Useful Plants of Bas-Congo Province,
Democratic Republic of Congo
Volume 1
Paul Latham
Augustin Konda ku Mbuta
Title : Useful Plants of Bas-Congo province, Democratic Republic of Congo
Authors : Paul Latham & Augustin Konda ku Mbuta
Second edition : 2014
Copyright © Paul Latham & Augustin Konda ku Mbuta
I SBN No. 978-0-9554208-7-0
Note: This is the English edition of a manual produced in French to encourage the
conservation and planting of useful plants in Bas-Congo province of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo. Many of the plants mentioned are however present in countries
throughout the humid tropics of Africa so it is hoped the manual will be of use to farmers,
development workers and schools in the region. The first edition of this publication was
an output from a project part funded by the United Kingdom Department for I nternational
Development (DFI D) for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressed are not
necessarily those of DFI D. [ Advisory and Support Services Contract, project code ZX0077]
Warning: A number of the plants listed in this publication are known to be poisonous. The
authors do not accept responsibility for any harm resulting from their use.
Cover photo: Kalumba, Alphonse making up baskets at Kubana village from Mbamba
( Eremospatha haullevilleana)
“The best time to plant a tree is twenty years ago, the second best is
now ”
Chinese proverb.
This edition is dedicated to Professor Luc Pauw els, director of the
Kisantu Botanic Garden from 1968 to 1974.
1
The authors
Paul Latham is a retired Salvation Army officer, who has worked in Africa for over twenty
years, mostly spent on farmer training in East Africa. More recently he has worked with a
Salvation Army rural development programme in the Bas-Congo province, D.R. Congo and
was involved in the development of a beekeeping project in that province and the
preparation of a number of teaching booklets for farmers. He is married and now lives in
Scotland.
Paul Latham, Croft Cottage, Forneth, Blairgowrie, PH10 6SW, U.K.
E mail paul@latham9.fsnet.co.uk
Augustin Konda ku Mbuta is a biologist. He is a researcher in applied ethno-pharmacology
at the I nstitut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé (I .R.S.S.) in Kinshasa. He has been
the organiser of ANAMED D.R. Congo since 1996 and promotes traditional knowledge of
medicinal plants for health and welfare. Upon request, he hosts seminars and workshops
across the country on natural medicine for healers, nurses, farmers and teachers. I n 1999
he created and now manages Bumbu's Centre de Santé de Médecine Naturelle et
Moderne in Kinshasa, which puts ANAMED's knowledge into practice. He also manages
the educative and productive garden of medicinal plants at Mingadi, in Kinshasa's
suburbs. He has been a consultant on the biology of bees and bee botany on the APEFE
SNV project in Bas-Congo. He is author of numerous scientific articles on ethnobotanics
and co-writer of pamphlets and posters on natural medicine. He is married and lives in
Kinshasa.
E mail anamed_kin@yahoo.fr
Then God said, "Let the land
produce
vegetation:
seedbearing plants and trees on the
land that bear fruit with seed in
it, according to their various
kinds." And it was so. The land
produced vegetation: plants
bearing seed according to their
kinds and trees bearing fruit with
seed in it according to their
kinds. And God saw that it was
good.
Genesis 1:11,12 NIV
In humble praise of Him who has made all things well.
2
Contents
Volume 1
I ntroduction and acknowledgements
4
Useful plants of Bas-Congo
4
Map of Cataractes & Lukaya districts of D.R.Congo
6
7 – 284
Plants in alphabetical order
Volume 2
285 – 502
Plants in alphabetical order
Some unidentified plants used as vegetables
503
Some wild edible mushrooms
504 - 510
Traditional processing of cassava
511 - 520
References
521 - 532
Glossary
533 – 535
I ndex of general photos
536
I ndex of edible caterpillars
537 - 538
I ndex of Kikongo names
539 - 545
I ndex of common names
546 - 551
I ndex of scientific names
552 - 558
3
I ntroduction and acknow ledgements
The first edition of this book was produced as a result of a request by The Salvation Army in the
Democratic Republic of Congo, for a manual for use by staff of the Projet de Développement I ntégré
(P.D.I .) which operated in Bas-Congo province. The publication of that, and the present edition, has
been largely financed by salvationists and friends in the United Kingdom. The authors are most grateful
for their encouragement and support.
We would especially like to thank Professor Luc Pauwels, to whom this book is dedicated, at one time
director of the Jardin Botanique de Kisantu, for his willingness to share his knowledge of the plants of
the province and for helping us to identify most of them from herbarium material and photos. We are
also grateful to the late Kibungu Kembelo and to Nsimundele Nkondo, also past directors, for their help
in this respect.
We greatly appreciate the help of the staff of the library at the Royal Botanical Garden, Edinburgh in
researching information on the wider uses of the various plants. We would also like to thank most
sincerely Dr. Marco Schmidt and Dr. Stefan Dressler of the West African Plant database, Dr. Gaby
Schmelzer of the PROTA Europe office, Quentin Luke, botanist with the East African Herbarium, Stephen
Davis, database manager SEPASAL and Quentin Meunier, botanist specializing in tropical tree
propagation and cultivation, for checking this edition and for their valuable comments.
Our thanks also go to Dr. Hans Martin Hirt, the director of ANAMED, and to the ANAMED team in D.R.
Congo, for their voluntary work in helping people to a better understanding of the medicinal value of
the plants around them. Most of the information on the various uses of the plants comes from their
work with the people.
We would also like to thank the organizations that funded our visits to meet traditional healers
throughout the province. Among others these included:- l’I nstitut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé
(I RSS), Difaem, Buwetu, COE, Misereor, CFI -HFB, Dialog international, Diocèse de Rottenburg
We are grateful to a number of people who have kindly allowed us to use their photographs. These
have been acknowledged in the text. The book also contains photographs of people we have been
privileged to work with or have met during our visits. We wish to thank them for allowing us to include
them here. Unless indicated otherwise photographs were taken by the authors.
The province of Bas-Congo has been well researched in past years and the following sources of
information, have been particularly useful:- Gillet J. & Pâque E. (1910) Plantes principales de la région
de Kisantu ; Gillet, J. (1927) Catalogue des plantes du Jardin d’Essais de la Mission de Kisantu; De
Wildeman, E. (1934) Documents pour l'étude de l'alimentation végétale de l'indigène du Congo-belge;
Drachoussoff, V. (1947) Essai sur l'agriculture indigène au Bas-Congo; Renier, M (1948) Flore du
Kwango; Compère, P. (1970) Carte des sols et de la végétation du Congo, du Rwanda et du Burundi –
Ch. 25 Bas-Congo; Daeleman, J. & Pauwels, L. (1983) Notes d'ethnobotanique Ntandu (Kongo) and
Pauwels, L. (1993) Nzayilu N'ti.
Useful Plants of Bas-Congo
Bas-Congo province lies between the coast and Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. I t
covers an area of nearly 55,000 km sq. and has an estimated population of about 5 million. Soils in the
districts of Cataractes and Lukaya in which the study is based are either deep sand or clay. Altitude at
Kisantu is 530 m, with a rainfall of 1474 mm per year and an average temperature of 22° C.
Traditionally people have used a wide range of plants and plant products for their daily needs - poles
from certain trees for building their homes; timber for making furniture, tools and equipment; suitable
trees for firewood or charcoal; various leaves for vegetables; fruits and seeds which can be eaten, made
into drinks or used medicinally or to control pests; forage plants for livestock; food plants for edible
insects and plants whose flowers are visited by honey bees for nectar and pollen. The variety of
products obtained from the local forest or savanna is vast and life becomes progressively more difficult
if these resources are unavailable locally and have to be brought in from any distance from the village.
The importance of having good medical resources and safe water available for rural and urban dwellers
in developing countries has been well publicised but equal importance needs to be given to maintaining
the availability of a wide range of useful plants on which rural, and also urban life depend. Without
many of these products life becomes harder, particularly for the poorest.
4
The forest fallow, in particular, is a resource which is not only vital for replenishing soil fertility in BasCongo but contains a wide variety of useful plants and insects. Traditionally the area for fallow was
designated by the village chief and was sometimes enriched by scattering the seeds of valuable trees
such as Pentaclethra macrophylla and P. eetveldeana and of Millettia versicolor or the planting of Milicia
excelsa and various palm trees etc. (Drachoussoff 1947 p 492, see also Compère, P. (1970), Getahun et
al. in MacDonald (Ed.) 1982, Nsimundele Nkondo et al. 2010). Many villages however no longer
maintain the forest fallow system and have experienced real hardship through declining crop yields,
increased erosion and loss of bio-diversity. Where there is access to transport the increased demand for
charcoal has meant that trees have been cut down and removed before the fallow reached maturity.
Other causes have been the increase in population, the lack of properly maintained fire-breaks and the
invasion of the exotic Chromolaena odorata which smothers the often slower growing indigenous plants.
Yet it has been shown that the annual value of honey and edible caterpillars alone, produced from an
area of forest, can far exceed the value of food crops produced at the end of the fallow period off the
same area (Munthali & Mughogho 1992). On the other hand by systematically felling the forest every 15
to 20 years not only is maximum use made of the built up fertility for staple crop production, but biodiversity is enhanced, as species which are more light demanding are able to become re-established.
Though much maligned for being wasteful and inefficient the traditional slash and burn system of
farming does maintain bio-diversity and thus the range of products required by the village (Nye &
Greenland 1960). Areas of primary forest, such as would be found in certain forest reserves and
national parks, are also of vital importance in maintaining biodiversity.
Though the plants listed include some of the major staple food crops and exotic fruit trees with which
many people will be familiar, we have tried to include information on their recommended propagation
and cultivation as well as their various local uses etc. We have also included information about plants
which are less well known and for which information is not so easily found. A number of the species
covered are not normally cultivated and some are increasingly difficult to find in the wild. Some of these
plants are cultivated in other parts of Africa or elsewhere and farmers and development workers are
encouraged to try the various methods of propagation mentioned or to try out their own methods.
Again a wide range of uses is suggested for many of the plants and again some of the uses listed have
come from other countries. I t may be worth trying some of these out though great care should be taken
with some of the medicinal or food uses given as correct preparation is often very important. Where
there are other uses, which have not been mentioned here, we would be very glad to have information.
A companion volume, “Some honeybee plants of Bas-Congo province”, by the same authors, gives
similar information on a number of plants not covered in this book (see References in Volume 2).
A village near Mbanza Nzundu
5
Cataractes & Lukaya districts in Bas-Congo Province
Democratic Republic of Congo
Bas-Congo province (in red)
6
Abelmoschus esculentus
(Malvaceae)
Synonym Hibiscus esculentus
Common names Dongo, lonto (Kongo), dongo dongo (Lingala), gombo (Fr.), okra
Description An erect annual herb which may grow up to 4 m. high. Leaves are 3 to 5 lobed, spirally
arranged and may be up to 50 cm in diameter with a petiole of similar length. The solitary yellow
flowers have a purple centre and arise from the leaf axils. Fruit is produced during the rain season and
is a cylindrical capsule 5 – 35 cm long and 1 – 5 cm in diameter.
Ecology A few plants are generally grown near the home, often with other vegetables. The plants
prefer soils which are well drained, fertile, with adequate organic matter but can also grow on soils of
moderate fertility.
Propagation Seed is normally used and is best stored in the fruits until required. Soak seeds for 24
hours before planting, discarding any that float. Sow in deeply cultivated land and, if grown
commercially, plant rows 60 - 80 cm apart allowing 15 - 20 cm between plants.
Management Mulching the crop is beneficial as it provides a cool microclimate for the young plants
and suppresses weed growth. The terminal bud is sometimes removed to encourage branching. The
fruits should be harvested while they are still crisp and can be snapped easily. 4 - 6 fruits are produced
per plant over a period of 30 - 40 days. The harvesting of young fruits encourages vegetative growth
prolonging the harvest. Nematode damage is best controlled by crop rotation, avoiding growing on land
where okra, cotton, roselle or kenaf have recently been grown, and by applying high amounts of
organic manure.
Uses The young immature fruits (gombo) are either boiled or fried, being particularly liked in soups and
stews because of their stickiness. They may also be dried and powdered and used for flavouring. Leaves
and young shoots are eaten, both fresh and fried, either alone or with the fruits and flowers and are a
common market vegetable. Eating the plant is known to prevent goitre. The roasted seed can be used
as a substitute for coffee.
References Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tindall 1983, Siemonsma & Kasem Piluek 1993,
Burkill 1997, Schippers 2002, Siemonsma & Kouamé 2004, SEPASAL (Accessed 6.12. 2013)
7
Abelmoschus manihot
(Malvaceae)
Synonym Hibiscus manihot
Common names Kingombo (Kongo), sunset hibiscus
Description An annual or
perennial shrub 1 – 3 m
tall. The root system is
fairly shallow. I n the
tropics the plant is usually
perennial
and
rarely
flowers. Stems are erect,
woody and branching and
the prickly hairs found in
wild species are absent.
Leaves
are
simple,
alternate and extremely
variable in shape, colour
and marking. Flowers are
large, bell shaped, 7 – 15
cm diameter, pale yellow
with a dark brown or
reddish central heart. This
species has much smaller
fruits (3.5 – 6 cm long)
than okra. The fruits are
not normally eaten because they are covered with prickly hairs.
Ecology Originally from S.E. Asia.
Sometimes grown in compounds and
as a hedge. Altitude range 0 – 1,200m.
Grows best in well drained loams.
Propagation Cuttings grow slowly in
the first 2 – 3 months. However after
harvesting starts the plant develops a
compact bushy growth.
Management I n well weeded, fertile
soils or when mulched
produces larger leaves.
the
plant
Uses Leaves and young fruits are
eaten in Bas-Congo. The leaves and
young tops can be eaten either raw or
cooked and have a protein content of
up to 4.1% . They become slimy on
cooking. The plant is also grown as an
ornamental.
References Terra 1966, Nsimundele
1966 – 68, Gurnah 1993, Siemonsma
& Hamon 2004, Kibungu Kembelo
2010
Photos: Dinesh Valke
8
Abelmoschus moschatus
(Malvaceae)
Common names Dilendila, kingombo (Kongo), gombo musqué (Fr.), musk mallow
All photos: Phuong Tran
Description An erect hairy bush up to 2
m high. Leaves are extremely variable.
Flowers are regular, bisexual, yellow with a
purple centre. Fruit is a capsule containing
black seeds.
Ecology I ntroduced and cultivated in West
Africa. Possibly originally from western Asia
and Polynesia.
Propagation Musk mallow is grown from
seed.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the crushed leaves are used to
treat rheumatism. Leaves and young shoots are widely
eaten in soups or as a vegetable. They have good
nutritional value. I n D.R. Congo the crushed leaves are
reported to reduce the pain in rheumatism. Stem bark
yields a jute-like fibre which is suitable for string. The
seeds are widely used as a scent and to protect
clothing from insect damage.
References Staner & Boutique 1937, Burkill 1997, Sri Hajati Widodo 1999, Nsimundele 1966 - 68,
Kibungu Kembelo 2010
9
Abrus precatorius
(Papilionaceae)
Common names Ngenguba (Kongo), lucky bean
Description A sub-woody creeper with stems up to 3 m long and 1.5 cm thick. Small white or purple
flowers are borne in dense racemes and are very conspicuous. Seeds are bright scarlet with a black spot
at one end.
Ecology An introduced plant, native to I ndonesia. I n Bas-Congo the plant is frequently found in the
savanna but also in villages or around homes. I t grows throughout the tropics and sub-tropics in
thickets, clearings and secondary forest, often in slightly damp places and can be highly invasive.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the leaves are either eaten fresh or
boiled and the liquid is drunk to treat stomach pain, increase
breast milk in lactating mothers and to relieve coughing or
asthma. The seeds, after soaking in water, are used to
control intestinal worms and as an emetic but, unless
cooked, are known to be highly poisonous. The seeds are
also used as necklaces. The plants are boiled in water and
the liquid given to treat Newcastle Disease in poultry. The
roots are sweet tasting and resemble liquorice. Elsewhere
the leaf is commonly chewed or sucked for its sweet taste. I t
is boiled with food as a sweetener and eaten as a vegetable.
The plant has possible use as a green manure. The pulped
leaf and sap is used to treat sores, cuts and wounds and the
fresh leaves may be pressed on to the gums to relieve mouth
sores. There are numerous other medicinal uses. Stems yield
a fibre used for basket making. The flowers are very
attractive to bees. An extract from the plant is reported to
have virus-controlling properties.
Remarks A. canescens (nzala kwenda) is also present. The plant is rubbed on the legs of children who
have difficulty walking.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 -68, Wild 1972, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman &
Pauwels 1983, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Burkill 1995, Stoll 2000, SEPASAL (Accessed 6.12.2013)
10
Acacia auriculiformis
(Mimosaceae)
Common names Acacia (name used in Bas-Congo), northern black wattle
Description Usually a low to medium sized tree 8 - 20 m high, heavily branched with a short, crooked
trunk. I mproved straighter varieties are now being produced. Leaves are replaced by curved phyllodes,
10 – 16 cm long by 1 – 3 cm wide. The yellow flowers are followed by twisted pods containing small
black seeds attached to the pods by a bright orange cord.
Acacia auriculiformis grown for charcoal
Ecology Originally from Australia, the tree grows on a wide range of deep and shallow acid soils low in
nitrogen and organic material and is particularly useful for poor, sterile, sandy soils with a moderate
rainfall. However adequate phosphorus is needed for good nodulation and nitrogen fixation. Branches
break in high winds and the tree is not fire resistant. I t also does not withstand drought as well as
Eucalypts and will not grow in waterlogged soils.
Propagation Sow seed direct or transplant nursery grown plants. Seeds remain viable for 4 years.
Seeds should be put in boiling water which is then allowed to cool. Soak for 24 hours. Germination rate
ranges from 40 to 80% . Seedlings are susceptible to weed competition in the early stages. Cuttings can
be taken from young twigs.
Management Stems generally grow crooked though selection should be able to produce improved
form. The tree coppices poorly but, after felling, a good crop of seedlings usually emerge. Growth may
be up to 6 m in 2 years or 17 m in 8 years. I n
I ndonesia and Malaya annual wood production of
17 - 20 cubic metres per ha. with rotations of 10 12 years is achieved. Even on poor soils
production reaches 10 cubic metres per ha. per
year in moist conditions.
Uses The wood is mainly used for fuel, producing
from 16 - 25 tons/ ha. Timber is dense and has a
high energy value, making it popular as firewood.
The charcoal produced glows well and burns
without smoke or sparks. The tree produces a
11
I mbrasia obscura feeding on leaves
good fine-grained timber. Branches can be used for rough poles though they are often crooked. The
tree is planted as an ornamental or shade tree as it withstands city heat better than many others.
Tannin can be obtained from the bark. I t is useful for smothering coarse grasses including I mperata but
Chromolaena odorata thrives beneath it. Because of its densely matted root system it is useful for
stabilizing soils on steep sterile slopes. The fallen leaves produce large amounts of litter, which is not
eaten by stock, is nitrogen rich and builds up both fertility and tilth. Bees collect some pollen from the
flowers. Edible fungi grow
on the wood. I n Bas-Congo
Lobobunaea
phaedusa,
I mbrasia obscura, I mbrasia
eblis
and
I mbrasia
epimethea edible caterpillars
feed on the plant. Often
people transfer caterpillars
found in the bush/ forest to
an Acacia tree in the village
to rear the caterpillars and
sometimes will allow them
to pupate, in which case
they are likely to return the
following season.
Remarks A possible soil
borne disease frequently
affects trees and makes the
planting of pure stands risky in Bas-Congo. I t is preferable to plant a mixture of species.
References Leloup 1956, NAS 1979, 1980, 1983, Turnbull 1987, Mbuya et al 1994, Turnbull & Kamis
Awang 1997, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 28.2.2013)
Traditional forest fallow (nkunku) near Mayenga village (see page 4)
12
Acacia mangium
(Mimosaceae)
Common names Mangium, black wattle
Description A single-stemmed evergreen tree or shrub that grows to 25 - 35 m tall. Bark in older trees
is rough, hard, fissured near the base. The phyllodes, modified leaves, are up to 25 cm long and 3.5 10 cm broad, often straight along one side and curved along the other. The inflorescence is composed
of many tiny white or cream flowers. Pods are coiled when ripe, 3 - 5 mm wide and 7 - 10 cm long.
Ripening pods change from green to brown, becoming stiff and dry. Seeds are black and shiny.
Photo: J. Lejoly
Ecology Originally from the tropical rain forests of Queensland in Australia. I t grows well on disturbed
or burned sites, and on very poor and eroded sites invaded by I mperata grass. The tree can grow on
acid soils. I t grows best in full sunlight.
Propagation Most easily grown from seed but also grown by air-layering and from cuttings. Collect
pods when they turn brown. Dry away from sun and extract seed immediately. Seed can be stored for
up to 2 years. I mmerse seed in boiling water for 30 seconds then soak in cold water for 24 hours. The
germination rate is high. Seeds may be sown in seedbeds and pricked out 6 – 10 days after sowing.
Management Seedlings are transplanted into the field when 25 – 30 cm high. The site is usually
burned to remove grass competition and the stems are then trampled down. Spacing is normally 3 m x
3 m. Where there is heavy I mperata growth the area surrounding the young tree can be cleared with a
machete every 1.5, 3 and 5 months and between rows at 3 months. Canopy normally closes after 9
months to 3 years, depending on fertility. As the plant hybridizes with A. auriculiformis to give a poor
form of the latter it should be grown separately. Natural regeneration often takes place after fire.
Uses The wood makes good quality charcoal. I t is an important source of timber and is used for
construction, boat building, furniture and veneers. I t makes attractive furniture. However it contains
knots and flutes, is likely to rot and is often attacked by termites. The tree is planted to control erosion.
Because of its dense foliage, which is present throughout the year, the tree makes a good shade tree. I t
can also be planted as a wind or firebreak. Trees fix nitrogen improving soil fertility and can be grown
with maize or groundnuts.
References NAS 1979, NAS 1983, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 6.5.2013).
13
Acalypha w ilkesiana ‘Marginata’
(Euphorbiaceae)
Common names Acalypha,
beef steak plant, copper leaf
Description
A
densely
branched shrub 1 – 3 m tall.
Leaves are 10 – 20 cm x 5 –
15 cm, having toothed edges,
and are brown or green with
a
white
border.
Many
cultivars exist.
Ecology Originally from the
islands of the Pacific.
Propagation Easily grown
from cuttings.
Management Space 1 m
apart for a hedge. Pinch out
the
tips
to
encourage
branching.
Uses
Grown
for
its
ornamental foliage. I t is
widely cultivated in the
tropics as an ornamental, but
also used as a hedge plant.
The leaves and young shoots
are used as vegetables in
some areas, being eaten with
rice dishes. The plant is also
fed to livestock and is eaten
by rabbits and guinea pigs.
The flowers are attractive to
honeybees.
References Gillet 1927, Van
den Abeele & Vandenput
1956, Pauwels 1993, Burkill
1994, Hepburn & Radloff
1998, Mansfeld (Accessed
28.1.2013)
14
Acanthospermum hispidum
(Asteraceae)
Common names Madiata nzau (Kongo)(diata = be crushed, nzau = elephant; the elephant crushes
the plant without it being harmed), hispid starbur, bristly starbur
Description An erect much branched, bushy annual up to 60 cm high having hard spiny bracts. The
plant is feared by anyone going barefoot! Stems are covered
with coarse white hairs. Leaves are simple 6 – 8 cm long by
2 – 4 cm broad. The flowers are pale greenish-yellow. The
fruits are star shaped achenes (small, dry, thin walled fruits)
covered with sharp hooked bracts, two of which are horn
shaped and longer than the others. This feature
differentiates it from A. australe which is also present.
Ecology Originally from tropical America. A common weed
of cultivation, pastures, roadsides and widespread in West,
Central and East Africa.
Propagation The plant reproduces by seed. The fruits
attach themselves to clothing and animal fur.
Uses I n Bas-Congo an extract of the leaves is used as an
anti-spasmodic, and to treat eczema and haemorrhoids. The
leaves, mixed with chalk and oil are rubbed on the body to
improve strength. Honeybees were seen collecting pollen
and nectar in December.
Photo: Dinesh Valke
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985,
Agyakwa & Akobundu 1987, Neuwinger 2000
15
Acosmium panamense
(Papilionaceae)
Common names Bilihuete (Fr.), Billyweb Sweetia
Description A tree growing up to 40 m high. The trees seen at Lembulu were 8 - 10 m high and were
seen in flower in January and February.
Acosmium panamense in secondary forest at Lembulu
Ecology An introduced tree from South and Central America.
Uses The tree makes a good fire break and is recommended for use in re-afforestation. I t has a bitter
bark, which is used for the treatment of scrofula and malaria. Wood is strong and durable and can be
used for tool handles and heavy construction work. The tree is reported locally as a good bee fodder
with abundant flowering.
Acosmium
panamense bearing
fruit at Nkundi
in Manianga District
References
Uphof
1968, Pauwels et al.
1999.
16
Acridocarpus smeathmannii
(Malpighiaceae)
Description A straggling or climbing shrub growing 3 - 4.5 m high. Stems may be up to 6 cm in
diameter. Young shoots are rust coloured, older stems being green and grey. Leaves are up to 12 cm
long and 5 cm wide, thick and become narrower at the base. Flowers are yellow. The bright red-purple
fruits have wings and are 5 cm long by 1.5 cm wide.
Acridocarpus smeathmannii growing beside the track near Kinsambi
Ecology I n forests the plant grows as a creeper, in savanna as a shrub. I t is usually present in forests
near water, though plants are also present in savanna woodland. Present from Liberia to Angola.
Uses The shrub is sometimes grown as an ornamental. I n Nigeria the leaf sap is used as an eye lotion.
I t is also used to treat Onchocerca worm infection and taken internally for fever. The root is pounded
and taken in a decoction for colic and constipation.
References I rvine 1961, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Bongers et al. 2005
17
Adansonia digitata
(Bombacaceae)
Common names Nkondo (Kongo), pain de singe (Fr.), monkey bread, baobab
Description A massive deciduous tree
with a bottle shaped trunk and not more
than 20 m tall. I t may have a girth of 20
m. Leaves are shed in the dry season.
Ecology The tree is sometimes found on
the site of old villages though is not
particularly common in Cataractes and
Lukaya districts of Bas-Congo. Found in
most countries south of the Sahara. Grows
on well drained soils and is drought
resistant.
Propagation Can be grown from seed. I mmerse in hot water, allow
to cool and then soak for 24 hours. Seed can be stored for a long time
if kept cool and dry. Germination takes place over a period of 3 - 6
months, but good seed can germinate after 30 - 50 days. Seedlings
are fragile during their early stages.
Management The tree is fire and termite resistant and coppices well.
Right: I nside the fruit pod showing the
edible pulp
Uses The dry pulp surrounding the
seeds is eaten. The pulp is high in
vitamin C and can be made into a
refreshing drink which is taken to treat
fever and dysentery. I t is also used to
curdle milk and to coagulate the latex
of Landolphia heudelotii. The seeds can be ground up to make a flour
which is then boiled and eaten or used to make a cake. Though the
leaves are rich in vitamin C, and are eaten as spinach elsewhere, they
do not appear to be eaten in Bas-Congo. They can also be dried and
powdered and used in soups. Fallen leaves provide a good livestock
fodder in the dry season. Young foliage is sometimes cut for the same
purpose. Roots may be cooked and eaten or used as a tonic after a
bout of malaria. A soluble red dye is obtained from the root. I n some
drought prone countries the trunk, after being hollowed out, is used to
store water. Fibre from the inner bark is strong and durable and widely
used for rope, baskets, nets and cloth making. Glue is made from the
pollen mixed with water. The ash from the bark and fruit, boiled in oil,
f it
is used as soap. The smoke from burnt pith is used to smoke fish and keep insects away from stock.
The fruit shells are used to make utensils. The fruit can be fed to livestock. The roots and bark are used
medicinally. The flowers are attractive to bees.
18
The leaves are also rich in
vitamin C
Remarks
Pollination is
mainly by bats, moths and
flies.
References De Wildeman
1903, Gillet 1927, De
Wildeman 1934, Wickens
1982,
Daeleman
&
Pauwels 1983, Pauwels
1993, Mbuya et al. 1994,
HDRA 2000, Nsimundele
2004, SEPASAL (Accessed
6.12.2013)
Preparing land for planting in Manianga district. Grass is put in heaps, covered over with soil and then
set on fire. Cassava cuttings are planted in the mounds.
19
Adenia lobata
(Passifloraceae)
Common names N’kenketi, mupemba, kalawanti (Kongo)
Description A large semi-woody to woody creeper from 5 - 45 m long. The stem may be round or
angled and up to 2.5 cm in diameter. Leaves are 3.5 - 25 cm long by 2 - 20 cm wide. Male and female
flowers are separate.
Adenia lobata growing on a pergola near Kisantu
Ecology Found in dense, swamp and riverine forest which may be flooded. Also in secondary or open
forest, and sometimes associated with termite mounds in wooded savanna.
Rwanda, Burundi, Ethiopia, Angola, Mozambique and from Senegal to Sudan.
I t is also present in
Propagation Can be grown from
cuttings.
Management
The plant grows
strongly and can be trained to grow
over a pergola in a similar fashion
to passion fruit.
Uses The leaves are occasionally
eaten as a vegetable in Bas-Congo
and elsewhere. They are finely cut
before cooking. The leaves of other
species of Adenia are also known to
be edible. I f the stem is cut, as
much as a glass of liquid is
produced, which can be drunk.
Stems, leaves and leafy twigs have
various medicinal uses. As with
other species of Adenia, the flowers
are very attractive to bees. Stems are used for tying items temporarily.
Remarks The plant regenerates rapidly after bush fires.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, Williamson 1975, Ambougou 1991, Peters et
al. 1992, Konda et al. 1992, FAC 1995, Burkill 1997
20
Aerva lanata
(Amaranthaceae)
Common name Muana nkasi (Kongo)
Photo: Dinesh Valke
Description A straggling, succulent herb, up to about 1 m long growing from a perennial woody
rootstock. The stem and branches are covered with yellowish shaggy hairs. Leaves are small, alternate
and 1 - 2 cm long. Flowers are produced almost throughout the year.
Ecology Grows in fallow land, around villages and common along roadsides, in abandoned fields, damp
sites and waste places. I t is present from Sierra Leone to southern Nigeria and across to East Africa.
Also present in I ndia, Sri Lanka and Malaysia.
Uses The leaves are edible and livestock also eat them. I n Bas-Congo an infusion of the plant is used to
treat diarrhoea. The leaves are also used to relieve stomach-ache.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Burkill 1985, Bunyapraphatsara
& Lemmens 1999, Neuwinger 2000
21
Aframomum alboviolaceum
(Zingiberaceae)
Common names Kitundibila, ntundibila, ntundulu (Kongo)
Description A herbaceous plant
with creeping rhizomes relatively
deeply buried, producing stems
up to 3 m high.
Ecology
Common
in
the
savanna in Bas-Congo. Found in
the tall grass - tree savanna
from Guinea to east Cameroon
and south to Zambia.
Uses The fruit, called ntundulu,
has an acid flavour and is very
refreshing. I t is often eaten to
ease thirst and fatigue on a
journey and is also given to
children to ease coughing. The
young shoots are chewed to
ease
toothache
and
treat
swollen gums. The leaves are
boiled, together with those of
Alchornea cordifolia, and the
vapour inhaled to reduce fever.
The sap from the rhizome is
boiled and eaten with honey to
expel worms.
Fruit of Kitundibila
Nkombo nseke, I mbrasia anthina, and I mbrasia alopia
edible caterpillars feed on the leaves.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Delaude & Breyne
1971, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Kibungu Kembelo
1995, Malaisse 1997, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000,
Ruffo et al. 2002, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo
2010
22
Aframomum angustifolium
(Zingiberaceae)
Synonym A. sanguineum
Common names Kinsansi, binsansi, dinsasa (Kongo), mtunguru, (Swahili), wild cardamom.
Description A herb, 1.5 – 4 m tall,
growing in dense stands with erect leafy
shoots, the stem consisting of long
tubular, sheathing leaf bases. Leaves
arise in two ranks from fleshy
underground rhizomes which are often
aromatic and rich in oils. Rhizomes are
extensive, up to 15 mm across and
covered with stiff red-brown scales up to
7 cm long. Leaf blades are 40 cm x 12
cm, and the tip suddenly narrows to a
point. Flower stalk is thick, 30 – 70 cm
long, and emerges from the base of the
leafy shoot. 4 – 10 large flowers grow in
a head of overlapping bracts about 6 cm
across. The unusual flowers are very
striking, red-maroon-yellow-pink. Each
flower has a hooded or concave redmaroon petal, 4 cm x 2 cm, 2 narrow
pale pink lateral petals and a yelloworange lower lip, about 7 cm long x 4 cm
across which curls underneath. Fruit is a
tough orange-red black berry with a
smooth fleshy wall, oval, 7 – 9 cm long
including the calyx beak, 3 cm across.
The oval dark brown seeds are hard and
smooth, and surrounded by masses of
white
sweet-acid
pulp
inside
3
membranes.
Ecology Common in moist areas in
forest
undergrowth,
in
riverine
vegetation and at the edges of swamps.
I t does well at medium altitudes, 1000 –
1700 m, with a rainfall of 900 to 2,200
mm per annum. Adapted to various soil types but does well in sandy clay loam and sandy loam.
Widespread in tropical Africa from the Sudan to Mozambique and Madagascar.
Propagation Can be grown from
seed.
Uses The sugary pulp is eaten,
especially by children, and the dried
crushed seeds are used a substitute
for pepper. A volatile oil, resin and
colouring matter are present in the
fruits. The plant is also grown as an
ornamental.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910,
De Wildeman 1934, Watt & Breyer
Brandwijk 1962, Williamson 1975,
Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Ruffo
et al. 2002, Nsimundele 2004,
Kibungu Kembelo 2010
23
Aframomum melegueta
(Zingiberaceae)
Common names Ndungu zi nzo (Kongo), poivre de Guinée, maninguette (Fr.), Melegueta pepper
Description A bushy,
perennial growing from
a short, scaly rhizome
with
surface
roots.
Stems grow from 90
cm to 1.2 m tall and
are covered with leaf
sheaths up to 2 m
long. Flowers are up to
13 cm long, trumpet
shaped, pale mauve,
pink or white, growing
from the base of the
stem. Fruits are oval in
shape, red, 5 - 10 cm
long, with white flesh
and
contain
darkbrown
seeds.
The
whole
plant
is
aromatic, especially the
seeds.
Aframomum melegueta growing in a garden at Kisantu
Ecology
shaded
Grows
in
forest from
Guinea and into central tropical Africa. Widely cultivated with
other crops. Prefers well drained soils, even if rocky, but the
plant is not drought tolerant.
I t requires some, but not
excessive shade.
Propagation By seed or by division of the rhizomes.
Management Cropping commences after 3 years and can be
continued for up to 4 years depending on adequate weeding
and removal of excessive shading. Fruits are picked when ripe
and are usually sun dried.
Uses Powdered seeds are used in place of pepper and to aid
Photo: Quentin Luke
digestion. When eaten fresh with a
kola nut they are useful as a cure for
coughing. Traditionally in Bas-Congo
the powder was sprinkled into the
eyes of those suffering from sleeping
sickness. The seeds are also used
medicinally to cure female sterility,
haemorrhoids,
mental
disorders,
hernias,
mastitis,
rheumatism,
asthma, coughing and epilepsy. The
fruit flesh is edible, especially before
it is fully ripe, and chewed as a
stimulant.
Photo: I nna Moody
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Van Harten 1970, Lock et al. 1977, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983,
Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Abbiw 1990, Borget 1993, Burkill 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Kibungu
Kembelo 2010
24
Agelaea spp.
(Connaraceae)
Species present in Bas-Congo A. paradoxa, A. pentagyna, A. poggeana and A. rubiginosa.
Description A. pentagyna is a scrambling shrub or creeper up to 15, sometimes even 20 m long.
Agelaea species have 3 leaflets per leaf. Leaflets are broadly elliptic, the terminal one having the base
rounded or wedge shaped, with a pointed tip, 6 – 15 cm by 4 – 11 cm, with some hairs on the lower
Agelaea sp., probably A. pentagyna. growing near Kinsambi
surface (these are denser on the nerves). The white flowers are fragrant. Flowers are borne in terminal
heads 10 – 30 cm long. Fruit is red, egg shaped, 14 – 20 mm long. Seeds have a white aril. A. paradoxa
is sometimes common in the under-storey of mature forest. I t has small flowers growing from leaf
joints, and bright red fruits 3 cm long, containing a single shiny black seed with a bright orange aril. I t is
very similar to A. pentagyna.
Ecology With the exception of A. pentagyna, which is usually present in the savanna, plants are
normally found in closed forest. Range is from western Cameroon, D.R. Congo to Angola. I t is also
present in Kenya.
Uses I n D.R. Congo a bark decoction of A. pentagyna is taken for earache. I n Congo (Brazzaville) pain
in the side and chest is treated by scraping and drying the bark from the twigs and dusting with a
powder prepared from the twigs together with the roots of a species of Rauvolfia. A leaf-tea is drunk for
urethral discharge. I n Central Africa sap is dropped into the eye to treat conjunctivitis. I n East Africa
root tea is drunk for fever. I n Benin a decoction of leafy twigs is drunk with shea butter to treat
convulsions. I n I vory Coast leaf sap is dropped into the nose to treat haemorrhage and headache. I n
Madagascar wood tea is drunk for urine retention and general fatigue. The leaves are eaten by an
edible caterpillar in Bas-Congo. The liquid from the cut stems of several species of Agelaea can be
drunk. The flowers are visited by honeybees.
References De Wildeman 1934, Burkill 1985, Pauwels 1993, Beentje 1994, White & Abernethy 1997,
Neuwinger 2000
25
Ageratum conyzoides
(Asteraceae)
Common names Mpata kasakula (Kongo), herbe aux sorciers (Fr.), billy goat weed
Description An erect soft, hairy, aromatic, annual herb up to 70 cm high reproducing by seed. The
stem is weak, branched and softly hairy. The leaves are opposite, ovate, up to 8 cm long and 5 cm
broad with a pointed tip and toothed margins. They are softly hairy on a petiole 5 cm long. The flower
heads are composed of clusters of about 10 flowers, each up to 7 mm across. The flowers are pale blue
or white. Fruits are slender and black and the seeds are dispersed by animals or wind.
Ecology A common weed around villages and in fields in Bas-Congo. Present in field crops throughout
tropical Africa, though not as common in drier areas.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the leaves are considered to be antiseptic and widely used for dressing wounds and
burns. They are also used to encourage sweating and reduce fever and in the treatment of
conjunctivitis and pneumonia. The plant has also been used as a substitute for salt in D.R. Congo. The
flowers are reported to be visited by bees for nectar and pollen.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Burkill 1985, Daeleman &
Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Pousset 2004
26
Albizia adianthifolia var. adianthifolia
(Mimosaceae)
Common name Mulu (Kongo)
Description A tree 5 - 10 m high. I t has a few wide spreading branches and a flat crown. The bark is
deeply fissured. Leaves are composed of 4 – 8 pairs of pinnae each with 5 – 14 pairs of rhomboid
shaped, densely pubescent leaflets 7 – 17 mm long and 4 – 9 mm wide. Flowers are white.
Ecology Present in moist savanna regions from Senegal to the Sudan and South Africa. A pioneer
species. The tree is common in Bas-Congo and spreads rapidly.
Propagation Can be grown from seed. Collect the pods from the tree before they split open. Seed
should not be stored for longer than 3 months. Ash is sometimes mixed with the seed to control insects.
Wild seedlings can be transplanted. Trials in Uganda on A. grandibracteata and A. gummifera showed
that root cuttings and air layering could also be used for propagation.
Management Growth rate is moderate and the tree can be grown intercropped with food crops
without affecting yields.
Uses I n D.R. Congo young leafy shoots, coarsely cut up, are eaten cooked. Fresh leaves are reported to
have a protein content of over 10% . Leaves are also used as a vegetable relish in Zimbabwe. A
decoction of the leaves is used to improve appetite and digestion in Bas-Congo. The timber is used for
pestles, carving and hut building, though it is coarse and soft and not resistant to termites. The
firewood gives a good heat but burns quickly. The wood is also used for making charcoal. The tree fixes
nitrogen. I n Gabon A. adianthifolia is reported as a bee forage. I n Bas-Congo it is the food plant of two
species of edible caterpillar ( I mbrasia eblis and an Anaphe species).
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, I rvine 1961, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Ambougou 1991, Konda et al.
1992, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu Kembelo
2010, Meunier et al. 2010
27
Albizia adianthifolia var. intermedia
(Mimosaceae)
Synonym A. gummifera var. ealensis
Common name Nkasakasa (Kongo)
Description A semi-deciduous tree usually 15 - 20 m tall. The crown is light, feathery and flat. The
bark is greyish and exudes a yellowish, clear gum. The slash is orange yellow and coarsely fibrous. The
leaves are compound with 5 - 7 pairs of pinnae, each with 8 - 17 pairs of small, sessile, rhomboid
shaped leaflets. Clustered heads of white flowers are produced in the leaf axils. The pods are straw
coloured, flat, hairless, oblong and contain 6 - 8 dark green, flat, oval seeds. The tree is recognized by
its flat crown, dark green foliage and rhomboidal leaflets.
Ecology I n Bas-Congo the tree is found in secondary forest and farmland and is fast to colonize any
clearing. I t is also present in Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, Sudan and Angola and is widespread in tropical
Africa.
Propagation See the previous species. I t has a moderate growth rate on most soils.
Uses The wood is light, soft, straight grained, yellow to light brown, coarse textured, tough and
springy. I t works well and easily and is used for general carpentry. As with the previous species the
wood is used for firewood but this burns quickly. I t can also be used for charcoal. Ashes are used to
make indigo. The trunk yields sassa gum which is used in the preparation of cosmetics and for book
binding. I n Bas-Congo a decoction of the bark is used to treat scabies. One of the Minsendi group of
edible caterpillars feeds on the leaves. Albizia species have promise as soil improvers because they are
well nodulated and fix nitrogen in the soil. However it has very specific rhizobial strain requirements so
some soil from existing plants should be used when planting the tree. The flowers are visited by
honeybees.
References Gillet & Paque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Allen & Allen 1981, Keay 1989, Ambougou
1991, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 1995
28
Albizia chinensis
(Mimosaceae)
Synonym A. stipulata
Common names Chinese albizia, silktree
Description A tree usually from 5 to 15 m high, but it can grow up to 20 m. The compound leaves
have from 4 to 14 pairs of pinnae each with 20 - 30 pairs of leaflets. The white flowers are 8 - 12 mm
long, in heads 20 - 25 mm in diameter, usually borne in terminal panicles. The corolla is white with
stamens up to 30 mm long. Pods are flat, 10 - 17 cm long. Seeds are laterally flattened and 7 mm long.
Albizia chinensis growing in the botanic garden at Kisantu
Ecology The tree, originally from the tropical rain forests of south-eastern Asia, which have an annual
rainfall of 1,000 - 5,000 mm, was introduced to Bas-Congo from Australia. I t is particularly suited to
poor soils.
Propagation Can be grown
from seed.
Remarks The tree resists wind
damage
better
and boring insects
than
Falcataria
moluccana
(syn.
Albizia
falcataria).
Uses Produces a soft, light
timber which can be used for
furniture and planking and may
be
useful
for
paper
manufacture. I t is sometimes
grown for shade in plantations
and for the fertility building
value of the fallen leaves. I t is
also reported as an important
Photo: N.J. Cordeiro, Tanzania Plant Collaboration
browse tree. The branches are
used for fodder at the end of
the growing season when the leaves are past their succulent stage. However they should not be fed to
livestock over a long period.
References NAS 1979, Pauwels 1993, Wagner et al. 1999
29
Albizia ferruginea
(Mimosaceae)
Common name Sela (Kongo)
Description A forest tree growing to 45 m high with spreading flat branches and a domed crown.
Flowers are greenish-white, up to 12 mm long, and are borne in small clusters on hairy stalks. They
have long protruding stamens.
Albizia ferruginea in flower near Gombe Matadi
Ecology Present in the savanna in Bas-Congo. Also present from Senegal to Uganda and south to
Angola.
Propagation Can be grown from seed or seedlings collected from the wild. See notes on A.
adianthifolia var. adianthifolia.
Uses A good timber tree with possibilities as an oak substitute. The timber is hard, easy to work and
resistant to decay. I n Bas-Congo it is often used for charcoal making. I t is a promising species for
afforestation and coppices freely. I t is probable that roots fix nitrogen in the soil. Minsangula,
Mimpemba, N'kankiti, Masela and Minsendi edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Bees were seen
working the flowers during September. I t is also known as a bee forage in Gabon.
References I rvine 1961, NAS 1979, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Keay
1989
30
Albizia lebbeck
(Mimosaceae)
Common names Langue de femme (Fr.), woman's tongue tree
Description A deciduous tree from 5 – 15 m high, with characteristic seed pods.
Ecology Originally from tropical mainland Asia it is occasionally planted in villages in Bas-Congo. I t is
tolerant to grass fires. The tree is not wind-firm because of its shallow root system.
Propagation The tree produces large quantities of seed which germinate easily after being put in
boiling water. This is then left to cool for 24 hours. Seed can be stored but must be quite dry. I t can be
sown in a nursery or planted direct into the field. The tree can also be grown from stem or root
cuttings. I t sprouts root suckers when its roots are injured. Shade inhibits germination and seedling
growth.
Management The tree is fast growing and can be pollarded
and coppiced. Because of its shallow roots it should not be
planted near houses. The young plants must be well weeded
for the first two years and livestock must be kept away from
young trees.
Uses The tree is sometimes planted as a shade tree and along
roadsides. I t is useful for erosion control and produces small
timber which is good for fuelwood and charcoal. The wood is
sometimes used for furniture and house construction but is
attacked by borers and fungi. I t is difficult to saw. Leaves can
be used for fodder. They contain up to 20% protein and the
The flowers only last a few days
flowers and pods are particularly valuable for fodder during the
dry season. The tree fixes nitrogen in the soil and the leaves
are useful as mulching and for green manure. The pounded
bark can be used as a soap substitute. Bees forage for pollen and nectar, especially at lower altitudes
and in dry areas. The light coloured honey has a pleasant flavour.
References Gillet 1927, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, NAS 1980, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994,
Mbuya et al. 1994, Burkill 1995, Agroforestree database (Accessed 2.3.2013)
31
Albizia saman
(Mimosaceae)
Synonym Samanea saman
Common names Arbre à pluie (Fr.), rain tree, Saman
Description A semi-deciduous tree up to 20 m tall with a wide spreading canopy. Bark is smooth.
Leaves are 15 - 40 cm long, with 4 – 6 pinnae, 7 - 15 cm long, and 4 - 8 pairs of leaflets. Flowers are
white below, pink above, solitary or in small clusters. Pods are straight with thickened edges, 12 - 20
cm long, containing many seeds embedded in a brownish pulp.
Ecology Originally from South America. The tree tolerates most soils, though it grows best in moist
conditions.
Propagation Usually grown from seed, though it can also be grown from stem and root cuttings. Pods
are collected from the ground. Mature seed is immersed in hot water for 3 minutes and then soaked
overnight in cool water.
Uses The tree makes a valuable shade tree and encourages grass growth below the canopy. The pods
are edible and contain a sweet-flavoured pulp. They are also eaten by livestock. The sapwood is a
cream colour and the heartwood dark brown, both taking a good polish and used for carving, furniture
and
panelling.
The tree grows
back well after
being cut down
and the wood
can be used for
firewood
and
charcoal.
The
tree
fixes
nitrogen
and
root nodulation
has
been
confirmed,
however fallen
leaves
are
responsible for
the
higher
nitrogen content
of
the
soil
surrounding the
tree. Bees are probably the main pollinators.
Both photos: I I TA image library.
References Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Katende et al. 1995, Agroforestree Database (Accessed
8.3.2013).
32
Alchornea cordifolia
(Euphorbiaceae)
Common names Kibunsi, kibunsila, bunzi (Kongo), Christmas bush
Description Often a scrambling, perennial shrub or small tree up to 4 m high. The stem
much branched and bushy when young. Leaves are simple and alternate, 10 - 28 cm long
16.5 cm wide. The leaf blade is heart shaped at the base, pointed at the apex, and borne
petiole. Male flowers are borne on long spikes while the female flowers are produced on short
is woody,
and 6.5 on a long
stalks.
Alchornea cordifolia beside water at Mingadi
Ecology Widespread in tropical Africa in forest regrowth and riverine forest. Found particularly in
marshy areas but sometimes in drier sites. I t will grow on acid soils.
Propagation Most easily propagated from stem cuttings, which take in about 9 weeks, but can also be
grown from seed. Germination takes place after 3 -12 weeks when directly planted into moist soil.
Management Coppice regrowth is vigorous and better than
many other species.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the stems are used as poles and the red fruits
attract birds, which are then trapped using latex smeared on the
twigs. Traditionally the fruits were used as a black dye for
clothing. The juice from the leaves is reported to be effective in
treating scabies. The bark is chewed for tooth ache and coughs,
and a decoction of the roots is taken to treat dysentery. I t is
widely used medicinally and the leaves have been shown to be
effective in the treatment of diarrhoea. The tree is reported to
Male flowers
improve soil fertility and is known to be effective in restoring
calcium levels particularly in acid soils. I t is one of the first trees
to re-establish in land infested with Chromolaena odorata. I t produces good firewood, stakes and
abundant foliage. The dried leaves can be used to make a tisane. The tree is recommended as a browse
plant for livestock. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees from June to August.
References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Castagné 1983,
Cobbina & Reynolds 1988, Kang & Reynolds 1989, Pauwels 1993, Slaats 1995, Neuwinger 2000,
Pousset 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
33
Aleurites moluccana
(Euphorbiaceae)
Common names Noix des I ndes, bancoulier (Fr.), candlenut tree, I ndian walnut
Description An evergreen,
monoecious tree, 15 m tall,
with
a heavy,
irregular,
crown, which appears whitish
from a distance due to the
white hairs which cover the
young growth. Bark is grey
and rough. The simple leaves
are borne in clusters at the
ends of the branches. Petioles
are up to 16 cm long. Leaves
are alternate, oval, 12 – 15
cm long by 6 – 8 cm wide
with entire margins and a
pointed apex. Male and
female flowers are borne
separately, the male flowers
more numerous and opening
earlier in bunches around the
female flowers. The olive
green fruits contain whitish flesh and one or two black seeds with hard shells.
Ecology Originally from the drier areas of S.E. Asia. I t is able to grow on poor sand soils. The tree is
sometimes grown as an avenue tree.
Propagation
Usually
grown from seed or from
wild
seedlings.
The
germination rate is between
30 and 40% and seeds can
be cracked, scarified or
heated and cooled several
times
to
improve
germination. Sow seeds 3 –
10 cm deep. Seed can be
stored for up to a year. The
tree can also be grown
from cuttings.
Management Plant out at
10 x 10 m square. The tree
can
be
coppiced
or
pollarded. Collect the nuts
from the ground after the
outer coat has decayed.
Sun dry and extract the kernels mechanically by crushing, heating and cooling.
Uses The wood is used for firewood and the seed for food and oil extraction. The tree is also useful for
shade and for ornamental purposes. Seeds have a high fat content (65% ) and may be pounded and
ground to a paste which then adds texture and flavour to food. Uncooked nuts are poisonous. The seed
oil, called candle-nut or lumbang oil, is used industrially in paints, varnishes, soap manufacture and in
wood preservation, for illumination in lamps and in candles. The fruit is used as a mild purgative and
against hair loss. A mature tree can yield 5 – 30 kg oil per year. The seed is used as a spice in
I ndonesia. The oil cake is a valuable source of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer. The tree grows well in
sedge infested fields. Wood is light and can be made into small items of furniture and implements.
References Gillet 1927, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Siemonsma 1999, van Wyk 2005
34
Allanblackia floribunda
(Clusiaceae)
Common names Nionzo, nzibu (Kongo), vegetable tallow tree
Description An evergreen dioecious tree
up to 30 m tall. Leaves are opposite,
elliptic to ovate, 8 – 25 cm by 3 – 8 cm
on short petioles. Flowers are produced
in a terminal raceme or panicle with short
branches, or flowers may be single or in
pairs in leaf axils. They are pinkish or
reddish, rarely white. Fruits are 20 – 50
cm long, containing 40 – 80 seeds which
are embedded in a pink coloured aril.
Ecology Present in the rain forest zone
from Nigeria, east to the Central African
Republic and eastern D.R. Congo, and
south to northern Angola.
Propagation Seed germination can take
6 - 18 months and germination rates are
very low. Cuttings can be grown in a
non-mist propagator and take 6 months
to root. Both male and female trees must
be planted. Seedlings are difficult to
transplant.
Uses The seeds, after being roasted in
ashes, are eaten in times of food scarcity
and are also used as bait in traps for
small game. The fat obtained from the
seed, known as ‘allanblackia fat’ or
‘beurre de bouandjo’ in Congo, is
used in making margarine. The
fruit’s slimy pulp can be made into
jams and jellies. I n D.R. Congo a
decoction of the bark or leaves is
taken to treat asthma, bronchitis
and coughing. The flowers are
reported to be visited by honeybees.
The bark is used medicinally in
Equateur province to stimulate
contractions of the uterus and to
treat swelling of the spleen.
Recently, the international food
industry has become interested in
the fat as a natural solid component
for margarine and similar products.
The wood is locally used, but is of
secondary importance. I n Nigeria it
is used for house construction.
Twigs
have
been
used
as
candlesticks. I n Gabon sap squeezed
from the bark is a component of a
medicine used to treat urethral
discharge. Small twigs are used as
chew-sticks or toothpicks.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910,
Gillet 1927, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Pauwels 1993, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 2012, Agroforestree Database
(Accessed 6.5.2013)
35
Allium fistulosum
(Alliaceae)
Common names Ndembi, bola, bola di nseki, niasibola (Kongo), ciboule (Fr.), Japanese bunching
onion, welsh onion
Description A perennial herb which grows in clumps up to 50 cm high. The welsh onion produces a
relatively insignificant bulb up to 10 cm long and 2.5 cm in diameter. Leaves are hollow and 15 - 50 cm
long. White flowers are borne in an umbel on a hollow stalk 40 - 50 cm tall.
Weeding Allium fistulosum at Cochards farm
Ecology Originally from north western China. The plant is grown particularly in Kinshasa (commune de
N’sele) and around Mbanza Ngungu. Widely grown in tropical Africa, it prefers well-drained soils with
plenty of organic matter. I t tolerates both heavy rainfall and drought, once established, and grows well
up to 2,000 m, but prefers altitudes over 1,000 m where it gives better yields.
Propagation By division of the clumps. The tops should be reduced by a third when planting out. Plant
at 24 - 30 cm between rows and 15 - 20 cm in the row.
Management Harvesting may be extended by detaching the outer leafy shoots from the main cluster
without disturbing the parent plant. Alternatively the whole plant can be lifted and divided. Plants are
usually ready to harvest 60 - 120 days after planting depending on the particular variety. Yield can be
up to 20 tons/ ha.
Uses A very popular vegetable in Kinshasa and Bas-Congo and also
an important commercial crop to farmers in the these areas. Leaves
and bulbs are used for flavouring soups, eaten as a boiled vegetable
with cassava leaves, fried with simsim, or cooked with pumpkin, fish,
meat, beans or eggs. A special delicacy is prepared using hot peppers.
The flowers (right) are an important source of nectar in areas where
the plant is grown extensively. Flowering is induced by low
temperatures once the plants reach a critical size. Blanched leaf
bases, produced by earthing-up, may be used instead of leeks. Plants are reported to reduce termite
infestation in the garden.
References Gillet 1927, Herklots 1972, Purseglove 1972, Siemonsma & Kasem Piluek 1993, Brewster
1994, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
36
Allophylus africanus
(Sapindaceae)
Common names Kinsamba (Kongo), African false currant
Photo: Marco Schmidt www.westafricanplants.senckenberg.de
Description A usually shrubby species, but sometimes growing into a small tree which may be
recognized very easily by its leaves. The tree branches low down and the young stems are brown and
hairy. Leaves are alternate and trifoliate, the terminal leaflet being the largest. Flowers are small
creamy-yellow and sweet scented. The flowers are conspicuous but very small, crowded into panicles at
the ends of shoots and very attractive to insects. Fruit is fleshy, near-spherical and red to black when
ripe.
Ecology Usually found in secondary forest, on forest margins and on stream banks in the savanna. I t is
commonly associated with ants and termite mounds in D.R. Congo. Widespread in West Africa and also
present in East, Central and southern Africa.
Propagation Seedlings or wildlings can be used when propagating species of Allophylus.
Uses The aril around the seeds is eaten in Bas-Congo. Minsamba and Minkelele edible caterpillars feed
on this tree. The wood is of poor quality. Elsewhere the roots and twigs are used as chew-sticks. Wood
is white, hard and dense but limited in usefulness by its small size. I t makes good firewood which burns
with a clear smokeless flame. The charcoal is especially liked by blacksmiths. Bees find the flowers very
attractive. I n the Central African Republic leaves are put in the entrance of beehives to quieten the
bees. The plant is used to treat headaches and tooth-ache.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, I rvine
1961, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, van Wyk & van Wyk 1997, Burkill 2000,
Neuwinger 2000, Harris & Wortley 2008, Odugbemi 2008, Malaisse 2010, Fayaz 2011
37
Aloe buettneri
(Aloaceae)
Synonym A. congolensis
Common name Ba di
nseki
Description
A low
growing succulent plant
with spines along the
leaf edges.
Ecology I n Bas-Congo
the plant is found in the
savanna and is fairly
common.
Propagation
Stem
cuttings, offsets or leaf
cuttings may be used.
Cuttings root easily.
Allow them to dry for
several days before
planting. The plant can
also be grown from
seed.
Uses The leaf sap is
applied
to
sores,
wounds and especially
burns. I t is also used to
treat skin eruptions
(e.g. ringworm), pain in
the joints, inflammation
of the breast and as a
laxative. The leaves are
used to treat scabies in
goats. The flowers are
reported to be visited
by honeybees.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Daeleman &
Pauwels 1983, Renier 1948, Kibungu Kembelo 2003,
Pousset 2004
Left: Chopped leaves of Aloe ferox at the
ANAMED centre in Kinshasa.
38
Alstonia congensis
(Apocynaceae)
Common name Nzanga (Kongo).
Description A tree from 10 to 15 m high,
sometimes having buttresses. Leaves are in
whorls of 5 – 8, each being 8 – 24 cm long
and 4 – 11 cm wide. They have prominent
lateral veins. Flowers are in terminal heads.
The paired slender fruits hang down and are
conspicuous, being up to 40 cm long.
Ecology Occurs in swamp forests. Present
from southern Nigeria to the Central African
Republic and south to D.R. Congo.
Propagation A similar species, A. boonei is
grown from seed or wild seedlings in Uganda.
The pods are collected before they split open.
No treatment is required before planting.
Management A. boonei is fast growing. The
crowns should not be pruned, but allowed to
grow and replace older ones.
Uses A timber tree producing light, soft, white
wood, used to make musical instruments. The
bark, which is bitter and contains echitamine,
is reputed to be effective in controlling
intestinal worms. The roots are also reported
to have a similar effect. However the remedy
Young tree growing beside water
is said to cause some stomach cramps and
tightening of the throat. The bark, sap and
leaves are used in Equateur province and elsewhere in D.R. Congo to treat diarrhoea, painful
menstruation,
haemorrhoids, vaginitis,
sexually
transmitted
diseases,
rheumatism,
stomach cramp, hernia
and problems with the
spleen. Elsewhere in
Congo,
the
Mongo
people use the smoked
leaves to relieve coughs
and a decoction of the
bark to relieve chest
pains. I n Central Africa a
root decoction is drunk
as an emetic. A bark
extract is used to treat
malaria. I n Bas-Congo
the flowers are reported
to be visited by bees.
Bees are reported to visit the flowers of Alstonia boonei in Gabon.
Remarks As with A. boonei it is advisable not to plant the tree near buildings as the branches break
easily in strong winds.
References Gillet 1927, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Konda 1991, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995,
Neuwinger 2000
39
Alternanthera sessilis
(Amaranthaceae)
Common names Ndumbwa (ndumbwa = to be mixed), teta ndumbu, teta ndamba, taka ndumbu,
kindumbu (Kongo), brède chevrette, magloire (Fr.), sessile joyweed, dwarf copperleaf
Both photos: Wikimedia (Authors not known)
Description A very variable creeping annual or perennial herb growing to 60 cm high or more. Leaves
are opposite, 1 – 15 cm × 0.2 – 3 cm. I nflorescence is compact, 5 mm in diameter, solitary or in
clusters of up to 5, having very small and white to pinkish flowers which are borne in the leaf axils. Fruit
is a capsule about 2 mm long, dark brown,
containing 1 seed.
Ecology Present in dry situations but also in
swampy places in the savanna. I t is found
throughout West Africa and in warmer places
worldwide. The plant possibly originates from
tropical America but is now widespread in the
tropics and subtropics of the world, including
the whole of tropical Africa.
Uses Leaves are eaten as a vegetable in BasCongo. The plant is widely eaten as a cooked
vegetable or raw as a salad. I t is used to
treat fever, stomach disorders, diarrhoea,
dysentery and as a plaster for diseased wounds.
References Gillet & Paque 1910, Martin & Ruberte 1975, Williamson 1975, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983,
Burkill 1985, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Jansen 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Malaisse 2010
40
Amaranthus hybridus subsp. cruentus
(Amaranthaceae)
Synonym A. cruentus
Common names Mbwembo, ngwengu (Kongo), biteku teku (Lingala), amarante (Fr.), amaranth
Description An annual herb up to 2 m
tall. The leaves are twice or three times as
long as wide and often have pointed leaf
tips. This species is known to be highly
resistant to root-knot eelworms. A variety
called Bowa, with red and green leaves, is
also grown.
Ecology Cultivated throughout the tropics
and subtropics. The growth rate is best at
high temperatures, in bright light and with
adequate water and minerals. Daily
watering is required as shortage of water
causes early flowering, reduces yield and
produces a poor quality crop. Amaranths
grow better than Celosia in open areas,
the latter preferring some shade. The crop
responds well to organic manure, which
tends to encourage leaf production and
delay flowering. I t grows well on
decomposed town waste.
Propagation By seed, but germination is
irregular. Planting can be done at any time
and the seedlings can be either left in the
planting bed and harvested whole or
transplanted 20 x 20 cm apart once they
are 5 - 8 cm high. The side shoots are
then harvested as required. Tender plants
need some protection from heavy rain.
Right: Amaranthus dubius
Management
Harvesting can
begin 3 to 4 weeks after planting.
The crop is either uprooted whole
or cut back at a height of 10 - 15
cm to produce side shoots. Cutting
low down retards bolting but at least two leaves and buds should be left on the plant. Yields of 30 to 40
tons/ ha may be obtained. Wet rot or stem rot is a major problem, favoured by wet conditions and poor
soil fertility. Avoid planting too densely. Caterpillars, in particular, but also grasshoppers and stem borer
larvae, can be troublesome. Nematodes are not a serious problem.
41
Uses An important green leaf vegetable
with a high dry matter content (9 - 22% ).
Average protein content of 100 g edible
portion of Amaranthus sp. is 4.6 g. The
shoots can be picked regularly at 2 - 3 week
intervals and make good spinach. The plant
is an important source of vitamins A and C,
calcium and iron and also of Lysine, an
essential amino-acid lacking in diets based
on cassava. Protein concentration is highest
before flowering. No more than 200 g of
leaves should be eaten per day to avoid
oxalate poisoning. Two wild species A.
spinosus Bowa di nsende and A. blitum
subsp. emarginatus Nkuka bangulu are also
eaten in Bas-Congo.
Left: Nsunda, Jean Pierre with
a plant being grown for seed.
References Konda et al. 1992, Martin et al
1998, Schippers 2002, Grubben 2004,
Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
Kisantu Botanic Garden staff
42
Amorphophallus angolensis subsp. angolensis
(Araceae)
Synonym A. leopoldianus
Common name Ngoma kiula (Kongo)
Description A herbaceous plant growing
from a large underground tuber. A single leaf,
nearly 1 m in diameter, is produced on a stalk
60 cm long. The inflorescence is made up of a
dark brown-purple and white bract (below
right) enclosing the fleshy flower spike (below
left).
Ecology Present from D.R. Congo to Angola
and elsewhere in tropical Africa.
Uses The tubers are bitter, acidic and cause
inflammation of the mucous membranes.
However the tubers of other species are edible
after careful preparation. The plants are
sometimes grown as ornamentals.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Daeleman &
Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Fayaz 2011
All photos: © by Wilbert Hetterscheid
43
Anacardium occidentale
(Anacardiaceae)
Common names Nkasu, mabotu (Kongo), cajou, anacardier (Fr.), cashew nut
Description A low sprawling evergreen bush or tree up to 7 m tall. Trees with sparse foliage indicate
poor conditions. Shoot growth occurs throughout the year where rainfall is well distributed. Both tap
and lateral roots are very extensive. Flowering takes place after the growth flush at the end of the rainy
season. The flowering period may extend over 4 months. I nsects especially ants and bees are known to
be important for pollination.
Ecology Originally from South America. I t is
subspontaneous in Bas-Congo. The tree is
drought resistant and requires deep, friable,
sandy loam soils. Dry weather is needed during
flowering and as the fruit matures. Humid
conditions during flowering may encourage
powdery mildew.
Propagation Normally grown from seed. I t is
important to select large nuts from a high
yielding tree. They should not float when put in
water, and should have a high kernel to shell
ratio. Dry seed in the sun for 2 days and do not
keep longer than 7 months before planting.
Soak seeds in water first. Seed should be
planted direct into the field. Seedlings grow up
to 1 m per year. However if grown in bags first,
seedlings should be planted out no later than 7
days after germination. Plant at 5 cm deep, spaced at 15 x 15 m.
Uses Both the nut and
fleshy fruit are edible. The
kernel
contains
21%
protein, 44% fat and 29%
carbohydrate.
Though
average yields may be only
9.5 kg, up to 60 kg nuts
can be harvested from a
single tree. The apple is
rich in vitamin C and
riboflavin. I t is eaten fresh
or used to make jam,
syrup, juice or candied
fruit. The tender young
leaves can be used to
flavour rice. The leaves are
used medicinally to treat
diabetes and toothache
and the bark for high blood
pressure and toothache.
The
wood
is termite
resistant and suitable for house building. I t also produces a good firewood and charcoal. The gum
obtained from the trunk resembles gum arabic, is a good adhesive, insect repellent and is used for
bookbinding. Cashew nut shell oil (CNSL) is an important industrial product used in the production of
preservatives and for waterproofing. I t is also used for brake and clutch linings and in insecticides and
fungicides. The fleshy fruit is rubbed on the gum to treat toothache in Bas-Congo. Bees frequently visit
the flowers for both pollen and nectar. The honey produced is light when first collected but becomes
darker when stored. I t granulates slowly. The yellow, oily liquid from the shell of the nut contains
cardol, which is caustic and blistering. I t is mixed with chalk to make an ink for tattooing and marking
clothes.
References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Ohler 1979, Verheij & Coronel 1991, Pauwes 1993,
Lakshmi et al. 2000, Raemaekers 2001, Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
44
Some edible insects in Bas-Congo
I nsects are an important part of the diet in
Bas-Congo. Here a cricket, Nzenze’
(Brachytrupes sp.), is dug out of its burrow
underground. A tell-tale pile of soil on the
surface is the only sign to guide the hunter.
(See also page 267)
Right: Kungu nsudi grasshoppers feed
in groups, so can be caught in greater
numbers. They are also called
Fwetete, Matuana and Mankonko ma
matebo.
Left: Bunaea alcinoe
collected from
Cananga odorata on
the school compound
at Kavwaya
45
Ananas comosus
(Bromeliaceae)
Common names Kikakasi, nanasi, kifubu (Kongo), ananas (Fr.), pineapple
Description A perennial, semi-succulent plant, 50 – 150 cm tall. Leaves are gutter-shaped, up to 1 m
long and channel rain-water down the stem. Fruit can be 20 cm long with a diameter of 14 cm and
weigh 1 – 2.5 kg. Smooth Cayenne is the cultivar most commonly grown, the leaves having no spines.
Ecology Originally from South America. Low altitudes produce very sweet fruit while altitudes above
2,000 m produce acid fruit. I n Bas-Congo the plant is sometimes found growing wild in the forest but is
also commonly planted. Good drainage is important and the soil should be deeply cultivated and not
compacted. Cloudy days reduce growth and result in small fruits but intense sun during fruit ripening
can cause sun-scald.
Propagation Can be grown from suckers, slips or crowns. Suckers take only one year from planting to
fruiting, slips take a year and a half and crowns generally even longer. They should be stored upside
down in the shade until the butt is dried. Plant out at 50 x 40 cm.
Management Weeding is important. Remove unwanted suckers and slips. Protect the fruits from sunscald with dry grass.
Uses An excellent fruit which is rich in vitamin C. Fresh fruits contain a protein digesting enzyme that is
not produced commercially. Eating ripe fruit can help relieve stomach pains. Leaves contain 3% fibre,
known as lukonge (Kongo), which is used for tying in Bas-Congo. I n the past it was used for fishing
lines. I n the Philippines the fibre is used to make a fine fabric called pina silk. Slightly unripe fruit is
eaten to treat tooth decay and to expel intestinal worms but very unripe fruit is toxic and should not be
eaten. The water from boiling the roots can be taken to encourage urination. The unripe fruit was used
as an abortive and in the preparation of certain nkisi (prepared by the nganga nkisi = herbalist). The
juice is used to treat scabies or itch in goats.
Remarks Ripe fruit does not travel well, but though unripe fruit may be easier to transport, the taste is
often poor.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Nair 1980, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mukoko Matondo
1991, Verheij & Coronel 1991, Nakasone & Paull 1998, Raemaekers 2001, Pousset 2004
46
Anchomanes difformis
(Araceae)
Common names Dioko di kisimbi, kikwa ki bankita, mpansa makunsi (Kongo), forest anchomanes
Description A large herbaceous plant arising
from a horizontal rhizome up to 80 cm long by 20
cm wide, with distinct annual leaf base scars. The
stem or leaf stalk is stout, dark to purplish green,
speckled white and spiny, growing to 3 m high.
This bears a huge much-divided leaf, up to 1.5 m
in width. The flower is borne on a prickly stalk 75
cm long and may be pink, greenish purple-brown
or reddish-brown, 10 – 20 cm long, producing red
to purplish single seeded berries 1.5 – 2 cm long.
Left: Anchomanes difformis in
forest near Kinsinga village
Ecology Occurs in forested areas, sometimes
beside water, and in savanna woodland up to
1,200 m. Present from Sierra Leone to Cameroon
and south to D.R. Congo. Also present in Uganda,
Tanzania and Zambia.
Uses I n Bas-Congo both the leaves and the
underground tuber are used medicinally to
treat increased heartbeat, hernias and
rheumatism. The tuber is boiled with palm oil
and used to treat infertility in women. I t is also
used to treat hernias in men, being mixed with
the fruit of Oncoba welwitschii and Rhipsalis
baccifera and boiled up in palm oil. The
rhizome is eaten in times of scarcity. Some
people say it requires repeated washing in
water treated with ashes and prolonged cooking,
others report that it can be prepared just as for
cassava. I t can also be sun-dried and stored. The
rhizome is used medicinally elsewhere in Africa.
References Burkill 1985, FTEA 1985, Peters et al
1992, White & Abernethy 1997, Bown 2000,
Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003
47
Aneilema aequinoctiale
(Commelinaceae)
Common name N’lakisi (Kongo). This name is also used for other species of Aneilema and for
Commelina diffusa and other Commelina species.
Photo: Muhammad Mahdi Karim/ www.micro2macro.net
Description A densely-hairy herb with scrambling or erect stems up to 1.5 m high. Stems are covered
with long rusty brown hooked hairs making the plant feel sticky and clinging to clothing and fur. The
leaves are alternate, about 14 cm long and 6 cm broad. The inflorescence is a spreading panicle, 10 cm
long and 6 cm across, bearing yellow flowers which open between 7 and 10 am. The fruits are capsules
with two little horn like projections at the corners. The plant reproduces by seed. There are 4 species of
Aneilema present in Bas-Congo.
Ecology A weed of cropland and in forest, commonly found under shade and also in plantation crops.
Present from Liberia to southern Nigeria and in South Africa.
Uses No use is recorded for this plant in Bas-Congo but in East Africa and Zimbabwe the leaves are
cooked and eaten as spinach. I n East Africa an infusion of the leaves is given to children as a remedy
for kwashiorkor and it is also used as a face wash. Flower nectar and juice are used to treat eye
problems. An infusion of the non-flowering parts is drunk or the powder is taken as a snuff for colds in
coastal areas. Chimpanzees are known to swallow the leaves whole, not for food, but to expel intestinal
worms. I t is thought the rough surface on the leaves helps to physically extract them.
References I rvine 1930, Greenway 1937, Renier 1948, Wild 1972, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill
1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Peters et al. 1992, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Kokwaro 2009,
Wikipedia (Accessed 11.9.2012).
48
Anisophyllea quangensis
(Anisophylleaceae)
Common names Mfungu mfungu, mfungu (Kongo), mbila esobe (Lingala)
Description A shrub 20 – 60 cm high growing from a fibrous rhizome more than 1 cm in diameter.
Leaves have petioles 1 - 3 mm long and are 2.5 - 8 long and 1 - 3 cm wide. The fruits are red, 25 - 35
mm long and 13 - 20 mm wide.
Ecology Present in the dry savanna where it is often found in patches up to 10 m in diameter. I t is also
present in Gabon, Angola and Zambia. The plant has been over-exploited in some places.
Propagation Can be planted using seed.
Uses The fruits are edible and produced throughout the year. They are rich in vitamin C and have a
pleasant, refreshing taste. Honeybees are reported to visit the flowers. A decoction made from boiling
the leaves is taken for asthma. The roots crushed and soaked in water are used as an aperitif.
References Adriaens 1951, FAC 1987, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Nsimundele 2004
Erosion is often a serious
problem on the hard,
savanna soils. To protect
them, ridges for planting
crops should run across,
rather than down the
slope.
Photo: Emmanuel Miaglia
49
Annona muricata
(Annonaceae)
Common names Mbundu ngombe (Kongo), corossol, corossol épineux (Fr.), soursop
Description A shrub or small tree growing from 5 to 8 m high. Leaves are 12 – 13.5 cm long and 4 – 6
cm wide, hairless and shiny on the upper surface. Flowers are solitary and whitish. The prickly fruits are
15 – 20 cm long.
Ecology Originally from tropical America, the tree is grown in much of tropical Africa and requires an
annual rainfall of 1,000 mm or more. I t grows well in sunlight or partial shade and prefers fairly rich,
deep, well drained soils.
Propagation Usually grown from seed, which
can be stored for several months. Sow seed in
a moderately shaded nursery bed, in loose
moist soil, rich in organic matter. Germination
occurs after 15 - 20 days, but sometimes can
take up to 3 months. Transplant in a ball of
soil when 15 cm high. Seedlings or grafted
plants grow rapidly and usually bear fruit after
three years. Trees can also be easily
established from cuttings. Young trees should
be mulched and watered in the first year.
They are ready for grafting after 5 - 6 months.
Budding is carried out using a dormant bud
taken from 1 year old, well matured wood.
Management Generally planted out after 4
months at a spacing of 5 - 7 m. Apply manure
in the early stages and add mulch to keep the
soil moist and control weeds. Encourage the
tree to branch once it reaches 1 m tall. Hand
pollination improves fruiting. Fruits must not
be picked until ripe. Trees are sometimes
attacked by mealy bugs and scale insects. The
latter can be controlled with a spray made
from hot chillies and sugar-cane alcohol, but
preventing the ants, which carry the scale
insects, from climbing the trees, is a better
remedy. This can be done by wrapping plastic sheet, covered with a layer of grease, around the main
stem, just below the first branch.
Uses Fruit is eaten fresh, used in sorbets or sieved to
obtain the juice. The fruit pulp is rich in vitamins B and C.
The leaves can be made into a tea which causes
sweating.
Remarks The seeds are poisonous and should not be
eaten. An insecticide can be prepared from the leaves or
seeds of all Annona species. The spray prepared from the
seeds is more effective than from the leaves. Crush 40 g
seeds and soak them in 1 litre of water for 1 - 2 days.
Filter and spray plants affected by ants, aphids etc. Crops
can be eaten two days later. Crushed seeds and leaves
can also be used to treat head lice but great care should
be taken during preparation and use to see that the
crushed seeds and leaf pow der do not get into the
eyes.
References Gillet 1927, NAS 1975, Burkill 1985, Morton
1987, Garner & Chaudhri 1988, Veheij & Coronel 1991,
Pauwels 1993, Katende et al 1995, Stoll 2000
50
Annona senegalensis var. oulotricha
(Annonaceae)
Common names Kilolo, nlolo (Kongo), wild custard apple
Description A spreading, slow growing shrub or small tree from 1 to 6 m high. Established trees are
fire resisting and sprout readily from the stumps.
Ecology
A common
savanna species in BasCongo. Found all over
Africa in semi-arid to
sub-humid
regions.
Grows mostly as an
under-storey shrub on
light,
infertile
and
shallow soils. I t grows
best where water is
readily available.
Annona senegalensis
bearing fruit in January
near Kinsadi
Propagation
Use
seed, root suckers or
wild seedlings. Seeds
may be sown without
treatment, though scarification may improve germination. Seeds germinate well on recently cultivated
or burnt land. They are susceptible to insect damage and lose viability after 6 months. Root suckers are
produced after fire or by mechanical damage.
Uses The fruit is edible and good for quenching
thirst, but the seeds should not be eaten as they
are poisonous if crushed. Stems are used in hut
building and for tool handles. The timber makes
good firewood. Rope is made from young sucker
shoots. The soluble wood ash can be used for
making soap. The young leaves and roots are
used in Bas-Congo to treat diabetes, painful
joints, anaemia and epilepsy and the gum is
applied to cuts and wounds to seal them.
Elsewhere the bark, leaves, roots and seeds are
said to have medicinal and insecticidal properties.
Eating the fruit is useful for the treatment of
guinea worm. The leaves are eaten by
Lobobunaea phaedusa and Minsendi edible
caterpillars in Bas-Congo. Honeybees are reported
to visit the flowers from September to November.
References Butaye 1909, Gillet 1927, Watt &
Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Nsimundele 1966 –
1968,
Williamson 1975, Kokwaro 1976,
Arkinstall 1979, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al.
1994, , Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Agroforestree
Database (Accessed 20.11.2012)
Left: Minsendi edible caterpillars feeding on the
d
d bl
ll
f
leaves.
d
51
Annona squamosa
(Annonaceae)
Common names Pomme cannelle, attier (Fr.), sweetsop, sugar-apple
Description A woody, semi-deciduous shrub or small tree growing 3 - 6 m high. Fruits are sweet but
also slightly acid.
Ecology Occurs at low and medium altitudes
throughout the tropics. Generally, it does best
in dry areas and it has high drought tolerance.
The tree is shallow-rooted and needs a welldrained sandy soil.
Propagation Normally grown from seed,
which can be kept for up to 3 years, but
grafting is used to improve production. The
seeds germinate better if left for a week after
removal from the fruit. Germination may take
30 days or more but can be hastened by
soaking for 3 days, though the number
germinating is said to be better using seeds
that have not been soaked.
Management Pruning to improve shape and
strength of the tree must be done only at the start
of the rains, when the sap is rising, otherwise
pruning may kill the tree. Hand pollinating the
flowers can increase yields. Seedlings, 5 years old,
can produce 50 fruits per tree. With age, the fruits
become smaller and it is considered best to replace
trees after 10 to 20 years. I f picked before the
white, yellowish or red tint appears between the
rind segments the fruits will not ripen but just turn
black and dry. However if fruits are allowed to ripen
for too long on the tree, they fall apart.
Uses The fruit is edible. A highly purgative tea is
made from the roots, and a mildly laxative and tonic
tea from the leaves. Crushed leaves and seeds can
be used to control aphids and other crop pests as
described for A. muricata. The leaves may be put in
poultry nests to repel lice.
References Gillet 1927, Morton 1987, Garner & Chaudhri 1988, Veheij & Coronel 1991
52
Anonidium mannii
(Annonaceae)
Common names Mobe, mundenge (Kongo)
Description A tree 15 - 30 m high with a girth of up to 2 m. The trunk is short, dark grey to dark
green. The outer bark is thick and spongy, while the inner bark is fibrous and aromatic. The tree has a
dense crown with branches arching down. Leaves have petioles 0.3 – 1 cm long and are 20 – 40 cm
long by 7 – 17 cm broad. The tree is easily recognized by its large leaves and the flowers and fruits
borne on the trunk and on older leafless branches below the foliage. Flowers are either male or
hermaphrodite. Fruits are 20 – 30 cm long, green at first then turning yellow and finally black. I n the
botanic garden at Kisantu fruit is produced in January.
Anonidium mannii tree at Kisantu botanic garden
Ecology Present in dense lowland rain forest in Nigeria,
Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Congo and
Ghana.
Propagation Can be grown from seed though these are
often attacked by insects and fungi and are slow to
germinate.
Uses Fruit pulp is edible with a sweet/ sour taste, some fruits
being sweeter than others. Some people consider it the best
of the Annonaceae. I n the Congo pieces of bark are put in
water and the liquid drunk for gastro-intestinal problems. The
bark, fruit sap, seeds and roots are used elsewhere in Africa
to treat a wide range of illnesses including dysentery,
coughs, rheumatism, oedema, feverish stiffness in the limbs,
wounds, snake-bite, epilepsy, dizziness, caries, angina, to
ease childbirth, haemorrhoids, constipation, female sterility,
diarrhoea, asthma and rectal prolapse.
References De Wildeman 1934, I rvine 1961, Burkill 1985,
Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Danforth & Noren 1997,
Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Termote 2012
53
Anthocleista schw einfurthii
(Gentianaceae)
Common name Mpukumpuku (Kongo)
Photos of tree and flower: Jean-Luc & Pauline Alliez
Description A bush or tree from 3 to 30 m high
with a trunk 8 – 70 cm in diameter. The large
leaves may be up to 45 cm long and 3.5 – 18 cm
wide. Flowers are white or cream 55 – 60 cm
long.
Ecology Found both in the bush and savanna,
generally in dry sites up to 1,800 m. The tree is
common in Bas-Congo and is also present from
south-western Nigeria to Sudan and south to
Zambia and Angola.
Uses I n Bas-Congo a root decoction is taken to
prevent malaria, to expel worms and to treat
hard abscesses. The white wood does not last in
the soil. The leaves are eaten by Mimpemba
edible caterpillars. Bees are reported to visit the
flowers for nectar.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele
Mimpemba edible caterpillar
1966 – 68, FAC 1979, Keay 1989, Ambougou
1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Neuwinger
2000
Photo: L. Lemaire
54
Antidesma membranaceum
(Euphorbiaceae)
Synonym A. meiocarpum
Common names Zala di nkanka (= squirrel’s nest), fitidi, kifitidi (Kongo), pink tassle-berry
Left: Branch bearing
fruit
Description A shrub or
small tree to 15 m high.
Bark pale grey, slightly
fissured, pink when cut.
Twigs and young foliage
have a dense mat of
short hairs. Leaves are
3.5 – 15 cm long and 2
– 6 cm wide and rather
densely hairy on the
nerves and on the under
surface of the veins. The
petiole is slender, about
6 mm long and hairy. The yellowish-green flowers are produced on the main trunk and older branches
from just above ground level to 7 m. The male flowers have an unpleasant smell. Fruits are black when
ripe, very shortly stalked, oval, 2 – 5 mm long, in racemes up to 25 cm long.
Ecology Widespread in tropical Africa from Senegal to I vory Coast, and from Angola to Mozambique
where it is mainly found in
fringing forest in savanna
regions.
Right:
( Bisu )
I mbrasia petiveri
edible caterpillars
feeding.
Uses The leaves and an
infusion of the roots is
used to calm coughs. I n
Bas-Congo scrapings from
the roots are used to cure
mouth ulcers in children.
Elsewhere the roots are
used to treat pneumonia
and
kwashiorkor.
Powdered bark is used as a
dusting on wounds in
Tanzania. Bisu ( I mbrasia
petiveri) edible caterpillars eat the leaves of this tree. Honeybees are reported to visit the flowers.
References Kokwaro 1976, Burkill 1985, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Coates Palgrave 1996, Nsimundele
2004
55
Antidesma venosum
(Euphorbiaceae)
Common name Kifitidi ki nseke (Kongo)
Description A small tree with a straight, grey trunk growing to 2 - 8 m high. Bark is fibrous, grey or
grey-brown, and pinkish-brown when cut. Leaves are alternate with short petioles, oval to elliptic and
often rounded at both ends, 3 - 20 cm long and 2 - 9 cm wide, sometimes densely hairy on the under
surface. Flowers pale yellow. The male and female flowers hang down in spikes and are on different
trees. Fruit is white when young but turns red and then black in long pendulous spikes.
Ecology Found in woodland, forest margins and wooded savanna from Senegal to Namibia and from
Sudan to Natal.
Propagation Can be grown from seed and by dividing the roots. Collect the fruits, dry in the shade and
sow in a mixture of half river sand and half loam soil. Cover the seeds with a thin layer of sand and
keep moist and warm. Seeds usually germinate after 10 - 20 days. Germination rate is normally 70 80% .
Uses The wood is hard but brittle. Poles are
used for hut building and the branches make
good firewood. Fruits are edible with a slightly
acid to sweet mulberry-like taste. A blackpurple dye can be made from them. Flowers
are reported to be visited by bees. An infusion
made from the leaves and roots is taken for
coughs. Minsongo ( I mbrasia anthina) edible
caterpillars feed on the leaves in Bas-Congo.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927,
I mbrasia anthina
Wild et al. 1972, Pauwels 1993, Venter &
Venter 1996, Ruffo et al. 2002
56
Antrocaryon nannanii
(Anacardiaceae)
Synonym A. brieyi
Common names Kula panda, gonyo (Kongo), manga ya sende (Lingala)
Photo: Celine Termote
Description A large tree, 20 – 40 m tall, with a straight bole. Bark grey-brown to black-olive, peeling in
thick, concave sheets. Leaves are thick, 12 x 5 cm, reddish when young, hairy and 20 - 40 cm long.
Fruits resemble mangoes and have a strong turpentine-like smell. They contain a fibrous kernel with
very hard wart-like projections.
Ecology Present in old woodland on sandy soils in Bas-Congo. Found only in primary and secondary
forests in Gabon and D.R. Congo.
Propagation The nuts are usually dispersed by animals. The tree can possibly be grown from cuttings
using a similar method to that used for Spondias species.
Uses Fruit pulp is eaten, though it is very sour. The kernel has a nut-like flavour and is eaten raw or
may be pounded and added to season food. The tree produces an attractive mahogany-like timber
which is also used as firewood. The whole plant, but especially the leaf, is rich in tannin. An infusion of
the leaves is used to treat anorexia in Equateur province. A leaf decoction is used in a vapour bath to
treat rheumatism and feverish stiffness of the limbs. Leaf or bark tea is drunk to treat coughs and
stomach complaints. Antrocaryon species are reported to be important honeybee forage in equatorial
Africa.
Remarks The fruit of A. klaineanum (Ngongo - Kongo) is also eaten in Bas-Congo.
References Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Hepburn & Radloff
1998, Neuwinger 2000, Harris 2002, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 2012, Termote
2012, CI RAD website (Accessed 27.6.12), CJB website (Accessed 27.6.2012)
57
Arachis hypogaea
(Papilionaceae)
Common names Nguba (Kongo), arachide (Fr.), groundnut
Description Groundnuts may be either upright, bush types, 30 - 60 cm tall or prostrate, running types,
up to 20 cm tall. Mainly bush types are grown in Bas-Congo.
The ADEP farmers group, near Mbanza Nzundu with a harvested crop.
Ecology The plant is deep rooted and should be preferably grown on a well-drained sandy loam.
Calcium deficiency may lead to ‘blind’ nuts. To avoid a build up of pests and diseases groundnuts should
not be sown more frequently than every 3 or 4 years. Adequate soil moisture is required at planting,
during flowering and as the pods develop.
Propagation Seed should be shelled just before planting. Plant 2 seeds per hole, 5 - 7 cm deep. Space
15 - 25 cm apart. Close spacing and early planting helps to reduce ‘rosette’ disease (GRV).
Management Groundnuts mature after 3 - 4 months. 1,000 – 1,350 kg per ha is a good yield but 500
kg per ha is more usual.
Uses The roasted nuts are an important
food in Bas-Congo. A favourite dish is made
from peanut butter sauce eaten with
mfumbwa ( Gnetum africanum ) or with
caterpillars. A vegetable oil can be obtained
from the seed.
Remarks Bacterial wilt may be serious in
wet areas. Resistant varieties are available.
I n damp conditions groundnuts can become
infected with a mould, Aspergillus flavus,
which produces dangerous aflatoxin. Rust
and Groundnut Rosette Virus (GRV) are also
serious problems. I mproved cultivars are
being developed by SADC/ I CRI SAT.
Photo: Luc Pauwels
References Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1968, Godin and Spensley 1971, FAO 1986, Raemaekers 2001
58
Artemisia annua
(Asteraceae)
Common names Armoise annuelle (Fr.), sweet Annie, sweet wormwood
Description
An annual,
aromatic herb, which can
grow to 2 m high. An
improved variety, suited to
the
tropics,
is
being
promoted by ANAMED using
hybrid seed. The plant
grows to 3 m high and
contains from 1 - 1.4 %
artemisinin.
This
Artemesia
plant,
growing in a container at
the ANAMED centre in
Kinshasa, produced 340 g
dried, powdered leaves for
use as an infusion.
Ecology
Originally from
China. The plant grows best
in full sunlight and in sandy
soils.
Propagation Most easily
grown from 2 cm cuttings after removing the leaves. Do not try to collect the seed from existing plants
as these will not grow well. Hybrid seed should be sown in seed boxes. Soil should be heated to kill
weed seeds before planting. Mix 10 parts old compost or black soil with 10 parts sand. Add 20 parts
water and boil for at least 5 minutes. When planting the seeds in a seed box do not cover with soil.
Cover the box with clear plastic and make a few small holes in it. Place in a bright place but not in direct
sunlight. Do not allow the soil to dry out. Transplant seedlings that are too close. Transplant into pots or
bags when 5 cm high and then plant out when 15 cm high to 60 cm apart in the field. Soil should be
kept moist after transplanting.
Uses The leaves, either fresh or dried, are made into a tea which is used to treat malaria. Leaves
should be harvested when the first flower buds appear and cut up and dried within 3 days. They are
then crushed and passed through a mosquito net sieve. Remove all pieces of stem. Keep in the dark in
an air-tight container. Though WHO do not currently recommend this treatment, it has been found
effective by ANAMED in DRC and elsewhere. As a precaution the tea should not be given to women in
the first 3 months of pregnancy. The leaves are also used to treat haemorrhoids, colitis and to increase
the immunity of AI DS patients. The plant is
also used in the treatment of jaundice and
skin diseases.
References Uphof 1968, Simon et al.
1990, Hirt & M’Pia 2001, WHO 2012
Planting cassava after clearing the forest.
Planting new trees at this time and leaving
the old tree stumps to regenerate will
speed up the return of the forest after the
crop has been harvested.
Photo: Emmanuel Miaglia
59
Artocarpus altilis
(Moraceae)
Synonyms A. communis, A. incisus
Common names Kikwa ki santu Petelo (Kongo), arbre à pain (Fr.), breadfruit
Breadfruit in the botanic garden at Kisantu
Description A tree up to 35 m tall producing a wide crown. All parts of the tree produce a white, bitter
latex. Fruits are nearly spherical, 15 - 30 cm in diameter, and either contain large seeds (breadnut) or
are rough, but not spiny, and seedless (breadfruit). The fruiting season may last for 5 months.
Ecology The tree is occasionally found in
villages in Bas-Congo. I t thrives in a humid
climate at low altitudes. The young plants
require some shade, but for fruiting, full sun
is needed. I t dislikes shallow or waterlogged
soils. Good drainage is essential. Best growth
is obtained in deep moist soils with high
humus content and high fertility.
Right: A young plant grown from a
root cutting
Propagation The tree can be grown most
easily from root suckers. Air layering may
also be used or even cuttings, but this is not
easy. Root cuttings are taken from mature
healthy trees, (indicated by the presence of
plenty of latex). These should be taken from
roots that lie just below the soil surface, at the end of the dry season. They should be about 2.5 cm in
diameter and are cut into 20 – 25 cm lengths. The cuttings should be planted at an angle in shaded
beds and watered frequently. Shoots and new roots may not be produced for several months. Once
60
shoots appear the roots can be divided up and planted in tubes. The cuttings must not be injured. Tar
may be used to seal the thickest end. Provide shade over the cuttings. Transplant when shoots are 25 30 cm long. This is normally after 14 months. Growth is rapid.
Management Fruits are harvested when they turn yellowish and drops of latex appear on the surface.
The cut stalk must be immediately covered to stop bleeding.
Uses The fruit is eaten in Bas-Congo and is an important food plant in much of the tropics. Fruit is
preferred baked in ashes or it may be boiled, when it becomes like I rish potato. The fruit, after being
cut up and dried, can be powdered and made into flour which, for many recipes, can replace wheat
flour. Some people recommend that the fruit should only be picked once it is completely ripe, others
just before this. Fruit is normally ready 2 - 3 months from the emergence of the flowers. The light, soft
wood is yellow and said to be resistant to white ants. I t can be used for making boxes. The latex can be
used for sealing canoes. Leaves are used as livestock fodder in periods of drought. The fruit of some
varieties needs to be boiled in two lots of water. Starch can be obtained from the fruit. The immature
seeds of the breadnut are edible after roasting or boiling in water to which salt has been added.
References Gillet 1927, Swaby 1979, FAO 1982, Burkill 1985, Aumeeruddy & Pinglo 1988, Garner &
Chaudhri 1988, Verheij & Coronel 1991, Pauwels 1993, Ragone 1997
A young charcoal maker learns his father’s trade
61
Artocarpus heterophyllus
(Moraceae)
Common names Jacquier (Fr.), jackfruit
Description An evergreen tree
which normally grows up to 20
m high. The fruits may weigh
more than 50 kg, though the
average is 18 kg. Seedlings have
a long delicate tap-root which
makes them hard to transplant.
No root suckers are produced.
Ecology Thrives in a moist
tropical climate, though less
exacting than breadfruit. Young
plants require protection from
the sun. The tree needs
adequate soil moisture and
prefers a deep, fertile, well
drained soil.
Propagation Grown from seed.
These lose their viability quickly
so should be planted within one
month of harvest. Heavier seeds
remain viable for longer and
grow faster. Seeds should be
rubbed with sand to remove the
coat and then can be kept in
moist
sand
until
planted.
Germination takes 35 – 40 days
and soaking the seeds for 24
hours improves and hastens germination. Seeds should be planted flat or with embryo downwards in a
container which can rot down afterwards.
Management Cut back fruiting twigs after harvest. Pruning low branches encourages the production of
large fruit on the trunk rather than small fruit along the branches. Cuts or gashes can also be made in
the trunk to encourage fruiting. Trees may fruit after 3 years, or once they have reached 10 m high.
Uses A good shade tree, producing edible
fruit. This is usually eaten fresh but may be
cut into chips and sun dried or boiled with
salt. The starchy seeds are also edible after
boiling. The water should however be
changed once or twice to get rid of the
objectionable smell. The tree produces a
good timber, which is used for house
building, furniture and tool handles. A dye is
obtained from boiling the yellow heartwood.
The bark contains resin, which is used for
repairing pots. The leaves are eaten by
livestock, especially goats. I mbrasia petiveri
edible caterpillars also feed on the leaves.
References
Garner & Chaudhri 1988,
Verheij & Coronel 1991, Pauwels 1993,
Burkill 1997
62
Asparagus flagellaris
(Asparagaceae)
Synonym A. abyssinicus
Common names Nkila mfwenge (= fox tail), nsielele nseke, nsasa mpakasa (Kongo), asperge sauvage
(Fr.), wild asparagus
Description An erect perennial climber, up to 2 m tall, growing from a swollen root tuber. Branches
are spiny, tough and wiry. Thin branches, which look like leaves, grow along the stems in whorls and
are about 2 – 2.5 cm long. Numerous flowers are produced on the branched flowering stems after the
rains. 1 or 2 fragrant, white to purple flowers grow together. The plant bears an orange-red berry 5 – 7
mm in diameter containing one seed.
Ecology Grows in woodland, savanna and on wasteland. The plant is found from Ethiopia and Sudan
south to Mozambique and in the Congo basin.
Propagation Can be grown from seed or root suckers. A fertile soil is required to produce thick
succulent shoots.
Uses. Young shoot tips, as they emerge from the ground, are edible and have a strong but pleasant
taste. The fleshy root tubers are also edible after several hours of cooking. The fruits are sometimes
eaten by children. Stems are used to make traps in West Africa. I n Bas-Congo the plant is used as a
medicinal plant. The branchlets are used to treat guinea worm and to make up an ointment for hair
loss. The plant is also used medicinally in Senegal and East Africa. The flowers are an important honey
source where the plant is plentiful. Bees are known to collect pollen and nectar from a related species in
Ethiopia.
Remarks There are 4 species of Asparagus present.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Burkill 1995, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Neuwinger 2000,
Ruffo et al. 2002, van der Burg 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
63
Asystasia gangetica var. micrantha
(Acanthaceae)
Common names Ndamimina (Kongo), creeping foxglove, Ganges primrose
Description An annual herb, 20 – 30 cm tall. Stems are erect or semi straggling, quadrangular in cross
section, segmented into nodes 10 – 15 cm apart, and may be smooth or slightly hairy. Leaves are
opposite, triangular, 3 – 7 cm long and 3 – 3.5 cm wide, smooth to softly hairy. Tubular flowers, 1.5 cm
long, are borne on one side of the flower stalk which is approximately 10 cm long. Petals are white, 5
lobed, with purple or violet nectar guides on the lower lip. Fruit is a dry dehiscent capsule about 2 cm
long. The plants form a dense ground cover, flowering over a long period.
Photo: Jean Lejoly
Ecology Widespread in tropical Africa. Also present in tropical Asia and in southern Africa. Found on
roadsides and as a weed in cropland. The plant can be grown in shade.
Propagation Reproduces naturally by seed. I t can also be grown by layering or from cuttings.
Management Asystasia gangetica is a fast growing and
spreading plant.
Uses The leaves, sometimes cooked with seeds of
Cucurbits or meat, are eaten as a vegetable in D. R.
Congo, and in Uganda, Nigeria, Kenya and Philippines,
particularly in times of food scarcity. The flowers are
visited by bees. Plants can be fed to livestock. The plant
can be grown as a cover crop and used to check erosion.
I n Equateur province leaves are soaked in water and the
liquid, in combination with pineapple or sugar cane juice,
is taken to treat heart palpitations.
Photo: Susan McGregor
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Burkill 1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987,
Blundell 1987, Ambougou 1991, Konda et al. 1992, Lesitner 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Hepburn & Radloff
1998, Katende et al. 1999, Neuwinger 2000, Adetula 2004, Lithudzha & Reynolds 2004, Konda et al
2012
64
Averrhoa carambola
(Oxalidaceae)
Common names Pakapaka (in Kinshasa), carambolier (Fr.), carambola, star fruit
Averrhoa carambola growing at the Kisantu botanic garden
Description A much branched tree from 5 to 10 m tall. I t comes into bearing in the fourth or fifth year
after planting out. The flowers are cross-pollinated by bees, flies and other insects. Though fruit set is
fairly high, much of the fruit drops late in the growing period. Yields of 45 kg per tree can be obtained
even without applying fertilizers.
Ecology Originally from tropical Asia the tree grows best in the hot humid areas with a definite dry
season. The tree will thrive on poor sandy soils in sheltered situations up to 1,200 m altitude and
tolerates light shade. Soil drainage must be good.
Propagation Seed is
usually used. Clean
and dry the seed
before sowing and
then plant in pots or
boxes in light shade
and keep regularly
watered. Sow the seed
as soon as possible.
After germination the
seedlings should be
transplanted
to
a
nursery and gradually
hardened off. Budding,
grafting or layering is
preferred as this will
ensure that the trees produce more quickly and evenly. The tree can also be grown from root suckers. A
mix of cultivars should be planted for effective cross-pollination.
Management Recommended spacing 7 - 8 m. Trees should be pruned and the fruit crop thinned out in
the early years. The tree is fast growing.
65
Uses Fruits have a pleasant acid like flavour and,
though usually eaten raw, are best cooked with
some sugar. The ripe fruits can also be eaten
with slightly over-ripe bananas. Peel off the
winged edges first. The fruits contain vitamins A,
B and some C with valuable minerals, particularly
potassium. The fruit juice can be used as a
detergent and removes stains from clothing. Juice
from immature fruits can also be used for cleaning
brass. The flowers are very attractive to bees.
References Gillet 1927, FAO 1982, Garner &
Chaudhri 1988, Dupriez & De Leener 1989,
Macmillan 1991, Verheij & Coronel 1991, Pauwels
1993, Katende et al. 1995, Nakasone & Paull
1998, Raemaekers 2001.
A rat trap maker on his way to
Buba market to sell a trap. The
small basket at the end is made
from Mbamba = Eremospatha sp.
(see page 199).
Many older people have a great
knowledge of the resources of the
country as well as skills in using
local materials. I t is vital that this
knowledge is passed on to the
next generation.
66
Azadirachta indica
(Meliaceae)
Common names Nîm (Fr.), neem
Description A small to medium sized,
deep rooted, evergreen tree up to 15
m tall. The red heart-wood is hard and
durable. Leaves are alternate and
crowded towards the end of the
branches. Fruits, 1 – 2 cm long,
become yellow when ripe.
Ecology Native to I ndia but grown
widely in the tropics. The tree is
drought tolerant and grows well on
most soils, including dry, stony, clay
and shallow soils. However it will not
grow in waterlogged soils. Roots can
extract moisture and nutrients from
poor sandy soils. Not tolerant to fire.
Propagation Normally grown from
fresh seed (which should be sown not
more than 2 - 3 weeks after
harvesting) in a nursery or can be
planted direct with crops. Germination
takes place after about one week with
a germination rate of 75 – 90% . No
seed treatment is necessary. The tree
can also be grown from root and shoot
cuttings. I t requires careful weeding
until established. Light shade assists
early growth. Plant out at a spacing of
2.5 x 2.5 m.
Management The tree coppices freely and young
shoots grow fast.
Uses The tree is a fast growing source of good
firewood which can be cut in an 8 year cycle. The
wood resists decay and termite damage and is
used for house construction and making furniture.
Neem poles are straight and strong. The seeds
contain up to 40% oil which can be used as a fuel
for lamps. The seeds and leaves contain
azadirachtin which is effective against a large
range of insect pests. They also contain other
chemicals which repel insects. The fruits must be
harvested when yellow, not greenish-yellow or
brownish-yellow and should not come into contact
with soil to avoid the risk of developing aflotoxins.
These reduce the pest control effectiveness and
can be harmful to humans. The fruit pulp should
be first removed and the seed dried in the sun for one day followed by 3 days in the shade, being
stirred regularly so that seeds are well dried. Store in well aerated bags. Seeds between 3 and 10
months old have the highest amount of azadirachtin. To make up a spray pound the seeds gently and
add 50 g to 1 litre of water and allow to stand overnight. Filter and add 1 ml liquid soap to the solution.
Leaves can also be used at the rate of 1 kg leaves to 5 litres water. Chop and soak the leaves overnight.
Add 1 ml liquid soap to 1 litre solution. The leaves are used medicinally to treat fever, stomach ulcers
and malaria. I n I ndia the flowers are an important source of a light golden honey.
References NAS 1980, Crane et al. 1984, I CRAF 1998, Stoll 2000, Raemaekers 2001, Pousset 2004,
Agroforestree Database (Accessed 7.9.2007), SEPASAL (Accessed 6.12.2013)
67
Baikiaea insignis
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Photo: Tony Rodd
Description A tree from 8 – 25 m tall with a straight trunk and a small dense crown. Bark is thin, greybrown, smooth or lightly fissured. Leaves are pinnate on petioles 4 – 17 cm long, with 3 – 8 leaflets 7 –
40 cm long and 3 – 17 cm wide. The leaves are stiff and leathery. The scented flowers are in racemes
and have 5 petals, 4 large and white 6 – 10 cm long and one narrower yellow petal, having wavy edges.
Anthers prominent, 2 cm long. Fruits are woody flat pods, 25 cm long and 7 cm wide, which hang
down. They are covered with dense brown hairs and break open explosively at both edges, twisting
spirally to set free the thin dark red seeds, which are rounded and flat and about 3.5 cm long.
Ecology Present in riverine, gallery and
terra firma forests from
Angola.
Cameroon
to
Propagation Use seeds gathered from
below the tree. Soak them in water
overnight before planting. Store in ash to
prevent insect damage.
Management Trees are slow growing and
can be coppiced or pollarded when still
young.
Uses Leaves and seeds are eaten in BasCongo. Timber is pale brown, moderately
hard, heavy and strong. I t is suitable for
joinery, cheap furniture and shelving but
must be treated to protect from borer
attack.
Photo: Marina Khaytarova
References Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Katende et al. 1995, Nsimundele 2004, Fayaz 2011
68
Bambusa vulgaris
(Poaceae)
Common names Tutu (Kongo), bambou (Fr.), bamboo
Description A bamboo of
medium
size
with
quick
growing stems to 10 m high.
The stems are very strong.
Another variety with yellow
stems, striped with green, is
also present in Bas-Congo.
Ecology Originally from Java
but now widely cultivated
throughout tropical Africa.
Propagation By division of
the clumps or by cuttings from
rhizomes or stems.
Management
Bamboo
be cut in a 3 year cycle.
Uses
can
Widely
used
for
construction
purposes
for
houses,
huts,
bridges,
reinforcement
for
cement
water tanks etc. Split poles
can be used for roofing tiles,
top bars for hives (though
they should be well dried out first) and
planting tubes for tree seedlings. Stem
sheaths can be used as covers for
beehives. Goats browse the leaves. The
plant is especially useful for erosion control
e.g. around water sources. I t can also be
used for making paper, plywood, charcoal
etc. The young shoots are edible.
Split bamboo used as a
cover for a bee hive
Remarks Bamboo is very susceptible to
borer attack. Soaking the stems in water
for 2 - 3 months helps to make them last
longer.
References Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1972,
Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994
69
Barleria lupulina
(Acanthaceae)
Common names Hophead, porcupine flower, snake bush
Description An erect shrub up to 1 m tall. The stems and leaves are hairless but spines, between 1 - 2
cm long, are borne in the lower axils. Leaves, 3.5 - 9 cm long and 0.8 - 1.2 cm wide, are tipped with
spines. Petioles are 2 - 3 mm long. I nflorescence is a terminal spike with overlapping bracts, 15 mm
long, green with a purple upper
half. Calyx segments are spinetipped. Corolla is yellow with the
tube being approximately 3 cm
long.
Ecology Native to Madagascar
and I ndia and widely spread
elsewhere.
Propagation Can be grown
from seed. Seed is spread short
distances when the capsules
rupture. Seeds are also spread
by water.
Uses
An ornamental plant
sometimes grown as a hedge.
Remarks B. alata and B. villosa
are also present in the Kinshasa
area.
References
Pauwels 1982,
Llamas 2003, Staples & Herbst
2005
Photo: Dinesh Valke
70
Basella alba
(Basellaceae)
Common names Taka ngola (Kongo), épinard I ndien, baselle (Fr.)
Description A short-lived creeper with fleshy, green or purplish, twining stems. Plants usually grow up
to approximately 4 m long.
Ecology The green form is native to Africa while the red form is from tropical Asia. The latter is now
grown in many tropical regions. The plant tolerates a wide range of soil conditions and grows best in
fertile soils well supplied with organic material. Additional nitrogen assists early growth. I t is also well
adapted to high temperatures and high rainfall though some varieties can withstand drought better than
others. Lack of adequate water causes early flowering. Light shading will encourage the plant to
produce larger leaves.
Propagation Can be grown from seed or 20 cm long cuttings. For seed the whole fruit is planted in
nurseries and then transplanted when 10 - 12 cm high.
Management I n Bas-Congo cuttings or seedlings are
usually transplanted into raised beds at a spacing of 40
– 50 cm and harvested after 2 – 4 months. However
they can also be grown on a fence or trellis providing
shoots over a longer period. Frequent pruning of lateral
shoots is done when harvesting in order to prolong the
vegetative stage and prevent early fruiting. Remove
shoots when they are from 15 - 25 cm long. The crop is
very susceptible to nematodes but applying organic
manure is helpful. The plant is otherwise relatively free
from pests and diseases.
Right: Fruiting vines growing
over a trellis at Sona Bata
Uses The young shoots and leaves are relatively high in
food value providing a useful source of minerals and
vitamins. The red form is preferred because it is
reported to produce more leaves.
Reference Gillet 1927, Tindall 1983, AbukutsaOnyango 2004
71
Bauhinia tomentosa
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Common names Ndemba ndemba (Kongo), yellow Bauhinia, bell Bauhinia, St. Thomas’s tree
Photo: Maria do Carmo M. I annaccone
Description . A shrub 2 - 4 m tall. Leaves are 3.5 - 9.5 cm long, 4 – 11 cm wide and are divided into
two lobes. They are light green in colour, with a leathery texture, and carried on branches that are
often drooping. A variable species, one form having golden yellow flowers which turn pink with age.
Another selection has light yellow flowers which have pink edges and smaller leaves. Fruits are flat pods
10 – 16 cm long and 1 – 1.3 cm wide.
Ecology Native to Africa and sometimes planted as a hedge around villages in Bas-Congo.
Propagation Can be grown from
seed or cuttings. The plant grows
relatively fast. The soil needs to
be well drained.
Uses The flowers from this tree,
rich in pollen and nectar, attract
various
insects
including
honeybees. The heart-wood is
dark red, hard, and tough. Shrubs
yield a fibre suitable for making
baskets. Leaves are used to
manufacture a yellow dye.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910,
Gillet 1927, Watt & Breyer
Brandwijk 1962, Daeleman &
Pauwels 1983, Blundell 1987,
Macmillan 1991, Pauwels 1993, Llamas 2003, Le Roux 2005
72
Photo: Man Wah Leung
Bellucia pentamera
(Melastomataceae)
Synonym B. axinanthera
Common names Ekoti ya monseigneur (Lingala), néflier de Costa Rica, chapeau de Monseigneur (Fr.)
Description A tree up to 10 m
high. Bark on the trunk is fissured
but scaly on the twigs. Leaves 20 –
30 cm long and 10.5 – 19 cm wide
with clearly marked nerves inside
the edges. Flowers are borne on
the trunk or below the leaves on
the branches. The tree grows
quickly and produces abundant
fruit.
Left: Young
Kasangulu
trees
growing
at
Ecology An introduced tree from
Central America. I t now grows
alongside streams and rivers in
several places in Bas-Congo where
it has become an invasive weed.
Propagation The tree grows best
from seed, though wildlings can
also be used. Recommended
spacing is 3 -6 m x 3 -6 m.
Uses The fruits are pleasant but
not particularly tasty. The inner
flesh is squeezed out and eaten.
Fruit is produced over a long
period.
Flowers and fruit appearing together in January
References Gillet 1927, Verheij & Coronel 1991, Pauwels 1993, Danforth & Noren 1997
73
Berlinia bruneelii
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Synonym B. grandiflora var. bruneelii
Description A shrub or spreading tree to 20 m high, but quite often small with the trunk dividing low
down. Bark is dark-grey or brown and flakes. The compound leaves are made up of 3 – 5 pairs of
leaflets, 14 – 30 cm long and 5 – 11 cm wide. Flowers are in panicles. The central white petal is up to 6
cm long. Fruit pod brown, 34 x 10 cm wide, densely covered with short hairs and with a wrinkled
surface. Seeds are expelled explosively when the pod ripens.
Berlinia bruneelii beside a stream at Boko, near Kavwaya
Ecology The tree grows in swamp forest areas in Congo and Central Africa. Found in lowland and
fringing forests near streams and at the edge of marshes in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon
and Congo.
Uses The bark is used as a purgative in Bas-Congo. The tree is sometimes used as a shade for coffee
trees or planted in the villages as an ornamental with sweet smelling flowers. The hard heavy timber is
not easy to work. I t is used for planks and general carpentry and for utensils for fermenting sugar cane.
Wood is attacked by borers but not termites. Poles are used as hut posts. A wild silk worm Epanaphe
moloneyi feeds on the leaves.
Remarks A second species B.
giorgii var. gilletii (bwati) is
present in wooded savanna.
References I rvine 1961, Keay
1989, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995,
White
&
Abernethy
1997,
Nsimundele 2004
Photo: David Harris/ Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh
74
Bertiera racemosa
(Rubiaceae)
Common
name
Kolo
di
munsala (Kongo)
Description
An erect to
scrambling shrub or small tree
2 - 6 m high. Leaves 12 – 25 x
5 – 11 cm
Ecology Present on the edges
of swamps or water courses
from Sierra Leone to D.R.
Congo and across the Congo
basin to East Africa.
Uses
In
Bas-Congo
the
resistant wood is used in hut
construction. The flowers are
reported to be visited by
honeybees.
References
Daeleman
&
Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993,
Burkill 1997
Mural on the hospital wall at Maluku
75
Bidens pilosa
(Asteraceae)
Common names Nsolokoto, solokoto, kimana-ngansi (Kongo), Spanish needles
Description An erect, aromatic, annual herb up to 1.5 m high, reproducing by seeds. Seed is about 1
cm long, tipped with 2 - 4 barbed bristles which catch on animal fur and clothing (see photo below).
Ecology Commonly found in disturbed and cultivated land. The plant is native to South America but
now spread through much of Africa. A serious weed of fields and gardens. I t often grows along
roadsides, and in waste places.
Uses The leaves, together with Capsicum peppers, are used to
treat haemorrhoids. I n Bas-Congo they are also used for chest
infections and the leaf juice is used for eye problems. A dye to
colour the teeth is made from the roots. I n Uganda they are
boiled in water and used as a tea substitute to relieve wind. Plant
extracts have shown anti-bacterial activity. Elsewhere the leaves
are used to treat high blood pressure, stomach ulcers, intestinal
worms, wounds and recurrent fevers in children. The roots are
used to treat constipation and malaria. Though the leaves are not
eaten in Bas-Congo they are an important green vegetable
elsewhere. They keep well and have good texture both before
and after cooking. Some people like the resinous flavour. The
young shoots 2.5 - 5.0 cm long are a favourite dish throughout
southern Africa eaten fresh, or dried and stored for later use. The
plant is readily browsed by all domestic stock including rabbits
and poultry and has a high nutritive value. Bees collect abundant
pollen and small amounts of nectar, producing a good flavoured
honey which granulates slowly.
References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Morton 1962, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Nsimundele
1966 - 68, Goode 1974, Martin & Ruberté 1975, Crane et al. 1984, Burkill 1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa
1987, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Ruffo et al 2002, Mvere 2004, Pousset 2004
76
Bixa orellana
(Bixaceae)
Common names Nteke (Kongo), rocouyer (Fr.), bixa, anatto tree
Description A shrub or small tree up to 5 m high. Leaves 8 – 24 cm long and 5 - 15 cm wide, sometimes with reddish veins. Flowers are about 6 cm in diameter in terminal panicles, petals white or pale
pink. Fruit is a capsule about 5 cm long, covered with soft spines, usually red but sometimes green
drying brown. Seeds are numerous and surrounded by a thin, pulpy, bright red skin.
Ecology Native to tropical America and the West I ndies, but now widely introduced in the tropics,
becoming naturalized in some areas. I t prefers a deep loamy soil. The tree is fairly drought resistant
and is sometimes grown in village compounds.
Propagation Usually planted from seed. Seedlings are spaced at 6 x 5 m. Sow in a nursery bed and
transplant when 40 cm high. The tree can also be layered or grown from cuttings.
Management The tree starts bearing seed after 3 years. I t should be pruned and thinned to maintain
production.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the pulp around the seeds is used for colouring the body. A food dye is obtained by
soaking the seeds in water. The pigment sinks to the bottom and is dried into cakes. Yield is 5 - 6% of
the weight of seeds. The main commercial
use is for colouring foodstuffs - butter,
margarine, cheese and chocolate. The dye
varies from red to orange and bright yellow.
I n addition to food colouring, in Brazil it is
used for pottery and as an insect repellent
and, in the Philippines, for floor, furniture
and shoe polishes, nail varnish, brass
lacquer and hair oil. The tree can be grown
as a hedge. I n Malaya it has been reported
to be able to grow up through I mperata cylindrica and therefore has possibilities for regenerating
degraded land. The bark produces a fairly good fibre. The wood is very light. Annato dye is not durable
and it is no longer used on fabrics. The crushed seeds, mixed in vegetable oil, can be applied to burns.
References Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1968, Burkill 1985, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Macmillan 1991,
Pauwels 1993, Pousset 2004
77
Blighia w elw itschii
(Sapindaceae)
Common names Bwalu nkusu, nkusu nkusu, kote (Kongo)
Description A forest tree
with weak buttresses and a
sheer trunk up to 40 m.
The bark surface is smooth
to slightly fissured. The
young orange twigs are
hairy. Leaves are alternate
with 2 – 4 pairs of leaflets 6
– 20 cm x 3 – 8 cm. This
species is easily confused
with B. sapida but the
leaflets are more elongated
in B. welwitschii. The
inflorescence is a false
axillary raceme up to 12 cm
long. Fruits in this species
are sharply angled. Seeds
are black with a yellow aril.
Ecology Occurs naturally
from Sierra Leone eastward
to Uganda and south to
D.R. Congo and northern
Angola.
It
is
only
occasionally planted, for
instance
in
botanical
gardens.
Photo: Carel Jongkind
Uses The arils are reported to be edible but the arils of unripe seeds may be toxic, as are the seeds.
The wood, traded as ‘tsana’, is commonly used for light construction, light flooring, joinery, furniture,
poles, piles, mine props, toys, novelties, boxes, crates, pestles, mortars, agricultural implements, oars
and turnery. I t is suitable for ship building, railway sleepers, veneer, plywood and pulpwood. I n D.R.
Congo the bark is used to relieve kidney and costal pain and lumbago. A bark decoction is taken as a
purgative and to treat coughs. I n Congo leaf sap is applied to treat ear inflammations. I n Liberia the
fragrant young leaves are used for flavouring soup.
References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Nsimundele 2004, White &
Abernethy 1996, Burkill 2000, Obeng 2010
78
Boehmeria macrophylla
(Urticaceae)
Synonym B. platyphylla
Common names Mungulungulu (Kongo), African jolanettle
Photo: Dineshe Valke
Description An erect, shrubby or herbaceous perennial up to 3 m tall. Stems are sparsely branched, or
with long, often overhanging, thinner branches. Leaves are opposite, 15 – 30 x 7 –15 cm ovate to
lanceolate and the margin has 15 – 35 teeth on each side. Each inflorescence is produced singly in the
upper leaf axils, spikes are up to 30 cm. long, with the flowers in dense bunches. The plant is very
variable in form.
Ecology Widespread in tropical Africa in damp places, beside streams and moist rocks. Plants can form
a dense tangle. Also present in Asia, I ndia, China, Philippines and Australia.
Uses The leaves are occasionally eaten as a
vegetable in D.R. Congo. They are also used as
a wound dressing. Fibre is obtained from the
stem which is of excellent quality. The fibre is
shiny, white and strong and is used for making
nets, sacks, fishing lines and rough clothes. I t
could possibly be used for textiles. Wood is
moderately hard but too small for much use.
Stems make a good fuel.
References Gillet & Pãque 1910, De Wildeman
1934, Terra 1966, Uphof
1968, Flore
Zambesiaca 1991
Photo: Satish Nikam
79
Boerhavia diffusa
(Nyctaginaceae)
Common names Dibata bata (Kongo), hogweed
Both photos: Phuong Tran
Description A semi-prostrate annual herb with ascending or erect stems up to 60 cm tall, arising from
a fleshy tuberous root. I t reproduces from seed. Flowers are deep purple or crimson. The fruit is a one
seeded capsule about 3 mm long.
Ecology A tropical weed of cultivated fields, waste ground and roadsides.
Uses The whole plant, and particularly
the root, is used medicinally in BasCongo as a snake-bite antidote and to
counter inflammation. The roots are
also used as an aphrodisiac. The plant
has
numerous
medicinal
uses
elsewhere in Africa. A decoction of the
root is taken to promote urination and
the root is chewed or an extract from
the root drunk for gastro-intestinal
problems. Root tea is drunk for
prolapse of the uterus. Fresh plants
are attractive to lice and used to trap
them. The whole plant is then burnt.
Leaves are eaten as a vegetable in
Kwango-Kwilu, though, as they contain
various amounts of alkaloids, can be
toxic. The plant is under observation at the national Horticultural Research Station at I badan, Nigeria as
a new leafy vegetable. Seed and root are also eaten in some countries. Stock, especially sheep will eat
the plant. I n Bas-Congo goats often return home with caterpillars, also called Bata bata, which have
been feeding on the plant, around their mouths. These are edible. The flowers are reported to be
visited by bees and are known to be bee forage in the central highlands of Angola.
References Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Peters et al.
1992, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Schippers 2002, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004
80
Borassus aethiopum
(Arecaceae)
Common names Ba di madibu, ba di ndingi (Kongo), rônier (Fr.), African fan palm
Description A straight unbranched palm, 20
– 30 m tall, with a crown up to 8 m wide,
forming 15 - 30 fan-shaped leaves up to 3.5
m long. Old trees (over 25 years) have a
swelling of the trunk at 12 - 15 m above
ground. Flowers are yellowish. Male flowers
are clustered in a branched spike up to 1.5 m
long. Female flowers have an unbranched and
shorter spike. The fruit is large 12 x 14 cm,
orange to brown when ripe. The fibrous pulp
contains 3 woody kernels with a coat which
becomes hard when ripe.
Ecology Grows in the savanna and is also
sometimes planted in avenues in Bas-Congo.
The tree is widespread throughout the dry
areas of tropical Africa usually on heavy soils
or in seasonally wet depressions. I ts rainfall
range is 500 – 1,000 mm, and it has an
altitude range up to 1,350 m.
Propagation The tree can be grown by direct
sowing and by using seedlings. Seeds should
be dried in the shade. They can be sown
without removing the pulp. Germination takes
one month and seeds remain viable for 6
months.
Management A slow growing plant, the true
stem does not appear above ground for 6 - 8
years. I t then grows from 30 to 40 cm a year reaching its final size after 25 years.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the nuts
(right) were used to make
rattles for dogs when hunting.
The fruit pulp is sometimes
eaten and the immature seeds
contain a sweet jelly which has
a refreshing taste. I n Katanga
the fibrous material around the
seed is chewed and in Benin
the young germinating shoots
are fried and eaten. The tree is
used for poles and for firewood
and charcoal, and the strong
trunks are hard and resistant to
termites and decay. They are
used as posts and for the
construction of bridges. The
timber is also used for doorframes, beehives and drums.
The fruits and young leaves can
Photo: Roy Danforth
be used for fodder and the
older leaves for thatching. A fibre is extracted from the leaves, which is used as string, and baskets and
mats are made from young leaves before they unfold. Oil can be obtained from the fruit and pulp. Root
buds are sometimes eaten as a vegetable.
References Butaye 1909, Gillet 1927, Leloup 1956, Purseglove 1972, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al.
1995, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, SEPASAL (Accessed 6.12.2013)
81
Brassica carinata
(Brassicaceae)
Synonym B. integrifolia
Common names Nkofi (Kongo), épinard (Fr.), Ethiopian mustard
Nkofi growing in a vegetable garden in Kisantu
Description A herb which usually grows to 50 cm tall, but may reach 120 cm. The main features
differentiating this plant from B. juncea are the blue-green coloured leaves which have no hairs, pale
yellow flowers and seed pods which are flat when the pods are quite dry. I n warm climates seed is
produced readily.
Ecology The plant is of African origin and cultivated in the Ethiopian highlands between 1,500 and
2,600 m. Also present in Tanzania and Central and West Africa but nowhere common. Occasionally
found as a weed in cultivated ground. I t grows best in fertile soil.
Propagation The crop is grown from seed in lines or broadcast. Mix the seeds with ash to discourage
pest attack.
Management Cutting the plant at a height of about 15 cm encourages it to produce larger leaves.
Uses Leaves and young shoots are used as a vegetable or fodder. Leaves are soft textured and have a
special mustard-like taste which can be quite sharp. The seeds are crushed and the oil is used for
cooking or oiling earthenware baking plates in Ethiopia. The seeds are also eaten with meat in Ethiopia.
Bees collect both pollen and nectar from the flowers.
References Oomen & Grubben 1978, Maundu et al. 1999, Schippers 2002
82
Brassica juncea
(Brassicaceae)
Common names Nkofi (Kongo), moutard indigene, moutard de Chine, chou vert (Fr.), I ndian or brown
mustard
Description An erect, much branched, strong smelling, annual herb which grows up to 1 m high.
Leaves are light green and have small hairs. Some varieties bear bright yellow flowers. The seed-pods
are rounded (when compared with B. carinata). The plant flowers in its first year but early flowering
plants should be discarded for seed production. The vegetative stage is shorter than for B. carinata and
B. oleracea.
Ecology Originally from
Asia.
This plant performs better during
the cooler dry season as high
temperatures encourage disease
and early flowering. Soils should
be high in organic matter but well
drained. Farmers in Zimbabwe
often grow the crop on old
anthills where the soil is more
fertile.
Propagation Seed is sown in
nursery beds and transplanted
when 7 - 8 cm tall. The seeds are
best mixed with sand and
broadcast to avoid having to
remove too many seedlings later
on. The first harvest can be in
the
form
of
thinned-out
seedlings, collected after about
35 days from sowing. Leaves or
shoots can be harvested weekly,
extending over a 6-week period,
after which the plant is uprooted.
Management Plants are usually
harvested 50 - 70 days after
sowing. The plant is more prone
to disease than B. carinata.
Uses The leaves are used as a
cooked vegetable but should not
be eaten too often, and only after
boiling twice, to reduce the risk of goitre. However as they contain anti-carcinogenic properties they are
of medicinal value. I t is an important oil crop in I ndia, as the seed contains 35% oil. This is used in
cooking and as a substitute for olive oil.
Remarks Bees collect both pollen and nectar and are important for pollination. I ncreased yields of seed
are known to result from honeybee pollination.
References Terra 1966, Purseglove 1968, Tindall 1983, Crane & Walker 1984, Schippers & Mnzava
1997, Schippers 2002
83
Brassica oleracea
(Brassicaceae)
Common names Nkofi nkolula (Kongo), sukuma wiki (Swahili), chou vert (Fr.), kale
Description A perennial, stalk-forming cabbage growing up to 1 m high. Stems, up to 3 cm diameter,
are sturdy and bear blue-green leaves on long stalks. Usually seed is not produced in the tropics
because flowering requires a cool resting period.
Ecology The plant requires a well drained and manured soil, preferably a sandy loam. I t grows best at
higher altitudes.
Propagation Normally grown from side shoots which should be planted in moist soil, preferably with
added compost. I n Bas-Congo the crop is grown in the valley bottoms during the dry season. Plant out
at 50 x 60 cm spacing. Young plants may be attacked by click beetles which eat small holes in the
leaves.
Management Harvest tender side shoots before they become too large.
Uses An important green leaf vegetable in some places (e.g. Manianga), and often sold in markets. I n
Bas-Congo it is reported to be the most popular of the Brassicas. The protein content of the fresh leaf is
approximately 2.5% . Leaves also contain vitamins A, B complex and C. Avoid overcooking which
reduces the vitamin C content in particular.
Remarks Club root can be a major problem. I f possible grow on ground which has not had cabbage
related plants before. Pests can also be a problem and control can sometimes be achieved by grinding
them up, mixing in water and spraying the liquid on the plants!
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Terra 1966, Purseglove 1968,
Williamson 1975, Tindall 1983, Burkill 1985, Macmillan 1991, Martin et al 1998, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
84
Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis
(Brassicaceae)
Common names Pointe noire (Fr.) This is the common name used in Bas-Congo. Pakchoi = Chinese
white cabbage
Description The petiole in Pakchoi is much thicker and longer than for Chinese cabbage and the leaves
are fleshy, more rounded and dark-green.
Ecology The plant is tolerant
of a wide range of soil
conditions,
although
excessively well drained soils
are unsuitable. Soil must be
well manured and the plant
requires plenty of moisture
and
full
sunlight.
High
temperature
reduces
the
tendency to early flowering
but may result in bitter tasting
leaves.
Propagation Seeds are sown
in
nursery
beds
and
transplanted 15 to 20 days
later into rows 50 cm apart
allowing 30 - 50 cm between
plants. Transplant late in the
afternoon to avoid excessive
wilting. Seeds can also be
sown direct and thinned to 30
- 40 cm apart. For the nonheading variety 300 – 600 g
seed are needed for 1 ha.
Mulching is useful for conserving moisture and control of weeds.
Management Harvesting
can take place, for the
non-headed variety, from
40 - 60 days after sowing.
Harvest
in
the early
morning
and
market
within 2 days. Yields can
be 10 - 30 tons per ha.
Uses Normally eaten as a
cooked vegetable and in
stir-fries. I t is much more
nutritious
than
white,
headed cabbage and is a
good source of calcium
and vitamins A and C. The
leaves can be dried for
later use. Popularity for
this
vegetable
is
increasing in the humid
tropics of Africa. Bees
collect pollen and nectar
during August.
A crop of “Pointe noire” being grown for seed near Kasangulu
References Tindall 1983, Martin et al 1998, Toxopeus & Baas 2004, van Wyk 2005
85
Brassica rapa subsp. pekinensis
(Brassicaceae)
Common names Chou de Chine (Fr.), Chinese cabbage
Description An annual or biennial herb with a stout taproot producing short barrel-shaped to long
torpedo-shaped heads. The heads are not compact. Basal leaves are broad, bright green, 20 - 50 cm
long, with thickened white petioles, but not as thick as in Pakchoi (see following page). Flowers are pale
yellow 1 cm long. The fruits are slender 3 - 6 cm long.
Ecology The crop is widely grown in Bas-Congo, often on raised beds. I t is tolerant to a wide variety of
soils, though fertile soils, which retain moisture, are best. Add compost if possible and mulch the soil.
Plants require full sun and can withstand heavy rainfall.
Propagation Seeds are sown in a nursery bed and should be transplanted out in the late afternoon, to
avoid excessive wilting. Plant out in rows 40 - 45 cm apart allowing 30 - 50 cm between plants.
Alternatively seed can be sown direct and plants thinned out to 30 - 40 cm.
Management Can be harvested from 30 to 45 days after planting. The crop is perishable. Harvesting
should be done early in the day and the crop marketed within 2 days.
Uses Leaves can be cooked or eaten fresh. They have twice the nutritive value of headed cabbage.
Remarks Bees have been shown to increase the seed yields of all Brassica crops.
References Purseglove 1968, Tindall 1983, Jones 1999, Toxopeus & Baas 2004
86
Bridelia ferruginea
(Phyllanthaceae)
Common name Kimwindu ki nseke (Kongo)
Photo: Jean - Louis Pousset
Description A shrub or small straggling tree 1 – 8 m high. I t develops branches low down. The bark is
dark grey, rough and often scaly. Smaller branches are long and thin, sometimes with short spines.
Twigs are usually covered with short rust coloured hairs. Leaves are alternate, 4 – 16 cm long and 2.5 –
9 cm wide. The underside of the leaves is generally furry and dull, sometimes with a coppery hue. The
leaves curl downwards at the tip. The flowers develop in small bunches in the leaf axils. They have
green sepals and tiny white petals. The small fruits have a sweet sugary flesh and are usually dispersed
by birds.
Ecology A common tree in the savanna. I ts range extends from Guinea to Angola.
Propagation The tree can probably be grown in the same way
as B. micrantha.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the liquid resulting from soaking the root
and stem bark is used to treat diarrhoea, stomach-ache and
coughing. A paste made from scraping the inside of the bark
(see right) is used as a wound dressing. Elsewhere the bark is
used to treat dysentery and rheumatism. The small sweet fruits
are edible. The young shoots are also reported to be edible.
The bark is used for tanning and a dye is made from the
leaves. The tree is fire resistant and the wood is termite proof
and used for making granaries. The liquid, after boiling the bark
in water and mixing it with clay, forms a kind of cement and
can be used to protect flat roofs from rain and is of sufficient
strength to build terraces and houses. A macerate of the wood
is used in Congo for glazing pottery. The timber makes good
firewood, long lasting and picking up quickly from the embers,
with a hot flame and little smoke. N'kumbi ( Anaphe sp.) edible caterpillar and several other species of
Anaphe, including Anaphe infracta feed on the leaves. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees in
Bas-Congo and are known as a bee forage in Gabon.
References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, I rvine 1961, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Uphof 1968,
Lobreau-Callen 1988, Keay 1989, I wu 1993, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Kibungu Kembelo 1996, White
& Abernethy 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Pousset 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
87
Bridelia micrantha
(Phyllanthaceae)
Common names Kimwindu, kimzindu, fibweza, muindu, kimwindu ki mfinda (Kongo)
t
Description A shrub or tree growing to 8 m but of rather crooked growth. I t has a dense, widely
spreading crown. The trunk and branches, occasionally spiny when young, become fibrous and hairless
later. Bark is light grey - brown. The tree branches low down and sometimes has stilt roots.
Ecology Common in the savanna, at the forest edge and in secondary forest in tropical Africa. I t is
often found in wet places but also in open woodland. Grows well in poor soils.
Propagation The tree is easily propagated from seed or can be grown from stem cuttings. Pick the
ripe fruits when they turn purple or collect them from the ground. Squash and remove the seed. Rinse
clean in water and dry for 2 days in the shade. The fruit pulp contains a growth inhibitor and must
therefore be removed from the seed. Sow seed immediately. Germination is even and good, reaching 90
-100% after 30 days. Sow the seeds in a river sand compost mix (2:1) keeping it moist. Transplant at
the two leaf stage. Seedlings and young plants transplant easily. The tree can also be grown by ground
and air layering and from root suckers.
Management The tree grows fast and can be coppiced on a 30 year rotation or pollarded. I n Uganda it
is grown in coffee and banana plantations to
provide shade.
Uses The tree is host to several species of African
silk worms including Anaphe infracta, A. panda
and A. reticulata. Planting this tree has been
encouraged for the production of silk worms,
particularly in Uganda, but since the larvae are
often eaten first, there are too few remaining to
use for silk production (McCrae - personal
communication). N'kumbi edible caterpillars also
eat the leaves in Bas-Congo.
Left: N’kankiti edible caterpillars (Anaphe sp.)
form a sack in which they remain during the
daytime emerging at night to feed.
88
I n Bas-Congo the liquid from the root bark and
the trunk is used to treat dental caries, anaemia
and haemorrhoids. After boiling down the
leaves, the liquid is used to treat coughs and
diarrhoea. The bark and roots also have
medicinal uses. The wood is greyish with a dark
brown heart, hard, naturally lustrous, very
durable, heavy and termite proof. When worked
it takes a good polish and large timbers are good
for indoor carpentry and furniture. The wood is
very durable in contact with the ground and in
water. I t makes a good firewood and charcoal,
giving out an intense heat.
The roots are extensive and are useful for
binding soil along drainage ditches etc. The
shoots and fruits are edible and the leaves can
be used as a fodder. The tree makes a good
shade for coffee and cocoa. I n the inner bark
Nkankiti caterpillars inside the sack
and outer sapwood there is a sticky substance
which is adhesive. I n the Gambia the inner bark, with that of the Baobab, is used to produce glue for
repairing boots and shoes. Bark can also be pounded to a paste for filling in door cracks and caulking
boats. I n Bas-Congo the flowers are reported to be visited by bees. The twigs and young leaves give a
black dye used to colour pottery. The pounded bark yields a red dye.
References Gillet 1927, I rvine 1961, Busson 1965, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Kokwaro 1976, Keay 1989,
Ambougou 1991, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu
Kembelo 1995, Coates Palgrave 1996, Venter & Venter 1996, Msanga 1998, Pousset 2004, Meunier et
al. 2010, SEPASAL (Accessed 29.4.2013)
Collecting water from a protected spring
89
Brillantaisia ow ariensis
(Acanthaceae)
Synonym B. patula
Common name Lemba lemba (Kongo = calm the nerves)
Description A robust shrub with square stems, growing up to 2 m high. Leaves are pointed, toothed,
25 - 30 cm long and 11 - 13 cm wide, with a petiole winged along its whole length. Flowers are
terminal, blue-violet or pink. Fruit is a capsule 25 mm long, bearing about 20 seeds.
Ecology Present in gallery forests and commonly planted in villages in Bas-Congo. Also found from
Togo to Angola and in East Africa.
Propagation Can be grown from seed
or by division.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the presence of the
plant is believed to bring calm to an
argument in the village. The roots, stem
and leaves of this plant are commonly
used medicinally. The leaves, after being
pounded and steeped in water, are used
to treat dementia, coughs, intestinal
worms, heart problems and stomachache. They are also used in the
treatment of drug dependency with
Tapinanthus
poggei,
Amaranthus
hybridus subsp. cruentus and Nymphaea
lotus. The plant is held, in Congo, to
have magical power to exorcise evil
spirits, and when treatment for epilepsy
or insanity is being carried out, the
patient is given lotions and hot vapour
baths made from the roots.
Photo: Jesús Cabrera
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Burkill 1985, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl
& Adi 1994, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004
90
Brucea javanica
(Simaroubaceae)
Synonym B. sumatrana
Common names Nkenkina, kwinkwina (Kongo), Java brucea
Description A small tree
or shrub, usually from 1 3 m high with soft hairy
twigs and leaves. Leaves
are 20 – 50 cm long and
composed of 3 – 15
leaflets. The small purple
flowers are borne in
clusters. Fruits are oval
shaped, purple to black,
and 4 – 5 mm long. Each
contains one flat seed.
Ecology I ntroduced into
Bas-Congo via Kisantu
Botanic
Garden.
Widespread in the tropics
occurring from Sri Lanka
and I ndia to I ndo-China,
southern China, Taiwan,
Thailand and in Australia.
Propagation The shrub
can be grown from seed.
Management The dried
Photos: Steve & Alison Pearson, Airlie Beach
ripe fruits or seeds are
usually collected from the
wild.
Uses I n Bas-Congo
the plant is used to
treat
malaria.
Extracts from the
dried ripe fruits are
widely used to treat
amoebic dysentery,
diarrhoea
and
malaria. Fruits and
seeds, known as
Macassar
kernels,
have been used in
poultices
in
the
treatment of boils,
for ringworm, and
various
intestinal
worms,
including
whipworm,
roundworm
and
tapeworm.
The
seeds and roots are also used to treat diarrhoea and to reduce fever. A related species, B.
antidysenterica, is a source of pollen and nectar to bees in Ethiopia.
References Gillet 1927, Uphof 1968, Macmillan 1991, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Siregar 1999,
van Wyk & Wink 2004
91
Buchholzia tholloniana
(Capparaceae)
Description
A tree
growing to 17 m tall
with a diameter of up
to 50 cm. The black
bark produces a smell
of
mustard
when
rubbed and the wood
smells of onion. The
leaves are alternate,
grouped at the end of
branches, 15 - 35 cm
long and 3 - 10 cm
wide, on a petiole 2 - 8
cm long. Flowers have
no petals and are
composed of a group
of about 40 stamens, 2
cm long, surrounding
the ovary. Fruits are
round, 6 - 10 cm in
diameter, containing a
brown pulp and from 1
to 4 seeds with yellow
cotyledons.
Ecology Grows in secondary forest usually
on firm soils. Present in Cameroon, Gabon
and the Central African Republic and in
Lukaya, Cataractes and Mayombe districts of
Bas-Congo. The tree is sometimes planted.
Propagation The seeds germinate easily.
Uses The fruit tastes like hot pepper
( Capsicum ‘frutescens’) and the seeds are
used as a substitute for pepper. The bark is
soaked in water and used to treat stomachache and inflammation of the ear. I n the
Central Africa Republic the seed kernel is
held for some time in the mouth, without
being chewed, to treat migraine. The seed
pulp is rubbed around the area affected by
snakebite and the seed is eaten to ease
coughing. The timber is used in construction
work in Gabon.
References FAC 1951, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Burkill 1985, Vivien
& Faure 1996
Left: Skin removed to show kernel
92
Cajanus cajan
(Papilionaceae)
Common names Wandu (Kongo), pois-cajan, ambrevade (Fr.), pigeon pea
Description A short lived
woody perennial shrub up
to 2 m high. There are
two species both widely
cultivated in the tropics
and sub-tropics. Plants
grown for food should be
cut down after one year
as productivity declines
thereafter.
Ecology
Sometimes
grown as a hedge in BasCongo. I t is moderately
drought
resistant.
However it does not like
waterlogged soils nor is it
particularly suited to the
humid conditions. The
plant grows best where
there is adequate calcium
and so does well around
villages, where wood ash is present in the soil.
Propagation Seed is sown direct after being soaked in water for 24 hours. I t can be stored if kept dry
and cool, but is very susceptible to
insect attack, so is often mixed
with wood ash as a precaution.
Germination is usually 85 - 95% .
Uses Grown mainly for the ripe
edible seeds which are a good
source of protein (22% ) and of
vitamin B. Young green pods are
also eaten as a vegetable. Field
plants provide good fodder and
browse for livestock. Plants can be
grown as windbreaks and as a
temporary shade for cacao. I t
makes a useful nurse crop for tree
seedlings. I n I ndia silk worms are fed the leaves. I n Manianga
juice from the leaves is used to treat eye problems. Elsewhere
in Africa a decoction of the leaves is used medicinally to treat
dysentery and an extract from the root is used to treat stomach
ache. The stems make good firewood. Bees visit the flowers
producing a honey with a distinctive greenish colour in the comb. I t is a major nectar source in I ndia
and Mozambique. The plant fixes nitrogen, improving soil fertility.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Arkinstall 1979, Allen & Allen 1981, Crane et al. 1984,
Van den Belt 1988, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Raemaekers 2001, Pousset 2004
93
Caladium bicolor
(Araceae)
Common names Malanga (Kongo = something which covers; criminals use it for cover), Caladium,
angel-wings, elephant ear
Description
A
perennial
herb,
about 60 cm tall,
with a crown of
large mottled and
coloured
leaves
growing from a
tuberous rootstock.
The
leaves
are
borne on petioles,
15 - 30.5 cm long
that arise directly
from
the
underground tuber.
The petioles are
attached to the
leaves near the
centre. Leaf shape,
size and colour vary
among
the
hundreds
of
selections, but most
are heart, lance or
arrowhead shaped, 15 - 35 cm long, and variously spotted or streaked with pink, red, grey, or white.
The inflorescence is a 23 cm long greenish white fleshy spike enclosed in a spathe. Small white berries
eventually develop on the spadix.
Ecology The wild variety is common in swamps and along river banks in moist shady areas. The plant
is originally from the South American tropical rain forests and the Caribbean but now widely distributed
throughout the tropics.
Propagation Tubers should
be cut into pieces with at
least two buds ("eyes")
each, at the end of the
dormant period. Set tubers
about 2 cm deep. Tubers
should be planted in well
drained, humus rich soil.
Most cultivars require partial
to full shade, but some
tolerate sunny positions. The
plants need adequate water
during their growing season.
They do poorly in dry
climates.
The
dormant
tubers, however, must be
kept dry.
Uses An ornamental plant
grown for its large, showy
leaves. The fresh rhizome is
used as an emetic and a purgative. I n Congo the rhizome is applied to painful areas, oedemas, boils,
abscesses and ulcers. Leaves are reported to be eaten for insomnia and nightmares. The fruits are also
used medicinally.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Burkill 1985, Phillips & Rix 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Llamas
2003, Floridata website (Accessed 6.7.2007).
94
Calamus deerratus
(Arecaceae)
Synonym C. laurentii
Common names Nkau (Kongo), rotin (Fr.), rattan
Both photos: Luc Pauwels
Description A slender to moderately robust rattan palm, climbing up to 20 m high, often forming
dense clumps. The stems and leaves are armed with spines. Stems have an extended whip-like organ,
called a flagella, up to 2 m long, with hooks which help the palm climb into the tops of forest trees.
Canes may grow to 5 cm diameter but are usually only 1 – 3 cm. Old stems lose their thorns.
Ecology Grows in swamp and riverine
forest but is less common in areas with
high rainfall. I t is the most widely
distributed of the African rattans.
Propagation Seeds germinate better
when the fleshy layer has been removed.
I n Ghana the plant has been successfully
propagated using rhizomes, with about
20% sprouting.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the stems are used
to make baskets and were traditionally
made into canes for chiefs. The skin of
the stem is removed with a knife and then the cane is dried. Elsewhere the canes are used to make
furniture, walking sticks, belts for climbing palm trees and bored out to make flutes. The stems are also
used for fencing and ties for house building. When the rind is peeled off the fibre makes a strong rope.
Remarks The stems are not as flexible as those of Eremospatha nor or as large, strong or long lasting
as those of Laccosperma species.
References Purseglove 1972, Burkill 1997, Bongers et al. 2004, Sunderland 2007, Sunderland 2011
95
Caloncoba w elw itschii
(Flacourtiaceae)
Synonym Oncoba welwitschii
Common names Kisani, kisania, nsani (Kongo)
Description A shrub or tree to
5 – 6 m tall. The leaves are
ovate in shape ending in a long
point. They are flat or very
broadly rounded at the base,
with 5 nerves. Leaf stalks are 5
– 22 cm long. Flowers are large
(5 cm across) and showy, with 3
- 4 broad overlapping sepals and
5 - 13 white petals. The
numerous stamens are bright
orange. Fruits are covered with
slender spines up to 5 cm long.
Ecology
Very common
in
secondary forest in Bas-Congo.
Also
present
in
Nigeria,
Cameroon,
Gabon,
Angola,
Malawi and Mozambique.
Propagation and management The tree can be grown from seed and coppices well.
Uses Poles are used for house construction and charcoal
and the fruit pulp is eaten in Bas-Congo. The leaves are
eaten by Nsani ( Cymothoe caenis), Mimpemba and
Matambungu edible caterpillars. Though the former is not
one of the tastiest species it is available in large
quantities in January and again at the end of the rain
season. The flowers are frequently visited by bees,
though some people report that the nectar produces a
bitter honey. The plant has a number of medicinal uses.
I n Bas-Congo the flowers and fruits are used to treat
mental illness, asthma, gallstones and intestinal worms.
The fruits, boiled with pineapple juice, are given to
pregnant women to reduce colic pains. The leaves are also used to treat fleas in poultry. I n Congo
(Brazzaville) the leaves and bark are made into poultices to mature abscesses and into plasters for
bronchial infections and rheumatism. Pounded leaves are applied to reduce swellings in bone fractures
before fixing splints. Powdered leaves are sprinkled on the severed umbilical cord of new-born babies.
Pulped bark with palm oil is used to treat
itch, and juice extracted from the bark is
used to expel parasites. Root scrapings
are rubbed on to kill body lice. The seed
oil has been used in Congo for leprosy,
and
contains
chaulmoogric
and
hydnocarpic acids.
Remarks Some people say the wood
should not be used to make beehives or
top bars as it can kill the bees. Leaf pulp
is used to repel bees during honey
harvest in the Central African Republic.
References
Butaye 1909, Gillet &
Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Staner &
Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Nsimundele
1966 – 68, Aké Assi et al. 1981, Keay
1989, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993,
Burkill 1994, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
Cymothoe caenis edible caterpillars
96
Camoensia scandens
(Papilionaceae)
Synonym C. maxima
Common name Nkadinkadi (Kongo)
Description A scrambling woody shrub or creeper up to 30 m long. Young parts are densely covered
with fine hairs. Leaves are 4.5 – 24 cm long and 2.5 – 9 cm wide. Flowers, including calyx, may be up
to 25 cm long. Fruits are 18 – 22 cm long and 3 – 4 cm wide. Seeds are 2.5 x 2 cm.
Photo: Gracia Matondo
Ecology Present in forest and
savanna, being colonized by forest,
in D.R. Congo, Angola and
Tanzania. I t requires a moist,
fertile soil.
Propagation Grow
from
cuttings or by air-layering.
seed,
Uses Grown as an ornamental. I n
Equateur province the powdered
root is applied externally to
wounds.
References Staner & Boutique
1937, FAC 1953, FTEA
Pauwels 1993, Fayaz 2011
1971,
Photo: Jean-Luc & Pauline Alliez
97
Cananga odorata
(Annonaceae)
Common name Ylang-ylang
Description A large evergreen tree
25 – 30 m tall. The trunk is straight
and the branches droop. The bark is
smooth and ash coloured. Leaves are
alternate, elliptic, 9 – 20 cm long and
5 – 10 cm wide with wavy margins.
Flowers are borne on 3 – 5 cm stalks
arising in the leaf axils. There are 3
sepals, 5 mm long and 6 greenishyellow twisted petals 4 cm long. Fruit
is stalked, oval in shape, 1.5 cm long
and has 10 – 12 segments containing
6 – 12 seeds. The fragrant flowers
are produced throughout the year.
Ecology
Native to East I ndies,
Burma, the Philippine islands and
throughout Malaysia but now planted
widely throughout the tropics. I t is
not common in Bas-Congo but
occasionally
planted
as
an
ornamental tree. I t grows well in a
moist tropical climate, preferably
close to sea level in deep, fertile
sandy soils. I t has a long taproot.
Propagation Usually grown from seed, rarely from
cuttings. Fresh seed does not germinate well and is best
left for a year before planting. Seed can be planted in a
seed bed or planted direct in the field. Mix manure in the
planting hole and plant at a spacing of 6 m x 6 m.
Management
I f trees are grown for commercial
production of flowers they should be topped at 3.3 m to
facilitate harvesting. Mulching prolongs the flowering. The
flowers are picked just as they turn from yellowish-green
to yellow, before dawn to conserve the perfume. The
flowers must be picked very carefully to avoid bruising or
crushing. Damaged flowers turn black and cause
fermentation. Flowers harvested in the dry season contain
more oil. The oil must be kept in the dark. A full grown
tree yields 10 – 12 kg of fresh flowers per season and 100
kg flowers produce 0.5 kg oil. Total yield of ylang-ylang and cananga oil is 0.5 – 2.5% of the weight of
the flowers. The two oils are produced in equal amounts. Environmental factors influence oil yield and
quality. Trees may remain productive for 25 – 50 years.
Uses The perfume ylang-ylang is obtained on first distillation. The second distillation yields an inferior
oil, cananga oil or macassar oil. Ylang-ylang is extensively used in fixing floral perfumes though no more
than 1% of the oil is used in a perfume. I t is used in face powders, creams, detergents, lotions and
soaps. I t is also used to flavour baked goods, sweets, alcoholic beverages, chewing gums, gelatines,
icing, puddings, soft drinks at levels of less than 5 ppm. The oil is used to treat gout and opthalmia and
has been used as a substitute for quinine in the treatment of malaria. The leaves also yield an essential
oil. The wood is suitable for use in packing cases, boxes and for turnery. Bark can be used to make
rope. The white to grey timber is not durable, but used for household implements. I n Ghana the tree is
planted for shade. Bunaea alcinoe (Makedi kedi) and Lobobunea phaedusa (Kaba) edible caterpillars
were seen feeding on the leaves at Kavwaya in January.
References Burkill 1985, Williamson 1991, Duke & DuCellier 1993, Pauwels 1993, Llamas 2003
98
Canarium schw einfurthii
(Burseraceae)
Common names Kibidi, mbidi, nsafu mfinda (Kongo), elemier d'Afrique (Fr.), African elemi, incense
tree
Description A tree up to 45 m
tall, usually rather slender, with a
spreading crown. I t makes a good
shade tree.
Ecology
Grows in secondary
forest and is sometimes planted.
Widespread in tropical Africa from
Sierra Leone to Angola and
Tanzania.
Propagation Can be grown from
seed. The fruits fall to the ground
when ripe. Collect them together,
allow the outer coat to decompose,
then separate from the stone.
Crack open the stone which
contains 3 seeds. Seeds store well.
Before planting immerse them in
hot water, which is then allowed to
cool and soak for 24 hours. Wild
seedlings can also be transplanted.
Management
The tree grows
slowly and does not compete with
crops.
Uses The black fruits are edible,
particularly after being boiled or
baked in ashes. Even softening the
fruits in hot water makes them
more palatable. The wood is used
for construction. The abundant
resin, obtained from cuts in the
bark, is used for preparing ointments, for burning as
incense and for making ink and varnishes. Powdered resin
is used to treat haemorrhoids. The bark, after soaking in
water, is also used to treat haemorrhoids and to ease
coughing. I n Angola it is used for the treatment of ulcers
and also as an insecticide. I n Bas-Congo an edible
caterpillar (Mbidi) is sometimes found in large numbers on
this tree. Flowers are reported to be visited by bees in
Gabon. Traditionally the seeds were used as bullets in BasCongo.
Ripe fruits fall to the ground
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, De
Wildeman 1934, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962,
Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Uphof 1968, Burkill 1985, Keay
1989, Ambougou 1991, I wu 1993, Pauwels 1993, Katende
et al. 1995, Kibungu Kembel 2010, Meunier et al. 2010
Left: Resin flowing from a wound in the trunk.
99
Canavalia ensiformis and C. gladiata
(Papilionaceae)
Common names C. ensiformis = Nkasa zi madeso (Kongo), pois sabre (Fr.), Jack bean. C. gladiata =
sword bean
Canavalia gladiata growing on the edge of a plot of Capsicum peppers
Description The Jack bean is usually an erect shrubby annual up to 1 m tall while the sword bean is a
high climbing, twining perennial with runners up to 10 m long. Jack beans produce pods up to 30 cm
long and 3.5 cm wide while sword beans can be up to 40 cm long and 5 cm wide. Jack bean seeds are
white, sword bean seeds red. Roots are deep penetrating and help to aerate the soil.
Ecology C. ensiformis is a native of Central America but is
now dispersed throughout the tropics and common in
cultivation throughout West Africa. I t tolerates shade. C.
gladiata is widely cultivated in I ndia and Asia and is more
commonly found in Bas-Congo than C. ensiformis. I t grows
well on acid, leached soils and can be grown over fences.
Propagation Seed germinates quickly. Plant 5 – 7.5 cm
deep.
Management The plant is fast growing producing seed
after 3 - 4 months. I f cut back it produces a bushy form.
Normal yield of seed is 800 – 1,500 kg per ha.
Uses The young pods and very young seeds of both species
can be eaten as a vegetable. However the seeds have a
Seeds of Canavalia gladiata
strong flavour and a tough seed coat, which is best removed
after cooking and before eating. The water used for cooking
should be changed several times. Seeds can be used as a livestock feed for cattle and poultry. The plant
is grown as a valuable green manure in some countries. I n Bas-Congo seeds are occasionally planted at
the edge of a food farm in the belief that it will prevent people stealing the crop (see also Burkill 1995).
Leaves and young pods of Jack bean are used as a tasty green vegetable in South Africa. The seeds are
also used in South Africa as a coffee substitute.
References Kay 1979, NAS 1979, Siemonsma & Kasem Piluek 1993, Burkill 1995, van Wyk et al. 2000,
Bosch 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
100
Canna indica
(Cannaceae)
Synonym C. bidentata
Common names Kombu kombu, tundungoma (Kongo), I ndian shot, wild canna lily
Description A herb growing
from a much branched rhizome
with stems up to 2.5 m tall.
Leaves are ovate-oblong, 30 –
60 cm long and 10 – 20 cm
wide with green or purple leaf
sheaths. Flowers are red to
yellow in racemes. Sepals pale
purplish-green.
Fruit
is
a
capsule 1.2 – 1.8 cm long.
Ecology
I n Bas-Congo the
plant
is
frequently
found
growing wild in abandoned
villages. I t is believed to have
originally come from South
America but is now cultivated
throughout the tropics.
Propagation Can be grown
from rhizomes or seed.
Uses The black, hard-coated
seeds are used in bells,
rosaries, as beads and as
bullets to kill birds in BasCongo. I n Congo a tisane is
made from the leaves and
given to children with severe
coughing. The sap is applied to
sores and to stop bleeding. The
leaves are also used for
wrapping.
An
aqueous
decoction is used to treat
irregular periods in women. The
Photo: Luc Pauwels
rhizomes can be eaten raw but
are usually consumed after
boiling or cooking in various ways. Flour can be made from the rhizomes by peeling, drying and milling.
The starch is used in foods. Young shoots can be eaten as a green vegetable. Children suck the base of
the flowers for nectar. Both the leaves and the rhizomes can be used as cattle feed. Canna species are
also well known as garden ornamentals because of their attractive flowers and foliage.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Williams 1949, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985,
Llamas 2003, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Fayaz 2011
101
Capsicum annuum
(Solanaceae)
Common names Ndungu zi mafofolo, ndungu zi nkombo (Kongo), Piment (Fr.), capsicum, bell pepper,
sweet pepper
Description An annual or short lived
perennial herb, 0.5 to 1.5 m high
usually grown as an annual. This is the
most variable species of the genus.
Fruits are borne singly. The following
varieties are present: Long peppers Fruits 20 - 30 cm in length, cream,
yellow or red, tapering; Sweet, Bell and
Paprika peppers - large, inflated, thick
fleshed; Chilli peppers - more than 9 cm
long, narrow, pointed; Wrinkled peppers
- less than 5 cm in length, and wrinkled;
Cherry peppers - rounded, with firm
flesh, yellow, red or purple; Cluster
peppers - fruits in clusters. Many
intermediate forms occur.
Ecology Originally from Mexico. Peppers can be grown from sea level to 2,000 m or more. Fertile loam
soils with high organic content are preferred. Normally grown during the rain season, but heavy rain
causes poor fruit set and rotting of the fruit. Poor drainage results in leaf fall. Mulching is beneficial in
both dry and wet seasons.
Propagation
Grown from seed
which is normally planted in a
nursery. Seeds retain their viability
for 2 - 3 years. Extract and dry seed
from ripe fruit. Seeds are sown in
containers
or
seedbeds
and
transplanted when 8 - 10 cm high.
Germination occurs after 6 - 10
days. Transplant when 15 cm high.
They may be topped 10 days
beforehand to encourage branching.
Management Transplant to rows
60 - 80 cm apart and 35 - 45 cm
between plants or 50 - 60 cm
square. Plant on ridges during the
rain season, timing this so that fruit
will ripen in the dry season.
Harvesting can start 50 - 80 days
after transplanting and continue for
60 days or more. Pick fruits every 1
or 2 weeks.
Uses The fruit is used in soups,
stews and also eaten raw in salads.
Sweet peppers have the mildest
flavour with little of the pungent
principle and are rich in vitamin C.
Young tops and leaves can also be
eaten and have a protein content of
about 8% . Some people say the
fruits give food the taste of goat
meat.
Capsicum chinense – Aromatic pepper. This species, together
with C. annuum and C. frutescens, are all descended from a
common ancestor.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Terra 1966, Purseglove 1968, Tindall 1983, Grubben & el
Tahir 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
102
Capsicum ‘frutescens’
(Solanaceae)
Common names Ntendi, Ndungu zi ntendi, Ndungu zi fioti or matubulu (with round fruits)(Kongo), pilipili (Sw.), piment capsique (Fr.), bird pepper, hot pepper, Tabasco pepper
Description A perennial sub-shrub, usually living for 2 - 3 years, up to 1.25 m tall. Fruits are small, 1 2 cm long, green to start with but turning red on maturity.
Ecology, propagation and management as for C. annuum
Uses Ripe fruits are highly pungent and widely used as a condiment with most meals. I n reasonable
quantities they stimulate the appetite and aid digestion. They may be eaten fresh or dried and
powdered (see page 386). The leaves are sometimes eaten as a seasoning or even as a vegetable. The
fruits and leaves are used medicinally to treat rheumatoid arthritis, sprains, muscle pain, lumbago and
sciatica. They are also used for flatulence and haemorrhoids, skin diseases and shingles and to relieve
labour pains.
Right: The variety called Matabulu
with round fruits.
“ Lundungu lu n’tendi lu yedila mu
kati” (Ndia Nsoki 1994) = The
variety of Capsicum frutescens
called “n’tendi” may be small but its
size is no indication of its hotness.
(Ndia Nsoki 1994)
Remarks Though C. frutescens is
now considered to be a synonym of C. annuum it is recognised locally as being a distinct species. The
fruits must be handled carefully to avoid contact w ith the eyes, nose, anus or open w ounds.
Wash your hands w ell after touching the fruit.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1968, Burkill 2000, Hirt & M'Pia 2001, Kibungu
Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
103
Carapa procera
(Meliaceae)
Common names Bula nima, futi, nkasa nkumbi, nzau nti (Kongo), crab nut
Description A spreading tree
growing up to 30 m high. Branches
arise low down on the trunk which
may be fluted. The compound
leaves are made up of 5 – 9 pairs
of opposite leaflets, 16 – 55 cm
long and 5 – 15 cm wide, and
borne on petioles up to 25 – 150
cm long. Young leaves are light
green or bright pink. The scented
flowers are in panicles up to 75 cm
long. The fruit (see below right) is
a capsule 10 cm in diameter,
splitting into 5 sections with rough
edges and containing 12 – 20
seeds. Seeds are angular and dark
brown.
Ecology Found in primary forests from
Guinea to Uganda and Angola. Also
present in tropical America.
Propagation Sow seeds in pots, after
soaking in water overnight, or transplant
wild seedlings. Seed should be stored in
ash to avoid insect damage.
Management Shade and weed control
are necessary during early growth until
the trees are well established. The tree
can be pruned to obtain a single stem.
Uses The bark is used to treat dysentery
in Bas-Congo. The timber is heavy and
tough and used for making furniture,
panelling and veneers and also for
firewood and charcoal. Seeds (left) are
edible when roasted and also produce an
edible oil known as crab oil. This is used
as a cosmetic and to treat wounds and painful areas.
The bark and seeds contain chemicals that have
insecticidal properties. Elsewhere in Africa the bark is
used to treat coughs and fever. Bees are reported to
visit the flowers in Gabon.
References De Wildeman 1903, Gillet 1927, De
Wildeman 1934, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels
1993, Katende et al. 1995, White & Abernethy 1997,
Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004
104
Cardiospermum grandiflorum & C. halicacabum
(Sapindaceae)
Common names Pois de coeur (Fr.), balloon vine
Description Weak, annual, slender, climbing herbs. Leaves are compound having three leaflets in
groups of three. Leaflets have sharp edges and are usually toothed. I n C. grandiflorum the petals are
larger (8 – 9 mm) and the fruit is broadest at the middle. I n C. halicacabum the petals are 2 – 3 mm
long and the fruit is broadest towards the apex. Both photos are of C. grandiflorum .
Ecology Found in gallery and rain forests, at forest edges, in savanna, fields and fallow land.
Widespread across tropical Africa and south to South Africa. Also present in Central America and
Australia.
C.
Uses The
roots
of
halicacabum are used as an
emetic in Bas-Congo. The roots
are known to be soothing to
inflamed areas. I n D.R. Congo
a leaf and stalk infusion is
given by enema to treat
diarrhoea
and
dysentery.
Leaves are sometimes used as
a vegetable in Ghana. The
flowers of both species are
known to be a valuable source
of honey in Africa and in Texas,
USA. The seeds are decorative
and the seed oil has potential
use in the food industry.
References Nsimundele 1966
– 68, Hepburn & Radloff 1998,
Rojo & Pitargue 1999, Burkill
2000, Neuwinger 2000
105
Carica papaya
(Caricaceae)
Common names Payi payi, dipapayi (Kongo), papayer (Fr.), pawpaw
Description A short-lived,
fast growing tree with a
soft-wooded stem. Male and
female flowers are normally
borne on different plants.
The male flowers are
carried in long hanging
racemes and are often
fragrant. The female flowers
are borne on the main
stem.
Ecology
Originally from
Central America and grown
throughout the tropics. The
tree does best below 1,500
m in well drained, fertile
soils.
Propagation
The
tree
grows easily from seed
which should be washed to
remove the flesh and air-dried in the shade. Seeds may be sown direct or in a nursery bed and
germinate after 12 - 20 days. Seedlings can then be transplanted into pots at the two-leaf stage. As it is
not possible to tell male and female plants at this stage, 3 - 5 seedlings are planted together in the field
with the groups spaced at 3 x 2 m. Dig out a hole 50 x 50 x 50 cm and add manure or compost. 3
young
plants are
then allowed to grow
on until they flower.
Once
flowering
commences thin out
the plants to leave
one male to 15 to 20
females.
Management
Mulching the plants
greatly
assists
growth
and
production.
Uses The
fruit is
easy to digest, a
good
source
of
provitamin A and
ascorbic acid and a
fair
source
of
calcium. The latex,
containing the enzyme papain, obtained from scratching the surface of unripe fruit, is used to make
meat tender. Wrapping tough meat in the leaves and leaving it overnight has the same effect. Papain
can also be applied to ulcers and burns to assist healing, and in water to clean dirty wounds. I t has
important medicinal uses for the treatment of back pain, tuberculosis, digestive problems, intestinal and
urinary problems and guinea worm. The seeds, sap and flowers can be used to kill or expel intestinal
worms. All residues, including the leaves, can be used as a livestock feed. Bees obtain pollen from male
flowers, in some cases in sufficient amounts to stimulate brood rearing, and also nectar from female
and bisexual flowers. The presence of bees is reported to increase fruit production. They sometimes
collect juice from damaged fruit.
References Gillet 1927, Morton 1964, Crane et al. 1984, Ambougou 1991, Clauss 1992, I wu 1993,
Fichtl & Adi 1994, Nakasone & Paull 1998, Hirt & M’Pia 2001, Raemaekers 2001, Pousset 2004
106
Carpolobia alba
(Polygalaceae)
Synonym C. glabrescens
Common name Poor man’s candle
Description A shrub or small tree up to 10 m tall. Leaves are alternate, papery, 5 – 14 cm long and 2
– 7 cm wide, on a petiole 1 – 3 mm long. I nflorescence is composed of 2 – 4 flowers. Corolla is white,
turning yellow. There are 5 petals, the keel petal being up to 1.5 cm long, limb as long as claw, 2 – 3
cm wide when folded. The smooth, orange fruits are ovoid, 1.8 cm in diameter, and have 3 lobes.
Ecology Present in gallery and secondary forests. Found from west tropical Africa south to Angola and
in Central Africa. Altitude range 200 – 1,000 m.
Uses Fruits are edible and in Bas-Congo they are also used as an aphrodisiac. The yellow wood is very
hard, heavy, termite resistant, fine textured, carving smoothly and taking a good polish. I t is used for
rat-traps, walking sticks, cudgels, tool handles and house posts. Stems are used for chew sticks and
after stripping off the bark can also be used instead of candles as they burn even when fresh. The
flowers are reported to be visited by bees in Gabon.
References Renier 1948, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Abbiw 1990, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill
1997, Hawthorne & Jongkind 2006, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
107
Cascabela thevetia
(Apocynaceae)
Synonyms Thevetia peruviana, T. neriifolia
Common names Chapeau de Napolean (Fr.), exile tree, yellow oleander
Description A multi-stemmed shrub or small tree growing to 6 m high. Leaves are narrow, 12 - 15
long and 0.7 - 1 cm wide, and produced alternately in a spiral. The flowers, 6 cm long, are normally
yellow but may also be white or pink.
Ecology Originally from tropical America and the West I ndies but now frequently cultivated throughout
the tropics and often grown in villages in Bas-Congo. The tree is drought resistant and tolerates most
types of soil, though it prefers sandy soils.
Propagation Can be grown from seed or cuttings. Seed can be stored for up to 3 months and has a
germination rate of up to 80% .
Management The tree is fast-growing. For a good display of flowers it should be pruned one month
before flowering.
Uses The fruit or leaves are crushed and put on
food to poison wild animals e.g. cane rats =
nsisi (Kongo) or nsimbiliki (Lingala), which can
then be eaten, though they must be cleaned out
carefully beforehand. Widely grown as an
ornamental for its yellow flowers which are
produced throughout the year. Makes a good
hedge, suppressing weeds in its shade. Latex is
present in all parts of the plant. The wood is
used to make tool handles and even building
poles. The fruits, and particularly the kernels,
have insecticidal activity. Medicinally the plant is
used as a purgative and an emetic, however all
parts of the plant are very poisonous.
Remarks Every part of the plant is very poisonous. Children should not play w ith the fruits.
References Gillet 1927, Uphof 1968, Burkill 1985, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995
108
Catharanthus roseus
(Apocynaceae)
Common names Pervenche de Madagascar (Fr.), mtunda (Swahili), Madagascar periwinkle
Description A perennial shrub, up to 1 m tall, with bright pink flowers which are produced throughout
the year. Stems grow to 60 cm and are often woody at the base. Leaves are 2.5 – 8.5 cm long and 1 –
4 cm wide, oblong and shiny green. Flowers are 3 cm across, generally pink but sometimes white with a
red, pale yellow or white centre.
Ecology The plant is originally from Madagascar but is now naturalised throughout the tropics. I t grows
well on sandy soils and can be found in dry rocky sites. I t is often planted as an ornamental in villages.
I t withstands drought well but not very high temperatures.
Propagation Can be grown from seed or cuttings. Seed does not always germinate immediately after
harvest and may need to be kept for a few weeks before planting. Seed can be kept for up to 5 years
and germination is usually good. Cuttings, taken from greenwood or semi-ripe stems, are best grown in
a closed container.
Uses The plant is effective in reducing certain nematodes in the soil, even when populations are high.
Trials show a reduction of 95% of reniform, root-knot and stunt nematodes. The roots are used to treat
amoebic dysentery in Bas-Congo. The plant contains alkaloids which are used in the treatment of cancer
and leukaemia. I n Africa the whole plant, fresh or dried leaves, roots and flowers are used to treat
coughs and asthma, diabetes, fatigue, blood in urine, bacterial dysentery, gastric ulcers, rheumatism,
high blood pressure, hypertension, abscesses, warts, insect stings, skin rashes and venereal disease.
References Phillips & Rix 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Stoll 2000, Pousset 2004, Schmelzer 2007
109
Cecropia pachystachya
(Cecropiaceae)
Common name Ambay pumpwood
Description A small to medium dioecious tree 5 – 15 m tall. Large trees have stilt roots. The tree
produces very few branches. The stems are hollow. The tree is easily identified by its large, circular,
palmately lobed leaves, about 30 - 40 cm in diameter and deeply divided into 7-11 lobes. When the
branches are cut, they release a watery, often mucilaginous sap which turns black when exposed to the
air.
Ecology The trees are invasive, make few demands on the soil and grow very quickly. The species was
introduced to Bas-Congo from the Kisantu botanic garden. Native to the American tropics.
Propagation Fruits are collected from the
tree, placed in a plastic bag and allowed to
decompose. The seeds are then separated
out, washed and dried in the sun. Plant
immediately in an open seedbed. Transplant
when 5 cm high.
Uses The main use of Cecropia trees is to
prevent soil erosion. I n Equateur province the
leaves are used to treat dysentery and heart
palpitations, and the roots to treat
elephantiasis, dental caries and coughs. The
wood from Cecropia trees is used to make
flutes, guitars, matches and light boxes. The
fibres of the bark can be made into ropes and
used for bowstrings and hammocks. The
fruits are reported to be eaten in Brazil.
References Lorenzi 1992, Konda ku Mbuta
et al. 2012, Wikipedia (Accessed 4.10.13)
Tree in flower in August at Eala
110
Ceiba pentandra
(Bombacaceae)
Common names Mfuma (Kongo), fromager (Fr.),
kapok, silk cotton tree
Description A large deciduous tree growing to 40 m
high with horizontal branches. When young the
trunk is covered with large spines. The fruit pods are
from 10 - 26 cm long and contain black seeds
surrounded with fine, silky (kapok) fibres.
Ecology Native to Central America and West Africa.
Cultivated or found in secondary forest in Bas-Congo.
I t prefers deep, permeable, volcanic soils, free from
water-logging.
Propagation Can be grown from seed or cuttings.
Seeds, which retain their viability for up to one year
at room temperature, should first be soaked in cold
water for 24 hours before planting.
Management
The
tree
can
be
coppiced
or
pollarded.
Uses The floss has the advantage of being resistant
to vermin. Hospital mattresses, using the floss, can
be sterilized without losing their original quality. Because of its buoyancy and resistance to wetting it is
used in life jackets, rafts and naval equipment. I t can also be used as a substitute for cotton wool. The
floss can be used to protect young plants from
browsing damage by goats. Wood is of poor
quality but easy to work and used for chairs,
dishes, boxes and drums when seasoned.
Wood ash is used as a salt substitute and for
making soap. Young leaves can be cooked and
eaten as a vegetable or used as a stock feed.
The flowers are also edible and are sold in
Kinshasa. Seeds yield an edible oil which can
also be used in the manufacture of soap. The
bark is used as a purgative and to cause
vomiting in the event of poisoning. A decoction
of the roots is used as a diuretic and to treat
dysentery. I n Bas-Congo the dried leaves,
together with plantain, are used to treat
haemorrhoids. Flowers provide a valuable source of nectar and pollen to honeybees. Though opening at
night they remain open for a short time early in the morning when bees visit.
C i
t
Remarks The tree roots are shallow and the
tree is liable to be blown over by high winds.
The roots may damage buildings if planted
too close.
Left: Floss and dried flowers
A Kikongo proverb states that:- “Mbemba wo
diengeni diengeni kundulu mfuma” (Ndia
Nsoki 1994) = After having wandered in the
sky the vulture returns to his perch in the
mfuma tree, meaning that a person may wander wherever he wants but one day he will die and return
to God.
References Staner & Boutique 1937, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Burkill 1985, von Carlowitz 1991, Pauwels
1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
111
Celosia argentea
(Amaranthaceae)
Common names Lundala ndala (= swallow) (Kongo), célosie (Fr.), Lagos spinach
Description An erect annual herb growing up to 2 m with leaves 15 x 7 cm.
Ecology Originally from West Africa. Sometimes planted but it also grows spontaneously especially in
marshy soils in Bas-Congo. A high level of organic matter and adequate water is required for good
yields. The plant will also grow well in partial shade. Long dry periods result in early flowering.
Propagation I f grown for
continued harvesting over a
long period the seed should
be first sown in a nursery and
then transplanted. More even
sowing can be obtained if the
seed is mixed with some fine,
dry sand.
Management Seedlings are
transplanted when about 10 15 cm high, being spaced at
15 - 30 cm each way. The
crop will grow on poor soils
but
yields
are
greatly
increased if grown in fertile
conditions.
Harvesting
of
whole plants takes place when
they reach 20 - 40 cm high. I f
cut at 15 - 20 cm they
develop side shoots which are
then harvested when they
reach 15 cm from the node. A
total of four cuttings can be
made at three week intervals.
Uses Grown as a vegetable
though
Mbwembo
( Amaranthus hybridus subsp.
cruentus) is preferred. Young
leaves
have
the
best
nutritional value with a protein
content of 4.7% . The boiled
leaves and young shoots are
softer and more slimy than
those of amaranth and are
used in soups and stews,
especially with fish. The young
flowers are also eaten. The
Celosia argentea flowering in February near Sona Bata.
leaves are sometimes dried for
later use. The plant has a high
oxalate content, which can give rise to kidney stones, so should only be eaten in moderate amounts.
The leaves are used to treat coughs and the roots promote urination. The seeds are used to treat
diarrhoea. Bees collect nectar from the flowers.
Remarks The plant is very susceptible to nematodes, Cercospora leaf spot and spider mite but it grows
faster than amaranth and has a higher dry matter content. I mproved varieties from Nigeria mature
later, can be harvested over a longer period and are more productive.
References De Wildeman 1903, Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Terra 1966, Oomen & Grubben 1978,
Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Konda et al 1992, Schippers 2002, Denton 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
112
Celosia trigyna
(Amaranthaceae)
Common names Teta bowa, nkaka bowa, tusevo (Kongo)
Description A much branched herb, 30 cm to 1 m high, with thin, weak stems and many flowers.
Stems are often green-red and striped. Leaves are alternate, 2 – 8 cm long and 1 – 4 cm wide with a
petiole up to 5 cm long. Most leaves
fall as the fruit matures. The
terminal flower head is 20 cm long
with widely spaced clusters of
flowers. Each is very small, with
pink/ white sepals and red anthers.
Ecology Widespread at low altitudes
as a weed in abandoned cultivation,
forest clearings, along tracks and
roadsides. Also found in damp
ground beside water. I t can be
present both in relatively dry areas
and in the more humid forest zone.
Photo: Jean Lejoly
Uses The leaves, which are rather bitter, are eaten by some people in Bas-Congo. Young shoots are
harvested about 2 months from sowing prior to the development of the flower shoots, which can be
spiny. There are however people who like this species and it is currently being studied in Nigeria where
improved selections have been made. I t is rich in saponins and one should therefore be careful not to
eat too much. I n Bas-Congo, Kivu and Rwanda the plant is used as an intestinal worm remedy
particularly for tapeworms in children. I t is also used ‘to enrich the blood’.
References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Staner & Boutique 1937, Delaude & Breyne 1971, Van
Epenhuijsen 1974, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Konda et al. 1992, Ruffo et al. 2002, Schippers 2002,
Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Malaisse 2010
113
Cenchrus purpureus
(Poaceae)
Synonym Pennisetum purpureum
Common
names Diadi,
ndiadi,
madiadia,
mbulu
mbakala (Kongo), herbe à
elephant
(Fr.),
elephant
grass, napier grass
Description A robust, deep
rooted erect perennial grass
with stems growing to 2 – 4
m and forming large clumps.
Leaves are 30 - 120 cm long
by 1 - 5 cm wide with a
prominent midrib. The leaf
sheath is hairy.
Ecology
Grows in damp,
fertile sites in deep soil
though it will grow in a wide
variety of soils. I t can
withstand periods of drought.
I t does not tolerate waterlogging.
Propagation
Most easily
planted using stem cuttings
having at least 3 nodes.
Cuttings
are
planted
diagonally or vertically with 2
nodes below ground. For
good soil conservation, plant
along the contour at a close
spacing. Otherwise for fodder
production plant at a spacing
of 50 – 90 cm. After cutting
back top growth to ground
level clumps can be divided and planted out.
Management To obtain best food value cut regularly when leaves reach 100 – 120 cm. The plant
responds well to nitrogen fertilizer if available. Alternatively Desmodium intortum can be planted in
combination to fix nitrogen.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the stems are used for making screens, in house construction and for fish traps.
The young white tender shoots are edible. When young the shoots are a good cattle fodder. I t makes a
good forage grass for stall feeding livestock, though it can also be grazed. I ts feed value however
depends on the ratio of stem to leaf and on age. Young leaves have a much better digestibility than
older leaves, particularly if stems are present with the latter. Plants are valuable for erosion control
when planted in a continuous line along the contour at 2 m vertical intervals.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Bogdan 1977, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Crane &
Walker 1984, ‘t Mannetje 1992, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
114
Centella asiatica
(Apiaceae)
Common names I ndian pennywort, ecuelle d’eau (Fr.), hydrocotyle
Description A low growing creeping herb. The plant has slender stems, rounded leaves and small
flowers. I t roots at the nodes forming a mat.
Ecology Found in marshy places in Bas-Congo. Also found on roadsides at all altitudes. Grows
throughout the tropics and present in Asia and S. America. I t is sometimes found in lawns and has been
grown in Java to prevent erosion.
Propagation The plant roots from the nodes.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the plant is applied to heal wounds. Leaf infusions are used in I ndia to treat leprosy
and skin infections and for their diuretic effect. Asiaticoside has been extracted from the leaves and
found to be effective in healing wounds. The whole plant is dried and incorporated into ointments for
use in treating wounds, burns and ulcers, to improve healing and prevent the formation of scar tissue.
I t is also used to treat stomach and duodenal ulcers. The leaves are sometimes eaten as a vegetable or
dietary supplement.
References Staner & Boutique 1937, Malaisse 1997, Burkill 2000, Van Wyk & Wink 2004
115
Centrosema pubescens
(Papilionaceae)
Common names Centro, pois bâtard (Fr.), butterfly pea
Description
A vigorous,
climbing plant, semi-woody
at the base, scrambling over
vegetation, or forming a
thick intertwining mat up to
30 cm deep. Leaves have 3
dark green leaflets 1.5 - 7
cm long and 0.6 - 4.5 cm
wide. The undersides are
covered with fine hairs. The
flowers are in short, dense,
axillary racemes. Flowers
are dark or pale lilac. Pods
are linear, 4 - 17 cm long
and 0.7 cm containing up to
20 reddish-brown seeds.
Growth is slow to start with
but after 4 - 6 months
ground cover is complete.
Ecology
Originally from
tropical America but now
found in most tropical
countries. I t will stand full
sunlight but not dense
shade. Grows well on sand
or clay soils and tolerates acid soils. Because of its deep roots it can tolerate drought periods.
Propagation I mmerse seed in hot water
(77°C for 15 minutes) to improve
germination. Sow in rows 1 m apart after
inoculation with the correct strain of
Bradyrhizobium .
Uses Commonly used as a ground cover
before establishing permanent plantation
crops such as oil palm, cacao and rubber. I t
is also grown with grass for feeding sheep
and for fattening pigs. I t has the same
nutritive value (i.e. 11 - 24% crude protein
content and 54% digestibility) as Guinea
grass ( Panicum maximum ) and grows well
with it. Palatability is good but less than
associated grasses. Nitrogen fixing is high,
between 75 and 100 kg/ ha/ year. The leaves
are eaten by Mukenga caterpillar and also
by goats.
Remarks Regenerates from seed after fire.
References Skerman 1977, Burkill 1995,
Raemaekers 2001
116
Chaetocarpus africanus
(Euphorbiaceae)
Common names Nkungu nteke, nkungulu teke, kikungu, sesa (= brush)(Kongo)
Description A shrub or small tree 2 - 7 m high. Leaves are 2.5 - 19 cm long and 1.5 - 7 cm wide.
Flowers are white and small and are followed by almost round red fruits 7 – 10 mm in diameter. Flowers
and fruit may be present on the plant together.
Ecology This bush is commonly found in secondary forest in Gabon, D.R. Congo and Congo
(Brazzaville), Angola and Zambia.
Uses The thin branches are widely used for
making brushes in Bas-Congo. Poles are used
for house building, firewood and charcoal
making and the leaves are used as fodder for
livestock. Bees forage actively for pollen and
nectar over long periods during the rainy
edible
season.
Kwesu
( I mbrasia eblis)
caterpillars feed on the leaves.
References Gillet & Paque 1910, Renier 1948,
Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993,
Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Latham 2003
I mbrasia eblis feeding on Chaetocarpus africanus
117
Chenopodium ambrosioides
(Chenopodiaceae)
Common names Nkasa kindongo, kula nioka (= intestinal worm or snake) (Kongo), chénopode
vermifuge (Fr.), I ndian wormseed
Description An annual, occasionally perennial, herb of varying form, growing to over 1 m high,
covered with aromatic glandular hairs and with a strong rank smell when bruised.
Ecology Originally from Mexico but now spread widely and sometimes cultivated around villages. Often
found on roadsides in both savanna and forest areas in Bas-Congo.
Propagation Can be sown
from seed.
Uses An important medicinal
plant. I n Bas-Congo the
leaves are soaked in water
and used to treat spasms,
flatulence,
coughing
intestinal worms and to
stimulate blood flow in the
pelvic region. The leaves are
also pounded and applied to
the body when feverish or to
sores. An essential oil is
found in the glandular hairs
covering the plant and
especially in the fruit skin.
This is effective against
hookworm, roundworm and amoebic dysentery in humans and animals. The oil is obtained by steam
distillation and the composition varies with geographical locality. Sometimes planted to keep snakes
away or burnt around the house for the same reason. The leaves have a pungent taste and are
sometimes added to soup. I n Tanzania the dried, powdered plant has been found effective in protecting
stored grain from insect attack. However because of its pungent taste it is mainly used for seed grain.
References Gillet 1927, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Wild 1972, Williamson
1975, Burkill 1985, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004
118
Chlamydocola chlamydantha
(Sterculiaceae)
Synonym Cola chlamydantha
Common name Kilensi (Kisuku)
Ripening fruits in October
Description A straight boled tree up to 18 m high but usually less. Leaves are large and finger shaped,
pink when young, on stout petioles 20 – 50 cm long. They have 5 – 10 leaflets each, up to 45 cm long
and 15 cm wide, narrowing towards the base and with corky swellings. Flowers are red with a vinegarlike smell, in clusters on old stems. 6 – 7 orange or red fruits are produced, often clasping the stem,
turning brown when dry, 13 – 20 cm long and 4 – 7 cm wide, often covered with ants. Each contains 7
– 10 scarlet seeds.
Ecology A small tree of swampy ground, sometimes common in the understorey of deciduous and
evergreen forest forests. I t occurs from Guinea and Sierra Leone to the Central African Republic and
D.R. Congo.
Propagation Seeds germinate easily and the tree may become a weed in forest plantings.
Management The tree coppices well.
Uses The timber is clear yellow-brown and hard. I t is used for pestles, poles for hut construction and
firewood. The thin white, fibrous pulp in the fruit is sour-sweet and edible. The seeds are used as a
tonic in Bas-Congo. The seed cotyledons are chewed as an inferior substitute for those of the true kola.
The mucilage obtained from young branches or fruits is used in sauces. Decoctions of the bark are
taken to calm intestinal pain in Côte d’I voire, and against coughs in Central Africa. The colourless liquid
from the fruit cavity is used to treat eye inflammation in Central Africa.
Remarks The tree is host to the virus causing swollen shoot disease in cacao.
References Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, I rvine 1961, Burkill 2000, Brink 2007
119
Chlorophytum stolzii
(Anthericaceae)
Synonym Anthericum welwitschii
Common names Walu, bwalu mabundu (Kongo)
Description A robust plant,
up to 2.5 m high growing
from a bulb covered by
concentric
leaf-scars.
Numerous thin to slightly
spongy roots have long
tubers at the tips. Firm
linear, glabrous leaves up to
80 cm long and 2 – 3.5 cm
wide, are borne in two rows
on either side of the stem.
The angled flower stalk has
bract-like leaves for its
entire length, and is up to
200
cm.
long.
The
inflorescence is unbranched,
or with a few branches at
the base, and is up to 70 cm
long. Flowers are white with
a green keel, sometimes slightly pinkish. Stamens often
arranged in groups. Fruit is an oval capsule, nearly rounded
in cross-section, and 10 – 12 mm. long. Seeds are 1.5 – 2.5
mm. in diameter.
Ecology Grows in humid sites in Bas-Congo. Also present on
the Nyika plateau in Malawi and in Mozambique, Zambia,
Burundi and Tanzania.
Propagation Chlorophytum species may be propagated by
seed or division.
Uses The bulb is used in Bas Congo to treat fungal infection
on children’s heads. The flowers are eaten in South Katanga.
References Daeleman
& Pauwels
Baumann 2005, Malaisse 2010
1983,
FTEA
120
1997,
Chrysobalanus icaco subsp. atacorensis
(Chrysobalanaceae)
Synonym C. atacorensis
Common names Kibulu, mafulu (Kongo), icaquier, prunier des Andes (Fr.), coco plum
Photo: Sanibel-Captiva Conservation Foundation
Description An evergreen shrub or tree 3 – 25 m tall. Leaves are deep green, leathery, glossy, 5 – 9
cm long and 2.5 - 4.5 cm wide. The inflorescence, produced in the axils, is up to 3 cm long, but usually
much less. Fruit is variable in shape and size, 1.6 cm long, longitudinally ridged. At the Kisantu botanic
garden the plant is reported to bear fruit in July. The pulp is attached to the stone.
Ecology The sub-species is present in both coastal and inland sites, in riverine and seasonally flooded
forest, from Sierra Leone to Nigeria and south to Angola and Zambia. I t is reported to be the first plant
to colonize new formed land on sandbanks in the Congo river. The plant is often cultivated in tropical
and sub-tropical America as an ornamental.
Propagation Plant from seed or cuttings.
Management The shrub can be grown as a hedge.
Uses The bark, leaves and flowers are astringent. The fruit is not very popular, being rather sour, but it
makes good jam. I t can be eaten raw, boiled, candied or made in to syrup. There are wide differences
in palatability, some finding it sweet others bitter, unpleasant and astringent. There is probably good
scope for selection of more palatable types. I n Angola the fruit pulp is eaten after being dried. The
wood is reddish-brown, very hard and dense, but workable. I t provides heavy timbers and is also used
for fencing and firewood. I n Congo a bark decoction is used to wash people affected by itch or
dermatitis. The seed contains an oil which can be burnt to give light. The tannin in the fruit is used to
tan leather. The plant is sometimes grown to stabilize sand dunes.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Burkill 1985, Verheij & Coronel
1991, Pauwels 1993, Brown in University of Florida website (Accessed 6.9.2012)
121
Chrysophyllum lacourtianum
(Sapotaceae)
Synonym Gambeya lacourtiana
Common names Mubamfu, mamba, mukulumu (Kongo)
Description A tree up to 30 m tall. Leaves oblong, pointed, tapering at the base 11 - 36 cm long and
4.5 - 12.5 cm wide with petioles 2 - 3 cm long. Red or orange fruits are 10 x 7 cm.
Ecology Occurs mainly in mature wet forest in Cameroon, Gabon and Congo (Brazzaville). Present in
Bas-Fleuve, Cataractes and Lukaya districts in Bas-Congo.
Uses The fruit is edible the juicy
flesh around the seeds being sweet.
The root bark is used to treat ear
problems and the bark from the
trunk
for
haemorrhaging
or
inflammation of the uterus and
vagina. A steam bath, using a
decoction of the bark, is used for
treating rheumatism, kidney pain
and feverish stiffness of the joints.
Powdered bark is used as a wound
dressing. The wood is hard and
durable.
Remarks I n northern Gabon the
fruits are
markets.
often
sold
in
local
References Gillet 1927, Pauwels
1993, White & Abernethy 1997,
Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
122
Cinnamomum verum
(Lauraceae)
Common names Cannellier de Ceylon, arbre de bonheur (Fr.), cinnamon
Ecology Cultivated throughout the tropics. I t is best grown under light shade at low altitudes on poor
white sands. Pollination is by insects, especially flies. Birds are fond of the fruits so the trees may need
to be netted if seeds are required for planting.
Propagation Fruits are piled up to allow the flesh to rot. The seed is then washed and dried in the
shade and should be sown as soon as possible. I t can either be sown in a nursery or planted direct.
Germination takes 2 - 3 weeks. Plants can also be grown from cuttings of young 3 leafed shoots, by
layering shoots or by division of the rootstock.
Management Provide shade in the early stages. The tree is normally
kept as a low shrub producing many stems. Plant at 1.75 x 2.5 m spacing.
Cut the tree back, at 2 years old, to 5 - 10 cm above ground and cover
the stumps with soil. Allow 4 - 6 shoots to grow for a further 2 years
before harvesting. Keep shoots straight by pruning. Stems are cut into
segments 30 cm long when 2 - 3 m high and 1.3 to 5 cm in diameter.
Stems should be cut during rains to facilitate peeling. Leaves and twigs
are trimmed off and the bark removed by making two longitudinal cuts on
either side so that the two sides can be removed whole. Ferment the bark
for 24 hours in covered heaps and then scrape the outer bark off. After
drying, the tubes of bark (called pipes or quills), are packed one inside the
other to form a compound bundle 1 m long. These are further dried in the shade. Best quality cinnamon
is obtained from stems in the centre of the bush and from the middle portion of the stem. Bark should
be no more than 0.5 cm thick.
Uses Cinnamon bark is tart, and acts as a stimulant and reduces wind. I t also checks nausea and
vomiting. The oil from the bark is used in teas for its antibacterial and fungicidal properties and to treat
loss of appetite and digestive problems. The dried bark is an important spice for flavouring cakes and
sweets, in curry powder and in incense, toothpaste and perfumes. Several essential oils are found in the
leaves, bark, stems and roots. The wood burns well and can also be put among clothes to repel insects.
References Purseglove 1968, Borget 1993, Katende et al. 1995, de Guzman & Siemonsma 1999
123
Cissus aralioides
(Vitaceae)
Common names Kibwa mpimbidi, zenga bitini, kindamina (Kongo)
Description
A strong
forest
creeper which grows to the top of
the forest canopy. Stems are green
and succulent, woody at the base.
Leaves are glabrous and usually
have 5 leaflets, each up to 18 cm
long and 5.8 cm wide on a petiole
to 15 cm long. The greenish-white
flowers are borne in many-flowered
heads. The fruits are round, 2 cm
in diameter.
Ecology Common in damp forests
throughout Central Africa.
Propagation By seed or cuttings.
Uses An important medicinal plant
used to treat laryngitis, painful
periods, stomach-ache and difficult
urination. The sticky sap is used to
treat scabies. The stem is crushed
and rubbed on the skin to treat
snakebite. The Hausa use the stem,
after the leaves have been
removed, to cure leather. 750 g
stem cut in small pieces is pounded
in a mortar and then steeped in 14
litres water for 2 hours. 10 goat
skins, from which the hair has been
removed, are then soaked in this
for a day prior to tanning. Other
species, e.g. Cissus rubiginosa, are
visited by bees in Bas-Congo.
References Gillet 1927, Renier
1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003
124
Citrullus lanatus
(Cucurbitaceae)
Synonym C. vulgaris
Common names Mbika ntetu, ntetu (Kongo)(Mbika is the name given to pumpkins with edible seed in
Bas-Congo). Pastèque (Fr), watermelon
Description An annual climbing or trailing herb 3 – 5 m long, with tendrils. Large round to oblong or
cylindrical fruits are normally from 7 - 20 cm in diameter. Flesh, which is bland tasting, is usually red but
may be green, orange,
yellow or white.
Bees were very active on
the flowers of this crop
planted near I nkisi
Ecology
Widely
grown
throughout
the
tropics.
Growth and fruit production
are most rapid during dry,
sunny periods. Excessive
rainfall and high humidity
reduce
productivity
by
affecting
flowering
and
encouraging leaf diseases.
Dry areas are best for
producing
the
sweetest
fruit. The plant requires a
long, warm growing season. I t is fairly drought resistant and flourishes on fertile, sandy soils, preferably
with a high organic matter content.
Propagation Watermelons are usually planted on mounds 2 m apart, 2 - 3 seeds are sown on each
mound and the seedlings are thinned to 1 - 2. The crop matures in 75 - 95 days. Freshly harvested seed
may be dormant but can be pre-soaked to hasten germination. Raised beds improve drainage, modify
temperature and increase depth of rooting.
Uses Grown mainly for their edible seeds in Bas-Congo. The fruits are stacked in heaps or buried during
the rain season and the seed is sun-dried after the flesh has rotted away. They are roasted or ground
into flour and added to soup or made into a sauce or porridge. Seeds are rich in methionine, have an oil
content of 15 - 45% and a
protein content of 25 - 32% . Oil
extracted from the seed is used
for cooking and the high protein
residue can be made into fried
seed balls. Young leaves (laba)
are also eaten in Bas-Congo
after removing the prickly skin
from the midrib. The leaves are
crushed and boiled with salt.
They are often eaten with salted
fish. Watermelons can be eaten
fresh, but in Africa they are also
cooked, depending on the
degree
of
sweetness
or
bitterness present. Bees forage
for pollen and nectar from the
flowers and are important for
pollination.
References De Wildeman 1934, Terra 1966, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tindall 1983, Burkill 1985,
Fichtl & Adi 1994, Robinson & Decker-Walters 1997, Raemaekers 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
125
Citrus aurantiifolia
(Rutaceae)
Common names Dingama (Kongo), limettier (Fr.), lime
Description
An evergreen
shrub or much branched tree
up to 5 m tall with many short
sharp spines on the stem and
beside the leaves. Leaves are
oval, 4 – 8 cm long and shiny
green. The leaf stalk has a
narrow wing, an extra leafy
growth and a “joint” with the
leaf blade. 1 – 7 white flowers
are produced in the leaf axils,
each about 2 cm across. Fruit
is round or oval up to 6 cm
diameter but usually smaller,
peel very thin, green to
yellow, difficult to remove,
pulp green, very acid, but
juicy. Trees can be found in
flower throughout the year.
Ecology Probably from I ndia or I ndonesia but now cultivated throughout the tropics and subtropics.
Propagation Can be grown from seed. Squeeze out seeds and sow immediately.
Uses Grown for its small fruits. Lime-juice is widely used in local medicine, often in conjunction with
other herbs usually as a flavouring. Fresh juice is used to cleanse and stimulate healing wounds and cut
limes are applied to chronic sores.
Branches are used for firewood. Citric
acid and lime oil can be extracted from
the fruits. The fruits are also used as a
condiment or for seasoning. The rich
flavour and acid taste make lime a
favourite for hot and spicy dishes, either
fresh or in the form of pickles and
sauces. Lime tea makes a refreshing
drink and lime juice is squeezed on other
fruit, e.g. papaya. I t is also enjoyed as
an appetizer when fried in oil with sugar
added. The leaves and fruits have many
medicinal uses. Copious secretion of
nectar from the flowers attracts insects,
especially honeybees, which pollinate
the flowers. Honeybees collect both
nectar and pollen. The tree has a long
flowering period and bees find the
flowers attractive particularly when there
Both photos: Phuong Tran
are few other sources of nectar.
Remarks Citrus fruits are excellent sources of vitamin C.
References Gillet 1927, Crane et al.1984, Pauwels 1993, Davies & Albrigo 1994, Fichtl & Adi 1994,
Katende et al. 1995, Burkill 1997
126
Citrus limon
(Rutaceae)
Common names Lala di ngani, lala ma nsa, madimanga (Kongo), citronnier (Fr.), lemon
Description A small tree, 3 – 6 m high bearing yellow fruits. Rough lemon ( Citrus jambhiri) rootstocks
produce large, vigorous, and very productive lemon trees, particularly in deep sandy soils. The root
system is extensive making trees drought tolerant.
Ecology Originally from South East Asia. I n the humid tropics the tree tends to produce excessive
vegetative growth and is susceptible to fungal and algal diseases. However yields are generally high.
Excessive temperatures reduce yields. Poorly drained and nutrient deficient soils should be avoided.
Propagation I n Bas-Congo most citrus fruits are grown using budded stock. Trials at Mvuazi found
that Bigerade rootstocks were the best for Hertaciones lemon. Plant Tristeza resistant stock/ scion
material. Nursery site should be open, free drained and on land not planted to citrus before. Seed
should be washed to remove the stickiness and placed in water at 51° C for 10 minutes to control
Phytophthera disease. Seed can be stored in ground charcoal for a few weeks. Plant seeds after soaking
in water. A fertile soil is vital for adequate growth of young trees and for later fruit production. I f
commercial fertilizers are not available, only a few trees should be grown, preferably near the home,
where they will receive as much household waste, ash and compost or manure as possible.
Management Weed control is most important. Remove all suckers which arise below the graft and thin
out branches to allow light to penetrate. Remove dead or weak, spindly branches. Heading back may
also be necessary to promote lateral bud growth. I nsects should be removed by hand during regular
inspection of the plants.
Uses Fruits, which are rich in vitamin C, have traditionally been eaten to prevent scurvy. The juice is
usually added to water and drunk but the fruits are also used to produce lemon oil, citric acid and
pectin. Citrus peel oils are also used for perfumes. I n Bas-Congo an infusion of the leaves is drunk to
treat fever. The juice or the leaves, either alone or mixed with other citrus species, are soaked in water
and the liquid is also rubbed on the body to promote sweating to cure fever. A decoction of the leaves
and roots is used for coughs, colds, angina, rheumatism and gout in the Congo (Brazzaville). Bees are
the primary pollinators for Citrus species. I n Gabon the plants are grown as a hedge.
References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Purseglove 1968, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Drachoussoff
1993, Pauwels 1993, Davies & Albrigo 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Burkill 1997, Hirt & M’Pia 2001
127
Citrus sinensis
(Rutaceae)
Common names Lala, lalansa, didiya, lala dinzenzo (Kongo), oranger doux (Fr.), sweet orange
Description Rough lemon rootstocks produce large, vigorous, and very productive sweet orange,
grapefruit, mandarin and lemon trees, particularly when grown in deep sandy soils. The root system is
extensive, reaching depths of up to 4.6
m, making trees drought tolerant with
good adaptation to a wide pH range.
However, fruit quality is often poor.
Ecology
Originally from China or
Vietnam. This is the most commonly
cultivated citrus in Bas-Congo. Trees
prefer a deep, light loam or sandy soil
that is free draining. A distinct dry
season is needed to induce flowering,
which then takes place at the start of
the rains. The peel colour is affected
by climate as is the vigour of the trees.
Fruits
remain
green
where
temperatures are high and there is fast
growth. Fruit quality is also affected,
the quality of the orange juice being
poor in hot, humid tropical conditions.
Propagation I n Bas-Congo most
citrus fruits are grown using budded
stock. Rough lemon seedlings are
grown for rootstocks and then Navel or
Valencia scion material is grafted in.
Nursery site should be open, free
drained and on land not planted to
citrus before. Seed should be washed
to remove slime and placed in water at
51° C for 10 minutes to control
Phytophthera disease. Seed can be
stored for up to 2 years. Plant seeds after pre-soaking in water at 0.5 cm deep, 1 cm apart in the row
and 15 – 30 cm between rows. Germination takes place after 2 - 3 weeks. Transplant seedlings, when 4
- 8 mm in diameter, to a second nursery allowing 50 – 60 cm between plants and 1 – 2 m between
rows. Bud using T or inverted T method. (I nverted T is used in high rainfall areas to provide a rain
shield). Bud-wood for the scion is collected when buds are not growing. Make a vertical cut 1 – 2 cm
long and then the horizontal cut, once bark slipping has taken place to allow insertion of the bud. The
bud is cut from the bud-wood and inserted and then bound tightly with tape. Buds take usually within 2
- 3 weeks. Bud at 30 cm above soil level to avoid
soil-borne diseases. I f done higher growth of tree
will be affected. Generally buds taken from the top
section of the bud stick take more readily.
Afterwards the new shoots are forced by cutting off
the rootstock plant above the graft. Transplant to
final site spacing at 6 - 7 x 6 – 7 m. Do not allow
bare rooted trees to dry out and plant at the same
depth to avoid collar and root rot. Nitrogen (and P,
K, Mg, Ca and S) are vital for adequate growth of
young trees and for later fruit production. I f
commercial fertilizers are not available, only a few
trees should be grown, preferably near the home
where they will receive as much household waste,
ash and compost or manure as possible.
Management Weed control is most important. Remove all suckers that arise below the graft and thin
out branches to allow light to penetrate. Remove dead or weak, spindly branches. Heading back may
128
also be necessary to promote lateral bud growth. I nsects should be removed by hand during regular
inspection of the plants.
Uses Oranges are an excellent source of vitamin C, and the orange and other orange-coloured citrus
fruits are fair sources of provitamin A and good sources of calcium. The fruit is eaten fresh and is widely
marketed in Bas-Congo. A decoction of the leaves is taken for diabetes. The roots, crushed and soaked
in water, are used to treat venereal disease. Bees are the primary pollinators for citrus. The flowers
attract bees, often yielding significant quantities of nectar and pollen from October onwards. However
pesticides sprayed during flowering often kill many bees. Hives should be closed up to prevent bees
flying during spraying. Honey from oranges is light coloured, has a high density, characteristic flavour, is
slow to granulate and has a good market.
References Johannesmeier 1975, Crane et al 1984, Martin et al. 1987, Mukoko Matondo 1991,
Pauwels 1993, Davies & Albrigo 1994
Sign at the entrance to the botanic garden at Kisantu
commemorating Justin Gillet, the founder
129
Cleome gynandra
(Capparaceae)
Synonym Gynandropsis gynandra
Common names Mumpala (Kongo), gynandro (Fr.), cat’s whiskers, spider plant
Description An annual herb up to 1 m tall. Vegetative growth declines rapidly as soon as flowering
starts. Farmers often remove flowers to prevent this.
Photo: Rudy Schippers
Ecology A common weed, especially around villages, found throughout the tropics, though less
common at high altitudes. Requires full sun and prefers a fertile soil, high in organic matter. I t is
tolerant to drought. Cultivation of this vegetable is on the increase.
Propagation Seeds are broadcast on well cultivated land in pure stands or mixed with other
vegetables. Seedlings must be thinned out and cannot be transplanted easily because of the long taproot. Topping, cutting back to the ground and removing the flowers as soon as they appear are
practices that increase leaf production for harvesting. The leaves are picked individually or leafy
branches are harvested. Whole plants may also be uprooted.
Uses Leaves, often together with the flowers, are widely used as a vegetable, eaten cooked and in
soups. By themselves the leaves are bitter. To remove the bitterness the leaves are allowed to wither
and then are soaked in several changes of water before being cooked. The leaves may also be dried for
later use. They are rich in calcium and iron. Young pods may also be eaten. The plant is used widely to
relieve local pain, being rubbed on the part affected or applied as a poultice. I t is often used in this way
for ear-ache. I n some countries the seed oil is used as a hair-dressing to kill lice and against ticks on
livestock. Bees collect pollen and nectar from the flowers which are produced all year round, especially
after rains.
References Staner & Boutique 1937, Burkill 1985, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Konda et al 1992, Fichtl
& Adi 1994, Heller 1996, Chweya & Mnzava 1997, Maundu et al. 1999, Schippers 2002
130
Cleome rutidosperma
(Capparaceae)
Synonym C. ciliata
Common
names
Munsemfi
(Kongo),
mgagani (Swahili)
Description An erect annual herb up to 50
cm tall flowering and fruiting throughout the
year but mainly in the rain season.
Ecology A common annual weed of waste
places. I t is usually found in rather damp
places, often in disturbed land. Present from
Guinea to Cameroon and south to D.R.
Congo and Angola. Also present in Uganda
and Tanzania.
Uses Leaves are collected from the wild and
eaten as a cooked vegetable or added to
soups. I t is eaten in a similar way to C.
gynandra. The leaves are sometimes sold in
local markets. The leaves are used in
Equateur province to treat mental disorders,
tooth decay and earache. They are also used
to treat earache and deafness in Ghana and
Gabon. Cleome species are important
honeybee forage in savanna zones in Africa.
Photo: Jeevan Jose
References Burkill 1985, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 1992, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Schippers 2002,
Jansen 2004, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 2012
The old ferry at Luozi
131
Clerodendrum formicarum
(Lamiaceae)
Common
name
Makuku
matatu
(Kongo = three ears)
Description
An under-shrub with
slender hollow branches which are
often occupied by ants as the plant
gets older. Leaves are in groups of 3.
The numerous small white flowers, up
to 0.8 cm long, are borne in a terminal
flower head.
Ecology Common in the savanna. Also
found in secondary forest and fallows
throughout tropical Africa.
Propagation The plant can be grown
from seed.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the whole plant,
and particularly the leaves, are used
medicinally to treat
rheumatism,
wasting and epilepsy. I n Ghana the
stems are used for smoking pipes.
Clerodendrum species are important
honeybee forage plants in the southern
dry savanna zone of Africa.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet
1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983,
Burkill 2000, Hepburn & Radloff 1998,
Kibungu Kembelo 2003
132
Clitandra cymulosa
(Apocynaceae)
Synonym C. arnoldiana
Common name Dinkalanga (Kongo)
Description A strong creeper sometimes reaching a length of 100 m and a girth of 1.25 m. White latex
is present in all parts. Leaves are opposite, 4.3 – 20 cm long and 1.8 – 8 cm wide. The small, creamywhite, scented flowers are produced in the leaf axils. Fruits are round, 6 – 8 cm in diameter.
Ecology Found in the forest and on forest edges on sandy soils in the Congo basin. Also present from
Guinea to northern Nigeria, and in Angola, Uganda and Tanzania.
Propagation Can be grown from seed which germinates easily.
Uses The pink to blood-red fruits
are edible, acid tasting and very
popular. They are sometimes sold
in markets in Bas-Congo. The
plant contains abundant watery,
latex, which is sticky. Some plants
yield a black rubber of good
quality which has been exploited
in Guinea and I vory Coast.
Children use it to make footballs.
The sap of Costus lucanusianus is
used to coagulate the latex.
References
Gillet 1927, De
Wildeman 1934, Daeleman &
Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985,
Katende et al 1999, FTEA 2002,
Kibungu Kembelo 2010
133
Cnestis ferruginea
(Connaraceae)
Common names Kitete mbika, kinkanda, mbwa nkanka, nfumba (Kongo)
Description An erect sometimes scrambling shrub or small tree up to 6 m high, covered with short
hairs. The leaves are variable in size and are borne in whorls, up to 30 cm long composed of 6 – 12
pairs of leaflets, 4.5 x 2 cm, with rounded base, glossy above and softly hairy below. The white flowers,
in short spikes, are pinkish and fragrant and are followed by rich velvety, orange-red fruits 4 x 2 cm,
which are curved and beaked, with a juicy, though bitter, aril protruding from the ripe fruit.
Ecology A common plant of secondary scrub and forest and in open forest clearings. I t is a
characteristic plant of the forest edge.
Found from Senegal to D.R. Congo
and in Angola and extending to
Sudan, Uganda and Kenya.
Propagation The plant can be grown
from seed.
Uses I n D.R.Congo the root is used as
a purgative and the leaf juice as an
abortive, for dressing wounds and to
treat colds. Leaf tips contain liquid
which can be drunk. The stems are
used to make the nsoso (the entrance
of the central part of a fish trap).
Fruits are juicy and taste acid and
bitter. They are commonly used for
cleaning teeth in much of West Africa. They have a very refreshing and cleansing influence on the
mouth and teeth. Kwesu ( I mbrasia eblis) edible caterpillars feed on the leaves.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, I rvine 1961, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983,
Burkill 1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, White & Abernethy 1997, Neuwinger 2000
134
Cocos nucifera
(Arecaceae)
Common names Ba di nkandi (Kongo), cocotier (Fr.), coconut
Ecology Widely cultivated in BasCongo. I t prefers a warm, humid
climate with adequate sunshine
and good drainage. A deep, open
soil is best.
Propagation Select
nuts from
trees bearing the greatest number
of heavy nuts. Allow these to ripen
for a month before planting. Trim
the fibre from the germ end to
assist the shoot to come through.
Dig out a trench slightly wider than
the length of the coconut and
place them in this, lying across the
furrow. Cover two thirds of the
nuts with soil. Plant in full sunlight
in a light, rich soil. Select the
seedlings again in the seedbed.
Those germinating first and with a
large number of short leaves are
best. The nut has considerable
food
reserves and
can
be
transplanted with ease. When
planting into the field dig out a
hole 1.2 m x 1.2 m x 0.90 m for
each germinating nut and fill in
with equal amounts of husks and
manure. Plant at the same depth
as in the nursery.
Uses The flesh from the nut is
eaten and the liquid inside the
kernel makes a pleasant drink. Coconut milk is used to counter dehydration and to treat cholera. The
fruits have comparatively good protein content. The coconut is an excellent source of oil though this is
mostly composed of saturated fatty acids. I ts phosphorus content is high, and its iron content is
excellent, but its vitamin B
content is very low. The
dried flesh, copra, is sold
commercially. Coconut oil is
used for making margarine
and soap. The coconut
husk provides fibre for
mats, floor coverings and
sacks. The shells make
good charcoal, especially
liked by blacksmiths. The
trunk can be used for
construction
or
bridge
building. The leaves are
used for thatching, matting,
screens
and
baskets.
Smoke from burning the
husk is a good mosquito
repellent. The flowers are an important bee forage throughout the year. During flowering palm wine can
be collected which may also be used as a source of yeast for bread making.
References Frémond et al. 1966, Castagné 1983, Martin et al. 1987, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al.
1995, Pousset 2004
135
Coffea canephora
(Rubiaceae)
Common names Kafi, nti kafi (Kongo), caféir robusta (Fr.), robusta coffee
Description A shrub or small tree from 2 – 12 m high. A hardy, vigorous and very variable tree. There
are two main forms but the ‘robusta’ form is the more important. The bisexual flowers are fragrant but
self-sterile. Flowers are mainly wind pollinated and cross-pollination gives 30 – 40% fruit set. Coffea
liberica is also grown in Bas Congo.
Ecology Widely cultivated in Bas-Congo. A dry period is required for flowering which occurs in flushes
during the rain season. Robusta coffee tolerates poorer conditions than C. arabica. Most cultivars are
resistant to Hemileia.
Propagation Plants are best grown from cuttings set in trenches filled with sawdust and covered with
jute sacking. This method gave 60% successful rooting.
Management Plant out after 6 - 10 months at 3 m square for erect varieties and 4.5 m for spreading
varieties. Shade should be provided particularly in the early years. Grow erect varieties on a multiple
stem system allowing a succession of stems to be produced. I n the shrubby spreading Nganda types
seedlings 1 – 2 m high are bent over and the shoots which grow from these are in turn bent over to
produce more shoots. Stems are then released to grow naturally, producing a fountain effect, no further
pruning being done. The branches are pulled out by the weight of fruit and more upright branches grow
out from the centre. As the ripe cherries are held on the tree only one harvest need be taken. Normal
yields are 400 – 500 kg per tree. Standard practice in Congo is to prune at 4 or 5 year intervals keeping
one bud-bearing branch. Croton mubango, Margaritaria discoidea and Albizia adianthifolia var.
intermedia planted as shade trees one year prior to planting the coffee trees gave increased yields
when compared with other leguminous trees, natural forest, oil palm or rubber trees. Planting density
recommended is between 1,000 to 2,000 trees per ha. Stylosanthes guianensis was the best cover crop
providing complete cover and appreciable amounts of humus.
Uses An important beverage crop in Bas-Congo and also the main source of instant coffee. Honeybees
visit the flowers in Bas-Congo and are known to be a source of honey in Gabon. Bees are reported to
increase crop yields. Many insects visit the flowers, but their contribution to pollination varies. Coffea
136
species are important honeybee forage in equatorial and savanna zones of Africa. They produce a light
honey with characteristic flavour though some report it to be bitter. Honey from orange and coffee
combined is very highly valued. Robusta coffee contains higher amounts of caffeine than Arabica.
Caffeine stimulates the mind and improves physical performance. I t is known to relieve pain, reduce the
severity of migraine headaches and reduce asthma symptoms. However its use can result in higher
rates of some forms of cancer. Caffeine is being tested as a pesticide against slugs and snails.
References Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1968, Crane & Walker 1984, Ambougou 1991, Macmillan 1991,
Drachoussoff 1993, Pauwels 1993, Roubik 1995, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Jones 1999, van Wyk &
Gericke 2000, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
Yam pieces sold hot in the market at Selembao
137
Cogniauxia podolaena
(Cucurbitaceae)
Common name Kisakamba (Kongo)
Description A climbing herb growing to 6 m long or it may form clumps on the ground. The plant is
tender when young but
becomes robust with age.
The leaves are typical of
the Cucurbit family with 5
distinct
lobes.
Large
yellow
flowers
are
produced, which last only
1 or 2 days. Fruits are up
to 15 cm long, pale green
with darker longitudinal
lines. When dry the
numerous black, flattened
seeds
fall
from
an
opening at its tip.
Kisakamba flowering
Selu in December .
at
Ecology
Found
from
eastern
Cameroon
to
Congo and into Angola.
Grows in secondary bush
or in clearings in the
forest. Also found in
disturbed areas around
villages, beside paths and
in open areas along
streams and rivers.
Uses Both rhizomes and leaves are used medicinally for the treatment of epilepsy, constipation in
young children, interruption of periods without pregnancy and skin problems. I n Bas-Congo the rhizome
is also used as a purgative and to ease delivery in childbirth. The seeds are very oily. Farmers grow the
plant around their hen cages as it is
believed that eating the seeds prevents
chicks from dying. The leaves are reported
to be edible. I n Gabon the dried fruit is
used as a sponge and the dried leaves are
used to treat burns. Bees are reported to
visit the flowers. Nsanzungu edible
caterpillars are reported to feed on the
leaves.
Propagation The plant can be grown from
seed or rhizomes.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet
1927, De Wildeman 1934, Nsimundele
1966 – 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983,
Burkhill 1985, Ambougou 1991, White &
Abernethy 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu
Kembelo 2003
138
Coix lacryma - jobi
(Poaceae)
Common names Yobi, mansanga masanta yobi (Kongo), larmes de Job, larmilles, herbe à chapelets
(Fr), Job’s tears
Description An erect, perennial grass up to 3 m tall, branched in the upper part. Leaf blade 8 – 100
cm long and 1.5 – 7 cm wide. I nflorescences are borne in the axils of upper leaves.
Photo: Luc Pauwels
Ecology I ntroduced from Asia. I n Africa it is found around villages and on abandoned fields.
Propagation Can be grown from seed which is planted 5 cm deep in rows spaced 40 – 80 cm apart. I t
can also be grown from cuttings.
Management Several cuts per year are possible. I t is sown random or plants are grown along field
borders. Propagation by cuttings is possible and recommended for fodder production. Propagation by
seed gives deeper rooting, and higher grain yield. Usually, whole plants are cut at the base when the
grain is ripe. The stubble can be left in the field and will then tiller again; Threshing and husking is done
manually as for rice, the grain is sun-dried on mats.
Uses The new fresh leaves are an excellent livestock fodder. The hard seeds which are enclosed in the
female spikes are used for rosary beads and necklaces in Bas-Congo. Types of Job’s tears with softshelled false fruits can be easily husked and have large grains which are eaten in the same way as rice,
alone or mixed with it. They can be substituted for rice in all foodstuffs. The whole grain and the bran
are fed to poultry.
References Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Van den Abeele & Vandenput 1956,
Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Busson 1965, Purseglove 1972, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, van Wyk
2005, Jansen 2006
139
Cola acuminata
(Sterculiaceae)
Common names Nkasu (Kongo), kolatier (Fr.), commercial cola or kola
Description A shade loving tree, 10 – 20 m high, and branching low down. Branches are ascending,
forming a spreading crown and the foliage is often one sided almost reaching the ground. Bark is dark
green and rough and old bark splits into squares. Leaves are borne mostly at the end of branches and
are curved and twisted, with a long pointed apex. The fruits are russet coloured, rough to touch, up to
20 cm long by 6 cm wide, containing up to 14 seeds covered with white skin. The seeds are generally
red or pink but sometimes may be white and have more than 2 cotyledons. The kola nut of commerce is
the seed after removal of the thin white covering, which is done by soaking or fermentation between
broad leaves. The nuts can be stored by being buried, often in ant-hills. For transport the nuts are
packed in baskets with fresh leaves of Anthocleista spp. or Alchornea cordifolia and occasionally
sprinkled with water.
Ecology Often planted in the
villages in Bas-Congo. Found
from Sierra Leone to Congo.
Propagation
The
pods
should be heaped together in
the shade and dampened
regularly for 16 days from
harvesting. The seed coat
should be removed and the
seed planted 10 cm deep,
direct into the field to avoid
damaging the roots. I t is
normal to transplant naturally
produced seedlings. Some
people plant a tree to
commemorate
a
social
occasion,
others
don't,
believing that the person
who does so will die when the tree flowers.
140
Management Growth is slow in the early stages and the trees reach about 2 m after 4 years. The
trees are often grown with other field crops and fruiting commences after 7 years. Full production is
reached after 20 years and can continue for 70 - 100 years.
Uses The seeds are greatly prized and presented to visitors as a welcome present. They act as a nerve
stimulant and a tonic but can be dangerous in
excess. They contain about 2% caffeine and
traces of theobromine and kolanin, the latter
being a heart stimulant. Seed also contains 9%
protein, 2% fat, 2% fibre and 74% carbohydrate.
Sap-wood is white to slightly pink, heart-wood is
yellow-brown to red and suitable for general
carpentry, carving and construction work. I t is
attacked by borers but not termites. Small roots
can be used as toothbrushes. The bark, fruit and
seeds are also used elsewhere in Africa to treat
venereal disease, colic, diarrhoea, abscesses, skin rashes and stomach problems.
References Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Purseglove 1968, Uphof 1968, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels
1993, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Pousset 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
On the road to Kinshasa
141
Colletoecema dew evrei
(Rubiaceae)
Common names Mbendi mbendi (Kongo), mbuma makaku (Lingala)
Description A small tree
or bush growing up to 12
m high.
Ecology
Common
in
secondary forest in some
areas of Bas-Congo. Also
found in forest regrowth
in Cameroon and Gabon.
Uses
The small dark
fruits are sweet and
edible.
Reference
Pauwels
1993, Kibungu Kembelo
2010
Photo: Jean-Luc & Pauline Alliez
142
Colocasia esculenta
(Araceae)
Common names Langa (= something which covers)(Kongo), taro
Description A perennial herb growing from 1 - 2 m high from a large corm. The latter may be up to 30
cm long and 15 cm in diameter and weigh up to 4 kg. Smaller corms (cormels) surround the main corm.
Leaf stalks are not attached at the leaf margin but towards the centre, in contrast to Xanthosoma
sagittifolium .
Ecology Mainly grown in
hot, humid conditions. Best
results are from deep, friable
sandy-clay soils with a high
water table. Plants tolerate
shade and can, for example,
be grown with bananas.
Propagation This is done
by planting the upper tip of
the corm with the lower 15 25 cm of the stalk attached.
The crop is normally planted
on mounds or ridges. Plant 5
cm deep and 100 x 60 cm
apart at the start of the rain
season.
Management Weeding is
most important. Growth time to harvest is 6 - 10 months. The corms are ready for harvest when the
leaves turn yellow and begin to wither.
Uses The corms are much appreciated in Bas-Congo and are used as a staple or subsistence crop
throughout the tropics. They are rich in starch and can be eaten after removing the sharp crystals. To
do this the corms are boiled for a long time, baked, roasted or fried in oil. The starch is easily digested,
but if large quantities of the corm are eaten, goitre can result. Excessive consumption is also reported to
increase
the
possibility
of
contracting leprosy. However eating
the corm lowers the incidence of
dental caries. The young leaves of
this species are also eaten. Tubers
can be used for the production of
alcohol and the manufacture of
paper.
Remarks Yields of between 5 and
10 t/ ha. are normal but, by
selecting high yielding planting
material and thorough weeding,
better yields can be obtained.
I mproved varieties containing less
calcium oxalate, having high yields
and better keeping qualities are
being bred in Ghana, Cameroon and
at I I TA in Nigeria.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910,
Photo: © 2005 David Monniaux from Wikimedia Commons
Van Den Abeele & Vandenput 1956,
Kay 1973, Leakey & Wills 1977, Burkill 1985, Raemaekers 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
143
Combretum hensii
(Combretaceae)
Synonym Quisqualis hensii
Common name Nsumbala (Kongo)(This name is also used for other creeping species of
Combretaceae).
Description
A
scrambling
bush
or
creeper.
Leaves
are
opposite 5 – 15 cm long
and 2 – 4 cm wide. The
flowers are borne in
axillary racemes and the
individual flowers are 12
– 16 mm long.
Ecology
Found
in
secondary forests and
fallow land. I t is also
present in Gabon and
Congo (Brazzaville).
Uses I n Bas-Congo the
flexible stems are used
for roofing. A decoction
of the leaves is used to treat asthma and anaemia. The pounded leaves are used to treat diarrhoea. A
maceration of the leaves is used as a wash to treat haemorrhoids. Leaf sap is also applied for
haemorrhoids. A maceration of the roots is drunk for dysentery. Bark pulp is taken for haemorrhages in
women. Leaf or bark powder is eaten to treat blood in urine. Plant sap is applied for coughing fits,
tuberculosis and to heal wounds. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees.
Combretum hensii in flower in July
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, FAC 1968, Pauwels 1993, Neuwinger 2000,
Mabberley 2002
144
Commelina africana
(Commelinaceae)
Common names Lakisi (Kongo), yellow commelina, wandering Jew, day flower
Photo: Warren McCleland
Description A variable perennial easily distinguished from other Commelina species by its yellow
instead of blue, purplish or pink flowers. I t has fleshy tuberous roots and creeping or straggling stems.
Leaves are arranged spirally, blade being 6 – 11.5 cm long and 1.2 – 2.2 cm wide. The flower stalk is 8
– 40 mm long. The lower petal of the flower is 5 mm × 2 mm, the paired petals with claw are 3 – 4 mm
long. The flowers open from 7 – 10 am. Fruit is a capsule 5 – 6 mm long containing 3 – 5 seeds.
Ecology The plant is indigenous and widespread in Africa, occurring from Senegal to Ethiopia, and
south to South Africa. I t occurs in secondary growth and disturbed localities, and as a weed on farms.
After the onset of the rains, the plant sprouts earlier than other plants and it is therefore useful as a
fodder plant after prolonged drought. The same applies for its use as a vegetable.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the plant was used traditionally to make a belt around the waist to ease pain in the
kidneys. I n Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania the leaves are cooked and eaten as a vegetable. They are
chopped and boiled in water or in fresh or sour milk. Sesame seeds and groundnut paste are added for
flavour and consistency. I t is eaten with the staple food as a substitute for more popular vegetables.
Many other uses are reported for the plant. I n Kenya and Tanzania the leaves are fed to livestock,
especially pigs and rabbits. The flowers provide bee forage. I n D.R. Congo the root is used to treat
‘weak heart’ and nervousness.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, van der Burg 2004
145
Commelina diffusa
(Commelinaceae)
Common names N’lakasi, n’lakisi (Kongo), spider wort, water grass, wandering Jew, spreading
dayflower
Description A creeping, perennial herb with much branched, prostrate or erect fleshy stems up to 45
cm high, rooting at the nodes. The stems may be hairy. Leaves are spear shaped, 3 – 7 cm long and 1
– 2 cm wide. The blue flowers are either borne terminally or in the axils. The upper flowers are either
male or sterile, the lower flowers are bisexual.
Ecology Grows in moist
fields, along ditches, on
waste land, on soils rich in
clay or humus, up to an
altitude of 2,000 m. I t is
widespread in the tropics
and subtropics.
Uses The leaves are used
with Synedrella nodiflora
(madya manlumba) as a
pig feed in Bas-Congo. I n
South East Asia the young
shoots are eaten after
steaming. The leaves are
widely used as poultices
for
wounds and skin
infections
(boils
and
ulcers) and the fresh juice
is used to treat diarrhoea.
The sap is used widely to
treat eye inflammation in
Africa.
References
FAO
1988,
I sa I por 2001
Photo: Jean-Luc & Pauline Alliez
146
Conyza sumatrensis
(Asteraceae)
Common names Fumu di kiula, fumu di matebo, fumu di bakuyu (Kongo), fleabane
Description An erect, softly-hairy, annual
herb growing up to 120 cm tall. The stem
is semi-woody at the base, ribbed, hairy
and often not branched below the flower
head. The leaves are variable with the
upper ones alternate on the stem, while
the lower ones are in a rosette at the
base. The leaves are 4 - 8 cm long and 1 5 cm wide, with toothed edges, gradually
becoming winged at the base. Clusters of
numerous small, dull-yellow to brown
florets, about 6 mm long, are borne in a
long leafy flower head. The plant
reproduces by seed.
Ecology A common weed of cultivated fields, open
waste places and roadsides and widely found in the
tropics.
Uses The leaves are used medicinally in Bas-Congo to
treat snake bites, leprosy and pain in the breast.
Elsewhere in the Congo the plant is used to treat
opthalmia, fever and stiffness. I n I vory Coast it is used
to treat fever in young children.
Remarks Conyza aegyptiaca (kinkombo ki nseke) is
used to flavour food as it gives the taste of goat meat.
The leaves are sometimes sold in markets.
References Gillet & Paque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels
1983, Burkill 1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa
Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003
1987,
147
Corchorus olitorius
(Tiliaceae)
Common names Mulembo (Kongo), dongo dongo (Lingala), Jew's mallow
Description An erect herb, usually 0.5
to 1.2 m high. Cultivated varieties are
very variable and there is good scope for
developing improved varieties. Large,
deep
green,
glossy
leaves,
late
flowering, rapid early growth and
multiple
branching
are
characters
normally selected by vegetable growers.
I n some places certain leaf types are
associated with the desirable slimy
property.
Ecology Grows in a wide range of
environmental
conditions
but
is
susceptible to drought, especially during
flowering. Soil should be well drained
and fertile A sandy loam is preferable
and the plants respond well to additions
of organic (e.g. poultry) manure. I n its
natural environment it is often found
near swamps or wet areas beside rivers.
Propagation Seed should be harvested
when pods are still yellow. This improves
germination and early growth of
seedlings. Large seeds, harvested from
the top and middle of seed heads, are
best. Seed can be stored for long periods
when dry and should be put in nearly
boiling water for 5 seconds to give good,
even germination. I t
is normally
broadcast but this is wasteful and makes weeding difficult. Corchorus olitorius can be planted together
with staple food crops. Seed may be first grown in a nursery and then transplanted to 30 cm between
rows and 10 cm between plants. The plants are later thinned to 20 cm apart. Transplants, when
successful, produce more and stronger side shoots.
Uses Leaves and fruits are eaten in Bas-Congo. The
plan t is widely cultivated as a vegetable in sub-Saharan
Africa, as well as in Egypt and the Middle East. I t is
normally cooked with other coarse vegetables. Soup made
from the leaves makes foods like yam and cassava more
palatable.
Management The plant is easy to grow and matures in 5
- 6 weeks after transplanting. Harvesting is done by
uprooting the entire plant or cutting off the small side
shoots. The latter practice encourages new growth.
Pests and diseases The plant is susceptible to nematode
attack and leaf eating grasshoppers. Nematodes can cause
total crop failure.
Photo: Phuong Tran
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Denton 1997, Maundu et al.
1999, Schippers 2002, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
148
Costus afer
(Costaceae)
Common names Minkeni (Kongo), ginger lily, spiral ginger
Photos: I I TA image library
Description A tall perennial semi-woody herb with leafy canes up to 4 m high bearing terminal heads
of white and pink flowers. These have an orange-yellow area in the throat. The leaf sheath is equipped
with a row of hairs.
Ecology A common perennial herb in moist places. Widespread in the forest zone in tropical Africa.
Sometimes grown as an ornamental.
Propagation Can be grown from seed, stem cuttings planted in moist sand or the rhizomes can be
divided.
Uses The leaves are eaten fresh,
sometimes with cassava leaves
(pondu) in Bas-Congo. The plant
is well known for quenching thirst
and also for treating inflammation
of the gums. The crushed leaves
and shoots are used to treat
intestinal worms, rheumatism and
haemorrhoids. The stems can be
sucked to ease coughing and the
leaves boiled to treat rheumatism.
References Staner & Boutique
1937, Nsimundele 1966 -68,
Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill
1985, Pousset 2004, Aweke 2008,
Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Konda et al. 2012
Photo: Frieda Billiet
149
Costus lucanusianus
(Costaceae)
Common names Boso boso, musanga vulu, ngo n’keni (Kongo)
Description A semi-woody herb with stems up to 3 m high, bearing a terminal inflorescence.
Ecology Found in forests away from water from Guinea to western Cameroon and in Bioko and Gabon.
Uses Leaves are eaten cooked after being lightly wilted
and finely chopped. Stems are crushed and the juice
used to calm whooping cough. The juice is also mixed
with sugar-cane wine and a little fufu (cassava
porridge), and used as a substitute for asprin. The plant
is used to treat diabetes and, in combination with other
plants, to treat gonorrhoea and epilepsy (maladi ya
ndeke). Sap is used to coagulate the latex of Clitandra
cymulosa and species of Landolphia and Funtumia.
References Renier 1948, Delaude & Breyne 1971,
Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Konda et al.
1992, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Neuwinger 2000
Photo: Quentin Luke
Village in Manianga district
150
Costus phyllocephalus
(Costaceae)
Common names Munkeni, munkuiza (Kongo)
Description A fleshy,
smooth-stemmed
perennial herb growing
up to 2.5 m long with
leaves produced spirally
on the stem. Leaf
blades 8 – 17 cm long
by 4 – 6.5 cm wide. The
terminal flower head is
composed of several
individual white flowers,
5 cm long, having a
pink lip.
Costus phyllocephalus
in flower at Kingabwa,
Kinshasa
Ecology
Commonly
found growing in shade
in forest re-growth and
wooded valleys in BasCongo, sometimes in
association
with
Aframomum
angustifolium .
Uses Both the young leaves and the centre of the stem are eaten raw in Bas-Congo, often with cassava
bread
(chikwangue).
They have a pleasant,
refreshing and slightly
acid taste, similar to
sorrel. The plant is
used to coagulate wild
rubber from Clitandra
sp.
It
also
has
medicinal use in the
treatment of insomnia,
migraine, rheumatism,
nervous
disorders,
bed-wetting and loss
of voice. I t is the host
plant
of
Nkoombo
nseke and Minsongo
( I mbrasia
alopia)
edible caterpillars.
References Gillet &
Pâque
1910,
De
Wildeman 1934, Daeleman & Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004, van der Burg
2004
151
Costus spectabilis
(Costaceae)
Common names Lubata bata (= small and curved)(Kongo), dwarf savanna ginger lily.
Description A succulent stemless herb produced from a long rhizome, with a rosette of a few fleshy
leaves, often edged pink, which lie flat on the ground. Flowers can be bright orange or yellow.
Costus spectabilis growing in shade near Sonabata
Ecology Grows in rocky savanna and commonly seen in patches in shady places after the annual
burning and before the rains. Present from Senegal to Sudan and south to Angola and Zimbabwe.
Uses The cooked roots are sometimes eaten in Bas-Congo. They are very bitter. The leaves are also
reported to be edible. I n Manianga the plant is used with a Dissotis sp. and Schwenckia americana to
treat heart pain and palpitations. Also grown as an ornamental though it is not easy to cultivate.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Konda et al.
1992
152
Coula edulis
(Olacaceae)
Common names Nkumunu (Kongo), noisette (Fr.)
All photos: Roy Danforth
Description An evergreen tree 15 – 20 m tall branching low down
and having thin bark. Leaves 10 - 30 x 4 cm. Young shoots and
leaves are covered with rust-coloured hairs. Flowers are small and
in short racemes. The petals are rather thick and greenish-yellow.
Fruit is a drupe, 3 - 4 cm long, with an extremely hard kernel.
Flesh surrounding the kernel is green or reddish and smooth.
Ecology Present from
Sierra Leone to D.R.
Congo in evergreen wet
forest.
Propagation
germination
slow taking
years with a
used instead
Young plants
Seed
is very
up to 4
percentage of about 45% . Air layering can be
(Personal communication – Quentin Meunier).
require shade and grow slowly.
Uses The seeds contain 22 – 30% oil and are eaten by some
people in Bas-Congo. They can be eaten raw, grilled or
boiled and are sold in the markets in Kinshasa. The red wood
is extremely hard, heavy, close-grained, and resists water
well. I t is also resistant to insect attack, particularly termites.
However it is liable to crack. I t produces good charcoal.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, FAO 1982, Vivien & Faure 1996, Bonnéhin 2000,
Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, World Agroforestree Database (Accessed 27.9.2012)
153
Crassocephalum crepidioides
(Asteraceae)
Synonym Gynura crepidioides
Common names Nlalunlalu, nlalu, bunguni (Kongo), thick head, red-flowered ragleaf
Description An erect, slightly
succulent, annual herb growing
up to 100 cm tall. Stem rather
stout, soft, ribbed with the
branches covered with soft hairs.
Leaves arranged spirally. Lower
leaves have a short stalk the
upper ones arise direct from the
stem. Leaves are lobed, 6 – 18
cm long and 2 – 5.5 cm wide.
I nflorescence is terminal and
composed of many individual
flowers. The ribbed fruit has one
seed.
Ecology A common weed in
abandoned farm land and waste
places up to an altitude of 2,000
m. I t may be the dominant
species in shifting cultivation
sites that have been recently burned. I t prefers well drained rich soils and tolerates wet but not
waterlogged soils and shade. Occurs throughout tropical Africa from Senegal to Ethiopia and south to
South Africa. Also present in Asia, Australia, Fiji, Tonga and the Americas.
Propagation
Seedlings
emerge 8 – 10 days after
sowing.
Seed
is
sometimes
sown
in
nurseries
and
then
transplanted in a ball of
earth when 8 – 10 cm
tall. Plant out in the field
at 30 x 30 cm.
Management
Harvesting can be started
40 – 45 days after
germination.
Photo: Phuong Tran
Uses Leaves of this species and of C. montuosum and C. vitellinum are eaten as a vegetable in Congo
and throughout Africa. The tender and succulent leaves and stems are mucilaginous and are used in
soups and stews, especially in West and central Africa. The flavour is much appreciated being sharp but
not bitter. I n Bas-Congo the leaves are applied to heal sores and wounds. Elsewhere in D.R. Congo the
leaf sap is used to treat indigestion. The dried leaf powder is also applied as a snuff to stop nose
bleeding and smoked to treat sleeping sickness. The plant has been used successfully to trap adult corm
weevils in bananas.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Konda et al. 1992,
Denton 2004
154
Craterispermum schw einfurthii
(Rubiaceae)
Common names Muntoma ntoma, ntata nkedinga, muntomina (Kongo)
Description A shrub or small tree growing to 15 m high. Bark is greyish white with swollen nodes.
Leaves 7 – 17 cm long and 2 – 7.3 cm wide. Flower buds are sometimes tinged with pink and are sweet
smelling. Fruits are green or black, round, 5 – 6 mm in diameter.
Craterispermum schweinfurthii flowering in August near Kavwaya
Ecology Found in forests in both Congos. I t grows in fringing forest, beside water and in woodland and
in drier evergreen forest and thickets in the savanna. Present from northern Nigeria across east and
central tropical Africa to Mozambique.
Propagation Can be grown
easily from cuttings.
Uses The bark is sweet tasting
and
frequently
chewed,
especially to relieve coughing. I t
is reported to be an aphrodisiac.
The young shoots are also
reported to be edible. I n BasCongo the dead wood, kept in
moist conditions, becomes red
and is used in the preparation of
nkula, a red ointment used to
colour the face in traditional
ceremonies. The wood is used in
constructing huts. The bark and
leaves are used as a source of
yellow or brown dye. I n Angola
the plant is used as a live fence
as it resists fire. I t has
numerous medicinal uses. The
stems are used as chew-sticks or tooth-brushes. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees in BasCongo.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, I rvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962,
FTEA 1976, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, Jansen 2005, Kibungu
Kembelo 2010
155
Crescentia cujete
(Bignoniaceae)
Common names Arbre à calebasses (Fr.), calabash tree
Description
A handsome
tree growing up to 8 m high.
I t has rough bark. Leaves are
up to 18 cm long and 5 cm
wide. The flowers appear
directly from nodes on the
trunk and branches, and
bloom at night. The fruits
develop after pollination by
bats. They are round and up
to 25 cm in diameter with a
hard green woody shell. The
flat seeds are small and
embedded in the pulp.
Ecology
Originally
from
Mexico, Colombia and the
Caribbean region but now
widely
dispersed
in
the
tropics, though uncommon in
Bas-Congo.
Left:
Tree
Mayenga
growing
near
Propagation Can be grown
from seed or cuttings.
Uses The fruit shell is widely
used elsewhere as a container
or cup and may also be
carved
and
made
into
ornaments. The seed and fruit
are edible. The pulp can be
made into a juice and a cough
medicine. The young fruits
can also be pickled. I n Central America bees often collect nectar from the fallen flowers. Blocks of wood
made from Crescentia cujete are used for growing orchids in
the West I ndies. The plant has various medicinal uses in West
Africa.
Fallen flowers
References Gillet 1927, I rvine 1961, Uphof 1968, Espina &
Ordetx 1983, Burkill 1985, Macmillan 1991
156
Crinum zeylanicum
(Amaryllidaceae)
Synonyms C. scabrum, C. ornatum
Common names Munsele – bende (Kongo) is used for a Crinum sp. in Manianga country. Milk and
wine lily
Description
A
bulbous
plant with leaves 75 cm long
by 6 cm wide, and a stem
60 – 100 cm high. I t bears 4
– 6 white flowers in a large
umbel up to 15 cm across
with a broad purple band
along the centre.
Ecology Found in slightly
damp sites in the savanna.
I t is sometimes grown in
villages.
Common
from
Senegal to west Cameroon,
and widespread throughout
much of tropical Africa. Also
present in Sri Lanka and
continental Asia.
Propagation By separation
of bulbs.
Uses
I n Bas-Congo the
bulbs are used to treat
leprosy. The bulb is also
crushed and used to treat
itching
or
scabies.
In
Manianga it is used to treat
weakness
in
the
legs
especially after a long
illness. I t has numerous
other medicinal uses in
Africa. The bulb causes inflammation of the skin and mucous membranes and is used to treat
rheumatism. The plant is often cultivated as an ornamental and has been much used in horticulture for
hybridizing with other species. I n Senegal, Mali and Guinea it has a common name meaning ‘poison’ and
is recognized as causing diarrhoea that is difficult to control.
Remarks Three species are reported to be present in Bas-Congo. Crinum zeylanicum is the most
common.
References Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Arkinstall 1979, Pauwels
1982, Konda et al. 2012
157
Crossopteryx febrifuga
(Rubiaceae)
Synonym C. kotschyana
Common names Kigala (Kongo), ordeal tree
Description A small twisted tree or bush up to 5 m tall with conspicuous flowers and persistent fruits.
Ecology A common savanna shrub in Bas-Congo. Widely spread from Senegal to Sudan and from East
Africa to Zimbabwe.
Propagation I t is best grown from seed but cuttings grow well if taken during the dry season.
Germination rate is reported to be up to 80%
communication).
after 20 days (Kibungu Kembelo personal
Uses The wood is light brown, pinkish, fine textured, hard and heavy and takes a good polish. I t is
widely used for carving, firewood and charcoal. Ngala ( Cirina forda), Munsona and N'kwati edible
caterpillars eat the leaves, the first species being particularly appreciated. I n Bas-Congo the plant is
used to treat fever, hernias, and swelling of the legs. The bark is used to treat stomach-ache and as a
purgative. I t is also used in nasal drops for headaches. A maceration of the bark is used to treat
intestinal worms and sleeplessness. The
leaves and a decoction of the root bark are
used as an enema to treat diarrhoea in
children as well as for intestinal worms and
colic. A weak decoction of the roots is used
to treat coughing, constipation and
poisoning. Similarly a weak decoction of
leaves is used to treat rheumatism.
How ever great care should be taken
w hen using this plant medicinally as it
can be highly poisonous. Bees were
Ngala edible caterpillar
seen collecting nectar in November.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Nsimundele 1966 -68, Delaude
& Breyne 1971, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Villieres 1987, Keay 1989, Mukoko Matondo
1991, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Pousset 2004
158
Crotalaria retusa
(Papilionaceae)
Common names Sonnettes, arachide
de brousse (Fr.), rattle box, devil bean
Description An erect annual or shortlived semi-woody shrub, 0.5 – 1.5 m tall,
usually branched. Leaves are simple, 3.5
– 11 cm long and 1.5 – 4 cm wide on a
petiole 2 – 4 mm long. Flowers are
borne in racemes 10 – 30 cm long, pale
yellow, veined with the outside being
reddish-purple. Fruits 4 – 5 cm long
contain 12 – 20 seeds. The plant is
known to nodulate widely.
Ecology A shrubby tropical plant from
I ndia or Malaysia. Found in crop land,
waste places and roadsides.
Propagation Grows from seed readily
and smothers weeds.
Uses The flowers are reported to be edible and are
known to be eaten in Gabon and Senegal and also in
I ndia and Tanzania. The plant used to be cultivated as a
vegetable in some parts of D.R. Congo. I t is grown as an
ornamental plant in Florida and tropical America. I t
makes a good cover crop in plantations. I n I ndia it is
grown for its fibre which is mixed with sun hemp ( C.
juncea). This is used for ropes in East Africa and Sudan.
There are conflicting reports of its use as a livestock
fodder and it may be toxic at some stages. I t is used as
a dye plant in East Africa. The plant is used medicinally
in treating colic and flatulence. I n Nigeria the leaves are
used to treat fever. The flowers are reported as bee forage in Bas Congo. Crotalaria species are known
to be visited by honeybees in the Sahel zones in Africa.
References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Staner & Boutique 1937, Allen & Allen 1981, Burkill 1995,
Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Flora Zambesiaca 2003
159
Croton mubango
(Euphorbiaceae)
Common names Mubango mbango, nbangu nbangu, saku (Kongo)
Description A bush or small tree, with a twisted trunk, from 3 - 15 m high. Leaves are 4 - 16 cm long
and 2 – 8.5 cm wide, dark green above and silvery below. The fruits split open when ripe throwing the
seeds out.
Croton mubango growing in a village near Manni
Ecology Found in secondary forest, but sometimes planted in villages. The tree occurs in D.R. Congo
and Angola.
Propagation Can be grown from seed.
Uses The wood is hard and of good quality. The leaves and crushed bark, together with hot peppers,
are used to flavour food in Bas-Congo. The bark was traditionally soaked in palm wine and rubbed on
painful areas, particularly for lumbago. I t is
also widely used medicinally as a purgative
and to treat haemorrhoids, hernias, skin
eruptions, painful periods, tooth decay and
gastritis. The leaves are eaten to ease
pain. For toothache the bark is pulped and
then rubbed on the affected tooth. The
bark, after being soaked in water, is also
rubbed on the body as a tonic. Flowers are
good bee forage, appearing from July to
September. Bees were seen very actively
collecting pollen in the early morning.
Ndienga and Kaba ( Lobobunaea phaedusa)
edible caterpillars feed on the leaves.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De
Wildeman 1934, Staner & Boutique 1937,
Renier 1948, Sillans 1953, Daeleman &
Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu
Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu
Kembelo 2010
160
Croton sylvaticus
(Euphorbiaceae)
Common names Kidianga, dianga, dibimbi di muaka nungu (Kongo), forest fever berry, woodland
croton
Description
A fast growing semideciduous bush or tree to 20 m. The bark
smells of black pepper and is smooth and
grey in colour. The fruits are orange and
pointed.
Ecology Occurs in secondary forest in
Bas-Congo. I t is sometimes planted as a
garden ornamental. Found from Guinea
to Sudan and Ethiopia and south to Natal
and Angola (in savanna and secondary
forest regrowth in West Africa). Common
from low to high altitude forests in
Zimbabwe.
Propagation Collect the fruits and lay
them on a plastic sheet. Put in the sun
and collect the seed after the capsules
have split open. Sow them in containers
filled with a mixture of river sand and
compost (1:2). Cover the seeds lightly
with compost and keep moist. Even
germination occurs after 2 - 3 weeks.
Transplant when two leaves appear, either direct to the site or into plastic bags filled with a river
sand/ compost mix (1:1). Prefers to be planted in light to deep shade but will survive in full sun.
Uses The timber, which
is soft and light, is used
for making furniture,
shelves and fruit boxes.
I t is also very good
firewood which burns
even when green. The
tree is used as a shade
tree,
particularly
for
coffee. Wood scrapings
are rubbed on the foot
to treat elephantiasis in
Bas-Congo. Oil extracted
from the seed is an
effective purgative. The
powdered bark is used
as a remedy for gall
sickness in cattle. The
bark
is
also
used
medicinally to relieve
severe abdominal and chest pain. A decoction of the root or bark is used to treat fever, digestive
problems and pleurisy. A decoction of root bark is drunk to treat tuberculosis. A leaf tea is drunk as a
purgative. Ndienga edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Many insects were seen collecting nectar from
a tree near Madimba in January and the flowers are probably useful bee forage.
References Gillet 1927, Watt & Breyer Brandwijk 1962, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Wild et al 1972,
Kokwaro 1976, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Beentje 1994, Burkill 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu
Kembelo 1995, Venter & Venter 1996, Neuwinger 2000, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 1.2.2013)
161
Cryptolepis oblongifolia
(Apocynaceae)
Synonym Ectadiopsis oblongifolia
Common names Ndulunsi,
mvulumuna (Kongo)
Description
A slender creeper
with small white flowers produced
in January.
Ecology The plant grows in the
savanna and secondary forest.
Uses The vine makes good tying material for fastening
horizontal laths and roof beams when house building. I t is
also used for making fish traps etc.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983
Papa Nsimba constructing a house in Bas-Congo. I t required a variety of products – poles, laths
made from the mid-rib of palm-leaves, tying material and palm leaves for roofing – all extracted
from the forest.
162
Cucumeropsis mannii
(Cucurbitaceae)
Synonym I ncludes Cucumeropsis edulis
Common names Mbika nsudi (Kongo), concombre amer (Fr.)
Description
A
herbaceous
creeper, up to 5 m long, climbing
by means of tendrils. The stem is
angular with scattered hairs.
Leaves are 9 – 18 cm long and 7 –
15 cm wide. Male and female
flowers are borne on the same
plant. Fruits are 17 – 25 x 8 – 18
cm.
Ecology The plant thrives on soils
rich in barely decomposed organic
waste. This is the reason it is
cultivated as a first crop plant after
clearing the forest. With the
continuing loss of forest the crop is
in decline. The plant requires some
shade and also support and grows
well over fallen branches etc.
Grows or is planted with other
crops in the forest zone from
Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon, south
to Angola and east into Uganda.
Propagation Grown from seed that is normally planted 3 or 4 per hole.
Management The vine can be grown over fences. Harvesting takes place when the stems dry and the
fruits become yellow. Bees are the principle pollinators.
Uses The flesh of the fruit is edible but the plant is mainly
grown for its oily edible seeds. These are removed from the
flesh by stacking the fruit and allowing decomposition to take
place. This should be done some distance from the home
because of the
smell. The seeds
are washed out
after 10 - 15
days, then dried
and stored. They
are prepared for
Photo: Rudy Schippers
eating
by
dry
heating and then
pounding to free the seed coat from the kernel. They are
eaten raw or cooked, but more usually are ground to a
powder, which is added to soups and stews. I n flavour
they resemble groundnuts but are richer in oil and contain
more protein. The kernel is rich in amino acids. The oil is a
good substitute for cotton-seed oil and is used for soapmaking and lighting. Seed yield 300 – 900 kg/ ha.
References Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983,
Burkill 1985, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Ambougou 1991,
Egunjobi & Adebisi 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
Photo: Hanno Schaefer
163
Cucurbita maxima
(Cucurbitaceae)
Common names Mbika malenge (Kongo), courge (Fr.), pumpkin, squash
Description A trailing herbaceous annual, up to 6 m long, which can sometimes form a bush. 3 - 6
fruits are produced per plant with fruits weighing from 2 - 5 kg.
Cucurbita maxima growing near Mbanza Nzundu
Ecology I n Bas-Congo the pumpkin is often cultivated on mounds of earth and burned grass (mafuku –
see page 19). Originally from South America it is now grown throughout Africa. The plant grows well in
soils enriched with organic matter and ashes or where burning has taken place. Some varieties tolerate
slightly acid soils. Dry periods favour growth and squashes grow best in full sunlight. Diseases are a
common problem in humid conditions.
Propagation Fruits should be stored
for about 6 weeks before seeds are
extracted. Normally 3 - 10 seeds are
sown, 2 – 3 m apart and then thinned
out to 1 - 3 plants. Plant the seed 2 - 4
cm deep.
Right: Bees collecting
nectar from flowers
Management Harvest when the skin
starts to harden.
Uses Grown
mainly for its seeds
though young leaves and fruit flesh are
eaten in Bas-Congo. Fruits with hard
skin can be stored for out of season
use. Dried fruit shells can be used for making bowls etc. The pounded seeds, mixed with honey, are
used to expel tapeworms.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tindall 1983, Dupriez & De Leener 1989,
Raemaekers 2001, Pousset 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
164
Curcuma longa
(Zingiberaceae)
Common names Kingondi, bola di mputu, niasi tondo (Kongo), safran des I ndes (Fr.), turmeric
Description A perennial herb with
leafy shoots surrounding the stem. I t
grows 1 - 1.5 m tall from a rhizome.
These have a characteristic smell.
I nflorescence is a spike arising from
the base of the stem, 10 - 15 cm
long. Flowers appear in the leaf axils.
Fruits and seeds are rarely produced.
Ecology
Requires warm, moist
conditions, and well-drained, loose,
friable and fertile soil. Shade reduces
yields. I t is often cultivated in BasCongo.
Propagation is by division of the
rhizomes. The pieces should be
about 4 cm long and have 1 – 2
buds. They are planted 5 – 7.5 cm
deep.
Management Normally only one or
two plants are grown. The crop
benefits from mulching, and where
soils are either wet or very dry it is
best to grow the plants on ridges.
The rhizomes are harvested 7 - 10 months after planting and care should be taken that the tubers are
not damaged.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the rhizome is pounded and added to pumpkin and squash or beans to improve the
taste and appearance of the food. To develop the
yellow colour and aroma, the rhizomes are
cleaned and then boiled for an hour before being
dried in the sun for 6 - 8 days. They are then
ground, since this spice is usually marketed as a
powder. Turmeric is mainly used in curry powders
and as a colouring agent and condiment in mixed
spice powders, mustard etc. I n Bas-Congo the
rhizome is used medicinally to treat mental illness,
hernias and anaemia. Mixed with warm milk the
rhizomes can be used to cure colds. Juice from
fresh rhizomes is applied to skin infections and a
decoction of rhizomes is effective against eye
disorders. Research has shown the plant to be
useful in the treatment of cancer, dermatitis,
AI DS, inflammation, high cholesterol and digestive
problems. I t is also used for liver complaints,
bilious disorders, jaundice and to treat intestinal
worms and parasites. Turmeric is used for dyeing
cotton, silk and wool. I t is recognized in the
dyeing industry as one of the ‘direct colours’ because it can be used without a mordant. However as the
pigment is extremely sensitive to light it easily loses its colour, and is usually used in a weak solution of
acetic acid or alum. I t is also used as a cosmetic in Africa and Asia. Young shoots and young rhizomes
can be eaten fresh as a spicy vegetable. The plant has potential for use as an insecticide, fungicide and
against nematodes.
References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Uphof 1968, Purseglove 1972, Daeleman & Pauwels 1993,
Borget 1993, de Guzman & Siemonsma 1999, Burkill 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Jansen 2005
165
Cyathea dregei
(Cyatheaceae)
Synonym Alsophila dregei
Common
names Ba di
masa,
maba
ma
masa
(Kongo), South African tree
fern.
Description A stout
tree
fern up to 5 m tall usually
with an unbranched stem, 20
– 45 cm in diameter. The
fronds are produced in a
cluster at the top of the stem
and are leathery and up to 3
m long. I f the fronds are
damaged or lost, the plant
will produce new foliage
more easily than other tree
ferns.
Ecology I n Bas-Congo the
fern is found in damp sites. I t
is also present in Cameroon
and
the
forests
and
grasslands of South Africa,
Madagascar and East Africa.
I t grows over a large area in
which the climate ranges
from temperate to tropical,
and areas with dry winters
and wet summers as well as
areas that are the other way
around.
Management Tougher and
more adaptable than other
tree ferns. However it is
very slow-growing.
Photo: Ruth Palsson
Uses The terminal bud and young leaves are
eaten in Bas-Congo.
Remarks C. camerooniana is also present in
Bas-Congo and bears the same name in
Kikongo.
References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque
1910, Pauwels 1993, van Wyk & van Wyk
1997, van Wyk et al. 2000, Leyens & Lobin
2009.
Photo: I vo M. Vermeulen, Courtesy The New
York Botanical Garden
166
Cymbopogon citratus
(Poaceae)
Common names Sinda, sinda dimputu (Kongo), citronelle (Fr.), lemon grass
Description
A tufted, perennial
grass growing to 2 m high.
Ecology Originally from I ndia but
now
cultivated
tropics.
throughout
the
Propagation Divide the clumps and
plant in fertile soil in partial shade.
Water well until established.
Management Cut the plant down to
8 - 10 cm, once it has grown to
about 1 m, to obtain fresh growth.
Uses The plant is grown in gardens,
borders and to check erosion. I t is
often burnt, either green or dry, in
houses to get rid of mosquitoes. The
leaves are frequently used to make a
tea which is sedative and is also used
medicinally to relieve colds, flu,
pneumonia etc. The plant helps to
relieve
cramp
and
stimulates
digestion. Drinking the tea increases
the rate at which the body sweats
and the frequency of urination,
helping to wash out harmful substances. I t is used with other plants in Bas-Congo to relieve pain in the
joints and for coughs. I n Asia the leaves are used to flavour food. Distilling the grass yields an essential
oil which is used as a pesticide and a preservative. I t has antifungal properties.
References Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Macmillan 1991, Burkill
1994, Hirt & M’Pia 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004
Dry season vegetable garden near Kasangulu
167
Cymbopogon densiflorus
(Poaceae)
Common names Lusangusangu, kyangu (Kongo)
Description A tufted perennial grass up to 1.8 m high. Leaves are rounded at the base, up to 30 cm
long and 2.5 cm wide. The flowering panicle is dense, 15 - 20 cm long and 10 cm wide.
Ecology Grows in open spaces along
roadsides and in wooded grassland.
The plant is cultivated in villages in
Bas-Congo and elsewhere. I t is native
to Central Africa, from Gabon, Angola
and south to Zimbabwe.
Propagation Grown from seed or
basal cuttings.
Left: Lusangusangu growing at Kintudi
village.
Uses The flower heads are used to
flavour tea or coffee and also as a
condiment with meat. The leaves may
also be boiled to make a tisane. I t is
commonly grown for its aromatic oil
and as a medicinal and ornamental
plant. Various parts of the plant are
used to treat diabetes, dementia and
repeated miscarriages. The plant sap,
together with the leaves of Ocimum
basilicum , is taken for epilepsy. I n BasCongo the flower head is also boiled in
water and the decoction taken to ease
coughing. I n Gabon the crushed leaves
are used for rheumatism. I n Malawi the
flower head is smoked to relieve
bronchial problems and the plant sap is
used for the same purpose in Congo
(Brazzaville).
References Adriaens 1951, FG 1962,
Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mukoko
Matondo 1991, Burkill 1994, Kibungu
Kembelo 2003, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
Left photo: Luc Pauwels
Right: Dried flowering head
168
Cyperus articulatus
(Cyperaceae)
Common names Lusaku saku, nsaku-nsaku (Kongo), jonc vulgaire (Fr.)
Description A tough sedge
growing up to 1.5 m with
fragrant,
sweet-scented
tuberous roots
Ecology Grows in low lying,
damp
areas
and
is
sometimes cultivated in the
villages in Bas-Congo. I t is
found throughout tropical
Africa, and in Egypt, and
Madagascar.
Propagation The plant can
be grown from seed or by
dividing the rootstock.
Uses Traditionally in BasCongo the knotted roots
were pounded and used to
treat lumbago and pain in
the kidneys. The bark from
the root, seeds and shoots
is used medicinally to treat
sciatica,
painful
joints,
fatigue, wounds, asthma,
bed wetting, fear of noise
and haemorrhoids. Roots
are used for perfuming
clothes. The stems are
made into mats.
References Gillet & Pâque
1910, Gillet 1927, FM & C
1937, Daeleman & Pauwels
1983, Kibungu Kembelo
2003, Neuwinger 2000
169
Cyperus esculentus
(Cyperaceae)
Common names Nkamu (Kongo), souchet comestible (Fr), yellow nut grass, chufa, tiger nut
Description A perennial grass-like plant 30 - 80 cm tall, with slender, bright green leaves, growing
from small, brown tuberous rhizomes. The wild form produces flowers but the cultivated form only
rarely. The fleshy tubers are 15 – 25 mm in diameter.
Ecology I ndigenous
to western Asia and
Africa,
it
was
cultivated, especially
in the Mediterranean
area. The wild form
has become a serious
weed in many parts
of the world. I t is
widespread in wet
marshy places, in
damp, sandy soil and
grassland
and
in
irrigated fields. The
plant also grows on
saline soils.
Management
The
cultivated variety is
harvested 3 – 5
months
after
planting.
Uses The new bulbs,
Photo: Stephen Buchan, Green Light I mages
which are rich in
carbohydrates
and
oil, are the size of small onions. They are sweet tasting
and can be chewed raw or cooked as vegetables. I n
Bas-Congo they are available during most of the year.
Tubers can also be roasted and eaten like potatoes or
they can be made into flour. They can also be cooked
and made into a milk drink with water, sugar and
cinnamon. After roasting and grinding they may be
used as a coffee substitute. This plant is one of the
main sources of potash for softening and flavouring
green leaves. The whole plant is chopped up small and
burnt. The ashes are placed in a sieve. Water is
dripped slowly through the ash and collected in a
container and then kept ready for use. Tubers contain
up to 47% sugars and starch, 20% oil, and 8%
proteins. The over-ground parts and tubers are
sometimes used as fodder. Pigs are very fond of the
bulbs. At present the cultivated strains are mostly
regarded as the cultivar 'Chufa'.
Photo: Thomas Palmer
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, De
Wildeman 1934, Terra 1966, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Nsimundele 2004, van Wyk 2005
170
Cyperus papyrus
(Cyperaceae)
Common names Bu (Kongo), papyrus, souchet à papier (Fr), papyrus
Description A robust, perennial herb 2 – 3 m tall with a creeping rhizome 2 – 6 cm thick and densely
covered with black scales. Leaves are produced in 3 vertical ranks. The inflorescence is a terminal,
umbel, 30 – 60 cm long and 30 – 80 cm wide.
Ecology Cyperus papyrus originated in Central Africa and has spread over tropical Africa. I t has been
cultivated in Egypt and neighbouring areas since ancient times.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the stems are used to make mats and the heads are used as brooms. The pith of
the stem was used by early civilizations (Egyptians, Greeks, Romans) to make a primitive form of paper.
The fibrous outer parts of the stem were used for making ropes, baskets, nets, sails, mats and sandals.
The stems were also made into boats. I n refugee camps in the Great Lakes region an innovative
process has been developed for manufacturing sanitary napkins from papyrus pith, waste paper, and
water.
I n Central Africa the pith of the old, dried stems is eaten. I n southern Africa the lower part of the stem
is eaten and the pith is chewed like sugar cane. The rhizome is edible as well. The plant is browsed by
livestock. The dried rhizomes as well as the stems can be used as fuel. I n Burundi the ash from burnt
plants has been used as a vegetable salt. Experiments indicate that the high biomass production of
Cyperus papyrus makes it effective in removing N and P from waste and pond water, and papyrus
swamps serve as natural filters of sediment and pollutants and as stabilizers for river banks. The
nutrient and pollutant-removal action of papyrus can be used in man made waste-treatment ditches or
constructed wetlands. Other interesting environmental services are its potential carbon sequestration in
the peaty sediments formed under papyrus swamps, though this peat is rapidly oxidized during periods
of low water, releasing the stored carbon.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Vaughan 2011
171
Dacryodes edulis
(Burseraceae)
Common names Nsafu (Kongo), safoutier (Fr.), African pear
Description A fruit bearing tree growing up to 18 m tall.
Ecology Commonly planted in villages in Bas-Congo. I t can be grown in a wider variety of conditions
than oil palms.
Propagation Usually grown from fresh seed,
sown direct or in long polythene bags, but
resulting trees vary greatly in total fruit production
and composition of fruit. Air layering, which takes
from 4 - 6 months, can be up to 80% successful.
Large diameter, horizontal branches with thick
bark should be used and the new plants should
not be separated when the mother tree is about to
produce new growth.
Propagation of good
varieties using large cuttings is sometimes carried
out in Bas-Congo but this is not always successful.
The top of the cutting must be covered with soil,
or a pad of leaves, and kept humid until it has
rooted.
Management Avoid breaking branches during
harvest, as this can delay the next flowering for a
whole year. Gashes are sometimes cut in the tree trunk to improve fruiting.
Uses The tree is planted for shade and for its edible fruit, which may be boiled in water for 2 - 3
minutes, roasted in hot ashes or fried. I t is usually eaten with salt. Fruit pulp is rich in oil (30 - 60% on
a dry matter basis). Production of fruit from 20-year-old trees can reach 110 kg per tree. Yields decline
after that. The wood is heavy and used for tool handles and furniture. The flowers are important bee
forage. I n Bas-Congo a decoction of the bark is used to treat dysentery. The resin and leaf juices are
used medicinally in Gabon. Minsongo ( I mbrasia alopia), Makedi kedi ( Bunaeae alcinoe) and Kaba
( Lobobunaea phaedusa) edible caterpillars feed on the leaves.
References Gillet 1927, Burkill 1985, Aumeeruddy & Pinglo 1988, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo
1995, Kengue 2002, Verheij 2002, Nsimundele 2004
172
Datura metel
(Solanaceae)
Common names Trente six oiseaux, concombre diable, trompette de la mort (Fr.), devil’s trumpet
Description A semi woody annual or short lived perennial up to 7 m high with large purple flowers up
to 20 cm long. Flowers are closed during much of the day and open in the afternoon and evening. They
are reported to be pollinated by hawk moths and are largely self-fertile.
Ecology Found in waste places and around villages up to 1,000 m altitude. I t is sometimes planted as
an ornamental. Possible origin Central America.
Propagation
Grown from seed which usually
germinates in 3 - 6 weeks. Soaking the seed overnight
improves germination. Space 70 – 100 cm. Plants
should not be grown near potatoes or tomatoes as they
can harbour viruses affecting these crops.
Uses The dried leaves, roots and flowers are widely
smoked as cigarettes in Africa and Asia to relieve
asthma, coughing, tuberculosis and bronchitis. I t is
effective in some cases but not in others. I t is also used
for sedating people with mental disorders. The plant is
widely used as a pesticide. Seeds are mixed with maize
or wheat to control insect pests. Plant extracts are used
to control caterpillars in forestry and cotton. They are
also used to control fleas and jiggers and can be used
to control the nematode Meloidogyne javanica. The
flowers are occasionally visited by honeybees for
nectar. The flowers of Datura species are also reported
to be visited by bees in Gabon.
A bee emerging from a flower.
Remarks A very poisonous herb. All parts of
Datura plants may be fatal if eaten by humans or
animals.
References Ambougou 1991, Burkill 2000, Pousset 2004, Nuga & Setshogo 2008
173
Desmodium gangeticum
(Papilionaceae)
Common name Dintata (Kongo)
Description
An
erect
semi-woody
herb or under-shrub
up to 2 m high. The
petals vary from
purple to bluish or
white. Leaves and
seed burrs stick to
clothing and animal
fur.
Ecology
Widely
dispersed in gallery
forest, damp sites,
savanna and fallow
land
in
tropical
Africa, I ndia, South
East Asia and in the
West I ndies.
Propagation
by
seed or cutting.
Photos:
Valke
Dinesh
Uses I n Bas-Congo the
leaves
are
used
medicinally to treat
diarrhoea and female
sterility. The plant has
possible use as a
ground
cover
and
green
manure
for
rubber plantations. The
stems are fibrous and
can be used for making
paper.
The
plant,
particularly the root,
contains antibiotic and
fungicidal substances.
I t is also used to treat
catarrh, asthma and to
reduce
fever.
A
maceration of the root
is used to treat chest
complaints.
Desmodium
species
are known to be useful bee forage plants.
References De Wildeman 1903, Staner & Boutique 1937, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Daeleman &
Pauwels 1983, Abbiw 1990, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Burkill 1995, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003
174
Desmodium incanum
(Papilionaceae)
Synonyms D. mauritianum, D. canum
Common names Lunzilanzila, nzila nzila (nzila = path in Kongo; the plant is commonly found beside
paths)
Description A scrambling
to erect perennial herb or
low shrub up to 60 cm
tall, but in a grazed
pasture situation it is
usually prostrate and less
than 20 cm tall. Stems are
fibrous
to
woody,
sometimes being below
the soil surface. The root
system is deep and wellbranched.
Photo: João des Deus
Medeiros
Leaves are trifoliate, with
petioles up to 3.5 cm
long. Leaflets are very
variable, mostly elliptic,
with terminal leaflets 2 - 9
x 1.5 - 4.5 cm and lateral
ones up to 6 x 3 cm. I nflorescence is a terminal or axillary raceme, up to 20 cm long. The blue, red or
purple flowers are solitary or in groups of 3. Pods are up to 4 cm long, the upper margin being straight
and the lower strongly indented, and are covered with hooked hairs. Desmodium incanum is a very
variable species. I nitial growth is slow, but later improves, providing moisture is adequate. Trailing
stems begin to develop some 6 months after sowing. I n regions with a seasonal climate, growth during
the dry season is slow. The plant is naturally spread by animals and humans, as the hooked hairs on the
pod catch on to fur or clothing.
Ecology Common in tropical Africa and
the Mascarene islands.
Propagation Plants root readily at the
nodes.
Photo : Bob Peterson
Uses A potentially very useful pasture
legume for grass-legume mixtures on
low fertility soils in the tropics. Several
decades ago very promising cultivation
trials were made. I n Bas-Congo the
leaves are used to treat opthalmia and in
Equateur to treat
impotence. I n
Madagascar the plant is used to treat
asthma. I n Uele and Maniema the leaves are used to treat dysentery. The flowers are visited by
honeybees.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983
175
Desmodium velutinum
(Papilionaceae)
Synonym D. lasiocarpum
Common names Dintata, lunama (Kongo)
Description A semi-woody, erect, hairy undershrub growing from 1 to 2 m high; branches are
covered with dense brown hairs. Leaves are ovate,
up to 15 cm long and 8 cm wide. Flowers are pink
or purplish. Pods about 1.8 cm long, are densely
hairy and deeply indented on one side. The seeds
cling to clothing.
Ecology Commonly found in the savanna, along
roadsides and in clearings from Senegal to Nigeria
and from Cameroon to Angola and also in southern
Sudan. I t grows well in high rainfall areas.
Propagation Can be grown from seed.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the crushed leaves are used to
dress wounds and as an aphrodisiac. The leaves
are also used to treat female sterility, uterine sores
and diarrhoea. Elsewhere a root decoction is used
to treat blood in the urine and is drunk for cardiac
problems and toothache. A decoction of leaves is
drunk for coughs and dysentery. A leaf tea is drunk
for threatened abortion. For eye injuries the leaf
sap is used as drops and leaves are bound on to
wounds to heal them. Livestock browse the plant.
References Gillet 1927, I rvine 1930, Staner &
Boutique 1937, Skerman 1977, Arkinstall 1979,
Burkill 1995, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo
2003
Ox ploughing in Manianga
176
Desplatsia dew evrei
(Tiliaceae)
Common names Kukoto, nuwanda (Kongo)
Description A shrub or tree
4 - 20 m tall, trunk up to 60
cm in diameter, with stout
branches and
a
widely
spreading crown. Leaves 10 –
35 cm long, 3.5 – 14 cm
wide, coarsely and irregularly
toothed, Flowers are yellow
or white. Fruit is greenish
yellow, 10 – 25 cm long, 8–
20 cm wide, flattened at the
ends.
Desplatsia dewevrei in the
botanic garden at Kisantu
Ecology Present in rain and
swamp
forest,
wooded
savanna, also in deciduous
and evergreen forest, along
water courses and in wet
places. From I vory Coast to
west Cameroon and across
the Congo basin to Uganda.
Uses The flat
seeds are
eaten in Bas-Congo. The
leaves are used medicinally in
Equateur
province.
The
young fruits produce a dye,
colouring cloth red-brown.
The inner portion of the fruit
is eaten with salt in Congo
(Brazzaville) and to treat
heart problems. Wood is very
soft.
Photo of fruit: David Harris/ Royal Botanic Garden
Edinburgh
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Pauwels 1993,
Burkill 2000, Harris 2002, Nsimundele
Hawthorne 2006, Konda et al. 2012
2004,
Photo of flowers: Bart Wursten © Jardin botanique national de Belgique
177
Dialium pachyphyllum
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Synonym D. polyanthum
Common names Mboti mfinda, ntadianti, penza, keli keti, nkekete (Kongo)
Description A tree 8 – 20 m tall. Leaves are unevenly pinnate with a single terminal leaflet. Compound
leaves are leathery, 8 – 23 cm long and 3.5 – 8 cm wide. Flowers are borne in terminal and axillary
panicles. They are small, yellow and scented. Fruit is an indehiscent, pod 2.5 cm long and 1.5 cm wide,
with persistent sepals containing one seed.
Ecology Grows in swamp forest
and on firm ground. Present in
Cameroon, Gabon, Angola and
D.R. Congo, (Mayombe, BasCongo, Kasai, Forestier Centrale).
Uses I n Bas-Congo the fruit pulp
and seeds are eaten. The bark
was used as a trial poison. I n
Equateur province a decoction of
the bark is used to treat sterility.
The timber is red brown, hard,
termite and fungus resistant and
used for heavy construction and
building homes.
References Nsimundele 1966 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983,
Pauwels 1993,
Burkill
1995,
Neuwinger 2000, Konda ku Mbuta
et al. 2012
Photo: Bart Wursten
178
Dichrostachys cinerea subsp. platycarpa
(Mimosaceae)
Common names Nsende n’vanga, nsendi mpanga (Kongo), sickle bush
Description A small tree or shrub growing to 8 m high, branching low down and often forming
thickets. The single thorns are short. Fruits are formed in a cluster of twisted, flattened pods.
Ecology Grows in savanna in tropical and sub-tropical Africa,
tropical Asia and Australia.
Propagation By seed. This is best done by direct sowing, so as
to avoid damaging the long tap-root. I t can also be grown from
10 cm long root suckers and cuttings. The tree produces large
amounts of seed when growing in open sites. Seed can be stored
but only in a cold room. When planting immerse in hot water and
allow to cool overnight. Take care not to damage the tap-root
once the seedlings emerge.
Management The tree can be coppiced or pollarded.
Uses Timber is hard and heavy but normally produced in small
dimensions. The wood produces a very hot, long lasting fire, and
a good quality charcoal. I t is excellent for tool handles due to its
strength and hardness. The inner bark is tough and can be used
as rope. The cut branches are used as a barrier to livestock. The
tree is nitrogen fixing. Bees collect nectar and pollen from the
flowers. The roots, leaves, spines and bark are used to treat
spasms, stomach problems and as an antidote for snake-bites. I n
Bas-Congo the plant is used to treat female sterility, intercostal
pain, gastritis, heart palpitations, poisoning, male impotence and
rheumatism.
Photo: Ton Rulkens
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Pauwels 1993, Bein et al. 1996, Venter & Venter 1996, Kibungu
Kembelo 2003
179
Dictyophleba lucida
(Apocynaceae)
Common name Mamasi masi (Kongo) (Masi = oil, grease; the latex is sticky).
Both photos: Bart Wursten www.zimbabweflora.co.zw
Description A much branched creeper reaching up to 35 m with a girth up to 50 cm. Leaves 5.5 - 14
cm long and 3 – 8 cm wide. I nflorescence is a loose terminal panicle with a few sweet scented flowers.
Corolla pink or yellowish when in bud, becoming
white with pale to dark pink tube. Fruit is up to
3 x 4·5 cm. in diameter, spherical, green to
yellow or red with yellow edible pulp. Tendrils
grow from the old inflorescence.
Ecology Found in primary forest. Present in
Angola, D.R. Congo, Central African Republic,
Cameroon, Nigeria, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi,
Zimbabwe and Mozambique
Uses
A large creeper with sticky latex
sometimes used to make glue. The fruit is
edible. The white latex is of variable quality,
sparse or abundant, fluid or tacky, coagulating
to give a poor quality rubber.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Burkill 1985,
Beentje 1994
180
Dioscorea alata
(Dioscoreaceae)
Common names Mansungu, kikwa kimansunga
(Kongo), greater yam, winged yam, water yam
Description This is the highest yielding of all yams
usually producing single watery tubers, of variable
size weighing between 5 and 10 kg. Stems are
square, winged and twine to the right.
Mbala ya nguvu variety.
Ecology Requires at least 1,500 mm rainfall and fertile deep soils for maximum production. The crop is
not widely grown in Bas-Congo.
Propagation Yams are grown vegetatively from pieces of tuber weighing from 0.1 to 2 kg. Setts are
best taken from the top of the yam tuber and can be grown in a nursery until ready for planting out.
These usually sprout more quickly and give
higher yields than setts taken from other
parts.
Management The tubers are normally
harvested after 9 to 10 months. They cannot
be left in the field once mature. Farmers
sometimes grow the vines through hollowed
out bamboo poles to protect them from
livestock.
Uses The tubers are eaten after being
Yams and “chikwangue” being cooked together.
young shoots can also be eaten as a vegetable.
Remarks Other species grown include D. baya =
Mpundi, but there are numerous other named
species and varieties present in Bas-Congo. Yams
should never be eaten raw.
Right: D. dumetorum = Nsemi nsemi.
The stems twine to the left.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927,
Purseglove 1972, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill
1985, Raemaekers 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
181
peeled and boiled or baked. They contain
nearly 90% carbohydrate and 7% protein.
Eating the tubers helps prevent scurvy. The
Dioscorea sp.
(Dioscoreaceae)
Nzau or Mboma variety
Nzau, nguvu or mboma variety
182
Dioscorea bulbifera
(Dioscoreaceae)
Common names Mpenga, ngembu, ngombo, soko, (Kongo), potato yam, aerial yam
Description A climbing plant which twines to the left growing to about 6 m high from a small woody
tuber. I t produces aerial bulbils in the leaf axils. Stems are cylindrical. Leaves are large, simple and
ovate. Flowers are also
large. I mproved varieties
have
angular,
grey
bulbils
whereas
wild
varieties
have
dark
brown to liver coloured
rounded
bulbils.
The
flesh of the improved
varieties is pale yellow to
almost white.
Ecology
Found
throughout Africa. I t is a
hardy plant able to
produce on shallow soils
and can be found up to
1,800 m altitude.
Propagation
Can be
grown from bulbils or
tubers either whole or in
small
pieces.
Tubers
produced from bulbils are very small in the first year so are then used as setts for the following season
Management Bulbils are ready for harvest after 2 years when the plant dries up and the bulbils fall off
when touched.
Uses The aerial bulbils are edible,
particularly those of improved
varieties which are less bitter and
also less poisonous. Some of
these can even be eaten raw. The
aerial bulbils of improved varieties
normally weigh about 0.5 kg but
can weigh up to 2 kg. They keep
well and the flesh is slimy,
containing
up
to
80%
carbohydrate. Bulbils from wild
varieties are used as a famine
food. Long soaking and boiling is
required to make them safe to
eat. Protein content is 10.5% (dry
matter basis). The bulbils, leaves
and roots are used medicinally
elsewhere in Africa to treat
abscesses,
skin
parasites,
rheumatism and eye infections.
References Kay 1973, Daeleman
& Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985,
Malaisse 1997, Katende et al.
1999,
Neuwinger
2000,
Raemaekers
2001,
Kibungu
Kembelo 2010
183
Dioscorea praehensilis
(Dioscoreaceae)
Synonym D. cayenensis var. praehensilis
Common names Kisadi, sadi,
bisadi (Kongo), igname de
brousse (Fr.), bush yam, forest
yam
Left: Young shoots
growing from a stem node
Description A sturdy climbing
plant, up to 15 m long, growing
from a large tuber which
protrudes from the ground. The
latter is armed with curving, protective, spiny roots that arise from the top of the tuber. Stems are
hairless, purplish-green and lightly ribbed longitudinally. The tuber has white flesh tinged yellow and
may be either oblong or round. Leaves are 4 – 10 x 3 – 5 cm.
Ecology Grows wild in forests and
gallery forests from Sierra Leone to
Nigeria and in Gabon and the Congo.
Right: Globular form of tuber
Uses The young shoots growing from
the vine are eaten like asparagus in
Bas-Congo. I n Congo (Brazzaville) the
older stems are cut up and an infusion
is used for stomach complaints,
urethral discharge and oedemas. Tuber
flesh is bitter and only eaten after
careful preparation and usually as a
famine food.
Left: Young shoots
harvested for eating
near Kintudi
References Dalziel 1937,
Burkill 1985, van der Burg
2004, Kibungu Kembelo
2010
184
Diospyros heterotricha
(Ebenaceae)
Common names Lufwa, lufwa lu ndomba (Kongo)
Description A shrub up to 3 m high. The young branches are covered with hairs. Leaves are 5 – 10 cm
long and 2 – 4.5 cm wide. The male inflorescence is composed of 2 or 3 flowers, the terminal one being
the first to open. The female flower is solitary. Fruits 1 – 1.6 cm diameter.
Ecology Present in forest in D.R.
Congo (Mayombe and Bas-Congo)
and Angola.
Uses The fruits are edible. The
twigs are used as chew-sticks to
clean the teeth. The wood, which
becomes brown in contact with
the air, is sometimes used to
colour the lips. The tree has been
introduced into West Africa for its
edible fruits.
References Daeleman & Pauwels
1983, FAC 1987, Pauwels 1993,
Burkill 1994
185
Diospyros mannii
(Ebenaceae)
Photos: Roy Danforth
Description A tree 20 - 30 m tall. I t has a symmetrical branching habit with whorls of branches up the
stem. Leaves 12 x 5 cm, with hairs on the leaf surfaces and stems. Fruits 10 cm across, almost circular
with reddish, irritating hairs covering a thin yellow-green skin. Black wedge shaped seeds, 5 cm long,
are arranged around the centre. An almost clear gelatinous aril surrounds each seed. The fruit flesh is
starchy white and flaky.
Ecology Present in closed evergreen forest often in wet
situations from Sierra Leone to southern Nigeria and into
the Congo basin.
Propagation Can be grown from seed.
Management Probably requires shade in the early stages.
Uses The fruit is edible. Remove the irritating hairs by
rubbing the fruit on the ground or with a leaf. The fruit has
a butter-like texture and the aril gives a flavour of
cantaloupe pie. The tree is reported to produce fruit every
3 years. Sap-wood is pale lemon in colour. The black heart
wood is used for carving in Sierra Leone and for furniture.
I t is soaked in water before use to strengthen the colour.
The tree is also used medicinally.
References Burkill 1994, Danforth & Noren 1997
186
Diplorhynchus condylocarpon
(Apocynaceae)
Common names Nvondongolo, mvondongolo (Kongo), wild rubber, horn-pod tree
Description A shrub from 3 - 12 m high with a trunk from 1 – 20 cm in diameter. The bark is fissured.
Leaves are hairless, 4 – 9.5 cm long and 2.5 – 5.5 cm wide. Flower head is 2 – 9 cm long, composed of
white to cream coloured, fragrant flowers. Fruits are oblong 3.5 cm long.
Ecology Found in savanna and wooded grassland. Present from D.R. Congo to South Africa.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the latex from cuts made in the bark is used to repair gourds and bicycle inner
tubes and as a varnish. I n Malawi the latex is smeared on wounds to assist healing. The plant is used as
a snake-bite remedy. The heart-wood produces a long-lasting timber. Makedi kedi ( Bunaea alcinoe)
edible caterpillars feed on the leaves.
Right: Bunaea alcinoe is an important
species of edible caterpillar in BasCongo. I t feeds on a variety of trees
and is found in January and February.
References Butaye 1909, Gillet
&
Pâque 1910, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Williamson 1975, Kokwaro 1976, Daeleman & Pauwels
1983, Pauwels 1993, FTEA 2002
187
Dorstenia psilurus
(Moraceae)
Common names Kintamba, kinkama (Kongo)
Description A semiwoody,
erect,
herbaceous
plant
growing
from
a
horizontal rootstock or
rhizome. Leaves are
alternate, 7 – 18 cm
long and 3 – 7 cm
wide, having petioles
1.5 to 5 cm long.
Flowers, which are
produced throughout
the year, are borne in
the leaf axils; male
flowers
have
one
stamen, female flowers
have
a
protruding
style.
Ecology
An understorey shrub of old
forests and damp sites, but also present in the savanna, and often associated with termite hills. Grows
up to 1,760 m. Sometimes planted in villages in Bas-Congo.
Propagation by seed or cutting.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the roots are
used
to
treat
coughs,
haemorrhoids, elephantiasis, male
impotence and heart palpitations.
The roots are sometimes mixed
with tobacco to improve the
flavour. They are also used by
herbalists
to
make
nkisi.
Elsewhere in the Congo the roots
are used as a deodorant and to
give cooking pots a pleasant
smell. Both roots and leaves are
reported
to
be
eaten.
A
maceration of the root is drunk
and the body washed in the liquid
as a treatment for malaria. The
pounded leaves are applied in the treatment of rheumatism.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, FAC 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu
Kembelo 2003
188
Dracaena aubryana
(Dracaenaceae)
Synonym Draco thaliodes
Common names Ba kaziete (Kongo), dwarf Dracaena, lance Dracaena
Photo: © L. Pauwels
Description An unbranched, slender, erect or scrambling shrub, 1.2 – 2.5 m tall, which grows in a
spiral form. Stems are woody with overlapping leaf bases. The pseudo-petiole is up to 40 cm long.
Leaves are 20 - 50 cm by 5 – 9 cm wide, the blade being longitudinally ribbed. The fragrant, usually
branched inflorescence, is 15 – 90 cm long and has white, greenish-white or yellowish flowers. Fruit is a
round berry, containing 1 – 3 seeds.
Ecology Present in shaded, humid, undisturbed forests from Sierra Leone across Central Africa to
Uganda, Zambia and Angola. The plant is cultivated in Gabon and is also present in Asia.
Propagation Can be grown from cuttings or seed.
Uses Traditionally the young leaves were cut in thin strips, dried in the sun, then cooked in water and
eaten as a vegetable at Kisantu. (This is also done with D. mannii see below). The attractive long leaves
make it a good ornamental plant.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Fayaz 2011, ZipcodeZoo (Accessed
23.4.2013)
189
Dracaena mannii
(Dracaenaceae)
Common names Kidiadi, ndiadi mbulu (Kongo), dragonnier
Description A tree growing
up to 10 m high. Leaves are
15 – 24 cm long. Flowers are
produced in terminal panicles
35 – 100 cm long.
Ecology I n Bas-Congo the
tree is common on sandy soils
in secondary forest.
Propagation
Grows easily
from large cuttings. Can also
be grown from seedlings.
Seeds cannot be stored so
should
be
planted
immediately.
Management The tree
grows back fast after felling.
Uses The young shoots are sometimes eaten. I n BasCongo the decomposing tree provides a base for
Bukutukutu
or
Bunkanga
edible
mushrooms
( Auricularia cornea (syn. A. polytricha)). The tree is
occasionally used to mark boundaries and is the
source of a light-coloured dye. The leaves can be fed
to livestock. The rotting leaves make good mulch and
improve soil fertility.
Right: The core of young leaves is taken from the
growing tip of a branch and used as a vegetable.
Bukutukutu mushrooms growing on a dead
stump
The root bark was traditionally used to make a red paste called nkula diari used as a
cosmetic. The plant was used as an abortive. The fruits are reported to be very poisonous to
pigs. The male flowers are an important source of pollen for honey bees and other species of Dracaena
are reported to yield both nectar and pollen.
Remarks There are nine species of Dracaena present in Bas-Congo and other species are grown in
gardens.
References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, I rvine 1961, Uphof 1968, Aumeeruddy & Pinglo 1988,
Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Mbuya et al. 1994, Burkill 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
190
Duranta erecta
(Verbenaceae)
Synonym D. repens
Common names Golden dewdrop, pigeon berry
Description A shrub or small tree, sometimes thorny, growing to 5 - 6 m high. Flowers are blue or
white followed by bright orange-yellow berries about 1 cm long, containing many white seeds.
Ecology Originally from Central and
South America and the West I ndies.
Propagation By seed or cutting.
Uses The fruits are edible. The shrub
can be grown as a hedge plant. The
juice from both leaves and fruit
promotes urination. The fruit has been
used as an anti-malarial medicine. The
fruit juice has been found to be lethal
to anopheline and culicine mosquitos at
a concentration of 1:100. Bees collect
nectar in January in Bas-Congo, but
frequent clipping of the bush is
reported to reduce flowering.
Remarks The plant can be invasive.
References Macmillan 1991, Pauwels
1993, Johannsmeier & Allsopp 1995,
Katende et al. 1999, Burkill 2000
191
Eichhornia crassipes
(Pontederiaceae)
Synonym Piaropis crassipes
Common names Jacinthe d’eau (Fr.), water hyacinth
Description A free-floating aquatic herb growing to 50 cm high. I t may form dense floating mats. I ts
leaves are thick, waxy, rounded, and glossy and rise well above the water surface on stalks. They are
broadly ovate to circular, 10 – 20 cm in diameter. Leaf stalks are bulbous and spongy. A single spike of
8 – 15 purple to blue flowers is produced.
Ecology Originally from the Amazon basin but now an invasive weed in waterways in Africa.
Uses The plant is an excellent source of protein, vitamins and minerals and the leaves can be used for
protein rich animal food. I n S.E. Asia the plant is an important food for pigs, 1.5 kg being fed per day.
The plant can be used to produce biogas, 1 kg dry matter being reported to yield 370 litres of gas. I t is
also valued as a manure, being rich in potash. When dried and burned it produces a valuable ash. Even
without burning it makes good compost. The flowers are edible.
Remarks Snout beetles ( Neochetina spp.), imported from Australia, have been successful in controlling
water hyacinth in Lake Victoria.
References Duke 1983, Gopal 1987, Burkill 1997, Lindsey & Hirt 1999, Wilson et al. 2007
192
Elaeis guineensis
(Arecaceae)
Common names Ba di nsamba, ba di ngasi (Kongo), palmier à huile (Fr.), oil palm
Ecology I n Bas-Congo scattered trees are commonly left in the bush fallow.
Oil palms near Mbanza Nzundu
Propagation Seed requires heat treatment before it will germinate and even then is slow and variable.
I t is best to use pre-germinated seed from improved Tenera types.
Management Cultivated palms commence
bearing after 4 years and reach their peak
after 12 - 15 years. They may continue
producing for 40 to 50 years. Wild plants
may take 10 years to start fruiting.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the fruits are a source
of cooking oil and an important cash
income. The fruits are first boiled then
pressed as in the photo on the right. Red
palm oil is important as a local food and for
cooking, supplying fat in areas where cattle
cannot be kept due to tsetse fly. I t is a
good source of vitamin A. The slightly
unripe fruit is cooked over ashes to
produce a delicacy. Sap is also collected for
toddy making. The male flowers are an
important pollen source for honeybees. The
trunk, which is neither strong nor lasting
and is readily attacked by termites, is often
used for building poles, rafters, bridges,
fences and even for fuel wood.
Right: Extracting oil in the village.
193
Left: Nsombi (palm worms =
Oryctes spp.) are collected from
the decaying trunk and fed on
cassava meal for a few days
before being cooked and eaten.
The leaves are used for
thatching, matting, and making
walls and fences, but their
removal reduces fruit yield.
Cracking the seed shells is a
laborious task but the shells are
highly valued for fuel as they
give out a considerable heat,
and
are
therefore
much
favoured by blacksmiths. The
midrib is used for house
building,
making
baskets
(ntete), traps, beds (see page 272) etc. The terminal bud provides the hearts of palm, a much
appreciated vegetable with an artichoke–like flavour. The dry flowers are used for kindling. They were
also burnt and the ash soaked in hot water which was then used as salt.
Edible mushrooms (Lumiengi = Psathyrella cf. tuberculata) are grown on
the dead flowers which are heaped together and covered with palm
leaves. Palm wine is then poured over the heap and the mushrooms are
produced after 2 - 3 days. Ash obtained from both male and female
flowers is used as salt.
Right: Lumiengi mushrooms
growing on discarded oil
palm seeds.
I nter-cropping
with
cassava, soya beans or
sesame for the first 29
months makes good use of the land. I f leguminous crops
are grown, the palms will benefit from the improved
fertility and subsequent yields of oil are likely to be
increased.
Papa Alphonse with a fish trap made
from oil palm leaf stalks
Right: Ditoko, Helen making string from oil
palm leaf stems for tying chikwangue packets.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Godin &
Spensely 1971, Castagné 1983, Daeleman &
Pauwels 1983, Crane et al. 1984, Ambougou
1991, Burkill 1994, Raemaekers 2001, Kibungu
Kembelo 2010
194
Emilia coccinea
(Asteraceae)
Common names Nkofi masa, zima tiya (Kongo), mundumbu (in Manianga), Emilie, cucolie écarlate
(Fr.), yellow tasselflower
Description An erect, annual, weak stemmed herb to 1 m high. Leaves are alternate, oval or oblong,
wider at the base clasping the stem, often purple below with lightly toothed edges. Flowers are borne in
loose terminal heads, bright yellow to orange and 6 – 8 mm across. The seeds have bristles. Seed
dispersal is by wind.
Ecology Common beside water, in old cultivated land, along roadsides and in forest clearings from
Guinea to Sudan and south to Mozambique. The plant is also present in tropical Asia.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the crushed leaves are used as a poultice to heal the navel wound at birth. Fresh
leaf juice has shown antimicrobial, anti-oxidant and antiinflammatory activity and is used
to treat itch or scabies in BasCongo. I n Manianga the leaves
are rubbed into small cuts to treat
swellings. The plant is well known
in the central forest zone as a
remedy for inflamed lymph nodes.
The leaves were traditionally
eaten in Madimba and are eaten
fresh or cooked as spinach in
Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi. The
plant can also be fed to rabbits
and guinea pigs. The ground
leaves are used to treat colic.
Photo: Maurizio
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Arkinstall 1979,
Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Ruffo et al 2002, Bosch 2004,
Pousset 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
195
Entada abyssinica
(Mimosaceae)
Common names Nsiesa, nsiensie, nsiesi mfinda (Kongo)
Description A shrub or small tree from 3 to 8 m high. I t flowers during the rain season.
Ecology The tree prefers sandy loam soils and will grow on shallow soils. I t is widespread in wooded
grassland savanna from I vory Coast to Angola and from Ethiopia to Zimbabwe.
Propagation Grow from seed. Pre-treatment is sometimes necessary because of the hardness of the
seed coat. Put the seed in boiling water and allow this to cool immediately. Germination rate is very
high, between 70 and 100% . The seed can be stored.
Management
The
regenerates naturally
being cut down.
tree
after
Uses Used for firewood and
charcoal in Bas-Congo. I t is
the food plant for Nsofi and
Minsangula edible caterpillars
and is reported as a bee
forage. The tree makes a good
shade tree. I t is nitrogen fixing
and can be grown with crops
as it does not deplete yields.
The heartwood is moderately
light and easy to work. A
decoction of the bark is used
to relieve abdominal pains in
Congo (Brazzaville). The wood
ash is used as a lye in soap
making.
Young regowth in a plot of maize
References Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, Burkill 1995, Katende et al. 1995
196
Entada gigas
(Mimosaceae)
Common names Futi (Kongo),
Mackay bean
Description A stout creeper growing
to 50 m long. The stem may be over 10
cm in diameter. The compound leaves
are composed of 4 – 5 pairs of leaflets
borne on stalks 4 – 12 cm long with
petioles 1 – 3 mm long. Leaflets are 6
– 9 cm long and 2.5 – 3.7 cm wide
increasing in width towards the tip. The
flowers are yellow-green and borne on
a stalk up to 20 cm long. The fruit is a
large woody pod up to 2 m long and 10
cm wide containing seeds about 5 cm
in diameter.
Left: Entada gigas growing in
secondary forest near Kavwaya
Ecology
Widely dispersed across
central tropical Africa and in tropical
America, Australia and Asia, in forests,
on the edge of the savanna and often
along water courses.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the seeds were
traditionally
scattered
with
those
of
and
P.
Pentaclethra
macrophylla
eetveldeana to enrich the forest fallow
(nkunku) after cultivation. The plant
yields a good strong fibre used for tying.
The fibre has long strands which make it
useful for fishing lines. I n some areas the
plant has become uncommon due to
over collection.
Right: The fibre being used to tie up a
sack of charcoal near Mbanza Nzundu
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, FAC
1952, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill
1995, Malaisse 1997, White & Abernethy
1997
197
Entada mannii
(Mimosaceae)
Description Usually found as a climbing shrub, up to 30 m long, but sometimes tree like in growth and
form. The plant seen was covering several trees. The compound leaves have 8 - 13 pairs of leaflets,
each with a mid-rib at about the centre. Leaf tips are rounded or have a notched tip, about 2 cm. long
and 1 cm broad. Each leaflet has 4 - 6 pairs of pinnae, the end pair sometimes in the form of tendrils.
Flower spikes arise near the tops of the shoots. Fruits may be up to 45 cm long and over 10 cm wide.
Seeds are 2 cm long by 1 cm wide.
Ecology Grows in closed forest along
streams and on rocky hills. Present from
Senegal to Angola.
Propagation E. mannii can probably be
planted in the same way as for E.
abyssinica.
Uses Species of Entada are known to be
important bee forage plants. I n Gabon
the inner bark is used to make a fibre for
carrying belts for baskets and as a
harness for climbing oil palms.
References I rvine
1961, Ambougou
1991, Burkill 1995, Hepburn & Radloff
1998
198
Eremospatha haullevilleana
(Arecaceae)
Common names Muka, mbamba, lubamba (Kongo), rattan
Description A rattan palm climbing to 25 m or more.
Stems are 1 cm in diameter with inter-nodes more or
less 15 cm. The leaves, which end in a long tendril,
are fiercely spiked at the end, and may reach 1 m
long. Fruit is oval in shape, 2.5 - 3 cm long, 1.1 - 1.5
cm wide.
Ecology Grows in riverine and swamp forest from
Gabon to Uganda.
Management Remove foliage and cut stems from the
stump immediately after harvesting. This will enable
the stump to start growing again. The plants can then
be harvested every 3 - 5 years.
Uses Stems are used for basket-work (see front cover
and page 66), canes, house-building, furniture and to
make belts for climbing oil palm trees. The leaves are
used for roofing. Other species are used to make
bridges, furniture and fencing. The bark is used for
tying hut frames and posts. The sap has abortive
properties.
Rattan from the stem
“ Lubamba wo lu monekesi n'tu kuna nseki,
zayo vo kuna mfiinda lu sala nkata”. = I f the
lubamba rears its head above the forest it is a
sign that the forest has been there for many
years.
(Kikongo proverb)
Left: a stool made from the split stems
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927,
Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, FTEA 1986, Burkill
1997, Sunderland et al. 1999
199
Eriosema psoraleoides
(Papilionaceae)
Common names Kiwandu ki
nseke, gwandu ya nseke,
mwandu mwandu (Kongo)
Description An erect herb or
shrub, 1 – 2 m high, growing
from a perennial woody
rootstock. The plant fixes
nitrogen,
improving
soil
fertility.
Ecology A common shrub in
wooded savanna, particularly
in
moist
areas.
Found
throughout tropical Africa and
in South Africa.
Uses The leaf has insecticidal
properties being rubbed on to
dogs to keep lice away. The
whole plant is used, together
with Dichrostachys cinerea to
trap cane rats. I n Bas-Congo
a decoction of the leaves is
used as an expectorant. The
pounded roots, leaf sap, juice
from the fruits are used in
various
ways
to
treat
abdominal pain, blood in the
urine, stomach pain, asthma,
conjunctivitis, haemorrhoids,
jaundice, syphilis and injuries
to the foot. The plant is only
eaten by stock at the end of
the dry season. I t is reported to be a
host plant for one of the Minsendi
species of edible caterpillar. The
yellow seeds are cooked and eaten in
South Africa. The tubers of some
species of Eriosema are eaten in
Katanga.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910,
Staner & Boutique 1937, I rvine 1961,
Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Wild
1972, Skerman 1977, Allen & Allen
1981, Burkill 1995, Kibungu Kembelo
1995, Malaisse 1997, Neuwinger 2000
200
Erythrina abyssinica
(Papilionaceae)
Synonym E. tomentosa
Common names Kikumbu, kikumbu ki nzambi (Kongo), arbre corail (Fr.), red-hot poker tree
Description A shrub or small deciduous tree with deeply grooved bark from 6 to 12 m high. The
scarlet flowers appear before the leaves during the dry season. Seeds are shiny red.
Ecology
The
tree
is
occasionally found in BasCongo and sometimes planted
in villages. I t grows best on
well-drained soils. Trees can
be planted near the home and
around
field
boundaries.
Normally found in warm
temperate and tropical areas
of Africa and particularly in
the Zambezian region.
Propagation
Grows easily
from cuttings. Plant 50 cm
cuttings at the start of the
rain season or just before
flowering. Larger cuttings, up
to 2 m long, may also be
used. Germination rate of
seed is variable, though
scarifying
the seed
and
soaking in water overnight,
may improve it.
Management Trees are slow-growing, but can be coppiced and pollarded for feeding livestock.
Uses Wood is light, soft and not very durable. I t is used for carved items (kitchen utensils and mortars)
and sometimes for firewood. The bark and leaves are used medicinally in Bas-Congo to treat skin
disorders,
diabetes,
madness,
nervous disorders, still births or
frequent abortions, rheumatism,
heart palpitations, eating without
feeling satisfied, asthma, anaemia
and gastritis. I n South Africa the
main use for a related species
containing
erythraline
and
erysovine, (which is present in E.
abyssinica), is to treat sores,
wounds and abscesses. Powdered,
burnt bark is applied to the area.
The leaves provide fodder for
sheep and goats, and also make
good mulching. The tree is nitrogen
fixing and therefore useful for soil
improvement. Bees forage for
nectar and pollen at the end of the
dry season. Cut branches are used
for making live fences. A brown dye
is extracted from the bark.
Remarks The tree tolerates fire and is fairly termite resistant.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Egli & Kalinganire 1988, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, Van Wyk
et al. 1997, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Meunier et al. 2010, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 12.2.2013)
201
Erythrococca atrovirens var. flaccida
(Euphorbiaceae)
Common names Nzekenzeke, nsusa (Kongo)
Description A weak shrub or
small tree growing from 4 to 6
m high. Bark is smooth and
light
grey.
Leaves have
petioles up to 1.5 cm long,
sometimes with small conical
orange-brown glands near the
top. Leaves are ovate or
elliptic-oblong 8 - 13 x 3 - 7
cm, pointed at the end,
mature leaves being hairless
below.
Ecology Found in secondary
forest in Bas-Congo and also
in Cameroon and Uganda.
Uses The leaves are collected
from the wild and used as a
vegetable in Bas-Congo. Other
species
are
used
as
vegetables
elsewhere
in
Africa.
Left: Nzekenzeke collected in
the botanic garden at Kisantu
References FTEA 1987, Peters et al. 1992, Pauwels 1993, Martin et al. 1998, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
Photo : Emmanuel Miaglia
Planting cassava after burning the forest fallow
Photo: Emmanuel Miaglia
202
Erythrophleum suaveolens
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Synonym E. guineense
Common names N’kasa (= ordeal tree)(Kongo), bois rouge, poison d’épreuve (Fr.), alui, talu (Fr.
trade), erun (Eng. Trade), ordeal tree, red water tree, sassy bark
Description A medium-sized tree up to 25 m tall, often branching low; bark finely fissured, scaly, grey.
Leaves alternate, bipinnately compound with 2 – 4 pairs of pinnae; petiole and rachis up to 35 cm long;
leaflets alternate, 7 – 14 per pinna, up to 9 cm × 5.5 cm. I nflorescence an axillary panicle consisting of
spike-like racemes up to 12 cm long, shortly yellowish and hairy. Flowers yellowish white to greenish
yellow; Fruit a flat, slightly curved, dehiscent pod 5–17 cm × 3–5 cm. Fruits remain half-opened on the
tree.
Ecology Present in old forests in Bas-Congo. Also found in moist semi-deciduous forests, gallery forest
and wooded grasslands. The tree is distributed from Senegal to Sudan and Kenya in the east and south
to Zimbabwe and Mozambique.
Propagation The tree can be grown from seed which takes 3 weeks to germinate. I noculation with
Bradyrhizobium is beneficial.
Uses The bark, traded as ‘sassy-bark’, ‘mancona bark’ or ‘casca bark’ is used as an emetic and
purgative. The crushed bark is applied to swellings caused by Filaria. I n D.R. Congo the dried powdered
bark is taken as a snuff to cure headaches. I n the Western world, bark extracts were used in the late
19th century to treat heart failure.
203
The tree produces quite hard, heavy and durable wood, marketed as ‘alui’, ‘tali’, ‘erun’, ‘missanda’ or
‘sasswood’, which is suitable for joinery, flooring, railway sleepers, harbour and dock work, turnery,
construction and bridges. I t is also used for boat building and wheel hubs. The bark has been used in
West Africa for tanning hides and skins; it is used in D.R. Congo to dye leather brown. The tree is
planted as an ornamental and avenue tree. Dried leaves are mixed with stored grains and pulses to
repel or kill storage insects. The tree has potential use in agroforestry. I t is nitrogen fixing and the large
amount of leaf litter benefit inter-planted crops. However, in experiments a negative effect of leaf mulch
on the yield of crops has been noted. When clearing bush to prepare fields, trees are often left standing
because the wood is hard to fell. The wood is not highly valued as firewood but charcoal made from it is
excellent.
References Gillet 1927, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993,
Burkill 1995, Okeyo 2006
Traditional collapsible seat
204
Eucalyptus spp.
(Myrtaceae)
Common name Eucalyptus
Description Large trees. The most common species in Bas-Congo are E. citriodora, E. deglupta, E.
robusta and E. saligna.
Ecology The tree will grow on a wide range of soils, including waterlogged places and on saline and
poor, gravel soils. E. saligna, E. deglupta and E. citriodora prefer a well drained soil and a well
distributed rainfall. E. robusta can withstand waterlogging. Altitude range 0 – 1,100 m.
Propagation Normally grown from seed planted in a nursery. E. deglupta can be grown from branch
cuttings less than 2 years old using a hormone rooting compound. Cuttings should have a stem node
and a segment of leaf.
Management The tree is fast-growing but weed growth must be kept down for the first two years.
After being cut down the trees coppice well.
Uses Eucalypts are a valuable source of firewood, charcoal, timber, posts, bee forage and make good
windbreaks. E. robusta and E. citriodora are reliable honey producers and the latter is an important
source of honey in the central highlands of Angola. E. saligna flowers every two years giving high honey
yields but other species may flower annually or every 2, 3 or 4 years. E. deglupta produces valuable
timber. An essential oil is obtained from the leaves of E. citriodora and the leaves are put in boiling
water to produce an inhalant to relieve colds. E. robusta is reported to have significant anti-malarial
properties.
Remarks Eucalypts should not be planted near crops as yields of the latter are likely to be reduced.
References Gillet 1927, Morton 1964, Crane et al 1984, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994,
Agroforestree Database (Accessed 6.2.2011)
205
Eulophia bouliaw ongo
(Orchidaceae)
Common names Malafu ma nsongi (Kongo).
Description A tall terrestrial orchid growing up to
3 m tall. Leaves are 50 – 200 cm long. 15 – 20
flowers are produced.
Ecology Grows in swampy areas in Angola,
Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of
Congo.
Uses An highly ornamental orchid. I n Malawi and
north western Zambia the tubers of some Eulophia
species are made into a paste after being cleaned,
peeled and mashed. This is then mixed with a
banana ash extract, made from dripping water
through the ash. Peanuts and other ingredients
are then added and cooked. I t is then made into a
pudding like cake. I n some areas the harvesting of
tubers has become unsustainable due to over
collection.
References FCA 1984, Malaisse 2010
206
Eulophia cucullata
(Orchidaceae)
Common names Konga di nseke,
kimfusa ki nseke, kanga miese
(Kongo), foxglove orchid, blunt spurred
ground orchid
Description A large terrestrial orchid,
up to 1.3 m tall, with a tuberous root
system, producing a flower-like spike
followed much later by a pair of stiffly
erect narrow leaves. The flower-spike
is 50 – 75 cm long with 5 – 10 flowers
which may be pink or purplish with
yellow or white markings in the throat.
The flowers are sweet scented.
Ecology Present in grassy savanna in
seasonally damp ground. The plant
prefers a deep rich soil. Common
across the West African region from
Senegal to west Cameroon and
generally widespread in the rest of
tropical Africa.
Propagation Difficult to grow.
Uses
I n Bas-Congo the crushed
pseudo-bulb is used to treat scabies
and other skin problems. I n Kenya
groundnut seed is coated in a paste of
the tubers to protect the seed from
insect damage.
References Gillet
& Pâque 1910,
Renier 1948, Williams 1949, Daeleman
& Pauwels 1983, Flora Zambesiaca
1988, Burkill 1997
Eulophia angolensis growing in swampy ground
Photo: Jean-Luc & Pauline Alliez
207
Euphorbia hirta
(Euphorbiaceae)
Synonym Chamaesyce hirta
Common names Kikula ntedi, kula ntedi, kula ntese (Kongo), malnommée (Fr.), asthma weed
Description An annual creeping herb up to 50 cm tall with opposite leaves on short stalks. The plant
has tiny, stiff, yellow hairs. When cut or broken the plant yields a white sap. Flowers are pink and very
small. The fruit contains 3 three-edged seeds 0.8 mm long.
Ecology A common weed, often present around villages, growing in fertile sandy soil in full sun.
Uses The whole plant is cut just above ground and boiled in water The liquid is drunk to treat amoebic
and bacillary dysentery and also asthma. I t is also used for interrupted milk supply, mastitis,
rheumatism, urinary tract infections, kidney infections, intestinal cramp and worms, diarrhoea,
(particularly for babies), haemorrhoids and for treating warts. The plant is widely used elsewhere in
Africa to treat diarrhoea. The tiny flowers are attractive to bees which collect nectar.
References
Daeleman
&
Pauwels 1983, Akobundu &
Agyakwa 1987, Burkill 1994,
Neuwinger 2000, Hirt & M'Pia
2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2003,
Pousset 2004
ADERUKI farmers group near
Kikola in their cassava field.
208
Euphorbia sp.
(Euphorbiaceae)
Common
names Kidisa,
kikula nzazi (Kongo), African
milk tree
Description
A
spiny
succulent
tree,
generally
without leaves and shaped
like a candelabra. Stems are
generally 3 - 4 winged and
contain caustic latex. I f leaves
are present they are highly
reduced. The flowers are
unisexual and usually regular.
Ecology Grows in dry, poor
soils.
Propagation Stem cuttings
root easily after allowing the
latex to dry and harden.
Uses Widely used as a hedge
plant in villages.
Remarks The name Kidisa is
also used for other stem
succulents of Euphorbia and
Cereus species.
References
Gillet
1927,
Daeleman & Pauwels 1983
Sleeping mats being taken to market
209
Euphorbia tirucalli
(Euphorbiaceae)
Common names Ngewu, ngego, nlembo nlembo (nlembo = finger)(Kongo), Euphorbe effilée, tirucalli
(Fr), finger tree, finger euphorbia, African milkbush
Photo: Dinesh Valke
Description A leafless succulent shrub with cylindrical shoots 2 - 8 m tall. All parts produce copious
white to yellowish latex. Dense clusters of flowers are produced at the ends of the branches. Fruit is a
nearly round capsule about 8 mm × 8.5 mm, containing 3-seeds.
Ecology Often planted on graves, in markets and around homes in Bas-Congo. Originally from eastern
tropical Africa, it has long since become naturalized in other parts of Africa, including South Africa and
the I ndian Ocean islands.
Propagation Usually grown from stem or root cuttings, it establishes quickly on almost any soil.
Cuttings should be at least 10 cm long and should be left to dry for at least 24 hours before planting.
For hedges use cuttings up to 1 m long. When grown as a fuel crop, cuttings can be planted very
densely.
Management Euphorbia tirucalli may be coppiced, trimmed and top-pruned to establish a hedge.
Uses The plant is widely naturalized and planted as a hedge throughout the tropics and subtropics. I n
Bas-Congo a few drops of the latex are used as a strong and sometimes dangerous purgative.
Coagulated and dried, a pinch is taken for the same purpose with palm wine. I n higher dose it is used
as an ordeal poison and often results in death. I t causes painful blistering and inflammation, and may
cause blindness if it comes into contact with the eyes. The latex is externally applied to warts, wounds
and for skin complaints. The latex is also used as a fly repellent in West Africa and a mosquito and
termite repellent in Tanzania. I n I ndia the latex is used as an insecticide. The latex is very irritating
to the skin and mucosa.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993,
Grace 2008
210
Ficus exasperata
(Moraceae)
Common names Kikuya, kikuyia (Kongo), forest sandpaper fig.
Description A tree up to 15 m tall.
Bark smooth, pale yellow-green,
often with ring marks. Older trees
may have buttresses. Leaves 2.5 – 12
cm long, rough and sandpaper-like
on both surfaces, the tip usually
pointed, and narrowing towards the
base. Young leaves and coppice
shoots bear 3 lobed leaves. Mature
leaves are not lobed. Leaf edges are
finely toothed and have 3 veins from
the base, the two laterals reaching
beyond the middle of the blade. Figs
are rounded 1 – 2.5 cm across, red
when ripe with a hairy surface.
Ecology A forest tree widespread
from Senegal to Mozambique.
Propagation Can be grown from
seedlings or wildlings. Extract the
seeds from fruit and dry before
sowing.
Management
The tree is fast
growing and can be pollarded or
coppiced.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the rough leaves are often used as a substitute for sandpaper for polishing wood or
metal. They were also used to rub areas of the skin
affected by ringworm. Young branches are used for
making pipe stems. Ficus exasperata is sometimes
planted as an avenue shade tree, and wild trees are
kept as a shade trees in banana, coffee or cocoa
plantations. Various parts of the tree are used
medicinally.
Remarks The name Kikuya is also used for F.
asperifolia, the leaves of which are also used as a
sandpaper substitute.
References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Paque 1910,
Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983,
Berg & Wiebes 1992, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al.
1995, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Burrows &
Burrows 2003, Niangadouma 2010
Photo: Kadavoor
211
Ficus lutea
(Moraceae)
Synonym F. vogelii
Common names Bubu (Kongo), common fig
Description An epiphytic shrub or evergreen spreading tree up to 20 m tall, which may have aerial
roots. The bark is grey brown. Leaves are 7 – 20 cm by 3 - 10 cm, on a stalk 1.5 – 13 cm long. They
are leathery, dark green with a few prominent lateral nerves. Stout shoots bear figs along their whole
length. The yellow or orange, round, figs are borne in leaf axils or just below the leaves, and are 1 – 1.3
cm across.
Ecology Present in gallery forests and planted in villages
in Bas-Congo.
Propagation Grows easily from cuttings.
Uses I n Bas Congo the tree is often planted as a shade
tree in markets, for ornament or as a live fence. The
plant has medicinal uses, fruit is edible and the wood is
used for making soap. Figs are sometimes eaten by
children. The latex is a source of Dahomey rubber, a
resinous rubber of poor quality. Nigerian samples yielded
47.7% resin and 49.2% rubber. Host plant of Bubu and
Ntedi edible caterpillars. The latter appear in February.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, I rvine
1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Uphof 1968, Keay
1989, Berg & Wiebes 1992, Pauwels 1993
212
Ficus sur
(Moraceae)
Synonyms F. capensis, F. mallotocarpa
Common names Kindomba, nkaka kikuyia, kaya (Kongo), Cape fig, broom cluster fig
Description A large deciduous
tree to 25 m high with a trunk
up to 150 cm diameter,
occasionally buttressed. Tree is
very variable in form, in leaf
size and hairiness. Leaves are
thin, leathery, 4 – 20 cm long
and 3 – 13 cm wide on a stalk 1
– 7 cm long. Fruits are borne in
large, branched, leafless trusses
with 10 – 100 fruits per truss.
Fruits are round to pear
shaped,
turning
red-brown
when ripe. Abundant latex is
produced from any damaged
part. I t can be grown with
agricultural crops as it does not
compete with them.
Ecology Present in riverine and secondary forests from Senegal to Ethiopia and to South Africa.
Propagation Slice the figs and dry in the sun. Remove seeds and sow immediately. Germination is fast
and seedlings grow quickly. Transplant into containers and plant out when 1 m tall. Cuttings and
truncheons can also be used for propagation. Avoid planting the tree close to buildings or where the
roots can get into drainage pipes.
Uses The fruits are edible. They are
said to be the most palatable of all the
African figs. They are eaten when they
turn pink and soft. Those forming on
the exposed roots are said to be the
sweetest. Figs can also be made into
jam. Wood is soft and white and used
for mortars. Often used as a shade
tree. The inner bark can be used to
make rope. I n Bas-Congo the latex is
painted below the eyes to simulate
tears. A decoction of leaves and bark is
used to treat anaemia. Bees are
reported to suck the fruits of some
species of Ficus.
References Gillet
& Pâque 1910,
Renier 1948, Nsimundele 1966 - 68,
Berg & Wiebes 1992, Pauwels 1993,
Katende et al. 1999, Burrows & Burrows 2003
213
Ficus thonningii
(Moraceae)
Synonyms F. hochstetteri, F. persicifolia
Common
name
Nsanda (Kongo)
Description
A tree,
shrub or hemi-epiphyte
(i.e. start as an epiphyte
and later become rooted
in the ground or vice
versa), up to 15 m high
with a dense crown.
Bark is smooth, pale
brown or grey. When
cut it exudes abundant
white latex, which often
turns pinkish.
Ecology I n Bas-Congo
the tree is often planted
for shade or as a hedge
in
villages.
It
is
widespread in tropical
Africa and South Africa. I t grows best on rich, deep loamy soils. I t is relatively drought resistant.
Propagation Stem cuttings, 20 cm long, take easily, sprouting after 7 - 9 days. Remove most of the
leaves, leaving only a few at the top. Larger cuttings, 2 m long, can also be planted for hedges, but
should be left in the shade for a few days before planting. Root cuttings can also be used.
Management Protect from browsing when young. The tree should not be planted near buildings as the
roots may damage the
foundations.
Uses Often planted as a
livestock
enclosure,
boundary marker and to
provide shade. I n BasCongo the foliage is fed
to goats. Livestock eat
the
dry
leaves
in
particular. A decoction of
the leaves is used to
treat mental disorders,
stomach-ache,
coughs
and abscesses. A wash is
made from the pounded
leaves
to
treat
haemorrhoids. The bark
is pounded, soaked in
water and used to treat
Livestock fence made from Ficus thonningii at Kinseki
rheumatism. The fruits
are edible and can be made into a good jam. Latex is used as glue. An inedible caterpillar species,
Nsanda, feeds on the leaves.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Cobbina & Reynolds 1988, Keay 1989,
Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, Venter & Venter 1996, Maundu 1999,
Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
214
Ficus umbellata
(Moraceae)
Common name Muteri (Kongo)
Description A tree up to 10 m
tall, branching low down, which
may be hemi-epiphytic (see F.
thonningii) or it may grow only
from the ground. Leaves are
borne on a petiole 3 – 9 cm long
and are broadly ovate to broadly
elliptic, 10 – 25 cm long and 6.5 –
20 cm wide. The yellowish-green
figs are produced on spurs up to
1 cm long on older wood. Similar
to F. bubu , but has a leaf that is
usually broadest below the middle
whereas F. bubu has a leaf
broadest at or above the middle.
Ecology
Present in savanna
woodland, gallery forest and rain
forest at low altitudes from N.W.
Angola to the C.A.R and west to
Senegal.
Propagation The tree is easily
planted using large cuttings.
Uses Planted in villages as a
shade tree, roadside avenue tree
and for hedges. Fruits are edible.
Latex is sometimes used as
rubber substitute. Bark is scented.
Bark decoction is widely taken for
stomach troubles.
References FAC 1948, Berg & Weiebes 1992, Burkill 1997, Figweb (Accessed 4.11.2013)
215
Flacourtia jangomas
(Flacourtiaceae)
Common names Confiture, prunier d'I nde (Fr,), I ndian plum
Description A shrub or small deciduous tree, up to 14 m high, spiny when young. Leaves are 5 - 11
cm long by 2 - 5 cm wide. The fruits are about 2 cm in diameter and turn red or blackish as they ripen.
Flacourtia jangomas growing in a garden in Kinshasa
Ecology Cultivated in tropical Africa, and Asia. The shrub can be grown up to an altitude of 600 m. I t
prefers sandy soil and a high water table. I t will also grow on red clay, sand and poor rocky soils.
Propagation Grown from seed.
Uses The fruit is eaten raw but has an
astringent taste. I t is more usually made into
jam and jelly. The bush makes a good hedge
or windbreak and the branches can be used
for firewood. The leaves and roots contain
tannin and are used to treat diarrhoea. The
wood is hard and can be used for making
small utensils.
References Gillet 1927, Verheij & Coronel
1991, Katende et al. 1995
216
Funtumia africana
(Apocynaceae)
Synonym F. latifolia
Common
names Kimbaki
rubber tree, silk rubber
(Kongo),
false
Description A fast-growing tree with a straight
trunk up to 30 m high. When cut the bark yields
large amounts of thin, white, sticky latex, which
does not form into a ball of rubber when
kneaded in the hand. The leaves are 12 – 28
cm long and the paired fruits 8.5 – 16 cm long.
Ecology Found in secondary forest. I t colonizes
abandoned farmland.
I t is widespread in
tropical Africa, from Senegal to Mozambique.
Propagation Can be grown from seed or wild
seedlings. Fruit is collected from the tree when
mature and left to split open in a dry place. I t
should be sown as soon as possible. No
treatment is necessary. Air layering may also be
used.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the poles are sometimes
used for house construction. The wood is
white, soft, even-textured and fine-grained. I t
is used for carving, stools, bowls, doors,
paddles etc. I t is said to be durable enough for
sawing into planks and house timbers but
subject to stain and attack by beetles. Cheap
furniture is made from it. The wood burns
well. The latex coagulates with difficulty and
produces a poor rubber. I t is sometimes used
as a glue. Floss from around the seeds is of good
quality and used for pillows. The leaves, stem bark
and latex are used medicinally to treat coughs,
burns, incontinence, haemorrhoids, diarrhoea,
chest pain, constipation and to aid conception.
Mvinsu or Nvinsu ( I mbrasia epimethea), Kaba
( Lobobunaea phaedusa) and Mbambi edible
caterpillars feed on the leaves.
References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910,
Top bar for a beehive
Gillet 1927, I rvine 1961, Daeleman & Pauwels
1983, Burkill 1985, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993,
Beentje 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu
Kembelo 1995, Coates Palgrave 1996, Neuwinger
2000, Meunier et al. 2010
217
Gaertnera paniculata
(Rubiaceae)
Common names Kimbodi, kimbodia (Kongo)
Description Usually a shrub or small tree but it can grow up to 18 m tall.
Ecology Grows in moist deciduous forest particularly forest edges and beside rivers. Found from
Guinea to Cameroon and across the Congo basin to Zambia.
Gaertnera paniculata in flower near Mbanza Nzundu in September
Propagation The seed germinates readily underneath mature trees.
Uses I n Bas-Congo, the tree is believed to improve fertility in the forest fallow. Stems are used in house
construction and for charcoal making. Bees collect nectar often in sufficient quantities for a honey flow
where the shrub is abundant. Timber is reddish and is good for turning. I n Nigeria it is used for pestles.
The plant is used medicinally, the leaves being eaten to cure fever and the leaf pulp is sometimes
applied externally for rheumatism. A decoction of the bark is taken to relieve cough and chest pains.
Young tender shoots and the roots are sometimes eaten. The leaves are eaten by goats. Saponin is
present in moderate quantity in the roots.
Remarks Three other related species present in Bas-Congo are also reported to be good nectar
sources for bees.
References Butaye 1909, De Wildeman 1934, Drachoussoff 1947, I rvine 1961, Walker & Sillans 1961,
Castagné 1983, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Latham 2003, Nsimundele 2004
218
Garcinia huillensis
(Clusiaceae)
Common name Kisima (Kongo)
Description An evergreen shrub
from 2 to 5 m high containing yellow
sap. The bark is greyish brown. The
leaves are dark glossy green,
leathery, with short, often reddish
stalks and are from 6 – 10 cm long
and 1.5 – 6 cm wide. The flowers are
small, yellow with several being
borne together. Fruit is fleshy and
about 2 cm in diameter.
Ecology Found in the savanna in
both
Congos,
Angola,
Zambia,
Zimbabwe, Malawi and Tanzania.
Garcinia huillensis growing in wooded
savanna near Mbanza Nzundu
Uses The sweet, edible fruit is eaten
raw. I t contains ascorbic acid. I n BasCongo the wood from the roots is
used for toothpicks. Bark from the
roots soaked in water is used to treat
intestinal worms. The bark made into
a powder is used to dress wounds.
Small pieces of root are sold as an
aphrodisiac in Bas-Congo and the
roots and bark are widely used to
treat painful joints, haemorrhoids,
painful and frequent periods, interruption in
milk flow, tuberculosis, male impotence,
constipation and throat infections. Elsewhere in
Africa an infusion of the bark is used as a lotion
to treat sores. The flowers are reported to be
visited by bees.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927,
Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Watt &
Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Wild 1972, Pauwels
1993, Kibungu Kembelo 2003
219
Garcinia kola
(Clusiaceae)
Common names Ngadiadi, ngadidi, ngadiadia (Kongo), bitter kola
Description An evergreen tree 35 - 40 m high. The flowers are finely hairy and large orange-like fruits
are produced.
Ecology I n Bas-Congo the tree is found in dense forests and beside water. I t occurs up to 1,200 m and
is cultivated in Nigeria.
Propagation Freshly harvested seed, soaked in cold
water and then incubated in a thick transparent polyethylene bag, proved most effective in improving the
germination. Alternatively 80% germination after 55
days was obtained by burying seed inside a plantain
banana stem for 3 weeks.
Uses The flesh surrounding the seeds, though very
sour, is eaten in Bas-Congo. The pounded seeds are
used to control intestinal worms and to ease stomach
ache. The bark and seeds are used to treat excessive
crying in babies, heart palpitations, epilepsy, diarrhoea
and as a tonic. The main use throughout West Africa is
as chew sticks for which young trees are felled and split into pencil sized pieces. They are reputed to
whiten the teeth. The roots are also used as chew sticks. A useful timber is produced. The wood is
yellowish, darkening to brown at the centre, hard and close grained.
"Ngadiadi ka yi diwuluaanga ku yaangi ko" = One
doesn't eat the fruit of Ngadiadi unless one is serious!
(because of its sourness). Ndia N'soki 1994
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Staner
& Boutique 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay
1989, Peters et al. 1992, I wu 1993, Pauwels 1993,
Burkill 1994, Sunderland et al. 1999, Nzegbule &
Mbakwe 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2003
220
Garcinia mangostana
(Clusiaceae)
Common names Mangoustanier (Fr.), mangosteen
Description A tree growing to 10 m high, with dense foliage and large leathery leaves 10 - 14 cm long
and 7 – 9 cm wide. Fruits are round, 5 – 7 cm in diameter, and turn purple on ripening.
Ecology Originally from Malaysia. I t grows on a wide variety of soils, but not on sands low in humus.
Water is important at all times and the tree can withstand some waterlogging. Shade is essential during
the first 2 - 4 years.
Propagation By seed,
cuttings
or
layering.
Seeds are only viable for
3 days once removed
from the fruit. They
remain viable for 3 - 5
weeks if kept in the fruit.
The heavier seeds give
the best results as early
growth is slow and the
seedling is therefore able
to depend on food
reserves within the seed
for longer. Plant seed in
well drained soil, keep
moist and provide some
shade. Cuttings can be
taken
from
ripened
branches.
They
root
easily in sand in a closed container. Fruit yield can be improved by grafting or budding.
Management Transplant seedlings once they have reached 60 cm. Planting holes 1.2 x 1.3 m are dug
and organic matter is added one month before planting out. Plants are spaced at 8 - 10 m apart and
must be shaded. I t is important that the last pair of leaves are not allowed to wither, as this will result
in a severe growth check or death. Maintain a good mulch around the plants at all times. Pruning should
be carried out when there are no flowers, fruit or new leaves and should be light and limited to
removing inside shoots and suckers. The tree is slow growing and starts to bear fruit after 10 to 15
years. Trees tend to bear every other year and especially after dry weather.
Uses
An increasingly
important fruit crop in
Bas-Congo, being mainly
grown for sale. Fruit
should be picked every 2
- 3 days, while light red
in colour and while the
skin is still soft. Ripening
occurs after 5 days when
the colour changes to
dark purple. Ripe fruit
has a shelf life of 7 days.
I t can be stored for up
to 14 days if kept in
damp sawdust. The thick
skin can be used to tan
leather and to dye fabric
black. The wood is dark red, coarse and strong and can be used for carpentry work. The fruit is used to
treat bilious fevers, dysentery and as a purgative. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees.
References Gillet 1927, FAO 1982, Pauwels 1993, Nakasone & Paull 1998
221
Gardenia ternifolia subsp. jovis-tonantis
(Rubiaceae)
Common names Lemba nzau, kilemba, kilemba nzau (Kongo), laurier d'Afrique, gardenia mâle (Fr.)
Description A variable species
of shrub or small tree to 5 m
high.
Flowers
white
and
fragrant. Tree is tough and
solidly rooted.
Ecology Found in grassland
and wooded savanna where it
grows on clay soils. Present
across tropical Africa.
Propagation The tree can be
grown from cuttings, which
should preferably be dipped in
rooting hormone first. Choose
branches up to 8 cm diameter
and plant in coarse sand. I t
may also be possible to grow
the plant from seed. Transplant
at the three-leaf stage.
Uses An important medicinal plant. The ground up bark,
soaked in water, is used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery,
and a decoction of the bark is used to treat headaches.
The leaves are also used to treat diarrhoea. A decoction,
made from the roots, is used for rheumatism. The plant is
also used to treat dental caries and as a tonic in BasCongo. Elsewhere an infusion of the roots is administered
after snake-bite. This causes the patient to vomit,
counteracting the effects of the poison. A decoction of the
fruits is taken for malaria and also acts as a purgative.
When branches are placed on house-roofs, or the tree
grows near houses, they are believed to prevent lightning
damage. Branches were traditionally used for making pipe
stems which were often decorated with carved figures.
The branches are used for fencing and to support
beehives. The wood is pale yellow to pale red, very hard,
fine-grained and compact, probably insect proof and used for carving, turning and tool-handles. The
twigs are used as chew-sticks. Ash
from the wood is used in making soap
and for dyeing. Suitable as an
ornamental tree, but slow growing. Dry
branches burn slowly with a bright
flame and can be used as candles.
Seeds yield a black dye. There are
numerous medicinal uses for this plant
in Africa. The ripe fruits are eaten in
Uganda.
References Butaye 1909, Gillet &
Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Renier 1948,
Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Kokwaro 1976,
Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill
1985, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Venter &
Venter 1996, Katende et al. 1999,
Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo
2003
222
Gilbertiodendron dew evrei
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Synonym Macrolobium dewevrei
Common names Lukaya kaya, mabedi (Kongo), limbali (commercial).
Description A tree 25 – 40 m tall
with
a
cylindrical
straight,
unbuttressed bole to 20 m, and 2
m in diameter, bearing a dense
crown. Leaves are up to 40 cm
long and 18 cm wide. Flowers are
in lax panicles composed of one
large red petal and 4 small petals.
Fruits are short velvety pods 15 –
30 cm long and 6 – 9 cm wide.
Photo: Bruce MacCallum
Ecology
Sometimes found in
nearly pure stands, on sandy soils
in riverine and swampy locations of
the evergreen rain forest of
southern Nigeria to D.R. Congo
and Angola.
Propagation Can be grown from
seed.
Uses The wood is light brown and
heavy. Used in construction work
and carpentry in D.R. Congo.
Leaves are sometimes used for
roofing. Seeds are roasted and
eaten with peanuts. They are also
eaten in times of famine. Bees are
known to visit the flowers in
Gabon. Gilbertiodendrum species
are important bee fodder trees in equatorial zone in Africa. Some people in D.R. Congo make flour from
the seeds of this tree. A species of edible caterpillar feed on the leaves.
Remarks I n parts of Central Africa
the tree forms almost pure stands,
which can cover hundreds of square
kilometres. I n years when most trees
produce fruits, up to 5 tons of
nutritious seeds fall to the ground in
each square kilometre attracting large
numbers of elephants, pigs, and
gorillas. Until recently these seeds
were also an important food source
for forest dwelling people.
Photo: Celine Termote
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De
Wildeman
1934,
Keay
1989,
Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993,
Burkill 1995, White & Abernethy 1997,
Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Konda ku Mbuta
et al 2012
223
Gladiolus dalenii
(I ridaceae)
Common names Katalanga (Kongo), African gladiolus
Description An erect robust
herb, 50 to 150 cm tall, with
sword-like leaves 40 to 120 cm
long, growing from a woody
corm, 3.5 cm in diameter. I t is
the largest of the West African
Gladiolus species with 3 – 9
showy white, yellow, orange
or red flowers, variously
spotted or heavily mottled
dark orange. Flowers are
produced throughout the rainy
season.
Ecology Present throughout
much of Africa. The plants
grow best in full sunlight in a
well drained, fertile soil.
Propagation Young corms
can be separated from the
parent plant and should be
planted out 12 cm deep,
spaced at 12 cm. Deep
planting helps the plants stay
upright. Plants can also be
grown from seed. Sow the
seed thinly so that the
seedlings can be grown on in
the pot without disturbance for
their first year. Pot up the
small bulbs when they are
dormant
in
the autumn,
placing about 2 - 3 bulbs in
each pot.
Uses Worth cultivating for its
showy flowers. The corm is
starchy and used as a
supplementary food with guinea corn flour in Nigeria. A decoction of the corm is used to treat dysentery
and diarrhoea. The corm is used as a soap substitute in Tanzania. The plant has numerous medicinal
uses. The flowers are eaten raw or cooked after removing the anthers. Children suck the flowers for
their nectar
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Burkill 1994, Philips & Rix 1997, Neuwinger 2000
224
Gloriosa superba
(Colchicaceae)
Common names Kibanda banda (Kongo), lis grimpant (Fr.), gloriosa lily
Glorios superba at Mingadi in July
Description A semi woody, herbaceous plant which dies back each year to a perennial underground
tuber; it is very variable in form, stems may be climbing and over 2 m in length or erect and up to 1 m
tall. Leaves are narrow and pointed with the midrib extending to a tendril. Flowers may be yellow,
flame-coloured or red or mixed,
occasionally almost white; the petals
are narrow and ribbon-like, 5 - 15
cm long.
Ecology A common creeper found
at the edges of forest in tropical
Africa and Asia. I t also grows in the
savanna in fertile soil.
Propagation Can be grown from
seed or small tubers.
Uses Widely cultivated as a garden
ornamental. The flowers attract
butterflies but not bees. I n Lisala
region (D.R. Congo) the plant is
used to treat inflamed swellings of
the lymph glands. The seeds, and to
a lesser extent, the tuber contain colchicine which is used to treat gout. The plant is used in the
preparation of salt.
References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Staner & Boutique 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983,
Burkill 1995, Pousset 2004
225
Glycine max
(Papilionaceae)
Common names Soja (Fr.), soya bean
Description
An erect
bushy annual, 20 - 180
cm
tall,
with hairy
stems, leaves and fruit
pods. The plant is deep
rooted, sometimes going
down 2 m, though most
roots are in the top 30 60 cm of soil. Most
cultivars
drop
their
leaves as the pods
mature.
Ecology
Frequently
grown
in
Manianga
district of Bas-Congo.
Prefers a hot damp
climate and low humidity
may result in shattering
of
pods.
The crop
recovers well after a
period of drought and,
because of its long
flowering
period,
produces new flowers
after a dry spell, even if earlier flowers were lost. Thrives on fertile sandy or clay loams and alluvial
soils. I f possible lime should be added to acid soils.
Propagation Seeds germinate after 3 - 5 days. Plant seeds in rows 30 cm apart spaced at 10 cm in the
row.
Management I noculation with the correct rhizobium ( Bradyrhizobium japonicum ) is important on land
where the crop has not been grown before. However locally selected varieties nodulate well with native
rhizobia present in the soil. Soya beans are one of the most efficient legumes for fixing nitrogen. The
crop can be grown with maize. The seeds can be stored for 2 to 3 years.
Uses An important source of oil and
protein. Soya beans contain about 20%
oil and 40% protein. Soya milk can be
made by boiling one measure of seeds
with 6 measures of water for 20
minutes. This is then ground to a
smooth paste, another 6 measures of
water are added and the mixture is
strained through a clean muslin cloth.
The milk is a valuable protein
supplement for feeding young children,
and is used in the treatment of
kwashiorkor. Alternatively the beans
can be left whole after boiling as above,
and eaten with tomato, groundnut,
onion or other beans.
Drying plants under the eaves of a house
References Purseglove 1968, Burkill
1995, Raemaekers 2001
226
Glyphaea brevis
(Tiliaceae)
Common names Nzadi nzadi, kombi kombi, litamba, mazeha, vinsu vinsu (Kongo)
Description
A
spreading
shrub,
climber or small tree
from 3 to 5 m high.
Easily recognised by its
spindle shaped grooved
fruit (see below) and
yellow flowers. The tree
is often in flower.
Ecology
Common in
the undergrowth
of
closed forest, secondary
forest and on river
banks. Also present in
Cameroon,
Central
African
Republic,
Ghana,
Nigeria,
Tanzania,
Guinea
Bissau,
Gabon
and
Uganda.
Propagation
Cuttings
strike easily.
Uses Stems are used
for hut building and,
because they are light
and pliable, for bows.
Also used for canes, snares, fish traps,
tool handles and walking sticks. Twigs
are used as chew-sticks. Fibrous bark
can be made into rope. The leaves,
flower buds, flowers and fruits are
edible. I n Bas-Congo the ash produced
from burning the fruits is used to cure
toothache. The seeds, leaves, roots and
fruit are used medicinally to treat
coughs, jaundice, heart palpitations,
chest problems, digestive disorders,
conjunctivitis, lice, throat problems,
inflammation of the eyes, toothache, to
ease childbirth and as an aphrodisiac in
various countries in Africa. Sometimes it
is planted as a hedge in villages or as an
ornamental shrub.
References
Gillet & Pâque 1910,
Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Keay 1989,
Pauwels 1993, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger
2000
227
Gmelina arborea
(Lamiaceae)
Common name Gmelina
Description A deciduous tree, which grows 18 - 21 m high, but is often smaller. Bark is smooth, light
brown. Leaves are 5 – 15 cm x 10 – 18 cm, have petioles 12 cm long, and are heart shaped, with
pointed tips. Flowers are orange-yellow with dark brown streaks, 2.5 cm long, in terminal panicles. The
black fruits are oval and 4 mm long.
Ecology Originally from I ndia, Pakistan and southeast Asia. The tree tolerates dry conditions, though
growth rate is reduced. I t requires a definite dry season as a resting period. Altitude range up to 1,200
m.
Propagation Can be grown from seed, sown direct, or cuttings can be used. Seed can be stored for up
to one year. Soak in water for 24 hours before sowing. Young trees must be well weeded until
established.
Management When grown as a plantation tree the
tree is fast growing with a cycle of 10 years, in good
conditions. The tree coppices well. Young trees
must be protected from livestock.
Uses A valuable general purpose timber tree which
has potential for reafforestation in deciduous dry
forest regions. Sap-wood is dark grey while heartwood is yellowish grey. I t seasons quickly but
resists preservative treatment. I t works easily but
blunts tools. Used for musical instruments, furniture
and also for heavy-duty building work, being
resistant to water. Suitable for production of
cardboard. Wood does not produce much heat
when burnt. The tree can be grown as an avenue
tree and its shade kills off I mperata cylindrica.
Leaves can be used as a cattle feed. The fruit is edible and can also be used to make a yellow dye. The
flowers are a good bee forage. Originally introduced to Bas-Congo for the production of matches.
References Gillet 1927, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Burkill 2000
228
Gnetum africanum
(Gnetaceae)
Common names Mfumbu, mfumbwa (Kongo), koko (Fr.), eru
Description A creeper which grows to 10 m or more.
Female plants, which can be distinguished by their red
fruit, tend to be more vigorous and stronger than male
plants. New leaves are formed throughout the year.
Leaf shape and colour tend to vary with the amount of
shade.
Right: Fruits of
Gnetum africanum
Ecology The plant is found at the edges of primary
forest and in secondary forest. I t does well on fertile
sites in areas with high rainfall. I t is also present from
Nigeria to the Central African Republic and in Angola.
Propagation I n Bas-Congo plants are sometimes
grown from wild seedlings. They do not grow easily
from seed. Plants can also be grown from cuttings
rooted in decomposed sawdust or fine river sand. The
leaves, however, should be reduced by half and must
be kept moist. Reduce evaporation by growing them
under shade. Select vines which have broad, thick, dark
green leaves. Rooting normally takes place in three
weeks. Plant out in tubes filled with 25% sand, some
compost and forest soil and allow adequate space
between plants once the side shoots start to develop.
Management The plant requires a certain amount of
shade and a strong support and is therefore best
grown at the forest edge to scramble up trees.
However it appears to have certain host plant
preferences. Only the leaves should be collected,
allowing the stems to sprout again. 3 to 4 harvests
can probably be taken each year, the first being taken
6 – 9 months after planting out. Most collection has
been done from the wild during the dry season and
because of over collection the plant has virtually
disappeared from many forests.
Uses Valued as a tasty vegetable, the leaves are
Mfumbwa as sold in the market
eaten finely shredded in a peanut butter sauce, added
to soup, made into condiments or even eaten raw.
They contain about 10% protein. They can be stored for up to a week, for example when being taken
to distant markets. On arrival they are soaked in water to freshen them.
Reference Schippers 2002, Schippers and Besong 2004
229
Gossypium barbadense
(Malvaceae)
Common names Gusu, wusu (Kongo), cotonnier (Fr.), Egyptian cotton, sea island cotton
Description A perennial under-shrub from 1 to 3 m high. Leaves are 3 - 5 lobed and about 10 cm in
diameter. Flowers are solitary arising from the axils. There are normally up to 3 open at any one time
and flowers last for one day only. There is one set of floral nectaries present and 4 sets of extra-floral
nectaries. Three of these are associated with the outside of the flower and one set on the lower veins of
the leaves.
Ecology Originally from South America. Often planted or self seeded in and around villages in BasCongo. I t will grow in light sands as well as on heavy alluvial soils. The plant recovers well after a dry
spell.
Propagation Grown from seed.
Uses Traditionally in Bas-Congo mothers used hand spun and woven cloth to carry their babies. Cotton
is grown internationally for the fibre, for spinning and weaving, and G. barbadense produces the longest
of any species (up to 5 cm). I t is strong and of excellent quality. An infusion is made from the leaves
and taken for colds, bronchitis, rheumatism and haemorrhoids. The seeds are used together with
several other plants to treat prolonged periods. The roots are also used with other plants to treat
vomiting. I n D.R. Congo the young shoots, after being pulped, are taken for palpitations and as a
dressing for wounds. Cotton flowers are reported to be visited by bees in Bas-Congo and known to be
an important nectar source in Senegal, Russia and USA. Honey bees are important for pollination, even
though they are sometimes reluctant to visit the flowers, and increased yields of cotton are known to
result from honey bee pollination. However pesticides kill more bees on this crop than on any other.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1968, Crane et al. 1984, Villières 1987,
Mukoko Matondo 1991, Free 1993, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, Kibungu Kembelo 2003
230
Grevillea robusta
(Proteaceae)
Common name Chêne argenté (Fr.)
Description A fast growing tree on good
sites reaching 20 m in 15 - 20 years.
Ecology Originally from coastal Australia.
Now grown throughout the subtropics. I t
will stand 6 - 8 dry months. Grows in
sandy soils, loams of medium fertility and
acid soils and tends to be deep rooting. I t
does not tolerate water logging. Cluster
roots enable the tree to extract
phosphorus from soil very low in available
phosphorus.
Propagation Large quantities of seed are
produced but it is difficult to collect as
there are only 2 - 3 days between seed
maturity and dispersal by wind. Wild
seedlings can be transplanted. Seed is
viable for up to 3 months but can be kept
for 2 years stored in a refrigerator. Only
mature seed should be used and it should
be put out in sunlight for a few hours
before planting. Germination rate is up to
65% . Natural seeding is fairly common in
cultivated land. Transplant seedlings when
60 cm tall.
Management Moderate to fast growing. When grown with food crops, branches are pruned and
pollarded and lateral roots may also be pruned to reduce competition with crops. Trees should be
protected from fire.
Uses A valuable timber
tree used for furniture
making and also good
for
firewood
and
charcoal.
Leaf
litter
makes good mulch. The
tree can be planted
around fields without
affecting crop yields.
The
flowers are
a
valuable
pollen
and
nectar source for honey
bees.
The
nectar
secretion is abundant
with
high
sugar
concentration and the
pollen yield is heavy.
Bees forage all day and,
when
flowering
is
profuse, a surplus of
honey is produced.
Photo: Tom Johnson
Remarks The tree is being grown in some areas in Manianga district and could be planted more widely
in the province.
References Leloup 1956, NAS 1980, Crane et al. 1984, Egli & Kalinganire 1988, Fichtl & Adi 1994,
Mbuya et al 1994
231
Hallea stipulosa
(Rubiaceae)
Mitragyna
Synonyms
Fleroya stipulosa
stipulosa,
Common
names Longwa, nlongu
(Kongo), tilleul d’Afrique (Fr.), African
linden
Description A tree to 30 m with a
rounded crown. Leaves are 20 to 30
cm long and 15 – 20 cm wide. Flowers
are small and white.
Ecology The tree grows in swamp and
savanna forest at low to medium
elevations from Gambia to Angola and
east to Uganda. I t requires subsoil
moisture throughout the year.
Propagation The tree can be grown from large cuttings,
air layering or using wild seedlings. Some report that seeds
germinate easily after 5 - 8 days while others say
germination is irregular and poor. Seed should in any case
be planted in a nursery using swamp soil.
Uses The tree is a useful species for the afforestation of
swamps. The wood is soft and fine-grained. Though
subject to borer attack and decay it is used for drums,
barrels, canoes, mortars and pestles etc. I t is also suitable
for making paper. I n Bas-Congo all parts, but especially
the bark, are used as a medicine to reduce fever. A
decoction of the bark is used to treat diabetes,
rheumatism, river blindness and abscesses. A wash, made
from pounded bark, is used for haemorrhoids. The bark is
used to enhance palm wine. I n Bas-Congo bees visit the
flowers during March and April. The mushroom Lulongu
grows on the wood.
References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927,
Leloup 1956, I rvine 1961, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Daeleman &
Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993,
Burkill 1997, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 2010,
Meunier et al. 2010
Left: Fruiting head
232
Harungana madagascariensis
(Hypericaceae)
Common name Ntunu (Kongo)
Description A fast growing tree or shrub from 2 to 12 m high. The under-sides of the leaves are pale
brown.
Ecology I n Bas-Congo the tree is commonly found in forest regrowth, damp sites and riverine forest.
Common even on very poor soils and widespread in tropical Africa.
Photo: Rainer Wendt
Propagation Seed grows well if fresh. Collect the fruit from the tree and remove the pulp. The seeds
should be planted as soon as possible. The tree can also be established from vertical root cuttings, 7 to
10 cm long. Plant with 2 – 3 cm of the root above the soil level. Any stress from lack of water results in
death of the cuttings.
Management The tree coppices or grows back well after being cut down.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the stems are used for house building, once the bark has been removed, and for
charcoal production. They make good firewood. Wood is light, orange-yellow, works well and is durable
in contact with the soil. The yellow gum obtained from the bark was traditionally used for repairing
calabashes (gourd containers) and sealing various items. I n Madagascar and East Africa it is used as a
dye. The bark and leaves are used as a fumigant and to treat liver diseases. The tree has been
recommended for browse establishment in S.E. Nigeria and is reported to improve fertility in acid soils.
I t is a vigorous colonizer being the first to occupy savanna areas after fire. Fruits are edible though
laxative and are eaten in Uganda and Nigeria. The leaves are eaten by Biswangi and Bidiaka edible
caterpillars. The tree is an important source of nectar in February in Bas-Congo and also known as a
honey source in Congo (Brazzaville)
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, I rvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Nsimundele
1966 – 68, Williamson 1975, Kokwaro 1976, Castagné 1983, Crane et al. 1984, Cobbina & Reynolds
1988, Kang & Reynolds 1989, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu
Kembelo 1995, Meunier et al. 2010
233
Heinsia crinita
(Rubiaceae)
Common names Kinkete, kibwa (Kongo)
Description A scrambling shrub with attractive white star-shaped, fragrant flowers.
Ecology Grows in secondary forest from Guinea to Angola. Also found in East Africa and South Africa.
Propagation Can be grown from seed.
Uses The fruits are eaten in Bas-Congo. A
decoction of the roots is used to treat
inflammation of the gums and mouth. The roots,
shoots and leaves are used to treat a wide
variety of illnesses including mental disorders,
epilepsy, stomach pain, sores in the uterus,
swollen and painful breasts, heart palpitations,
male impotence, hernias, coughs, anaemia, ear
infections,
rheumatism,
pneumonia
and
tuberculosis. The seeds are eaten for back pain
and the leaves are used by children as toilet
paper - the Kikongo name kinkete means
"cleanliness". Elsewhere in Africa the fresh
leaves are burnt and the smoke inhaled or a
decoction of the roots is drunk for fever particularly when accompanied by convulsions. Wood is hard
and flexible but available only in small diameter so is mainly used for tool handles and traps etc. The
bark is used as a cosmetic by women in Sierra Leone. Leaves are eaten in a soup in Liberia and Nigeria
though, as they have a high oxalic acid content, the water should be discarded once or twice during
preparation.
References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Nsimundele 1966
– 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Peters et al. 1992, Pauwels 1993, Coates Palgrave 1996, Burkill 1997,
Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004
234
Heisteria parvifolia
(Olacaceae)
Common name Lubanse (Kongo)
Description A shrub or
small tree 10 – 20 m tall,
tending to branch low
down into a dense bush.
Leaves are 6 – 25 long
and 2.5 – 12 cm wide,
elliptic or elliptic oblong,
wedge shaped or rounded
at the base with a pointed
tip.
The
terminal
branchlets
are
rarely
without a few pink new
leaves and there are
generally a few older
yellow leaves about to fall.
Both
photos:
David
Harris/ Royal
Botanic
Garden Edinburgh
The tiny greenish-white
flowers have a persistent
green
calyx
which
enlarges and becomes
deep scarlet enclosing the
developing fruit. I t opens to reveal the pearly white fruit about 1 cm long with a thin, edible, sugary
flesh. Fruit is an ovoid drupe 1 cm long resembling a large pearl which is enclosed in a red or pink
coloured calyx 3 – 4 cm in diameter. The thin flesh surrounding the seed has a jelly-like consistency and
can be easily separated from the seed. The plant casts a heavy shade and tends to kill everything below
it.
Ecology Present in the understorey of
evergreen and deciduous forest and in
swampy
sites under
high
bush.
Frequently found on sandy soils.
Common from Sierra Leone and Mali to
west Cameroon and Bioko and into the
Congo basin and Angola.
Propagation Can be grown from seed.
Germination is good (50 – 60% ) and
takes place after 2 – 4 weeks.
Uses The seeds are eaten roasted,
boiled or fresh in Bas-Congo. The taste
is similar to hazelnut. The plant makes a
handsome shrub with its dark green
glossy foliage. The wood is rosy-grey,
hard, heavy and fine grained. I t is used
in carpentry, hut construction and tool handles. The stems and wood are flexible so also have use in
traps, bows, fish spears and fishing rods. Twigs are used for chew-sticks. The tree is also used
medicinally.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1912, Renier 1948, Busson 1965, Vivien & Faure 1989,
Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, White & Abernethy 1997, Nsimundele 2004
235
Helianthus annuus
(Asteraceae)
Common names Tournesol (Fr.), sunflower
Description An annual plant with large flowers. The common sunflower can grow 150 - 240 cm tall
with flower heads up to 35 cm across. Dwarf varieties grow to 120 cm high. Sunflowers are deep
rooted.
Ecology An extremely adaptable plant. I t thrives in the tropics at medium and high elevations and
grows on soils of moderate fertility. Dwarf varieties are hardier than the taller types and give reasonable
yields under less than 25 cm rain per annum, but rainfall should be evenly distributed during the
growing season. A dry period is necessary during the later stages of ripening.
Sunflower growing beside a house in Kinsadi village
Propagation and management Seed is planted 2 - 3 cm deep. Birds can cause considerable damage
to the maturing crop. To avoid loss of seed the flower heads can be cut before the seeds are quite ripe
and exposed face up to dry.
Uses The large seeds can be roasted, salted
and eaten. They are also used as poultry food.
The crop is grown mainly to produce seed for
edible oil extraction. Oil content may be 40 52% of shelled seed. Poor grades are used for
making soap. The petals yield a yellow dye.
Sunflowers are an important bee plant and
worth planting for this reason. Dried green
stems and leaves make a good bee smoker fuel.
References Godin & Spensley 1971, Acland
1977, Crane et al 1984
A bee collecting nectar
236
Helichrysum mechow ianum
(Asteraceae)
Common name Ludimi lu mbwa (Kongo)
Description A perennial herb, with long hairy leaves, growing up to 20 cm high. Flowers are borne in
terminal panicles.
Ecology Grows in the savanna and in mountain grassland areas which are sometimes burned. I t is also
present in Togo, Cameroon and across Africa to Tanzania, Zimbabwe and Angola.
Propagation Use seed or rhizomes.
Uses I n Bas-Congo, the leaves and roots
are used to treat loss of nails, still births and
miscarriages, rheumatism, skin infections
and anaemia. The leaves are also used to
treat colic. The powdered dry leaves are put
on wounds and, elsewhere in the Congo,
the pulped leaves are rubbed on to relieve
joint pains and for lumbago. The leaf sap is
drunk in palm wine for anaemia, liver
malfunction and stomach upsets. Leaves are
boiled in water and the liquid is drunk for
headaches. The plant is added to poultry
drinking water to treat chicken cholera.
References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983,
Burkill 1985, Van Wyk et al. 1997,
Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003
Photo: Frank Cuypers
237
Heliotropium indicum
(Boraginaceae)
Common names Herbe papillon (Fr.), I ndian heliotrope
Description An erect annual or perennial herb up to 1.5 m tall, woody at the base and usually much
branched. Leaves are 1 – 7 cm long and 1.5 – 10 cm wide. Flowers are produced progressively on an
arching stem 2.5 – 45 cm long. Fruits are 2 – 3 mm long, which split into 4 nutlets.
Ecology Probably native to tropical America. Widespead throughout Africa where it is found in open
sites on waste land and as a weed in cultivated land.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the plant is used to reduce fever and the sap is applied as an eye lotion. A leaf
infusion is used elsewhere in D.R. Congo to treat fever. The plant has been widely used on warts and to
treat inflammations and tumours. I t is used to treat rheumatism, as a diuretic and for many skin
problems throughout Africa.
References Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Burkill 1985, Gurib-Fakim 2006
238
Hibiscus acetosella
(Malvaceae)
Common names Nsa, nsa mbwaki, nsa
magonki (Kongo), ngai ngai (Lingala),
fausse oseille de Guinée (Fr.), false roselle
Description
An annual or short-lived
perennial up to 2 m high. Two varieties are
present. One has small red leaves and dark
pink flowers, the other has green leaves and
yellow flowers. Leaves vary in shape.
Sometimes the lower leaves are three- or
five-fingered and the middle ones threefingered.
Ecology Origin is probably Angola and
southern Congo. Grows on waste ground, forest
clearings and abandoned fields. The plant tolerates
shade, cloud cover and frequent rain better than kenaf
and roselle.
Propagation Grown from seed.
Management The green variety is widely grown in
raised beds (see below). The plants soon cover the
ground making weeding unnecessary. Both varieties can
be grown as a hedge plant, because of their branching
habit, and can thus produce quite large amounts of
leaves in a limited space.
The purple form of Hibiscus acetosella
Uses Leaves of the purple variety are
sometimes used as a vegetable in BasCongo but more often as a medicine to
treat anaemia and fever. The red juice
from the leaves resembles blood and is
probably rich in iron. Leaves are also
used to treat colds and inflammation of
the respiratory tract. Leaves of the green
variety can be eaten raw or cooked, have
a pleasant sour taste and are somewhat
mucilaginous, like roselle. The fresh
leaves have a protein content of 3.4%
and are often eaten with fish. I n most
places roselle has taken over from false
roselle because of the latter’s sourness.
Fibre can be obtained from the stem.
Bees are reported to visit the flowers.
The purple variety is sometimes grown as
an ornamental.
Remarks Both H. acetosella and H.
sabdariffa are resistant to root knot
nematodes.
References
Gillet & Pâque 1910,
Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mbemba &
Remacle 1992, Siemonsma & Kasem
Piluek 1993, Martin et al. 1998, Schippers
2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
239
Hibiscus cannabinus
(Malvaceae)
Common names Oseille indigène (Fr.), kenaf, Guinea hemp
Description An erect, sparsely branched annual herb. Some forms grow to 3 m tall and are practically
unbranched. The stem contains long fibres. The leaves are alternate, have long petioles and are usually
simple, but can occasionally have 3 lobes. The calyx is covered with bristly spines. Flowers are yellow
with purple centres.
Ecology
Commonly
found
growing wild throughout tropical
and
subtropical
Africa.
It
frequently appears growing in
cultivated land. Full sunlight is
required for good growth. The
plants withstand drought quite
well. Soils should be well drained
and sandy. Satisfactory leaf and
fibre production depend on good
fertility.
Propagation Grown from seed
which may be planted 3 - 5 per
hole, then thinned to a spacing
of 40 cm. The dried seed can be
stored for up to 6 months.
Management
Kenaf
grows
much faster than roselle but is
more susceptible to nematode
attack. The shoots or individual
leaves are picked with or
without the stalk. The first crop
of leaves can be taken 3 – 4
weeks after planting and a total
of 4 – 5 harvests can be made
at 2 – 3 week intervals.
Uses Chopped leaves are eaten
with the seed kernels of various
pumpkin type vegetables in BasCongo. The shoots, flowers and
young fruits are also sometimes
eaten as a vegetable. Roselle ( H.
sabdariffa) and kenaf are closely
related and both are grown for
their leaves and occasionally for
their fibre. Children chew the
bark for its sweetness. Cattle eat
the young plants. The stems are
a source of fibre used for
making twine, rope and sacks.
The stems can be used for firewood. The leaves, flower extract, seed pulp and roots are used
medicinally to treat syphilitic sores, conjunctivitis, coughs, jaundice, stomach problems, eczema, female
sterility, gonorrhoea, constipation, malaria, snake bite, tetanus and wounds.
Remarks The plants are visited by honey bees. I n D.R. Congo six different species of Hibiscus are
collected for use as vegetables from the wild.
References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Neuwinger 2000, Raemaekers
2001, Schippers 2002, Bukenye – Ziraba 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
240
Hibiscus sabdariffa
(Malvaceae)
Common names Kombi kombi, makombo, nguka nzizi, nzanzeka, nsa lukaya (Kongo), ngai ngai
(Lingala), oseille de Guinée (Fr.), roselle
Plant growing beside a road in Manianga district
Description A woody, much branched annual up to 4 m high. Both red- and green-leaved varieties are
grown.
Ecology Occasionally grown around homesteads. I t is particularly common in the savanna region of
West and Central Africa. The plants can sometimes be found growing wild but do not grow well in acid,
or poorly aerated soils, preferring sandy loams. I t is deep rooted and drought tolerant.
Propagation Grown from seed. Germination takes 7 days and then 3 to 4 weeks to the first leaf
harvest.
Uses The leaves are eaten
as a vegetable. Both leaves
and flowers are eaten cooked
with fish or meat. They can
also be dried for later use.
The dried red calyces are
commonly
used
as
a
refreshing tea, called bissap,
drunk
hot
or,
more
commonly, cold after adding
some sugar. Fibre from the
stems is a good substitute for
jute. I n Bas-Congo the fruits
are soaked in water and
drunk to counter the effects
of loss of blood.
Reference Gillet 1927, Schippers 2002, Nsimundele 2004, Pauwels – personal communication
241
Holarrhena floribunda
(Apocynaceae)
Common names Kinzenze (Kongo), holarrhene
(Fr), false rubber tree
Description A tree or shrub from 2 to 25 m high
with a girth of up to 1 m. The bark is grey,
smooth, with a pale brown slash and produces
copious latex. Leaves are ovate, 10.5 – 14 cm
long and 3.5 – 5 cm wide, hairless below, with 8 12 pairs of prominent lateral veins. The abundant
flowers are white scented. Fruits are slender up
to 60 cm long, containing flattened seeds with
many brown silky hairs in a tuft at the apex.
Ecology Present in secondary forest in BasCongo and from Senegal to Sudan and south to
Angola.
Right: I mbrasia epimethea caterpillars on a tree trunk
Propagation. Can be grown from seed. Small diameter cuttings also grow well.
Uses The timber is used for house construction, carpentry and charcoal in Bas-Congo. The latex is used
as glue. Wood is soft and white and used
for making drums, spoons, stirers, packing
cases etc. I t is not attacked by insects but
is affected by damp. A decoction of the
bark from the trunk is used to treat
amoebic dysentery and trichomonas. The
plant is a source of steroidal hormones.
Mvinsu ( I mbrasia epimethea) and Mbambi
edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Seed
and floss are used to stuff pillows in Gabon.
References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque
1910, Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels
1983, Burkill 1985, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu
Kembelo 1995, White & Abernethy 1997,
Latham 2003, Pousset 2004
242
Hua gabonii
(Huaceae)
Common names Mvenzi, kiwaya (Kongo), garlic plant.
Photo: Celine Termote
Description A shrub growing to 8 m tall with grey bark. Leaves are alternate, elliptic and spirally
arranged, 14 cm long and 6 cm wide, on a short stalk. The flowers have dark red to violet petals with
short yellow anthers. Fruits are reddish and ovoid, 3 cm in diameter, opening with 5 valves. The plant is
not common in Bas-Congo.
Ecology Found in damp forest sites in western Central Africa, in Gabon and D.R. Congo.
Uses The leaves are used as a substitute for garlic by some people in Bas-Congo, though not by all.
Elsewhere in D.R. Congo, the bark, leaves and fruits are used to season food. A bark decoction is drunk
to treat flatulence and gastro-intestinal pain. A decoction of the twigs is used as a wash to treat fever in
children.
References Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Pauwels 1993, Mabberley 1997, Neuwinger 2000,
Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Termote 2012
243
Hugonia platysepala
(Linaceae)
Common names Kidioko dioko, kisilu (Kongo)
Description A shrub or creeper growing up to 20 m high and armed with hooks. Young stems are
sparsely covered with short light-brown hairs. Leaf blade is 5.5 – 23 cm long and 3.5 – 8 cm broad,
slightly toothed along the margins. I nflorescence is composed of two or more flowers. The yellow or
white petals are 1.5 – 2 cm long, shortly clawed, with short or long silky hairs on both surfaces. Fruit is
orange and round, 1 – 2 cm. in diameter, containing a single seed.
Ecology Present in river and
gallery forests. Also present
from Guinea to Tanzania and
in Sudan, Uganda and Angola.
Right: Hugonia sp. with fruit,
showing the characteristic
hook used for climbing up
trees.
Uses The wood is used in
construction. I t is resistant to
humidity
but
not
insect
attack. Fruits are reported to
be laxative. The sap is used in
Bas-Congo
to
treat
eye
problems. Large stems are
used to make drums. The
fruits are used in catapults to
knock birds down.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Renier 1948, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Burkill 1995, Pauwels 1993
244
Hura crepitans
(Euphorbiaceae)
Common names Sablier, bombardier (Fr.), sand box tree, monkey's dinner bell
Description A tree to 12 m high with a spiny trunk and
branches. Leaves are heart shaped. Male flowers are deep red
and borne in terminal spikes. Female flowers are solitary. Fruits
are depressed in the centre, becoming woody and exploding
with a loud report, hence its West I ndian name 'monkey's
dinner bell'.
Ecology I n Bas-Congo it is frequently planted in villages for
shade. Native of tropical America but now widely distributed in
the tropics.
Uses A widely spreading shade tree. The semi-drying oil from
the seeds is used as a strong purgative. The caustic latex
contains very poisonous substances, hurin and crepitin, which
are reported to cause blindness. The wood is yellowish with a
silky lustre, light in weight but of good strength. The
Male flower cone
indehiscent fruits were traditionally
boiled in oil and, after removing the
seeds,
were
used
to
make
hourglasses (hence the name sablier
in French).
Left: Tree with fruit near Sona Bata
References Gillet 1927, I rvine 1961,
Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994
245
Hymenocardia acida
(Phyllanthaceae)
Common names Kigete, mugete, mvete, ngete, mpete, pete pete, luhete (Kongo)
Description A shrub or small tree from 3 to 6 m
high with twisted branches. Bark is light grey,
smooth or flaking to reveal patches of bright brown
under-bark, which may be corky. Young branches are
orange to rust-coloured. The red male catkins and
the immature winged fruits are distinctive.
Ecology A common savanna shrub. Found from
Senegal to Angola and from Ethiopia to Mozambique.
Male flower
Uses The close-grained wood is pale brown to pink,
becoming orange. I t is hard, dense and durable, and
resistant to termites. Traditionally the stems were
used for making poultry houses and the charcoal is
especially valued by blacksmiths. The leaves are
edible and eaten as a vegetable. The tree is widely
used for medicine in Bas-Congo, particularly for the
treatment of diarrhoea, for which the bark is used. Powdered bark from the stem is applied to wounds.
Bark is also used as an antidote for
poisoning. Young fruits and shoots are acid
in taste and occasionally eaten to relieve
coughing, especially by children. A
decoction of the young leaves or bark is
used to treat colds and muscular pain. An
infusion of the leaves, together with those
of H. ulmoides, a Dissotis sp. and the juice
of Costus lucanusianus is used to treat
coughing accompanied by fever. The bark
and roots are boiled and the liquid drunk
to relieve stomach-ache and constipation.
A decoction of the roots is reported to be
used for treating anaemia. The sap from
the bark is put in the eyes to treat
epilepsy. Bees forage for nectar and
pollen. I n Bas-Congo Kaba ( Lobobunaea
phaedusa) edible caterpillars feed on the
leaves. The bark is used for tanning
leather.
References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Renier 1948, Busson
1965, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Delaude & Breyne 1971, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983,
Villieres 1987, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Martin & Ruberté 1998, Burkill 2000,
Penge 2004
246
Hymenocardia ulmoides
(Phyllanthaceae)
Common name Munsanga (Kongo)
Description A bush
or tree from 10 – 15
m tall, with smooth
grey bark. Leaves are
oval in shape 1.5 6.5 x 1 - 3 cm. The
tree bears separate
male
and
female
flowers. Fruits have a
pink or pale yellow
wing
surrounding
them and are 2 cm in
diameter.
Ecology Common in
forest regrowth, on
poor sandy soils up
to 1,500 m and
found
from
Cameroon to Angola
and from Sudan to
Natal in South Africa.
Management The tree grows
back well after being cut down.
Uses The red shoots and leaves
are edible and taste like sorrel.
They are also frequently used
as a stock fodder for sheep and
goats. The wood is strong,
straight and flexible and very
resistant to insect attack. Poles
are used for house construction
and fencing posts and smaller
stems for fish traps and
brooms. The wood is also
suitable for making charcoal. I n
Bas-Congo, a decoction of
young leaves is used as a
stimulant and to treat stomachShoots cut for goat forage
ache, cramp and coughs and a
decoction of the roots is used
for anaemia. The bark from the roots is also used to treat anaemia. A decoction of the bark, which is
astringent, is taken for headaches and coughs and is used to treat diarrhoea and sore throats.
Left: Antheua insignata (Nsanga)
edible caterpillars feeding on the leaves.
The leaves, roots and bark are used elsewhere in
Africa to treat coughs, asthma, haemorrhoids,
genito-urinary infections, bronchitis, epilepsy, fever,
intestinal worms, throat problems, oral diseases,
feverish stiffness of the limbs, rheumatism, abscesses, and threatened abortion.
References Butaye 1909, Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Staner & Boutique 1937, Nsimundele 1966 –
68, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, FAC 1987, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993,
Kibungu Kembelo 2010
247
Hyphaene guineensis
(Arecaceae)
Common names N’teva (Kongo)
Description A single stemmed, unbranched palm growing 6 to 20 m tall alone or in open groups. The
stem is covered with a lattice of old leaf basis. Leaves are up to 180 cm long and 200 cm wide.
Photo: Anny Mandungu
Ecology Coastal tall grass savanna. Present between Boma and Moanda. The palm can survive bush
fires.
Propagation Seeds germinate after about 75 days.
Uses Leaf segments are used to make coarse bags for peanuts and oil palm nuts in Congo and Angola.
Fruits are edible with a pineapple like flavour and a fruity fragrance, some say like gingerbread. They
are produced in March – April and are eaten fresh. The thick woody endocarp was used as palm ivory.
Terminal buds are boiled in water and the liquid drunk to hasten childbirth in Congo.
References Neuwinger 2000, Valkenburg & Dransfield 2004, Pauwels – personal communication
248
Hypoxis angustifolia
(Hypoxidaceae)
Common names Dioko di ngumbi (Kongo), slender star lily, African potato
Description The plant grows in clumps from a perennial corm. The black corm is covered with brown
fibres and has yellow flesh. Leaves are up to 30 cm long, less than 5 mm wide, grass-like and ridged,
arising in a rosette from the
base of the plant, with star
shaped hairs on both sides.
Flowers are bright yellow, star
shaped, in pairs, on a short
and hairy leafless stalk, which
has a deep red vein. Fruit is a
3
part
brown
capsule
containing many rough black
spherical seeds, sometimes
close to the ground and almost
buried. Flowers are pollinated
by
solitary
bees
and
honeybees.
Ecology Grows in seasonally
waterlogged grassland areas in
low lying open grassland on
black cotton or sandy soils.
Also found on rocky sites.
Widespread in the savanna
and mountain grasslands of
tropical
Africa
and
in
Cameroon,
Madagascar,
Mozambique,
Zambia
and
Zimbabwe.
Photo: Marco Schmidt
Propagation
By
division.
Spreads to form a clump.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the tuber
is pounded and applied to
infected wounds to mature
them and to maintain the flow
of pus from them. The bulb is
eaten raw in Karamajong,
Uganda. The seeds from the
capsules buried just below the soil surface are eaten by children in Uganda. The bulb is also eaten by
the Maasai and Kipsigis children in Kenya who also use the bulbs as toys. The plant can be grown as an
ornamental.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Wild et al. 1972, Cribb &
Leedal 1983, Burkill 1994, Katende et al. 1999, PlantZAfrica (Accessed 3.3.12)
249
Hypselodelphys scandens
(Marantaceae)
Synonym Trachyphrynium scandens
Common name Lutete (Kongo)
Description A bamboo-like climber 3 - 9 m high; bracts and flower stalks are dull purplish-brown;
flowers pale violet, white and brown in an arching inflorescence.
Ecology An undershrub of moist forest, swamps and gallery forests in I vory Coast, southern Nigeria
and across the Congo to Uganda.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the stems are used for tying on cross members in hut construction and the leaves
for wrapping cassava bread (chikwangue). The leaves are used for thatching in Gabon. I n Equateur a
root decoction is applied anally to treat haemorrhoids.
References Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1997, Biloso & Lejoly 2006, Konda ku
Mbuta et al. 2012, FWTA
250
Hyptis suaveolens
(Lamiaceae)
Common names Gros baume (Fr.), bush tea bush
Description A stout shrub or herb, with a much branched habit, strongly aromatic 0.5 - 1.5 m or more
in height, with a square stem. Leaves are broadly oval, 4 - 5 cm long and up to 4 cm wide, slightly hairy
above, with white hairs especially on the veins. The leaves are shed during the dry season. The blue
flowers are produced throughout the year in 2 - 5 flowered heads. Fruits are approximately 11 mm long
when mature.
Ecology A weed of roadside, waste places and cultivated land up to 1,300 m altitude. Native to tropical
America but now widespread in Africa, Asia and Queensland, Australia. I t is occasionally cultivated in
Mexico and I ndia.
Propagation The plant can be grown from
cuttings.
Uses The plant is used as a spice in
Manianga district. The shoot tips are used
as flavouring for food and the roots as an
appetizer. The tips can be used as a tea
substitute. Cattle will eat the plant. I n the
West I ndies it is an important forage for
bees producing a light coloured honey. The
plant is used medicinally to promote
lactation, as a stimulant, an antiseptic for
wounds, to cure catarrh, skin infections
and rheumatism. Leaves are used to repel
bed bugs and to treat river blindness. The
fresh plants and the smoke from burning
them have been found to repel mosquitoes.
Photo: Phuong Tran
References Crane et al. 1984, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, de Guzman & Siemonsma 1999, Pousset
2004
251
I mpatiens balsamina
(Balsaminaceae)
Common names Nsa lwansa (Kongo = juice from the leaves is acidic), garden balsam, rose balsam
Photo: Dinesh Valke
Description An annual herb 60 - 100 cm tall. Stems erect, robust, succulent, with many fibrous roots,
with swollen lower nodes. Leaves alternate, though sometimes the lowest ones are opposite; leaf blade
4 - 12 cm long and 1.5 - 3 cm wide, with a pair of sessile black glands toward base. I nflorescences have
1, 2 or 3 flowers in the leaf axils. Flowers are white, pink, or purple, simple or with double petals. The
fruit is a capsule 1 - 2 cm long, densely hairy, spindle shaped, containing many, black-brown seeds 1.5 3 mm in diameter.
Ecology An ornamental plant originally from tropical Asia. I t sometimes grows spontaneously in BasCongo.
Propagation Can be grown from seed.
Uses The leaves are edible. The seeds are also edible and contain 27% of a green viscous oil which can
be used for cooking and lighting. I t is widely known in Asia as a substitute for henna for dyeing the
fingernails for which the flower petals are used, though it is said the leaves also yield a dye. An alcoholic
extract of the flowers has antibiotic properties.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Burkill 1985, van Valkenburg & Bunyapraphatsara 2001,
Phillips & Rix 1997, Fayaz 2011, Encyclopedia of Life (Accessed 19.1.2013)
252
I mpatiens irvingii
(Balsaminaceae)
Common names Nsa lwansa (Kongo), balsamine (Fr.)
Description
A
sprawling or more or
less erect perennial herb
with a succulent stem
up to 1.5 m long. A very
variable
species,
especially in leaf shape
and flower size. Leaves
are arranged spirally
with a petiole up to 1.5
cm long; blade up to 18
cm long and 4.5 cm
wide.
Flowers
are
axillary, solitary or in
groups of 2 – 3,
bisexual, rose-violet or
pale purple and about 5
cm long. Fruit is a
fleshy,
explosive,
5valved capsule. I n its
natural range it flowers
throughout the year. I n
Nigeria aquatic snail
species were found to
be strongly associated
with I mpatiens irvingii,
which is helpful in
monitoring
and
controlling snails that
host schistosomiasis.
Photo: Warren
McCleland
Ecology Present along stream banks and in swamps in Bas-Congo. The plant grows in moist localities
in rain forest, sometimes in shallow water. I t occurs from Guinea east to Gabon, the Central African
Republic, D.R. Congo, south-western Sudan, Rwanda and southern and western Tanzania, and south to
Angola, Malawi and northern Zambia.
Uses The leaves are eaten as a vegetable like sorrel (oseille) in Bas-Congo and also in Liberia. The
plant is also used in Gabon and Sudan to produce a high quality vegetable salt. The young leaves are
used in I vory Coast as a treatment for schistosomiasis. I t is occasionally grown as an ornamental pot
plant.
References Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Bosch 2004
253
I mperata cylindrica
(Poaceae)
Common names Nsoni, nsonia (Kongo = disgrace; it is a disgrace to have this grass in your field).
Description A stout perennial grass,
tufted and erect, often in dense stands,
reaching 1.5 m tall, spreading widely
by means of long, deeply penetrating
underground stems or rhizomes. Stems
are hairless with 3 – 4 nodes. Leaves
are crowded near the base, leaf blade
is tough and rigid, sword shaped with a
long tapering point, flat or curled, 2 – 4
mm wide and up to 30 cm long. Edges
are rough, and there are long silky
hairs at the junction of the leaf blade to
the sheath, Flowers are borne in dense,
fluffy, cotton like cylindrical flower
spikes up to 20 cm long.
Ecology A serious weed of cropland
and difficult to eradicate. I t tends to
invade land cultivated too frequently.
Bundles of dry grass for thatching
Widespread in savanna grasslands.
Thatching a kitchen at Mbanza Nzundu
Uses The grass is used for thatching in Bas-Congo. The rhizomes are sometimes chewed to quench
thirst and taste slightly sweet. Livestock eat the young shoots.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Katende et al. 1999
254
I nga edulis
(Mimosaceae)
Common names I nga, pois sucré (Fr.), ice-cream bean tree
Description A tree which can
grow to 30 m high. I t grows best
once nodulated.
Ecology The tree is originally from
Central America. I t grows on poor
and acid soils which may be
waterlogged for 2 - 3 months at a
time. I t is also resistant to drought.
Propagation Seed can only be
stored for 1 - 2 weeks. Best results
are obtained by removing the pulp
and storing the seed in plastic
bags. Only one seed should be
sown per pot or tube, at no more
than 2 cm deep. Provide light
shade. Seeds germinate readily
within 2 - 3 days. Plant out after 2
months. Remove shade one month
before transplanting. Some farmers
sow seed direct during the season
of high rainfall. Bare rooted
seedlings can be transplanted.
Management An area of 1 m
diameter should be kept clear of
weeds around the tree during the
first 6 months, until it becomes
established. The tree grows back
well if a few branches are left uncut
when pruning. Cut carefully at least
3 cm above a node.
Uses The pith in the fruit pods is sweet tasting and is
especially enjoyed by children. The tree is a good source of
firewood. I t provides shade and litter, reduces erosion and
weed growth and improves associated crop yields due to
nitrogen fixation. Litter is slow to decompose but provides
a long-term build up of organic nitrogen. The tree is
therefore suitable for agroforestry. I t is also a potentially
important bee plant in Bas-Congo.
References Crane et al. 1984, Lawrence 1993
255
I pomoea aquatica
(Convolvulaceae)
Common names Tofa tofa (Lingala), water spinach, swamp morning glory, kangkong
Both photos: Nigel Durrant
Description A perennial herb with smooth, hollow stems, rooting at the nodes. Leaves are alternate,
simple and may vary in shape. Flowers are 5 cm wide, purple, pink or white often with a purple centre.
Ecology Widespread as a swamp weed in all
tropical and many subtropical lowland areas.
The major area of production is in South-East
Asia.
Propagation The plant can be grown as a
field crop, when it is usually grown from
seed. Young plants require plenty of water.
Alternatively it can be grown from cuttings
planted 3 – 5 cm deep in wet conditions.
Uses The leaves are eaten as a vegetable. I n
D.R. Congo they are normally collected wild
rather than from cultivated plants. The leaves
are rich in folic acid and iron so are good for
people suffering from anaemia. I pomoea
species produce a pearly white honey, often
thin-bodied, with a distinctly pleasant flavour
and aroma.
References Busson
1965, Crane 1975,
Jansen 2004, van Wyk 2005, Biloso & Lejoly
2006
256
I pomoea batatas
(Convolvulaceae)
Common names Mvunguta, kikwa ki mvunguta, mbala (Kongo), patate douce (Fr.), sweet potato
Description A perennial creeping plant, usually grown as an annual.
Ecology Cultivated throughout the tropics. Growth is restricted by cool weather. Low humidity is
needed as the crop nears maturity. Though the plant is drought tolerant there must be sufficient
moisture 50 - 60 days after planting for tuber development. Sweet potatoes grow best in sandy loams
reasonably high in organic matter.
Propagation Cuttings taken from the tip are best as they grow faster and give a higher yield than
cuttings taken from the base or middle of the vines. Cuttings should be 20 - 40 cm long and have 3 - 4
buds. They should be left to wilt for 24 - 48 hours and then two-thirds of the cutting should be planted
below the soil level at an angle. Plant 2 cuttings every 25 – 35 cm along the ridge or on mounds 30 –
40 cm high and 60 cm wide.
Management Harvest the
crop when the leaves turn
slightly red or yellow and the
tuber can be cut without the
sap rapidly turning black.
Tubers cannot be stored so
are best dug when required.
The crop is normally ready
after 3 - 4 months but may
take 6 months.
Uses
An important food
crop. Tubers are baked,
boiled or fried. Chips may be
dried in the sun and then
ground into flour. There are
three main types 1) Dry and
Leaves being cut up prior to cooking
mealy when cooked 2) Soft
and watery 3) Coarse fleshed. A number of varieties are cultivated in Bas-Congo - mvunguta bwaaka,
mvunguta mpeembe, mbuungu meenga, kileenge (tubers are yellow and sweet) and tembele (see
upper photo). The young shoots and leaves of the last two are eaten as vegetables. Vines can also be
used as a livestock feed. Bees sometimes collect nectar from the flowers.
Reference Gillet & Pâque 1910, Purseglove 1968, Kay 1973, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985,
Raemaekers 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
257
I rvingia smithii
(I rvingiaceae)
Common name Mumbombo (Kongo)
Description A tree up to 20 m tall. Leaves 5 – 17 x 3 – 8 cm. White fragrant flowers, in groups of 20,
are produced in panicles up to 10 cm long. The reddish-orange fruit, 3 – 4 x 2 cm, speckled with whitish
dots has a hard stone containing a single seed.
Ecology The tree is common and widespread in the savanna woodland. I t only grows near water and is
present from Nigeria to Sudan and in Angola.
Propagation Fruits float and are
spread downstream. They germinate
when water is low but in their first
few years they are under water for
several months each year.
Photo
of
Harris/ Royal
Edinburgh
ripe
fruits:
Botanic
David
Garden
Uses The seeds are edible but are
difficult to separate from the hard
shells. They are rich in fatty matter.
Fruits are also used to attract fish.
The sapwood is yellowish-white and
the reddish-brown heart wood is very
hard and durable. The tree is the
source of an essential oil used in
Africa for perfumery. I rvingia species are important honeybee forage in equatorial and northern dry
savanna zones in Africa.
References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Renier 1948, Uphof 1968, Arkinstall 1979, Keay 1989,
Peters et al. 1992, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Harris et al. 2011
258
Jatropha curcas
(Euphorbiaceae)
Common names Mpuluka (Kongo), purghère (Fr.), physic nut
Description A shrub or small tree up to 6 m tall. Branches contain latex. Leaves are alternate, varying
from 6 to 15 cm in length.
Ecology I n Bas-Congo the plant is often grown as a hedge plant. I t is deep-rooted and can survive long
dry periods by simply shedding its leaves. I t will grow on arid and stony soils.
Propagation Usually grown from
cuttings but seed can also be used.
For cuttings select 1.5 - 2.5 cm
diameter pieces from the central
trunk which should have short nodes.
Cuttings should be 45 - 100 cm long.
Cut the stem with a sharp knife and
dip the end in ashes. Store with the
cut end upright until planting.
Cuttings are buried in the soil and
soon develop roots. Propagation
using cuttings is more rapid than by
seed. I f seed is used plant 2.5 cm
deep and space at 25 cm to form a
hedge. Germination normally takes 4
weeks but is improved if seeds are
placed between wet sacks before
planting.
Jatropha curcas in flower
Management Cut the branches back when the plant
becomes old. The prunings can be used for firewood. Plants
start producing 3 years after planting from seed or one year
after planting cuttings. Normally the seeds are collected from
the ground. Yields: 2 kg/ m hedge where there are 8 plants
per metre but can be up to 4 kg/ m.
Uses Often grown as a hedge in villages. The seeds are
used as a drastic purgative. Traditionally the seeds, after
being burnt and ground to powder, were smeared on the
skin by women at funerals. The seed is the source of an oil
259
which can be used, with ash from plantains, for making soap, as a substitute for paraffin for lighting
and as a medicinal oil. I t can also be used as a diesel substitute. The oil can be extracted from
unshelled nuts with a screw press. The oil is reported to be effective against snails carrying bilharzia. I n
Bas-Congo sap is used to treat hair loss in children and is reported to be effective against scabies. The
sap can be applied to wounds to assist healing and incorporated in soap as an antiseptic. Bees collect
nectar and pollen and the plant is mainly pollinated by bees.
Processing After harvesting, the fruits are put into heaps to dry, where they open on their own. The
seeds are then separated from the shell and allowed to dry. Finally they are roasted and ground. As an
alternative to using a press the ground seeds can be boiled in water and, when the oil floats to the
surface, it can be ladled off.
Remarks The plants are termite resistant. The residue pulp after extraction has the same fertilizer
value as chicken manure and can be used for mushroom growing and as a fuel in stoves. I t should be
stored for 10 weeks before using for mushrooms. I n East Africa the plant is used as a support for
vanilla.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, I rvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962,
I wu 1993, Pauwels 1993, Amponsah et al. 2002, Pousset 2004
Chief Lutangu (right) and
helpers during the nsafu
harvest at Koma village.
Luvuma, Th ér èse, who
ran
the
Programme
Developpement I ntegr é in
Bas-Congo is in front of
Paul Latham.
260
Kalaharia schaijesii
(Lamiaceae)
Common names Baka nlele (Baka = take hold of, nlele = clothing. The thorns catch on clothing), fua
ndolo, nkaka-(ki)koonki (Kongo).
Description A woody creeper, its thorny branches spread over the ground. The yellow flowers are
produced in the dry season. The leaf stalk, after the leaves have been shed, becomes tough and bends
to form a hook.
Ecology I n Bas-Congo the plant
is found in the savanna. Also
present in Zimbabwe on Kalahari
sand in woodland and wooded
grassland.
Uses The root and fruits are
reported to be eaten in BasCongo. A decoction of the root is
used as a gargle for sore throats
and as a purgative. I n East Africa
the plant is used as a cure for
bilharzia.
The
boiled
root
decoction is given to the patient to
drink three times a day. The plant
is reported to be poisonous to
cattle. The flowers are an
important honeybee forage.
References Gillet & Paque 1910, Gillet 1927, Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Delaude & Breyne 1971, Wild et
al. 1972, Williamson 1975, Kokwaro 1976, Tanaka 1980, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Ambougou 1991,
Peters et al. 1992, Malaisse 1997, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Malaisse 2010, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
261
Kalanchoe crenata
(Crassulaceae)
Common name Never-die
Photo: Pashkand
Description A perennial, succulent herb 30 cm to 2 m high. Stems are fleshy and usually unbranched.
Leaves are succulent and tough, 4·3 – 25 cm long and 1·5 - 12 cm wide, ovate, notched and sometimes
edged with red or purple. Flowers may be yellow or red.
Ecology The plant grows in open places at the forest edge, on roadsides or besides streams, often
among rocks, in scrub and grassland, mostly in damp places. I t is native to tropical and South Africa but
is also present in Arabia, tropical America, I ndia and Malaysia.
Propagation Seed or leaf cuttings can be used.
Management The plant is sometimes grown as an ornamental shrub in villages.
Uses The sap is used to treat eye problems. When warmed it is also used to treat ear ache. The sap is
also used to encourage scar formation on wounds and to cure colds. I n Equateur the leaves or the
liquid squeezed from them is used to treat a variety of illnesses. The juice of the leaves is generally
used for its antiseptic, anti-inflammatory and counter-irritant properties.
References Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Burkill 1985, Konda ku Mbuta 2012
262
Kalanchoe pinnata
(Crassulaceae)
Synonym Bryophyllum pinnatum
Common names Luyuki (Kongo), resurrection plant, Canterbury bells, air plant
Description An erect succulent perennial shrub growing to 1.5 m high. The flowers are borne in a
loose drooping panicle arising from the top of the plant and have corolla tubes which are reddishpurple.
Ecology Originally from Madagascar but
now spread throughout West Africa and
the Congo basin. A common weed
around fields and villages.
Propagation The leaf buds root easily.
The plant is also spread by seed.
Uses An important medicinal plant. The
leaf juice is used to treat earache in BasCongo. Leaf sap is given to children with
convulsions and epilepsy elsewhere in
D.R. Congo and two drops of leaf sap
inserted up the nose before going to
sleep is recommended to silence
snorers! A cough medicine is made from
the roots in Sierra Leone.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910,
Bouquet 1969, Burkill 1985, Akobundu &
Agyakwa 1987
Photo: HappyYoga
263
Kigelia africana
(Bignoniaceae)
Common names Nsasa mpwatu (Kongo), saucissonnier, faux baobab (Fr.), sausage tree
Description A tree from 6 – 8 m tall,
branching low down and producing a
large spreading crown. Leaves are
compound, opposite and composed of 7
– 17 leaflets 10 – 20 cm long and 6 –
13 cm wide. Often they have a sharp
tip. The red-brown to purple flowers
are borne at the end of stalks 2 – 3 m
long. They have an unpleasant smell
but contain large amounts of nectar.
Fruits are cylindrical, up to 40 cm long.
Ecology Occasionally found in the
savanna or forests in Bas-Congo.
Present in tropical Africa, often in damp
sites and, in South Africa, it is common
on alluvial soils.
Propagation Seed is collected from
fallen fruit and can be stored for up to
2 months at room temperature. Soak
the seeds for a few minutes before
planting. Germination is good and
uniform reaching 50% after 15 days
and 95% after 20 days. The tree can
also be propagated from large stem
cuttings.
Management The tree is slow growing
and relatively pest-free. I t does not
compete with field crops but should not
be planted near buildings. I t makes a good shade and street tree in tropical Africa and Australia.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the fruits are
used to treat dysentery. The
leaves are used for the same
purpose in I vory Coast. Powdered
fruit is applied as a dressing for
wounds, abscesses and ulcers
and is known to have antibacterial
activity. Wood is light, white with
a pale brown heart and of little
commercial value. I t is used for
firewood and charcoal in Tanzania
and in Malawi for canoes,
mortars, tool handles and drums.
Roots are said to yield a bright
yellow dye. I n time of scarcity,
seeds are roasted and eaten.
Bees collect nectar from the
flowers.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910,
Staner
&
Boutique
1937,
Photo: Scott Zona
Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Burkill
1985, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al.
1994, Katende et al. 1995, Venter & Venter 1996, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Msanga 1998, Meunier et al.
2010, SEPASAL (Accessed 7.12.2013)
264
Laccosperma secundiflorum
(Arecaceae)
Synonym Ancistrophyllum secundiflorum
Common names Nkau, nkawu (Kongo), palmier-rotang (Fr.), large rattan
Photo: Anny Mandungu
Description A robust species with wide leaflets.
Stems are from 25 to 50 m long and up to 3 cm
diameter. Plants have very spiny leaf sheaths, and
after the inflorescence has died the individual stem
also dies. Older stems loose their thorns.
Ecology Found in small woodlands beside water
and in wet forest from Senegal to Nigeria and
Cameroon and south to Angola. I t will grow in
moving water.
Photo: J. Lowe
Uses Batons are made from the stem, called
nkawu in Kongo, which symbolize the authority of
the chief. The stems are widely used in building,
making baskets and other objects. This species is
the most desired large diameter cane species in
West Africa and represents the most widely traded
rattan in the region. Split canes are used for
binding house frames together and for fish traps,
baskets and other woven products. Formerly the
leaves were used for thatching. The gum is used
as a base for a drug containing Hua gabonii. The
stem yields sap which can be drunk. The terminal
bud is edible, sometimes raw, though the taste
may be bitter at first, later becoming sweet. I t is
thought to contain an active heart stimulant which promotes a feeling of wellbeing, similar to kola nut.
265
The fresh new shoots emerging from the ground are also eaten, after being boiled to remove any
bitterness and then fried in butter. They resemble endive. They can also be braised over hot embers.
The canes are more brittle and the nodes are
closer together than for the Malayan rattan.
Both photos: John Dransfield, RBG Kew
References Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, I rvine 1961, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983,
Burkill 1997, Sunderland 2007, Bongers et al. 2008
Road repairs!
266
Fruit bats and crickets
Fruit bats are caught and traded for food in some markets
Crickets (Nzenze) Brachytrupes membranaceus for sale (see also page 45)
267
Lagenaria siceraria
(Cucurbitaceae)
Common names Mbika nkalu (Kongo), calebasse (Fr.), bottle gourd, calabash
Description An annual, climber or trailer up to 10 m long. Flowers are large and white. Fruits vary in
shape, size, colour and patterns.
Ecology Cultivated
throughout the
tropics and particularly suited to wet
areas. Drought causes the fruits to
drop. The plant can be grown over
fences etc.
Uses Mainly grown for edible seeds
which, after shelling, may contain 40 50% oil. This is suitable for cooking.
The hard-shelled fruit is used as a
container or a ladle after the pulp and
seeds have been removed and the
bitterness leached out by soaking. The
young fruits are sometimes placed
upright to ensure they form a flat bottom. Dried gourds are often used as musical instruments. They are
light and strong and suitable for carrying or storing liquids. I n some forms the bitterness of the pulp has
been selected out and the fruits can be eaten, though normally only when young. Young shoots and
tender leaves may be eaten as a
vegetable. A dressing of crushed
leaves and palm oil is used to relieve
pain caused by stinging caterpillars in
the Congo. The plant is widely used
medicinally,
especially
to
relieve
stomach ache.
References Gillet
& Pâque 1910,
Staner & Boutique 1937, Williamson
1975, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983,
Burkill 1985, Robinson & DeckerWalters 1997, Maundu et al. 1999,
Kibungu Kembelo 2010
Left: Shelling seeds prior to cooking
268
Landolphia camptoloba
(Apocynaceae)
Common names Mbungu mbungu, dinsania, dinsona
(Kongo). Magoki is also used for all Landolphia species
with edible fruit.
Description A slender vine or shrub growing from 30
cm to 8 m long. Mature fruits can be found throughout
the year. The fruit has a white pulp.
Left: Landolphia camptoloba in
secondary forest near Kasangulu
Ecology Grows on sand at the forest edge in dry
forests, woodlands or savanna in Angola and adjacent
parts of D.R. Congo and Zambia.
Propagation Can be grown from seed.
Uses The fruits are eaten, particularly by children. The
latex is extracted from the roots and used for repairing
bicycle inner tubes. Unripe fruit is eaten to relieve
coughing. Fruits are crushed and soaked in water and
the liquid taken to expel intestinal worms. The fruit
extract is dropped into the eyes to treat conjunctivitis.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934,
Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mukoko
Matondo 1991, Persoon et al. 1992, Neuwinger 2000,
Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
Dinzenge (above and right), a low growing species
of Landolphia found in the savanna. The fruit is also
edible.
269
Landolphia lanceolata
(Apocynaceae)
Common names Dimbulu, mabulu (Kongo)
Description A low, erect shrub or herb, 15 - 70 cm high. Leaves are
often in whorls of 3 or 4. Flowers are fragrant, white, yellow or cream.
Mature fruits may be found throughout the year.
Right: Fruits are often sold by children at the roadside
Ecology Grows in the savanna
and woodland in southern and
western D.R. Congo and in
adjacent parts of Angola, often
on sandy soils. Altitude range
0 – 1,500 m.
Uses Produces a rubber of low
quality. The fruits are edible
and frequently sold in BasCongo. The leaves are boiled
and the liquid drunk for
coughs.
f
dl
References Gillet & Paque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Persoon et al. 1992,
Kibungu Kembelo 2010
270
Landolphia ow ariensis
(Apocynaceae)
Common names Mawumuna, masangu, masuki, disuki (Kongo), white rubber vine
Description A large, vigorous, woody vine up to 100
m long, which scrambles high into trees. The fruit
flesh is white.
Left: Landolphia owariensis growing near
Nkundi village in Manianga distict
Ecology Grows in wooded savanna and forest in
Bas-Congo. Altitude range 0 – 1,700 m. Present in
tropical Africa, especially from Senegal to Angola and
from Sudan to Zambia. I t can survive bush fires and
puts up new shoots after burning.
Uses The fruit is eaten raw and has an acid-tasting pulp.
I t keeps and travels well. The plant used to be an
important source of vine rubber. The latex is used to
repair punctures and to trap birds. The latex may be
either taken by mouth or used in an enema to get rid of
intestinal worms.
Right: Fruits of Landolphia owariensis
Below : Another Landolphia species growing near Kasangulu with fruit opened (below right).
References Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Uphof 1968, Burkill 1985, Persoon et al. 1992,
Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Termote 2012
271
Making a bed from leaf stems of oil palm
Fastening the stems for the base
272
Lannea antiscorbutica
(Anacardiaceae)
Common names Kikumbi, nkumbi (=
shackle for the feet)(Kongo)
Description A shrub or tree growing from
5 to 15 m high. Leaves are produced at the
ends of young branches and are composed
of 2 – 4 pairs of opposite leaflets 6 – 12 cm
by 2.5 – 4.5 cm. Flowers are pink, either
male or female. Fruit is an ovoid drupe
appearing before the leaves.
Ecology Grows at forest edges and in
savanna in the process of reforestation.
Present in D.R. Congo, Angola and Zambia.
Propagation The tree can be grown from
large cuttings and from seed, though
germination is uneven. Approximately 30%
seeds germinate after 3 weeks. The skin
and pulp are removed by soaking the fruit
in water and then the seeds are squashed
out by hand. Seeds are washed and any
that float are rejected. No pre-treatment is
required.
Uses Poles are used for fencing and construction work.
The timber is white and hard and used for making two
types of drum – mondo, which is used to call villagers
from the fields and kwiti, a musical instrument with a
bicycle pump action. Traditionally the wood was used to
shackle thieves, adulterers or a violent person. The tree
has a number of medicinal uses, for example the bark
from the twigs is used to cure heart palpitations and to
treat dental caries. I n Bas-Congo the flowers are
reported to be a good bee forage from June to August.
Lannea spp. are known to be nectar sources in Katanga.
Nkulu caterpillars
N'kankiti and Nkulu edible caterpillars
feed on the leaves. The head and gut
of the latter are removed. They are
then cooked in a little water until this
dries up and the caterpillars are then
grilled with salt and chilli pepper.
References Renier 1948, Nsimundele
1966 – 68, Uphof 1968, Lobreau-Callen
1988, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo
1995, Malaisse 1997, Msanga 1998
Branch with immature fruit
273
Lantana camara
(Verbenaceae)
Common names Landani (Kongo), lantana
Description A shrub or climbing bush from 1 to 5 m high, but the stems can grow up to 12 m long
forming a dense impenetrable bush. Stems may be covered with curved spines. Leaves are 2 – 12 cm
long and 2 – 7 cm wide with petioles up to 2 cm long. Flowers may vary in colour from red, purple to
pink with the central florets being of a different colour e.g. orange, yellow and red. Fruits are fleshy,
purple or black, 3 – 5 mm in diameter.
Ecology Originally from Brazil. Found in old cultivated land, around villages, on road-sides, in forest
clearings and old cultivations up to an altitude of 2,040 m throughout the tropics and sub-tropics.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the plant is used to treat coughs and fevers. Children sometimes eat the fruits,
though the immature fruits are known to be poisonous. Powdered plant material has been found
effective in killing and repelling maize weevil in stored maize. The stems are used to construct maize
stores in Kenya. Bees only
visit this plant when there is
a lack of other pollen or
nectar sources.
Lantana stems being used to
construct a maize store
Remarks A noxious weed,
which can render large areas
useless for grazing. Although
used as a fodder this is
dangerous as it is known to
be poisonous to sheep and
cattle.
References Gillet 1927, Morton 1964, Busson 1965, Lobreau-Callen et al. 1989, FTEA 1992, Pauwels
1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Roothaert et al. 2001, Ogendo et al. 2003
274
Uncontrolled fires are a major problem to regenerating forest fallow (Nkunku).
Tata Paul and Tata Masikidi with a good fire break round a nkunku near Mbanza Nzundu .
275
Lasimorpha senegalensis
(Araceae)
Synonym Cyrtosperma senegalense
Common names Kilodi, kilodia, kityokolo
(Kongo), swamp arum
Description An herbaceous plant with
large arrow-shaped leaves borne on prickly
petioles 1.70 m long. The plant grows
from a rhizome and has a large flowering
stem which may grow to nearly 4 m high.
Left: Kibungu, Kembelo, former director of
the Kisantu botanic garden with a plant
from the garden
Ecology Found in forest margins, damp sites and in shallow water
in savanna throughout West Africa and the Congo basin. I t may be
present in large colonies.
Propagation Can be grown from seed or division of the
rootstock.
Uses I n Bas-Congo the seeds are used with clay and
palm oil to treat painful breasts while nursing. The leaves
are also used to wrap chikwangue and as a medicinal
plant to treat coughs, ease childbirth, and to treat
abscesses and head lice. The leaves are sometimes eaten
as a vegetable. The plant is also used to produce salt,
being burnt, ground up in water, filtered and left to
crystallize.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934,
Burkill 1989, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 1992, Bown 2000,
Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003
276
Leea guineensis
(Vitaceae)
Common names Nkula katende, ndosho ndosho (Kongo), West I ndian holly
Description A shrub 2 – 4 m high. Leaves 4 – 20 x 2 – 7 cm. I nflorescence 5 – 20 cm across. Very
variable with bright red, orange or yellow flowers and purple fruits.
Ecology Found in moist, shady places and in forest edges. Present in West, NE, E and south tropical
Africa and in tropical Asia.
Propagation Can be
grown
from
stem
cuttings or seed.
Uses I n Bas-Congo a
decoction of the leaves
and fruits, together
with cane sugar, is
used
to
treat
gonorrhoea. The fruits
are edible and are
eaten
for
stomach
ache. Vapour from
boiling the leaves is
inhaled to treat fever
in Manianga. Leaves
are applied externally
as
poultices
for
muscular
pains,
arthritis
and
rheumatism. The plant
is grown as a hedge in
Jamaica. The foliage, flowers and fruit are ornamental.
References Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Peters et al. 1992, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995,
Neuwinger 2000, Harris & Wortley 2008
277
Leptactina leopoldi-secundi
(Rubiaceae)
Common names Kisiamuna, makiwa (Kongo)
Description A shrub 1 – 3 m tall which can sometimes climb. The branches are covered with a fine
matt of red-brown hairs. Leaves are 6 – 12 cm long and 4 – 7 cm wide. Flowers are up to 10 cm long.
Fruits oblong 20 x 10 mm with 10 sides and contain a large number of shiny black seeds.
Ecology Found in forest regrowth and secondary forest in Gabon, Congo (Brazzaville), Central African
Republic and in the central forest and Bas-Congo provinces in D.R. Congo.
Uses Fruits of Leptactina species are edible. The roots are used as an aphrodisiac. The leaves are used
as toilet paper, especially by children.
Remarks This is the most common species in Bas-Congo. L. pynaertii and L. liebrechtsiana (nsembo
nsembo) are also present. The leaves of the former are edible and the second is much larger and has
longer fruits.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 2010
278
Leptaspis zeylanica
(Poaceae)
Synonym L. cochleata
Common name Nzundu (Kongo)
Description A perennial, spreading grass growing to 1 m high from a rhizome. I t produces slender
stilt-like roots from the lower nodes. The leaf blade is 10 - 30 cm long and 2·5 - 6 cm wide.
I nflorescence is a loose panicle up to 45 x 20 cm, in a whorl of 2 - 3 branches.
Both photos: Bart Wursten
Ecology Found in the ground
layer and in shaded places in
forest from Guinea to Bioko, and
across
tropical
Africa,
to
Madagascar, the Mascarenes, Sri
Lanka, S.E. Asia and Polynesia.
The plant can spread to cover
large areas.
Uses Used for making partitions
in houses in Bas-Congo. The
leaves have an absorbent capacity
and are used in the Central African
Republic by honey gatherers to
mop up spilled honey.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910,
Flora Zambesiaca 1981, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1994, Neuwinger 2000
279
Lindackeria dentata
(Flacourtiaceae)
Synonym Oncoba dentata
Common names Nkaka kisani, mbamba (Kongo)
Description A shrub or small tree 6 – 10 m tall. Leaves are round and coarsely toothed, though not
always so, 8 – 28 cm long and 4 – 14 cm wide on a stalk 4 – 18 cm long. The fragrant white flowers are
produced in a panicle 7 – 10 cm long. Fruit capsule is orange when ripe, 2 – 3 cm in diameter, having
numerous spurs. I t contains a few shiny black seeds with a red aril.
Ecology Often found in disturbed areas such as old fields and in secondary forest from Guinea to
Cameroon, Sudan, D.R. Congo and
Angola.
Uses The stems are used in house
building. I n Equateur province a
decoction of the bark is used as an
anthelmintic. The pulverized leaves
are used to kill lice. Around Yangambi
a decoction of the leaves is used as an
enema for colic. I n Uele a maceration
of the root bark is used for abscesses
in the gums. The seed yields an oil
which is used in Ubangi to treat yaws
and leprosy. A leaf decoction is used
in Ubangi to kill fleas. A root decoction
is drunk and root ash is rubbed on
areas of oedema in Ubangi. I n Congo
(Brazzaville) a leaf decoction is used
to treat mental problems and in
Photo: David Harris/ Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh
equatorial Africa a root decoction is
used to relieve headaches. The plant
yields a vegetable salt. Seed oil is applied to skin infections. Lindackeria species are important honeybee
forage in the equatorial zone of Africa.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993,
Burkill 1994, White & Abernethy 1997, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Neuwinger 2000, Harris et al 2011
280
Lippia multiflora
(Verbenaceae)
Common names Bulukutu, malukutu, mbulunkutu (Kongo) These names are also used for
Dactyladenia buchneri and Maranthes glabra. Bush tea, Gambian tea bush
Description A low bush from 1 - 3 m high, with ridged stems. Leaves are 10 cm long and 2.5 cm wide,
aromatic, toothed and hairy underneath. The white flowers have yellow centres and are borne on
stalked heads.
Ecology Found in savanna, waste ground and old farm land in D.R. Congo and throughout tropical
West Africa. I n Bas-Congo it is sometimes grown for home use.
Propagation Can be grown from seed.
Uses Leaves, which may be dried and stored, are used as a tea substitute. The tea is relaxing and is
reported to relieve coughing, irritability, nervousness or madness, and is also used to treat rheumatism
and diabetes. Lippia species contain the chemical carvacrol which has been shown to have antiseptic,
antifungal and larvicidal properties. The oil obtained
from distillation, together with paraffin, can be used to
treat scabies. The plant is also used to lower blood
pressure and has possible uses as an insecticide. Other
species, L. nodiflora is known to be a good bee forage in
the Americas. Beehives are sometimes smoked with this
fragrant herb to attract bees in Gambia. The ashes from
burning the roots are sometimes used as a substitute for
salt.
Right: Packet of dried leaves as sold in the market.
References
Gillet & Pâque 1910, I rvine 1961,
Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Crane et al. 1984, Mukoko
Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 2000, Kunle et al
2003, Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004, Kibungu
Kembelo 2010
281
Loeseneriella clematoides
(Celastraceae)
Common name Kinsundi (Kongo)
Description A creeper with smooth, hairless stems, up to 20 cm in diameter, which grows to a length
of 40 – 100 m. Leaf petioles are 7 – 15 mm long and the leaves are oval shaped, rounded to acute at
the base, 4.5 - 13 cm long and 2.5 - 7.5 cm wide. Flowers are pale-green becoming yellowish-brown
with a white central column.
Ecology Grows in gallery forests and marshland throughout Congo and is also present in Guinea,
Gabon, Angola, Uganda and Malawi.
Uses The leaves are eaten as a vegetable and are reported to be more tender than those of "mbondi"
Salacia pynaertii. The sap is squeezed into the nostrils of children suffering from fever. Minsundi edible
caterpillars feed on the leaves in Bas-Congo. The plant is often debarked and therefore becoming
scarce.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, FAC 1960, FTEA 1994, Neuwinger 2000
Makala (= Charcoal)! Many
trees have been felled for
this load of charcoal. Who
will replace them?
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Lovoa trichilioides
(Meliaceae)
Common names Noyer d’Afrique (Fr.), African walnut
Description A tree up to 45 m tall, having a straight trunk with small buttresses. Bark is smooth, grey
to black and scented. Leaves are compound having 5 – 15 leaflets 5 – 25 cm long and 2 - 10 cm wide.
The leaf stalk is winged. I nflorescence is up to 25 cm long. Fruits are capsules having 4 sides, 4 – 7 cm
long. The tree is sometimes found in groups.
Branch from a tree in flower in January at Ndembo mission
Ecology Occurs in lowland rain forest from Sierra Leone to southern Nigeria and across equatorial
Africa to Uganda and Angola. The tree requires fertile soil.
Propagation The tree produces seed every 3 - 4 years. Seed loses viability quickly but can be stored in
sealed containers with ash to reduce insect damage. Sow seed with wings up and only partially cover
with soil. Natural regeneration is normally good. Seedlings tolerate shade and grow quickly once the
forest canopy is removed but they are often attacked by insects. Stumps or small striplings may be used
for planting.
Management Seedlings reach a height of 60 cm in about 15 months.
Uses A valuable timber tree producing a white sap-wood and a clear brown heart-wood. The wood is
strong, hard and resistant to termites and fungal attack but susceptible to borers. I t seasons quite well
if properly stacked and works well taking nails, glue and varnish. Pounded leaves are rubbed on the
chest for lung complaints. Bees were very active collecting nectar at midday on a tree at Ndembo
mission in January. Reported as a bee forage in Gabon in November.
Remarks This tree is heavily exploited and is not common in Bas-Congo. Listed as a vulnerable species
on the I UCN Red List.
References Leloup 1956, Bouquet 1969, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al.
1995, Burkill 1997, Hawthorne & Gyakari 2006
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Luffa cylindrica
(Cucurbitaceae)
Common names Nsanu, musaka saka (Kongo), éponge végétale (Fr.), loofah, vegetable sponge
Description A herbaceous annual climber 6 - 10 m long. The slightly hairy stem is 5 lobed. Loofah
species have glands that secrete nectar.
Ecology Commonly cultivated but also naturalized in the humid tropics. Loofah grows best on fertile,
mildly acidic to neutral, well-drained soil. Sunny, hot, humid conditions favour growth. The plant is best
grown in the dry season as heavy rainfall during flowering and fruiting leads to poor fruit production.
Propagation Seed from ripe fruits is used.
Management The plant is best grown over a trellis. Side branches should be pruned to encourage
growth of the main stem and 20 - 25 fruits only should be allowed per vine. Harvest when fully mature,
indicated by the yellowing of the base and apex 4 - 5 months after planting. I mmerse fruits in running
water until outer wall disintegrates. Seeds are then washed out.
Uses The fibrous skeleton of the
fruit, obtained after it has been
allowed to rot and been thoroughly
washed, is used as a sponge when
bathing and to clean dishes. I t is
also used to filter palm wine. The
cooked leaves are eaten in BasCongo. The roasted seeds are also
edible and immature fruits can be
fed to pigs. I mmature fruits,
harvested when about 10 cm long,
can be boiled and used in curries.
The sponge has potential for use in hat manufacture, insoles for shoes, marine engine filters, tablemats, door and bath mats, gloves and for sound and shock absorbing purposes. As with other
Cucurbitaceae the flowers are very attractive to bees.
References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Purseglove 1968, Burkill 1985, Robinson & Decker-Walters 1997
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