low
Very High
Mod
Low
Low
Low
High
Low
Human disturbances/impacts
High
High
High
High
High
Low
Low
Mod
Low
Very High
Mod
Low
Low
Low
Mod
Mod
Stocking rate/grazing impact
None
None
None
None
None
Low
Low
Low
Low
Mod
Low
Low
Low
Low
Mod
Mod
Visual impact (existing)
High
High
High
High
High
Low
Low
Low
Low
High
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Habitat fragmentation
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Low
Low
Low
Low
High
Mod
Low
Low
Low
Mod
Low
IAP’s (no. of species)
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
IAP’s (density)
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Mod
Low
IAP’s (overall impact)
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Burning of crop residues
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Low
None
High
None
Mod
None
None
None
None
Use of fertilisers/Pesticides
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Erosion potential
High
High
High
High
High
Low
Low
Low
Low
High
Low
Low
Low
Low
High
High
Rehabilitation potential
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
Conservation importance
Very High
Very High
Very High
Very High
Very High
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
High
High
Indigenous SSC (R&E )
Very High
Very High
Very High
Very High
Very High
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Low
Low
Topography
High
High
High
High
High
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Mod
Mod
Extent of vegetation (local)
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Widespread
Widespread
Widespread
Widespread
Widespread
Widespread
Wide-spread
Widespread
Widespread
Localized
Localized
Extent of vegetation (regional)
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Widespread
Widespread
Widespread
Widespread
Widespread
Widespread
Widespread
Widespread
Localized
Localized
Criteria
Disturbances
33
Sensitivities
Wide-spread
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
Copper Outcrops
May 2008
Miombo
Kalukundi
Kii
Kesho
Miombo
(Plant
Option A)
Miombo
(TSF
Option B)
Miombo
(TSF
Option A)
Kisankala
village
(current)
Kisankala
Village
(proposed)
Waste Rock
Dumps
Mine
Village
(Option C)
Mine
Village
(Option B)
Dambo
Anticline
Miombo
(Plant
Option B)
Riparian
Principal
Biodiversity
High
High
High
High
High
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Importance of fire
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
Low
High
Community structure
Complex
Complex
Complex
Complex
Complex
Complex
Complex
Complex
Complex
Complex
Complex
Complex
Complex
Complex
Complex
Complex
Resilience
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Low
High
Criteria
34
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
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May 2008
8 Social and cultural environment relating to flora and vegetation
8.1 Natural Resources and Rural Livelihoods
Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are a collection of biological resources derived from both
natural and managed forests and other wooded areas (Peters, 1996). Examples include a variety of
fruits, nuts, seeds, oils, spices, resins, gums, medicinal plants and many more products specific to the
particular areas from which they originate. NTFPs are culturally important, cheap and often
accessible to local people. Gathering NTFPs can be both opportunistic and casual, or alternatively
planned expeditions. The decision to collect NTFPs is influenced by the urgency for money, the
amount expected to be earned, the time that can be spared from other activities, the likelihood of
obtaining significant volumes of product and the hardship entailed (de Beer and McDermott, 1989).
Forest biodiversity, via NTFPs (harvested or hunted biological products from wild or cultivated
sources) plays an important role in addressing poverty issues for marginalised, forest-dependent
communities. NTFPs contribute to livelihood outcomes, including food security, health and well
being, and income (FAO, 1995; Falconer, 1996). In many parts of the world these resources are
critical for the socially most marginalised people, who are the main actors in NTFP extraction and for
whom NTFPs may provide the only source of personal income (Falconer, 1997; Rodda, 1993; RosTonen, 1999).
The Kisankala community is dependent on natural resources occurring in the vicinity of their homes,
providing a variety of uses such as fuel (charcoal), timber (for poles and building), food (including
fruits, mushrooms, roots and leaves), medicines (all parts used, but leaves predominantly in this
region).
The role of forestry and trees in food production and food security has been well recognized (FAO,
1988; 1992). Although fruits and leaves are the most widely used parts of most of the edible NTFPs,
there are reports of all other parts (such as bark, stem, calyx, and even roots) of some trees being
used as food or food derivatives.
8.1.1
Rural Livelihoods
A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living. A
livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or
enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural
resource base.
At least 80 sources of timber and NTFP’s for members of Kisankala village (Table 8.1); including food
(28 species, excluding cultivated species); medicine (50 species); charcoal production (2 species);
wood and timber (4 species) bird glue (2 species); rope, soap, storage, tea and tobacco (1 species
each). Some species were recorded as having multiple uses.
Table 8.1: Plant species utilised for wood, food and medicines in the Kisankala village
Botanical Name
Family
Local Name
Part Used
Use
Acacia seyal
Fabaceae
Kaseunga
Roots
Medicine
Adenodolichos rhomboidea
Fabaceae
Kafuthulukwa
Adenostephila sp
Annonaceae
Mololo
fruit
food
Albizia sp.
Fabaceae
Kapitanzovu
Trunk
Wood
Anisophylla pomifera
Rhizophoraceae
Funko
Fruit
Food
35
medicine
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
Botanical Name
Family
Local Name
Part Used
Use
Asparagus sp.
Asparagaceae
Mokowulula
Roots
Medicine
Mufisya
fruit
food
Aspidia sp.
Brachystegia spiciformis
Fabaceae
Mamba
Bark
Medicine
Brachystegia spiciformis
Fabaceae
Mamba
Whole tree
Charcoal
Brachystegia spiciformis
Fabaceae
Manga
bark strips
rope
Brachystegia spiculata
Fabaceae
Kafundula
bark
Medicine
Cantherellus elongisporus
Fungi
Katchonjo
fruit
Mushroom
Canthium crassum
Rubiaceae
Mukumbulwa
fruit
food
Canthium crassum
Rubiaceae
Katoocki
trunk
wood
Canthium crassum
Rubiaceae
Mokombulo
Clematopsis homblei
Ranunculaceae
Montukwinami
roots
Medicine
Combretum molle
Combretaceae
Mukenenekwa
Leaves
Medicine
Combretum platypetalum
Combretaceae
Kapyamupolu
Cussonia arborea
Araliaceae
Kikasa Kyantambo
Desmodium sp.
Fabaceae
Kalungi/munkuyo
Dioscorea dumetorum
Dioscoreaceae
Kilangu
Roots
food
Diplorhynchus condylocarpon
Apocynaceae
Muburi
Roots
medicine
Diplorhynchus condylocarpon
Apocynaceae
Mobule
Whole tree
Charcoal
leaves
Food
leaves
Medicine
*
Medicine
Roots
Medicine
Medicine
Dissotis sp.
Melastomataceae
Indet.
Droogmansia munamensis
Fabaceae
Munungano
Ekebergia bengalensis
Meliaceae
Nankumuna
Erythrina abyssinica
Fabaceae
Kichipichipi
Roots
Medicine
Ficus spp.
Moraceae
Kitabataba
Fruit
Food
Ficus spp.
Moraceae
Kitabataba
Sap
bird glue
Friesodielsia obovata
Annonaceae
Songwa songwa
fruit
Food
Hibiscus acetosella
Malvaceae
Ngayngay
leaves
spinach
Hibiscus rodantes
Malvaceae
Kokanto
Roots
Medicine
Hymenocardia acida
Euphorbiaceae
Kapepe
leaves
medicine
Hymenocardia acida
Euphorbiaceae
Kapepe
sap
bird glue
Hymenocardia acida
Euphorbiaceae
Moko
bark
Medicine
Hymenodictyon floribundum
Rubiaceae
Kaselesele
Roots
medicine
Moshokoto
Trunk
Wood
Ndale
bark
Medicine
Indet.
*
Indet. *
Indet.
*
Indet.
*
Indet.
Indet.
*
Indet.
*
Indet.
*
Indet.
*
Medicine
Motombotombo
*
Medicine
leaves
Medicine
Mufwifwi
sap
Medicine
Kabalabala
Leaves
Medicine
tobacco
leaves
smoked
Cucurbitaceae
calabash
fruit
storage
Indigophora sutherlandioides
Fabaceae
Kavulamamame
roots
Medicine
Landolphia parvifolia
Apocynaceae
Malembelembe
fruit
food
Indet. legume
*
Indet. legume
*
Lonchocarpus sp.
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
36
Indet.
*
Medicine
Indet.
*
Medicine
Indet.
*
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
Botanical Name
Family
Local Name
Part Used
Use
Manihot esculentus
Euphorbiaceae
Casava
Roots
food
Maprounea africana
Euphorbiaceae
Kavulamamame
leaves
Medicine
Memecylon flavovirens
Melastomataceae
Mfisha
Fruit
Food
Monotes africana
Dipterocarpaceae
Sole
Fruit
Food
Ochna schweinfurthii
Ochnaceae
Musango
Roots
Medicine
Ochna sp.
Ochnaceae
Mosengu
Olax obtusifolium
Oleaceae
Mange
Roots
medicine
Parinari curatifolia
Chrysobalanaceae
Pundu
Fruit
Food
Pavetta schumanniana
Rubiaceae
Indet. *
roots
medicine
Pericopsis angolensis
Fabaceae
Mubanga
Leaves
Medicine
Pericopsis angolensis
Fabaceae
Ndombe
sap
medicine
Phyllanthus melerianus
Euphorbiaceae
Molembalemba
Medicine
Phyllanthus melerianus
Euphorbiaceae
Molembalemba
Food
Protea welwitschii
Proteaceae
Indet.
Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia
Euphorbiaceae
Psorospermum febrifugum
Pterocarpus angolensis
*
Medicine
trunk
timber
Kabalabala
bark
Medicine
Clusiaceae
Mukankanka
Roots
Medicine
Fabaceae
Ntombe
Roots
medicine
Raphia farinera
Arecaceae
Matawe
Fruit
Food
Rourea orientalis
Connaraceae
Mosangala
Leaves
Medicine
Securidaca longipedunculata
Polygalaceae
Kitatati
Roots
Medicine
Siphonochilus sp.
Zingiberaceae
Intungulu pori
Roots
Food
Solanum incanum
Solanaceae
Lutuntunya
Fruit
Medicine
Solanum nigrum
Solanaceae
Musebo
leaves
food
Solanum nigrum
Solanaceae
Musebo
fruit
Food
Sphenostylis marginata var. erecta
Fabaceae
Mugimwino
Roots
medicine
Sphenostylis marginata var. Erecta
Fabaceae
Kapofu
Roots
Soap
Spuriodaucus quarrei
Apiaceae
Kikole
fruit
Medicine
Spuriodaucus quarre
Apiaceae
Kikole
Roots
Medicine
Strychnos spinosa
Loganiaceae
Munkulwiba
Roots
Medicine
Strychnos cocculoides
Loganiaceae
Kasongole
Fruit
Food
Swartzia madagascariensis
Fabaceae
Mulama
Roots
Medicine
Syzigium cardatum
Myrtaceae
Msombo
Fruit
Food
Syzygium guineense subsp. huillense
Myrtaceae
Musafwa
Fruit
food
Syzygium guineense subsp. huillense
Myrtaceae
Musafwa
Bark
medicine
Temnocalyx verdickii
Rubiaceae
Makumbukumbu
Leaves
Tea
Temnocalyx verdickii
Rubiaceae
Makumbukumbu
Fruit
Food
*
Tephrosia ringoetii
Fabaceae
Indet.
Terminaria mollis
Fabaceae
Moshokoto
Uapaca kirkiana
Euphorbiaceae
Masuku
Uapaca nitens
Euphorbiaceae
Kibubu
Uapaca nitens var. musocolowe
Euphorbiaceae
Sokolowe
Fruit
Food
Vitex madiensis
Lamiaceae
Mufutu
Fruit
Food
Zanthoxylum
Rutaceae
Pupa
Leaves
Medicine
Zanthoxylum sp.
Rutaceae
Pupa
Leaves
food
37
Medicine
Fruit
Food
Medicine
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
Botanical Name
Family
Local Name
Part Used
Use
Zanthoxylum sp.
Rutaceae
Pupa
Roots
medicine
* Where possible specimens were identified to the lowest possible level, but in some cases it was only possible to determine to Genus or Family level. * *
Certain instances are recorded where the Botanical name and also local name could not be determined, but specimens were collected and use recorded
(indicated ‘Indet’).
Agriculture
Cassava is the most important crop within the concession area, followed by maize. Wild fruit and
cultivated vegetables supplement the staple diet. Small numbers of livestock (goats, pigs and
chickens) are maintained in order to feed the villagers, including chickens (rare), goats and pigs.
Vegetable fields and plantations tend to be located close to rivers on fertile soils along watercourses
and in areas of Miombo woodland that have been cleared. Non-staple foods include banana, onion,
tomatoes, cabbage, groundnut, pumpkin, beans, mango and sweet potato. A great variety of wild
plants and fruits are an important part of the diet. There is no large-scale commercial agriculture
within the concession. The lack of transport to Kolwezi or Likasi is a major constraint for the local
rural economy. It is difficult to transport crops from Kisankala Village to markets because there are
none present locally and so market gardening is limited in terms of household income generation
and food tends to be bought from neighbouring areas to feed the estimated population of 3000.
Crops tend to supplement food and there is a dependency on imported produce.
Extraction of Commercial Timber
The extraction of valuable timber has taken place in the past and is continuing, though hampered by
the poor road infrastructure. Timber is also extracted for charcoal burning. The extent and intensity
of timber extraction is intensive in parts, but tends to be confined to a few heavily cleared areas
surrounding the village, with large areas currently in a relatively undisturbed state. Under status quo
conditions, it is likely that in the long-term timber resources would become scarce as intact
woodland becomes scarce.
Artisanal Mining
Artisanal mining of the copper-cobalt outcrops has occurred on all major outcrops within the
concession to varying degrees. Ore is extracted by hand and washed and sorted predominantly
within Kisankala village and at a washing area in the Kisankala stream close to the village.
Overburden tends to be dumped haphazardly adjacent to mine pits and only incidental regeneration
of vegetation occurs. Distinct plant communities can be identified on disturbed areas comprising a
few key plant species.
8.1.2
General Findings
1. Woodland sites have been moderately to heavily affected by charcoal production and
subsistence agricultural activities surrounding Kisankala village. The degrading sequence of
these two activities has been to reduce parts of the woodlands to grasslands with scattered
trees. This is further exacerbated by the occurrence of annual late forest fires. Dried snags,
fire scars on trees and frequent die-back of tree regeneration are indicative of high intensity
fire damage in some areas.
2. The secondary revegetation of artisanal waste rock and overburden dumps is generally
minimal, although it can be well established in older workings, depending upon the extent of
38
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
disturbance and time since disturbance. Although there is regeneration, it is unlikely that
there will be much growth due to the limited soil substrate as a result of artisanal mining
related disturbance in the medium-term.
8.1.3
Conclusions
Since the people are dependent on these natural resources not only as an income source, but also to
supplement household food, medicine and building material, the natural resources contribute
substantially towards household livelihoods which need to be accounted for.
During relocation of the village, which will result not only a loss of access to the existing natural
resource base, but also a densification due to the village being in closer proximity to Kisanfu village
to the south, it is likely that access to now seemingly abundant resources will become restricted.
Whilst opportunities to increase household income may increase as a result of the proposed mining
activities, it is possible that poverty levels will increase in the long term as household will no longer
have access to free natural resources and they will be dependent on markets, making them
dependent on a financial income source. The composition of the household may further increase
this problem. For example, should a particular household be composed of members that would be
unable to qualify for job opportunities created by the mine (due to an increased percentage of
members being for example too young or too old), household livelihoods would decrease due to
decreased access to the natural resource base for food, timber, medicine etc.
Since the natural resource base is diminished and population densities have increased due to
relocation, an increase in harvesting pressure is likely to occur. This could in the long term cause a
spiralling increase in levels of land degradation and loss of biodiversity ultimately resulting in
increased poverty levels and major loss of biodiversity.
Hence the proposed mine will not only result in direct biodiversity impacts within the mine area, but
also some cumulative social impacts to people dependant on these as well as the obvious increased
biodiversity loss. In the short-term this will be negligible, but long-term cumulative impacts are
likely to be more substantial due to a denser population with access to a more restricted resource
base.
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Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
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May 2008
9 Prediction of environmental impacts
An evaluation and prediction of the likely impacts of the proposed development on the receiving
environment has been performed. This report focuses on Environmental and Social Impacts that
may result from mining activities that will affect the flora within the concession and surrounds.
9.1 Introduction
The Kalukundi Project will disturb floral communities on the ore outcrops that will be mined and in
the areas where the mine and its associated facilities will be constructed. Other potential effects to
flora include those from airborne dust, emissions from the mine fleet and the processing plant,
changes in surface water hydrology and the introduction of non-native plants. Also of concern are
effects related to the likely immigration of people to the surrounding area. This may lead to
increased clearing of forests for charcoal and agricultural production. An important issue is the
removal of rare copper-cobalt floral communities on the hills as they are mined. These hills support
unique floral communities and some species are currently only known to occur in the region.
Habitat potentially classifiable as “critical” under the guidelines of the IUCN was identified on the
copper-cobalt hills.
9.2 Protected Areas
No protected areas will be directly affected by the proposed mining project.
The Katanga Copper Bow is poorly-protected at a Regional Level within the greater Democratic
Republic of Congo and Zambian context relative to the unique and endemic nature of its vegetation.
9.3 Natural Habitats and Biodiversity Threats
Effects to natural habitats and biodiversity will be related to changes in flora and direct loss of
habitat. Key issues are to do with habitat loss or alteration, direct or indirect mortality (death) of
locally endemic (native), threatened or endangered species and fragmentation of natural habitats.
Mines and their associated infrastructure may impact terrestrial and riparian flora in multiple ways
during both the construction and operational phase. The main impacts during construction involve
the direct loss and fragmentation of habitats, with a consequent loss of biodiversity and possibly loss
of species of special concern. This may result from direct land clearance, or occur indirectly via loss
or changes in habitats due to consequent changes in drainage patterns, increased fire risk, or
secondary impacts associated socio-economic factors resulting from changes in surrounding land
use. During the operational life of the mine, small cumulative impacts can also occur, including dust
generation, change in the incidence of fire, the introduction of alien vegetation, air pollution,
chemical and sediment contamination. All of these factors may impact the surrounding flora and
ecological processes in different ways.
Mitigation measures include minimizing the project footprint, translocation of rare plant species and
habitat to ecosystem reconstruction sites, conservation of PMRs and larger areas, and reclamation.
9.4 Existing Impacts
Existing anthropogenic impacts within the study area can be divided into three key areas, namely
artisanal mining related, local habitation related impacts and prospecting related impacts and
include the following:
40
Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
Degradation of copper-cobalt outcrops as a result of artisanal mining;
Degradation of riparian vegetation as a result of ore-washing;
Loss of Miombo woodland as a result of construction of habitation;
Loss of Miombo Woodland, Riparian Vegetation and Gallery Forest for crop cultivation;
Harvesting of plants for various uses, including charcoal, timber, food and medicine;
Increased erosion and sedimentation of streams and rivers as a result of dense habitation
and crop cultivation, with subsequent impacts to riparian vegetation;
Increased stream and river pollution and degradation as a result of waste inputs from
bathing, washing and dumping of waste;
Loss of vegetation to undertake prospecting activities (boreholes, roads, etc);
Loss of vegetation for construction mine and security camp for mine prospecting teams
(Swanmines and Africo;
Clearing of Miombo woodland for roads and regional powerline.
9.5 Proposed Project Actions
The project will consist of the following infrastructure, requiring direct removal of vegetation:
Four or five open pits and associated waste rock dumps (Principal, Anticline, Kalukundi, Kii
and possibly Kesho and other smaller sites in the long-term;
A processing plant, tailings storage facility , offices;
Internal access roads constructed within the concession area.
Two mineworkers camps. The first within the concession area and the second for senior
managers is proposed for Lualaba outside of the concession.
Mining processes that may impact on ecological processes include:
Waste Rock and overburden will be disposed of in waste rock dumps;
Temporary storage of topsoil for use during rehabilitation and mine decommissioning;
Mine dewatering will be implemented which is likely to result in a long-term or permanent
lowering of the groundwater table;
Water for the processing plant will be derived from dewatering, with excess water pumped
to surface watercourses in the Kisankala Stream;
Water used in sewage generation and other domestic purposes will be fed into a standard
septic tank network; Effluent generated will include spent process solution and
contaminated water, excess supernatant, grey waste water from domestic purposes and
stormwater runoff from rainy season.
Excess process solution and contaminated water from the process plant activities will be
directed to the process water storage tank which will be used to supply water to the process
plant. The water will be recycled throughout the plant;
Ore processing to extract the minerals will involve the use of chemicals and reagents. Lime
will be added to neutralise the tailings slurry and water added to facilitate transport to the
tailings storage facility ;
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Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
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May 2008
9.6 General Impact Rating Scale for Specialists/ Baseline data
To ensure a direct comparison between various specialist studies, six standard rating scales are
defined and used to assess and quantify the identified impacts. This is necessary since impacts have
a number of parameters that need to be assessed.
These scales are:
1. The Severity/ Benefit Scale, which assesses the importance of the impact from a purely
technical perspective.
2. The Spatial Impact Scale, which assesses the extent or magnitude of the impact (the area
that will be affected by the impact).
3. The Temporal Impact Scale, which assesses how long the impact will be felt. Some impacts
are of a short duration, whereas others are permanent.
4. The Degree of Certainty Scale, which provides a measure of how confident the author feels
about their prediction.
5. The Likelihood Scale, which provides an indication of the risk or chance of an impact taking
place.
6. The Environmental Significance Scale, which assesses the importance of the impact in the
overall context of the affected system or party.
To ensure integration of social and ecological impacts, to facilitate specialist assessment of impact
significance, and to reduce reliance on value judgments, the severity of the impact within the
scientific field in which it takes place (e.g. vegetation, fauna etc.) was assessed first. Thereafter,
each impact was assessed within the context of time and space, and the probability of the impact
occurring was quantified using the degree of certainty scale.
The impact was then assessed in the context of the whole environment to establish the
“environmental significance” of the impact. This assessment incorporated all social, cultural,
historical, economic, political and ecological aspects of the impact.
The scales are described in detail below.
9.6.1
The Severity/ Beneficial Scale
The severity scale was used in order to scientifically evaluate how severe negative impacts would be,
or how beneficial positive impacts would be on a particular affected system (for ecological impacts)
or a particular affected party. This methodology attempts to remove any value judgments from the
assessment, although it relies on the professional judgment of the specialist.
Negative Impact
Positive Impact
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Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
Negative Impact
Positive Impact
Very severe
Very Beneficiary
An irreversible and permanent change to the
affected system(s) or party (ies) which cannot be
mitigated. For example, change in topography
resulting from a quarry.
A permanent and very substantial benefit to the
affected system(s) or party(ies), with no
alternative to achieve this benefit. For example,
the creation of a large number of long-term jobs
Severe
Beneficial
Long-term impacts on the affected system(s) or
party (ies) that could be mitigated. However, this
mitigation would be difficult, expensive or time
consuming or some combination of these. For
example, the clearing of forest vegetation.
A long-term impact and substantial benefit to
the affected system(s) or party(ies). Alternative
ways of achieving this benefit would be difficult,
expensive or time consuming, or some
combination of these. For example, an increase
in the local economy.
Moderately severe
Moderately beneficial
Medium- to long-term impact on the affected
system(s) or party(ies), that could be mitigated.
For example, constructing a narrow road through
vegetation with a low conservation value.
A medium- to long-term impact of real benefit to
the affected system(s) or party(ies). Other ways
of optimising are equally difficult, expensive and
time consuming ( or a combination of these), as
achieving them in this way. For example, a slight
improvement in the (Kolwezi - Likasi) road(s)
Slight
Slightly beneficial
Medium- to short term impacts on the affected
system(s) or party(ies). Mitigation is very easy,
cheap, less time consuming or not necessary. For
example, a temporary fluctuation in the water
table due to water abstraction.
A short- to medium-term impact and negligible
benefit to the affected system(s) or party(ies).
Other ways of optimising the beneficial effects
are easier, cheaper and quicker, or some
combination of these. For example, a slight
increase in the amount of goods available for
purchasing.
No effect
Don't know/Can't know
The system(s) or party(ies) is not affected by the
proposed development.
In certain cases it may not be possible to
determine the severity of the impact.
The severity of impacts can be evaluated with and without mitigation order to demonstrate how
serious the impact is when nothing is done about it. For beneficial impacts, optimisation means
anything that can enhance the benefits. However, mitigation or optimisation must be practical,
technically feasible and economically viable.
9.6.2
Spatial and Temporal Scales
Two additional factors were considered when assessing the impacts, namely the relationship of the
impact to Spatial and Temporal Scales.
The spatial scale (shown in italics) defines the impact at the following scales.
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Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Spatial Scale
Individual Household Localised
-
Mine area Study Area District
Regional National
International
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
Explanation
this scale applies to person/s in the affected area
this scale applies to households in the affected area
at a localised scale (i.e. few hectares in extent). The specific area to which this scale
refers is defined for the impact to which it refers.
the area of primary impact ( Principal, Anticline, Kii and Kalukundi fragments)
the concession area ( Principal, Anticline, Kii and Kalukundi fragments, process
plant and other infrastructure).
the administrative district of Mutshatsha, including Kisankala Village.
Katanga Province.
Democratic Republic of Congo.
The temporal scale (shown in italics) defines the impact at the following scales.
Spatial Scale
Short Term
Medium Term
Long Term
Permanent
Explanation
Less than 5 years. Many construction phase impacts will be of a short duration
Between 5 and 20 years
Between 20 and 40 years, and from a human perspective essentially permanent.
Over 40 years, and resulting in a permanent and lasting change.
9.6.3
The Degree of Certainty and the Likelihood Scale
It is also for each specialist to state the degree of certainty or the confidence attached to their
prediction of significance. For this reason, a ‘degree of certainty’ scale (shown in bold) must be used.
Degree
Definite:
Probable:
Possible:
Unsure:
Description
More than 90% sure of particular fact. To use this one will need to substantial
supportive data.
Between 70% and 90% sure of particular fact.
Between 40% and 70% sure of particular fact.
Less than 40% sure of particular fact.
The risk or likelihood (shown in normal font) of impacts being manifested differs. There is no doubt
that some impacts would occur if mining takes place, but certain other (usually secondary data)
impacts are not as likely, and may or may not result from mining and related activities in the area.
Although these impacts maybe severe, the likelihood of them occurring may affect their overall
significance and must therefore be taken into account. It is therefore necessary for the author to
state his estimate of the likelihood of an impact occurring, using the following likelihood scale:
Degree
Very unlikely to occur -
Unlikely to occur -
Description
The chance of these impacts occurring is extremely slim, e.g. natural
forces destroying a dam wall.
The risk of these impacts occurring is slight. For example, impacts such as
an increase in alcoholism and associated violence as a result of increase
of wealth.
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Kalukundi Copper Cobalt Project
Degree
May occur -
Will definitely occur -
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
Description
The risk of these impacts is more likely, although it is not definite. For
example, the chance that a road accident occurs during the mining
process.
There is no chance that this impact will not occur. For example the
clearing of vegetation ahead of the Mine area. Impacts without any
likelihood in the text fall into this category.
9.6.4
The Environmental Significance Scale
The environmental significance scale is an attempt to evaluate the significance of a particular
impact, the severity or benefit of which has already been assessed. This evaluation needs to be
assessed in the relevant context, as an impact can either be ecological or social, or both. Since the
severity of impacts with and without mitigation will already have been assessed, significance was
only evaluated after mitigation. In many cases, this mitigation will take place, as it has been
incorporated into project design. A six point significance scale must be applied been.
Significance
Very High
High
Moderate
Low
No Significance
Don't Know
Description
Impacts considered to have a major and permanent change to natural
environment and are rate as VERY HIGH, usually resulting to severe or very
severe/ beneficial to very beneficial effects.
Long term change and are rated as HIGH resulting to severe or moderately
severe effects/ beneficial to moderately beneficial.
Medium to long-term effects. Impacts are rated as MODERATE with
moderately severe or moderately beneficial effects.
Medium to short term effects. Impacts are rated as MODERATE resulting in
moderately severe or moderately beneficial effects.
No primary or secondary effects, resulting in NO SIGNIFICANT impact.
Not possible to determine the significance of impacts
9.6.5
Absence of Data
In certain instances, an assessment has to b produced in the absence of all the relevant and
necessary data, due to paucity or lack of scientific information on the study area. It is more
important to identify all the likely environmental impacts than to precisely evaluate the more
obvious impacts. It is important to be on the conservative side in reporting likely
environmental impacts. Due to the fact that assessing impacts with a lack of data is more
dependant on scientific judgment, the rating on the certainty scale cannot be too high. It is
for these reasons that a degree of certainty scale has been provided, as well as the
categories DON’T KNOW or CAN’T KNOW.
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9.7 Identified environmental impacts
Fourteen issues relating to environmental impacts have been identified and deemed important, as
follows:
15) Direct localised loss of rare habitats, in copper-cobalt vegetation communities within the
concession;
16) Direct localised loss of local endemic/protected species, in copper-cobalt vegetation
communities within the concession;
17) Direct localised loss of biodiversity including rare habitats and local endemic species, in
Miombo vegetation communities;
18) Direct localised loss of Miombo vegetation habitat;
19) Direct localised loss of habitat within the riparian vegetation communities;
20) Improved access to rare habitats and local endemic species leading to removal of rare
species;
21) Reduction in connectivity of habitats affecting movements of wildlife species that may be
pollinators or dispersal agents of flora within Miombo;
22) Reduction in connectivity of habitats affecting movements of wildlife species that may be
pollinators or dispersal agents of flora within Copper deposits;
23) Introduction of exotic species (terrestrial and aquatic);
24) Changes in water flows or quality from development associated with mining during
operations may affect adjacent Riparian plant communities (including Gallery Forest and
Dambo Wetlands);
25) Long-term changes in Miombo Woodland may occur as a result of dewatering activities that
could lower the water table in the affected area;
26) Destruction of natural habitats in downstream areas (terrestrial and aquatic) in the case of a
tailings storage facility failure;
27) Indirect loss of habitat quality due to dust, sedimentation and air quality associated with the
mining process;
28) Intensification of utilization of areas outside of the concession area as a result of
displacement of people from within the concession area.
9.7.1
Direct localised loss of rare habitats, in copper-cobalt vegetation communities
within the concession
Cause and Comments:
The copper-cobalt substrate provides a unique habitat for vegetation that is restricted to the coppercobalt outcrops and the open-cast mining process will eliminate these landscape features, thus
removing the habitat and associated flora.
a. At a localized level (Mine area), mining activities will have result in the almost
complete loss of natural habitat for copper-cobalt flora;
b. At a regional (and international) level, mining activities will contribute to the decline
in available natural habitat for the endemic copper-cobalt flora.
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Significance statement:
Both construction and operation phases will definitely have a very high significant, very severe,
permanent negative, localised impact to critical copper-cobalt flora habitat including copper-cobalt
rock outcrops and copper-cobalt steppe-savannah habitats within the mine area.
Mitigation:
Removal of endemic and ecologically important species and habitat (boulders that primarily
comprise the crevice vegetation) to a storage area for use during rehabilitation of waste rock
dumps;
Removal and storage of topsoil before construction to be stored and used during
rehabilitation;
Reconstruction of critical habitat during rehabilitation (component of the EMP);
Recreation of artificial outcrops for habitat of the copper flora;
Establishment of off-site natural areas to compensate for disturbed copper–cobalt flora
communities (at a regional level);
Establishment of Plant Micro Reserves (PMR’s) in association with adjoining mining
concessions, but will require legal, political, economic and social support for long-term
success;
Support of regional botanical studies and research programs,
Residual Impact:
Artificially created and revegetated areas may allow for the conservation of aspects of the typical
copper-cobalt outcrop habitat, but it will differ in structure and function to the existing natural
habitat most likely permanently.
9.7.2
Direct localised loss of local endemic species, in copper-cobalt vegetation
communities within the concession
Cause and Comments:
The copper-cobalt vegetation has many endemic flora with distributions restricted to copper-cobalt
outcrops within the Katanga Bow and the open-cast mining process will eliminate these landscape
features, thus removing the associated flora.
c. At a localized level (Mine area), mining activities will have result in the almost
complete loss of natural habitat for endemic copper-cobalt flora;
d. At a regional (and international) level, mining activities will contribute to the decline
in available natural habitat for the endemic copper-cobalt flora.
Significance statement:
Both construction and operation phases will definitely have a very high significant, very severe,
permanent negative localised impact to critical copper-cobalt flora including copper-cobalt rock
outcrops and copper-cobalt steppe-savannah habitats within the mine area.
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Mitigation:
Removal of endemic and ecologically important species and habitat (such as boulders that
primarily comprise the crevice vegetation) to a storage area for use during rehabilitation of
waste rock dumps;
Removal and storage of topsoil before construction to be stored and used during
rehabilitation;
Reconstruction of critical habitat during rehabilitation (component of the EMP);
Recreation of artificial outcrops for habitat of the copper flora with an adequate coppercobalt balance in the soil to recreate natural conditions;
Establishment of off-site natural areas to compensate for disturbed copper–cobalt flora
communities (at a regional level);
Establishment of Plant Micro Reserves in association with adjoining mining concessions, but
will require legal, political, economic and social support for long-term success.
Residual Impact:
Artificially created and revegetated areas may allow for the ‘ex-situ’ conservation of endemic
copper-cobalt outcrop flora, but the long-term success and survival rates of this is unknown.
9.7.3
Direct localised loss of biodiversity including rare habitats and local endemic
species or protected flora, in Miombo vegetation communities
Cause and Comments:
Construction of infrastructure, including but not limited to the tailings storage facility, processing
plant, waste rock dumps, mine village, relocated Kisankala village and road networks will result in
the clearing and removal of Miombo Woodland. Since Miombo Woodland has a wide distribution
throughout the region, the impact will be at a localized level and of low significance. Habitat tends
to be uniform throughout the region although some protected flora is likely to be present.
Significance statement:
Both construction and operation phases will definitely have a significant, moderately severe,
negative localised impact to Miombo woodland habitats within the mine area.
Mitigation:
Identification of and direct translocation of rare plants and critical habitat to off-site or PMR
areas;
Maximum utilisation of already disturbed areas, including the existing Kisankala village and
existing roads and rehabilitation of unused disturbed areas;
Transfer of microhabitat features from disturbed areas to areas unaffected by clearing (such
as branches colonised by the Orchidaceae);
Reclamation of terrestrial habitats, as much as possible during operation and
decommissioning.
Residual Impacts:
Moderate local negative impacts on Miombo woodland habitat due to remnant waste rock
dumps (to provide new habitat for copper-cobalt flora) and tailings storage facility which
will revegetated to a certain extent.
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Low regional negative impacts on woodland habitat due to relative abundance of this
vegetation unit within the region.
9.7.4
Direct loss of Miombo vegetation habitat
Cause and Comments:
Construction of infrastructure, including but not limited to the tailings storage facility , processing
plant, waste rock dumps, mine village, relocated Kisankala village and road networks will result in
the clearing and removal of Miombo Woodland. Since Miombo Woodland has a wide distribution
throughout the region, the impact will be at a localized level and of low significance. Habitat tends
to be uniform throughout the region although some protected flora is likely to be present.
Significance statement:
Both construction and operation phases will definitely have a significant, moderately severe,
negative localised impact to Miombo woodland habitats within the mine area.
Mitigation:
Restoration of some Miombo forest during construction, operation and decommissioning
(roads, processing plant and other areas having infrastructure during operational phase) will
be possible;
Reclamation of terrestrial habitats, as much as possible during operation and
decommissioning.
Use of the existing Kisankala village area for activities such as waste rock dumps and other
facilities would minimise loss of Miombo woodland to a limited extent.
Residual Impacts:
Moderate local negative impacts on Miombo woodland habitat due to remnant waste rock
dumps and tailings storage facility where successful restoration to Miombo woodland will
be limited;
Low regional negative impacts on woodland habitat due to relative abundance of this
vegetation unit within the region.
9.7.5
Direct loss of habitat within the riparian vegetation communities
Cause and Comments:
Impacts to riparian vegetation is likely to limited to the river crossing of the Kisankala stream,
resulting in the loss of some Dambo Wetland. Waste Rock Dumps have been repositioned to avoid
riparian areas (Kii stream). In the “Option C” alternative for site layout, the tailings storage facility is
sited close to the Kisankala stream and may have some impact should it be the selected option.
Significance Statement:
A low negative impact to the Dambo wetland and riparian vegetation during construction to upgrade
existing gravel road across riparian zone.
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A moderate positive impact on the Dambo wetland due to improved road surfacing and improved
runoff management after mine closure due to improved management of existing erosion and
resulting sedimentation of the upper reaches of the Kisankala stream and Dambo wetland.
Mitigation:
Road crossing the Kisankala stream should be constructed over the existing unsurfaced road,
and should be adequately surfaced and appropriate drainage structures implemented to
manage runoff and trap sediment;
Should the northern tailings storage facility and processing plant location be the selected
option, design must be such that it avoids the Kisankala River with an adequate buffer in
place (minimum 60m, but recommended to be at LEAST 100m);
Copper-Cobalt containing rock must NOT be used at or near the river crossing to minimise
pollution of the stream from runoff and seepage, which will negatively affect riparian
vegetation in the short- to long-term.
Residual Impacts:
Low negative impacts on gallery forest and Dambo wetland habitats due to presence of road
infrastructure;
Moderate positive impact on riparian vegetation (including Dambo wetland, downstream
riparian vegetation and Gallery Forest) as a result of reduced siltation and erosion from
improved road construction and drainage;
No rare or endemic species are likely to be impacted upon negatively during construction
and operational phases within the riparian area.
9.7.6
Improved access to rare habitats and local endemic species leading to removal of
rare species
Cause and Comments:
Presence of employees and subcontractors on site could remove rare and endemic species from the
site, especially horticulturally important species such as those belonging to the Orchidaceae.
Significance Statement:
Mining will result in a localised, slightly significant, long-term possible loss of rare and endemic
species.
Mitigation:
Employees and subcontractors should not be permitted to remove vegetation from site,
unless it is part of an approved sustainable development project supervised by Africo
Environmental Department, and does not include rare or endemic species.
Residual Impacts:
Negligible to low indirect impacts on vegetation due to improved access to rare species after
decommissioning, although, apart from the Orchidaceae) they are unlikely to have a
commercial value unless medicinal properties are discovered.
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9.7.7
Reduction in connectivity of habitats affecting movements of wildlife species that
may be pollinators or dispersal agents of flora within Miombo.
Cause and Comments:
Mining activities within the Miombo Woodland may impact upon the migration of important
pollinators and dispersal agents of any localised populations of pollinator specific species;
Concession may impact upon regional migration of faunal species that are dispersal agents
and/or pollinators of Miombo flora;
Stream crossings and associated infrastructure across riparian areas may impact upon
migration along the linear river and associated riparian corridor systems;
Noise (including blasting, machinery and anthropogenic) may have localised impacts on
movement of fauna that are important dispersal agents or pollinators of flora.
Concession has a limited footprint and is unlikely to have any significant impacts on
connectivity at a regional level for Miombo Woodland.
Significance Statement:
A possible, low significance, long-term impact to connectivity of habitat may occur as a result of
mining activities within Miombo Woodland. Impacts to connectivity between copper outcrops at a
regional level is unknown.
Mitigation:
No information is available to make an assessment of the impact to the biology of the
endemic flora (and associated fauna) due to the large scale removal of some outcrops that
could form a link along the Katanga Copper Bow with adjacent outcrops, although it is
unlikely that the species that are prevalent in disturbed contaminated areas would be
affected;
Stream crossings and associated infrastructure within the riparian area are unlikely to
significantly impact upon migration along the linear river and associated riparian corridor
systems;
Use of existing disturbed areas as far as possible for infrastructure to avoid new
fragmentation;
Noise (including blasting, machinery and anthropogenic) would be localised and unlikely to
have any significant impact as the faunal species would move to adjacent areas;
Rehabilitation/Revegetation to connect fragmented habitats during decommission phase
can mitigate any impacts in the long-term.
Residual Impacts:
Moderate impact on fragmentation of habitats. For overall landscape biodiversity, low
impact on Miombo woodland and gallery forest; high impact on copper-cobalt habitats.
9.7.8
Reduction in connectivity of habitats affecting movements of wildlife species that
may be pollinators or dispersal agents of flora within Copper outcrops.
Cause and Comments:
Mining of the Copper-Cobalt outcrops may impact upon the migration of important
pollinators and dispersal agents of the endemic metalliferous flora;
Concession may impact upon regional migration of faunal species that are dispersal agents
and/or pollinators of Copper-Cobalt flora;
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Noise (including blasting, machinery and anthropogenic) may have localised impacts on
movement of fauna that are important dispersal agents or pollinators of flora.
Although the concession has a limited footprint within the Katangan Bow it is possible that
the permanent removal of outcrops may have a significant impacts on connectivity at a
regional level for Miombo Woodland;
Significance Statement:
A probable, low significance, long-term impact to connectivity of habitat may occur as a result of
mining activities within Copper-Cobalt outcrops, impacts to connectivity between copper outcrops
at a regional level is unknown.
Mitigation:
No information is available to make an assessment of the impact to the biology of the
endemic flora (and associated fauna) due to the large scale removal of some outcrops that
could form a link along the Katangan Copper Bow with adjacent outcrops, although it is
unlikely that the species that are prevalent in disturbed contaminated areas would be
affected;
Noise (including blasting, machinery and anthropogenic) would be localised and unlikely to
have any significant impact as the faunal species would move to adjacent areas;
Rehabilitation/Revegetation to connect fragmented habitats during decommission phase
may mitigate any impacts in the long-term.
Residual Impacts:
Moderate impact on fragmentation of habitats. For overall landscape biodiversity, low
impact on Miombo woodland and gallery forest; high impact on copper-cobalt habitats.
9.7.9
Introduction of exotic species (terrestrial and aquatic)
Cause and Comments:
Exotic species may be introduced from outside the mining area by trucks that could become
established as weeds within the concession, particularly Tithonia diversifolia, common along
roadsides in the area.
Significance Statement:
A long-term, moderately severe impact may occur within the study area resulting in the introduction
of exotic species.
Mitigation:
Use of local indigenous species for reclamation must be adhered to;
The weed Tithonia diversifolia noted along river courses on the Likasi road to the east should
be monitored and controlled on site in riparian areas and road verges;
As part of the social upliftment plan, it is recommended that an educational component be
implemented to address the issue of exotic species and their implications to the
environment and people.
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During decommissioning the concession area must be cleared of exotic species that could be
problematic.
Residual Impacts:
Increase in some weedy species may occur after mitigation.
9.7.10
Changes in water flows or quality from development associated with mining
during operations may affect adjacent Riparian plant communities (including
Gallery Forest and Dambo Wetlands)
Cause and Comments:
Dewatering process is likely to impact on flow within the Kii and Kisankala streams within the
concession and downstream, which is likely to have a long-term impact on Riparian vegetation.
Significance Statement:
A permanent, moderately sever, localised impact of high significance may result in changes to
riparian vegetation as a result of mine dewatering
Mitigation:
Minimize water-related effects to vegetation through maintenance of flows in the dry
season, if needed, and treatment of effluent;
Restore equivalent amount of gallery forest during decommissioning phase;
Treatment of wastewater must be adequate so as not to increase nutrient loads of water
entering the streams, which will result in impacts to Riparian vegetation.
Residual Impacts:
Negligible impact after mitigation in the very long-term after decommissioning;
Moderate to High impacts due to changes in downstream water flow as a result of
dewatering;
Low impacts due to water quality changes, mainly associated with in stream works, spills or
releases from containment ponds and groundwater affected by mine materials;
Restoration of gallery forest will result in positive impact during decommissioning.
9.7.11
Long-term changes in Miombo Woodland may occur as a result of dewatering
activities that could lower the water table in the affected area
Cause and Comments:
Dewatering process is likely to reduce the existing water table to below 30 meters, which may have
a long-term impact on Miombo Woodland. Since Miombo tree root systems are mostly confined to
depths of 4 – 15 meters, and do not have direct access to the water table, only changes to
infiltration rate might result in long-term effects.
Significance Statement:
Dewatering process may result in a lowering of the existing water table, (reducing it below the
current 30 meters), which may have a moderately severe impact on Miombo Woodland within the
study area.
Mitigation:
Other than large scale irrigation, no cost-effective mitigation is known;
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Monitoring will be required using satellite imagery to monitor changes in vegetation cover
within the areas predicted to be affected by dewatering.
Residual Impacts:
Impact after decommissioning in the very long-term is largely unknown, but could result in
the decline of Miombo Woodland from the area affected by dewatering;
Moderate to High impacts to Miombo at a regional level due to lowering of the water table
due to dewatering.
9.7.12
Destruction of natural habitats in downstream areas (terrestrial and aquatic) in
the case of a tailings storage facility failure.
Cause and Comments:
Should the tailings storage facility fail, impacts of either a terrestrial or riparian nature could occur,
depending on tailings storage facility siting.
Significance Statement:
Destruction of natural habitat as result of failure of the tailings storage facility is unlikely to occur at
a localised level.
Mitigation:
Build in conservative design features in tailings storage facility (proper safety factors);
Emergency planning to mitigate effects if a failure occurs;
Chose the southern tailings storage facility site (Option B), to reduce the risk of impacts to
the more significant riparian vegetation.
Residual Impacts:
Residual natural risks for the environment from the tailings storage facility are expected to
be in the low to moderate risk rating.
9.7.13
Indirect loss of habitat quality due to dust/mud, sedimentation/siltation and air
quality associated with the mining process
Cause and Comments:
The mining process is likely to result in the formation of dust associated with tailings storage facility,
waste rock dump, blasting, ore removal and transportation as well as mud during the wet season
(September through April), which could have a negative on surrounding terrestrial and riparian
vegetation communities.
Significance Statement:
A localised, long-term negative impact to vegetation as a result of dust, will probably occur of low
significance.
Mitigation:
Blasting is to occur a maximum of once a day at the bottom of the pit so dust is unlikely to
be problematic once sufficient depth is reached.
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Dust control measures should be implemented, especially during the dry season;
Sediment traps to manage sedimentation from surfaced areas such as roads, mine village
and other disturbed areas that may have vegetation removed, to be well-maintained during
the wet season;
Road construction and surfacing should ideally occur during the dry-season to minimise
sedimentation of streams;
Roads must be constructed in a manner that will minimise sediment loads to adjacent
streams;
Residual Impacts:
Negligible to moderate indirect impacts on vegetation due to dust, which are likely to be
positive in the long-term after mine-closure due to improved road surfacing and runoffmanagement.
9.7.14
Intensification of utilization of areas outside of the concession area as a result of
displacement of people from within the concession area
Cause and Comments:
Higher density of people using the same agricultural, grazing and other natural resources due to
immigration of people due to mining may lead to over-utilisation;
Disruptions to subsistence livelihood as people leave their land and try to re-establish themselves on
new land. This will deteriorate further by relocation of people resulting from development of nearby
mines at Goma, Kinshasa and Comide.
Significance Statement:
Intensification of utilization of natural resources outside of the concession will definitely occur as a
result of displacement of people of moderately sever significance.
Mitigation:
Co-operative forest management program;
Compensation and resettlement planning as appropriate;
Possible projects to cultivate useful species should be investigated to allow people to
supplement household income, reduce dependence on the woodland and reduce loss of
Miombo woodland.
Residual Impacts:
Low impact due to loss of access to lands;
Moderate impact due to loss of agricultural land.
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9.8 Cumulative Impacts
Potential cumulative impacts are likely to fall into the following groups:
6. Permanent and seasonal changes to Riparian vegetation downstream of the concession as a
result in dewatering, seasonal extraction and returns, the exact extent and subsequent
result of which is poorly understood at this stage;
7. Permanent and seasonal changes to Miombo vegetation in the area as a result of continuous
dewatering is likely to affect groundwater levels permanently, which will probably have a
long term effect on structure, function and composition of the Miombo woodland
vegetation within the study area and outside area of influence. The exact extent and
subsequent result of which is poorly understood at this stage;
8. Relocation and densification of Kisankala village and the subsequent reliance on vegetation
in surrounding areas is likely to result in permanent increased harvesting of Miombo for
charcoal, timber, agriculture and food harvesting. Since villages will be less spaces apart,
loss of Woodland will most likely be to a greater extent than at present, with recovery rates
reduced due to shortened resting periods.
9. Possible long-term additional vegetation clearing activities to access new deposits, present
but not yet fully prospected and not forming part of this assessment. This could result in
additional removal of Miombo vegetation for infrastructure and additional loss of coppercobalt outcrops (though smaller and less exposed in extent).
10. Due to the poor levels of development and infrastructure within the DRC, the log-term
potential exists for the growth of new cities because of economic opportunities, outside of
the existing Kolwezi, Likasi, Lubumbashi areas, which could result in loss of vegetation at a
mass scale, as can be seen on the outskirts and surrounds of these cities presently. It is
important that regional planning acknowledges this potential, but is outside of the
responsibility of the mining company.
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9.9 Conclusions
Africo will need to employ a multi-faceted approach to keep impacts to flora to an acceptable level.
Options include avoiding copper-cobalt plants as much as is practical and the creation of coppercobalt plant micro-reserves (PMRs) in areas adjacent to the development site. These reserves would
need to be identified and protected from accidental disturbance. Conservation areas should be
established to protect copper-cobalt flora for the life of the mine. Africo should also set aside areas
for ecosystem reconstruction and plant propagation activities. Relocation of potential critical
habitat should also be undertaken to meet the requirements of the IFC’s Performance Standard 6.
Such activities will add to the current knowledge base for copper-cobalt flora conservation and will
aid in the future planning for possible mine expansion. Species extinction is unlikely to occur as a
result of the Africo Kalukundi project, although there is an element of uncertainty regarding this due
to lack of information. An equivalent amount of the vegetation types can be restored within the
concession after mining is completed. Some gallery forest is also located downstream from the
project site on the Kisankala and Kii rivers, but will not be directly impacted upon by mining
activities. Hydrogeological studies indicate that dewatering will result in dry season flows to the river
being sufficiently reduced to affect the health of Gallery Forest. Flows will need to be augmented by
use of irrigation and pumping of water into rivers. In addition, an equivalent amount of gallery forest
to that which may be affected by a lowered groundwater table should be restored in the concession
after mining has ceased, although since groundwater levels are predicted to take 45 years after
dewatering has ceased to recover, this is unlikely to be achievable. Miombo woodland should be
replanted over portions of the plant site and other areas soon as they are available (to minimise
erosion risk and to allow woodland time to regenerate), unless other land use options, which should
be investigated further during mine operations, are approved,.
Effects are expected to be localised and high for Miombo woodland and low Gallery forest
and riparian habitats, but very high for copper-cobalt habitats.
Gallery forest and Riparian habitat will not be directly affected by site clearing but should
there be any, an equivalent area of forest should be replanted during closure.
Copper-cobalt habitats will be impacted as the ore bodies to be mined are covered by this
vegetation.
At the landscape level, the project will increase natural habitat fragmentation (i.e. natural
habitats will decline in total area and patch size and the amount of edge will increase).
Monitoring of changes in stream flow near the mine should be undertaken and flow
augmentation undertaken if gallery forests and riparian vegetation are shown to be affected.
Monitoring of changes in vegetation, because of dewatering, should be undertake and
mitigation undertaken if habitat is shown to be affected.
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Table 9.1: Impact Assessment Summary Table
Impact
Risk/ Likelihood
Temporal Scale
Spatial Scale
Degree of Certainty
Severity without
Mitigation
Significance
without Mitigation
Severity with
Mitigation
Significance with
Mitigation
Impact 1: Direct localised loss of rare habitats, in copper-cobalt vegetation communities within the concession
Construction
Will definitely occur
Permanent
Mine area
Definite
Very Severe
Very High
Severe
Don’t Know
Operation
Will definitely occur
Permanent
Mine area
Definite
Very Severe
Very High
Severe
Don’t Know
Decommissioning
Unlikely
Permanent
Mine area
Definite
Very Severe
Very High
Severe
Don’t Know
Impact 2: Direct localised loss of local endemic species, in copper-cobalt vegetation communities within the concession
Construction
Will definitely occur
Permanent
Mine area
Definite
Very Severe
High
Severe
Don’t Know
Operation
Will definitely occur
Permanent
Mine area
Definite
Very Severe
High
Severe
Don’t Know
Decommissioning
Unlikely
Permanent
Mine area
Definite
Severe
High
Moderately Severe
Don’t Know
Impact 3: Direct localised loss of biodiversity including rare habitats and local endemic species, in Miombo vegetation communities
58
Construction
Will definitely occur
Permanent
Study Area
Definite
Severe
High
Moderately Severe
Moderate
Operation
Will definitely occur
Permanent
Study Area
Definite
Severe
High
Moderately Severe
Moderate
Decommissioning
Unlikely
Permanent
Study Area
Definite
Severe
High
Moderately Severe
Moderate
Impact 4: Direct loss of Miombo vegetation habitat
Construction
Will definitely occur
Permanent
Study Area
Definite
Severe
Moderate
Moderately Severe
Low
Operation
Will definitely occur
Permanent
Study Area
Definite
Severe
Moderate
Moderately Severe
Low
Decommissioning
Unlikely
Permanent
Study Area
Definite
Severe
Moderate
Moderately Severe
Low
Impact 5: Direct localised loss of habitat within the riparian vegetation communities
Construction
Will definitely occur
Long-Term
Localised
Probable
Moderately Severe
Moderate
Slight
Moderate
Operation
Will definitely occur
Long-Term
Localised
Probable
Moderately Severe
Moderate
Slight
Moderate
Decommissioning
Unlikely
Long-Term
Localised
Probable
Moderately Severe
Moderate
Slight
Moderate
Impact 6: Improved access to rare habitats and local endemic species leading to removal of rare species
Construction
Unlikely
Short-term
Localised
Definite
No effect
N/A
No effect
N/A
Operation
May occur
Long-Term
Study Area
Possible
Slight
Moderate
Slight
Low
Decommissioning
May occur
Long-Term
Study Area
Possible
Slight
Moderate
Slight
Low
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Severity without
Significance
Mitigation
without Mitigation
Impact 7: Reduction in connectivity of habitats affecting movements of wildlife species that may be pollinators or dispersal agents of flora within Miombo
Impact
Risk/ Likelihood
Temporal Scale
Spatial Scale
Degree of Certainty
Severity with
Mitigation
Significance with
Mitigation
Construction
May occur
Long-Term
District
Possible
Slight
Low
Slight
Low
Operation
May occur
Long-Term
District
Possible
Slight
Low
Slight
Low
Decommissioning
May occur
Long-Term
District
Possible
Slight
Low
Slight
Low
Impact 8: Reduction in connectivity of habitats affecting movements of wildlife species that may be pollinators or dispersal agents of flora within Copper deposits
Construction
Unsure
Permanent
Regional
Probable
Severe
High
Severe
Moderate
Operation
Unsure
Permanent
Regional
Probable
Severe
High
Severe
Moderate
Decommissioning
Unsure
Permanent
Regional
Probable
Severe
High
Severe
Moderate
Impact 9: Introduction of exotic species (terrestrial and aquatic)
Construction
May occur
Long-term
Study Area
Possible
Moderately Severe
Moderate
Slight
Low
Operation
Probable
Long-term
Study Area
Possible
Moderately Severe
Moderate
Slight
Low
Decommissioning
Unlikely
Long-term
Study Area
Possible
Moderately Severe
Moderate
Slight
Low
59
Impact 10: Changes in water flows or quality from development associated with mining during operations may affect adjacent Riparian plant communities (including Gallery Forest and Dambo Wetlands)
Construction
Will definitely occur
Permanent
Localised
Probable
Moderately Severe
High
Moderately Severe
Moderate
Operation
Will definitely occur
Permanent
Localised
Probable
Moderately Severe
High
Moderately Severe
Moderate
Decommissioning
Will definitely occur
Permanent
Localised
Probable
Moderately Severe
High
Moderately Severe
Moderate
Impact 11: Long-term changes in Miombo Woodland may occur as a result of dewatering activities that could lower the water table in the affected area
Construction
May occur
Long-Term
Study Area
Possible
Moderately Severe
Don’t Know
Moderately Severe
Don’t Know
Operation
May occur
Long-Term
Study Area
Possible
Moderately Severe
Don’t Know
Moderately Severe
Don’t Know
Decommissioning
May occur
Long-Term
Study Area
Possible
Moderately Severe
Don’t Know
Moderately Severe
Don’t Know
Impact 12: Destruction of natural habitats in downstream areas (terrestrial and aquatic) in the case of a tailings storage facility failure
Construction
Unlikely to occur
Long-Term
Localised
Possible
Severe
Moderate
Low severity
Low
Operation
Unlikely to occur
Long-Term
Localised
Possible
Severe
Moderate
Low severity
Low
Decommissioning
Unlikely to occur
Long-Term
Localised
Possible
Severe
Moderate
Low severity
Low
Impact 13: Indirect loss of habitat quality due to dust, sedimentation and air quality associated with the mining process
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Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
Construction
Will definitely occur
Long-Term
Localised
Probable
Severity without
Mitigation
Slight
Operation
Will definitely occur
Long-Term
Localised
Probable
Slight
Moderate
Slightly beneficial
Moderate
Decommissioning
Unlikely
Long-Term
Localised
Probable
Slight
Moderate
Slightly beneficial
Moderate
Impact
Risk/ Likelihood
Temporal Scale
Spatial Scale
Degree of Certainty
Significance
without Mitigation
Moderate
Severity with
Mitigation
Slightly beneficial
Significance with
Mitigation
Moderate
Impact 14: Intensification of utilization of areas outside of the concession area as a result of displacement of people from within the concession area
Construction
Will definitely occur
Permanent
Study Area
Definite
Moderately Severe
High
Moderately Severe
Moderate
Operation
Will definitely occur
Permanent
Study Area
Definite
Moderately Severe
High
Moderately Severe
Moderate
Decommissioning
Probable
Permanent
Study Area
Definite
Moderately Severe
High
Moderately Severe
Moderate
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10 Recommendations
10.1 Mine Layout
10.1.1
Option B layout
Description
Tailings Storage facility sited along the eastern boundary, south of the powerline.
Plant sited north of the Tailings Storage Facility across the powerline servitude.
Relocated Kisankala Village and associated infrastructures sited on the southern boundary,
east of the existing road.
Mine village sited between the Plant and Kalukundi fragment.
Impact
10.1.2
Siting of Tailings Storage Facility, Plant, Kisankala Village and Mine Village will result in the
clearing of Miombo Woodland.
Siting of Tailings Storage Facility will minimize risk of impacts to Riparian areas in case of
failure.
Option C layout
Description
Tailings Storage facility sited in the north-west corner, south of the Kisankala River.
Plant sited south of the Tailings Storage Facility.
Relocated Kisankala Village and associated infrastructures sited on the southern boundary,
east of the existing road (as in Option B).
Mine village sited between the relocated Kisankala Village and eastern concession boundary.
Impact
10.1.3
Siting of Tailings Storage Facility poses risk of severe impacts to Riparian areas in case of
failure.
Siting of Plant, Kisankala Village and Mine Village will result in the clearing of Miombo
Woodland.
Waste Rock Dumps
Description
Waste Rock Dumps are to be placed to the west of the fragments, avoiding drainage areas
and the Kisankala and Kii streams as far as possible.
Waste Rock Dump footprint should be small enough to minimize loss of Miombo woodland
and to avoid sensitive areas, such as the drainage lines and streams, but large enough so
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10.1.4
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
that the reconstructed slopes are not too steep, so as to make revegetation difficult and
heighten erosion risk.
During construction of the Waste Rock Dumps, a systematic approach should be used, so
that areas can be stabilized, vegetated and irrigated to minimize erosion and dust risk.
Rehabilitation should be performed as per the Environmental Management Plan Guidelines.
Relocated Kisankala Village
Description
Relocated Kisankala Village and associated infrastructures sited on the southern boundary,
east of the existing road.
Impact
Siting of relocated Kisankala Village will result in the clearing of Miombo Woodland.
Degraded areas of Miombo Woodland adjacent to the road, to the north of the relocation
site should be prioritized for agricultural use as it will minimize additional loss of Miombo
Woodland.
10.2 Mine Environmental Management Plan
A detailed Mine Environmental Management Plan (EMP) must be compiled to address the following
key elements, some guidelines for which are provided in this report:
a. Detailed Botanical/Ecological Assessment and floral survey of all outcrops before any
commencement of mining. This can be undertaken in parallel to preparation, relocation and
construction activities;
b. Comprehensive rescue and storage in a suitable constructed nursery and storage area of
plants deemed to be requiring either rescue for replanting and plants that will be useful
during rehabilitation;
c. Construction Action Plan for clearing of vegetation where construction activities are to
commence;
d. Detailed Revegetation and Rehabilitation Plan to be conducted during mine construction,
operations and decommissioning;
e. Long-Term Monitoring programme to be initiated during construction and conducted during
operations and after mine closure for a suitable time period.
a. An annual/bi-annual audit should be conducted to assess the various facets relating
to vegetation by a qualified botanist in conjunction with local copper flora experts;
b. An annual Landsat image should be obtained and classified (early at the end of the
rainy season) to assess any indirect changes in vegetation that may occur as a result
of dewatering, dust plumes and other indirect impacts of mining activities. A
baseline map should be produced using high resolution photo image before any
mining activities commence.
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10.3 National and Regional Conservation Planning
It is recommended that a contribution is made towards the formulation of a regional and national
planning framework be made, as this will be required urgently for the long-term survival and
protection of the Copper-Cobalt flora. Opportunities exist for academic, political, social, economic
and legal contributions towards facilitating a conservation programme for the protection of the
copper-cobalt flora in the region.
11 Conclusions
1. Mining activities will result in the removal of natural copper-cobalt outrop vegetation,
although there will be relocation of Species of Special Concern and creation of artificial
habitat. No species extinction is expected to occur directly because of mining.
2. Mining activities will result in clearing of Miombo vegetation for infrastructure and waste
rock dumps. No species extinction is expected to occur directly because of mining.
3. Upgrading of roads is expected to result in a short term increase in vegetation loss and soil
erosion, but in the long-term improved roads are likely to reduce erosion and sedimentation
of streams relating to stormwater runoff.
4. Removal of artisanal mining from the concession is expected to reduce ore washing in the
Kisankala River and improve thus Riparian vegetation.
5. Removal of agricultural activities from the Riparian areas is likely to result in some
rehabilitation of Riparian areas within the concession, depending on the effect of
dewatering.
6. Layout options B and C will both result in an equivalent loss of Miombo Woodland, but
option B will pose a greater risk to Riparian areas in case of failure.
12 Way forward
12.1 Additional studies required
1. Detailed Botanical/Ecological Assessment during early spring before commencement of
mining;
2. Floral survey of all outcrops before commencement of mining to be undertaken in parallel to
preparation, relocation and construction activities with input from local flora expertise;
3. Experimentation with horticultural aspects of the local flora (seed germination, biophysical
requirements, etc.).
12.2 Monitoring
Long-Term Monitoring programme to be initiated during construction and conducted during
operations and after mine closure for a suitable time period.
c. An annual/bi-annual audit should be conducted to assess the various facets relating to
vegetation by a qualified botanist in conjunction with local copper flora experts;
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d. An annual Landsat image should be obtained and classified (early at the end of the rainy
season) to assess any indirect changes in vegetation that may occur as a result of
dewatering, dust plumes and other indirect impacts of mining activities.
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13 Environmental Management Plan
13.1 Objective
To provide guidelines for vegetation clearing and rehabilitation during all phases of mining.
13.2 Detailed Floral survey
It is recommended that a further detailed floral survey be conducted during the construction phase
to determine additional species that may have been omitted and to clarify indeterminate species
that may be resolved during their flowering seasons (autumn – April - May and Spring (September –
December).
13.3 Materials
The following list (Table 13.1) provides a preliminary guide to appropriate species occurring on site
to be used for revegetation. Testing and evaluation will be required to determine the usefulness and
cost-effectiveness of individual species. To revegetate an area as accurately as possible to its
original flora, plant species used should be those that occur naturally in the nearest site with a
similar soil type and aspect. A suitably qualified botanist should be consulted with in this regard.
Table 13.1: Preliminary Plant species for Revegetation
Species
Habitat and vegetation type
Grasses
Aeollanthus subacaulis var. ericoides
Outcrops
Andropogon schirensis
Dambo/Riparian
Digitaria nitens
Dambo/Riparian/Miombo
Diheteropogon grandiflorus
Dambo/Riparian
Eragrostis chapelieri
Outcrops
Eragrostis racemosa
Outcrops
Eragrostis sp.
Miombo
Heteropogon contortus
Miombo
Loudetia simplex
Dambo/Riparian
Melinis repens
Widespread/Disturbed
Monocymbium ceresiiforme
Dambo/Riparian
Panicum chionachne
Outcrops
Pennisetum polystachyum
Widespread
Setaria barbata
Outcrops
Setaria pallida-fusca
Dambo/Riparian/Miombo
Sporobolus sp.
Dambo/Riparian/Miombo
Tristachya inamoena
Miombo
Zonotriche decora
Miombo
Climbers
Bowiea sp.
Miombo
Dioscorea dumetorum
Miombo
Gloriosa superba
Miombo
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Species
Habitat and vegetation type
Ipomoea sp.
Miombo
Ipomoea alpina
Miombo
Mucuna poggei
Miombo
Passiflora sp.
Miombo
Piliostigma thonningii
Miombo
Smilax anceps (kraussiana)
Miombo
Stephania abyssinica
Miombo
Shrubs and small trees
Manihot esculentus
Miombo
Protea angolensis
Outcrops
Protea gaguedi
Miombo
Protea petiolaris
Miombo
Protea welwitschii
Dambo
Loranthus sp.
Miombo
Vitex mombassae
Miombo
Trees
Acacia seyal
Miombo
Albizia adianthifolia
Miombo
Albizia antunesiana
Miombo
Albizia sp.
Miombo
Allophylus africanus
Miombo
Boscia sp.
Miombo/Termiteria
Brachystegia boehmii
Miombo
Brachystegia longifolia
Miombo
Brachystegia spiciformis
Miombo
Brachystegia stipulata
Miombo
Canthium venosum
Miombo
Clemaspora sp.
Miombo
Clerodendrum capitatum
Miombo
Clerodendrum buchneri
Miombo
Cof landolophia
Miombo
Combretum mechowianum
Miombo
Combretum molle
Miombo
Combretum platypetalum
Miombo
Combretum sp.
Miombo
Combretum zeyherii
Miombo
Cussonia arborea
Miombo/Outcrops
Dasystachys colubrina
Miombo
Dasystachys sp.
Miombo
Desmodium salicifolium
Miombo
Diospyros pallens
Miombo
Diplorhynchus condylocarpon
Miombo
Ekebergia bengalensis
Miombo
Erythrina abyssinica
Miombo
Faurea rochetiana
Miombo
Faurea saligna
Miombo
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Species
Ficus spp.
Garcinia huillensis
Hexalobus monopetalus
Hymenocardia acida
Ilex mitis
Isoberlinia sp.
Julbernardia paniculata
Landolphia parvifolia
Markhamia obtusifolia
Monotes africana
Monotes angolensis
Monotes katangensis
Ochna pulchra
Ochna schweinfurthii
Ochna schweinfurthiana
Parinari capensis
Parinari curatellifolia
Parinari curatifolia
Parinari spp
Pavetta schumanniana
Phyllanthus muellerianus
Psorospermum febrifugum
Pterocarpus angolensis
Rothmannia engleriana
Salacia rhodesiaca
Securidaca longipedunculata
Strychnos spinosa
Strychnos cocculoides
Strychnos innocua
Strychnos pungens
Swartzia madagascariensis
Syzygium caudatum
Syzygium guineense subsp. Huillense
Terminalia mollis
Uapaca kirkiana
Uapaca nitida var musocolowe
Vangueriopsis lanciflora
Vitex madiensis
Zanthoxylum sp.
Botanical Assessment Report
May 2008
Habitat and vegetation type
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Riparian
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
Miombo
13.3.1 Shrubs and trees
1. Indigenous plants shall be obtained either from the site prior to clearing or from an area in
close proximity to and of the same vegetation type as the site, as indicated by the Botanist.
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2. Seedlings and young plants of the abovementioned plants should be collected and placed in
bags to be stored in the on-site nursery before construction commences to be used during
revegetation in consultation with an appointed horticulturalist, the ECO and a botanist.
3. Nursery plants shall be grown from locally obtained seed unless approved by the Botanist.
4. Plants shall be obtained from their natural habitat.
5. The Horticulturalist shall ensure that each plant is handled and packed in the approved
manner for that species or variety, and that all necessary precautions are taken to ensure
that the plants arrive on Site in a proper condition for successful growth.
6. Trucks used for transporting plants shall be equipped with covers to protect the plants from
windburn. Containers shall be in a good condition. Plants shall be protected from wind
during the transportation thereof.
7. No plants or plants with exposed roots shall be subjected to prolonged exposure to drying
winds and sun, or subjected to water logging or force-feeding at any time after purchase.
8. The Horticulturalist shall ensure that the plants are in a good condition and free from plant
diseases and pests. The Horticulturalist shall immediately remove plants containing any
diseases and/ or pests from the Site.
9. All plants supplied by the Horticulturalist shall be healthy, well formed, and well rooted.
Roots shall not show any evidence of having been restricted or deformed at any time. The
potting materials used shall be weed free.
10. There shall be sufficient topsoil around each plant to prevent desiccation of the root system.
Where plants are stored on site prior to planting they shall be maintained to ensure that the
root systems remain moist.
13.3.2
Grass
Sods and runners
1. Grass sods shall be clean of invasive plants or weeds.
2. Sods shall be obtained from a source approved by the Botanist. Sods rejected by the
Botanist shall be removed from the site immediately.
3. Grass shall have been grown specifically for sod purposes, mown regularly and cared for to
provide an approved uniformity to the satisfaction of the Botanist. It shall be harvested by
special machines manufactured for this purpose to ensure an even depth of cut with
sufficient root material and soil.
4. Sods shall be delivered in healthy conditions and be free from weeds and disease.
5. Sods shall be obtained from an approved nursery. Nursery sods shall have been maintained
regularly to the required quality. Nursery grass sods shall have at least a 30 mm layer of
topsoil.
6. Sods shall be obtained directly from the surrounding area and shall contain at least a 50 mm
topsoil layer and the roots shall be minimally disturbed. They shall be obtained from the
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near vicinity of the site from an area selected by the Botanist. The soil shall be compatible
with that removed from the area to be revegetated and shall not have been compacted by
heavy machinery.
7. Runners shall be of an approved quality and free from disease or weeds.
Indigenous vegetation sods
1. Sods of indigenous vegetation (e.g., rushes, sedges and grass) shall be obtained from areas
approved by the Botanist, within or near the site.
2. The Horticulturalist shall identify suitable sods, as directed by the Botanist.
3. Sods rejected by the Botanist shall be removed from the site immediately.
4. Indigenous vegetation sods shall be clean of weeds or invasive plants in specified areas
before planting.
Seed
1. The seed mix quantities and purity levels shall be specified by the horticulturalist and
approved by the Botanist.
2. Seed shall be utilised for the cultivation of material for revegetation.
3. Seed shall be utilised for direct sowing.
4. Seed must be pre-dried then stored under cool, dry, insect free conditions until required
either for cultivation in the nursery or in the rehabilitation process. Only viable, ripe seed
shall be used.
5. A record of stock relevant to the project that is held in the nursery shall be provided to the
Botanist on a monthly basis.
Harvested seed
1. Indigenous seed shall be harvested in an areas which are free of alien/ invasive vegetation,
either at the site prior to clearance or from suitable neighbouring sites, as indicated by the
Botanist.
2. Following harvesting, the seed shall be dried under cool airy conditions. The seed shall be
insect free and shall be stored in containers under cool conditions that are free of rodents or
insects. No wet, mouldy or otherwise damaged seed is acceptable.
3. Seed harvested by hand from selected species, should be treated and stored separately.
4. Seed gathered by vacuum harvester, or other approved mass collection method, from
suitable shrubs or from the plant litter surrounding the shrubs shall be kept apart from
individually harvested seed .
5. Harvested seed obtained by means of vacuum harvesting, shall be free of excessive
quantities of organic and/ or substrate material.
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13.3.3 Mulch
Mulch shall be utilised as follows depending on local and seasonal availability of material .
Brush-cut mulch
1. The stockpiled vegetation from the clearing operations shall be reduced to mulch.
2. Indigenous plant material shall be kept separate from alien material. The vegetative
material, shall be reduced by either mechanically means (chipper) or by hand-axing to sticks
no longer than 100mm. The chipped material shall be mixed with the topsoil at a ratio not
exceeding 1:1.
3. Mulch shall be harvested from areas that are to be denuded of vegetation during
construction activities, provided that they are free of seed-bearing alien invasive plants.
4. No harvesting of vegetation outside the area to be disturbed by construction activities shall
occur.
5. Mulch shall be harvested from areas in close proximity to the site, as approved by the
Botanist. Any collection of indigenous material from nearby area that will not be subject to
complete denudation shall only be done in mature vegetation in areas identified by the
Botanist.
6. Harvesting shall be performed in a chequer board fashion, cutting the indigenous vegetation
down to 100 mm above the ground, in 2 m wide strips, leaving 2 m gaps of undisturbed
vegetation in between.
7. The Horticulturalist shall take every effort to ensure the retention of as much seed as
possible in mulches made from indigenous vegetation. Mulches shall be collected in such a
manner as to restrict the loss of seed.
8. Brush-cut mulch shall be stored for as short a period as possible, and seed released from
stockpiles shall be collected for use in the rehabilitation process.
9. Fynbos vegetation cleared from the site prior to construction activities, that is suitable for
mulching, shall be stockpiled for later use. The Horticulturalist shall ensure that no alien
species are used to make indigenous vegetation brush cut mulch without the approval of the
Botanist.
10. Natural topsoil shall be mixed with fynbos.
Wood chips
1. Wood chips (including bark) shall be utilised as mulch during revegetation and rehabilitation
of the site.
2. The chips shall be no longer than 50 mm in length or breadth and shall be free of seed. The
Botanist shall approve the source of chips.
3. The wood shall be chipped during winter
4. Chips shall not be made from wood treated with preservatives.
5. Half-composted chips shall be utilised in preference to non-composted chips
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6. Indigenous seed shall always be added to wood chip mulches.
Compost
1. Compost shall be utilised as mulch during revegetation and rehabilitation of the site.
2. The compost shall be well decayed, friable and free from weed seeds, dust or any other
undesirable materials.
3. Seed free, half-composted material, such as mulled-bark, shall be used as an additive to
extend indigenous mulch. No more than 50% compost shall be used under these
circumstances.
13.3.4 Slope stabilizers and anti-erosion measures
Slope stabilizer and/ or anti-erosion materials shall be {give details of required materials}
Stabilisation cylinders
1. Stabilisation cylinders shall consist of cylindrical capsules approximately 125 mm in diameter
by 1.5 m in length.
2. Stabilisation cylinders shall be manufactured from biodegradable material such as hessian or
of extruded biodegradable plastic netting. The plastic material shall be sufficiently robust to
last for a period of not less than 3 years and not more than 10 years before disintegrating
under normal service conditions.
3. Stabilisation cylinders shall be filled with shredded or partly compressed pine chips or similar
material. Only material passing through a 31 mm sieve with round holes and retained on a 5
mm sieve with square holes shall be used. Wood chips shall be treated with Tanalith C wood
preservative. Splinters and flat chips are not acceptable.
4. A seed approved by the Botanist shall be included in the cylinders.
5. Cylinders shall be anchored in position using biodegradable material.
6. Cylinders shall not be used to stabilise any rock faces.
Biodegradable netting / matting
1. Biodegradable netting/matting shall be made from jute, sisal, coir or similar material.
2. A 1 m² sample of the geofabric, geogrid or nylon (biodegradable) fabric shall be submitted to
the Botanist for approval prior to procurement.
3. The netting/matting shall be sufficiently robust to last for a period of not less than 5 years
under normal service conditions.
4. Holes in the netting/matting shall have a minimum size of 400 mm2 and a maximum size of
900 mm2 and be made from at least 4-6 mm thick cord.
Logs
1. For slopes of less than 1:3, the Site shall be stabilised by means of “geojute” (if available)
and continuous rows of logs, secured to the slope with timber pegs, parallel to the contour.
Logs shall be untreated pine (or gum) poles of not less than 150 mm with a taper of not
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more than 75 mm over its length. Timber pegs to be treated and not less than 400 mm in
length. Timber pegs must be longer if thicker logs than the minimum are used.
2. Logs shall be secured to the slope in such a manner that they will not become dislodged
during construction and/ or planting. Logs to be secured to the slope by means of a
minimum of two pegs driven into the soil not less than 250 mm deep. For logs longer than 3
m, additional pegs shall be required. Log ends to be butt-jointed and plugged with wood
chips or similar to prevent water from washing through at the joint. Logs shall be placed at 2
m intervals with a bottom row parallel to the edge of the road. Logging of the slope to start
at the top of the slope to prevent the stretching of the “geojute”.
13.3.5 Soil stabilizers
1. Soil stabilisers shall consist of an organic or inorganic material to bind soil particles together
and shall be a proven product able to suppress dust and form an encrustation.
2. Soil stabilisers shall be of such a quality that grass and indigenous seeds may germinate and
penetrate the crust. Samples of the proposed material shall be supplied to the Botanist
before any of the material is delivered to the Site.
13.3.6 Topsoil and subsoil
1. All soil imported to act as bedding material shall be free of alien plant seeds, and their use
shall be restricted to 500 mm below the soil surface.
13.3.7 Boulders and rocks
1. Boulders or rocks used in rehabilitation shall come from comparable geomorphological units
to those that they are being utilised to rehabilitate.
2. Where possible, boulders and rocks utilised during rehabilitation, shall be collected from the
Site and stockpiled prior to the commencement of construction activities on Site.
13.4 Facilities
13.4.1 Seed store
1. Facilities should be available to store seed, collected or required on-site, in rodent- and
insect-free, cool (7 - 10 °C), dry, conditions.
13.4.2 Site-specific nursery
1. On-site nursery facilities shall be erected for the holding of rescued plant material and the
propagation of appropriate species for revegetation. The nursery shall be suitably located
and constructed under the supervision of the Botanist and horticulturalist, accommodating
the following factors:
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a. Close proximity to permanent sustainable water for irrigation;
b. Suitably shielded from roads, where dust may be problematic;
2. The site nursery should be constructed before any vegetation clearing activities commence;
3. The nursery should be of sufficient design to be able to accommodate the various functions
it will be required to perform during its lifespan, including but not limited to:
a. A sufficiently large tunnel with required facilities for material propagation;
b. A large shaded area (of varying degrees of shade) to store material in transit
between being rescued and being relocated;
c. A large hardening off (unshaded) area for storage of bagged material;
d. An area for storage and production of materials such as compost, mulch and
4. The site-specific nursery shall be utilised for the cultivation and maintenance of the stocks of
living plant material required for the revegetation and rehabilitation of the Site.
5. The nursery, including irrigation, water shall be free of Phytophthora.
6. Irrigation water shall be de-chlorinated if necessary;
7. Soil used to cultivate or grow plants shall be weed free.
8. The area where plants are stored shall be kept free of weeds.
9. A record of stock relevant to the project that is held in the nursery shall be provided to the
Botanist on a monthly basis.
13.4.3 Irrigation
1. The design and layout of the irrigation shall be indicated on a plan and approved by the
Botanist and horticulturalist prior to its installation.
13.5 Vegetation clearing and relocation
13.5.1 Infrastructural Requirements
Vegetation clearing
Once the final mine layout has been determined the botanist should be consulted and in
association with the horticulturalist devise a plant relocation and vegetation clearing plan.
Areas to be cleared of vegetation should be clearly demarcated before clearing commences.
Areas should only be stripped of vegetation as and when required, especially grasses, to
minimize erosion risk.
Once demarcated the area to be cleared of vegetation should be surveyed by the vegetation
clearing team under the supervision of the botanist and horticulturalist to identify and mark
species suitable for rescue.
Plants to be rescued should include both species of special concern requiring removal for
relocation as well as species that would be suitable for use in rehabilitation.
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Depending on growth form this material should be appropriately removed from its locality
and stored in the nursery holding areas or immediately relocated where it may be required
elsewhere immediately.
Small trees and shrubs (<1m in height) can often be rescued and planted temporarily in
potting bags for later use.
Arboreal species (orchids) should be collected attached to the substrate (i.e. branch) they
are growing on and stored (hung) in a moist, lightly shaded nursery area for later relocation.
Wherever possibly any seed material should be collected immediately and stored for later
use, particularly species that occur in low numbers.
Before any earthmoving activities are commenced any ripe grass seed should be collected
(using a sickle or similar implement), dried and stored for use during regressing.
Comprehensive notes should be kept as to the identification, habitat, and any potential
biophysical requirements of plants, and any species of special concern removed for
relocation should have a GPS locality recorded.
Grass sods can also be collected for immediate use in any areas requiring revegetation.
Once rescue and relocation activities have been completed, removal of large trees can
commence, which should be done in consultation with local representatives so that useful
timber can be identified and dealt with appropriately.
It is recommended that wood be stored appropriately once felled, as it will be used for
various activities such as construction, furniture-making and will be useful to local
inhabitants for charcoal, firewood, etc.
In copper-cobalt outcrops, it is recommended that sufficient habitat (large boulders) be
removed and appropriately stored for later reuse during reconstruction and revegetation of
outcrops.
o Attention must be given to aspect and shading when storing boulders so that any
crevice growth will be shaded appropriately.
o Care must be taken to minimize disturbance to vegetation on boulders.
Before any topsoil removal commences, local inhabitants should be given the opportunity to
salvage any remaining material, as it will minimize removal of similar material from
surrounding areas.
Topsoil
Sufficient topsoil must be stored for later use during decommissioning, particularly from
outcrop areas.
Topsoil shall be removed from all areas where physical disturbance of the surface will occur.
All available topsoil shall be removed after consultation with the Botanist and horticulturalist
prior to commencement of any operations.
The removed topsoil shall be stored on high ground within the mining footprint outside the
1:50 flood level within demarcated areas.
Topsoil shall be kept separate from overburden and shall not be used for building or
maintenance of roads.
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The stockpiled topsoil shall be protected from being blown away or being eroded. The
application of a suitable grass seed/runner mix will facilitate this and reduce the minimise
weeds.
Road Construction
Should a portion of the access road be newly constructed the following must be adhered to:
The route shall be selected that a minimum disturbance to natural vegetation under
guidance of the ECO and botanical specialist;
Water courses and steep gradients shall be avoided as far as practical;
Adequate drainage and erosion protection in the form of cut-off berms or trenches shall
be provided where necessary.
No other routes shall be used by vehicles or personnel for the purpose of gaining access to
the site.
Newly constructed access roads shall be adequately maintained so as to minimise dust,
erosion or undue surface damage.
The liberation of dust into the surrounding environment shall be effectively controlled by
the use of inter alia, water spraying and /or other dust-allaying agents. The speed of haul
trucks and other vehicles must be strictly controlled to avoid dangerous conditions,
excessive dust or excessive deterioration of the road being used.
The access roads to the quarry site must be strictly maintained during the operation process.
Sections of the access road that erodes during the mining process shall be suitably
rehabilitated upon completion of the project.
Operating Procedures in the Mining Area
Grass and vegetation of the immediate environment, or adapted grass / vegetation will
be re-established on completion of mining activities, where applicable.
No firewood to be collected on site and the lighting of fires must be prohibited.
Cognisance is to be taken of the potential for endangered species occurring in the area and
appropriate measures must be implemented.
Excavations and Disturbed Areas
Whenever any excavation is undertaken, the following procedures shall be adhered to:
Topsoil shall be handled as described in this EMP.
The area shall be fertilised if necessary to allow vegetation to establish rapidly. The site shall
be seeded with a local or adapted indigenous seed mix in order to propagate the locally
occurring flora.
The construction site will not be left in any way to deteriorate into an unacceptable state.
Once overburden, rocks and coarse natural material have been placed in the waste pile, they
will be profiled with acceptable contours (including erosion control measures), and the
previous stored topsoil shall be returned to its original depth over the mine area.
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Processing Plant and Waste Dumps
Natural vegetation must not be disturbed unnecessarily in and around the mine area.
Processing areas and waste piles shall be established within a clearly demarcated area.
Where feasible, hedgerows should be strategically planted to trap and thus minimise dust.
Rehabilitation of Processing Areas
Coarse material and overburden must only be stored in demarcated waste sites.
The area shall be fertilised if necessary to allow vegetation to establish rapidly. The site shall
be seeded with suitable grasses and local indigenous seed mix.
On completion of mining, the surface of the processing areas especially if compacted due to
hauling and dumping operations shall be scarified to a depth of at least 200 mm and graded
to an even surface condition and the previously stored topsoil will be returned to its original
depth over the area.
13.6 Construction
13.6.1 Preparation of ground surfaces
1. Prior to the application of topsoil, the ground surface shall be ripped or scarified with a
mechanical ripper to a depth of approximately 150 mm.
2. Prior to the application of topsoil, the ground surface shall be ripped or scarified by hand
tilling to a depth of approximately 150 mm. {this specification shall be used on small sites}
3. Compacted soil shall be ripped to a depth of greater than 250 mm. The ripped area shall be
hand-trimmed.
4. The subsoil shall be thoroughly tilled to a depth of at least 100 mm by means of a plough,
disc, harrow or any other approved method until the condition of the soil is acceptable, as
approved by the Botanist.
5. Were tilling is difficult, the Horticulturalist shall use rotary tillage machinery until no clods or
lumps larger than 40 mm in size remain, and the mixing of soil is acceptable to the Botanist.
6. In road cuttings, a weed-free gravel / sand / organic mix shall be utilised as a sub-surface
layer.
7. Topsoil shall be applied.
8. Subsequent to the addition of the sub-soil, topsoil shall be spread evenly over the ripped or
tilled surface to a depth of 75-150 mm on flat ground or to a minimum depth of 75 mm on
slopes of 1:3 or steeper or as specified in this specification.
9. The final prepared surface shall not be smooth but furrowed to follow the natural contours
of the land, with scattered rocks of varying sizes according to the natural condition of the
area.
10. Where sodding is required slight scarification shall be carried out to contain the sods. The
soil shall be uniformly moist to a depth of 150 mm prior to planting or seeding. If this
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condition is not met by rainfall, the Horticulturalist, as directed by the Botanist, shall carry
out irrigation.
11. In artificial wetland areas, topsoil shall be removed to a depth of approximately 200 mm, the
wetlands excavated, and topsoil replaced. Wetland areas are then to be selectively
composted, as determined by the Botanist, and permanent irrigation systems installed
where necessary.
12. Prior to any site clearance, the wetland areas, along with 10 m buffer zones, as indicated on
the Revegetation Plan are to be effectively fenced off to prevent any damage to wetland
material on sites prior to transplanting.
13.6.2 Soil stabilization
Various options can be utilized for soil stabilization, based on material availability and
Straw stabilisation
1. Straw shall be utilised as a binding material in areas with deep sand, where possible.
2. Baled straw shall be placed on the cleared area, opened and spread evenly by hand or
machine at a coverage rate of 1 bale per 10 m2 over the area to be stabilised. It shall then
immediately be rotovated into the upper 100 mm layer of soil. This operation shall not be
attempted when the wind strength is such as to remove the straw before it can be rotovated
into the sand.
Mulch stabilisation
1. Mulch shall be applied by hand to achieve a layer of uniform thickness. The mulch shall then
be lightly worked into the topsoil layer so that it mixes with the soil and serves to bind it.
2. The mulch shall be spread at a coverage rate of 100 kg per 250 m2 or 4 t/ha.
3. Where brush-cut material is to be utilised as mulch, this material shall be evenly spread
across the area to a uniform depth of 25 mm. The mulch shall then immediately be
rotovated into the upper 100 mm layer of soil. This operation shall not be attempted when
the wind strength is such as to remove the mulch before it can be rotovated in.
4. In very rocky areas a layer of mulch shall be added prior to adding the top-material. The
mulch must then be worked into the top-material to bind it.
5. Alien vegetation mulch shall be in a non-seed bearing state and shall be chipped prior to
application. The preparation of alien vegetation mulch shall be done at source.
6. The Horticulturalist shall cut bush to a height of 400 mm above ground level from
designated areas. This vegetation shall then be passed through the chipping machine as
above, and be stockpiled for later use as mulch.
7. If the area is exposed to strong wind the mulch stockpile shall be covered with a fine nylon
net with 100 mm 100 mm openings.
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Compost stabilisation
1. The soil shall be stabilised by placing and lightly compacting a 75 mm layer of compost over
the designated areas or by working a 75 mm layer of compost into the ground to a depth of
150 mm.
Stabilisation of steep slopes
1. The Horticulturalist shall take measures to protect all areas susceptible to erosion by
installing all the necessary temporary and permanent drainage works as soon as possible.
The Horticulturalist shall take any other measures that may be necessary to prevent surface
water from being concentrated in streams and from scouring the slopes, banks or other
areas.
2. If runnels or erosion channels develop, they shall be back-filled and compacted, and the
areas restored to a proper condition. The Horticulturalist shall not allow erosion to develop
on a large scale before effecting repairs.
3. Where artificial slope stabilisers are used, these shall be applied to the slope, preferably
before topsoiling, but according to the detailed construction plan and as specified in this
specification.
4. Near vertical slopes (1:1 to 1:2) shall be stabilised using hard structures following
specifications.
5. Where the slopes are 1.3 to 1:6 they shall be logged or otherwise stepped (using
stabilisation cylinders or similar) in order to prevent soil erosion. Logs/ cylinders must be
laid in continuous lines following the contours and spaced vertically 0.8-1.2 m apart,
depending on the steepness of the slope. These logs/ cylinders must be secured by means
of steel pegs and wire in rocky areas, and treated wooden pegs in other areas.
6. In areas where slopes are less than 1:6, horizontal grooves, shallow steps or ledges parallel
to contours shall be made on the cut slopes. They shall be made at random to appear
natural.
7. In areas where slopes are less than 1:6 these slopes shall be stabilised by using logs in
parallel rows, or stabilisation cylinders fastened randomly into position or using
biodegradable netting. These structures shall hold the top-material on the slopes and serve
as erosion prevention structures.
8. Shallow slopes shall be stabilised using commercial available and approved anti-erosion
compounds.
13.6.3
Slope modification and stabilization
Cut slopes adjacent to roads
1. Cut and fill slopes shall be shaped and trimmed to approximate the natural condition and
contours as closely as possible and be undulating. Levels, incongruous to the surrounding
landscape, shall be reshaped using a grader and other earthmoving equipment.
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2. All cut and fill slopes shall be left as rough as possible, and shall contain ledges to facilitate
the accumulation of topsoil. The ledges shall be dug at random to appear natural.
Furthermore, the Horticulturalist shall ensure that any embedded rocks that will not pose a
danger to traffic, remain on the slopes.
3. Boulders / rocks, collected on the site before disturbance, shall be scattered at a
predetermined density approved by the Botanist.
4. Any eroded areas deeper than 50 mm shall be either trimmed down by back cutting the
slope face or repaired to the satisfaction of the Botanist with boulders and soil or any other
approved method.
5. Catchwater drains shall be installed above the cut slopes.
6. Where cut slopes are greater than 4 m in height, the Horticulturalist shall construct berms at
regular intervals.
7. Natural water flow paths shall be identified and subsurface drains (using riprap or
superfluous rock material) or surface drains and chutes {use water speed control structures
where necessary}, preferably using cemented natural rock, shall be constructed along the
flow paths.
8. Near vertical slopes (1:1 to 1:2) shall be stabilised using natural rock wall structures
constructed using conventional building methods or in forms with slurry forced between the
structures. All structures shall have a 'natural' look and facilities for plants to grow in.
9. Near vertical slopes (1:1 to 1:2) shall be stabilised using stacked precast concrete blocks. All
structures shall have a 'natural' look and facilities for plants to grow in.
10. All areas where the slopes are 1.3 to 1:6 shall be logged or otherwise stepped (using
stabilisation cylinders or similar) in order to prevent soil erosion. Logs/ cylinders shall be laid
in continuous lines following the contours and spaced vertically 0.8-1.2 m apart, depending
on the steepness of the slope. These logs/ cylinders shall be secured by means of steel pegs
and wire in rocky areas, and treated wooden pegs in other areas.
11. In areas where slopes are less than 1:6 horizontal groves and shallow steps and ledges
parallel to contours shall be made on the cut slopes. They shall be made at random to
appear natural.
12. In areas where slopes are less than 1:6 horizontal, these slopes shall be stabilised by using
logs in parallel rows, or stabilisation cylinders fastened randomly into position shall be
utilised. These structures shall hold the top-material on the slopes and serve as erosion
prevention structures.
Blasted areas
1. Blasted areas shall be finished so as to be as rough as possible to facilitate establishment of
vegetation, where revegation will be implemented.
Trees and shrubs
1. One third of the fertiliser shall be scattered at the bottom of the hole, one third dug into the
topsoil to be replaced in the hole and the remainder watered into the soil at surface level.
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Basic regrassing
1. 2:3:2 fertiliser shall be applied with the seed mix, at the rate of 400 kg/ha. Super phosphate
shall be applied post germination at the rate of 200 kg/ha
13.6.4 Timing of planting
1. Reseeding shall occur in late Winter (July to September).
2. Replanting shall occur during April / June.
3. Wetland preparation shall occur during Autumn and planting shall occur during early Winter
after the first rains (May to June). If planting occurs in a dry late Autumn (end March) or
early Winter (April to June) season it shall be necessary to irrigate plants to ensure their
successful establishment.
4. Plant material shall be planted into the ground within a maximum period of 5 days after
delivery to the Site, unless otherwise specified by the Botanist.
13.6.5 Planting guidelines
Planting shall be carried out as follows:
Reseeding
1. Where broadcast seeding is carried out, the seed shall be sown evenly over the designated
area.
2. In confined areas the seed shall be covered by means of rakes or other approved hand tools.
Broadcast seeding shall not be done under windy conditions.
3. Drill seeding shall be done in rows not more than 0.25 m apart. The seeding shall be done
with an approved grain drill with fine seed attachment or a combination grass planter and
land packer or pulveriser. A combine grain and fertiliser drill may be used where
appropriate, as directed by the Botanist.
4. Reseeding shall only occur during a period approved by the Botanist.
5. The Horticulturalist shall demonstrate to the Botanist in a trial section that the application of
the materials required can be made at the rates specified in this specification.
Basis regrassing
1. Grass seed shall be applied at a rate that should be calculated by the horticulturalist and
botanist based on field trials and seed availability.
Planting of grass runners
1. The runners shall be planted within 30 hours of being harvested. Storage in the interim
period shall be in aerated bags under cool dry conditions. The runners shall be planted at
even spacing, by hand or mechanically at a rate of at least 70 grain bags of runners per
hectare.
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2. Only fresh runners, that are in good condition and have not dried out, shall be accepted.
These runners shall be planted in trenches not less than 50 mm deep with leafy ends, and
not roots, exposed.
3. The runners shall be well watered after planting and rolled with a light agricultural roller
when the soil has dried sufficiently, as directed by the Botanist.
Sodding
1. Prior to sodding, the area shall be re-inoculated with microbes contained within natural
sods. Sods of sedges or grasses shall be collected, as directed by the Botanist, and replanted
in shallow hollows for this purpose.
2. Re-inoculation shall occur during or immediately after a rain event. Inoculation sods shall be
watered lightly after placement.
3. Revegetation sods shall be planted in strips to reduce erosion.
4. Sodding shall take place on moist, rock free topsoil that has been scarified.
5. Sods, once harvested or delivered from a nursery, shall not be allowed to dry out and shall
be planted within 30 hours of being removed from the soil or growing medium. If necessary,
they shall be lightly watered prior to planting.
6. Sods shall be planted so they abut tightly against one another. The first row shall be in a
straight line with subsequent rows planted so that the joints are staggered. Any gaps shall
either be planted with a sod reduced to the gap size or filled with topsoil.
7. Where grass sods are planted on slopes steeper than 1:2, wooden stakes of 500 mm
diameter shall be used to anchor the sods in position.
8. In the absence of rain, sods shall be well watered after planting and not be allowed to
deteriorate through a lack of moisture.
9. Where grass sods are planted in the floodplain, wooden stakes of 500 mm in diameter shall
be used to anchor the sods in position.
Planting trees, shrubs and herbs
1. Where planting is not direct, the plants must be brought to an approved holding area in the
intended planting area where they shall be suitably maintained. The Horticulturalist, as
directed by the Botanist, shall provide sufficient shade and water. The operation of
relocation from the nursery to the planting site must occur on the same day so as to
minimise losses through death and to maintain or improve their condition at delivery.
2. During transplanting of indigenous plants care shall be taken to ensure that they are not
exposed to the sun. The roots as well as the leaves shall be covered with wet hessian to
limit transpiration during transportation and storage. Plants shall be kept in this state for as
short a time as is reasonably possible.
3. Planting shall occur as specified in this specification or planting/ landscaping plan.
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Planting guidelines
1. The size of holes shall be sufficiently large to ensure that the entire root system is well
covered with topsoil, without having to be compressed. The soil around the roots of the
plants being transplanted shall not be disturbed. Topsoil and subsoil from the hole shall be
stored nearby to be replaced to the same depth intervals from which it was originally
removed.
2. Individual spacing between trees shall be 2-3 m and clumps shall consist of 6-12 trees. The
trees in the clumps shall be planted in staggered rows of 5 trees per 6 m 2 with low to
medium tall shrubs planted between the clumps. The clumps shall be spaced at about 8-12
m distance.
3. In the case of transplanted trees up to 3 m tall, the hole size shall be 2 500 mm 2 500 mm
in width and 1 800 mm deep
4. Shrubs shall be planted 1-2 m apart around the trees and in the intervening areas between
the clumps or as circumstances dictate.
5. Plugs of herbs shall be planted at densities of up to 12 per 1 m2.
6. Bulbous plants shall be planted as features in selected areas and shall be protected from
moles and baboons using rock linings to the holes and surface soil.
7. Before the placement of the plant specimens into prepared holes, the holes shall be watered
substantially.
8. One to two handfuls of bone meal shall be added to the hole before planting.
9. Plants shall be carefully transplanted into holes.
10. Plant holes shall be back-filled using a mixture of two-thirds loamy to sandy topsoil to onethird compost. Where the natural soil is very clayey or heavy, sand shall be added at a ratio
of one-third soil, one-third compost and one-third sand. The soil and compost / sand
additives shall be well mixed to the satisfaction of the Botanist.
11. The topsoil shall be replaced at the same depth intervals at which it was excavated. The soil
shall be lightly compacted and well watered.
12. Care shall be taken to keep root damage to a minimum when transplanting seedlings.
Where plants have a taproot this shall not be cut. Excess foliage, flowers and side branches
shall be pruned as directed by the Botanist.
13. Coarsely chipped bark from pine trees shall be supplied and placed in a 75 mm deep layer at
the bases of the trees following planting.
14. Large rocks shall be placed around the base of planted trees in fire-prone environments.
15. Plants planted at the waters edge in wetlands and rivers shall be planted as follows:
a. Wetland material harvested from existing wetland areas shall be transplanted
directly to the newly created wetland area, along with as much soil, and surrounding
material as possible.
b. Indigenous shrubs and small trees shall be planted 3 m apart
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c. Palmiet shall be planted 1- 2 m apart
d. Bulrushes, reeds, sedges and herbs shall be planted in sods 0.4-0.5 m apart or as
circumstances dictate.
16. Plants shall be watered immediately after transplanting to ensure that the soil is wet around
the plants. If necessary additional soil must be added after initial watering to fill any
subsidence back up to ground level.
13.6.6 Traffic on revegetated areas
All revegetated areas shall be clearly demarcated and all not traffic (vehicular or otherwise)
excluded.
13.6.7
Establishment
Irrigation
1. The Horticulturalist shall be responsible for maintaining the desired level of moisture
necessary to maintain vigorous and healthy growth. The quantity of water applied at one
time shall be sufficient to penetrate the soil to a minimum depth of 800 mm, where
appropriate, and at a rate that will prevent saturation of the soil.
2. Water used for the irrigation of revegetated areas shall be free of chlorine and other
pollutants that will have a detrimental effect on the plants.
3. All seeded, planted or sodded grass areas and all shrubs or trees planted shall be irrigated
regularly at the specified intervals.
4. Grassed areas shall require irrigation coverage of 100% and a permanent watering
programme. The watering programme shall be modifiable to accommodate natural climatic
variations.
5. Revegetated areas shall require irrigation coverage of 100% and a modifiable watering
programme.
6. Were an irrigation system is required, the Horticulturalist shall be responsible for its
installation and maintenance.
7. In the event of a delay between the planting programme and installation of the irrigation
system, a water truck shall be utilised for watering, according to a programme approved by
the Botanist.
8. Every effort shall be made to reduce irrigation overspray onto natural patches.
9. The Horticulturalist shall water the planted areas as necessary, using a suitable fine spray
which shall not disturb the vegetation and which will not cause any erosion.
10. The Horticulturalist shall supply all water required and shall provide all pipework, pumps,
irrigation equipment and other plant necessary. All this infrastructure and its positioning
shall be approved by the Botanist.
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Fertilising
1. The ECO shall strictly control the use of fertilisers.
2. Care shall be exercised strict control when using such materials near sensitive natural areas,
so as to avoided contamination of these areas.
3. The ECO shall manage the fertilisation programme for different areas of planting.
4. Additional fertiliser shall be applied at the intervals specified with due regard to favourable
climatic conditions and the state of growth of the vegetation. Application shall be by hand
or approved mechanical spreader and shall provide uniform distribution.
5. Fertilisers shall be suitably sealed and stored in a location approved by the Botanist.
Weeding and mowing
1. All woody alien or invasive species must be controlled and removed.
2. Where seedlings occur sparsely, they should be removed manually.
3. Where dense stands of seedlings are present a suitable foliar spray (with a wetting agent
and a blue dye to indicate area applied) shall be utilised.
4. Larger individuals of alien/ invasive species shall be controlled by cutting or loping and
treating the cut stumps with herbicide to prevent regrowth.
5. Alien/ invasive plants and weeds shall not be stockpiled, they should be removed from the
site and dumped at an approved site or burned.
6. If, during the establishment period, any noxious or excessive weed growth occurs or other
undesirable vegetation threatens to smother the planted species in the seeded or planted
areas, such vegetation shall be removed.
7. The grass in specified grassed areas or on road verges shall be mowed at intervals ordered
by the Botanist/ECO. Grass cuttings shall be collected and disposed of as directed by the
Botanist/ECO. The grass shall be mown at regular intervals to stimulate lateral growth. The
first cutting shall take place when the grass is 50 mm high and thereafter the height shall be
maintained at between 30 and 50 mm.
8. If during the establishment period, non-indigenous weeds or other non-indigenous plants
are present in the planted areas, such vegetation shall be removed by hand.
Disease and pest control
1. All plant materials should be inspected at least once a month to locate any diseased or
insect pest infestation and appropriate measures implemented.
Pruning
1. All plant material shall be kept free from dead wood, broken branches, dead flower heads or
otherwise harmful or objectionable branches or twigs. All other pruning shall be done only
as directed by the Botanist.
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2. All pruning wounds greater than 12 mm diameter shall be painted with an approved tree
wound paint.
3. Secateurs and other cutting equipment shall be kept sterilised to avoid spreading fungal
infestations.
Tree establishment
1. Trees that die or become unhealthy from any cause or appear to be in a badly impaired
condition shall be promptly removed and replaced, or as soon as the weather permits, as
directed by the Botanist. All replacements shall be trees of the same kind and quality as
those originally planted.
Erosion control
1. In the case of surface wash-away or wind erosion, the Horticulturalist shall implement
remedial measures, as approved by Botanist, as soon as possible.
2. Appropriate erosion control/ soil stabilisation measures shall be implemented.
13.7 Rehabilitation and mine closure
13.7.1 Rehabilitation Objective
The overall objective of the rehabilitation plan is to minimize adverse environmental impacts
associated with the mining activities whilst maximizing the future utilization of the property. The
idea, therefore, is to leave the mined out quartzitic areas in a conditions that reduces many of the
negative impacts associated with a mined out area. Significant aspects to be borne in mind in this
regard is visibility of the mining scar, revegetation of the mining footprint and stability and
environmental risk in an old mine environment. The depression and immediate area of the mine
concession must also be free of alien vegetation.
Additional broad rehabilitation strategies / objectives include the following:
Rehabilitating the worked-out areas to take place concurrently within prescribed framework
established in the EMP.
All infrastructure, equipment, plant and other items used during the mining period will be
removed from the site
Waste material of any description, including scrap, rubble and tyres, will be removed
entirely from the mining area and disposed of at a recognised landfill facility. It will not be
permitted to be buried or burned on site.
Final rehabilitation shall be completed within a specified period.
13.7.2 Rehabilitation Plan
The overall revegetation plan will be as follows:
Ameliorate the aesthetic impact of the site;
Stabilise disturbed soil and rock faces;
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Minimize surface erosion and consequent siltation of natural water course located on site;
Control wind-blown dust problems;
Enhance the physical properties of the soil;
Re-establish nutrient cycling;
Re-establish a stable ecological system.
Every effort must be made to avoid unnecessary disturbance of the natural vegetation during
quarrying operations.
Drainage and Erosion Control
To control the drainage and erosion at site the following procedures will be adopted:
Areas where mining is completed should be rehabilitated immediately.
Waste Dump slopes will be profiled to ensure that they are not subjected to excessive
erosion but capable of drainage run-off with minimum risk of scour (maximum 1:3 gradient).
Diversion channels will be constructed ahead of the open cuts as well as above
emplacement areas and stockpiles to intercept clean run-off and divert it around disturbed
areas into the natural drainage system downstream of the quarry.
All existing mined areas will be revegetated to control erosion and sedimentation
Areas to be disturbed in future mining operations will be kept as small as possible (i.e.
conducting the quarrying operations in phases), thereby limiting the scale of erosion.
Existing vegetation will be retained as far as possible to minimize erosion problems.
Visual Impacts Amelioration
The overall visual impact of the proposed quartzitic sandstone quarrying operations will be
minimised by the following mitigating measures:
Integrating the quarry into the existing land slope
Re-topsoiling and vegetating all disturbed areas
Use indigenous trees around the perimeter of the mine to mask quarry scars.
Topsoil and Subsoil Replacement
Topsoil and subsoil will be stripped separately from the area of each year of mining. The topsoil and
subsoil removed from the initial cut will be stockpiled separately and only used in rehabilitation
work towards the end of the quarrying operation. This is in contract to the gravel mining operation
where rehabilitation and topsoil replacement was earmarked at the completion of each phase.
Stripped overburden will be backfilled into the worked out areas and used to soften quarry slopes
where needed. Stripped topsoil will be spread over the re-profiled areas to an adequate depth to
encourage plant regrowth. The vegetative cover will be stripped with the thin topsoil layer to
provide organic matter to the relayed material and to ensure that the seed store contained in the
topsoil is not diminished. Reseeding may be required should the stockpiles stand for too long and be
considered barren from a seed bank point of view. Stockpiles should ideally be stored for no longer
than a year.
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The topsoil and overburden will be keyed into the reprofiled surfaces to ensure that they are not
eroded or washed away. The topsoiled surface will be left fairly rough to enhance seedling
establishment, reduce water run-off and increase filtration.
13.7.3 Monitoring and Reporting
Adequate management, maintenance and monitoring will be carried out annually by the applicant to
ensure successful rehabilitation of the property until a closure certificate is obtained.
To minimise adverse environmental impacts associated with quarrying operations it is intended to
adopt a progressive rehabilitation programme, which will entail carrying out the proposed
rehabilitation procedures concurrently with quarrying activities.
Inspecting and Monitoring
Regular monitoring of all the environmental management measures and components shall
be carried out to ensure that the provisions of this programme are adhered to.
Ongoing and regular reporting of the progress of implementation of this programme will be
done. An environmental audit shall be carried out by an independent consultant on an
annual/biannual basis.
Any change to the mining process needs to be documented during the audit process and the
necessary changes recorded to facilitate future mining operations and audit investigations.
Inspections and monitoring shall be carried out on both the implementation of the
programme and the impact on plant life.
13.8 Testing
13.8.1
Seed
Harvested seed
1. Purification shall be to an agreed standard.
2. The quantities and quality of bulk harvested seed shall be assessed according to seed to
volume ratios.
13.8.2 Responsibility for establishing an acceptable cover
1. Where only indigenous seed, harvested from the site, has been used, acceptable cover shall
mean that:
a. Not less than 60% of the area seeded shall be covered with acceptable plants; and
b. There shall be no bare patches greater than 800 mm in maximum dimension
through the area, except where large rocks or boulders occur.
2. Where commercial grass seed is used, acceptable cover shall mean that:
a. Not less than 75% of the area seeded shall be covered with grass; and
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b. There shall be no bare patches greater than 500 mm in maximum dimension.
3. In the case of grass sodding, acceptable cover shall mean that the full area shall be covered
with live grass at the end of any period not less than three months after sodding. Where this
cover is not achieved, plant additional grass and tend it in a similar manner to the original
planting until the acceptable cover is achieved.
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14 References
1. Campbell, B, P. Frost, and N. Byron. 1996. Miombo woodlands and their use: overview and
key issues. Pages 1-10 in B. Campbell, editor. The Miombo in Transition: Woodlands and
Welfare in Africa. CFIOR, Bogor.
2. Dean, W.R.J. 2000. The Birds of Angola: An annotated checklist. BOU Checklist No. 18. British
Ornithologists’ Union, Herts, U.K.
3. Frost, P. 1996. The ecology of miombo woodlands. Pages 11-57 in B. Campbell, editor. The
Miombo in Transition: Woodlands and Welfare in Africa. CFIOR, Bogor.
4. Huntley, B.J. 1974. Outlines of wildlife conservation in Angola. Journal of the southern
African Wildlife Management Association 4: 157-166.
5. Huntley, B.J. and E.M. Matos. 1992. Biodiversity: Angolan environmental status quo
assessment report. IUCN Regional Office for Southern Africa, Harare.
6. Huntley, B.J. and E.M. Matos. 1994. Botanical diversity and its conservation in Angola. Pages
53-74 in B.J. Huntley, editor. Botanical Diversity in Southern Africa. Strelitzia. National
Botanical Institute, Pretoria.
7. Leteinturier, B. 2002. Evaluation du potentiel phytocénotique des gisements
cuprifères d’Afrique Centro – Australe en vue de la phytoremediation de sites
pollués par l’activité minière. Ph D Thesis : 361p.
8. Malaisse, F. 1978. High termitaria. M.J.A. Werger, editor. Biogeography and Ecology of
Southern Africa. W. Junk, The Hague.
9. Malaisse, F; Baker, A.J.M. & Ruelle, S. 1999. Diversity of plant communities and leaf heavy
metal content at Luiswishi copper/cobalt mineralization, Upper Kataga, Dem. Rep. Congo.
Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 3 (2), 104 – 114.
10. Poynton, J.C. and D.G. Broadley. 1978. The Herpetofauna. M.J.A. Werger, editor.
Biogeography and Ecology of Southern Africa. W. Junk, The Hague.
11. Stuart, S.N., R.J. Adams, and M. Jenkins. 1990. Biodiversity in sub-Saharan Africa and its
islands. Occasional Papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 6.
12. Texeira, J. B. 1968. Angola. In I. Hedberg and O. Hedberg, editors. Conservation of vegetation
in Africa south of the Sahara. Acta Phytogeographica Suecica 54:193-197.
13. Udvardy, M.D.F. A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world. IUCN
Occasional Paper No. 18 (International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources, Morges, Switzerland, 1975).
14. Werger, M.J.A. and B.J. Coetzee. 1978. The Sudano-Zambezian Region. M.J.A. Werger,
editor. Biogeography and Ecology of Southern Africa. W. Junk, The Hague.
15. White, F. 1983. The vegetation of Africa. A descriptive memoir to accompany the
UNESCO/AETFAT/UNSO Vegetation Map of Africa (3 Plates, North-western Africa, Northeastern Africa, and Southern Africa, 1:5,000,000). UNESCO, Paris.
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Appendix 1: Maps
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Map 1: Classification of Landsat Image (AMC).
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Map 2: Draft vegetation map of the site.
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Appendix 2: Plates
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Plate 1: Miombo Woodland overlooking view of intact canopy.
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Plate 2: Miombo Woodland view of undisturbed understory.
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Plate 3: Miombo Woodland clearing of trees for charcoal production.
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Plate 4: Miombo Woodland examples of disturbances (A): paths; (B) exotic invasion by Solanum mauritianum in disturbed area; (C) powerline servitude with regeneration; (D) charcoal
burning kiln.
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Plate 5: Examples of agricultural fields and gardens within cleared areas of Miombo woodland:
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Plate 6: Dambo wetland on Kisankala river with Gallery Forest (B) at seep.
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Plate 7: Source of Kii stream with Gallery Forest and riparian vegetation cleared for agriculture.
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Plate 8: Examples of Riparian vegetation along Kisankala and Kii streams during non-rainy period showing clear water without sediment load.
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Plate 9: Disturbances at Kisankala Dambo and Gallery Forest (A) washing area; (B) road to the south; (C) road crossing the Dambo with (D) siltation after heavy rain.
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Plate 10: (A) Gallery Forest pocket on the Kisankala river to the west of the concession; (B) washing area at same point as (A); erosion from overburden at Kalukundi fragment; (D)
stormwater through Kisankala village during downpour collects sediment which runs into Kisankala stream.
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Plate 11: Washing area on Kisankala stream downstream of Dambo showing sedimentation of the river and riparian vegetation after rainfall.
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Plate 12: Sedimentation of the Kisankala river after rain downstream of washing areas west of the concession.
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Plate 13: Intact Copper-Cobalt outcrop shrubby savanna belt and wooded savanna vegetation.
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Plate 14: Intact Copper-Cobalt stone-packed steppe and crevice vegetation.
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Plate 15: Copper-Cobalt outcrop steppe savanna vegetation.
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Plate 16: Typical disturbances to outcrop vegetation as a result of artisanal mining and prospecting trenches.
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Plate 17: Erosion relating to overburden and mining disturbances to outcrop vegetation.
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Plate 18: Typical successional revegetation of disturbed areas on rocky outcrops with key pioneer species dominating.
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Jamie Pote