KANGCHENJUNGA
LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
KANGCHENJUNGA
LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Ram P. Chaudhary
Yadav Uprety
Surya P. Joshi
Krishna K. Shrestha
Khadga B. Basnet
Govinda Basnet
Krishna R. Shrestha
Kuber P. Bhatta
Krishna P. Acharya
Nakul Chettri
February 2015
ii
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Copyright ©
Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MoFSC), Government of Nepal
Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University and
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD).
All rights reserved, Published 2015
All photographs by authors, unless otherwise stated.
Photographs
Front cover: Kangchenjunga mountain range; Red panda (photo by Sonam Tashi Lama);
Asian elephant (photo by Narendra B. Pradhan); A sacred stone in Ilam district
Front inside (clockwise from top left): Winged thorn rose, ‘Jangali gulaf’ (Rosa sericea); Indian aconite,
‘Atis’ (Aconitum heterophyllum); Himalayan marsh orchid, ‘Paanch aunle’ (Dactylorhiza hatagirea);
Himalayan May apple, ‘Laghu patra’ (Sinopodophyllum hexandrum)
Back cover: A waterfall along the way to Olangchung Gola, Taplejung
Back inside: Kechana pillar in Jhapa district, the lowest point in KL Nepal
Published By
Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MoFSC), Government of Nepal
Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University and
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD).
ISBN: 978-9937-2-9275-7 (printed)
978-9937-2-9274-0 (electronic)
Reproduction
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit
purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the
source is made. MoFSC/RECAST/ICIMOD would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication
that uses this publication as a source.
No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose whatsoever
without prior permission in writing from MoFSC/RECAST/ICIMOD.
Note
The views and interpretations in this publication are those of the author(s). They are not attributable
to MoFSC/RECAST/ICIMOD and do not imply the expression of any opinion concerning the legal
status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its
frontiers or boundaries, or the endorsement of any product.
Citation
Chaudhary, R.P., Uprety, Y., Joshi, S.P., Shrestha, K.K., Basnet, K.B., Basnet, G., Shrestha, K.R., Bhatta,
K.P., Acharya, K.P., and Chettri, N. 2015. Kangchenjunga Landscape Nepal: from conservation
and development perspectives. Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MoFSC), Government of
Nepal; Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University; and
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD). Kathmandu, Nepal.
Reviewer
Dr. Ganesh Raj Joshi, former Secretary, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Government of
Nepal
Editor
Mr. Deependra Joshi
Design and Printed at
Ultimate Marketing (P.) Ltd.
Ranibari, Lazimpat, Kathmandu, Nepal
4352223 | info@marketingultimate.com
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
Foreword
Preface
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Executive Summary
vii
viii-x
xi
xii
xiv
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Background
1.2 Methodology and approach
1
1
2
Chapter 2: The Kangchenjunga Landscape Nepal
2.1 Boundary delineation
2.2 Criteria for landscape boundary
2.3 Delineation of the landscape
5
5
5
6
Chapter 3: Physical Features
3.1 General introduction of the area
3.2 Hydro-meteorology
3.2.1 Temperature
3.2.2 Precipitation
3.2.3 Evaporation and sunshine duration
3.3 River systems
3.4 Snow, ice and glaciers
3.5 Hydro-meteorological related issues and gaps
3.6 Land use and land cover
3.7 Minerals and soil types
9
9
10
10
11
12
12
13
13
14
14
Chapter 4: Socio-economic Features
4.1 Demography
4.2 Livelihoods and economic activities
4.2.1 Agricultural system
4.2.2 Animal husbandry
4.2.3 Foreign employment, migration and remittance
4.2.4 Weaving and knitting
4.3 Food security
4.4 Human development and poverty
4.5 Tourism
4.6 Transboundary trade
4.6.1 Trade of plant species
4.6.2 Traded species/potential species and their volume
4.7 Drinking water and sanitation
4.8 Road network
4.9 Energy sources and utilization
4.9.1 Major energy sources
4.9.2 Technology utilization in energy generation
4.9.3 Mini/micro-hydro power in KL Nepal districts
4.9.4 Solar energy technologies
4.9.5 Energy deficits
4.10 Pollution
4.10.1 Air pollution
4.10.2 Water pollution
17
17
18
18
20
20
20
20
21
21
22
24
24
25
25
25
25
26
26
27
27
27
27
27
iv
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
4.10.3 Solid waste
4.10.4 Chemicals and fertilizers
4.11 Public health
4.12 Gender and social inclusion
4.12.1 Literacy and education status by gender
4.12.2 Women’s access to productive resources
27
27
27
28
28
28
Chapter 5: Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
5.1 Biodiversity
5.1.1 Ecoregions
5.1.2 Major ecosystems, vegetation and forest types
5.1.3 Forest coverage
5.1.4 Important Bird Areas
5.1.5 Wildlife corridor and connectivity
5.1.6 Important Plant Areas
5.1.7 Faunal diversity
5.1.8 Threats and gaps in wildlife conservation
5.1.9 Floristic diversity
5.1.10 Threats to floral diversity
5.1.11 Agrobiodiversity
5.2 Ecosystem services
5.2.1 Provisioning services
5.2.2 Supporting services
5.2.3 Regulating services
5.2.4 Cultural services
29
29
30
30
30
31
32
32
32
34
34
36
36
38
38
39
41
42
Chapter 6: Resource Management System
6.1 Forest management
6.1.1 Local institutions in biodiversity conservation and management
6.1.2 Forest restoration
6.1.3 Forest utilization and management issues
6.1.4 Transboundary forest conservation and management issues
6.1.5 Illegal transborder trade: An issue of biodiversity conservation and management
6.2 Rangeland management
6.2.1 Major rangeland management regimes: from past to present
6.2.2 Transborder cooperation in pasture management
6.2.3 Transboundary movement of people and their impact on pastureland
6.2.4 Overgrazing in the rangelands
6.3 Wildlife management
6.3.1 Human-wildlife conflict
6.3.2 Major causes of human-elephant conflict
6.3.3 Problem mitigation
6.4 Agrobiodiversity management
6.5 Wetland management
6.6 Churia management
6.7 Institutional arrangements and stakeholders
6.7.1 Government institutions
6.7.2 Kangchenjunga Conservation Area Project and
Kangchenjunga Conservation Area Management Council
6.7.3 Formal community organizations
6.7.4 Community-based organizations
45
45
46
46
48
48
48
48
49
50
50
51
51
51
51
52
52
52
53
53
53
54
54
54
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
6.8
6.7.5 Major non-governmental organizations
6.7.6 Traditional systems and institutions
6.7.7 Shifting cultivation
Community perception on environmental issues and climate change
6.8.1 Culture and conservation
6.8.2 Climate change and community resilience
6.8.3 Peoples’ observation on climate change
v
55
55
55
56
56
56
57
Chapter 7: Policy and Enabling Environment
7.1 Existing policies and legislations
7.2 Nepal’s commitment to major international conventions, treaties and agreements
7.3 Bilateral agreements within the region
7.4 Enabling policy frameworks for gender inclusive conservation and development
7.5 Inconsistencies in the statutory regime, contemporary plans and policies
59
59
62
63
63
63
Chapter 8: Key Issues, Gaps and Priorities
8.1 Thematic areas, issues and gaps
8.2 Conservation and development priorities
8.2.1 Socio-economy and livelihoods
8.2.2 Biodiversity and ecosystem services
8.2.3 Resource governance and access to genetic resources and benefit sharing
8.2.4 Long-term socio-ecological and environmental monitoring
8.2.5 Enabling environment, knowledge management and regional cooperation
65
65
67
67
68
68
68
68
Chapter 9: Approaches and Way Forward
71
References
77
Annexes
85
Index
123
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1:
Table 2.2:
Table 2.3:
Table 3.1:
Table 3.2:
Table 3.3:
Table 3.4:
Table 3.5:
Table 4.1:
Table 4.2:
Table 4.3:
Table 4.4:
Table 4.5:
Table 4.6:
Table 4.7:
Table 4.8:
Criteria used for boundary delineation of KL Nepal
Village Development Committees (VDCs) and municipalities of KL Nepal
Important features of KL Nepal
Basic description of hydrometric stations in KL Nepal districts
Average annual precipitation and average precipitation during southwest monsoon
Land use pattern in KL Nepal districts (ha)
Land use and land cover in KL Nepal VDCs and municipalities
Mineral resources of KL Nepal districts
Population by caste/ethnicity (% of the total) in KL Nepal
Area (ha) and production (Mt) of major crops in KL Nepal districts (2011/2012)
Area (ha) and production (Mt) of major cash crops in KL Nepal districts
(2011/2012)
Number and types of animals raised in KL Nepal districts
Food availability and requirement (2010/2011)
Development and Poverty Index for different districts
Some potential sites for tourism promotion in KL Nepal districts
Major trade routes with different types of exported and imported items
6
6
7
10
12
14
14
15
18
19
19
20
21
21
22
23
vi
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Table 4.9:
Table 4.10:
Table 4.11:
Table 4.12:
Table 4.13:
Table 5.1:
Table 5.2:
Table 5.3:
Table 5.4:
Table 5.5:
Table 5.6:
Table 5.7:
Table 6.1:
Table 6.2:
Table 6.3:
Table 7.1:
Table 8.1:
Households in KL Nepal districts using different sources of fuel for
cooking (comparison between 2001 and 2011)
ICS, biogas and micro-hydropower installations in KL Nepal districts
Solar dryer/cooker and SHS installation in KL Nepal districts
Literacy rate and education accessibility by gender in KL Nepal districts
Women’s ownership of key assets in KL Nepal districts
Ecoregions and their conservation status within KL Nepal
Forest coverage of KL Nepal districts
Globally threatened and restricted range species of birds in Important Bird Areas
Important Plant Areas of KL Nepal
Major threats to wildlife species
Synopsis of floristic diversity of KL Nepal
Crops grown in KL Nepal districts
Distribution of forests under different forest categories in KL Nepal
Distribution of community forests in VDCs/municipalities within KL Nepal
Forest conservation and management plans under implementation
in KL Nepal districts
Existing policies and legislations having direct implications for KL Nepal
Thematic areas, issues and gaps in KL Nepal
25
26
27
28
28
30
31
32
33
35
36
37
47
47
47
60
66
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1:
Figure 2.1:
Figure 3.1:
Figure 3.2:
Figure 3.3:
Figure 3.4:
Figure 3.5:
Figure 3.6:
Figure 3.7:
Figure 3.8:
Figure 3.9:
Figure 3.10:
Figure 3.11:
Figure 3.12:
Figure 3.13:
Figure 4.1:
Figure 4.2:
Figure 4.3:
Figure 5.1:
Figure 5.2:
Figure 5.3:
Figure 5.4:
Map showing Kangchenjunga Landscape within the Hindu Kush Himalayas
Map of KL Nepal
Elevation gradient of KL Nepal
Hydrometric and meteorological network with relatively long-term data,
and river network in and around KL Nepal
Monthly variation of maximum, minimum and average temperature (1961–1976)
at Olangchung Gola
Monthly variation of maximum, minimum and average temperature
(1962–1976) at Tapethok
Monthly variation of maximum, minimum and average temperature (1961–2013)
at Taplejung (District headquarters)
Monthly variation of maximum, minimum and average temperature
(1971–2013) at Ilam
Monthly variation of maximum, minimum and average temperature (1984–2006)
at Gaida at Jhapa
Distribution of annual precipitation in the eastern part of Nepal
Cross-sectional variation of precipitation from the Tarai to the High Mountains
(see Table 3.1 for station location)
Average (1981-1995) evaporation rate and sunshine duration in bhojpur
Monthly average streamflows on Tamur River at Majhitar
Monthly average streamflows on the Mai Khola at Rajdwali, Puwa Khola
at Sajbate and the Kankai Mai at Mainachuli (1963- 2011)
Land use and land cover changes in KL Nepal
Major trade routes in KL Nepal
Amount of traded NTFPs/MAPs and revenue generated in five
years in KL Nepal districts
Pattern of fuel consumption for cooking
Distribution of endemic flowering plants of Kangchenjunga Landscape
Pastureland in KL Nepal region
Pastureland in 24 bordering VDCs of KL Nepal region
Seasonal grazing pattern of herders of Gola village of Olangchung Gola VDC
3
7
10
10
11
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
13
13
15
23
24
25
37
40
40
41
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This book is based on the research experience gained through feasibility assessment study of the Kangchenjunga
Landscape (KL) Nepal. We extend our sincere gratitude for the support of many individuals and organizations for
their contribution in making this book possible. We are grateful to International Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD) for the financial and technical support that was provided to Research Centre for Applied
Science and Technology (RECAST).
We express our gratitude to Mr. Sharad Chandra Paudel, Secretary of the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation
(MoFSC), Government of Nepal (GoN) and Dr. Ganesh Raj Joshi, former Secretary of MoFSC, GoN, for their
valuable comments on the Feasibility Assessment Report. The generous support of Dr. Rajan Kumar Pokharel,
Director General, Department of Forests, is highly appreciated. The advice and suggestions provided by Chief
District Officers Mr. Ekmani Nepal (Jhapa), Mr. Narhari Baral (Taplejung), Mr. Pradip Raj Kandel (Panchthar) and
Local Development Officers Mr. Tirtha Prasad Dhital (Taplejung), Mr. Lalmani Ojha (Jhapa), Mr. Bharat Mani
Pandey (Taplejung) and Mr. Bhanu Bhakta Baral (Panchthar) are greatly acknowledged. Similarly, we are thankful
to the District Forest Officers Mr. Rajendra Kafle, Mr. Sagar Rimal, Mr. Bishnu Prasad Bhandari, Mr. Indra Mani
Bhandari, Mr. Mahendra Chaudhary, Mr. Dhirendra Prasad Singh and the staff of the District Forest Offices of KL
Nepal districts for their support during the field work. Sincere thanks are also due to Mr. Shiva Kumar Wagley,
Under Secretary, MoFSC, GoN, for his coordination during the field visit. Valuable comments from Dr. Rajan Kotru,
Dr. Uma Pratap, Dr. Rucha Ghate and Ms. Marjorie Van Strien of ICIMOD on earlier versions of the manuscript
helped us to improve this book.
Many people have generously provided their valuable suggestions in this book during the field works, and we
thank them all. Particularly, we are thankful to Mr. Laxmi Prasad Kharel, District Agricultural Development Officer,
Taplejung; Mr. Lakshya Chaudhary, District Agriculture Development Office, Panchthar; Mr. Gynendra Chaudhary,
Environmental Officer, District Development Committee, Jhapa; Mr. Khagendra Limbu, Chairman, Kangchenjunga
Conservation Area Management Council (KCAMC), Taplejung; Mr. Sujit Kumar Shrestha, WWF Nepal, Taplejung;
Mr. Hirakaji Ghale and Mr. Yogendra Shrestha of Namsaling Community Development Centre (NCDC), Ilam;
Ms. Roshani Limbu, KCAMC, Taplejung; Federation of Community Forestry Users Nepal (FECOFUN) District
chapters of KL Nepal; members of Women’s Group, Lelep, Taplejung; commuity members of Jalthal Forest User
Group, Jhapa; community members of Bahundangi village, Jhapa; members of Himsikhar Community Forest
User Group, Pauwa Bhanjyang, Panchthar; participants of stakeholders’ and community meetings in KL Nepal;
and all the political parties of KL Nepal. We would like to thank the communities of KL Nepal who willingly shared
their experience, concerns and aspirations.
We are thankful to Dr. Manohara Khadka, Dr. Keshav Sharma and Mr. Binod Parajuli for their contribution on this
book. We appreciate the help received from Mr. Kabir Uddin, ICIMOD, Mr. Santosh Karki, Mr. Santosh Kumar
Rana, Central Department of Botany (CDB), TU, Kirtipur for their contribution with GIS. Again, Mr. Yam Aryal and
Mr. Tej Basnet from Central Department of Zoology, TU, deserve special appreciation for the preparation of the list
of fauna. Similarly, contribution of Mr. Rajesh Tamang and Mr. Prabin Bhandari from CDB, TU, is acknowledged
for compiling the list of flora. We are thankful to all researchers whose findings have been cited in this book.
Finally, our sincere thanks are due to Mr. Keshav Poudel, Joint Administrator of RECAST, Faculty of RECAST, staff
of MoFSC and ICIMOD, for their logistics support. We highly acknowledge and appreciate the tireless efforts of
Mr. Deependra Joshi, Editor, for editing, layout, and bringing this report to a close.
Authors
viii
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
FOREWORD
Kangchenjunga Landscape in Nepal is a part of Himalayan biodiversity hotspot which is rich in biological and
cultural diversity. The landscape provides habitat for several flagship species of global importance as well as
ecosystem services to millions of people living around and at transboundary scale as well as downstream.
Importance of transboundary landscape has been demonstrated by the movement of snow leopard in wider areas
of Nepal and India in the landscape. The landscape, however, is facing a lot of conservation and development
challenges in the context of anthropogenic activities, land use and land cover changes and climate change. The
Kangchenjunga Landscape Conservation and Development Initiative (KLCDI) is a collaborative initiative undertaken
by the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MoFSC) with technical and financial support of International
Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology
(RECAST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal.
Conservation of forests and natural resources at landscape level on a sustainable long-term basis has been a
strategy adopted in Nepal by MoFSC, and this is being promoted by the policies and periodic plans of Nepal.
Nepal is a party to multilateral environment agreement including the Convention on Biological Diversity (CDB),
and is committed towards fulfillment of the commitment for conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.
MoFSC has been undertaking possible initiatives for conserving the natural and cultural heritage of the country
from individual species to landscape level. Participatory forest management and protected area management
programmes are getting widely encouraged by the MoFSC and is accepted by wider society that have added
greater value to natural resource management. People of Nepal, including indigenous and local communities,
have become more aware about conservation and development.
This book is an outcome of an effective collaboration between MoFSC, Tribhuvan University, Nepal, and ICIMOD.
I am happy to see the publication and congratulate the authors for producing a high quality book. I take this
opportunity to thank to ICIMOD for financial support, and to RECAST for coordinating and collaborating the KLCDI.
Last, but not the least, I thank the staff members of MoFSC for help and facilitation, ICIMOD, for technical and
financial support, RECAST for coordination and collaboration of the project, and all the agencies and individual
experts for their valuable suggestions. The information provided in the book will be useful to implement the
project in Nepal. I am looking forward for an effective collaboration and cooperation among the partners for
the implementation of KLCDI.
Sharad Chandra Paudel
Secretary
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
ix
OFFICE OF THE VICE CHANCELLOR
FOREWORD
It is my pleasure to write the Foreword to this book, which is prepared by experts from the Tribhuvan University (TU),
Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MoFSC), and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
(ICIMOD) as well as independent experts under the collaborative efforts of MoFSC, ICIMOD, and Research Centre
for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST) based on the interaction and research undertaken by natural resource
and social scientists for the conservation and sustainable development of Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL).
The book “Kangchenjunga Landscape Nepal: From Conservation and Development Perspectives” comprises
comprehensive information covering physical, socio-economic, biological and environmental aspects of
Kangchenjunga Landscape in eastern Nepal, an important landscape with extraordinary biological and cultural
diversity, as well as water resources. The publication covers interdisciplinary areas related to the conservation
and development process such as peoples’ livelihoods, ecosystem management, resource governance, climate
change, etc.
The information given in the book are important for conservation and development at national and local level
perspectives as well as at global and regional scales where the issues of management of transboundary resources
and impact of climate change are apparent and getting more and more attention by a wider sectors of the society.
I sincerely hope that this book will be interesting and valuable to the scientists, natural resources managers,
planners, policy makers, and indigenous and local communities at large.
I congratulate the book authors for their outstanding contribution comprising conceptual and field-based research.
I also hope that this will be a source of inspiration to others to bring out similar publications to strengthen
collaboration with governmental and non-governmental organizations.
On behalf of Tribhuvan University, I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to MoFSC and ICIMOD for their
assistance extended to RECAST in various ways.
Prof. Dr. Hira Bahadur Maharjan
VIce-Chancellor
Tel: 4330433/4330434, Fax: 977-1-4331964, E-mail: vcoffice@tribhuvan-university.edu.np, P.O. Box No. 8212
x
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
David Molden, Ph.D.
Director General
F O R M O U N TA I N S A N D P E O P L E
FOREWORD
The mountains of Nepal are home to rich cultural and biological diversity and are an important source of water for
the region. Government agencies, civil society, research organizations, and individuals all play an important role in
conserving this unique cultural and natural heritage. In the face of emerging environmental and socioeconomic challenges,
Nepal has become a leader in the implementation of innovative conservation and development approaches. Through
the promotion of community forestry, introduction of species-level conservation programmes, increasing coverage of
protected areas, and recent shifts toward landscape-level and zero poaching efforts, Nepal has earned a place on the
global list of conservation successes.
I am delighted to see the progress our partners in the transboundary Kangchenjunga Landscape Conservation and
Development Initiative (KLCDI) have made. The KLCDI is a process initiated between Bhutan, India and Nepal that
seeks to conserve and sustainably manage a highly unique and special landscape through the application of the
ecosystem approach at a transboundary landscape level. This initiative is making important contributions toward global
conservation targets set by the Convention on Biological Diversity, and is promoting the goals and approach described
in the Convention’s Programme of Work on Mountain Biodiversity and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets.
ICIMOD is honoured to partner with the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation of the Government of Nepal, which
led the preparatory phase of this important landscape initiative with technical support from the Research Centre
for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST) of Tribhuvan University. This publication documents the findings of a
feasibility assessment conducted in Nepal, with sound analysis from both primary and secondary information available
on the Kangchenjunga Landscape in Nepal. It highlights the need for a transboundary approach to conservation and
development, as well as the need to enhance landscape-level collaboration.
The book presents a rich collection of social, ecological, and environmental perspectives with comprehensive documentation
of biodiversity, agricultural practices, and livelihood options in the Kangchenjunga Landscape in Nepal. It also highlights
challenges to the ecosystems and communities of the landscape, including those that call for regional cooperation and
collective action, such as the illegal trade of high-value plant and animal species.
I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mr. Sharad Chandra Paudel, Secretary of the Ministry of Forest and Soil
Conservation, for his leadership; Mr. Krishna Acharya, Joint Secretary of the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation,
for his guidance and support; and Prof. Ram P Chaudhary, RECAST, Tribhuvan University for steering the process. I
am sure that this document will serve as the basis for future conservation and development interventions within the
Kangchenjunga Landscape. Lastly, I would like to congratulate the team that made this publication possible.
David Molden, PhD
Director General, ICIMOD
International Centre for Intergrated Mountain Development
GPO Box 3226, Kathmandu, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal
TEL
+977-1-5003222
EMAIL
info@icimod.org
FAX
+977-1-5003299
WEB
www.icimod.org
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
xi
PREFACE
The natural resources, including biological diversity of
Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL) Nepal, support human
society ecologically, economically, culturally and spiritually.
The local communities have shaped the unique cultural
landscape of KL Nepal for centuries. KL Nepal is a hotspot
of biodiversity containing several species and genetic
diversity that provide valuable goods and services. People
of KL Nepal have historically and culturally established
close linkages with neighbouring countries, such as China,
India as well as Bhutan.
If natural resources and cultural diversity were the measures
of livelihoods, human well-being and economic prosperity,
people of KL Nepal would have been rated one of the
richest. However, human-induced environmental changes,
from local to global scale, poverty, habitat destruction and
degradation, have serious impacts on the Kangchenjunga
ecosystems. It is indigenous people and local communities
who suffer most when natural resources are lost. Loss and
degradation of biodiversity, coupled with climate change
impacts, severely threaten conservation and development
efforts in KL Nepal region and beyond.
The importance of Kangchenjunga ecosystem for its
biological resources has been realized since long. However,
ecosystem approach to landscape level management has
been initiated recently by International Centre for Integrated
Mountain Development (ICIMOD). The governments of
regional member countries - Government of Bhutan
(GoB), Government of India (GoI) and Government
of Nepal (GoN) - have been engaged in developing
‘Conservation and Development Strategy (CDS)’ of their
respective countries; whereas ICIMOD is in the process of
developing a Regional Cooperation Framework (RCF) for
the conservation and development of KL Nepal.
The Kangchenjunga landscape in Nepal is in transition
and faces additional challenges arising from land use
land cover changes (LULC), climate change and glacier
retreat, out-migration of people, human-wildlife conflict,
urbanization and pollution, upstream-downstream
linkages related to conservation and development.
In addition to efforts at the national level, a regional
cooperation at transboundary level among the partner
countries would greatly expedite the efforts in addressing
emerging challenges and in realizing opportunities.
Such regional cooperation also offers opportunities
for sharing knowledge and information, protecting
indigenous knowledge of the communities, generating
scientific knowledge on biodiversity and climate change
contributing to policy intervention, long-term monitoring
and evaluation, tourism promotion, trans-boundary trade,
establishing upstream-downstream linkages, a few among
many such opportunities.
Research Centre for Applied Science and technology
(RECAST) is proud to bring out a book which is prepared
in a consultative process with several stakeholders and
in collaboration with the Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation (MoFSC) and ICIMOD. The book presents
a good collection of bio-physical, socio-economic and
environmental perspectives of the KL Nepal and provides
a strong foundation for the conservation and development
initiative of the landscape in future.
I heartily acknowledge the support of MoFSC and ICIMOD
for their relentless help and guidance in the preparation
of this book, including financial support from ICIMOD.
The authors sincerely thank all the experts for providing
valuable information to prepare the Feasibility Assessment
(FA) Report. The encouragement, inspiration and guidance
received from the National Coordination Committee
(NCC) and other partners during the preparation of the
book is thankfully acknowledged.
I gratefully thank Mr. Sharad Chandra Paudel, MoFSC; Dr.
David Molden, Dr. Eklabya Sharma and other experts of
ICIMOD, for their help and support. I also acknowledge the
technical team members of India and Bhutan for sharing
their information during the regional meetings.
Again, I express my sincere thankfulness to all the local
communities and officials working at the government line
agencies, Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) and
Community-based Organizations (CBOs) for participating
in the study and for sharing their valuable knowledge and
concerns which has significantly contributed in finalizing
this book.
Experience gained from the implementation of Kailash
Sacred Landscape Conservation and Development
Initiative by China, India and Nepal would be very helpful in
implementing KLCDI through the meaningful participation
of local communities and development partners.
Prof. Ram P. Chaudhary, PhD
Executive Director, RECAST
Collaborator - Kangchenjunga Landscape Conservation
and Development Initiative (KLCDI) and
Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation and
Development Initiative (KSLCDI), Nepal
xii
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ABS
AEPC
AGRBS
BPP
CAPS
CBD
CBO
CBS
CBNRM
CCF
CDB
CDO
CFUG
CITES
DDC
DFID
DFO
DFRS
DHM
DoF
DoHS
DNPWC
DPR
DSCWM
ECDF
EFLG
EIA
EPA
FECOFUN
FY
GESI
GIS
GLOF
GOs
GoB
GoI
GoN
HHs
HKH
ICIMOD
IBA
ICA
ICS
IEE
IPA
Access and Benefit Sharing
Alternative Energy Promotion Centre
Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing
Biodiversity Profiles Project
Churia Area Programme Strategy
Convention on Biological Diversity
Community-based Organization
Central Bureau of Statistics
Community-based Natural Resource Management
Conservation Community Forests
Central Department of Botany
Chief District Officer
Community Forest User Group
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
District Development Committee
Department for International Development
District Forest Office
Department of Forest Research and Survey
Department of Hydrology and Meteorology
Department of Forests
Department of Health Services
Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation
Department of Plant Resources
Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management
Environment Conservation and Development Forum
Environment-friendly Local Governance
Environmental Impact Assessment
Environment Protection Act
Federation of Community Forestry Users Nepal
Fiscal Year
Gender and Social Inclusion
Geographic Information System
Glacial Lake Outburst Floods
Governmental Organizations
Government of Bhutan
Government of India
Government of Nepal
Households
Hindu Kush Himalaya
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
Important Bird Areas
International Conservation Agreements
Improved Cooking Stove
Initial Environmental Examination
Important Plant Areas
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
IUCN
KCA
KCAMC
KL
KLCDI
KSLCDI
LAPA
LFUG
LRMP
LSGA
LSMA
MAPs
MEA
MEA
MoFSC
MoSTE
NBS
NBSAP
NCC
NCDC
NCSA
NGO
NPC
NPWCA
NRDB
NTFP
NTNC
NWP
PRC
RCF
RECAST
RPN
SHL
TAL
TAR
TMI
TU
UC
UNCCD
UNFCCC
USAID
VDC
WUAs
WRS
WWF
International Union for Conservation of Nature
Kangchenjunga Conservation Area
Kangchenjunga Conservation Area Management Council
Kangchenjunga Landscape
Kangchenjunga Landscape Conservation and Development Initiative
Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation and Development Initiative
Local Adaptation Plan of Action
Leasehold Forest User Group
Land Resource Mapping Project
Local Self-Governance Act
Land Survey Measurement Act
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Multilateral Environmental Agreement
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation
Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment
Nepal Biodiversity Strategy
Nepal National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan
National Coordination Committee
Namsaling Community Development Centre
National Capacity Self Assessment
Non-governmental Organization
National Planning Commission
National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act
Nepal Red Data Book
Non-Timber Forest Product
National Trust for Nature Conservation
National Water Plan
People’s Republic of China
Regional Cooperation Framework
Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology
Red Panda Network
Sacred Himalayan Landscape
Tarai Arc Landscape
Tibet Autonomous Region
The Mountain Institute
Tribhuvan University
User Committee
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
United States Agency for International Development
Village Development Committee
Water Users’ Associations
Water Resources Strategy
World Wildlife Fund
xiii
xiv
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The ecosystem approach has emerged as a strategy for
the management of living resources, land and water
that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an
equitable way. The Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD) endorsed ecosystem approach during the Fifth
Conference of Parties in 2000 in order to conserve
ecosystem structure and function and maintain ecosystem
services. The ecosystem approach to landscape level
management comprises people as an integral part
of ecosystems and has become an effective means in
conservation and development. In many circumstances,
where the boundaries are shared among the nations
with similar issues of conservation and development
and the delimited area cannot restrict the movement of
species and their conservation, the landscapes become
transboundary. In such transboundary landscapes, the
collective efforts of the transboundary countries are
needed to address the issues of conservation and
development.
The Kangchenjunga Complex is an important
transboundary landscape in the Hindu Kush Himalaya
shared by Bhutan, China, India and Nepal. The
Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL), here referring to the
southern part of the area around the Mt. Kangchenjunga,
spreads across eastern Nepal, Darjeeling and Sikkim
of India, and western Bhutan. Nepal, India and Bhutan
are working together for sustainable conservation and
development of the landscape by applying ecosystem
conservation approaches and building on the strengths
of the region while considering both the risks and
opportunities of the changing climate.
This book is based on the research experience gained
through feasibility assessment study of KL Nepal. It
has been prepared by integrating both primary and
secondary information. The extensive field visits and
consultations with the government line agencies,
communities, non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), private and business sectors provided
valuable information to identify gaps and priorities for
KL Nepal. It has been structured into nine chapters
focusing on boundary delineation, physical features,
socio-economic features, biodiversity and ecosystem
services, resource governance system, perceptions
on environmental issues, cultural values, and climate
change, overview of the existing policy and enabling
environment for the conservation and development of KL
Nepal. It also identifies major issues and gaps, priority
programmes and activities to be focused in KL Nepal.
The book concludes with five outcomes envisaged for
the conservation and development of KL Nepal.
The boundary of KL Nepal comprises 5,190 km2 and
covers 85 VDCs and seven municipalities in Taplejung
(23 VDCs, including 4 VDCs inside Kangchenjunga
Conservation Area-KCA), Panchthar (14 VDCs), Ilam (25
VDCs and 2 municipalities), and Jhapa (23 VDCs and 5
municipalities) districts. Land use and land cover pattern
is as follows: forest and shrub (35%); agriculture (14%);
grassland (4%); snow, ice and glacier (10%); barren
land (22%) and water bodies (3%), steep terrain and
hard rocks (11%). The physiography of KL Nepal varies
widely from Tarai to high mountains. The landscape is
occupied by one of the steepest regions of the world
within a short aerial distance of 70 km. The Tamur,
Kabeli, Kankai and Mechi rivers are major river systems
in KL Nepal.
Some 771, 934 people, with diverse ethnicity, are
residing within the boundary of KL Nepal VDCs and
municipalities with higher proportion of female (52.37%).
Population increases along the southern direction. The
overall average annual population growth is 1.10%
with remarkable net negative population growth of
-0.94% and -0.39% in Taplejung and Panchthar districts
respectively. Population density in the landscape VDCs/
municipalities varies by a large range. Olangchung
Gola VDC of Taplejung has the lowest density (0.34/
km2) and Anarmani VDC of Jhapa has the highest
population density (2,323.05/km2). The overall sex ratio
is 90.94 showing implication on gender dimension of
local level resource management.
People in KL Nepal districts practice both farm and
off-farm based livelihoods. Agriculture is the mainstay
for the majority of the people. People follow mixed
farming systems comprising crop production and
animal husbandry. However, major means of livelihoods
vary geographically. In the bordering villages like
Olangchung Gola, people almost rely exclusively on
transboundary trade with Tibet. Similarly, at higher
elevation settlements, contribution of animal husbandry
is more compared to the settlements of lower elevation,
where crop production is the major economic activity.
Although commercialization of agriculture is increasing,
farming is largely of subsistence nature. KL Nepal districts
are food sufficient and have recorded a commendable
reduction in poverty over the last decade. Over the years,
large cardamom (Amomum subulatum) cultivation has
become one of the major economic activities which
has transformed the socio-economic condition in the
region. Trade of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs)
also contributes considerably to livelihoods. Besides
natural resource and agriculture based economic
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
activities, one of the major livelihood options has been
foreign employment for youths, especially in the last
decade. Tourism has a long history in the region and
possesses huge potential for livelihoods improvement,
if developed sustainably. Extensive road networks
have been developed in the districts that may provide
opportunities for the diversification of livelihood options.
KL Nepal comprises four ecoregions, 11 bioclimatic
zones and 23 forest types. Several important bird
and plant areas have been identified. A review of the
literature shows that KL Nepal districts harbour 102
species of mammals, 354 species of birds, 98 species
of herpetofauna, 44 species of fish, 391 species of
insects and 186 species of butterflies. Similarly, there
are 56 species of lichens, 292 species of bryophytes, 257
species of pteridophytes, 15 species of gymnosperms
and 2,448 species of angiosperms. Several species of
animals and plants are endemic, rare and threatened.
Forest encroachment for the extension of agriculture,
habitat loss and fragmentation due to deforestation,
erosion and landslide, introduction of invasive
alien species, over-grazing and over-exploitation,
and poaching and illegal trade, and unsustainable
utilization of commercially important species are some
of the threats to biodiversity throughout KL Nepal. The
Kangchenjunga Conservation Area, the only protected
area of KL Nepal, has significant contribution in the
conservation of biodiversity. Several wetlands, including
Mai Pokhari Ramsar site, have been bridging cultural
and biological diversity in KL Nepal.
Panchthar district has the highest proportion of forests
(47.30%) followed by Ilam (47.26%), Taplejung (30.72%)
and Jhapa (8.25%) distributed under different forest
management categories: government managed forests,
community forests, private forests, religious forests and
leasehold forests. Community forests managed by 199
community forest user groups cover about 11% of the
total forests in these districts. Community involvement
in conservation initiatives is evident in KL Nepal region.
In addition to the DFO, several other governmental
organizations, NGOs, CBOs and eco clubs have been
actively involved in conserving biodiversity of the region.
The culturally diverse communities of KL Nepal have been
managing their natural resources in their own traditional
systems, among which kipat is the most notable.
Issues related to the utilization and management of
forest resources in KL Nepal can be broadly categorized
as: i) slash and burn agriculture in high elevation (above
xv
3,000m) forests; ii) forest encroachment to convert
forest areas to agricultural land; iii) overgrazing on
the alpine meadows; iv) extensive illegal tree logging
for household cooking, heating and construction; v)
illegal and overharvesting of NTFPs; vi) invasive alien
species; vii) forest fire; viii) poaching, retaliatory killing
and illegal trade of wildlife; and (viii) over-exploitation
of Churia resources. Human-wildlife conflict is a serious
problem in KL Nepal.
Local people have observed many evidences and
identified climate change related issues. Gradual increase
in temperature; decreased rainfall and prolonged dry
season; irregularities in rainfall pattern; increased
evidences of new pests and diseases in crops; increased
number of mosquitoes in residential areas, etc. are
some of the observations of the local communities. Such
changes have resulted in low productivity of farmlands,
drying-up of cash crops, invasion of new weeds and
increased evidences of new pests and diseases.
Several policies and acts formulated in different sectors
such as forest resources, biodiversity, water resources,
wetland, agriculture and development in general
create enabling environment for the development and
implementation of transboundary level conservation
and development initiatives. Several inconsistencies and
gaps exist in the policies, strategies and legislations
regarding to landscape conservation and development.
Issues, gaps and priorities are identified and organized
into five thematic areas, namely, socio-economy and
livelihoods; biodiversity and ecosystem services; resource
governance and access to genetic resources and benefit
sharing; long-term socio-ecological and environmental
monitoring; and enabling environment, knowledge
management and regional cooperation. KL’s strategic
vision is to conserve bio-physical and cultural heritage,
strengthen climate change resilience and enhance
people’s well-being. Its goal and five outcomes have
been envisaged for the conservation and development
of KL Nepal. An attempt to define development in the
context of landscape conservation and development
has been made in the book emphasizing on ecosystem
integrity and eco-friendly development as the key
pillars of conservation and development initiatives.
Development in this context should be understood as
initiatives and interventions that are manageable at
local level, based on the management of ecosystem
goods and services, which contribute to attaining
healthy ecosystem, livelihoods and human well-being
in a sustained manner.
xvi
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Forests in KL are vital for species conserva on and livelihoods
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
1
Chapter
1
Introduction
Sunrise as seen from Kangchenjunga landscape
1.1 Background
The Kangchenjunga Complex (Figure 1.1) is an
important transboundary landscape in the Hindu
Kush Himalaya shared by Bhutan, China, India and
Nepal. The Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL) here
refers to the southern part of the area surrounding Mt.
Kangchenjunga that is spread across eastern Nepal,
Darjeeling and Sikkim of India, and western Bhutan.
Mount ‘Kangchenjunga,’ the third highest mountain
peak of the world (8,586m), is culturally regarded as
the Five Treasures (repositories of God) of Snow: gold,
silver, gems, grain and holy books. The mountain is
called ‘Sewalungma,’ in Limbu language meaning
‘the mountain that we offer greetings to.’ Further, the
strategic location of KL among the three countries
makes it an appropriate conservation landscape that
requires regional transboundary cooperation (Chettri
and Sharma 2005).
The KL, a part of the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot,
is rich in biological and cultural diversity (WWF and
ICIMOD 2001). The hotspot is one among the 34
global biodiversity hotspots (Mittermeier et al. 2004).
This transboundary landscape is spread over more than
25,000 km2 in the southern part of Mt. Kangchenjunga
representing 9 global ecoregions. Nepal, India and
Bhutan have given high priority for the conservation and
development of KL, which provides a range of ecosystem
services supporting millions of people (Phuntsho et al.
2012). It provides pristine habitat for several umbrella
and charismatic species, including Asian elephant
2
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
(Elephas maximus), Musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster),
Red panda (Ailurus fulgens), Snow leopard (Uncia uncia),
Takin (Budorcas taxicolor), Tiger (Panthera tigris) and
many other threatened and endangered plant species,
including Paanch aunle (Dactylorhiza hatagirea),
Kutki (Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora), Laghupatra
(Sinopodophyllum hexandrum) and Lauth salla (Taxus
wallichiana). Most of the protected areas within the
landscape are isolated without connectivity. Generally,
the people in KL are economically, physically and socially
vulnerable (Chettri et al. 2008a, Phuntsho et al. 2012).
Recognizing its global and regional significance and
challenges, the Kangchenjunga Landscape Conservation
and Development Initiative (KLCDI) programme has
been proposed in Bhutan, India and Nepal. The aim
of this programme is to contribute to the sustainable
development of KL by applying transboundary ecosystem
approaches while considering both the risks and
opportunities of climate change.
This book is an attempt to present the assessment of biophysical, socio-economic and environmental situation of
KL Nepal. Based on this assessment, issues, gaps, and
conservation and development prioritites are discussed.
The approaches and way forward for the sustainable
conservation and development of the landscape have
also been presented.
1.2 Methodology and approach
The data and information presented in this book are
based on both primary and secondary information.
Primary information was collected from the field study
through consultations, interaction meetings, focused
group discussions and field observations.
The following processes were adopted for the preparation
of the book:
the participants; otherwise notes were taken.
Field visits covered stakeholders’ consultations at
two levels: district level at the district headquarters
and community level at the villages. The participants
were representatives from relevant governmental and
non-governmental organizations, local communities,
including Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs),
women groups, Community-based Organizations
(CBOs), Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) traders and
herders. Major issues discussed in the meetings were
related to sustainable livelihoods, gender and social
inclusion, tourism, conservation and development,
biodiversity, culture, transboundary trade, climate
change and related challenges, and potential solutions
for the proposed landscape programme.
Key informants consultations: Apart from the district
level stakeholders’ meetings and community level
interactions, key informants were also interviewed. These
included NTFP traders in Phungling (Taplejung), members
of Kangchenjunga Conservation Area Management
Council (KCAMC) at Olangchung Gola, members of
Mothers’ Group (Lelep), herders (Lelep), community
members (Lungthung and Iladada) and governmental
and non-governmental officials in all districts. These
consultations were focused on particular issues related
to the knowledge of respective informants. In general,
the conservation and development challenges, issues,
gaps and priorities were discussed. Ethical norms such
as prior informed consent, privacy and confidentiality
were maintained while interacting and interviewing with
communities/stakeholders.
Data analysis: The data and information collected
through literature review and field study were analyzed
using qualitative and quantitative tools. Audio records
of interaction meetings and interviews were transcribed
and contents were analyzed (May 2002). Secondary
Literature review: Secondary information was
generated through literature review. In addition to the
literature directly related to the area, other documents
such as policies, plans and Acts relevant with the scope
of work were also reviewed. In order to facilitate the
review, an annotated bibliography of KL Nepal was
prepared (Poudel 2013).
Field visits: Three rounds of field visits were conducted
in KL districts for stakeholders’ consultations which
were focused mainly on national boundary delineation
and identification of conservation and development
opportunities, issues and gaps. Checklists and guidelines
for such interaction meetings were prepared. Interviews/
discussions were audio-recorded to facilitate transcription
and content analysis whenever consent was granted by
Local stakeholders’ consultation during field visit in Ilam district
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
data on population and demography, economy and
bio-physical features collected from official sources
were analyzed. Grey literature complemented data
and analysis. These analysis were complemented by
GIS, particularly of land use and land cover status.
Topographic data available from the Department of
Survey and Remote Sensing images were used.
3
Experts’ review: The draft was shared and discussed in
a series of meetings held with the high ranking officials
of the Government of Nepal and experts from ICIMOD.
In addition, independent experts reviewed the draft and
provided valuable and critical suggestions.
Figure 1.1: Map showing Kangchenjunga Landscape within the Hindu Kush Himalayas
4
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
A lush green tea garden as seen from Ilam Bazaar, Ilam district
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Chapter
2
5
The Kangchenjunga
Landscape Nepal
The head stream of Mai in Ilam district
2.1 Boundary delineation
The process of boundary delineation of KL Nepal was
initiated by ICIMOD in 2002. This initiative resulted into
a Participatory Conservation Corridor Development
Strategy and Action Plan for Transborder Areas along the
Kangchenjunga Landscape in Eastern Nepal document
(NCDC 2005) where priority VDCs to be included in the
landscape initiative from Ilam, Panchthar and Taplejung
districts were identified (Figure 2.1).
Consultation on Transboundary Biodiversity Management
in Kangchenjunga Landscape was held in Gangtok, Sikkim,
from August 16—18, 2012. During the preparatory phase
of stakeholders’ consultation meetings in KL Nepal districts
and inception meeting on August 25, 2013, at the Ministry of
Forests and Soil Conservation (MoFSC) Nepal, the possibility
of including Jhapa district was further discussed. It was
realized that the proposed boundary of KL Nepal should
be revisited to include other potential VDCs in Jhapa, Ilam,
Panchthar and Taplejung districts. It also recommended
to incorporate a wider range of ecosystems and cultural
heritage of neighbouring districts at the landscape level to
establish proper upstream-downstream linkages, address
transboundary issues, including biological corridor and
connectivity, and conserve the only typical tropical forest
in Jalthal of Jhapa district.
2.2 Criteria for landscape boundary
For boundary delineation of the Kangchenjunga
Landscape Conservation and Development Initiative
(KLCDI) in Nepal, criteria were developed through
an iterative and consultative process at national level
stakeholders’ workshop held in Kathmandu. These
criteria for delineation were first developed for Kailash
Sacred Landscape Consevation and Development
Initiative (KSLCDI) and then adopted for the delineation
of Kangchenjunga Landscape in Nepal. These criteria
were basically clustered into three thematic areas:
(i) ecological or abiotic and biotic; (ii) cultural; and
(iii) planning and management (Table 2.1).
6
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Table 2.1: Criteria used for boundary delineation of KL Nepal
Thematic areas and references
Criteria
Ecological or abiotic and biotic
(Olson and Dinerstein 1998, Primack 2006,
Chisholm 2010, Ervin et al., 2010, ICIMOD 2010,
TU/CDB 2010, Sgro et al. 2011, Cardinale et al. 2012,
Green and Garmestani 2012)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Cultural (ICIMOD 2010, TU/CDB 2010)
•
•
Planning and management
(ICIMOD 2010, TU/CDB 2010,
Green and Garmestani 2012)
•
•
•
2.3 Delineation of the landscape
The area for KL Nepal comprises 5,190 km 2 and
covers 85 VDCs and seven municipalities: 23 VDCs
(including 4 VDCs inside Kangchenjunga Conservation
Area-KCA) in Taplejung district, 14 VDCs in Panchthar
district, 25 VDCs and two municipalities in Ilam district
and 23 VDCs and 5 municipalities in Jhapa district
Transboundary ecosystem services and ecosystem contiguity
Climatic zone, altitudinal gradient
Protected areas, wilderness areas, wetland (particularly
Ramsar Sites) and other conservation priority areas
Watershed and river basin coverage for the headwater
areas of major rivers originating from the landscape
Key biodiversity areas/hotspots/representativeness,
including migratory habitats and potential biodiversity
corridors and connectivities
Agrobiodiversity
Species endemism, indicator/flagship, distinctiveness, rare,
endangered and threatened species (and their habitat
range)
Species of utilitarian value
Infra-specific population and genetic diversity
Culture, cultural heritage/sites, ethnicity, existing and
potential ecotourism areas
Indigenous knowledge
Vulnerabilities of and threats to the area (globalization,
migration, climate change, urbanization and
infrastructure development (current and planned)
Feasibility from management perspectives with VDC as
smallest unit
Proximity of resource users and resource base
(Table 2.2). KL Nepal includes tropical to alpine
region which supports a wide range of vegetation
and fauna, and is a part of the Himalayan Biodiversity
Hotspot, including some important ecoregions of the
Eastern Himalaya (Table 2.3). The area also maintains
connectivity between the KCA and Makalu Barun
National Park in Nepal.
Table 2.2: Village Development Committees (VDCs) and municipalities of KL Nepal
Districts
No. of VDCs &
Municipalities
Area (km2)
Taplejung
23
3,863
Ambegudin, Angkhop, Chaksibote, Dumise, Ikhabu, Kalikhola, Khebang,
Lelep, Limbundin, Mamangkhe, Mehele, Papung, Pedang, Sablakhu, Sadewa,
Sikecha, Sinam, Surumkhim, Tapethok, Tellok, Thumedin, Olangchung Gola
and Yamphudin
Panchthar
14
539
Chilingdin, Chyangthapu, Ektin, Lungrupa, Memeng, Nagin, Oyam,
Pauwasartap, Phalaicha, Prangbung, Ranitar, Sidin, Tharpu and Yangnam
Ilam
25+2
849
Barbote, Chamaita, Godak, Gorkhe, Irautar, Jamuna, Jirmale, Jogmai,
Kolbung, Laxmipur, Mabu, Maimajhuwa, Mai Pokhari, Namsaling, Nayabajar,
Pashupatinagar, Puwamajhuwa, Pyang, Sakhejung, Samalbung, Shantipur,
Shriantu, Soyang, Sulubung, Sumbek (VDCs); Ilam and Suryodaya (Kanyam,
Paanchakanya, Phikkal) (Municipalities)
Jhapa
23+5
939
Bahundangi, Balubadi, Baniyani, Budhabare, Chakchaki, Chandragadhi,
Dangibari, Dhaijan, Duwagadhi, Garamani, Gherabari, Goldhap, Haldibari,
Jalthal, Jyamirgadhi, Kechana, Khudunabari, Maheshpur, Pathamari, Pathariya,
Prithvinagar, Rajgadh, Shantinagar (VDCs); Bhadrapur, Mechinagar, Birtamod
(Anarmani and Charpani), Sani-Arjun (Sanischare and Arjundhara) and Kankai
(Surunga and Ghailadubba) (Municipalities)
VDCs and Municipalities*
* Suryodaya, Birtamod, Sani-Arjun and Kankai are newly declared municipalities by including VDCs given in the parantheses.
Also see Annex I for the area of VDCs and Municipalities with their location.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
7
Figure 2.1: Map of KL Nepal
Table 2.3: Important features of KL Nepal
Area (km2)
5,190
Elevation Range
60m to 8,586m
Average temperature
Summer temperature more than 340C (Jhapa) to winter temperature less than –100C in
Olangchung Gola (Taplejung)
Average rainfall
Less than 1,000mm in some parts of Taplejung to 2,700mm in Jhapa
Major river systems
Ghunsa, Kabeli, Mai Khola, Mechi, Simbua Khola and Tamur
Landscape level biodiversity
features
Includes a Ramsar Site, 3 IBAs (KCA, Mai Valley forests, Tamur Valley and watershed (Baral
and Inskipp 2005); 18 IPAs; Important cultural sites, characteristic tropical forest in Jalthal
VDC, most elephant-conflicted VDCs in Jhapa
Land use pattern
Forest and shrub (35%); agriculture (14%); grassland (4%); snow, ice and glacier (10%); barren
land (22%); water bodies (3%); steep terrain and rocks (11%)
Population within KL Nepal
VDCs/municipalities
40,196 (Taplejung); 65,995 (Panchthar); 162,540 (Ilam); 503,203 (Jhapa)
Total: 771,934
Caste/ethnic composition
Brahmin, Chhetri, Dhimal, Gurung, Lepcha, Limbu, Meche, Newar, Rai, Rajbansi, Sherpa, Tharu
Major cultural sites
Dhiki Chhyoling monastery at Olangchung Gola, Pathivara (Taplejung); Timbung Pokhari
(Taplejung/Panchthar), Mai Pokhari (Ilam), Prithivi Nagar, Kichakbadh, Arjundhara (Jhapa)
8
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Tamur River, one of the major river systems of KL Nepal
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
9
Chapter
3
Physical Features
Lelep village in Taplejung district
3.1 General introduction of the area
Physiography of KL Nepal varies widely from around
60m elevation to the south to about 8,000m to the
north. KL Nepal districts can be divided into the following
physiographic regions:
Tarai region (about 60m to 150m): Extending
up to the Nepal-India border in the south, it is a
northern portion of the Gangetic plain. Kechana,
the lowest point of Nepal, is located in Jhapa
district. The plain area of the Tarai occupies about
one-fourth of KL Nepal and more than two-third of
Jhapa district. Being a sediment deposition zone,
the fertile soil makes this part suitable for intensive
cultivation.
Bhabar region (about 150m to 300m): At the border
of Ilam and Jhapa districts, the region is mainly covered
with forest. The Bhabar region occupies about a quarter
of KL Nepal (Figure 3.1). Shantinagar (381m) in Jhapa
is the highest location of this region.
Churia and mountainous region (about 300m to
3,000m): It is the area dominated by mountainous
environment, including Churia and the Mahabharat range.
The Churia is the most fragile region which is situated in
Jhapa and Ilam districts. Panchthar district and some parts
of Ilam district lie in the mountainous region.
High mountain/Himalayan region (from 3,000m to
more than 8,000m): The region is dominated by the
mountains extending up to Kangchenjunga (8,586m),
10
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Figure 3.2: Hydrometric and meteorological
network with relatively long-term data, and river
network in and around KL Nepal
the third highest peak of the world. There are 10 peaks
higher than 7,000m (Kangchenjunga, Kambachen,
Jongsang, Tent Peak, Talung, Jannu, Dom, Tewinus,
Kabu Peak and Pyramid) in Taplejung district. North-east
border between Nepal and India is represented by the
Singhalila mountain range.
The region is occupied by one of the steepest landscapes
of the world within a short aerial distance of 70 km.
All the mountain ranges with alpine climate have
some deep valleys with subtropical climatic conditions.
Taplejung district has valleys that go down to as low as
550m. Topographical variation has very close linkage
with climate (Figure 3.1).
Legend
Climate Stn
Met Stn
Hydrometry
Figure 3.1: Elevation gradient of KL Nepal
River
Districts
Table 3.1 presents the basic description of hydrometric
stations in KL Nepal. Only the stations located at
Majhitar, Sajbate, Rajdwali and Mainachuli operate
on a regular basis with long-term climatic data records.
3.2.1 Temperature
Data from 22 meteorological stations are available in KL
Nepal. The length of record varies significantly from six
years to 66 years (Table 3.1). Some of the stations are
equipped with thermometers as well providing climatic
features based on temperature and precipitation (Figure
3.2). Stations at Ilam and Taplejung provide data on wind
speed (daily average) and wind direction (instantaneous).
3.2 Hydro-meteorology
The hydro-meteorological network of KL Nepal covers
elevation range starting near Kechana (60m) to 4,242m
at Olangchung Gola.
Table 3.1: Basic description of hydrometric stations in KL Nepal districts
SN
River
Location
Latitude
Longitude
684
Tamur
Majhitar
27o 09’ 30”
87o 42’ 45”
o
o
Elevation Area
(m)
(km2)
Instruments
Start of
record
533
4050
S, C ,R, Rg
01-01-96
728
Maikhola
Rajdwali
26 52’ 45”
87 55’ 45”
609
377
S, C
01-01-83
730
Puwa Khola
Sajbate
26o 55’ 00”
87o 54’ 40”
802
107
S, C
01-01-65
o
o
738
Deumai Khola
Aangdang
26 54’ 00”
87 46’ 15”
-
-
S, C
-
799
Kankai
Kumarkhod
-
-
-
-
S
05-01-87
125
-
S, C, R, Rg
05-01-71
795
Kankai
Mainachuli
o
26 41’ 12”
o
87 52’ 42”
S = Staff Gauge; C = Cableway; R = Water Level Recorder; Rg = Rain Gauge
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Figure 3.5: Monthly variation of maximum,
minimum and average temperature (1961–2013)
at Taplejung (District headquarters)
30.0
25.0
Temperature oC
Based on the temperature records available in the
landscape area, the average maximum temperature
in the Tarai area goes as high as 34.2oC. The average
temperature in the Tarai varies from 16.4oC in winter
to 30oC in summer, which is close to the tropical type of
climate. Temperature records available at Olangchung
Gola station shows that the minimum temperature goes
down to almost –5oC in winter to more than 15oC in
summer months—June to September (Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.4 to Figure 3.7 indicate subtropical type of
climate in the valleys, hilly region and in the Tarai.
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
3.2.2 Precipitation
Jan
Some parts of the mountains facing southwest
monsoon receive high precipitation. For example,
Num and Tashigaon area of Sankhuwasabha district,
west of Taplejung district, is one of the wettest areas
of Nepal in terms of monsoon as well as annual
precipitation.
Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Max
Jul
Min
Aug Sep Oct
Nov Dec
Ave
Figure 3.6: Monthly variation of maximum, minimum
and average temperature (1971–2013) at Ilam
30.0
25.0
Temperature oC
Precipitation is strongly influenced by monsoon as
well as topography. Rain shadow effect is visible in the
mountainous area behind the major Mahabharat range
which is exemplified by the rainfall pattern in the eastern
part of Nepal (Figure 3.8).
Figure 3.3: Monthly variation of maximum,
minimum and average temperature (1961–1976)
at Olangchung Gola
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
Jan
Feb
Mar Apr
May Jun
Max
20.0
Jul
Min
Aug Sep
Oct
Nov Dec
Ave
Figure 3.7: Monthly variation of maximum,
minimum and average temperature (1984–2006)
at Gaida at Jhapa
20.0
Temperature oC
11
10.0
5.0
0.0
40.0
-5.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Max
Min
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Ave
Figure 3.4: Monthly variation of maximum,
minimum and average temperature (1962–1976)
at Tapethok
Temperature oC
35.0
-10.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Max
30.0
Min
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Ave
Temperature oC
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Max
Min
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Ave
Cross-sectional variation of precipitation from the
Tarai to the high mountains is illustrated in Figure
3.9. The figure shows that monsoon precipitation
is significantly higher in the southern part of KL
Nepal, whereas winter precipitation is not much
different. Precipitation during southwest monsoon
as the percentage of average annual precipitation is
presented in Table 3.2.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Figure 3.8: Distribution of annual precipitation in
the eastern part of Nepal
1,201-1,600
900.0
100-400
1,601-2,000
401-800
2,001-3,000
801-1,200
3,001-5,500
800.0
Precipitation (mm)
Precipitation (mm)
Figure 3.9: Cross-sectional variation of precipitation
from the Tarai to the High Mountains (see Table
3.1 for station location)
700.0
600.0
500.0
x
400.0
200.0
0.0
x
x
300.0
100.0
x x
x
x
x
x
x
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Gaida
x
Nup
Ilam
x
x
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Dobhan
Figure 3.10: Average (1981-1995) evaporation
rate and sunshine duration in Bhojpur
10.0
8.0
Evaporation (mm/day),
Sunshine Duration (hour)
12
Table 3.2 shows that southern part of KL Nepal (Ilam,
Chandragadi and Gaida) receive 80–81% of precipitation
during monsoon season. This is lower in the high
mountain areas ranging from 67–77%. Data from high
elevation areas, however, are limited (less than ten years).
3.2.3 Evaporation and sunshine duration
No long-term recording of evaporation and sunshine
duration is available in KL Nepal area. The closest station
with the availability of such data is the station located in
Bhojpur. The average sunshine duration and evaporation
rate based on the available records from 1981 to 1995 is
presented in Figure 3.10. The figure shows that sunshine
duration exceeds seven hours during March-April and
October-November with minimum values during southwest monsoon. Similar pattern is followed by evaporation
with highest rate in the month of April.
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
n
Ja
b
Fe
ar Apr ay Jun
M
M
Evaporation
l
Ju
g
Au
p
Se
t
c
v
Oc No De
Sunshine Duration
3.3 River systems
The Tamur River, originating from the Kangchenjunga
glacier, is the major river draining almost one-third of
the area. Except the southeast part, where Taplejung
district is bordered by the Kabeli River, upper Tamur
watershed characterizes Taplejung district. The Kabeli
River is the major tributary of Tamur which borders
Taplejung and Panchthar districts.
Kankai Mai is the major river draining Ilam. Ilam district
is delineated by the upper watershed of Kankai River.
Some of the major tributaries of Kankai in Ilam district
are Deumai, Mai Khola and Puwa Khola.
Table 3.2: Average annual precipitation and average precipitation during southwest monsoon
Station
Annual (mm)
Monsoon (mm)
Monsoon (% of annual)
972
647
67
1947-1953
Olangchung Gola (1,401)
1,663
1,213
73
1947-1975
Tapethok (1,404)
2,595
1,999
77
1947-2013
Dobhan (1,420)
1,665
1,168
70
1947-2013
Ilam (1,407)
1,696
1,360
80
1947-2013
Chandragadi (1,412)
2,144
1,730
81
1947-2013
Gaida (1,421)
2,723
2,218
81
1947-2013
Nup (1,414)
Grey-shadow areas have greater influence of southwest monsoon with precipita on equal to or exceeding 80% of the annual total.
Data duration
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
In Jhapa district too, Kankai is the major river flowing
almost in the middle of the district. Several other flashy
rivers, including Biring and Ratuwa rivers, originating
from the Mahabharat region, join Kankai only after
crossing the Nepal-India border. The Ratuwa River
forms the border between Ilam and Jhapa districts. In
addition, Mechi River originating from the Mahabharat
range is the border between Jhapa (Nepal) and West
Bengal (India).
Regularly gauged rivers in KL Nepal are the Tamur
and the Kankai. Based on the available records,
average discharge of Tamur at Majhitar (4,050 km2)
is 245m3/s and average discharge on the Kankai at
Mainachuli (1,148 km2) is 63.2m3/s. The average
discharges at the tributary of the Kanakai are: the Mai
at Rajdwali (377 km2) is 5m3/s and the Puwa Khola
at Sajbate (107 km2) is 8m3/s. The total discharge
at these points is more than half of the flows on the
Kankai River.
Tamur is a snow-fed river whereas Kankai and
the rivers originating in the Mahabharat range
are rain-fed. Under the influence of snow as well
Figure 3.11: Monthly average streamflows on
Tamur River at Majhitar
900
800
Discharge (m3/s)
700
600
500
400
300
200
13
as rain, the average Tamur hydrograph peaks in
August (Figure 3.11). In the case of rain-fed rivers,
the average discharge in July is comparable with
the average discharge in August indicating lower
storage capacity of rain-fed rivers compared to
snow-fed rivers (Figure 3.12).
Several lakes are also found in KL Nepal districts. Some
of the important lakes are: Timbung Pokhari (4,481m) in
Taplejung, Mai Pokhari (2,100m) in Ilam, Birat Pokhari
and Gaura Daha in Jhapa at lower elevation. The total
lake area is estimated at 2 km2.
3.4 Snow, ice and glaciers
As seen from the aerial feature, 732 km2 of the Tamur
River basin lies above 5,000m elevation, an average
snowline in eastern Nepal. A total of 479 km2 of KL
Nepal is covered by permanent ice, snow and glaciers.
Area covered by snow, ice and glaciers is hence more
than half of the area above 5,000m.
Based on the detailed assessment of glaciers and
glacial lakes in the Himalaya, ICIMOD has made
inventories in 2001 (Mool et al. 2001) and in 2011
(ICIMOD 2011). The 2001 report presents the
inventory of 261 glaciers in the Tamur basin covering
an area of about 474 km2. The size of the reported
glacier ranges from 0.01 km2 to 94.51 km2. Some
other significantly large glaciers include Yalung
Glacier (81.91 km2), Yamatari Glacier (14.08 km2),
Kumbhakarna Glacier (18.13 km 2) and Lhonak
Glacier (16.7 km 2). Eight glaciers occupy areas
exceeding 10 km2. The total volume of ice reserves
of these glaciers is estimated at 57 km2.
100
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Aug Sep Oct
Nov Dec
Tamur, Majhitar
Figure 3.12: Monthly average streamflows on the
Mai Khola at Rajdwali, Puwa Khola at Sajbate and
the Kankai Mai at Mainachuli (1963- 2011)
250
Discharge (m3/s)
200
The inventory of glacial lakes published by ICIMOD in
2011 differs from that of 2001 (ICIMOD 2011). Based
on the 2009 survey, the 2011 publication reports 209
glacial lakes covering 6.57 km2 in the Tamur basin.
Again, as per the 1999 survey, the 2001 ICIMOD report
identifies 356 glacial lakes covering 7.32 km2 in the
Tamur basin. The explanation given to such differences
include different data sources and the adoption of
different methodologies.
3.5 Hydro-meteorological related
issues and gaps
150
100
50
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Mai, Rajdwali
Aug Sep Oct
Puwa Khola, Sajbate-Ilam
Nov Dec
Kankai, Mainachuli
KL Nepal has several advantages in terms of hydrological
and meteorological observations compared to other
parts of Nepal. Hydro-meteorological observations
were established in this area as early as 1947. Record
length, hence, extends to almost 66 years with valuable
14
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
information on climate change studies. Despite such
advantages, there are several gaps that need to be
addressed to understand hydrological and meteorological
processes in the region. Some of the major gaps, issues
and priorities can be described as: (i) there is scanty
information and data recording system about the area
covered by snow and glaciers; (ii) there is inadequate
information and recording systems on hydrological
cycle of groundwater which is the major water source in
Jhapa district; (iii) meteorological stations for recording
wind and solar radiation measurements are not existent
in KL Nepal; (iv) only 14 stations out of 21 established
meteorological stations are operational; (v) the stations
are not representatively distributed to record weather data
from different locations, and only the Kankai station at
Mainachuli has been upgraded with the real time data
transmission; and (vi) these stations are not well equipped.
3.6 Land use and land cover
Land use pattern in KL Nepal is determined by an
interplay of multiple factors. As the land use pattern
has changed over the years, the land use and land
cover pattern of KL Nepal was analyzed using landset
images of 1990 and 2010 (Figure 3.13). The land use
and land cover pattern of KL Nepal districts in 2010 is
presented in Table 3.3 and that of the landscape VDCs/
municipalities is presented in Table 3.4.
3.7 Minerals and soil types
Because of varied geological structure, various types of
minerals have been reported in KL Nepal districts (Table
3.5). The Department of Mines and Geology (DoMG)
has identified Taplejung and Ilam districts as some of the
mineral-rich districts of Nepal (Chapagain et al. 2002).
Nevertheless, mining activities have not been undertaken.
Extreme altitudinal variations, monsoonal climate and
young geology are playing role in the formation of different
soil types and soil textures in KL Nepal. The Tarai area
(below 500m) in Jhapa district is dominated by recent and
sub-recent alluvial sediments. The Tarai sediments with
favourable climate has created conducive environment
for intensive agriculture and deciduous forest. Soils in the
Tarai region are mostly acidic to neutral. Hilly areas with
Table 3.3: Land use pattern in KL Nepal districts (ha)
Land use
Taplejung
Panchthar
Ilam
Jhapa
Total
%
Forest
112,256
53,182
72,214
13,239
250,891
30.47
Shrub
56,362
14,369
31,649
1,863
104,243
12.66
Agriculture and
grassland
70,946
54,078
64,595
141,795
331,414
40.26
405
181
236
778
1,600
0.19
Barren land
37,757
326
2,873
6,517
47,473
5.77
Snow
60,115
29
0
0
60,144
7.31
Others
27,496
0
0
0
27,496
3.34
365,337
122,165
171,567
164,192
823,261
100
Water bodies
Total
Source: CBS (2012a)
Table 3.4: Land use and land cover in KL Nepal VDCs and municipalities (km2)
Land use and
land cover
Taplejung
Panchthar
Ilam
Jhapa
Total Percentage
Dense forest
318.22
202.15
395.89
111.05
1,027.30
19.79
Sparse forest
364.48
78.86
211.81
131.02
786.16
15.15
Agriculture land
90.56
48.04
70.42
535.20
744.22
14.34
Grassland
32.90
13.00
111.77
44.30
201.96
3.89
River and water
bodies
103.58
2.77
7.64
45.70
159.70
3.08
Sand and river
beds
13.97
0.02
0.36
10.26
24.61
0.47
Barren land
843.35
190.79
48.97
61.09
1,144.20
22.05
Snow and glaciers
531.93
0.09
1.66
0.00
533.68
10.28
Steep terrain and
hard rocks
563.94
3.50
0.93
0.00
568.37
10.95
2,863
539
849
939
5,190.19
100
Total
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
elevation ranging from 300m to 1,500m are dominated
by metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. Soil textures fall
in the category of loams, silt-clay and silt-loam with mostly
acidic reaction. Mountainous areas in the range of 1,500m
to 5,000m possess igneous and metamorphic rocks. The
region with stony soils is dominated by acidic sandy loam,
clay loam and silt clay loam. The high mountain areas
above 5,000m of Taplejung district are usually covered by
snow/ice with thin, coarse and loose soils of glacial origin.
Extreme relief and intense monsoon precipitation are the
causes of extensive soil erosion and landslides. Some
sediments get deposited along the river banks creating
sandy or sandy-loam soil.
Table 3.5: Mineral resources of KL Nepal districts
Districts
Metallic minerals
Taplejung
Arsenic, copper,
iron, lead,
tantalum-noibium
Panchthar
Ilam
Arsenic, bismuth,
copper, gold,
lead, nickel, silver,
tungsten, zinc
Jhapa
Non-metallic minerals
Chemicals,
Germ minerals
Construction
fertilizers, ceramics,
materials
refractories and
abrasives
Corundum, garnet, Aquamarine/beryl, Granite, marble
graphite, mica
quartz, tourmaline
Garnet
corundum,
graphite, mica,
pyrite
Fuel minerals
and thermal
springs
Tourmaline
Tourmaline
Mica
Coal, oil and gas
Source: CBS (2012a)
Figure 3.13: Land use and land cover changes in KL Nepal
Land use and land
cover map (2010)
Legend
Boundary
Land use
Agriculture land
Barren land
Dense forest
Land use and land
cover map (1990)
15
Grassland
River and water bodies
Sand and river beds
Snow and glaciers
Sparse forest
Steep terrain and
hard rock
16
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Olangchung Gola, one of the major trading routes of KL Nepal
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Chapter
4
17
Socio-economic
Features
A local market place of Phikkal, Ilam district
4.1 Demography
According to 2011 census, the total population of the
VDCs and municipalities within KL Nepal is 771,934.
Out of this, male population is 367,651 (48%) and
female population is 404,283 (52%) (CBS 2012b).
The population size in four districts of the landscape
varies greatly with the least population of 40,196 in
Taplejung district and the highest population of 503,203
in Jhapa district. The size of population increases along
the southern direction. However, the number of VDCs/
municipalities in these districts is also more in Ilam and
Jhapa compared to Taplejung and Panchthar districts.
The average annual population growth between 2001
and 2011 in these VDCs/municipalities is 1.10%.
However, there is a net negative population growth in
Taplejung (-0.94%) and Panchthar (-0.39%) districts.
All the VDCs except one in Taplejung have negative
population growth rate. In Panchthar, three VDCs have
positive growth rate. Population growth rates in Ilam
and Jhapa are 0.29% and 1.85% respectively. Of the
29 VDCs/municipalities in Ilam district, 12 VDCs have
negative growth rate. All the VDCs/municipalities in
Jhapa district have positive growth rate. Over the years,
the number of absentee population has been increasing
owing largely to foreign employment. The total absentee
population from these VDCs/municipalities is 129,746
according to 2011 census. Within the landscape, 31%
households have one or more absentee members.
Male constitutes overwhelming majority (87.5%) of the
absentee population.
18
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Overall sex ratio in the landscape VDC/municipalities
is 91, which is below the national average of 94. The
sex ratio has declined from 100 within a span of a
decade indicating the trend of change in demography.
Population density in the landscape VDCs/municipalities
varies by a large range. Olangchung Gola VDC of
Taplejung district has the lowest density of 0.34/km2 and
Anarmani VDC (now a part of Birtamod municipality)
has highest population density of 2,323.05/km2 within
the landscape (CBS 2012b). The average household
size is 4.42. The detailed demographic features of the
landscape VDC/municipalities are listed in Annex II & III.
Ethnic diversity: The landscape exhibits rich diversity in
culture, caste/ethnicity and religion. According to 2011
census, Brahmin and Chhetri account for 35%, ethnic
groups (Janajatis) 55%, Dalits 4% and others account for
5% of the total population within the landscape VDCs and
municipalities. Janajatis constitute the largest group in
Taplejung, Panchthar and Ilam districts whereas Brahmins
and Chhetris are the largest group in Jhapa district (Table
4.1). The ethnic groups living in the landscape are Limbu,
Rai, Magar, Gurung, Tamang, Majhi, Sherpa, Lepcha,
Sunuwar, Bhote, Newar, Sanyasi, Yakkha and Bhujel in
hilly districts. In Jhapa district, Rajbanshi and Marwadi
also constitute major ethnic groups. Major religions
followed in the region are Kirati, Hindu and Buddhism.
Cultural diversity also ensures diversity in indigenous
knowledge on resource management and utilization.
Among other languages such as Tharu, Tamang, Magar,
Sherpa, Gurung, Limbu and Rai, Nepali language is also
widely spoken in KL region.
Table 4.1: Population by caste/ethnicity
(% of the total) in KL Nepal
Districts
Dalits
Janajatis Brahmin Others
and
Chhetri
Taplejung
7.5
64.99
26.16
1.35
Panchthar
4.89
77.55
16.69
1.17
Ilam
3.35
60.65
30.03
5.97
Jhapa
5.57
44.56
42.67
7.20
Source: CBS (2012b)
4.2 Livelihoods and economic
activities
People in KL Nepal districts practice a range of both farm
and off-farm based livelihood activities. Agriculture is
the mainstay for the majority of people. People follow
mixed farming systems comprising crop production
and animal husbandry. However, major livelihood
means vary geographically. In the bordering villages
like Olangchung Gola, people almost exclusively rely
Cultivation of large cardamom–one of the major sources of income to
the people of KL Nepal districts
on transboundary trade with Tibet. Similarly, at higher
elevation settlements, contribution of animal husbandry
is more compared to the settlements of lower elevation.
In the lower elevation villages, crop production is the
major economic activity. Although commercialization
of agriculture is increasing, agriculture is largely of
subsistence in nature. Over the years, large scale
cultivation of large cardamom (Amomum subulatum)
has become one of the major economic activities in
the region, which has transformed the socio-economic
condition of the people, particularly in hilly districts.
4.2.1 Agricultural system
General crops
Crop production is the major occupation for majority of
the people. Major crops grown are paddy, millet, maize,
wheat and buckwheat. Rice is the main staple food.
Millet is grown mostly for brewing. In the higher elevation
villages, potato is grown as a major crop. Other minor
crops grown are pulses, soybean, oilseeds, etc. In the
villages at higher elevation, maize, wheat and millet are
the major crops. Slash and burn agriculture is practised
in the slopes of higher elevation. Maize used to be the
major crop of slash and burn agriculture but Chiraito
(Swertia chirayita) has now become the major crop of
this farming practice. Area and production of major
crops grown in KL districts are shown in the Table 4.2.
Cropping pattern
Availability of irrigation facility is one of the defining
factors in the selection of crops. Paddy is the preferred
crop wherever irrigation facility is available. Cropping
pattern varies largely depending on the elevation, type
of land (khet/bari), and the availability of irrigation
facility. Three crops are grown in the river valleys where
irrigation facility is available. In some areas, paddy is
grown twice a year. In bari, maize and finger millets
constitue the major crop. In higher elevations, only one
crop is grown.
Cash crop production
Cash crop cultivation is one of the major livelihood
options for the people. Some of the major cash crops
grown are large cardamom, tea and coffee. Crops like
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
19
ginger, chilli and broom grass are also grown as cash
crops. Area and production of major cash crops grown
in the region is shown in Table 4.3. Among the different
crops, large cardamom is the major cash crop grown
from Ilam to lower parts of Lelep VDC of Taplejung
district in the areas of adequate water availability.
The rural economy has been greatly improved by
large cardamom cultivation. However, the cultivation
of large cardamom has declined in some parts of
Panchthar and Ilam districts because of the occurrence
of fungul and bacterial diseases (Partap et al. 2014).
People have converted many traditional rice terraces for
large cardamom plantation. Shade trees maintained/
grown with large cardamom have improved vegetation
coverage and availability of firewood. Large cardamom
is generally exported to India via collection agents in
the district headquarters.
Tea plantation is increasing steadily in KL Nepal region.
The tea industry is one of the major agriculture based
Round chillies (Akbare)–widely cultivated in KL Nepal
industries of Nepal. Jhapa is the major tea producing
district contributing 87% of the total tea production of
the country. In the year 2010/2011, Nepal exported tea
worth Rs. 1,549 million. The cultivation of coffee has
been gaining momentum in recent years. Similarly, the
cultivation of Chiraito has also become an important
economic activity in Taplejung and Panchthar districts. It
is cultivated in community forests as an important crop
through ‘slash and burn’ farming practice. In addition,
Table 4.2: Area (ha) and production (Mt) of major crops in KL Nepal districts (2011/2012)
Crop
Taplejung
Panchthar
Area Production
Ilam
Area Production
Jhapa
Area Production
Area Production
Paddy
10,477
22,167
11,500
23,000
14,825
45,690
89,400
321,840
Maize
16,075
38,116
12,800
21,760
31,480
77,500
24,600
72,460
Millet
3,050
3,508
5,000
9,350
3,000
3,000
1,800
2,160
Wheat
1,210
2,783
4,000
7,580
4,620
13,398
7,500
25,150
Barley
240
280
494
593
55
55
8
6
Buckwheat
155
170
60
42
28
20
1,300
1,300
3,615
42,437
1,830
24,119
6,815
90,950
10,140
163,820
564
627
622
512
780
700
3,500
3,582
25
20
101
85
80
50
2,005
2,187
Black gram
345
408
670
569
503
308
1,275
1,079
Soybean
175
200
580
445
121
95
143
101
Vegetables
770
8,625
1,307
12,924
3,085
43,608
7,445
123,659
Citrus
537
4,883
652
7,123
387
4,420
45
250
Summer
fruits
115
1,033
207
2,529
364
2,289
6,043
70,773
Winter fruits
664
3,740
153
1,297
243
2,003
-
-
Potato
Oilseed
Lentil
Source: MoAD (2012)
Table 4.3: Area (ha) and production (Mt) of major cash crops in KL Nepal districts (2011/2012)
Crops
Taplejung
Panchthar
Area
Production
Area
Production
Area
Production
Area
Production
2,925
1,755
1,500
630
1,700
694
-
-
Tea
-
-
920
255
5,638
1,805
9,500
15,955
Coffee
-
-
33
8.1
47
15.5
-
-
Ginger
200
2,800
200
2,240
3,170
56,000
374
4,562
Chilli
125
1,500
49
290
155
540
135
665
Large cardamom
Source: MoAD (2012)
Ilam
Jhapa
20
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
commercial vegetable production has also become a
major economic activity along the roadhead and in
local market areas.
4.2.2 Animal husbandry
Animal husbandry is an integral part of farming system.
Common types of livestock kept are cow, buffalo, goat,
sheep and pig. Pure and crossbreeds of yaks are kept
in the higher elevation villages like Olangchung Gola,
Lelep and Yamphudin. In areas like Kalikhola, herds
of cattle are kept and moved at different elevations
following seasonal movement. Flocks of sheep are
also kept following seasonal grazing. However, the
seasonal movement of animal husbandry has greatly
reduced over the years. In the settlements too, people
largely follow stall-feeding where the intensity of grazing
has diminished. Many dairy cooperatives have been
established and milk production has become one of the
major economic activities in the region. The number of
different types of animals raised in KL Nepal is shown
in the Table 4.4.
Carpet weaving–a major source of income in Olangchung Gola of
KL Nepal
Remittance from foreign employment has become
an important feature of the rural economy. Internal
migration from remote areas to urban and semi-urban
centres also shows an increasing trend.
4.2.4 Weaving and knitting
Weaving and knitting also constitutes an important
occupation of the people in KL Nepal districts, although
transfer of indigenous knowledge on weaving and
knitting is declining due to the limited interest of younger
generation to engage in the occupation. While women
in the high mountain areas of Taplejung are involved in
carpet weaving, their involvement is high in weaving/
knitting of shawls and bags from cotton fibre using
indigenous handicraft weaving techniques in Panchthar
and Taplejung districts.
4.3 Food security
Production of major cereal crops and total food
requirement in the districts in the year 2010/2011 is
shown in Table 4.5. Since there is no available data at
the VDC level, production and requirement data at the
district level is taken as an indicator of the existing food
security scenario in the area. The table shows that among
the four districts, Panchthar has comparatively less food
balance with production and requirement both combined.
However, rice has become the major food commodity and
other cereals are becoming less important constituents
of food. Therefore, food availability is to be assessed in
relation to rice rather than the total production of cereal
crops. Millet is grown almost exclusively for brewing local
alcohol rather than consumption as food in these districts.
Yaks in Olangchung Gola of KL Nepal
4.2.3 Foreign employment, migration and
remittance
Besides agriculture and natural resource-based
economic activities, another major livelihood option
has been foreign employment for youths, especially in
the last one decade or so. The 2011 census showed
a total absentee population of 129,746 from these
four districts. Youths migrating for foreign employment
constitute large portion of this absentee population.
Table 4.4: Number and types of animals raised in KL Nepal districts
District
Cattle
Buffalo
Yak/chauri
Sheep
Goat
Pig
Fowl
Taplejung
73,154
45,795
2,890
14,589
143,321
32,972
220,592
Panchthar
110,266
50,208
1,095
4,106
170,435
42,081
557,190
88,601
30,737
110
5,792
140,067
22,318
352,218
320,814
135,257
0
30
228,166
47,611
1,164,302
Ilam
Jhapa
Source: MoAD (2012)
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
21
Table 4.5: Food availability and requirement (2010/2011)
Districts
Cereal production (Mt)
Requirement
Total (Mt)
edible
Balance
Rice
Maize
Millet
Wheat
Barley
Buckwheat
Taplejung
11,964
29,396
2,851
2,265
77
138
46,691
24,440
22,251
Panchthar
12,392
14,208
7,656
6,103
163
34
40,555
39,798
757
Ilam
24,889
61,436
2,431
11,021
15
16
99,807
59,734
40,073
175,827
50,675
1,757
20,800
2
1,053
250,113
149,338
100,775
Jhapa
Source: MoAD (2012)
Easy access to markets with the development of rural road
networks and availability of cash improved by cultivation
of cash crops and remittances from foreign employment
has contributed to improve food security. These factors
have to be taken into account in assessing food security
in addition to the local food production/availability.
4.4 Human development and poverty
Generally, KL Nepal districts fare well in terms of Human
Development Index (HDI) and Human Poverty Index (HPI).
The national average HDI and HPI is 0.490 and 31.12
respectively. The percentage of poor people has declined
sharply in ten years period. The percentage of poor in
Taplejung, Panchthar, Ilam and Jhapa districts in 2001
(2058 BS) was 39.7, 52.5, 51.8 and 13.4 respectively.
Ten years ago, they ranked 69th, 70th, 35th and 6th, and
now they rank 42nd, 7th, 2nd and 6th respectively indicating
decline in the number of poor people in these districts.
Table 4.6 shows the percentage of poor and development
indices in different landscape districts.
Table 4.6: Development and Poverty Index for
different districts
Districts
HDI
HPI
Per capita
income ($)
% of poor
Taplejung
0.494
26.42
1,313
27.0
Panchthar
0.496
33.66
1,082
11.4
Ilam
0.526
26.96
1,260
7.3
Jhapa
0.518
21.82
1,226
10.6
Kichakbadh in Jhapa district–one of the religious sites of KL Nepal
the recently promoted Great Himalayan Trail in Taplejung
district. In some parts, small scale tourism is developing and
local people are engaged in it. Additionally, road network
is also being developed rapidly reducing the role of pack
animals in transportation.
KL Nepal is also the eastern gateway for the Great
Himalayan Trail. The number of tourists visiting KCA
in the years 2009, 2010 and 2011 were 592, 556
and 702 respectively. Although these figures are not
significant compared to other tourist destinations in
Nepal, there is a huge potential for tourism growth
in this region. Domestic tourism can be promoted
through agri-based tourism in Ilam and religious/
heritage and cultural tourism in all the districts of
KL Nepal.
Source: CBS (2013), GoN/UNDP (2014)
4.5 Tourism
Tourism has a long history in the region that dates back to
early attempts to climb Mt. Kangchenjunga. As early as 1899,
an expedition team led by Douglas Freshfield completed the
first high level circuit of the mountain. Although the region
became the attraction for tourism since long, tourism has
not yet become a major activity. The establishment of the
KCA in 1998 has added impetus to the growth of tourism
in the region. Current tourism activities are mostly limited to
climbing Mt. Kangchenjunga, trekking in the KCA and along
Dhiki Chhyoling Monastery at Olangchung Gola
22
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Table 4.7: Some potential sites for tourism promotion in KL Nepal districts
Districts
Places of natural attraction
Sacred places
Taplejung
Kangchenjunga Conservation Area, Pathivara, Dhiki Chhyoling Monastery Pathivara
Mt. Kangchenjunga, Ghunsa, Red panda at Olangchung Gola
Olangchung Gola
habitats, 5 IPAs (see 5.1.6), Important Bird
Taplejung Bazaar
Areas (see 5.1.4)
Panchthar
Timbung Pokhari, Pauwa Bhanjyang, Red Kabeli, Mahadevsthan, Siddha
panda habitats, 5 IPAs (see 5.1.6), Important Devisthan, Tin Maule, Aangejung
Bird Areas (see 5.1.4)
Gumba, Pathivara Devisthan,
Shivalaya Mandir, Timbung Pokhari,
Jor Pokhari, Gadidevisthan, Phatikeshor
Mahadevsthan, Labrekuti Mandir,
Thakle Mandir, Hastapur Devisthan
Jorsal, Aahalgarhi, Aatare
Hewakholapati, Jorpati,
Tindharepati, Gadi, Chala
Sekuwadada, Phaudarpati,
Chaklepati, Simrahapati,
Jorsalpati
Ilam
Tea gardens, Shree Antu, Sandakpur (also Mai Pokhari
known as Sandakphu in India), Kanyam,
Gajurmukhi, Todke jharana, Red panda
habitats, 5 IPAs (see 5.1.6), Important Bird
Areas (see 5.1.4)
Larumba
Jhapa
Tea gardens, Jalthal forest, 3 IPAs (see Kichakbadh, Arjundhara, Birat Kichakbadh, Arjundhara,
5.1.6).
Pokhari, Kankaimai, Krishna Thumki, Birat Pokhari, Samayegadh,
Shatasidham
Chandragadhi and Kechana
Natural landscapes, rich fauna and flora, sacred
temples (e.g. Pathivara temple) and other religious/
natural sites such as Timbung Pokhari and rich cultural
heritage make KL Nepal one of the attractions for
heritage tourism (Table 4.7). Tourism promotion in
the region is also linked with tourism activities along
the bordering areas of Nepal-India. Highly developed
tourism sector in KL India (Darjeeling and Sikkim) could
also be a boon for KL Nepal if tourism activities are
well coordinated.
4.6 Transboundary trade
In addition to crop production and animal husbandry,
people practice a wide variety of activities to sustain
their livelihoods, ranging from small scale cottage
industries to trade at the local level as well as crossborder trade. Most of the households combine these
different strategies to minimize livelihoods’ risk and
optimize the use of natural and economic resources
(Müller-Böker and Kollmair 2000, WWF 2006).
Domestic as well as cross-border trade of forest,
agriculture and animal husbandry products is an
old practice in KL Nepal region. However, trade
pattern has significantly changed over a few decades,
especially regarding the traded items, their volume,
market channel and trade routes (Fürer-Haimendorf
1975, Müller-Böker and Kollmair 2000, NCDC
2010a).
Similarly, transborder trade pattern varies along the
elevation gradient. Transborder trade of the lower
elevation region like Ilam and Jhapa is mainly oriented
towards India (Sikkim region) and also towards
Historical places
Bhutan. Trade items mostly include NTFPs (mainly
medicinal plants), cash crops (large cardamom,
potato, pulse, broom grass, etc.), dairy products
(usually yak butter, cheese, chhurpi (dried cheese),
other yak products), while the daily life commodities,
chemical fertilizers (in the case of Jhapa), textile
products, etc. are imported from India. At the higher
altitudinal belt (above 2,500m), trade with Tibet and
Sikkim is one of the major off-farm activities of the
people. Trade with Tibet is done generally during
autumn. Mostly, men are involved in transboundary
trade. People also maintain settlements at different
places according to their livelihood strategies in
different seasons.
The long stretch of Kangchenjunga–Singhalila Complex
separates India (Darjeeling and Sikkim) and Nepal.
The border between India and Nepal is open and there
are a number of trade routes and points for trade and
movements. Trade of basic commodities and movement
of livestock and tourists in the area have been continuing
for many years.
Trade in Taplejung district with Tibet takes place
through high altitude alpine passes (Chettri et al.
2008a). Along the border with Tibet, there are several
trading points such as Olangchung Gola, Topkegola
and Papung of Taplejung; and Pauwakhola, Chepuwa
and Thudam of Sankhuwasabha district (Figure 4.1).
However, due to the extremely rugged and remote
terrain on the northern border, there is less interaction
with local people in China compared to the interaction
with India (NCDC 2010a). Major trade routes in KL
Nepal region and major traded items are shown in
Table 4.8.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
23
Figure 4.1: Major trade routes in KL Nepal
Local trade points on the routes:
1. Olangchung Gola, 2. Ghunsa,
3. Pawakhola, 4. Chepuwa,
5. Papung, 6. Panchthar (Prangbung, Memeng),
7. Ilam (Pashupa nagar), 8. Charali/Birtamod,
9. Chandragadhi
Table 4.8: Major trade routes with different types of exported and imported items
Trade points
Routes followed
Export
Import
From 6 to 1
Panchthar (Prangbung, Memeng)– Medicinal plants/NTFPs, wildlife Salt, rice, wheat flour, sugar, fat,
Olangchung Gola–Tibet
products, dairy products, yaks, potato wool, kerosene, clothes, horses
6 to 2
Panchthar (Prangbung, Memeng) – Medicinal plants/NTFPs, wildlife Salt, rice, wheat flour, sugar, fat,
Ghunsa–Tibet (via Chabu La, Kang products, dairy products, yaks, potato wool, kerosene, clothes, horses
La, and Tripta la)
5 to 1
Papung–Olangchung Gola–Tibet
6 to 5 & 4
Panchthar (Prangbung, Memeng)– Medicinal plants/NTFPs, wildlife Salt, rice, wheat flour, sugar, fat,
Papung–Chepuwa–Tibet (mainly via products, dairy products, yaks, potato wool, kerosene, clothes, horses
Kimathanka)
6 to 5 & 3
Panchthar (Prangbung, Memeng)– Medicinal plants/NTFPs, wildlife Salt, rice, wheat flour, sugar, fat,
Papung–Pawakhola–Tibet (via products, dairy products, yaks, potato wool, kerosene, clothes, horses
Kimathanka)
1 to 2
Olangchung Gola–Ghunsa– Medicinal plants/NTFPs, wildlife Daily life commodities
Darjeeling (across Shinghalila ridge) products, dairy products, yak
products, cash crops
3 to 5
Pawakhola–Papung–Darjeeling via Medicinal plants/NTFPs, wildlife Daily life commodities
bordering VDCs of Panchthar
products, dairy products, yak
products, cash crops
6 to 7
Panchthar (Prangbung, Memeng)– Medicinal plants/NTFPs, wildlife Daily life commodities, chemical
Ilam (Pashupatinagar)–Darjeeling
products, dairy products, yak fertilizer, textile products
products, cash crops
6 to 8
Panchthar (Prangbung, Memeng)– Medicinal plants/NTFPs, wildlife Daily life commodities, chemical
Ilam–Charali/Birtamod–Siliguri via products, dairy products, yak fertilizer, textile products
Mechinagar
products, cash crops
8 to 9
Charali–Chandragadhi–Bhadrapur– Medicinal plants/NTFPs, wildlife Daily life commodities, chemical
Siliguri via Galgaliya post
products, dairy products, yak fertilizer, textile products
products, cash crops
Medicinal plants/NTFPs, wildlife Salt, rice, wheat flour, sugar, fat,
products, dairy products, yaks, potato wool, kerosene, clothes, horses
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
4.6.1 Trade of plant species
Satuwa (Paris polyphylla)–one of the major traded NTFPs in KL Nepal
792,387
507,700
459,600
Quan ty (Kg)
585,375
Total traded quan ty in five years: 1,931,674.50 kg
Total revenue generated in five years: Rs. 3,718,467.13
785,350
In addition to the local use, species like Daphne
bholua, Edgeworthia gardneri, Swertia chirayita, Taxus
Figure 4.2: Amount of traded NTFPs/MAPs and
revenue generated in five years in KL Nepal districts
303,633
4.6.2 Traded species/potential species and
their volume
wallichiana, Valeriana jatamansi, Paris polyphylla and
Zanthoxylum armatum are collected and traded in bulk.
Among these species, Swertia chirayita is collected
in huge amount with quantity of 5,650 kg/year and
having local price of Rs. 1,507,646. Zanthoxylum
armatum is collected with an amount of 1,240 kg/year
and has the total local value of Rs. 248,000. Taxus
wallichiana and Valeriana jatamansi are collected in
smaller amount as compared to other species (NCDC
2010a). Apart from this, the government data reveals
a limited amount of legal trade of the NTFPs/MAPs
from the region. Only 17 species of NTFPs/MAPs
were under frequent trade during the five-year period
2008–2012 (2064/2065-2068/2069 BS), in which
the largest amount of NTFPs/MAPs was exported
from Panchthar district whereas none of the plant/
product was legally traded from Jhapa district. Study
has shown that NTFPs trade data records of GoN (DoF
2008–2012) are far below than the situation in the
field (Pyakurel and Oli 2013). Of these five years,
the highest amount of NTFPs/MAPs was traded in
484,965
670,655
Of the 363 species of NTFPs reported from KL Nepal
(Uprety et al. submitted), some are important sources of
income to the local people and have long been traded
both legally as well as illegally across the local, regional
and transborder areas. Trade often includes some
of the CITES Appendix listed species like Sunakhari
(Orchids), Kutki (Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora) and
Lauth salla (Taxus wallichiana). Trade also includes
some plant species legally protected under the Forest
Act, 1993, like Orchids, Champ (Michelia champaca),
Jatamansi (Nardostachys grandiflora), Jhyau (Lichens)
and Sughandhawal (Valeriana jatamansi). Plant
and/or parts mainly collected from the government
managed and community managed forests are traded
to India via local collectors and a limited amount of
those items are also exported to Tibet (NCDC 2010a).
Argeli (Edgeworthia gardneri) used in making hand-made paper as a
raw material
911,700
Present trade of plants and/or products mainly includes
NTFPs; including the endangered and protected
plants and/or their parts like Dactylorhiza hatagirea,
Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora, lichens collected from
trees and Taxus wallichiana. Other important traded
species are Aconitum species, Valeriana jatamansi,
Viscum album and Zanthoxylum species. Plants and/
or parts from Daphne bholua, Edgeworthia gardneri,
Rhododendron anthopogan, Rubia manjith, Swertia
chirayita, Valeriana jatamansi, and Zanthoxylum species
are traded following legal procedures. Collection
of plants and/or parts for local use is limited in the
region. The collected plant material is normally sold
to middleman (local trader) and only a few collectors
sell/export the materials directly at the local and crossborder markets (NCDC 2010a).
175,776
24
Revenue (Rs.)
Source: DFO Panchthar, Ilam and Jhapa (2008–2013); MoFSC (2013)
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Sources of fuel used for cooking in KL Nepal districts for years 2001 and 2011
(Unit: household)
250,000
200,000 187,720
4.8 Road network
All KL Nepal districts are linked by all season blacktopped roads. Many of the VDCs in the hilly and
mountainous regions are also connected by earthen
roads. Road linkage has helped in transforming the
socio-economic conditions of these areas. However,
some VDCs in Taplejung and Panchthar districts
1,756
18,065
48,824
13,535
2,797
1,255
0
2011/2012
2001/2002
Source: CBS (2012c)
4.9 Energy sources and utilization
4.9.1 Major energy sources
Firewood is the major source of energy followed
by Liquified Petroleum (LP) gas, biogas, cow dung
and electricity in KL Nepal districts. Although overall
consumption of firewood for cooking is reduced by
about 4% from year 2001 to 2011, still 72.66% of the
households in KL Nepal region depend upon firewood
as a source of energy (CBS 2012c). In addition to
firewood, the use of kerosene has reduced substantially
while the use of other alternative sources of energy
like LP gas, biogas and electricity has increased
from 2001 to 2011 (Figure 4.3, Table 4.9). A case
study, including nine bordering VDCs of Taplejung,
Ilam and Panchthar districts (Taplejung—Aangkhop,
Table 4.9: Households using different sources of fuel
for cooking (comparison between 2001 and 2011)
Sources
of fuel
Year Taplejung Panchthar
(HH)
(HH)
Total
2001
24,763
37,260 54,566 125,949
2011
26,471
41,176 64,477 184,384
Firewood 2001
24,167
35,663 42,797
2011
25,287
37,916 58,179 108,604
Kerosene 2001
477
1,518
2011
128
330
455
1,884
2001
0
0
2,238
10,895
2011
849
2,368
3,775
41,832
Cow
dung
2001
0
0
0
6,128
2011
5
134
108
13,288
Biogas
2001
0
0
175
3350
2011
63
196
1,527
16,279
Electricity 2001
NA
NA
NA
NA
2011
2
12
36
104
2001
0
0
434
821
2011
6
80
50
1,620
2001
119
80
212
634
2011
131
140
349
773
LP gas
Pushpalal mid-hills highway in Panchthar district
have not yet been connected by road network. Two
airports exist in KL Nepal—Chandragadhi in Jhapa
and Suketar in Taplejung districts. Increase in flight
frequency in Taplejung could contribute to enhance
tourism development of the region.
6,128
50,000
3,525
150,000
100,000
Tap/piped water supply is the main source of drinking
water for majority of the population in Ilam, Panchthar
and Taplejung districts. In Jhapa district, the main
source of drinking water is tube-well/hand pump.
The percentage of households having access to tap/
piped water in the landscape VDCs/municipalities
in Taplejung, Panchthar, Ilam and Jhapa districts is
91, 93, 92 and 31 respectively. In Jhapa district,
about 69% households have access to water through
tubewell and hand pumps. Over the years, the district
headquarters are increasingly facing water scarcity.
In 2011, the percentage of households without toilet
facilities in these districts was 30, 8.5, 5 and 27
respectively. However, in recent years, the ‘open
defecation free’ campaigns in these districts have
increased people’s access to improved sanitation
facilities.
Firewood
Kerosene
LP gas
Cow dung
Bio gas
Electricity
Others
231,997
31,736
4.7 Drinking water and sanitation
Figure 4.3: Pattern of fuel consumption for cooking
13,133
2011/012 (2068/2069) whereas the lowest amount
was traded in 2008/2009 (2064/2065). Similarly,
highest and lowest amount of revenue was generated
during 2009/2010 (2065/2066) and 2010/2011
(2067/2068) respectively (Figure 4.2).
25
Others
Not
stated
Source: CBS (2012c)
Ilam
(HH)
8,711
Jhapa
(HH)
83,092
21,030
26
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Kalikhola, Sadewa; Panchthar—Chyangthapu,
Memeng, Sidin; and Ilam—Gorkhe, Jamuna, Mai
Pokhari) has revealed firewood as the main source of
energy for cooking purpose in all the VDCs. Virtually,
all households in the districts use firewood for cooking
and the highest value of annual consumed firewood
comes from Taplejung district, which is the coldest
district (Table 4.9) (Pant et al. 2012).
The source of firewood collection varies with VDCs–
the main source being private and community forests
(NCDC 2010b). The total amount of firewood collected
from the private forest is 61,210 bhari/year, which is
followed by 9,535 bhari/year from the community
forest. The total amount of firewood used in the entire
area is estimated to be 72,060 bhari (1 bhari=approx.
40 kg). Limited information exists with the concerned
government agencies (District Forest Offices) regarding
the collection and sale of firewood.
4.9.2 Technology utilization in energy
generation
Energy consumption can be classified into two sectors:
domestic and commercial. The domestic sector includes
household level energy consumption while the commercial
sector includes energy consumption in hotels, lodges,
shops and other establishments. Energy consumption
in domestic sector is mainly for performing different
activities, viz. cooking, water boiling, space heating,
lighting, etc., which is mainly from traditional sources of
energy, i.e, firewood, dung cake, biomass, etc.
Technology is the key for efficient and judicious use of
energy resources according to the need of the people.
Various technologies adopted by the people are as
follows:
Traditional stove
Traditionally, villagers have been using traditional stoves
for cooking which is generally situated at the corner
of the kitchen. For space heating purpose, they use
iron tripod (agena). Since firewood is burnt in open air,
its consumption is found to be relatively higher than
the improved stove. Because of increased firewood
consumption, most of the villagers have switched over
to more efficient stove.
Improved cooking stoves
Improved Cooking Stoves (ICS), with efficiency of 18 to
28%, have been developed in Nepal since early eighties.
These devices are more efficient in cooking than the
traditional stoves and hence save firewood and provide
smokeless environment in the kitchen. The number of
ICS installed in KL Nepal districts till 2013 was 31,637
(Table 4.10).
Table 4.10: ICS, biogas and micro-hydropower
installations in KL Nepal districts
SN
Districts
No. Biogas
of ICS plants
installed
Mico-hydro
power plants
No. Capacity
of
(kW)
units
1.
Taplejung
8,957
87
71
864
2.
Panchthar
8,341
644
126
1,334
3.
Ilam
14,339
3,609
298
1,130
4.
Jhapa
NA
20,821
1
3
31,637 25,161
496
3,331
Total
Source: AEPC (2013)
As firewood requirement for water boiling shares upto
90% of the total energy consumption in Taplejung district,
it is realized that there is a need for an appropriate
household ICS. Alternative Energy Promotion Centre
(AEPC) of the Ministry of Science, Technology and
Environment works with local partner organizations such
as NGOs or private sectors for the promotion of ICS in
rural areas. These organizations have ICS promoters
who provide technical backstopping and monitoring
services after the installation of stoves. Because of these
services, cookstoves are working properly. Apart from
this, the GoN is providing subsidy of Rs. 4,000 in the
metallic ICS in high altitude areas above 2,000 metres.
NCDC is AEPC’s regional service provider for Eastern
Development Region and, hence, it promotes ICS
programmes in the region. Similarly, other organizations
like Alternative Energy Development Centre (AEDC) is
promoting ICS, Solar Home System (SHS), micro-hydro
power programmes in Panchthar district while ECDF is
promoting similar programmes in Taplejung district.
Kerosene stove
Kerosene stove is common in the study area but as
people have sufficient firewood, biomass, agriculture
residue, cow dung, etc., they use kerosene for lighting
purpose only. The average kerosene oil consumption
per household for lighting purpose is 3 litres per month.
Biogas
Biogas is also a common source of energy in KL Nepal
districts. The number of installation of biogas plants in
KL Nepal districts was 25,161 till 2013 (Table 4.10).
4.9.3 Mini/micro-hydro power in KL Nepal
districts
Mini-hydro power is defined as the schemes that
generates electric power from 100 kW to 1MW
capacity and serves nearby households through minigrid. Micro-hydro power is defined as an isolated grid
connected hydropower system that generates power
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
27
Table 4.11: Solar dryer/cooker and SHS installation in KL Nepal districts
SN Devices
1.
Solar Home System units
2.
Capacity Wp of SHS units
3.
Solar dryer/cooker
4.
Solar tuki (<10w SHS units)
5.
Capacity Wp of solar tuki
Taplejung
Panchthar
Ilam
Jhapa
Total
4,800
6,330
2,727
118
13,975
160,712
259,183
121,588
3,976
545,459
7
NA
37
NA
44
741
125
144
293
1,303
3,675
440
400
490
5,005
Source: AEPC (2013)
upto 100 kW electrical powers and serves nearby
households through a grid. This includes pico-hydro
schemes upto 5 kW capacity. Table 4.10 presents the
district-wise installation of micro-hydro power plants
in KL Nepal.
4.9.4 Solar energy technologies
Mainly, two types of solar energy technologies (solar
thermal and solar photovoltaic (PV) systems) are
available in Nepal. Solar thermal systems include solar
water heaters, solar dryers and solar cookers. Similarly,
solar PV systems include solar communication system,
solar electrification system and solar water pumping
system. Table 4.11 presents district-wise solar dryer/
cooker and SHS installations in KL Nepal. Solar energy
is mostly used for lighting purpose in KL Nepal districts.
About 60% households inside KCA have access to solar
power.
4.9.5 Energy deficits
About five and half million households still need
access to clean energy options for cooking, lighting
and heating in Nepal (AEPC 2013). The energy mix
pattern of Nepal shows that 87% of the total energy
comes from firewood. In KL Nepal region, still 73%
of households depend upon firewood as a source
of energy compared to 64% national average (CBS
2012a). Firewood is mainly used for domestic cooking,
space heating, animal feed preparation and other
agro-processing purposes. Firewood does not provide
the type of energy required for working, reading,
communication and other basic services essential for
improved quality of life. For this purpose, alternative
energy technologies like micro-hydro power, solar,
biogas and improved cooking stoves have been used
in KL Nepal districts.
4.10 Pollution
4.10.1 Air pollution
All KL Nepal districts have extensive road networks and
so have some traffic related hazards. Regional polluting
substances such as aerosols are reported to be increasing
in the region, for example, the presence of accelerated
rate of melting glaciers because of black carbon deposits.
Air pollution may increase in future along with increased
road networks and socio-economic activities.
4.10.2 Water pollution
Major settlements and district headquarters do not have
sewerage treatment plants and sewage is directly drained
to the major river systems. Arsenic contamination of tube
well/hand pump water in Jalthal region is posing serious
health hazards. Distribution of pipe water without treatment
is not safe (DDC Jhapa (2013), DDC Ilam (2013), DDC
Panchthar (2013) and DDC Taplejung (2013).
4.10.3 Solid waste
Managing solid waste is one of the major challenges in the
district headquarters and trekking routes. Local authorities
have not initiated solid waste treatment facility. Plastics are
often burned without considering environmental hazards.
Tourist routes are also affected by solid waste pollution
whereas problem of water and beer bottles as well as
local wine is seen in towns and villages.
4.10.4 Chemicals and fertilizers
Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides is widespread
in KL Nepal districts. Application of pesticides is very
common in areas close to the roadheads. The total
amount of pesticides used in Ilam and Panchthar districts
for 2012/2013 was 735 and 2,890 litres respectively.
4.11 Public health
AEPC has been providing subsidy to renewable energy
technologies with focus in rural areas. AEPC ensures
outreach through the engagement of local bodies, subnational and national service providers and private
sector. NCDC of Ilam has been serving as the Regional
Renewable Energy Service Centre (RRESC) of AEPC in
KL Nepal region.
The overall situation of public health in KL Nepal districts
is fair. Hospitals, health centres and Ayurvedic clinics
provide services to the people. Among the four districts,
incidence of tuberculosis, malaria and HIV infection is
reported highest from Jhapa and lowest from Taplejung
(DoHs 2011). Water-borne diseases are also observed
28
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Table 4.12: Literacy rate and education accessibility by gender in KL Nepal districts
KL Nepal
districts
Population aged 5 &
above (total no.)
Women
Literacy rate
(% of total)
Men
Women
SLC or equivalent
(% of total)
Men
Women
Graduate or equivalent
degree (% of total)
Men
Women
Men
Taplejung
60,490
54,077
64
79
6.7
8.6
0.3
1.2
Panchthar
93,077
81,486
66
80
7.3
8.2
0.5
1.4
Ilam
139,094
130,666
72
84
7.4
8.1
0.8
1.8
Jhapa
394,198
349,759
69
82
8.9
10.1
1.1
2.6
Total
686,859
615,988
68
82
7.6
8.7
0.7
1.7
Source: CBS (2012b)
throughout all the districts. A large proportion of high
altitude population uses medicinal plants for health
care as there are no service providers (Sherpa 2001).
The use of medicinal plants is also significant in lower
altitudes of KL Nepal thereby considerably contributing
to the traditional health care systems (Parajuli 2013).
4.12 Gender and social inclusion
4.12.1 Literacy and education status by gender
The 2011 census reveals that gender gap is remarkable
with regard to literacy rate and education opportunity.
As shown in Table 4.12, the average literacy rate in
KL Nepal districts is lower for women (68%) compared
with 82% for men. In addition, access to higher
education opportunity by women is lower (0.7% of
the total population aged 5 and above) compared
with 1.7% for men. By districts, Ilam and Jhapa have
more literate and educated women than Panchthar
and Taplejung districts.
4.12.2 Women’s access to productive resources
Access to productive resources such as land,
technologies/machine, house, livestock and cash
determines the status of men and women in communities
(Meinzen-Dick et al. 2011). Access to these resources
by women especially enables them not to be dependent
on their husbands and other male members of the
household.
Women’s access to productive resources is shown in
Table 4.13. It is found that women’s ownership to land
and house is very nominal. For example, in 2011, only
9.5% of the total households have land in women’s
name/ownership. Only 11% of the total households
have land and house in the name of women members,
which is very low compared to the national average of
20% (CBS 2002, CBS 2012c).
However, the households with ownership of land and/
or land and house both have seen an increasing
trend. On an average, 26% of the total households
in KL Nepal districts are headed by women. Among
KL Nepal districts, Ilam has lower number of womenheaded households compared to other three districts.
This could be due to relatively less number of men
absentee in the district and their limited share of
power in household headship.
Table 4.13: Women’s ownership of key assets in KL Nepal districts
2001
District
Total HH
(No.)
2011
Property owned by women
(% of total HH)
Total HH
(No.)
Property owned by women
(% of total HH)
Land only
Land and house
Land only
Land and house
Taplejung
24,764
8.1
5.6
26,471
10.2
9.5
Panchthar
37,260
6.3
2.9
41,176
8.9
7.0
Ilam
Jhapa
54,565
5.4
2.7
64,477
5.7
8.1
137,301
6.9
6.3
184,384
13.0
17.7
6.7
4.4
9.5
10.6
Average (%)
Source: CBS (2002), CBS (2012c)
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Chapter
5
29
Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services
A kaleidoscopic view of Singhalila ridge in KL Nepal
5.1 Biodiversity
Biodiversity consists of three fundamental and
hierarchical categories–ecosystem diversity, species
diversity and genetic diversity (Raven 1992). These
three components of biodiversity have equal values,
linked with each other and commonly share similar
features (Gaston and Spicer 1998). Exploration,
documentation, identification and conservation of
biodiversity are global concerns. The importance of
biodiversity and the services they provide are highlighted
by the United Nations by declaring May 22 as the
“International Day of Biodiversity”. The current decade
(2011—2020) has been declared as the “Decade of
Biodiversity” and the year 2010 was celebrated as
the “International Year of Biodiversity”. The signatory
countries of the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD) have committed to conserve and sustainably use
biodiversity of their respective countries and achieve
biodiversity targets by 2020.
The biogeographic regions comprising rich biodiversity,
high proportion of endemic, rare and threatened
species and habitats are considered as “Biodiversity
hotspots” (Myers et al. 2000, Mittermeier et al. 2004).
As mentioned earlier in the introductory chapter, the
Kangchenjunga Landscape is a part of the Himalayan
region, which is among the 34 global Biodiversity
Hotspots (Mittermeier et al. 2004). Faunal and floral
diversity (species richness and endemism) in the Eastern
Himalaya is rich due to the effect of Indo-Malayan
and Palearctic realms, and includes several globally
significant ecoregions and centres of plant diversity
(Yonjon 2000).
30
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
This section focuses on the status of ecoregions, major
ecosystems, vegetation and forest types, documents faunal
and floral diversity, and presents these status of endemic
and threatened species of animals and plants in KL Nepal.
5.1.1 Ecoregions
The Himalaya, particularly the Hindu Kush Himalaya,
is considered as one of the high biodiversity areas with
four global biodiversity hotspots, 60 ecoregions, 488
protected areas, 13 world heritage sites and 27 Ramsar
sites (www.geoportal.icimod.org/symposium2010). KL
Nepal represents four Eastern Himalayan ecoregions:
(i) Eastern Himalayan alpine shrubs and meadows,
(ii) Eastern Himalayan conifer forests, (iii) Eastern
Himalayan broadleaved forests and (iv) Tarai-Duar
grasslands and savannas. More than 15 years ago,
Wikramanayake et al. (1998) assessed habitat
conditions, fragmentation and conservation status
of these ecoregions, which have changed drastically
since then. A new assessment is needed to update the
information about these ecoregions (Table 5.1).
Box 5.1: Jalthal forest: A unique patch of tropical
vegetation in Jhapa district
The Jalthal forest, located in southern Jhapa, is the unique
tropical mixed forest patch of KL Nepal. It covers ca. 6,300 ha
at an altitude of 60m. The forest is composed of Sal (Shorea
robusta) as a dominant tree species with other associates
such as Artocarpus chama, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Dillenia
pentagyna, Terminalia bellerica, T. chebula, Sizygium cuminii,
etc. The forest is unique due to the presence of species like
Castanopsis species (Katus), Schima wallichii (Chilaune),
Madhuca longifolia (Mahuwa), etc. which are out of their
normal distribution range. It is also a habitat for rare and
endangered species like Cycas pectinata (Thakal), Dalbergia
latifolia (Satisal), Michelia champaca (Champ), Rauvolfia
serpentina (Chandmaruwa), Bombax ceiba (Simal), etc. A
preliminary survey documented 57 species of trees, 17 species
of shrubs, 67 species of herbs and 10 species of climbers
representing 129 genera under 76 families (Bhattarai 2013).
A detailed biodiversity assessment will help to formulate
effective management plans of this unique forest.
Table 5.1: Ecoregions and their conservation status within KL Nepal
Ecoregions
KL Nepal
districts
Habitat loss
Fragmentation
Conservation status of
KL Nepal
Eastern Himalayan
alpine shrubs and
meadows
Taplejung,
Panchthar
Degraded
Low level of
fragmentation
Eastern Himalayan
subalpine conifer forests
Taplejung,
Panchthar, Ilam
Small size,
relatively intact
Medium level
fragmentation
Eastern Himalayan
broadleaved forests
Taplejung
Panchthar, Ilam
Relatively intact
Small stands still exist
• The upper part of KL (KCA in
Taplejung and north-east of
Panchthar) is relatively intact.
• Southern part of Ilam is vulnerable.
• Parts of Jhapa included in KL are
endangered.
Tarai-Duar grasslands Jhapa
and savannas
Heavily altered High level
and replaced
fragmentation
Sources: Wikramanayake et al. (1998, 2001)
5.1.2 Major ecosystems, vegetation and
forest types
KL Nepal comprises 11 bioclimatic zones, ranging from
lower tropical (ca. 60m) to Nival zone (above 5,000m),
representing four physiographic zones: lowland
(below 1,000m), mid hill (>1,000m–<3,000m), high
mountains (>3,000m–<5,000m) and High Himal
(>5,000m). KL Nepal comprises vegetation types from
lower tropical zone (as low as 60m) in Jhapa, subtropical
to temperate vegetation zone in Ilam, Panchthar and
Taplejung districts, subalpine to alpine zone in Panchthar
and Taplejung and Nival zone in Taplejung. In general,
23 forest types (Annex IV) have been identified in KL
Nepal from lowland Jhapa (Box 5.1) to highland of
Panchthar and Taplejung districts.
The KCA alone is characterized by various types of
ecosystems/habitats (glaciers, snow, rock; wetlands;
alpine meadows with grasses and sedges; Mesohygrophile
dwarf Rhododendrons (Rhododendron anthopogon,
R. nivale); Shrublands with Rhododendrons; Upper
subalpine Rhododendron shrublands; Lower subalpine
silver fir (Abies spectabilis) forest; Larch (Larix griffithiana)
forest; Hemlock (Tsuga dumosa) forest; Mixed Broadleaved forest; Hygrophytic forest with Quercus lamellosa;
Hygrophytic Schima wallichii; and Hygrophytic Schima
wallichii–Castanopsis indica, and 8 types of vegetation
(Upper alpine meadow; Moist alpine scrub; Fir forest;
Larch forest; Mixed Rhododendron-Maple forest; East
Himalayan Oak-Laurel forest; Schima-Castanopsis
forest; and Hill Sal forest) (Dobremez 1972, Stainton
1972).
Some important ecosystems, including wetlands and
rangelands are discussed in the section ecosystem
services (section 5.2 of this chapter).
5.1.3 Forest coverage
The average forest area of KL Nepal districts is about
32.15% (Table 5.2). Of the total forest cover of Taplejung,
Panchthar and Ilam districts, 19%, 54% and 36%
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Table 5.2: Forest coverage of KL Nepal districts
Districts
Forest (ha)
Total area % of total
(ha)
area of the
district
Taplejung
112,262
365,337
30.72
Panchthar
57,794
122,165
47.30
Ilam
81,083
171,567
47.26
Jhapa
13,557
164,192
8.25
Total
264,696
823,261
32.15
Source: MoFSC (2013)
respectively is recorded from the transborder areas
(Chettri et al. 2008b).
An old Limbu saying, “ghar odar ho, ban bhandar ho” or
“the house is a shelter whereas the forest is a store house,”
indicates that the whole Kirat community has a culture
and life-support system based entirely on forests. The
ethno-cultural fabrics of the region are rich in traditional
practices and consequently, the local residents of KL Nepal
have been using a vast array of these natural resources in
various ways for their subsistence (see Section 5.2 for the
provisioning services obtained from forest ecosystems).
5.1.4 Important Bird Areas
Important Bird Areas (IBAs) are globally recognized as
important habitats for the conservation of birds. These
areas are determined by an internationally agreed set
of criteria. At least three IBAs, including KCA, Mai Valley
forest, and Tamur Valley and watershed are partially/
fully within KL Nepal but they are closely linked with
other three IBAs, including Makalu-Barun National Park,
Dharan Forest and Urlabari Forest Groves (Baral and
Inskipp 2005) as described below:
I. Kangchenjunga Conservation Area
The KCA is one of the major IBAs providing shelter
for some restricted range species, globally threatened
species, Eurasian High Montane biome species,
Sino-Himalayan temperate forest biome species and
Sino-Himalayan subtropical forest biome species.
It supports more than 300 species of birds that are
characteristics to the Eastern Himalaya. There are
several reasons why faunal diversity particularly birds
is high in this IBA. They include: (i) physiographical
variations (e.g., river valleys, slope, and mountain
ridges) and high altitudinal range (1,200m–8,586m);
(ii) vegetation types from subtropical to alpine
zones; (iii) diverse land use patterns, including
cultivated and abandoned agriculture land of KCA;
(iv) at least 12 different types of ecosystems, including
river valleys such as the Simbuwa Khola, Ghunsa,
Kabeli and Tamur; and (v) regular implementation
of conservation activities of KCA since 1997.
31
II. Mai Valley forests
The Mai Valley forests are located in Ilam covering
some parts of Jhapa in the south. The total area
of forest is 30 km 2 and the altitudinal range is
70–3,050m. The Mai Valley watershed falls entirely
within Ilam district but it extends from the confluence
of the Kankai River in the tropical zone to Darjeeling
border at 3,050m in the subalpine zone. Forests in
the upper Mai Valley lie mainly in the lower and upper
temperate zones, whereas lower Mai Valley comprises
tropical and subtropical zones. A remnant of tropical
evergreen forests also exists in the lower part of
the Mai Valley. Thus, the Mai Valley forests include
moist broadleaved oak (Quercus species) and mixed
broadleaved forests comprising Lithocarpus species,
Castanopsis species, and Rhododendron species with
a bamboo understory, and the tropical evergreen and
semi-evergreen forests, which are important for birds.
Because of diverse habitats, diversity of bird species
is very high. Around 200 species of birds have been
recorded from this area. These forests are important for
rare, globally threatened and restricted range species
of birds (Table 5.3). Several species recorded in the
small remnant tropical evergreen forests are either
very rare in Nepal (e.g., Asian fairy bluebird) or have
been only found in this locality (e.g., Pale headed
woodpecker). Similarly, Lesser adjutant and Whiterumped vulture also breed at the edge of the forests.
Besides, rare, globally threatened and restricted range
species, these forests also support Sino-Himalayan
temperate forest biome species, Sino-Himalayan
subtropical forests biome species, Indo-Chinese
tropical moist forest biome species and Indo-Malayan
tropical dry zone biome species. Besides birds, other
wildlife species of the area include globally threatened
Assamese macaque, Red panda, Asiatic black bear,
Golden jackal, Common leopard, Barking deer, Nepal
grey langur, Black giant squirrel and Yellow-throated
marten.
III. Tamur Valley and watershed
Tamur Valley is another IBA site, which is partially included
within the boundary of KL Nepal. The Tamur forms a
major watershed extending from the confluence of the
Koshi River at 100m in the tropical zone in Dhankuta
district to the border above 3,800m in the alpine zone
of Taplejung district. This IBA, with an area of 20 km2
includes Tinjure-Milke-Jaljale (TMJ) Rhododendron
Conservation Area, which is outside KCA. The Upper
Tamur, however, lies within KCA. The Tamur watershed
has an extensive area of broadleaved forests of Quercus
lamellosa, Castanopsis species and mixed broadleaved
forests. TMJ area is known for Rhododendron forests.
Quercus semecarpifolia and Abies spectabilis are other
species of the upper temperate forests.
32
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Table 5.3: Globally threatened and restricted range species of birds in Important Bird Areas (Note:
KCA= Kangchenjunga Conservation Area, MVF= Mai Valley Forest, TVW=Tamur Valley Watershed, NT=Nearly
Threatened, V=Vulnerable, SRS=Short Range Species, End=Endemic, P=Present)
Species
Satyr tragopan
Gallinago nemoricola
Turdoides nipalensis
Actinodura nipalensis
Indicator xanthonotus
Buceros bicornis
Gyps bengalensis
Gyps tenuirostris
Sarcogyps calvus
Aegypius monachus
Circus cyaneus
Aquila clanga
Falco naumanni
Leptoptilos javanicus
Spelaeronis caudatus
Phylloscopus cantator
Status
NT
V
SRS, End
SRS
NT
NT
Critical
Critical
NT
NT
NT
V
V
V
NT; SRS
SRS
KCA
P
P
P
P
-
MVF
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
TVW
P
P
P
P
P
-
Remarks
Resident in KCA, but rare in MVF
Altitudinal migrant, resident
Altitudinal migrant, resident
Altitudinal migrant, resident
Rare, resident
Uncommon resident
Rare breeding resident, near settlements
Rare breeding resident, near settlements
Uncommon resident, open country
Rare winter visitor in open country
Rare passage migrant
Rare passage migrant
Rare passage migrant
Frequent breeding resident
Resident in mossy rocks and ferns
Rare winter visitor, broadleaved evergreen
forests
Source: Baral and Inskipp (2005)
Tamur Valley and watershed supports several globally
threatened and restricted range species of birds (e.g.,
Gyps bengalensis, Indicator xanthonotus, Leptoptilos
javanicus, Turdoides nipalensis, Actinodura nipalensis),
Eurasian high montane biome species, Sino-Himalayan
temperate forest biome species and Sino-Himalayan
subtropical forests biome species. Other wildlife species
of the area include globally threatened Assamese
macaque, Nepal grey langur, Chinese pangolin,
Clouded leopard, Grey wolf, Common leopard,
Leopard cat, Barking deer, Yellow-throated marten and
several species of birds, herpetofauna, fish, insects and
butterflies (also see 5.1.7).
5.1.5 Wildlife corridor and connectivity
Wildlife corridor is a conservation tool that maintains
connectivity with other reserves within a country and/
or across border developing a network of corridors
and providing additional resources like food and
space to wildlife species and also opportunity of
exchanging genes among several population within the
network. Thus, corridors are meant for the successful
conservation of biodiversity. KL Nepal, bordering
India and Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) of China,
is a transboundary landscape. For example, the KCA
and Khangchendzonga National Park in Sikkim and
Quomolongma Preserve in Tibet, and the area between
Panchthar-Ilam and Shinghalila National Park and
Darjeeling in West Bengal, are the existing and potential
sites of transboundary complexes and corridors of
KL Nepal (Basnet 2003a). Within the country, IlamPanchthar and Ilam-Jhapa broadleaved forests can
provide habitats for north-south corridors.
5.1.6 Important Plant Areas
Important Plant Areas (IPAs) are the sites exhibiting
exceptional botanical richness and/or supporting an
outstanding assemblage of rare, threatened and/or
endemic plant species and/or vegetation of high botanical
value. IPAs are important in the sense that they provide
a site-based approach for the conservation of plants
and form a subset of Key Biodiversity Areas. Extensive
botanical explorations and literature review have allowed
to identify 18 IPAs in KL Nepal (Table 5.4).
5.1.7 Faunal diversity
Physiographic variation from the tropical to the alpine
zone and associated altitudinal variations combined
with climatic conditions have resulted in different
forest types and habitats, which provide home to
many wildlife species. Preliminary assessment of the
landscape through literature review and field visits
show that KL Nepal is rich in faunal diversity, which
includes more than 102 species of mammals, 354
species of birds, 98 species of herpetofauna, 44
species of fish, 391 species of insects and 186 species
of butterflies (see Annex V).
Protected and threatened faunal species
Several protected and threatened wildlife species are
reported from KL Nepal districts. They include mammals,
birds and herpetofauna, which are described seperately
below.
Mammals
Mammals are relatively more explored group of animals.
Out of more than 102 species of mammals recorded in
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
33
Table 5.4: Important Plant Areas of KL Nepal
District
Important Plant Areas and their characteristic vegetation
Taplejung
•
Yamphudin – Hellok (Yamphudin VDC): Arundinaria species, Catanopsis tribuloides-C. hystrix forest
•
Gyapla – Ghunsa (Lelep VDC): Rhododendron species, Daphne species, Acer species
•
Ghunsa – Kambachen (Lelep VDC): Larix griffithiana - Abies spectabilis – Pinus wallichiana forest
•
Sarju Pokhari – Olangchung Gola (Lelep/Olangchung Gola VDC)
•
Dorangding – Ramje; Chairam - Yalung (Simbua Valley): Oak-Laurel forest, Juniperus species – Betula
utilis forest
•
Timbung Pokhari (Phalaicha VDC): Nardostachys grandiflora, Aconitum species, Saussurea species
•
Lam pokhari - Suke pokhari - Ose (Chyangthapu VDC): Michelia species and Magnolia species, Zanthoxylum
armatum
•
Bhaise pokhari - Jaljale-Surketham (Memeng VDC): Michelia species and Magnolia species, Taxus
wallichiana
Ilam
Jhapa
•
Mejartham – Chiwabhanjyang (Chyangthapu VDC): Aconitum species, Rhododendron species
•
Tinsimana – Gorkhepani - Fokte (Memeng VDC): Taxus wallichiana, Castanopsis hystrix
•
Hangetham (Jamuna VDC): Taxus wallichiana, Castanopsis hystrix, Arundinaria species.
•
Kala pokhari (Mabu VDC): Michelia species and Magnolia species, Swertia chirayita, Zanthoxylum armatum
•
Chintapu (Mai Majhuwa VDC): Taxus wallichiana, Aconitum species
•
Sandakphu (Mai Majhuwa VDC): Aconitum species
•
Dhupi- Guranse (Mai Majhuwa): Aconitum species, Rhododendron species
•
Ghorwa – Sanischare (Sanischare VDC); Shorea robusta, Eriocaulon species, Cycas pectinata
•
Gauriganj – Kathgara (Gauriganj VDC)
•
Jalthal forest (Jalthal VDC): Mixed Sal forest
this assessment, 54 species from 19 families belong to
different threat categories and several of them are not
evaluated or reported due to information gap. The list
shows that 15 species are protected by the National Parks
and Wildlife Conservation (NPWC) Act 1973, 33 and 20
species are included in different threat categories of Nepal
Red Data Book (NRDB) (BPP 1995) and IUCN respectively,
and 40 species are in the list of CITES. Many species of
mammals are listed as data-deficient suggesting that
more biological and ecological information is required to
understand about these species. Major mammal species
that are globally threatened, rare and endangered and/
or protected include Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
(Box 5.2), Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus),
Assamese macaque (Macaca assamensis), Nepal grey
langur (Semnopithecus schistaceus), Red panda (Ailurus
fulgens) and Musk deer (Moschus species), Snow leopard
(Uncia uncia),Grey wolf (Canis lupus), Clouded leopard
(Pardofelis nebulosa), Himalayan serow (Capricornis
sumatraensis), Golden jackal (Canis aureus) and
Common leopard (Panthera pardus).
© Sonam Tashi Lama
Panchthar
Red panda–one of the flagship species in KL Nepal
Box 5.2: The Asian Elephant
The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), a mega-herbivore, is one of the globally threatened species. Classified as an endangered
species in IUCN threat category, the Asian elephant is protected from international trade by listing it in Appendix I of CITES. In
Nepal, it is categorized as an endangered species by NRDB and protected by NPWC Act, 1973. The KL, including its vicinity,
has two residential population of elephants such as Koshi Tappu population of 13-16 individuals and Jhapa population of
9-11 individuals (Ram 2014). Seasonal migratory herds are large with 85–400 individuals, which come from West Bengal
during maize and paddy seasons.
As part of reducing human-wildlife conflict in Jhapa district, the National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC) is constructing
electric fencing at ecological boundaries and human settlements that will help in enhancing environmental and ecosystem
quality of wildlife corridors and preventing elephants from destroying crops and property in the affected areas.
34
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Endemic mammalian species is not known from KL
Nepal. In fact, there is only one mammalian species
(Apodemus gurkha) which is endemic to Nepal. However,
there is a possibility of finding endemic species in KL
Nepal because small mammalian species with restricted
distribution have not been explored as yet.
Birds
Literature review shows that there are 354 species of birds in
KL Nepal representing 176 genera and 42 families. Many
of them are globally threatened. Studies suggest that bird
species richness is highest in the Eastern Himalaya (Baral
and Inskipp 2005). The Eastern Himalayan broadleaved
forests and Tarai-Duar grasslands and savannas are
important sites for many rare and globally threatened
bird species (Inskipp 1989). Moreover, range distribution
of several species, including pheasants such as Blood
pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus) and Kalij pheasant (Lophura
leucomelana), and babblers such as Spiny babbler
(Turdoides nepalensis) and Black-headed shrike babbler
(Pteruthius rufiventer) overlap to create hotspots for bird
species (Wikramanayake et al. 2001). The number of IBAs
with their threatened bird species in the Eastern Himalaya
of Nepal also supports that this region is a hotspot for
avian diversity. Spiny babbler, an endemic bird species of
Nepal, occurs in all KL Nepal districts.
Herpetofauna
KL Nepal supports a good diversity of herpetofauna
with more than 98 species under 64 genera and 19
families of Amphibia and Reptilia. Several of them are
scarce, rare and occur occasionally, and include two
species protected by NPWC Act, 1973 (e.g., Varanus
flavescens and Python molurus), two species endemic
to Nepal (e.g., Limnonectes pierrei and Paa rostandi),
and Nepal black-throated frog (Mycrohyla ornate), the
smallest frog of Nepal (Shah and Tiwari 2004). At least
10 species of frogs, lizards and turtles, and snakes found
in KL Nepal are included in CITES List.
Fish
A total of 44 fish species belonging to six families
and 22 genera are reported from Kangchenjunga
landscape and its vicinity (Bhattarai et al. 2008,
Shrestha et al. 2009 and Siwakoti et al. 2012).
Among them, one species, Mahaseer (Tor putitora)
falls under vulnerable category and two species
Rohu (Labeo coeruleus) and Sidre (Semiplotus
semiplotus) are in susceptible category of ‘National
Red Data Book’. Endemic species, viz. Titemacha
(Psilorhynchoides pseudecheneis) was the most
common species all over the region. Similarly, other
common species were Faketa (Barilius shacra), Poti
(Barilius bendelisis), Chachale (Barilius barila) and
Chuche asala (Schizothoraichthys labiatus).
Arthropoda (Insects and Butterflies)
KL Nepal harbours more than 391 species of insects
representing 234 genera of nine orders. Similarly, 186
species of butterflies representing 120 genera and nine
families have been recorded from the landscape (Smith
1994, Thapa 1998, Bhuju et al. 2007). Among them, a
single species (Papilio krishna) falls under the endangered
category, four species under vulnerable category and
23 species under susceptible category of the National
Red Data Book. Likewise, two species, Golden birdwing
(Troides aeacus) and Common birdwing (Troides helena)
are included in CITES List. Globally, none of these species
falls under the threat categories.
5.1.8 Threats and gaps in wildlife
conservation
Faunal diversity in KL Nepal is threatened by multiple
factors spanning from poaching and illegal wildlife
trade to climate change (Table 5.5). Important areas
of biological significance also exist outside the protected
area system. They include Eastern Himalayan subtropical
forests, which support 183 breeding bird species (Inskipp
1989), remnant stands of evergreen forests, Lithocarpus
forest beween 2,600m–3,000m in Panchthar and Ilam
(Bhuju et al. 2007), Red panda habitats of more than
207 km2 in Panchthar and Ilam districts (Yonzon 2000),
and all IBAs of about 2,085 km2 within the landscape
(Baral and Inskipp 2005).
Most of the information on faunal diversity came from
the KCA and IBAs, which cover just a small area of
KL Nepal. Studies are conducted mainly on limited
species of mammals and birds and all other groups
are under-explored. Small mammal birds like Blacknecked crane (threatened species), Chestnut-breasted
patridge and Grey-crowned prinia, wildlife-livestock
interactions, poaching and illegal trade of wildlife, and
impact of climate change are other important areas of
research for conservation and development planning.
There is a big gap in species research particularly
on invertebrate fauna. The temperate region of the
landscape is potential for high diversity of some nonflying arthropod species like Carrabidae beetles and
other invertebrates possibly with new and endemic
species for Nepal. Human-elephant conflict in Jhapa
district still remains a big issue (also see section 6.3.1).
5.1.9 Floristic diversity
The wide altitudinal gradients and diverse ecological
habitats such as marshes, river, gullies, steep slopes with
crevices, and dry alpine grasslands in the Kangchenjunga
region give rise to a high diversity of plant species (Shrestha
and Ghimire 1996b, Shrestha and Shengji 1997). This
region is phytogeographically unique which contains
mixed Sino-Japanese and Sino-Himalayan elements.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
35
Table 5.5: Major threats to wildlife species
SN
Threats
Districts
Justifications and references
1
Poaching and illegal wildlife
trade
T
Poaching and illegal trade are major threats to wildlife species of KL. Snow
leopard, Musk deer and Pangolin are some of the species which are illegally
hunted for various reasons–local use, commercial purpose like traditional
medicine, retaliatory killing (Jnawali et al. 2010)
2
Habitat loss and degradation
T, J
Due to various human activities such as deforestation and overgrazing that are
common in the Eastern Himalayan alpine shrubs and meadows and Tarai-Duar
grasslands and savannas (Wikramanayake et al. 1998)
3
Decline in prey base
T
Ungulate species are declining due to habitat shrinkage and slow dispersion;
increasing livestock predation is a good evidence (Ikeda 2004)
4
Human-wildlife conflict
All
Conflicts arise due to crop raiding (e.g., elephant, deer) and livestock predation
by wildlife (e.g., Snow leopard, Common leopard) which inflicts serious problems
to local farmers. Occasionally, some wildlife species also kill people. Often,
local people resort to retaliatory killings of wildlife species (Basnet 2003b).
5
Transmission of diseases
T, J
Livestock and wildlife with overlapping habitats and diets may transmit diseases
to each other. Local people in the KCA observed the death of 100 Blue sheep
during 1995–96 due to eye disease, which was also common in domestic yak
during that period (Timilsina and Basnet 2001)
6
Small isolated populations
T,P, I,J
Small and isolated wildlife populations suffer from demographic and stochasticity
(Purvis et al. 2000), which should be studied on Snow leopard and Red panda
7
Research/information
P,I
Research base information is poor in all KL Nepal districts
8
Climate change
All
WMO has predicted that 20–30% species are likely at a higher risk of extinction
with increase in temperature due to climate change (IPCC 2007). Habitat shift
and upward migration severely affect high altitude species like Snow leopard
(Forrest et al.2012), depletion of wetlands may cause many species vulnerable
Note: KL Nepal districts T=Taplejung, P=Panchthar, I=Ilam, J=Jhapa
Documentation of Nepal’s rich floristic diversity
began as early as 1802—1803, when Sir BuchananHamilton initiated botanical exploration, followed
by Nathalien Wallich during 1820—21 in Central
Nepal. The credit for the initiation of the botanical
exploration in Eastern Nepal goes to J.D. Hooker,
who collected plants from Olangchung Gola and the
vicinities of Taplejung in 1848. An extensive collection
of vascular and non-vascular plants from Eastern
Nepal, including plants from Jhapa to Taplejung,
was carried out by Japanese botanists, under the
leadership of H. Hara of Tokyo University. Based on
several collections from Eastern Nepal, Eastern India
and Bhutan, three series of Flora of Eastern Himalaya
were published during 1966—1975 (Hara 1966 &
1971, Ohashi 1975).
The recorded species of flowering plants in the KCA are
1,026, including 13 globally significant species (Shakya
and Joshi 2008). Vascular plant diversity is relatively well
explored in Taplejung compared to Panchthar, Ilam and
Jhapa districts (Shrestha 1994, Shrestha and Ghimire
1996, Shrestha 2003, Pandey 2009, Rajbhandary 2010,
Tamang 2013). A few studies are carried out in Mai Pokhari,
a Ramsar site (Rai 1999, 2005, 2009, Basnet 2003).
Based on the preliminary literature, it has been revealed
that KL Nepal comprises 56 species of Lichens, 292 species
of Bryophytes, 257 species of Pteridophytes, 15 species of
Gymnosperms and 2,448 species of Angiosperms (Table
5.6, Annex VI). This number represents almost one third
of Nepal’s total flowering plant diversity. A rapid survey
of vascular plants in the Kangchenjunga—Singhalila
ridge of Ilam and Panchthar districts bordering India
alone revealed 598 species of flowering plants, of which
12 species, including two species of Begonia (Begonia
dolichoptera and B. Panchtharensis) were reported as new
to Nepal (Shrestha et al. 2008). This fact further signifies
the importance of KL Nepal. Nevertheless, studies on
non-vascular plants are still very limited.
New records of flowering plants to Flora of Nepal, reported
from the Kangchenjunga—Singhalila ridge include
Acronema ioniostyles (Apiaceae), Asparagus filicinus
var. lycopodineus (Asparagaceae), Begonia flaviflora
(Begoniaceae), Calamogrostis lahulensis (Poaceae),
Carex cruciata var. argocarpa (Cyperaceae), Castanopsis
longispina (Fagaceae), Juncus clarkei (Juncaceae), Juncus
khasiensis (Juncaceae), Potentilla sundaica (Rosaceae),
and Rubia hispidicaulis (Rubiaceae), Strobilanthes helicta
(Acanthaceae) and Swertia wardii (Gentianaceae).
36
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Table 5.6: Synopsis of floristic diversity of
KL Nepal
Taxonomic group
Taxa
Gymnosperms
Family
6
Genera
10
Species
15
Angiosperms
Pteridophytes
Bryophytes
Lichens
Overall
Family
172
Genera
970
Species
2,448
Family
25
Genera
90
Species
257
Family
54
Genera
127
Species
292
Family
4
Genera
7
Species
56
Sources: Hara (1966, 1971), Ohashi (1975), Shrestha and Ghimire
(1996), Press et al. (2001), Rai (2004), Kunwar et al. (2008),
Rajbhandari and Adhikari (2009), Rajbhandari and Dhungana (2010,
2011), Gautam (2011), Tamang (2013)
Endemic flowering plant species
Nepal’s flora is comprised of nearly 6,500 species of
flowering plants, of which 283 species are endemic
(Rajbhandari and Adhikari 2009, Rajbhandari and
Dhungana 2010, 2011). Twenty two species of flowering
plants are endemic to KL Nepal and at least seven
species have doubtful status (Figure 5.1 & Annex VII).
Doubtful endemic species are determined because of
the lack of comprehensive data.
Rare and threatened plant species
A total of 30 species of protected and threatened
species are reported from KL Nepal (Annex VIII). In
Kangchenjunga—Singhalila ridge alone, some 22
species of flowering plants were recorded as threatened
based on IUCN, CITES and GoN’s threat categories.
Among them, 18 species belong to IUCN threat category,
10 species belong to CITES category and 6 species
belong to GoN’s protected species category (Shrestha
and Joshi 1996, Kunwar et al. 2008).
Invasive alien species
As in other parts of Nepal, invasive alien species are also
problematic in KL Nepal districts. The invasion by such
species can be observed throughout KL Nepal. Ageratum
conyzoides, Ageratina adenophora, Chromolaena
odorata, Eichhornia crassipes, Lantana camara, Mikania
micrantha, Parthenium hysterophorus, etc. are some
common invasive species in the region.
Invasion of Mikania micrantha–one of the major threats to the
Kangchenjunga landscape
5.1.10 Threats to floral diversity
Forest encroachment for expansion of agriculture, habitat
loss and fragmentation due to deforestation, erosion
and landslide, introduction of invasive alien species,
over-grazing and over-exploitation or unsustainable
utilization of commercially important species are some
of the threats to floral biodiversity throughout KL Nepal.
5.1.11 Agrobiodiversity
Variation in climate, physiography and ethnic diversity
within the landscape contribute to rich agrobiodiversity.
Agrobiodiversity has both cultural and natural dimensions.
Since about 85% of the farmers still practice subsistence
agriculture (NCDC 2005), they grow different types of
crops and domesticate livestock suitable in the given
agro-climatic regime for domestic consumption and
meeting household expenses. As such, the region exhibits
rich agrobiodiversity. However, over the years, gradual
shift to commercialization of agriculture, change in
agricultural practices and changing food habits have
started impacting agrobiodiversity. This has mostly
impacted on minor food crops and some livestock. Minor
crops like barley, buck wheat, naked barley, millets, horse
gram, traditional vegetables are declining from the area.
Some crop varieties like jhale potato, favoured for its taste
in northern Ilam, is also rapidly declining.
With the shift in food habit of a large section of the
people to predominance of rice, cultivation of other
crops is also affected. Even among major crops like
paddy, wheat, maize and potatoes, few varieties
promoted by agricultural extension agencies have led
to the decline in the varietal diversity as reported by
farmers. Strong cultural affiliation to crops have helped
to retain some crops like finger millets. However, finger
millet, nowadays, is almost exclusively used for brewing
local alcoholic products resulting into decline in other
traditional uses such as porridge making. The area
which still has less access to markets growing crop types
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
37
Figure 5.1: Distribution of endemic flowering plants of Kangchenjunga Landscape
Legend
High: 8,586m
Low: 60m
and varieties practised in recent past would be continued
in some years. Although diversity of some crops have
declined, types and numbers of fruits and vegetables
grown in KL Nepal have increased. Similarly, owing
to factors like declining grazing areas, changing rural
economic system, declining availability of labour has
forced sheep raising to a sharp decline over the years.
Major crops grown in the region vary along the elevation
gradient. In Jhapa district, paddy is the predominant crop
whereas in high elevation zone in Taplejung district maize,
wheat and potatoes are major crops. Over the years,
large cardamom has become major cash crop in Ilam,
Panchthar and Taplejung districts. Major crops grown are
paddy, maize, wheat, finger millet, potato; vegetables like
cauliflower, cabbage, radish, green mustard, tomato,
chilli, bean, pea, onion, gourd, carrot, cress; pulses
like lentil, blackgram, pigeon pea, chick pea, soybean;
oil seeds like mustard, niger; fruits like mango, banana,
peach, plum, pear, papaya and apple are grown (Table
5.7). In case of major crops, areas close to market centres
grow improved varieties promoted by the Agriculture
Development Office and other NGOs.
Major types of livestock raised are cow, buffalo, goat,
sheep, pig and poultry. Villagers at higher elevation
Table 5.7: Crops grown in KL Nepal districts
Crop group
Crops
Cereals and pseudocereals
Paddy, wheat, maize, barley,
naked barley, buckwheat
Millets and minor millets
Finger millet, foxtail millet,
sorghum
Pulses
Blackgram, lentil, pigeon pea,
chickpea, horsegram, soybean
Oilseeds
Mustard, niger
Vegetables
Potato, tomato, cauliflower,
cabbage, radish, gourd, bean,
chayote, chilli, pea, onion
Spices and condiments
Large cardamom, ginger,
turmeric
Fruits
Orange, pear, plum, peach,
walnut, areca nut, banana,
kiwi, papaya
of Taplejung district raise yak and crossbreeds of yaks
with cows. Gradually, over the years, in most of the
villages farmers have shifted to stall-feeding from
grazing and consequently the number of livestock
kept has declined. Similarly, the number and size of
flocks have also declined.
38
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
5.2 Ecosystem services
Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from
ecosystems. These include provisioning services such as
food and water supply; regulating services such as flood
and disease control; cultural services such as spiritual,
recreational and cultural benefits; and supporting services
such as nutrient cycling that maintain the conditions for life
on Earth (MEA 2005). People living in KL Nepal districts
are highly dependent on rangeland, forest and wetland
ecosystem services for their subsistence and well-being
(see Shakya et al. 2011 and Pant et al. 2012 for economic
evaluation of ecosystem services). An assessment of the
condition of ecosystems, the provision of services and
their relation to human well-being requires an integrated
approach. This enables a decision process to determine
which service or set of services is valued more and how
to develop approaches to maintain these services by
managing the system sustainably (MEA 2005).
An assessment of regulating services (climate regulation,
disease regulation, water regulation and purification,
pollination, etc.) and supporting services (soil formation,
nutrient cycling, primary production, etc.) has not
been done so far for KL Nepal. Nevertheless, different
ecoregions, ecosystems, vegetation and forest types of KL
Nepal provide many regulating and supporting services
(Pant et al. 2012). Some information on provisioning
services (food, fiber, timber, etc.) and cultural services
(non-material benefits obtained from ecosystems such
as spirituality and material benefits from tourism) can be
interpreted. Furthermore, it is hard to exactly categorize
the ecosystems or their components based on the services
they provide. For example, wetlands provide all kinds
of ecosystem services. Therefore, based on goods and
services obtained by the people, the following section
describes the ecosystem services available in KL Nepal:
5.2.1 Provisioning services
Provisioning services are the products obtained from
ecosystems. Some major provisioning services provided
by ecosystems and their components of KL Nepal are
as follows:
Timber and poles
Among the several provisioning services obtained by
the local people from the forests of KL Nepal, timber
is the most prominent one. Timber is mainly extracted
from community and private forests and is used for the
construction of houses, making furniture and traded
at the regional level. Government data on the sale of
timber from government-managed forest show that about
2,831 ft3 of timber was sold to generate over Rs 1.57 million
revenue in 2012/2013. Similarly, a total of 847,000 ft3
timber was sold from private forests in the region during
the same period to generate revenue of Rs. 17.4 million.
The total amount of timber collected and used in the
nine bordering VDCs (Taplejung–Aangkhop, Kalikhola,
Sadewa; Panchthar–Chyangthapu, Memeng, Sidin;
Ilam–Gorkhe, Jamuna, Mai Pokhari) of the three districts
is 114,480 ft3 per year (NCDC 2010). Villagers living in
the corridor area (22 VDCs of Taplejung, Panchthar and
Ilam districts) harvest poles, firewood and timber from the
forest (Regmi 2008). Of all the timber items, poles played
a relatively minor economic role. The aggregate value of
timber and other wood products was Rs. 1,396 million
with the highest value generated in Panchthar and the
lowest in Taplejung that on an average contributed about
20% of the total household income from forest ecosystem
(Pant et al. 2012).
Popular timber species used in KL Nepal include Champ
(Michelia champaca), Chilaune (Schima wallichii),
Falant (Quercus glauca), Khair (Acacia catechu), Sal
(Shorea robusta), Sisam (Dalbergia sissoo) and Utis
(Alnus nepalensis). However, of these frequently used
species, Champ, Khair and Sal are protected by the
GoN under the Forest Act 1993.
Firewood, forage, fodder and leaflitter
Firewood is the principal source of energy and is used
to meet domestic energy needs and for enterprises
like processing of large cardamom, brewing and and
making chhurpi (dried cheese) (Chettri et al. 2008b).
A study conducted in 22 eastern VDCs of Taplejung
(Lelep, Olangchung Gola, Yamphudin, Aangkhop,
Surungkhim, Kalikhola and Sadewa); Panchthar
(Chyangthapu, Memeng, Phalaicha, Prangbung and
Sidin); and Ilam (Gorkhe, Jamuna, Jirmale, Jogmai,
Mabu, Mai Majhuwa, Mai Pokhari, Pashupatinagar,
Samalbung and Sriantu), revealed firewood as one
of the most important provisioning forest ecosystem
services in the region, comprising the largest economic
value among the wood products (Pant et al. 2012).
Farmers also harvest forest resources as biomass for
animal husbandry and for use in the farming system.
Forest-based intermediate inputs include leaf fodder and
grass for livestock feed, leaf litter for livestock bedding,
biomass for crop mulching and composting.
A survey conducted in the above VDCs for the economic
valuation of the provisioning forest services revealed that
tree fodder generated the highest average annual value
among all provisioning forest services, more than three
times than that of the wood products harvested (Pant et
al. 2012). The value of biomass for animal husbandry
was equivalent to 72% of household income, and that of
timber and wood was equivalent to 22%. Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants (MAPs) help to generate cash income
for households.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Non Timber Forest Products
In addition to agriculture and animal husbandry,
people depend heavily on forests, including NTFPs,
for their livelihoods. KL Nepal is endowed with the
wealth of NTFPs and local communities of the region
have long been using these for their subsistence. Major
NTFPs that provide provisioning services in KL Nepal
are: bamboo (Dendrocalamus species, Phyllostachys
species); broom grass (Thysanolaena maxima) and
fibre (bark of Daphne bholua; Edgeworthia gardneri);
foods such as: mushrooms (Agaricus species), bamboo
shoots (Dendrocalamus species), other vegetables
such as: fern (Diplazium esculentum) and water cress
(Nasturtium officinale), edible fruits (Berberis species,
Castanopsis indica, Hippophae tibetana, Myrica
esculenta, Rubus ellipticus, etc.); and medicinal
plants (Aconitum palmatum, Asparagus racemosus,
Bergenia ciliata, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Heracleum
nepalense, Nardostachys grandiflora, Neopicrorhiza
scrophulariiflora, Swertia chirayita, Taxus wallichiana,
Valeriana jatamansi, Zanthoxylum armatum, and
several other rare species of medicinal plants from
subalpine and alpine rangeland (NCDC 2010, Pant
et al. 2012). Medicinal plants are used in traditional
medicinal practices and are also traded usually across
the border. Among the aromatic plants, Juniperus indica
and Juniperus recurva are collected more frequently
than Buddleja asiatica, Matricaria chamomilla and
Valeriana jatamansii.
Chiraito (Swertia chirayita)–one of the widely traded plant
species of KL Nepal
39
Fibre-yielding plants–Daphne bholua, Edgeworthia
gardneri and Giardiana diversifolia are more prevalent
in the area close to the Indian border. Wild edibles
collected by villagers are mostly the food supplements
such as nuts of Castanopsis indica, rhizome/bulbs of
Dioscorea species and fruits of Lindera neesiana. Besides
the use of NTFPs as medicine, fibre and wild edibles, bark
of Alnus nepalensis, Pinus wallichiana and Rubia manjith
are used to produce dye. Many ornamental species
along with beverages like Thea sinensis and spices such
as Cinnamomum tamala are also cultivated as NTFPs
(NCDC 2010). Over-harvesting of some species has
increased the threat to many of the species (Uprety
et.al. submitted). Mostly NTFPs, including MAPs, are
collected from the wild. However, different community
forest user groups and individual households have
recently established nurseries to cultivate NTFPs/MAPs.
5.2.2 Supporting services
Supporting services are the services necessary for the
production of all other ecosystem services. Rangelands
of KL Nepal districts are discussed in this section.
Rangelands
KL Nepal districts have a vast extent of open meadows.
These have traditionally been used by both wild and
domestic herbivores and are also important areas in
terms of transboundary conservation (LRMP 1986,
Pei and Sharma 1998, MoFSC 2002). Rangelands
support the livelihoods of several communities in KL
Nepal districts. Substantial number of livestock has been
using transborder open pastures as the main source of
forage. However, such practices are now constrained
by policy changes, which are bringing challenges to
the people dependent on livestock-based livelihoods,
especially those living in high altitude areas (Chettri et
al. 2008b, Parajuli et al. 2013). In addition, acute water
shortage, limited forage and fodder availability, livestock
disease and livestock depredation by wildlife are limiting
livelihood options in these fragile ecosystems (Chettri
and Sharma 2006). Sustainable use of the rangeland
resource is critical not only to sustaining the socioeconomy of the local communities but also to the
conservation of rare fauna and flora, water and carbon
sequestration (Chettri et al. 2008b, Rawat et al. 2013).
Rangelands of three districts (Taplejung, Panchthar
and Ilam) occupy about 417 km2, (>23%) area of the
districts, of which 24 bordering VDCs of Taplejung
(9 VDCs), Panchthar (5 VDCs), and Ilam (10 VDCs),
cover about 265 km2 of rangelands and pastures.
Among the three districts, Taplejung has the highest
(58% of the total area of the district) proportion of
rangeland/pasture followed by Panchthar (11%) and
Ilam (5%) (Figures 5.2 and 5.3) (Oli 2003). Among all
40
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
the bordering VDCs, Taplejung district alone harbours
more than 86% of the total pastureland of the VDCs
(Figure 5.2).
Figure 5.2: Pastureland in KL Nepal region
Coverage of Pastureland in Taplejung, Panchthar
and Ilam districts
34.06 km2
53.64 km2
Ilam
Panchthar
Taplejung
329.65
km2
Figure 5.3: Pastureland in 24 bordering VDCs of
KL Nepal region
major categories (Oli 2008):
• Alpine/subalpine pasturelands, called Himali
Kharka, generally extend up to 4,500m (located
between 3500m–5000m in some places) and are
important resources for transhumance livestock;
• Temperate pasturelands, called Lekali Kharka, occur
between 2,000m–3,500m; and
• Subtropical rangelands located between
1,500m–2,000m.
In KL Nepal region, large extension of alpine/subalpine
rangelands (Himali Kharkas) are in the Kambachen, Selele
and Ramche region between 4,200m–4,600m where the
typical rangeland species like Agrostis myriantha, Carex
species, Festuca rubra, Juncus effusus, Poa annuna, Trisetum
spicatum, etc. are abundant with several important MAPs.
The rate of grazing area expansion is largest between
3,000m–4,000m, where species like Calamogrostis
species, Carex species, Festuca species and Trisetum
species are abundant (Rastogi et al. 1997). Mainly yaks,
chauris, sheep and mountain goats graze in the Himali
Kharka from June to mid–October (Oli 2003).
Pastureland in the bordering VDCs of KL Nepal
13.57 km2
23.31 km2
Ilam
Panchthar
Taplejung
228.19
km2
High altitude pastures in KL Nepal districts are important
common property resources mainly for seasonal grazing
(Figure 5.4). Warm temperate rangelands, however, are
used extensively by both transhumance and stall feeders
without resting periods or regeneration of pasture species.
Similarly, subtropical rangelands are used extensively
during winter months. Implementation of community forest
policy in lower elevation has resulted in the conversion
of open pastures to forests, suppressing the growth of
desirable pasture species. In some areas, CFUGs forbid
the use of traditional migratory routes followed by animal
herders. With the abolition of kipat1 and customary
arrangements, the sense of ownership and affection of the
traditional community for their inherited pastoral resources
has been weakened, leading to haphazard grazing and
mismanagement of pastures (Chettri et al. 2008a).
Spatial distribution of pasturelands
Pasturelands in KL Nepal districts are divided into three
Most grazing areas in Lekali Kharkas have a slope
ranging between 15 to 30 degree and with an open
area of 5–300ha along with shrubs and bushes. These
rangelands are used for grazing livestock such as cattle,
buffaloes, sheep, goats, yaks and chauris for about
six months from October–November, February–March,
and May–June. They are also used as corridor when
animals are moved to pastures of different elevations.
Yaks are wintered there. For this reason, the temperate
rangelands are overgrazed and do not get required
resting period for regeneration.
Rangelands in the upper part of Panchthar district like
Pauwa Bhanjyang, Silauti, Ravi, Varapa and Chyangthapu
are rich for medicinal and aromatic herbs. Chyangthapu
VDC has some important rangelands, namely, Chaitya,
Chautara, Golpole, Chiruwa, Saththumke, Deurali,
Dahdeli, Lasune, Bhawan, Tham, etc. Some of them are
under private and the others are under governmental
ownership. Rangelands in the bordering areas of Ilam and
Panchthar like Pauwasarathap, Puwa Majhuwa and the
highland of Ilam are traditionally famous for the breeding
of Tibetan horse and Tibetan dogs (Khatri 2004).
In Panchthar district, large areas of barren lands were
used as kharkas (rangelands) in the past. These were
under the control of local Subbas as their kipat land.
The joint shareholders of the property have registered
some parts of the land. However, some other parts were
not registered in land survey. Thus, the community head
distributed such kharkas to the participating community,
which remained unproductive and uncultivated.
1. The kipat is a customary system of communal land ownership through which a group of families hold land titles. It represents a communal
form of land tenure inherited by the same communities from their ancestors.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Transhumance system of animal rearing
One of the common forms of traditional farming in the
upper mountain slopes of KL Nepal is extensive rearing
of sheep, yaks and chauris and hill cattle. This system
covers much of the grazing land in the high altitude of
Taplejung and Panchthar, and significantly contributes
to the socio-economy of the mountain communities.
Together with early forest clearances and random forest
fires, low intensity livestock rearing was responsible
for the mosaic of evergreen scrub, conifer forest and
rough pasture. These grazing areas are vegetated with
grass, shrubs and forests with understory grass. Thus,
a proportion of this area is more suited for sheep, yak
and cattle grazing, while other parts are better for goats
and wild ungulates. The system is efficient as there is
very little input to it and the productivity of these natural
grasslands is low (Oli 2003). However, transhumance
grazing of animals in high altitude areas of eastern
Nepal Himalaya declined after late 1980s (Oli 2003).
Livestock in KL Nepal area is highly mobile and its
management system has been changing over the years.
Owing to several factors, the number and size of herds
has been decreasing. Over the years, stall feeding is
increasing, especially in the villages of lower altitude.
However, transhumance is practised for livestock types
such as yaks, crossbreeds of yaks, sheep and cattle,
especially in higher elevation areas. Cattle is rarely
taken beyond the altitude of 3,200m and seasonally
moved at lower altitude when the availability of grass
for grazing deckines in the Lekali Kharka. On the other
hand, chauris reach up to 4,000m while yak and sheep
reach even higher (Oli 2003). Typical annual cycle of
transhumance migration of grazing animals begins
Figure 5.4: Seasonal grazing pattern of herders of
Gola village of Olangchung Gola VDC
Sinjema
(Mid-Apr-May)
Mid-Feb-Last
Mauma
(Late-June)
Deuma (Dhupitar)
(Mid-Nov-Mid-Feb)
Mid-Apr-Mid-Jun
Shyamdo
(Mid-Oct-Mid-Nov)
Rolep
(Mid-July)
Mar-Mid-Apr
Deuma
(Mid-Nov-Mid-Feb)
Samjung
(Mid-Jul-Mid-Aug)
Mendolung
(Mid-Aug-Mid-Sep)
Each box represents ‘goth/kharka’ and me of the stay of ca le in
the ‘goth’; ‘goths’ ranging from c 3900-4200m eleva on
Source: ECCA Nepal (2008)
41
from mid–March, from subtropical grazing areas and
reaches temperate pasture or Lekali Kharka by mid–
May. Cattle, buffaloes and goats remain at those
kharkas until the end of September, while sheep
and yaks are moved further up to Himali Kharkas
and with the beginning of October, both types are
gradually brought down. During colder months, yaks
and sheep are wintered in the temperate pastures and
other animals are brought back to subtropical areas.
Animals owned by different owners are collectively
herded. This system of animal keeping is followed
mainly in parts of high altitude areas of Ilam bordering
India, Memeng, Chyangthapu and Phalaicha VDCs of
Panchthar and all northern VDCs of Taplejung district.
Transhumance trend
Since the traditional transhumance grazing method is
practised throughout much of the high-altitude grazing
lands, they are constantly subject to changes affecting
their succession processes. Aggressive growth of weeds
resulting from heavy grazing of palatable species
has caused loss of pasture biodiversity and livestock
productivity thereby rendering the habitat open to
invasive weed species (Chettri et al. 2008a). Over the
years, transhumance system is declining as a response
to several factors including opportunities in other sectors
like foreign employment and cash crop cultivation.
Along the transborder areas, the governments of
neighboring countries have been establishing protected
areas restricting livestock in those areas.
5.2.3 Regulating services
These are the benefits obtained from the regulation
of ecosystem processes. As an example, the protected
area of KL Nepal is discussed in this section.
Kangchenjunga Conservation Area
The KCA is the only protected area in KL Nepal. Named
after Mt. Kangchenjunga (8,586m), the third highest peak
in the world, KCA shares borders with Sankhuwasabha
district in the west, Khangchendzonga National Park of
Sikkim (India) in the east and TAR (China) in the north.
It was established in 1997 and covers 2,035 km2 of
land in Taplejung district (65% of total district area) of
Mechi zone, located between latitudes 27.69oN and
longitudes 87.92oE. It is under Category VI of IUCN
Protected Areas (Box 5.3 and 5.4). The area represents
high mountain physiographic regions with 41% of its
area covered by rocks and 23% by snow and glaciers.
Remaining 36% is covered by forest (16%), shrubland
(10%), grassland (9%), agricultural land (0.5%) and
lakes and landslide (0.1%) (KCAMC 2013).
The KCA provides a pristine habitat for many
species such as Snow leopard (Uncia uncia), Red
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
© MoFSC
42
Snow leopard–the flagship species of KL Nepal
Box 5.3: Category VI: Protected area with
sustainable use of natural resources
Category VI protected areas conserve ecosystems and habitats,
together with associated cultural values and traditional natural
resource management systems. They are generally large, with most
of the areas in a natural condition, where a proportion is under
sustainable natural resource management and where low-level
non-industrial use of natural resources compatible with nature
conservation is seen as one of the main aims of the area (Dudley
2008).
panda (Ailurus fulgens) and Musk deer (Moschus
chrysogaster) as well as for many threatened and
endangered plant species, including Lauth salla
(Taxus wallichiana) and Kutki (Neopicrorhiza
scrophulariiflora). The KCA is one of the most
isolated and least densely populated protected areas
of Nepal and contains tracts of pristine forests, alpine
meadows and high altitude wetlands.
Papung VDC provides connectivity between KCA and
Makalu Barun National Park. Some other VDCs in the
western part of Taplejung district (not included within
the boundary of KL Nepal) also cover Rhododendron
Conservation Area (IUCN 2010). There are a few other
conservation areas initiated locally by District Forest
Offices in Jhapa and Ilam. Furthermore, three districts
of KL Nepal, Ilam, Panchthar and Taplejung fall under
the Sacred Himalayan Landscape (SHL) Programme
which extends from Langtang National Park in central
Nepal through the Kangchenjunga region in Sikkim
and Darjeeling in India to Toorsa Strict Nature Reserve
in western Bhutan covering an area of 30,021 km2.
In Nepal, MoFSC is leading the SHL initiative in
partnership with WWF, ICIMOD, The Mountain Institute
(TMI) and IUCN, and has developed a Strategic Plan
for 2006-2016 (MoFSC 2006).
5.2.4 Cultural services
These are non-material benefits obtained from ecosystems.
Wetlands and sacred forests of KL Nepal provide different
services such as spiritual, religious, recreational, aesthetic
and inspirational. Therefore, wetlands and sacred forests
are described under this category.
Wetlands and Ramsar site
Lakes (pokharis), rivers, marshes, swamps, etc. are
important features of the landscape. Wetlands are
indispensible parts of the ecosystems as they perform
ecological functions and provide many ecological
services (Bhandari 2006). Wetlands are the interface of
nature and culture. KL Nepal harbours many important
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
43
Box 5.4: Summary features of Kangchenjunga Conservation Area
Biodiversity Features
Biome:
Vegetation:
Mixed mountain systems
Represented by subtropical vegetation in the lower mid-hills to alpine grasslands in high hills and
mountains forest types include Rhododendron forests upto treeline; Larix griffithiana–Juniperus
forest–a characteristic east Himalayan vegetation type–found in the two main river valleys of this
area between 3,000m–3,700m; Coniferous forest of Abies spectabilis and Tsuga dumosa between
2,800m–3,500m; Mixed broadleaved forest of Quercus species, Castanopsis species, Magnolia
campbellii, Acer campbellii and Osmanthus suavia between 1,200m–2,800m; Sal-Schima mixed
forest at 1,200m. 810 species of flowering plants. Largest families are Asteraceae (56 species),
Fabaceae (51 species), Orchidaceae (48 species), Rosaceae (45 species), Ericaceae (42 species) and
Poaceae (40 species). Largest genera are Rhododendron (23 species), Rubus (14 species), Pedicularis
(10 species) and Primula (10 species). Important flora constitutes Taxus wallichiana, Tetracentron
sinense and Rhododendron species
Socioeconomic Features
Community Structure
It includes four VDCs of Lelep, Tapethok, Olangchung Gola and Yamphudin. About 5,000 people
of about 11 ethnic communities live in the area. As the original settlers of the Upper Tamur Valley,
and Ethnic Groups:
the Limbus are the dominant ethnic group in the lower region. The Sherpa/Lama people live in the
higher altitude where they arrived from Tibet more than four hundred years ago. These Sherpas have
a distinct culture and tradition from those in the other district. Also, Rais, Chhetris, Brahmins and
others live in KCA.
Natural Heritage:
The KCA in the eastern Himalaya comprises some of the most stunning scenery in all of Nepal.
Not only does this region host the third highest peak in the world (Mt. Kangchenjunga), but it is
also a global hotspot for plant biodiversity. Twenty three species of Rhododendrons have been
identified in the area. In this eastern Himalayan setting, glacial streams cut through high ridges
creating remote and steep valleys where traditional farming practices are a way of life. Tucked
within these hidden valleys, one can encounter rich forests that support more than 250 species
of birds and endangered wildlife.
Cultural Significance:
The region has a mosaic of ethnic groups. The religious sites (temples and monasteries) in the area
attest to Kangchenjunga’s rich cultural heritage. Monasteries, chhortens, temples, prayer-walls are
the icons of the conservation area’s cultural heritage.
Livelihood Strategies:
Local people combine agriculture, pastoralism and trade to support their livelihood.
Conservation Management
IUCN Category:
IV - Habitat/Species Management Area (Box 5.3)
Management Authority:
Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation
Park Headquarters:
Lelep
Conservation History:
Recognizing its rich natural and cultural resources, GoN declared the core area of 1,650 km2 in the
Kangchenjunga region of Nepal a ‘Gift to the Earth’ on April 29, 1997. This action was in support
of WWF’s Living Planet Campaign and was also a commitment from GoN to conserve the area’s
natural and cultural heritage. This was followed by the KCA being conferred as a Conservation Area
status on July 21, 1997, fulfilling the criteria that it contains sites of significant religious, cultural,
archaeological or historic value; contains unique landform or geomorphic features; comprises sites
of unique genetic diversity and habitat essential for the preservation and enhancement of rare or
endangered species. Subsequently, the boundary was extended to 2,305 km2 on September 14, 1998,
to cover four VDCs in order to promote community-based conservation. The KCA, on September 22,
2006, was handed over to the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area Management Council (KCAMC)
making it the first ever protected area managed by the community.
Conservation Challenges: Regional efforts need to be concentrated to effectively safeguard typical eastern Himalayan vegetation
of Lithocarpus and Larix forests. Knowledge base of the traditional grazing patterns of yak and sheep
herds will be essential. Importance of integrating biodiversity conservation with socio-economic
development should be explored.
Transboundary Features:
The conservation area with unique mountain ecosystems is envisioned as a tri-national peace park
with TAR of China to the north and Sikkim (India) in the east.
Source: http://www.icimod.org/hkhconservationportal/PA.aspx?ID=1
44
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
wetlands of varying sizes supporting biodiversity and
reviving culture. The Mai Pokhari in Ilam district is
the only Ramsar Site in Kangchenjunga Landscape.
Mai Pokhari, with catchment of 12ha, is located 13
km away from the district headquarters, Ilam in Mai
Pokhari VDC. It was declared a Ramsar Site during the
10th Conference of Parties to the Ramsar Convention
(COP 10) at Changwon, the Republic of Korea, on 28
October 2008. It is located at an altitude of 2,100m
(WWF 2007).
Mai Pokhari has nine corners where nine goddesses
came and lived in the past. It is a major habitat for some
important animal species like tree frog (Polypedates
maculatus) and Himalayan newt (Tylototriton verrucosus)
commonly known as Thakthake and is a habitat for
more than 350 species of birds. Mai Pokhari holds
cultural and religious significance for Buddhist and
Hindu pilgrims. Some other important wetlands in Ilam
are Hans Pokhari, Mudke Pokhari, Kal Pokhari, Dhunge
Pokhari, Santapur and Gorkhe Dhap.
Another important cultural and religious wetland of KL
Nepal is Timbung Pokhari which lies at the border of
Taplejung and Panchthar districts, sharing most of the
areas of Kalikhola VDC of Taplejung. It was named
after Limbu language. Apart from this, Nagumma
Pokhari, Nuppu, Nura Pokhari, Samdu Pokhari, Kali
Tin, Lama, Cheudi, Jaljale, Iwa, Chahare Pokhari, Sema
Pokhari, Gayheche Pokhari and Sinjema Pokhari are
other high altitude wetlands in Taplejung district (WWF
2008). Culture, religion and tradition have important
role in the conservation of these wetlands. The need
for identification and conservation of faunal and floral
diversity and their habitat has been insisted as Timbung
Pokhari has supported such diversity (WWF 2008).
Except for Mai Pokhari, Timbung Pokhari and Sinjema
Pokhari, no comprehensive information is available for
other wetlands of KL Nepal.
Sacred forests
Forest Act 1993 defines religious forests as “a National
Forest handed over to a religious body, group or
community for its development, conservation and
utilization” (MoFSC 1993). The District Forest Offices
have provisions to hand over potential religious (sacred)
forests to the user groups according to the Forest Act
1993 and Forest Regulations 1995. Any religious body,
group or community desiring to develop, conserve and
utilize the National Forest of any religious place or its
surroundings should submit an application to the District
Forest Officer mentioning the area and boundaries of
such forest, the functions to be carried out in such forest
and other details as prescribed. Under these provisions,
some forests are reported to be religious in Panchthar
(16ha) and Ilam (156ha).
Kichakbadh area of Prithivinagar VDC is a potential
area identified as religious forest in Jhapa district
(DFO Jhapa 2013). If local user group demands for
the management of religious forests, DFO could hand
over this forest to the user group following District Forest
Office’s Management Plan. DFO has also the provision
of plantation of religious plants in such areas. Timber
of such forests could be collected and used only for
religious purpose from such forests.
Panchthar district also has some potential religious forests.
The Jor Pokhari Mahadevsthan forest has been handed
over to the user group to manage it as a religious forest.
Likewise, the forest in Pauwa Bhanjyang, where the residence
of Mahaguru Falgunanda is located, has also been handed
over to the user group (DFO Panchthar 2007).
Ilam district also has a few religious forests: Mai Pokhari,
Pathivara, Sinha Bahini, Gajur Mukhi and Seti Devi. The
forest around Mai Pokhari was handed over to the user
group as a religious forest in 2002–2003. Although no
religious forest has been formally registered and handed
over in Taplejung district, some potential forests exist which
can be handed over to the user groups for management.
Apart from its religious significance, religious forests
or sacred groves contribute to the conservation of
indigenous culture that could play an important role in
the identification of reference ecosystems for restoration
purpose (Uprety et al. 2012). Dedicated to ancestral
spirits or deities, such sites may be kept intact by local
people for centuries (Bhagwat and Rutte 2006). Such
areas cover a wide variety of habitats; they are often
located in biodiversity-rich regions and serve as refuge
for many species (Mgumia and Oba 2003, Bhagwat
and Rutte 2006).
Religious forests are not given due consideration for
the management and conservation of biodiversity and
cultural diversity. Hence, there is a need to conduct an
in-depth study of religious/sacred forests of KL Nepal.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Chapter
6
45
Resource
Management System
Community forest user group members monitoring Jalthal forest in Jhapa district
6.1 Forest management
Forest management system observed in KL Nepal is
almost common in all the districts. Although much of
the data presented in the previous chapters revealed the
utilization of forest resources primarily from community–
managed and private forests, government data reveals
that major proportion of forest resources of KL Nepal
are still under the management of the government. The
leasehold forestry programme was initiated in Panchthar
district from 2002/03 with the aim of providing forest to
households below poverty line for reducing their poverty
mainly through increased utilization of forest products
and animal husbandry. Besides, a limited proportion of
the forest in KL Nepal is also managed as private and
religious forests (Table 6.1and 6.2). With the initiation
of DNPWC and KCAP, 73,327ha forest and rangeland
within KCA has been handed over to the communities as
26 Conservation Community Forests (CCFs) and 676ha
forest in Ghunsa is managed as sacred forest (KCAMC
2013).
Among the KL districts, the largest total forest area is
recorded in Taplejung followed by Ilam, Panchthar and
Jhapa districts. However, in relation to the total area
of the districts, largest proportion of forest land can
be observed in Panchthar (47.30%) followed by Ilam
(47.26%), Taplejung (30.72%) and Jhapa (8.25%).
Although Taplejung has large forest coverage, this district
has the least number of community forests; whereas the
46
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
largest portion of forest in Ilam has been handed over to
the communities. Similarly, over 63% of the total forest
of Jhapa district has been already handed over to the
communities. Moreover, the largest area under private
and religious forests are recorded from Jhapa and Ilam
respectively (Table 6.1). More specifically, only about
29,573ha of forests within 85 VDCs and 7 municipalities
of KL Nepal have been handed over to the communities.
These forests constitute about 11% of the total forest
areas of KL Nepal districts (Table 6.2).
As per the guidelines prepared under the existing
legislative framework, different community–based
management modalities are being practised in KL Nepal
districts. These are community forest, leasehold forest
and community initiated conservation community forest.
In all modalities, forests are handed over to the local
community–based forest institutions (FUGs). In addition,
forestry operations and other development activities in
the government managed forest are carried out through
DFO as per the approved District Forest Management
Plan. Similarly, the protected/watershed management
and development activities in the conservation area/
watershed area are carried out as per approved plans.
These plans spell out strategy and implementation
procedure at the field level. Table 6.3 provides a synopsis
of forest conservation and management plans being
implemented in KL Nepal.
6.1.1 Local institutions in biodiversity
conservation and management
Community involvement in conservation initiatives is
evident in KL Nepal. In addition to the DFO, several
other GOs, NGOs, CBOs and clubs are actively
involved in biodiversity conservation in the region.
Monitoring of illegal harvest and trade of forest
resources, conducting anti-poaching operations,
conducting biodiversity conservation and awareness
raising campaigns, regulating grazing, constructing
and maintaining trail and pavement, cleaning and
paving, restoration of forests through community
forest user groups, preventing landslides, etc. are
some of the common activities undertaken by these
organizations.
Transfer of technology and skills along with cultural
exchange is prevalent among the residents of these
districts and the people from the state of Sikkim and
Darjeeling in India (Chettri et al. 2008b). Community
Forest User Groups (CFUGs) and the District Forest
Offices in different districts have established nurseries
of NTFPs. However, technical knowhow in processing
raw materials into marketable products is limited. Some
non-governmental organizations have been working on
production and processing of MAPs.
6.1.2 Forest restoration
In recent years, several CFUGs in KL Nepal have started
to establish nurseries of forest tree, fodder species and
important NTFP/MAP species. Seedlings are distributed
to the local communities for plantation in community
forests and private lands. Such practice has resulted in
the improvement of forest quality of the region both in
terms of species richness as well as canopy coverage.
In addition, detailed resource inventories are also
conducted in different areas of KL Nepal. Assessments
were conducted in the KCA region at regular intervals
to identify and document high value NTFPs (viz. Daphne
bholua, Daphne papyracea, Edgeworthia gardneri,
Juniperus indica, Juniperus communis, Nardostachys
grandiflora,Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora, Saussurea
tridactyla, Swertia chirayita, etc.), to demonstrate
effective management and sustainable use of wildcollected plants and to contribute significantly to the
local livelihoods of the region (Shrestha 2003).
These assessments have provided comprehensive
information to local user groups for effective management
of NTFPs. Consequently, communities have been
benefiting by the sustainable use of these valuable
resources which has also improved local economy and
forest quality in the region (KCA 2013). In addition
to afforestation campaigns conducted mainly via
community, leasehold and private forestry, the imposed
prohibitions followed by proper monitoring by CFUGs,
CBOs and the government agencies have controlled, to
some extent, illegal harvesting and trade of NTFPs, tree
logging, forest encroachment, overgrazing and forest
fire in the region. Such efforts, to some extent, have
collectively resulted in the restoration of the previously
degraded forest ecosystems.
Agroforestry
Successful agroforestry practices in KL Nepal have led
to the maintenance of greenery and stabilization of the
ecosystems and the economy. Agroforestry innovations in
the form of large cardamom plantations with moistureloving trees, broom grass cultivation and tea cultivation,
which are the characteristic of the landscape, have
supplemented the income of the local communities.
Cultivation of MAPs and their use as cash crops are
recent phenomenon (Chettri and Sharma 2006).
Furthermore, agroforestry significantly contributes to
animal husbandry and organic manure availability for
the local agroecosystems. Major species recorded in these
agroforestry systems include: fodder (Arundinaria species,
Dendrocalamus species, Ficus nemoralis and Saurauria
napaulensis); timber (Alnus nepalensis, Castanopsis indica
and Michelia champaca); and firewood (Alnus nepalensis,
Macaranga pustulata and Schima wallichii). Planting
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
47
Table 6.1: Distribution of forests under different forest categories in KL Nepal districts
Forest category
Districts
Government-managed forest (ha)
Total
Taplejung
Panchthar
Ilam
Jhapa
112,262
44,577
31,004
4,689
192,533
4,472
12,699
49,120
8,550
74,841
Community forest
Area (ha)
79
157
218
32
486
Private forest
Area (ha)
6
1
1
318
326
No.
7
1
2
333
343
No.
Leasehold forest
0
731
0
0
731
NA
213
NA
NA
213
0
16
156
0
172
116,740
58,025
80,281
13,557
268,603
30.72
47.30
47.26
8.25
32.15
Area (ha)
No.
Religious forest area (ha)
Total forest area (ha)
% of total area of the district
Source: MoFSC (2013), DFO Taplejung (2013)
Table 6.2: Distribution of community forests in VDCs/municipalities within KL Nepal
Districts
Community Forest
Area (ha)
CFUGs
Taplejung
1,716
25
Panchthar
4,473
41
Ilam
15,576
105
Jhapa
7,809
28
Total
29,574
199
Source: DoF (2013)
Table 6.3: Forest conservation and management plans under implementation in KL Nepal districts
SN
Type of the plan
Level
No of plan
Duration of Status
the plan
Remarks
1.
District Forest
Management Plan
District
4
5 years
Approved by DoF
Taplejung, Panchthar,
Ilam and Jhapa
2.
Kangchenjunga
Conservation Area
Management Plan
Conservation
Area
1
4 years
Approved by MoFSC
KCA (4 VDCs) in
Taplejung
(2014–2017)
3.
Community Forest
Operational Plan
FUG
486
5 years
Approved by DFO
Taplejung, Panchthar,
Ilam and Jhapa
4.
Conservation
Community Forest
Operational Plan
FUG
26
5 years
Approved by KCAMC
Taplejung (within KCA)
5.
Leasehold Forest
Operational Plan
FUG
197
5 years
Approved by DFO
Panchthar
6.
Management Plan of
Mai Pokhari, Ramsar
Site
Wetland
1
5 years
Approved by MoFSC
Mai Pokhari area (3
VDCs) in Ilam
48
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
broom grass on steep terraces and marginal lands is
an age-old practice particularly in Ilam and Panchthar
districts. Majority of the farmers practise agroforestry on
their farmland, private forestland and community forests,
which have also reduced pressure on the government
managed forests.
6.1.3 Forest utilization and management issues
Several initiatives have been undertaken by the
government agencies (mainly the District Forest Offices)
individually or in coordination with local stakeholders for
the conservation and sustainable management of forest
resources of KL Nepal (DFO Panchthar, Ilam and Jhapa
2008, DFO Taplejung 2013). However, such initiatives
are not sufficient in reducing the pressure on forest
resources due to several factors. In all KL Nepal districts,
issues related with the utilization and management
of forest resources are almost similar, which can be
broadly categorized as: i) slash and burn agriculture
in high elevation (above 3,000m) forests; ii) forest
encroachment to convert forest areas into agricultural
land; iii) overgrazing on alpine meadows; iv) extensive
illegal tree logging for household cooking, heating and
construction; v) illegal and overharvesting of NTFPs; vi)
invasive species; vii) forest fire; and viii) poaching and
retaliatory killings of wildlife. Explanations and reasons
for degradation are a mixture of unclear ownership
or tenure rights, lack of policy interventions, low
agricultural productivity of existing land, lack of linkages
to cash crop markets, and external market demands for
traditional medicines (Parker and Thapa 2011, Oli et
al. 2013). However, there has been some attempts in
Nepal at the policy level to promote sustainable harvest
of forest resources, but implementation has been far
from satisfactory (Oli et al. 2013).
6.1.4 Transboundary forest conservation
and management issues
Rich forest species of economic importance and the
existence of porous border make KL Nepal a very critical
transboundary area for conservation and management
of the landscape. Some of the major transboundary
issues related to agroforestry and forestry include
illegal trade of medicinal plants/products and timber,
cross-border movement of livestock, wildlife poaching,
and uncertain markets due to heavy reliance on the
international market.
Many local institutions are working in the area for
conservation but with limited success. In order to
address these cross-border conservation issues through
transboundary cooperation, a few meetings are
organized at local as well as national government levels
with the bordering countries (KCA 2013). The objectives
of such meetings are: i) to explore and address gaps
in effective law enforcement in controlling wildlife
crime in the border region; ii) sharing of experiences
and lessons learned at all levels; iii) maintenance of
biological corridors and connectivity; iv) declaration
of bi-national peace park in the potential areas; and
v) initiation of collaborative research and monitoring on
the flagship species, etc. (KCA 2013). However, issues of
illegal hunting and trade of wildlife, overharvesting and
illegal trade of NTFPs/MAPs, illegal tree logging, timber
trade and firewood still remain unresolved in the region.
6.1.5 Illegal transborder trade: An issue of
biodiversity conservation and management
From the time of operation of traditional salt-grain trade
(with Tibet and India) to present, transborder trade also
involved illegal trade of wildlife (Wang and Li 1998)
and their products, timber, NTFPs and several valuable
medicinal plants. It has been reported that Illegal
trade across the Sino-Nepal and Sino-India border is
currently active and the trend is found to have increased
particularly after 1950s (Oli 2003, NCDC 2005, 2010,
Paudel 2010). Due to the porous border between Nepal
and India and lack of monitoring in remote areas along
the border between Nepal and Tibet, accompanied with
the scarcity of trained human resources and lack of
infrastructure with the government agencies for proper
monitoring, the trend of illegal trade of wildlife and its
product seems increasing in the region (WWF 2006).
Except a few discrete cases, there is no factual
information and data with the concerned government
agencies on the volume of illegal transborder trade,
trade channels, trade centres and trade routes in
this region (NCDC 2010a, Katuwal et al. 2013). As
reported in the field, illegal trade is run by middlemen/
brokers (in either side of the border) through channels
that operate clandestinely with hidden support and is
difficult to identify. Therefore, there is an urgent need
of cooperation and proper coordination among the
relevant stakeholders in the region while enhancing
their capacity for monitoring and control of such trades.
More importantly, there is a need of transboundary (bi/
and tri-national) cooperation and coordination at the
national and local levels for effective controlling illegal
transborder trade of biodiversity components.
6.2 Rangeland management
The mountain communities of KL Nepal are heavily
dependent on natural resources of the surrounding
environment. Local institutions have strict regulations for
natural resource management, including pastureland
management and grass-cutting. Pasturelands belong
to the government, but its use and management is
controlled by local user groups (Box 6.1).
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Only the local inhabitants have free access to these
pastures and users from outside have to pay fee (MüllerBöker and Kollmair 2000). A healthy population of blue
sheep above Khampachen (Brown1994) indicates that
the local management of pastures is sustainable as well
as supporting wildlife.
Box 6.1: Communal management of rangeland
resources: A case of Ghunsa village
The ‘grass-cutting day’, which regulates the supply
of winter fodder, is one of the most interesting and
effective ways of grassland management in Ghunsa
village (Brown 1994). To avoid individual exploitation of
a crucial common resource, the village representatives
fix the day for starting grass cutting. After 3–4 days, all
the grass is harvested. All members of the community
have the opportunity to collect sufficient hay. The grasscutting regulation also includes private land. This helps
to mitigate economic disparities and prevents the theft
of grass from private lands. The ability to adapt to
the system to a new setting was proven when Tibetan
refugees settled in Phale in 1959. They were accepted
as equal partners in this system. There are also locally
developed rules and regulations concerning the forests,
especially the heavily used forests in the neighbourhood
of settlements. The term Rani Ban designates forests
that are traditionally preserved for both religious and
secular reasons. Timber for the construction of schools,
gompas, bridges and other community needs is taken
from the forests. Various local institutions establish
governance over a particular resource defined by a user
group, demarcating a boundary and establishing and
enforcing a functioning set of user rights and restrictions.
In the past, these local institutions could effectively resist
external state control because of the remoteness of the
area. However, the KCAP tries to enhance and modify
these traditional rules and regulations by implementing
a management plan through Conservation Area
Management Committees.
Source: Müller-Böker and Kollmair (2000)
6.2.1 Major rangeland management
regimes: From past to present
Land ownership and tenancy rights followed the kipat
system until the Birta Unmulan Act of 1965 and the
Pastureland Nationalisation Act of 1975 (also see section
6.7.6). The de jure right of kipatiyas or other locals to
pastures were then vested in the government. However,
in some remote mountain areas, a de facto kipat system
is still prevalent (Khatri 2004). Before 1975 (2031 BS),
all the rangelands called kharkas were used to be
managed under the kipat system and after the kharka
49
Nationalization Act 2031, people lost all the legal rights
over the rangelands. The Act has nationalized all the
rangelands by providing compensation. However,
Provision 2 Kha of the Act states that the rangeland
can be provided to the organized body or community
for specific purpose leading to conservation prospect.
According to section (5) of this Act, local VDCs are
authorized for the protection and care of such land
under the supervision of the District Revenue Office
(Oli 2003, Khatri 2004). In the upper reaches of the
area, despite several Acts, de facto use rights of many
areas still remain with the traditional settlers. At the
lower elevations and even in areas of Lekali Kharkas
where community forestry is expanding, there is no claim
and counter-claim except in rare cases. But in majority
of the community forestry areas, the CFUG executive
members are from the members of traditional kipataya/
jimmawal clans. In the open areas and grazing sites within
the CF boundary, animal grazing tax called kharchari
is levied by the committee, which has still been largely
misappropriated and considered as a tax of their land
by the executive body (Oli 2003).
The current rental arrangements for pastureland are,
therefore, variable depending on the types and number
of animals. Sometimes, a flat rate is levied depending
on the size and condition of kharka–larger the size of the
grazing land, higher is the taxation. Payments are made
both in cash and kind. Herders are either rented a fixed
price or prefixed animal number(s) is given at the end
of the term. If animal population increases in the herd,
more money is charged to the herders (Oli 2003).
The same Lekali Kharka of Taplejung district is rented
twice to different grazers in a year: for cattle, buffalo,
sheep and goat grazing; and separately for yak. For cattle
and buffalo grazing, the same Lekali Kharka is rented for
a period of one year, but the animals are grazed only for
six months after which they are moved downwards for
wintering. For the rest of the winter period, the same land
is rented to yak herders with different arrangements.
This rental arrangement still exists between 2,000m
to 3,500m. Above this altitude, kharchari used to be
collected by the traditional kipatiyas/jimmawalas until
1993. However, in recent years, transhumance rearing
has declined and tax collection as kharchari has also
declined from alpine meadows (Oli 2003).
While these developments were taking place within
Nepal, an agreement for prohibiting transborder use
of pastureland was reached between the governments
of China and Nepal in 1978. In the Kangchenjunga
transboundary region, this arrangement impacted mainly
in Taplejung district (Yamphudin, Lelep, Olangchung
Gola and Papung VDCs) and part of Chyangthapu and
50
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
This is a divergence from the traditional sharing of
transboundary resources. Although the process has
reported to benefit biodiversity conservation towards the
Indian side, it has been adversely impacting rangeland
biodiversity in Nepal. Therefore, this development has
severely impacted on traditional transboundary resource
management regime (Oli 2003).
6.2.3 Transboundary movement of people
and their impact on pastureland
Pastureland in the high altitude region of KL Nepal
Phalaicha VDCs of Panchthar district (Oli 2003). This
prohibition on pasturing animals on Tibetan side forced
to open more highland grazing sites in Nepal. As a result,
the inaccessible remote fragile high altitude areas were
opened and made more accessible for domestic animal
grazing, and were subjected to further degradation due to
grazing and browsing. Grazing sites between 2,000m to
4,000m which were already overstocked received more
grazing pressure from Nepalese and Sikkimese sides.
6.2.2 Transborder cooperation in pasture
management
With the prohibition to pastureland by the Chinese
and increase of protected areas in the Indian part of
KL, yaks from there were brought to Lekali kharka in
Nepal, where grazing sites were already overstocked,
for wintering. Majority of people living either side of the
Nepal-India border is from the same clan. Members of
the same clan or family owns lands on both sides of
the border, and also have rights over the use of natural
resources, including the rangelands. If the use of pasture
resource is regulated on the one side, they use resources
from the other side. For example, after the delineation of
Singhalila National Park in Darjeeling district, adjacent
to Ilam and Panchthar districts of Nepal, animal grazing
was restricted within the protected area. Consequently
the people who were using the pasture of that area made
grazing arrangements on the Nepalese side.
Along the Nepalese border, all the forest and pasturelands,
other than within the PA system, are administered under
the Forest Act 1993, in which community forestry is an
important component. Law enforcement in Singhalila
protected area is reported to be stringent while there
is no effective presence of forest administration in the
remote areas of Nepalese side. In addition, community
forestry management in transborder area suffers from
lack of local capacity, market incentive on the other side
of the border and willingness of user groups to cope with
transboundary competition for the illegal harvest of forest
products (Oli 2003).
During 1950s, a large number of Tibetan refugees
started to come to settle in parts of Ilam, Taplejung,
Panchthar and Sikkim and Darjeeling districts of
the transborder area. More importantly, they also
brought with them the Tibetan culture and knowledge
base of rearing yaks and collecting herbs and
medicinal plants. Earlier settlers invested on the new
comers for settlement along the transborder areas
for yak rearing, collection of herbs and medicinal
plants, which eventually exerted extra pressure on
pastureland (Oli 2003). In order to ensure continued
flow of yak products for their businesses, wealthy
people from urban centres hired middlemen who
were in charge of rearing herds across transborder
areas. Similarly, it is reported that some people from
either side provided incentives to traditional mobile
hunters to hunt barking deer, wild boar and red
panda in such areas (Box 6.2).
Box 6.2: Multidimensional impacts of Tibetan
immigrants on rangeland biodiversity
Once the Tibetan refugees settled in different villages and
urban centres of India and Nepal. This brought multifaceted
changes in the traditional pattern of resource use and
management, including rangelands. It is reported that in
addition to the Tibetan refugees of Taplejung district, those
from different urban centres have made investment for yak
herds and kharkas in the region and hired some Nepali
herders for their management. Herds are grazed in Taplejung
and Panchthar districts. However, yak products are supplied
to the investors residing in different urban centres. As a result,
the yak population has increased over the years in the region.
Furthermore, the settlers in Taplejung along with the
local people opened up more areas clearing valuable
rhododendron forests for expanding pastureland. This has
reduced breeding and nesting grounds for many valuable
highland avifaunas. The impact of this is observed to be
many-fold. Since animals from Nepalese side are already
grazing, additional animals from Darjeeling and Sikkim
side exerted extra pressure on the Nepalese pasturelands.
Yaks are heavy grazers and can graze in the difficult terrain,
riversides and cliffs. High intensity grazing has reported to
reduce palatable pasture species. Unwanted bush species
have increasingly colonized. Transborder trade of NTFPs and
forest products also takes place along the border.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
6.2.4 Overgrazing in the rangelands
The danger of overgrazing and associated soil erosion
has been recognized for many years in Nepal. With the
increase in livestock numbers, high elevation grasslands
and forest areas in Nepal are deteriorating. Overgrazing
by domestic livestock and increased competition for
forage may directly threaten the region’s Blue sheep
(Pseudois nayaur), ghoral (Nemorhaedus goral) and
serow (Capricornis sumatraensis) population. However,
local people, by tradition, have the right to graze their
animals on pastures and in forests of the Kangchenjunga
area (Rastogi et al. 1997). Over the years, the number
and size of flocks of sheep has decreased. Unlike on
the Nepal side, the Indian side of Singhalila range is
under the strict protected area network since 2000. As a
result, huge flocks of animals were sold and transferred
towards Nepal side. This has further added the pressure
on pastures of KL Nepal.
51
management in KL Nepal in general is the ineffectiveness
of the initiatives. Identifying important animal-plant
areas (Section 5.1.6) and activating IBAs (Section 5.1.4)
and other initiatives with proper and adequate plans,
programmes and activities will complement the ongoing
effort of KCA, RPN and also adjoining Koshi Tappu
Wildlife Reserve (outside KL Nepal).
6.3.1 Human-wildlife conflict
Human-wildlife conflict is a serious problem in KL Nepal.
Crop depredation by wildlife is reported from all over
KL Nepal districts. Major wildlife species involved in
crop depredation include Asian elephant, Barking deer,
Himalayan bear and livestock predators include Snow
leopard and Common leopards. Emerging problem
due to seasonal migratory herd of elephants in Jhapa
district has become even more serious, which needs to
be addressed with short and long-term strategies and
effective implementation plans.
6.3 Wildlife management
Wildlife management is an integrated practice that draws
on diverse disciplines ranging from biology to security.
The main focus of wildlife management is the protection
of wildlife species within their habitats and carrying
capacity. Managing wildlife in KL Nepal with a large
number of nationally and globally threatened species
such as Snow leopard, Red panda, Musk deer, etc. is a
challenge particularly due to an increasing pressure of
human activities. One of the major challenges of the
landscape is poaching and trading of wildlife species
and/or their body parts (Paudel 2010). Limited research
and data, inadequate environmental awareness of local
communities, ineffective implementation of programmes
and initiatives are other important issues of KL Nepal.
Some of the ongoing conservation initiatives include KCA,
SHL, Mai Pokhari Ramsar site and IBAs, Red Panda Network
(RPN) and community forests in KL Nepal. However, the
only protected area in KL Nepal is the KCA, which is
directly addressing wildlife management issues through
various programmes and activities. One of the recent
successful activities include collaring Snow leopard with
GPS tracker for wildlife monitoring (WWF 2013). Data
transmitted by the collar will allow researchers to track the
Snow leopard’s movement, habitat use and preferences,
home range and other important parameters needed
for effective management of the species. Similarly, RPN
has been conducting baseline survey/research on Red
panda and community-based monitoring of the species
in Panchthar, Ilam and Taplejung districts. Training
local villagers as forest guardians has been undertaken
to create stewardship. Other government or nongovernment initiatives have not become effective as per
their goals and objectives. Therefore, major gap in wildlife
Wild elephants have covered 52 VDCs as migratory
routes in KL Nepal and 19 of them are severely impacted
by elephants. The severely impacted VDCs include
Bahundangi, Budhabare, Chulachuli, Satashidham,
Charali, Jalthal, Sanischare, Khudunabari, Surunga,
Ratuwamai, Shantinagar, Anarmani, Haripur, Kusaha,
Sripur, Prakashpur, Purbi Pipra, Chatara and Bhardaha.
All migratory elephants come to Nepal from India through
West Bengal and the main entry point is Bahundangi
of Jhapa district. Forty four human casualties occurred
with death of 19 people and serious injury of 25 people
from January 2008 to December 2013. People have
lost property worth over Rs. 6 million in Bahundangi
from 102 damages during 2013. Official records of
the Jhapa district DFO show that during 2010–2012
elephants killed or injured 21 people, damaged 210
houses and other property worth Rs 8 million. This
conflict is increasing because the number of elephants
visiting Jhapa has been increasing in recent years (Ram
2014). Action programmes for the reduction of humanelephant conflict in Jhapa is inadequate although
DFO of Jhapa district has been implementing some
programmes with the support of the World Bank.
6.3.2 Major causes of human-elephant conflict
Conflict arises from the conversion of forests into settlements,
agriculture and infrastructure such as highways and dams
leading to fragmentation, shrinkage and degradation
of elephant habitats, and loss of traditional routes for
elephant’s movement. As a consequence, shortage of
natural food arises and the elephants feed on agricultural
crops such as maize, rice, wheat, sugar cane, banana,
etc. Elephants thus enter into human settlements in search
of food and water, and often come into direct conflict with
humans by destroying crops, livestock or property and
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
©Deependra Joshi
©Narendra B. Pradhan
52
An Asian elephant in Jhapa district
Solar fencing constructed to reduce human-wildlife conflict
sometimes even killing people. In retaliation, elephants
also get injured/killed by the local communities.
in the region. For example, kiwi and coffee have been
introduced in the recent past.
6.3.3 Problem mitigation
Over the years, the type and number of livestock raised
have also declined. The flock of sheep has declined
largely both in number and size. Gradual shift to stall
feeding from grazing has also affected livestock diversity.
People, however, have maintained some landraces for
their favoured characteristics. No concerted efforts are
in place to conserve and manage agrobiodiversity.
Measures like the promotion of seed banks and the
conservation of landraces have not been practised yet.
Government agencies, particularly the District Agriculture
Development Office and District Livestock Services
Office at the district level and the Nepal Agriculture
Research Council at the national level, are the lead
agencies for the management of agrobiodiversity. In
addition to these government agencies, NGOs and
CBOs also play important role in conserving and
managing agrobiodiversity.
In order to mitigate human-elephant problem, both short
and long-term programmes, including research, awareness
and education, effective patrolling, solar fencing, wider
partnership, transboundary cooperation and coordination
among human-elephant conflict affected communities,
government and non-government organizations, and
CBOs should be strengthened. Moreover, innovative local
methods such as community insurance, compensation/
relief, keeping and diverting elephants away from farm
lands (e.g., burning chilli and shifting cultivation from ricemaize to non-palatable cash crops like cinnamon, ginger,
tea, etc.) should be explored and models of communitybased conflict mitigation programmes should be developed.
Similarly, long-term methods for conflict mitigation such as
land use planning and generating benefits from wildlife
through community-based conservation should also be
initiated. Such programmes are sustainable only when all
the stakeholders work together (Ram 2014).
6.4 Agrobiodiversity management
Agrobiodiversity management has both socio-cultural
and natural dimension. Selection and continuation
of crops and livestock are defined largely by socioeconomic, cultural and agro-climatic factors. Over
the years, with the introduction of new varieties of
crops, especially in the case of major crops like paddy,
wheat, maize and potato, indigenous landraces are
threatened. Landraces are more threatened in the areas
with access to market and extension services such as
the areas close to district headquarters and roadheads.
Some minor crops such as fox-tail millet and Perilla
frutescens are threatened to be lost. However, some
crop species, especially fruits and vegetables which were
not traditionally cultivated, have also been introduced
Agrobiodiversity–an example of maize diversity in KL Nepal
6.5 Wetland management
Mai Pokhari has a specific management plan, which
was prepared as a mandatory requirement for Ramsar
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
53
sites (DFO Ilam 2012). The plan has not addressed
the cultural values which rarely become the objective
of wetland management. Wetland culture can play a
vital role in publicizing the importance of culture in
the management of wetlands Bhandari (2006). The
management plan, therefore, should take culture as an
important tool to raise public awareness about wetland
conservation and management, particularly in relation
to the CBD and Ramsar Convention.
In Mai Pokhari, there are several management issues,
which need to be addressed to safeguard its importance.
These issues include introduced exotic species, especially the
Japanese pine (Cryptomeria japonica), introduction of exotic
fish, water seepage and decreasing water level, plantation
of exotic flowering plants in botanical garden, collection
of forest product, wildlife poaching, chemical fertilizer
and pesticide use for agriculture, poor conservation and
ecotourism awareness, infrastructure like the motorable
road too close to the pond and garbage pollution, gravelled
road, dust and vehicular noise (DFO Ilam 2012).
Timbung Pokhari located at the border of Taplejung and Panchthar
districts
6.6 Churia management
The Churia, also known as the Siwaliks or Churia hills
or foothills, rise abruptly reaching an elevational range
of 700–1,500m. The Churia is wider in the West and
Far-West Nepal than in the Eastern Nepal (Chaudhary
1998). Forest Resource Assessment Report on Churia
Forests of Nepal shows that KL districts (Ilam and Jhapa)
account for 3% (58,347 ha ) of total Churia area
(1,898,263 ha) in Nepal (DFRS 2014). Jhapa district
has 19,207 (1%) and Ilam has 39,140 ha (2%) land
area under Churia. The Churia range extends upto
Bahundangi, Khudunabari, Shantinagar and Surunga
VDCs in Jhapa district and Erautar, Jirmale, Laxmipur
and Shantipur VDCs in Ilam district within KL Nepal.
Important biodiversity goods and services provided
by Churia forests are under severe threats due to
land use change. The forests are losing their ground
A view of the Churia forest in Jhapa district
and the indigenous animals like King cobra, stork,
the world’s largest flying bird, Python and Pygmy hog
are threatened because of habitat loss. During the
Rana era, hardwood timber of sal (Shorea robusta)
forests of Churia was exported to India. Today, Churia
is being indiscriminately mined for soil, sand, stones
and boulders, thereby risking the plains of Nepal and
India prone to disastrous floods (Rai and Dutta 2010,
Shrestha 2012). When the Churia loses its forests
opening up huge gashes on its slopes by quarries,
monsoon rains can wash down the fragile mountain.
An evidence of this possible grim scenario comes from
Jhapa district where a bridge over the Ratuwa Khola
has been recently buried by the sediment washed down
from the Churia hills (Shrestha 2012).
Due to its sensitive geography, importance in terms
of biodiversity and the severity of ongoing activities,
the GoN has given special consideration on Churia
management and development since the fourth periodic
plan period (1970–1975). The Churia Area Programme
Strategy (2008) has given due consideration to manage
Churia in more integrated ways (MoFSC 2008) (also
see Chapter VII). Recently, the GoN has formed the
Rashtrapati Churia-Tarai-Madhesh Conservation
Development Committee for integrated and holistic
conservation of Churia area.
6.7 Institutional arrangements and
stakeholders
6.7.1 Government institutions
The Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation
(MoFSC), the national focal point to implement
CBD, is the lead agency with an overall responsibility
of landscape management for biodiversity
conservation and contributing to livelihoods. The
Ministry is responsible to approve and implement
plans and programmes through the five Regional
Directorates and five departments–Department of
Forests (DoF), Department of National Parks and
54
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC), Department of Soil
Conservation and Watershed Management (DSCWM),
Department of Forest Research and Survey (DFRS) and
the Department of Plant Resources (DPR). In MoFSC, a
high level national committee consisting of concerned
stakeholders is functioning at the central level to steer
the implementation of landscape level programme
as a whole. At the regional level in KL Nepal, the
committee composed of multistakeholder body, which
is chaired by the Regional Director, is also responsible
to monitor the programmes.
The DoF is the oldest and largest of the five
departments. DoF is mandated for the sustainable
management, utilization, protection and development
of forest resources outside protected areas. Likewise,
the DNPWC is responsible to conserve and manage
the biological diversity with an emphasis on wildlife
and protected areas. The DSCWM is responsible for
conserving and managing watersheds. The DPR and
DFRS are responsible for research and development
of plant resources, and contribute to the sustainable
management of the forest resources through
improved technologies and updated forest resource
information respectively. The DSCWM has District
Soil Conservation Offices in all KL Nepal districts,
whereas the DPR has District Plant Resources Office
in Ilam district only.
The district level government line agencies play
major role in the implementation of landscape level
programmes. At the district level, District Forestry Sector
Coordination Committee (DFSCC) is responsible to
facilitate and coordinate the execution of the landscape
related programmes. The committee is chaired by the
DDC chairperson/LDO and the DFO works as the
member secretary. District line agencies also mobilize
different partners from the communities, NGOs, CBOs,
private sectors and other agencies.
6.7.2 Kangchenjunga Conservation Area
Project and Kangchenjunga Conservation
Area Management Council
The primary goal of the KCAP is to conserve biodiversity
of KCA through the integration of natural resource
conservation with sustainable community development
(Amatya et al. 1995). The project aims to achieve this
by strengthening local community capacity to improve
their socio-economic conditions. The GoN has handed
over KCA management to Kangchenjunga Conservation
Area Management Council (KCAMC) in September
2006. Since then, KCAMC is the highest decisionmaking body of KCA and has roles and responsibilities
for the management of natural resources, biodiversity
conservation and community development activities.
The KCA is managed through participatory conservation
approach. In addition to the conservation activities,
KCAMC is implementing development activities and
climate change adaptation practices through different
donor agencies. The KCAMC formation has been a
major milestone for institutionalizing participatory
conservation approach in Nepal. The DNPWC provides
legal, technical and financial support to the KCAMC.
WWF Nepal also provides technical and financial
support to the council for biodiversity conservation and
sustainable community development programmes in
the KCA.
6.7.3 Formal community organizations
Community-based Natural Resource Management
(CBNRM) institutions such as community forestry user
groups (CFUGs), leasehold forestry user groups ,
water user groups, etc. are identified as most effective
institutions with regard to conservation, development
and use of natural resources in the HKH (Gilmour and
Fisher 1991, Sharma et al. 2010). At the district level,
the common community level formal organizations
are CFUGs, LFUGs, conservation area user groups
and cooperatives. These organizations are involved
in plan preparation and implementation of the
programmes as mandated by the existing legislations.
In addition, the institutionalization of CFUGs and
LFUGs has largely supported sustainable natural
resource management and biodiversity conservation
together with community development activities.
Altogether, 486 CFUGs and 196 LFUGs function in
KL Nepal districts (DoF 2013).
6.7.4 Community-based organizations
Active participation and mobilization of CBOs is the
critical factor in promoting conservation measures
in rural communities. A large number of NGOs,
civil society organizations, private sector and CBOs
(such as mother groups, eco clubs, youth clubs
and anti- poaching groups) are involved in natural
resource management, biodiversity conservation
and community development activities in KL Nepal.
These institutions are involved in various collective
actions such as forest management, spring water
conservation, saving/ credit, conflict resolution, forest
fire control, community sanitation, seed exchange,
grazing regulation and NTFPs farming in private as well
as community forests. These activities have supported
biodiversity conservation, environmental education
and creation of awareness, addressing gender and
social inclusion issues, forest management for propoor income generation activities and restoration
of degraded lands. In general, CBOs are actively
involved in network development and monitoring of
illegal harvest and trade, anti-poaching operations,
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
forest restoration and community development
activities.
6.7.5 Major non-governmental
organizations
Local and national NGOs are playing important role
in forestry, wildlife protection, agriculture development,
tourism promotion and awareness creation in KL districts.
In addition to its accountability to respective clients
(GoN/donors), the NGOs are primarily accountable
to the Social Welfare Council, District Development
Committee and District Administrative Office.
55
This system sometimes creates conflict with the current
general system of land ownership. Kipat symbolically
and legally mark the point of intersection between local
and national system of land management. Some legal
cases are underway as a result of such conflicts. As a
system of land tenure with specific rights and regulations
attached to it, kipat is sometimes locus to considerable
competition over contemporary claims to resources.
It is considered as rights to the land and also ethnic
identity. In Taplejung and Panchthar, kipat system is
often considered as a hurdle to resource management
by the government officials and NGOs since they cannot
initiate conservation programmes in such lands.
6.7.6 Traditional systems and institutions
Traditional and non formal institutions also play
important role in local level resource governance.
The culturally diverse communities of KL Nepal have
been managing their natural resources in their own
traditional systems, among which traditional institutions
such as kiduk (among the Sherpas) and kipat (among
the Limbus) are most notable. Mother groups or women
groups, traditionally existing or formed by different
development agencies, also play an important role
in resource governance. In some places, women
groups have taken over the responsibility of managing
community forests as well (e.g., Pauwa Bhanjyang of
Ranitar VDC, Panchthar).
Role of women group in resource governance has
become more important against the general milieu
of increasing absentee population of males owing to
foreign employment. Some of these institutions are
formally registered with the government agencies and
have egalitarian system of functioning whereas other
institutions like Subba system are more hierarchical and
hereditary. As local institutions have strong legitimacy
within socio-cultural-legal set up, their involvement in
conservation and development initiatives would facilitate
overall implementation of the programme effectively.
The Kipat system
The kipat is a customary system of communal land
ownership through which a group of families hold land
titles. It represents a communal form of land tenure
inherited by the same communities from their ancestors
as a source of livelihood (Regmi 1978 ). The kipat system
went through a long history of political changes from
1774 to 1950. The process of land ownership and
tenancy rights followed this system until the Birta Unmulan
Act of 1965 and the Pastureland Nationalization Act
of 1975. The de jure right of kipatiyas or other locals
to pastures were then vested in the government. In
Panchthar and Taplejung districts, a de facto kipat system
is still prevalent in terms of using forest products and
regulating pastures.
6.7.7 Shifting cultivation
One of the traditional land management systems
practised by the people in the higher elevation of KL
Nepal is shifting cultivation or slash and burn agriculture
locally called khoriya or bhasme. In many VDCs like
Tapethok, Lelep and Yamphudin shifting cultivation was
the main livelihood strategy in the past. However, land
use pattern and livelihood strategies have changed in
recent times. It is a short duration practice and a kind
of agroforestry system typically adopted on steep slopes
that are unsuitable for permanent cultivation, and often
inaccessible for livestock grazing. Local people clear
secondary forests for crop production while leaving
parcels to regenerate naturally via fallows for medium
to long duration (Aryal et al. 2010). The main stages
of the cycle include clearing and preparing suitable
land (February–March), cropping (mid March–mid May)
followed by fallow management.
Typical shifting cultivation involves sowing maize as a
main crop which is done with the help of a dibbling
stick. Intercrops such as radish, beans, soybean, and
amaranth are grown together with maize (Aryal et
al. 2010). Some people grow barley and wheat after
harvesting maize. Over the years, Chiraito (Swertia
chirayita) cultivation in increasing. With the increase
of demand and price of Chiraito, its cultivation is also
increasing rapidly.
Fallow management is an integrated part of shifting
cultivation system and is essential to improve soil fertility
and structure, control soil erosion and decrease invasion
of weeds after cultivation. In the KCA villages, the length of
the fallow phase depends upon the family’s land holding
size and food security. Poorer households leave their land
fallow for around eight years, whereas richer families have
fallow land of 12–15 years (Aryal et al. 2010).
Issues of shifting cultivation
Land related Acts of Nepal do not recognize shifting
cultivation as a land use system, and farmers cannot
56
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
register land for this purpose. However, Aryal et al. (2010)
reports that shifting cultivation is being practised and the
practice is sustainable since the fallow cycles are long
enough to restore soil properties and vegetation, and
provides several benefits to faunal and floral diversity.
However, it is considered a serious threat to biodiversity
by other researchers (e.g., Ikeda 2004, Parker and Thapa
2011). The time span between cropping patterns has
declined significantly resulting in decreased agricultural
productivity and increasing incursion into forests and
wildlife habitats (Rastogi et al. 1997, Parker and Thapa
2011). Nevertheless, shifting cultivation is a result of
ambiguous land ownership rights/weak tenure, poor
soil condition, lack of arable land and lack of alternative
sources of livelihood in the higher altitudes.
6.8 Community perception on
environmental issues and climate
change
6.8.1 Culture and conservation
Local communities rely on natural resources for livelihoods
establishing a close link between biodiversity and cultural
diversity (Chaudhary et al. 2007). Resource use by local
people is based on a deep knowledge of ecological
systems, processes and the services they provide (Gadgil et
al. 1993). This knowledge is valued from the conservation
perspective and is increasingly taken into account in the
management and conservation initiatives (Berkes 2013,
Uprety et al. 2012). More and more scientists are finding
value in collaborating with local population and growing
political awareness and activism by indigenous peoples
have led to increased recognition of their knowledge
and ideas (Huntington 2011). Therefore, it is important
to understand communities’ perception in conservation
and development initiatives.
An assessment of community perception on biodiversity,
cultural values, environmental issues and climate
change was carried out in Ilam, Panchthar and
Taplejung districts. Local people are often regarded as
the guardian of their cultural landscape. The changes
that occur in their surrounding impact directly on the
cultural practices. Therefore, they are very sensitive
towards such changes. Since KL Nepal is culturally a
diverse landscape, biodiversity plays an important role
in peoples’ cultural identity. Various plants and animal
species are culturally important (also see Chapter 5).
Likewise, many wetlands and forests are sacred.
KL Nepal is a multi-lingual and multi-religious region.
Religion is deeply rooted and binds people together to
perform community activities that preserve their cultural
identity and resources. Indigenous people are making
efforts to preserve their traditional norms, values and
practices. These factors play a key role in socio-economic
development, cultural identity and biodiversity conservation.
6.8.2 Climate change and community
resilience
There has been a high level of awareness among
the communities of Taplejung district about climate
change mainly due to the activities of the KCAMC. A
study around Olangchung Gola has revealed this fact.
Awareness programmes and Local Adaptation Plan
of Action (LAPA) from the GoN on potential effects of
climate change alone are inadequate However, there
has been some gaps in other districts; for example,
the people from CFUGs of Pauwa Bhanjang, Ranitar
VDC of Panchthar district, were less aware about
climate change. Awareness is the first step towards
community resilience on climate change.
Sustainable Conservation Approaches in Priority
Ecosystems (SCAPES) programme has been launched
in four VDCs of KCA (Tapethok, Yamphudin, Lelep
and Olangchung Gola), three other VDCs outside
KCA (Kalikhola, Surumkhim, Angkhop) in Taplejung
and Phalaicha VDC of Panchthar by KCAMC with the
help of USAID, WWF and Care Nepal (Care Nepal
2010). The main objective of this programme was to
analyze the impacts of climate change on community
and prepare adaptation plan for community resilience.
Some non-governmental organizations have
conducted the assessment of community awareness
on climate change and community resilience.
However, there are no such regular programmes
by the governmental organizations. The SCAPES
programme has implemented capacity building and
awareness activities in different VDCs (Care Nepal
2010). Likewise, ECDF has formed eco clubs under
the coordination of environmental education teacher to
facilitate the impacts of climate change and the plans
for mitigation measures (ECDF 2009).
Reforestation, afforestation and agroforestry
programmes are being implemented in all KL Nepal
districts. The community forestry programme has
contributed considerably in enhancing community
resilience to climate change. The CFUGs have also
initiated climate change resilience provisions in
community forest operational plans. As a result,
use of renewable energy is widespread. Resource
mapping activities, identification and prioritization
of potential risk and hazard sites, preparation of
seasonal crop calendar, growing awareness in the
communities, use of indigenous skill, knowledge
and technology, provision of developing ‘adaptation
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
fund’ to support the most vulnerable communities
etc. are helping community to adapt with the adverse
effects of climate change in KL Nepal.
6.8.3 Peoples’ observation on climate
change
Local people have observed many evidences and
identified issues related to climate change. Their
perception on climate change is somehow similar in
many aspects (Chaudhary and Bawa 2011, Macchi et al.
2011). The findings from primary information collected
through key informants interview in Taplejung and
Panchthar districts and the synthesis from the literature
(ECDF 2009, Care Nepal 2010, NCDC 2010c) has
revealed the following community perceptions on
climate change:
• Local communities mentioned that they have
experienced a gradual increase in temperature
in recent years. In their experience, the amount
of rainfall has decreased in monsoon season and
dry season has prolonged. There are irregularities
in rainfall patterns in the districts and also more
evidences of landslides and soil erosion. The amount
of water in water sources including wetlands has
been decreased.
• Local people have observed increased evidence
of the emergence of new pests and diseases in
crops such as large cardamom, maize, wheat, millet
and potatoes, and also increased the infestation
•
57
of mosquitoes in residential areas. Although crop
sowing season has not been shifted, harvesting
time of crops such as barley, wheat and maize has
shortened. There has been a change in snowing
time, less snowfall and snow cover in recent years.
The period of fog coverage has been shortened
and lesser fog coverage or even absence of fog
covered days is observed. Compared to the past,
livestock can span more time in upper rangelands.
An elderly person mentioned that he sees some new
species of birds in different localities.
Livelihood of local communities has been altered
in several ways because of climate change and
assosiated issues. Farmlands are less productive due
to prolonged dry season and unpredictable rainfall.
The seedlings of large cardamom are withering-up
due to prolonged dry season, which has resulted in
the loss of net profit to local farmers. The invasion of
new weeds and extinction of indigenous grass (e.g.,
Banso) has resulted in the need of more investment in
animal husbandry. There are also evidences of new
epidemic diseases in villages causing more sicknesses.
Likewise, increased new pests and diseases in fruits,
vegetables, crops, and production and cash crops
have resulted in increase investment in production but
the quality of the production has been decreased and
food insecurity has been an emerging issue. Recently,
conflicts at local level, mostly due to drying-up of water
sources have also emerged.
A woman collec ng wild vegetable in Jhapa district
58
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Mai Pokhari, a Ramsar site, located in Ilam district
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
59
Chapter
© Sonam Tashi Lama
7
Policy and
Enabling Environment
A Red panda habitat with bamboo thickets in KL Nepal
7.1 Existing policies and legislations
Several policies and Acts formulated in different sectors
such as forest resources, biodiversity, protected areas,
water resources, wetland, agriculture and general
development create enabling environment for the
development and implementation of transboundary
level conservation and development initiatives. On the
other hand, there are instances of poor integration and
harmonization of laws relating to natural resources,
landscape development and environment. Some of
the existing policies/Acts are inconsistent, overlapping
or contradictory, and constricted by sectoral biases.
The major policies and Acts of Nepal that have direct
bearing on the transboundary initiatives and the
relevant provisions under the major policies and Acts
are listed in Table 7.1. Similarly, the Regulations and
Directives/Guidelines related to the forestry sector that
have implications to KL Nepal are listed in Annexes
IX and X.
60
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Table 7.1: Existing policies and legislations having direct implications for KL Nepal
Policy & Legislation
Interim Constitution of Nepal 2007
•
•
•
Sector-specific Policies and Plans
Master Plan for Forestry Sector1989
•
•
•
Revised Forest Policy 2000
•
Nepal Biodiversity Strategy 2002
•
•
•
Leasehold Forest Policy 2002
Herbs and Non Timber Forest Products
Development Policy 2006
Sacred Himalayan Landscape (SHL) Nepal
Strategic Plan 2006–2016
•
•
National Bio-safety Framework 2007
•
Churia Area Programme Strategy 2008
•
•
•
•
Forestry Sector Gender and Social Inclusion •
Strategy 2008
Forest Fire Management Strategy 2010
•
Rangeland Policy 2012
•
National Wetland Policy 2012
•
•
•
•
Forest Encroachment Control Strategy 2012
•
Forestry Sector Protection Plan 2013
•
Nepal National Biodiversity Strategy and Action •
Plan 2014-2020
Forestry Policy 2015
•
•
Relevant provisions
Right of every person to live in a clean environment affirmed as a fundamental
right
Protection of forest, vegetation and biodiversity, its sustainable use and
equitable distribution of benefits
Identification and protection of traditional knowledge, skills and practices
Contributing to the growth of local and national economies by managing
forest resources and forest-based industries
Creating opportunities for income generation and employment; meeting
peoples’ basic needs for firewood, timber, fodder and other forest products
on a sustained basis
Promoting peoples’ participation in forestry development, development of
legal framework and strengthening organizational structure
Prioritization of biodiversity conservation while ensuring both sustainable
livelihoods and equitable benefit sharing
Management of biodiversity with landscape level planning approach
Adoption of landscape planning approach to protect and manage biodiversity
Aiming to conserve forests, soil, water and biological diversity, while at the
same time meeting basic needs of people who are dependent on these
resources
Handing over forests to the community living below poverty line
Contribution to economy through protection and promotion of NTFPs
Long-term sustainable management of biodiversity and water resources.
Promotion of traditional knowledge and cultural values.
Sustainable livelihoods in the transboundary landscape of the Eastern
Himalayan region of Nepal
Protection of biodiversity, human health, and the environment from adverse
effects of research and development activities of modern biotechnology
Creation of an enabling environment for all stakeholders to contribute to the
conservation and livelihood of resource dependent people in an equitable
manner
Enhancing gender and equity, good governance and gender sensitive
institutional development; gender budgeting, planning and monitoring; and
equitable access to benefit sharing and decision-making processes
Consideration of four pillars for forest fire management as: (i) policy, legal
and institutional development and improvement; (ii) education, awareness
raising, capacity strengthening and technology development; (iii) participatory
fire management and research; and (iv) coordination and collaboration,
networking and infrastructure development, and international cooperation.
Maintaining ecological balance through conservation, promotion and
sustainable use of rangeland biodiversity
Conducting scientific study to generate data on rangeland biodiversity
Conservation of wetland biodiversity and environment by rehabilitation and
effective management of wetland areas
Contribution to the well-being of wetland dependent communities through
the sustainable and wise use management of wetland-based resources
Identification and utilization of traditional knowledge and skills of wetland
dependent communities, and equitable distribution of benefits
Aiming to achieve the national policy of maintaining 40% of the total area
under forests
Control of different types of forest offences to achive the long-term vision of
the forestry sector
Preparation of a 35-year vision of biodiversity conservation for sound and
resilient ecosystems and national prosperity
Provide guidance to all other policies of forestry sector
Conserve, promote and ulitize forest, vegetation, wildlife, protected areas,
watershed and biodiversity for employment generation, livelihood improvement
and maintaining ecosystem balance.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Sector-related Policies/Plans
Agriculture Perspective Plan 1995
•
Water Resources Strategy 2002
•
National Agriculture Policy 2004
•
National Water Plan Nepal 2005
•
National Agrobiodiversity Policy 2007
•
Tourism Policy 2009
•
Climate Change Policy 2011
•
National Land Use Policy 2012
•
Irrigation Policy 2013
•
General Policies/Plans
Sustainable Development Agenda for Nepal •
2003
•
•
The Periodic National Plans of Nepal
(11th, 12th and 13th)
•
•
•
Environment-friendly Local Governance •
Framework 2013
61
Envisioning to increase agricultural productivity through the delivery of
agriculture inputs and services
Protection and development of water resources through integrated water
resource management
Improvement of degraded forests and natural water bodies for biodiversity
conservation, as well as utilization and development of agroforestry system
Contribution in a balanced way to the overall national goals of economic
development, poverty alleviation, food security, public health and safety,
decent standard of living for the people through water resource development
and protection.
Emphasis on sustainable development and maintenance of ecological balance
by protecting agrobiodiversity to benefit from protection and utilization of
genetic resources for food security and poverty reduction
Promotion of Nepal in global scenario as an attractive, secured destination
by conserving and promoting natural, cultural and biological resources
Improvemet of livelihoods by mitigating and adapting to the adverse impacts
of climate change
Identification and protection of environmental sensitive areas; conservation
and promotion of biodiversity, sustainable forest and watershed management
Promoting conjunctive use of ground and surface water based irrigation
systems along with new/non-conventional irrigation systems for food security
and economic prosperity
Sustainable use of natural resources, identification of high biological diversity
needing protection
Environmental conservation to be an integral component of poverty alleviation
and sustainable economic growth
Emphasis on the need for more effective management of forests, ecosystem
and biodiversity for sustainable development
The 11th Plan (2008–2010) has emphasized on the access to forest resources
of the poor, downtrodden and socially excluded groups; and laid the objective
of the forestry sector as the maintenance of balanced environment through
sustainable management of forest, plants, watersheds, biodiversity and
protected areas as well as enhancing forest supply and promotion of forest
based enterprises for employment generation
The 12th Plan Approach Paper (2010–2013) had the objectives of promoting
forest ecosystem services through scientific and participatory management
and creating employment and income generating opportunities through forest
based enterprise development
The 13th Plan Approach Paper (2013/14–2015/16) supports the economic
development through conservation, sustainable management, and appropriate
use of forests, flora and fauna as well as biodiversity
Mainstreaming environment, climate change, disaster management in the
local level planning process; encouraging coordination and collaboration
in environment and development
Regulatory Frameworks—Sector-specific Acts
National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act •
The legal foundation for the conservation and management of natural areas
1973
and wild species and empower the government to create different types of
protected areas
Soil and Watershed Conservation Act 1982
•
Provision of legislative measures concerning soil and water conservation to
properly manage the catchment of Nepal
Forest Act 1993
•
Provision for the management of community forests, leasehold forests,
government managed forests, protected forests, religious forests under the
category of national forests and private forests in the country
Regulatory Frameworks—Sector-related Acts
Aquatic Animals Protection Act 1961
•
Recognition of the value of wetlands and aquatic animals
•
Prohibition on the use of unsafe pesticides for catching aquatic life
Pasture Land Nationalization Act 1974
•
Bestowing of rights over all pastureland in the country on the government
and provision of compensation for such transfer of rights
62
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Tourism Act 1978
•
Seed Act 1988
•
Electricity Act 1992
•
Water Resources Act 1992
•
•
Environment Protection Act 1996
•
Nepal Tourism Board Act 1997
•
Livestock Health and Livestock Services Act 1998 •
Local Self-Governance Act 1999
•
Plant Protection Act 2007
•
General Acts
Land (Survey and Measurement) Act 1963
•
New Civil Code 1964
•
Land Act 1964
•
Land Administration Act 1967
•
Public Roads Act 1974
•
Land Acquisition Act 1977
•
Nepal Treaties Act 1991
•
•
•
The legal foundation for promoting tourism activities in the country; provision
of environmental code of conduct for mountaineering activities
Promotion and regulation of production and distribution of quality seed in
order to increase the yields of agricultural crops
Prohibition of blocking, diverting or placing hazardous or explosive materials
in rivers, streams or any water source
Prioritization of different uses of water
Development of mechanism for issuing license for different uses and
compensation mechanism
The Act obliges proponents to prepare an initial environmental examination
(IEE) and/or environmental impact assessment (EIA) report in relation to
prescribed plans, programmes or projects which may cause changes in
existing environmental conditions by physical and/or development activities
or change in land use
Development of tourism business while conserving and promoting natural
and cultural heritage and environment of the country
Provision requiring government to establish temporary or permanent quarantine
check posts in any area of Nepal
Empowerment of VDCs to prepare and implement programmes related
to forests, vegetation, biodiversity, soil conservation and environmental
conservation in the village development area
Prevention of the introduction, establishment, prevalence and spread of pests
while importing and exporting plants and plant products, promoting trade in
plants and plant products
Stipulation that land can be registered on the basis of an unofficial deed
if it has been in the uninterrupted possession of an individual for 15 years
Prohibition of cultivation on any land which has been used since time
immemorial for grazing or watering cattle, or for roads, streets, graveyards
or other public uses
Aiming to divert “inactive” capital and labour from land to other economic
sectors, bring about an equitable distribution of cultivable land, improving the
standard of living of “actual tillers” who depend on land for their livelihood,
and maximization of agricultural production
Prohibition of cultivation on any land which has been used since time
immemorial as a road, highway, grazing land, waterhole, public resting hut,
cemetery or graveyard, and any other land area or ”servitude land” which
has been used for public purpose
Empowering the government to acquire any land for construction, development
and improvement of public roads, in accordance with the prevailing law
related to land acquisition
Authorizing the government to acquire any land, and as much land as
it determines to be necessary, for public purposes, and required to pay
compensation as decided by a committee
Provision that the treaties are to prevail over national legislation to the extent
of the inconsistency if conflicting with the law in force
When a treaty to which the government is a signatory, but which has not been
ratified, acceded to, approved or accepted by parliament, creates additional
obligations that require the enactment of legislation, the government must
enact laws for its execution in a timely fashion
Requirement that the law be enacted for the execution of the treaties
Source: Belbase and Thapa (2007), MoFSC (2014)
7.2 Nepal’s commitment to major
international conventions, treaties
and agreements
Government of Nepal has committed itself to various
international conventions, treaties and agreements for
www.lawcommission.gov.np; www.mofsc.gov.np
conservation and development. As a signatory, Nepal
is bound to uphold the provisions by enacting national
legislations to bring them into effect. The conventions,
treaties and agreements to which Nepal is a party are
listed in Annex XI.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
7.3 Bilateral agreements within the
region
There are two agreements in the field of biodiversity
conservation between Nepal and China, and between
Nepal and India (DNPWC 2010). These two bilateral
cooperation initiatives provide basis for regional
landscape cooperation in the future.
The Memorandum of Understanding on Cooperation in
the Field of Forestry and Biodiversity Conservation between
the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, GoN, and the
State Forestry Administration, People’s Republic of China
(PRC), signed on 3 June 2010, mentions commitment
to implement the obligations of multilateral agreements
and conventions to protect the environment and conserve
biodiversity. Similarly, a resolution was signed between the
Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation,
Government of Nepal, and National Tiger Conservation
Authority, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government
of India, on 29 July 2010, on transboundary conservation,
as an outcome of the Fourth Nepal-India Consultative
Meeting.
7.4 Enabling policy frameworks for
gender inclusive conservation and
development
The government’s commitment to address the issues of
gender and social inclusion has been reflected in the
national development plans, policies, and strategies
developed since 2002. There is enabling policy
framework in order to promote gender and social
inclusive conservation and development practices in
the Nepalese natural resource management sector.
For example, Nepal Forest Sector Gender Strategy
Framework 2008 recognizes the need to consider
gender issues and perspectives while designing and
implementing any programme related to forestry
(MoFSC 2008).
In addition, the community forestry strategy and
community- based conservation strategies stress the need
to include women and socio-economically marginalized
groups in forest management, conservation programme
and local development processes, and ensure they
benefit from the conservation and development
programme. For example, the Community Forestry
Development Guideline, 2008 clearly recognizes the
need for inclusion of women, Indigenous Peoples (IPs)
and socially excluded groups in the selection of executive
committee of CFUGs, their proportionate representation
in the committee and participation in income generation
activities. Besides, the guideline states the need to
include women in key positions (either chairperson or
63
secretary) (DoF 2008) and spend at least 35% of the total
annual income of a CFUG for livelihoods improvement
targeting poor women, Dalits, and IPs.
Likewise, conservation policies in Nepal tend to be
supportive to engage local communities in natural
resource management and community development.
For example, the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area
Management Regulation 2008 transfers roles of and
responsibilities for conservation, development and
use of natural resources from the state authority to
the community institutions such as Conservation Area
Management Council and VDC level User Committees
(UC). The regulation requires the council to design
and implement special programme targeting women,
poor, Dalits, and Indigenous Peoples (MoFSC 2008).
Similarly, the Buffer Zone Management Guideline, 1999
calls for inclusion of women in the User Committee
(MoFSC 1999).
The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
(2014-2020) has identified issues and challenges in
addressing gender and social inclusion as: (i) gender
equality and social inclusion policies are not well
implemented; (ii) institutional structure capacity is
weak; (iii) gender and social inclusion criteria are not
included in monitoring and evaluation or in budgeting
programmes; (iii) inadequacy of gender disaggregated
data; and (v) inadequate conservation education and
awareness (MoFSC 2014). These policy provisions in the
Nepalese forestry sector with regard to consideration
of women’s strengths and knowledge in conservation,
development and management of natural resources
and local development is an important avenue for the
KLCDI to experiment and promote gender sensitive
conservation linked development interventions.
7.5 Inconsistencies in the statutory
regime, contemporary plans and
policies
The inconsistencies and gaps in the existing policies,
strategies and legislations with regard to landscape
conservation and development are discussed in the
following sections.
I. Conflict in existing laws: The contradictions across
the various legislative instruments have created a
number of conflicts in claiming the rights over resources.
Legal frameworks such as Forest Act, National Parks and
Wildlife Conservation Act, Local Self-Governance Act
contradict with each other in relation to legal provisions
to sell specified natural resources and products. Likewise,
they also contradict in provisions related to extraction
and selling of sand, stones, and boulder from the
64
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
rivers and adjoining forest areas. Land (Survey and
Measurement) Act and LSG Act also contradict to each
other in terms of forest land ownership issues.
II. Policy and legislation gaps: Although most of the
policies are very supportive to landscape conservation
and development, the policies have not specifically
addressed the issues related to the landscape level.
Forest Policy, Agriculture Policy, Land Reform Policy, and
other sector policies related to landscape conservation
and development do not align with each other in some
aspects. The existing forest policy and other conservation
policies are silent on pastureland, corridor and
connectivity in landscape level biodiversity conservation.
Livelihood development is one of the crucial issues that
has not been addressed in most of the sectoral and
cross sectoral policies.
There is no explicit government policy, strategy, process
that necessitates including river-affected downstream
people in the conservation and management of watershed
in upstream area of Churia hills. Thus, there is a need of
comprehensive legal and policy framework for facilitating
integrated landscape conservation and development.
III Poor integration and harmonization of policies
and laws: Despite of the policy instruments in the
management of collaborative forest, rangeland,
wetland, and wildlife farming, these policies have not
been translated into comprehensive legislation for
effective implementation of the programme. Also, the
Forest Act 1993 and Revised Forest Policy 2000 have
different and contradictory provisions with regard to forest
management strategies, particularly for the Tarai and the
inner Tarai. The implementation of the Land Use Policy
2012 also requires amendment of the existing Acts and
regulations with land use rights and land management.
Forestry regulations are yet to be developed to regulate
the flow of environmental costs and benefits of forest
management.. The existing legal framework does not
provide basis for payment to ecosystem services (PES).
IV. Lack of legislation to support functioning of
multi-stakeholder approach: As there are several
stakeholders responsible in the landscape conservation
and development process, multi-stakeholders’ approach
is crucial factor for landscape conservation and
development. Lack of legal support has hampered
effective functioning of the multi-stakeholder approach.
A comprehensive policy for multi-stakeholder approach
would help in addressing such confusions and
institutionalization of multi-stakeholder approaches
V. Gaps in the implementation of policies and
legislations: Some of the contemporary policies
and strategies have addressed the issues related
to conservation and development but the degree of
implementation is weak. For example, the climate
change policy states that 80% of the climate change
budget will be diverted to local components. But National
Planning Commission reports that only 11% of climate
budget was being shared with local components (MoE
2011, THT 5/2/2014).
Many of the policy provisions are not supported by
appropriate institutional frameworks and budgetary
mechanisms for effective implementation. Even the
provisions stipulated in the legislations are not effectively
implemented. There is a low level of awareness on
policy provisions among major stakeholders. Timely
assessment of relevancy and updating of legal
frameworks including regulations, these directives
and guidelines would enhance the effectiveness in
implementation.
VI. Gaps in the implementation of international
commitments: Nepal is a party to several international
conventions and treaties related to natural resources,
environment, wetland and biodiversity that are directly
related to landscape conservation and development.
However, the laws required for the fulfilment of the
obligations set by these conventions have not been
adequately developed. For example, ABS and CITES
Bill is yet to be enacted to fulfil the obligations set
by the international conventions. There should be
synergy among various treaties/conventions related
to the Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs)
for smooth implementation, and it calls for a need to
generate a set of coherent guidelines to bring synergy
among all the relevant MEAs.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
65
Chapter
8
Key Issues, Gaps
and Priorities
A degraded Rhododendron forest in KL Nepal
8.1 Thematic areas, issues and gaps
This section highlights key issues and gaps based
on the analysis presented in the previous chapters.
The major issues and gaps are listed according to
the following thematic areas:
1. Socio-economy and livelihoods;
2. Biodiversity and ecosystem services;
3. Resource governance and access to genetic
resources and benefit sharing;
4. Long-term socio-ecological and environmental
monitoring; and
5. Enabling environment, knowledge management
and regional cooperation.
66
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Table 8.1: Thematic areas, issues and gaps in KL Nepal
Thematic areas
Socio-economy
and livelihoods
Issue(s)
• Weak economic and social
conditions
Gap(s)
• Inadequate resource assessment and value chain analysis of
high value forest products and cash crops
• Inadequate information and linkages with market and
technology for local products
• Inadequate alternative livelihood options
• Inadequate exploration of traditional technologies
•
•
Disease infestation in large cardamom and tea
•
•
Lack of community-based tourism plan and programmes
Inadequate physical infrastructure and human resources for
tourism
Lack of benefit flow from tourism to local communities
Inadequate participation of women in decision-making process
•
•
•
Biodiversity and
ecosystem services
•
•
Emerging problems in cash
crop production
Sustainable tourism
Gender equity and social
inclusion
Energy and water management
Out-migration
Forest degradation and habitat
loss
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Unsustainable harvesting of
•
plant resources, including MAPs
•
•
Poaching and illegal trade of
wildlife and its body parts
•
•
Resource
governance and
access to genetic
resources and
benefit sharing
•
•
Assessment of ecosystem
services
Inadequate inventory of
biodiversity (sacred groves,
wetlands, grasslands,
agrobiodiversity)
•
•
•
•
•
Growing pressure on rangeland •
biodiversity
•
Increasing human-wildlife
•
conflict (including livestock and
crop depredation)
•
•
Lack of carrying capacity assessment, productivity of rangelands
and stock analysis
Inconsistency in management regimes of bordering countries
Lack of coordination, cooperation and capacity
enhancement among stakeholders
Conflict due to land use rights
Inadequate transboundary cooperation and coordination in
livestock management
•
•
Transboundary movement of people and their impact
Inadequate human resources and infrastructure for resource
management
Inadequate institutional interaction between researcher,
technician, farmer, public and private sectors
Lack of integrated management plan for Churia
Ineffective planning and implementation of programmes in Churia
Inadequate planning and programme implementation
•
Corridor and connectivity
•
•
Churia management
•
Mai Pokhari Ramsar site
management
Access to genetic resource and
benefit sharing
•
•
•
•
Limited use of alternative energy
Depleting water source
Shortage of human resource
Inadequate scientific information on population dynamics,
ecology and conservation status of threatened fauna and flora
Limited understanding on the impact of slash and burn practice
and habitat loss
Lack of information on sustainable harvesting of economically
important plant species
Limited understanding on potential contribution of local and
indigenous communities in conservation
Poor implementation of conservation action plan of endangered
species
Inadequate monitoring of flagship species
Lack of status and value of ecosystem goods and services in
relation to beneficiaries
Inadequate information on biodiversity components, patterns
and processes
Lack of biodiversity database
•
•
•
•
•
Absence of AGRBS bill
Lack of Plant Biodiversity Register (PBR) protocol
Ineffective efforts to resolve conflicting property rights
Inadequate data on the trade volume, channels, centres and
routes
Lack of clarity of jurisdiction of resource ownership and
utilization
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Long-term socioecological and
environmental
monitoring
•
•
Baseline socio-ecological data
with indicators
Ground level environmental
monitoring
•
Inadequate and inconsistent socio-ecological data
•
Data deficiency on lower groups of fauna and flora
•
Inadequate information on carbon sequestration and
pollution
Lack of comparable and consistent data on land use,
climate change, biodiversity (particularly lower groups of
fauna and flora), tourism, cryosphere, etc.
Lack of pollution data on national and transboundary
countries
Inadequate data
Inadequate understanding of land use and land cover changes
•
•
Pollution
•
•
•
Invasive alien species (IAS)
Land use land cover change,
including Churia region
Assessment of ice, snow,
glaciers and watershed
•
•
•
•
•
•
Enabling
environment,
knowledge
management
and regional
cooperation
•
•
•
Assessment of actual and
potential impact of climate
change
Awareness programmes on
effects of climate change
Meteorological stations and its
functioning
Transboundary regional
cooperation and coordination
in natural resource
management
Policy on landscape planning
and management
Sectoral and cross-sectoral
policies and regulations
•
•
•
Data gap on cryosphere
Lack of monitoring of flood and landslide affected areas
Lack of assessment of vulnerability/resilience of local
biodiversity
•
Inadequate initiation on LAPA (Local Adaptation Plan of Action)
on climate change
Inadequate long-term climate data from high altitude regions
•
•
•
Inadequate institutional interaction
Inadequate harmonization of transboundary landscape
management practice and policy
•
Inadequate comprehensive policy and regulations
•
•
Weak implementation of policies and legislations
Inadequate multi-stakeholders’ landscape development and
coordination mechanism
Weak institutional capacity and law enforcement to
implement landscape conservation plans/programmes
•
Illegal transboundary trade
•
•
Knowledge management
•
8.2 Conservation and development
priorities
This section identifies conservation and development
priorities based on the issues and gaps. Conservation
and development priorities have been clustered according
to the main thematic areas.
Development in this context should be understood as
initiatives and interventions that are manageable at local
level, based on management of ecosystem goods and
services which contribute to attaining healthy ecosystem,
livelihoods, and human well-being on a sustained
manner.
8.2.1 Socio-economy and livelihoods
Several factors influence the socio-economic environment
of the landscape. Poor economic and social conditions
resulting from inadequate resource assessment and
value chain analysis of high value forest products
67
Inadequate institutional mechanism for knowledge
management
and cash crops, inadequate alternative livelihood
options, lack of development of sustainable tourism
and limited use of alternative energy are some of the
issues in KL Nepal. Out-migration has resulted in lack
of human resources which is also posing extra burden
on women for household activities. Therefore, micro
level analysis of agriculture, food sufficiency, wage,
livestock development, trade, and tourism development
is essential to know. Cultural/religious issues are sensitive
and are also important to be considered.
Specifically, the socio-economy and livelihoods priorities
identified include:
• Dissemination of information and technological
advances at the farmers’ level for enhancing
agriculture productivity and diversification of
livelihood options;
• Sustainable tourism;
• Green economy and employment: (value addition
and market promotion of local and high value
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
68
•
•
•
products such as broom grass, large cardamom,
round chilli (akabare type), dairy products, ginger,
‘argeli’, ‘chiraito’);
Assessment of traditional knowledge systems;
Research and development on diseases (crops and
livestocks); and
Promotion of alternative/renewable energy
technologies
8.2.2 Biodiversity and ecosystem services
Forest degradation and habitat loss, unsustainable
harvesting of NTFPs, poaching and illegal trade of
wildlife, invasive alien species, and loss of forests, wetland
and grassland habitats, and cultural and religious sites
are posing serious threats to biodiversity and ecosystem
services of KL Nepal. Sustainable management and
conservation efforts need reliable information base at
all levels of biodiversity. Ecosystem services are vital
for the human well-being. However, the absence of
assessment of available ecosystem goods and services
does not support for sustainable planning. To address
these issues, the following priority programmes are
suggested:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Preparation of comprehensive biodiversity
assessment and conservation plan at all levels;
Preparation of comprehensive conservation action
plan of endangered priority species;
Comprehensive documentation and action plan
for agrobiodiversity including establishment of
community based seed bank at regional level in
Nepal;
Comprehensive inventory and management of
wetlands and sacred forests;
Assessment and valuation of ecosystem services
Monitoring and regulation of environmental
pollutions; and
Sustainable management plan for NTFPs/MAPs
8.2.3 Resource governance and access to
genetic resources and benefit sharing
In resource management and use, the access and
benefit sharing agendas are emerging which now have
become a mandatory in research and conservation
and development activities. Human-wildlife conflict
is a serious issue in KL Nepal. Similarly, crop and
livestock depredation by wildlife in Ilam, Panchthar, and
Taplejung and human-wildlife conflict in Jhapa district
has resulted into serious conflict. The dual system of
resources management (the Kipat) in some parts of
Ilam, Panchthar, and Taplejung, and over-grazing in
high altitude rangelands are also issues. The Churia
has been over exploited in terms of land use and land
cover chage as well as natural resources. Social and
gender inclusion issues are also vital factors of socioeconomic development and livelihoods. These issues
can be addressed by strengthening institutional and
capacity enhancement of the management authorities.
The following priority activities are proposed under
this thematic area.
• Assessment of traditional/local resource governance
systems;
• Strengthening capacity of stakeholders;
• Gender equity and social inclusion;
• Assessment of carrying capacity, productivity and
stock analysis of rangelands;
• Effective planning and implementation of
programmes in Churia and Mai Pokhari;
• Community based forest management and other
forest restoration programmes;
• Strengthening transboundary coordination and
cooperation among the KL member countries for
resource management; and
• Monitoring along the transborder areas
8.2.4 Long-term socio-ecological and
environmental monitoring
Lack of socio-ecological data, rapidly changing land
use patterns, data gap on cryosphere, emerging
problems of solid waste management and other
pollutions, and climate change related issues need
to addressed in KL Nepal. Systematic long term socioecological and environmental monitoring is necessary
to achieve the goal of sustainable conservation and
development. Similarly, comprehensive information
on land use and land cover determines sustainable
planning of the landscape. The programmes
implemented in other parts of Nepal for climate
change adaptation have not been implemented in
KL Nepal districts. Therefore, the priorities should be
given in following areas.
• Development of comprehensive biodiversity and
environmental monitoring plan
• Development of socio-economic monitoring
• Sustainable monitoring of tourism
• Cryosphere
• Scientific and indigenous knowledge on climate
change and knowledge management
• Transboundary environmental monitoring
• Detail land use and land cover assessment and
planning including socio-political dimension
• Assessment of vulnerability/resilience of natural
hazards, biodiversity, and society to climate change
• Extension of LAPA to KL Nepal districts
8.2.5 Enabling environment, knowledge
management and regional cooperation
Although majority of the policy frameworks of Nepal are
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
enabling for landscape conservation and development,
there are some policy and institutional development
related issues that should be addressed to make policy
and enabling environment more conducive for landscape
level conservation and development programmes.
Regional cooperation among the countries is equally
important to address trandboundary issues such as
illegal trade, wildlife movement, transboundary grazing,
etc. Specific priority should be given to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
69
Assessment of landscape conservation and
development policies among partner countries;
Comprehensive policy and legislation for landscape
level conservation and development;
Harmonization of national policies and laws;
Development of effective mechanism for multistakeholder participation;
Environment-friendly local governance; and
Development of knowledge management centre
Bamboo resource–one of the major sources of livelihoods in KL Nepal
70
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
A stupa located near Sandakpur, Ilam district
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
71
Chapter
9
Approaches and
Way Forward
A landscape as seen from Phidim Bazar, Panchthar district
Based on the assessment and analysis of physical, socioeconomic, biological, resource governance and enabling
environment of KL Nepal, the vision, strategic goal and
outcomes have been envisaged for its conservation and
development (see Figure 9.1).
I. Economic and social well-being of indigenous
and local communities, especially disadvantaged
groups and women in the landscape are improved
The KL region is challenging in terms of socio-economic
status, including poverty, health, education, infrastructure
and transboundary conditions that influence the region
as a whole. The region’s economic growth has been
dependent on natural resources, its governance and
culture. Natural environment is a major basis for
socio-economic progress and resource conservation.
In addition, communities in KL Nepal are engaged in
regional trade across the border (with China and India).
But, the political changes in China during 1960s have
brought changes in economic activity too. Currently,
the region’s economic and social well-being is related
largely to sustainable crop and livestock productivity,
niche forest products (both timber and non-timber),
tourism and hydropower development.
Human well-being needs multiple constituents for
social and economic well-being. Conservation and
sustainable development of ecosystems provide basic
material for a good life, such as secure and adequate
livelihoods, enough food at all times, shelter, clothing,
and access to goods as well as access to natural and
other resources (MEA 2005). The MEA examines how
72
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
changes in ecosystem services influence human wellbeing (MEA 2003).
Natural environment can provide significant
opportunities for maintaining conservation and culture,
and enhance employment opportunities, raise living
standard of local communities; however, conservation
and development are not always in harmony. A major
outcome of the initiative will be improving sustainable
economic and social well-being of the indigenous and
local communities of the landscape. There is increasing
community-wide recognition of indigenous knowledge
and its role in conservation of natural resources and
biodiversity.
This outcome comprises two major strategies: (i)
income generation through value addition of cash
crops, livestock, and fish production enhanced; and
(ii) livelihood of local, indigenous and marginalized
communities including women improved and diversified.
II. Ecosystem structure and functions are
conserved
Ecosystem services are essential for human well-being
and sustainable development. Natural habitats, both
within and outside protected areas are able to retain
ecosystem structures that keep functioning and providing
ecosystem services sustainably. Protected areas (National
Parks, Conservation Areas), in particular, play a key role
in buffering natural system and climate change including
species conservation and habitat management.
Over the past 50 years, humans have changed
ecosystems globally more rapidly and extensively than
in any comparable period of time in human history,
largely to meet rapidly growing demands for food, fresh
water, timber, fiber, and fuel. This has resulted in a
substantial and largely irreversible loss in the diversity
of life on Earth (MEA 2005).
The vision of Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020
and the Aichi Targets have been to value, conserve,
restore and wisely use biodiversity by 2050, maintaining
ecosystem functions and services, sustaining a healthy
planet and delivering benefits essential for all people
in the face of growing pressure, including from climate
change. The Mission of Aichi Biodiversity Targets, among
others, has been to take effective and urgent action to
halt the loss of biodiversity in order to ensure that by
2020 ecosystems are resilient and continue to provide
essential services.
Knowledge gaps in ecosystem structure and functions,
in particular for KL Nepal, suggest that we need to
develop strategies to maintain and improve ecosystems.
This outcome comprises strategies such as: (i)
management and valuation of ecosystems, including
agrobiodiversity within protected area system (PAs) and
outside PAs, biological corridors and connectivity; and
(ii) adaptation to and mitigation of impacts of climate
change and management of potential environmental
pollution, risks and hazards on ecosystems.
III. Participatory resource governance and equitable
access to natural resources and benefit sharing are
improved
Local governance, in many instances, leads to failures
in managing the global commons. Problems like overexploitation of resources grow worse, and environmental
problems intensify at global, regional and national levels.
However, communities have realized that they can manage
their local resources through developing networks among
communities, to better manage the global commons.
Improved resource governance, the protection, restoration,
and enhancement of natural resources, and management
of high altitude forests tend to have multiple and synergistic
benefits. Development of mechanism toward sustainable
management of biological resources, with access to
genetic resources and benefit sharing with indigenous
peoples’ and local communities need to be effectively
mainstreamed. Sharing good solutions and discarding
poor ones eventually improves approaches to a variety of
social and environmental problems, ranging from poverty
to human-wildlife conflict, and access to genetic resources
and benefit sharing (MEA 2003). As more knowledge is
collected from successes and failures, provision of many
services improves and where, there are, mutually beneficial
opportunities for coordination within the country and across
transboundary countries.
The 13th Plan of Nepal has also given an emphasis for
maintaining good governance in the forestry sector (GoN/
NPC 2013). The GoN also recognizes the contribution
of private sector in the process of development to more
effective management of these basic life-support systems.
The outcome comprises following strategies: (i) development
of mechanisms for ABS through participatory resource
governance and mainstreaming GESI in conservation
and development; and (ii) strengthening capacity of
stakeholders.
IV. Long-term socio-ecological and environmental
monitoring systems at national and regional
levels are operationalized/established
Although all countries have considerable information
on the production of crops, timber and water
resources, relatively little is known about the actual
socio-economic and environmental conditions.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
73
Figure 9.1: Vision, strategic goal and outcomes envisaged for KL Nepal
Vision: Bio-physical and cultural heritages of Kangchenjunga landscape are conserved; socio-ecological
resilence to climate change is strengthened and peoples’ well-being enhanced.
Strategic Goal: Kangchenjunga landscape is conserved; continues to provide diverse ecosystem services
contributing to human well-being and its sustainable management and development is ensured by the local
communities in a fair and equitable manner while improving enabling environment.
Outcome 1:
Economic and social
well-being of indigenous
and local communities,
especially disadvantaged
groups and women in the
landscape are improved.
Outcome 2:
Ecosystem
structure and
functions are
conserved.
Outcome 3:
Participatory resource
governance and
equitable access to
natural resources and
benefit sharing are
improved.
Outcome 4:
Long-term socioecological and
environmental
monitoring systems
are operationalized/
established.
Outcome 5: Supportive policy environment and governance at the national level contributing to regional
cooperation are improved.
Given the lack of monitoring process and scientific
data about ecosystems, traditional ecological
knowledge may well make valuable contributions to
the development of modern management strategies
at the landscape level. Indigenous institutions of
ecosystem management (mainly social and judicial
institutions and religious beliefs, norms, and
practices) have also largely disappeared (MEA
2005). It has been realized recently that there is need
to integrate indigenous ecological knowledge into
ecosystem assessments and into developing resource
management plans (Agrawal 1995) for resilience of
ecosystem. Ecosystem resilience is capacity to adapt
to changes and disturbances while maintaining the
same basic function, structure and interactions,
especially in a changing environment.
Monitoring and indicator-based assessments need to
be developed and implemented in KL Nepal to address
whether actions or policies are effectively implemented;
whether they achieved their intended results; and
whether new factors have arisen, in which the entire
process is evaluated and structured.
The strategies to achieve this outcome include: (i)
strengthening/establishing long-term monitoring of
socio-ecological and environmental processes at
national and tranboundary levels; and (ii) strengthening
knowledge management, information sharing and
dissemination mechanism.
V. Supportive policy environment and governance
at the national level contributing to regional
cooperation improved
Nepal has committed to the conservation and
development related agreements before the international
community by signing or becoming a party to a number
of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs).
The MEAs provide important opportunities as well as
bring obligations to the country. MEAs can also help
improve environmental governance within the country
and improve and harmonize relevant policies and
legislations, both at national and regional perspectives.
More importantly, however, they can help enhance
national capacity for setting conservation agenda and
its implementation.
The Government of Nepal and other governments
in the region have made considerable efforts and
achieved successes in the implementation of some of
its international commitments, including those related
to the CBD (1992), Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1973),
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Ramsar Convention (1971), World Heritage Convention
(1972), and International Treaty on Plant Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture (2001). The country
has also been participating in the Global Tiger Forum
74
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
and Global Tiger Initiatives. There are, however, some
gaps in implementation of international conventions. For
example, Nepal is yet to ratify the Cartagena Protocol
on Biosafety (2001), and Nagoya Protocol on Access to
Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing (2010). Effective
management of ecosystems/natural resources at KL
Nepal will require actions at all scales, in the country
and across the transborder countries- India and Bhutan.
The 13th Plan (GoN/NPC 2013) calls for creating a
supportive environment for the conservation and
development of the forestry and other natural resources
management sectors.
The strategies for supportive environment and
governance at the national level contributing to regional
cooperation are: (i) formulation and assessment of
policies/strategies/legal frameworks for landscape level
conservation and development at national level; and
(ii) strengthening transboundary cooperation among
partner countries.
changes in the landscape. Further, extension of road
network (north-south as well as east-west), migration of
rural population to urban areas as well as temporary
out-migration have shown transition of the landscape.
Road network has also intensified harvesting of NTFPs,
including high value MAPs leading to unsustainable
harvesting of selected plant resources as well as illegal
wildlife hunting.
Shortage of water resources for drinking and
irrigation purposes, and several micro-hydropower
dam construction in Kabeli and Mai Rivers have been
observed. Climate change has led to the shrinkage of
glaciers. KL Nepal, therefore, is experiencing evidences
of transition and its sustainability requires conservation
and development trade-off.
(ii) Conservation and development trade-off
The landscape is extremely diverse in terms of biophysical and cultural aspects, thereby posing challenges
for conservation targets.
Way Forward
Conservation and development of KL Nepal requires
a holistic approach to conserve, use, enhance and
manage physical, biological and cultural resources of the
landscape. A strong mechanism to establish coordination
among the governmental, non-governmental, civil society
organizations, private sector and other stakeholders for
effective and sustainable management of KL Nepal is
needed. A few important approaches are essential to
be considered as way forward.
(i) Landscape in transition
People of Kangchenjunga landscape have historically
and culturally established close linkages with
neighbouring countries, such as India and China, as
well as Bhutan. In the past, a large part of population
directly or indirectly were dependent on the transborder
trade with China and India. Political cessation of trade
with TAR of China since 1960s brought significant
socio-economic and environmental impacts as well as
transhumance practice, although a part of trade across
TAR still continues informally.
People of KL Nepal still hold close linkages in terms of
socio-economic, cultural and linguistic aspects with India
and Bhutan; since Nepali language is a lingua-franca
of the Kangchenjunga landscape.
Various types of development activities that include
intensification of tea cultivation, commercialization of
large cardamom as agroforestry, increasing tourism,
establishment of small and medium enterprises
particularly dairy and paper industries have brought
Climate change accompanied by land use and land
cover changes particularly along the wide altitudinal/
climatic range that prevail in the landscape tend to
manifest at different scales.
The resources and their linkage with human needs at
spatial scale and aspirations of people is still at a very
low level of understanding. While analysing conservation
and development imperatives for the landscape, the key
issue would be to effectively implement development
programmes in the service of conservation. In this
context, the important challenges related to conservation
and development are to address on-going processes
and mainstreaming plans into national programmes.
Bringing sustainable conservation and development
during the verge of transition of KL Nepal landscape
requires trade offs, in particular among land use and
land cover changes, agricultural pattern, indigenous
knowledge and practices, strengthening customary
institutions, erosion of traditional genetic resources,
convergence and synergy in strategic approach,
adoption of conservation alternatives incorporating
climate change adaptation and mitigation dimensions,
and developing a functional network of institutions.
(iii) Knowledge management
Bio-physical and cultural heritage of the landscape is very
heterogeneous. It has been essential to understand that
sustainable conservation and development strategies of
the landscape need to be based on the scientifically sound
decision system that integrates data generated through
standard assessment, and analysis and monitoring
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
protocols (GBPIHED 2012) as well as from diverse sectors
of social, economic, cultural and environmental conditions.
Knowledge status of natural resources (including
ecosystem services, biodiversity, land use and water)
are far from complete for the region requiring adequate
inventory to be conducted. Long-term socio-ecological
and environmental monitoring programme would
greatly help in addressing information data gaps and
support landscape level conservation and development
planning to help policy and decision makers, and
planners.
(iv) Emerging opportunities
The feasibility assessment of KL Nepal and casual
observation (field visits) tell us that some current
trends present challenges for the future. Wherever
the challenges exist, there are opportunities too. Key
emerging opportunities include:
a. Generating scientific knowledge on climate
change: The current knowledge for the prediction
of climate change impacts on peoples’ livelihood,
biodiversity, including species of narrow range,
cryosphere, water resources, etc. is inadequate.
Long-term environmental monitoring need to
be established at different spatial scales across
landscape through scientific research.
b. Facilitating tranboundary knowledge and
data sharing: There is a weak transboundary link
with programmes/projects that requires regional
approach to successfully implement and monitor
programmes across the national boundary.
Kangchenjunga is a transboundary landscape
programme shared by Bhutan, India and Nepal.
Effective coordination in generating and sharing
data is required to implement conservation and
monitoring plans.
c.
75
Transboundary environmental monitoring:
Transboundary issues are varied; and most obvious
cross-border issues include illegal hunting and
trade, transhumance, movement of wildlife across
the border, tourism, pollution, etc. Landscape
approach has been felt important to environmental
monitoring, in particular at the transboundary scale
(Sharma et al. 2007).
d. Tourism promotion: Tourism based on nature and
culture is becoming increasingly popular among
the three neighbouring countries–Bhutan, India
and Nepal. KL Nepal with unexplored natural
environment and cultural heritage has great
potential to benefit from tourism. Ecotourism
incomes should be used to support the conservation
of bio-cultural diversity and enhance the socioeconomic status of local communities through
social equity, as adopted in the case of Annapurna
Conservation Area, Nepal (Chaudhary 2009). The
tourism sector may develop as the major industry in
future. Demands for home stay in the villages and
variety of hotels, lodges and restaurants are likely
to increase. Potentials also exist for developing
opportunities such as mountaineering, rafting,
wildlife viewing, bird watching, etc. International,
regional and domestic visitors are likely to increase
once the services and facilities are developed in
KL region.
e. Ecosystem services: Upstream-downstream
linkage: The river basins include the Mai-Kankai
and Kabeli, and a part of Tamur river basin in
KL Nepal. The Nepalese parts of the river basins
are also linked with India. The field assessment
has revealed that the local communities along
the border areas in Bhutan, India and Nepal are
heavily interdependent for ecosystem services,
biological resources, cultural relationship,
employment and trade over centuries.
76
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Jamunkhadi wetland located in Jhapa district
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
77
References
AEPC. 2013. Database of Alternative Energy Promotion
Centre. Kathmandu. Online [URL] http://www.aepc.gov.
np// (Accessed on 2 May 2014).
Agrawal, A. 1995. Dismantling the divide between
indigenous and scientific knowledge. Development and
Change, 20(3): 413-439.
Amatya, D., Brown, T., Sherpa, L.N., Shrestha, K.K.,
Uprety, L.P., and Bauer, K. 1995. Feasibility study for the
proposed Kangchenjunga Conservation Area. WWFNepal report series no. 21.WWF-Nepal, Kathmandu.
Aryal, K.P., Kerkhoff, E.E., Maskey, N., and Sherchan,
R. 2010. Shifting Cultivation in the Sacred Himalayan
Ladscape: A Case study in the Kangchenjunga
Conservation Area. WWF- Nepal, Kathmandu.
Baral, H. and Inskipp, C. 2005. Important Bird Areas in
Nepal. Bird Conservation Nepal, Kathmandu.
Basnet, B.K. 2003. Floral diversity of Maipokhari, Ilam.
Bulletin of Department of Plant Resources, 22:60-69.
Basnet, K. 2003a. Transboundary Conservation: An
example from Nepal. Journal of Sustainable Forestry,
17: 205-226.
Basnet, K. 2003b. Wildlife-livestock competition: An
important issue in park management. In: Proceedings
of International Seminar on Mountain. pp. 59-68. Royal
Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Kathmandu.
Basnet, K. 2011. Biodiversity of Protected Areas of Nepal.
Report submitted to NTNC, Kathmandu.
BCN and DNPWC. 2011. The State of Nepal’s Birds
2010. Bird Conservation Nepal and Department of
National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Kathmandu.
BCN and DNPWC. 2012. Birds of Nepal: An Official
checklist. Kathmandu, Nepal.
Belbase, N. and Thapa. L.B. 2007. Environmental
justice and rural communities, Nepal. In: Moore, P.
and Pastakia, F. (eds.). Environmental Justice and Rural
Communities: studies from India and Nepal. IUCN
Bangkok, Thailand and Gland Switzerland.
Berkes, F. 2013. Sacred ecology: Traditional Ecological
Knowledge and Resource Management. 3rd edition.
Routledge.
Bhagwat, S.A. and Rutte, C. 2006. Sacred groves:
Potential for biodiversity management. Frontiers in
Ecology and Environment, 4: 519–524.
Bhandari, B.B. 2006. Wetlands and Culture. Proceedings
of the Seminar on Cultural Aspects of Nepal’s Wetlands.
Forum for Ecosystem Management, Kathmandu.
Bhattarai, K.P. 2013. Biodiversity and Soil Properties
of Jalthal Forest, Jhapa, Nepal. Report Submitted to
University Grants Commission, Sano Thimi, Bhaktapur.
Bhattarai, S., Rajbhandari, L.L., Basnet, T., and Adhikari,
K. 2008. An IEE on Resin collection in Sindhuli, Tehrathum
and Panchthar districts. Surya Chemicals PVt. Ltd., Jhapa.
Bhuju, U.R., Shakya, P.R., Basnet, T., and Shrestha, S.
2007. Nepal Biodiversity Resource Book. Nepal Nature
Dot com and ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
BPP. 1995. Red data book of the fauna of Nepal.
Biodiversity Profile Project. Publication No. 4. Department
of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Kathmandu.
78
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Brown, T. 1994. Livelihood, Land and Local Institutions.
A Report on the Findings of the WWF Feasibility Study for
the Conservation of the Kanchenjunga Area. WWF Nepal
Program Report Series 4. WWF-Nepal, Kathmandu.
in the eastern Himalayas. In: McNeely, J.A. et al. (eds.).
Conservation Biology in Asia. Society for Conservation
Biology Asia Section and Resources Himalaya,
Kathmandu.
Cardinale, B.J., Emmett, D., Gonzalez, A., et al. 2012.
Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. Nature,
486: 59-67.
Chettri, N., Shakya, B., and Sharma, E. (compilation)
2008a. Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga
Landscape. ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
Care Nepal. 2010. Sustainable Conservation
Approaches in Priority Ecosystems (SCAPES) Program.
USAID, WWF and Care Nepal.
Chettri, N., Bajracharya, B., and Thapa, R. 2008b.
Feasibility Assessment for Developing Conservation
Corridors in the Kangchenjunga Landscape. In: Chettri,
N., Shakya, B., and Sharma, E. (compilation) Biodiversity
Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape.
ICIMOD, Kathmandu. pp. 21-30.
CBS. 2002. Population census 2001. National report.
Central Bureau of Statistics, His Majesty’s Government
of Nepal, Kathmandu.
CBS. 2012a. Environmental statistics of Nepal. Central
Bureau of Statistics, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu.
CBS. 2012b. National population and housing census 2011
(Village Development Committee/municipallity). Central
Bureau of Statistics, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu.
CBS. 2012c. National population and housing census
2011 (National Report). Central Bureau of Statistics,
Government of Nepal, Kathmandu.
CBS 2013. Nepal Small Area Estimates of Poverty, 2011.
Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu Nepal.
Chapagain, P.S., Ghimire, P.K., and Thapa, R. 2002.
New Ekta School Atlas. Ekta Books, Kathmandu.
Chaudhary, P., and Bawa, K.S. 2011. Local perceptions
of climate change validated by scientific evidence in the
Himalayas. Biology Letters, 7(5): 767-770.
Chaudhary, R.P. 1998. Biodiversity in Nepal: Status
and conservation. S. Devi, Saharanpur (U.P.), India and
Teckpress Books, Bangkok, Thailand.
Chaudhary, R.P. 2009. The Hindu Kush-Himalayas–current
status, challenges and possible framework for conservation
of biodiversity. Proceedings of the International Mountain
Biodiversity Conference (IMBC), November 16-18, 2008,
ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal, pp 97-109 .
Chaudhary, R.P., Aase, T.H., Vetaas, O.R., and Subedi,
B.P. (eds.). 2007. Local Effects of Global Changes in
the Himalayas: Manang, Nepal. Tribhuvan University,
Nepal and University of Bergen, Norway.
Chettri, N. and Sharma, E. 2006. Prospective for
developing a transboundary conservation landscape
Chisholm, R.A. 2010. Trade-offs between ecosystem
services: Water and carbon in a biodiversity hotspot.
Ecological Economics, 69(10):1973-1987.
DDC Ilam. 2013 (2070). Jilla parshawchitra Ilam.
District Development Committee, Ilam.
DDC Jhapa. 2013 (2070). Jilla bikash yojana (District
Development Plan). District Development Committee,
Jhapa.
DDC Panchthar. 2013 (2070). Jilla bikash yojana (District
Development Plan). District Development Committee,
Panchthar.
DDC Taplejung. 2013 (2070). Barsik jilla bikash yojana
(Yearly District Development Plan). District Development
Committee, Taplejung.
DFO Panchthar. 2007 (2064). Five Year Forest
Management Plan: 2064/2065–2068/2069. District
Forest Office, Panchthar.
DFO Ilam. 2008 (2065). Five Year Forest Management
Plan: 2065/2066–2069/2070. District Forest Office,
Ilam.
DFO Ilam. 2012 (2068). Management Plan of Mai
Pokhari Ramsar site, Ilam, Nepal. District Forest Office,
Ilam, Nepal.
DFO Jhapa. 2007 (2064). Five Year Forest Management
Plan: 2064/2065 - 2068/2069. District Forest Office,
Jhapa.
DFO, Taplejung. 2013 (2070). Five Year Forest
Management Plan: 2079/2070 - 2073/2074. District
Forest Office, Taplejung.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
DFO, Jhapa. 2013 (2069). Annual Forest Report. District
Forest Office, Jhapa.
79
DFRS. 2014. Churia Forests of Nepal, Forest Resources
Assessment Nepal. Department of Forests Research and
Survey, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Forrest, J.L., Wikramanayake, E., Shrestha, R.,
Areendran, G., Gyeltshen, K., Maheshwari, A.,
Mazumdar, S., Naidoo, R., Thapa, G. J., and Thapa. K.
2012. Conservation and climate change: Assessing the
vulnerability of Snow leopard habitat to treeline shift in
the Himalaya. Biological Conservation, 150:120-135.
DNPWC. 2010. Annual Report. Department of National
Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Kathmandu.
Fürer-Haimendorf, C von. 1975. Himalayan Traders:
Life in Highland Nepal. Murray, London.
Dobremez, J.F. 1972. Les grandes divisions
phytogeographique du Nepal et de l’Himalaya. Bull.
Soc. Bot. France, 119:111-120.
Gadgil, M., Berkes, F., and Folke, C. 1993. Indigenous
knowledge for biodiversity conservation. Ambio,
22:151-156.
DoF. 2008. Community Forestry Development
Guidelines, 2008. Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation, Government of Nepal.
Gaston, K.J. and Spicer, J.I. 1998. Biodiversity: An
Introduction. Blackwell Science.
DoF. 2008-2012. Hamro Ban. Department of Forests,
Kathmandu, Nepal.
Gautam, T.P. 2011. Indigenous uses of some medicinal
plants in Panchthar district, Nepal. Nepalese Journal of
Biosciences, 1:125-130.
DoF. 2009. Compilation of Directives related to
Department of Forests. Department of Forests,
Kathmandu, Nepal.
GBPIHED. 2012. Journey through a sacred landscape…
G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and
Development, Almora, India.
DoF. 2013. CFUG Database. Department of Forests,
Government of Nepal.
Gilmour, D.A. and Fisher, R.J. 1991. Villagers, forests
and foresters. The philosophy, process and practice of
community forestry in Nepal. Sahayogi Press, Kathmandu.
DoHS. 2011. Health status report of Nepal. Department
of Health Services.
Dudley, N. (ed.). 2008. Guidelines for Applying
Protected Area Management Categories. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
ECCA–Nepal. 2008. Study report on assessment of
status and quality of Rangeland in Kanchenjunga
Conservation Area (KCA) in Walangchung Gola,
Ghunsa and Yamphudin VDC. A report submitted to
WWF-Nepal, Kathmandu.
ECDF. 2009. Pathivara chettra ma ful fulni
banaspatiharuma jalbayu paribartan ka asar pravab
adheyen tatha pravab anukulan tatha neunikaran
sachetana avibridhi karyekram aadhen pratibedan.
Batabaran Samrakchen Tatha Bikas Manch (Environment
Conservation and Development Forum (ECDF),
Taplejung (in Nepali).
Ervin, J., Mulongoy, K.J., Lawrence, K. et al. 2010. Making
Protected Areas Relevant:A Guide to Integrating Protected
Areas into Wider Landscapes, Seascapes and Sectoral
Plans and Strategies, CBD Technical Series No. 44,
Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal, Canada.
GoN and UNDP 2014. Nepal Human Development
Report 2014. National Planning Commission/
Government of Nepal and UNDP, Kathmandu Nepal.
GoN-NPC. 2013. (Unofficial Translation) Three Year
Plan Approach Paper. Government of Nepal, National
Planning Commission, Kathmandu.
Green, O.O. and Garmestani, A.S. 2012. Adaptive
management to protect biodiversity: Best available
science and the endangered species act. Diversity, 4:
164-178.
Hara, H. (Ed.). 1966. Flora of Eastern Himalaya. Part
I. University of Tokyo, Japan.
Hara, H. (Ed.). 1971. Flora of Eastern Himalaya. Part
II. University of Tokyo, Japan.
Huntington, H.P. 2011. Arctic science: The local
perspective. Nature, 478:182-183.
ICIMOD. 2010. Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation
Initiative: Target area delineation report. ICIMOD,
Kathmandu.
80
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
ICIMOD. 2011. Glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst
floods in Nepal. ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
Ikeda, N. 2004. Economic impacts of livestock
depredation by snow leopard Uncia uncia in the
Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, Nepal Himalaya.
Environmental Conservation, 31(4): 322–330.
K., Rai, R., and Poudel, Y.R. 2008. Plant diversity inventory,
identification of hotspots and consevation strategies for
threatened species and habitats in KangchenjunghaSinghalila Ridge, eastern Nepal. Project report submitted
by Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON) to Critical
Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF/USA) and WWFNepal.
Inskipp, C. 1989. Nepal’s forest birds: their status and
conservation. ICBP Monograph # 4. ICBP, Cambridge, UK.
LRMP. 1986. Land utilisation report. Land Resource
Mapping Project, Kathmandu.
Inskipp, C. and Inskipp, T. 2009. Bird Survey in
Kanchenjunga Conservation Area. Danphe, 18(1): 1-12.
Macchi, M., Gurung, A.M., Hoermann, B., and
Choudhury, D. 2011. Climate variability and change in
the Himalayas: community perceptions and responses.
ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
IPCC. 2007. Climate change 2007: Impacts, adaptation,
and vulnerability. In: Parry, M. L., Canziani, O.F.,
Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J. and Hanson, C.E.
(eds.). Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and
Vulnerability. Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, U.K.
IUCN. 2010. Tinjure-Milke-Jaljale Rhododendron
conservation area. A strategy for sustainable
development. IUCN Nepal, Kathmandu.
Jnawali, S.R., Baral, H., Lee, S., et al. (compilers). 2011.
The status of Nepal’s Mammals: The National Red List
Series. IUCN Nepal, Kathmandu.
Katuwal, H.B., Neupane, K.R., Adhikari, D., and
Thapa, S. 2013. Pangolin trade, ethnic importance
and its conservation in eastern Nepal. Small Mammals
Conservation and Research Foundation and WWFNepal, Kathmandu.
KCA. 2005. Management Plan of Kangchenjunga
Conservation Area. KCA, Taplejung.
KCA. 2013. Annual Progress Report. Kanchenjunga
Conservation Area Project. Lelep, Taplejung.
KCAMC. 2013. Kangchenjunga Conservation
Area Management Plan (2070/71 - 2074/75 BS).
Kangchenjunga Conservation Area Management
Council, Lelep, Taplejung.
Khatri, N.K. 2004. Traditional practice and customary
laws and their comparison on implications, problems
and advantages with references of the statutory laws
of Nepal. A report submitted to ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
Kunwar, R.M., Shrestha, K.K., Poudel, R.C., Rajbhandary,
S., Pandey, J., Khatri, N.B., Dhamala, M.K., Humagain,
May, T. 2002. Qualitative Research in Action. Sage
Publications Inc., Thousand Oaks, California.
MEA 2003. Ecosystems and human well-being: A
framework for assessment. Island Press, Washington,
Covelo, London.
MEA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current
State and Trends, Volume 1, Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment. Island Press, Washington DC.
Meinzen-Dick, R., Quisumbing, A., Behrman, J.,
Biermayr-Jenzano, P., Wilde, V., Noordeloos, M., Ragasa,
C., and Beintema, N. 2011. Engendering agricultural
research, development, and extension. International
Food Policy Research Institute. Washington DC.
Mgumia, F. H. and Oba, G. 2003. Potential role of
sacred groves in biodiversity conservation in Tanzania.
Environmental Conservation, 30: 259–265.
Mittermeier, R.A., Gils, P.R., Hoffman, M., Pilgrim,
J., Brooks, T., Mittermeier, C.G., Lamoreaux, J., and
daFonseca, G.A.B. (eds.). 2004. Hotspots revisited.
Earth’s biologically richest and most endangered
terrestrial Ecoregions. CEMEX/Agrupación Sierra
Madre, Mexico City.
MoAD. 2012. Statistical Information on Nepalese
Agriculture 2011/2012. Government of Nepal, Ministry
of Agricultural Development, Kathmandu.
MoE. 2011. Climate Change Policy, Government of
Nepal, Ministry of Environment, Nepal.
MoFSC. 1993. Forest Act 1993. His Majesty ’s
Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation, Kathmandu.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
MoFSC. 1999. Revised Forest Sector Policy. His Majesty’s
Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation, Kathmandu.
MoFSC. 2002. Nepal Biodiversity Strategy. His Majesty’s
Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation, Kathmandu.
MoFSC. 2006. Sacred Himalayan Landscape-Nepal.
Strategic plan 2006-2016. Government of Nepal,
Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu.
MoFSC. 2008a. Churia Area Programme Strategy.
Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation, Kathmandu.
MoFSC. 2008b. Forestry Sector Gender and Social
Inclusion (GSI) Strategy. Government of Nepal, Ministry
of Forests and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu.
MoFSC. 2013. Annual Progress Report (2068/69).
Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation, Kathmandu.
MoFSC. 2014. Nepal Biodiversity Strategy and Action
Plan 2014-2020. Government of Nepal, Ministry of
Forests and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal.
MoSTE. 2008. Nepal Stocktaking Report on Biodiversity.
Government of Nepal, Ministry of Science, Technology
and Environment, Kathmandu.
Mool, P.K., Bajracharya, S.R., and Joshi, S.P. 2001. Inventory
of glaciers, glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst floods:
monitoring and early warning systems in the Hindu KushHimalayan region – Nepal. ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
Müller-Böker, U. and Kollmair, M. 2000. Livelihood
strategies and local perceptions of a new nature
conservation project in Nepal. Mountain Research and
Development, 20(4):324-331.
Myers, N., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., Da
Fonseca, G.A., and Kent, J. 2000. Biodiversity hotspots
for conservation priorities. Nature, 403(6772): 853858.
NCDC. 2005. Participatory conservation corridor
development strategy and action plan for transborder
areas along the Kangchenjunga Landscape in Eastern
Nepal. Namsaling Community Development Center
(NCDC), Ilam.
NCDC. 2010a. Study on existing governance mechanism
for transboundary trade of floral and faunal species with
81
special reference to CITES in Eastern Nepal. A project
report submitted to ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
NCDC. 2010b. Environmental services provided by
the biological corridor in Kanchenjunga Singhalila
Complex, Eastern Nepal. A report submitted to ICIMOD,
Kathmandu.
NCDC. 2010c. Impact of climate change on biodiversity
of the corridor with documentation of existing local
practices on coping/adaptation with the changing
climate. Namsaling Community Development Centre
(NCDC), Ilam.
NPWC. 1973. National Park and Wildlife Conservation
Act. Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation,
Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation,
Government of Nepal.
Ohashi, H. (Ed.). 1975. Flora of Eastern Himalaya. Part
III. University of Tokyo, Japan.
Oli, K.P. 2003. Land use, animal production system,
feed resources, grazing and pasture related issues,
and potential for reducing negative impacts on pasture
resources for livelihood Improvement in the eastern
Himalayas transborder area. A report submitted to the
ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
Oli, K.P. 2008. Pasture, Livestock, and Conservation:
Challenges in the Transborder Areas of Eastern Nepal.
In: Chettri, N., Skakya, B. and Sharma, E. (Comp.).
Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga
Landscape, pp 91-96. ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
Oli, K.P., Chaudhary, S., and Sharma U.R. 2013. Are
governance and management effective within protected
areas of the Kanchenjunga landscape (Bhutan, India
and Nepal)? Parks, 19(1): 25-36.
Olson, D.M., and Dinerstein, E. 1998. The Global 200:
a representation approach to conserving the Earth’s
most biologically valuable ecoregions. Conservation
Biology, 12(3), 502-515.
Pandey, J. 2009. Plant diversity in Lower KangchenjunghaSinghalila Ridge, Panchthar district, Eastern Nepal.
M.Sc. Thesis, Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan
University, Kathmandu.
Pant, K.P., Rasul, G., Chettri, N., Rai, K.R., and
Sharma, E. 2012. Value of forest ecosystem services:
A quantitative estimation from the Kangchenjunga
landscape in eastern Nepal. ICIMOD Working Paper
2012/5. ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
82
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Parajuli, R.R. 2013. Indigenous knowledge on medicinal
plants: Maipokhari, Maimajhua and Mabu VDCs of Ilam
district, Eastern Nepal. Journal of Department of Plant
Resources, 35: 50-58.
Pyakurel, D. and Oli, B.R. 2013. Market study of
tradable and economically important medicinal and
aromatic plants of eastern Nepal. A report submitted to
Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu.
Parajuli, D.P., Paudel, L.N., and Gyawali, R.R. 2013.
Changes in pastoral production systems in high-altitude
villag rangeland inferfaces of Nepal. In: Ning, W., Rawat,
G.S., Joshi, S., Ismail, M., and Sharma, E. (eds.). Highaltitude rangelands and their interfaces in the Hindu
Kush Himalayas. pp. 48-54. ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
Rai, L.R. 1999. Flora of Maipokhari and adjoining area,
Ilam district (East Nepal). M.Sc. dissertation, Central
Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu.
Parker, P. and Thapa, B. 2011. Distribution of benefits
based on household participation roles in decentralized
conservation within Kanchenjunga Conservation
Area Project, Nepal. Environment Development and
Sustainability, 13: 879–899.
Rai, S.K. 2005. Preliminary report of diatoms from
Maipokhari Lake, Ilam, Nepal. Our Nature, 3:26-30.
Rai, S.K. 2004. Medicinal plants used by Meche people
of Jhapa district, eastern Nepal. Our Nature, 2: 27-32.
Rai, S.K. 2009. Some chlorophycean algae from
Maipokhari lake, Ilam, east Nepal. Journal of Natural
History Museum, 24: 1-8.
Partap, U., Sharma, G. Gurung, M. B., Chettri, N., and
Sharma, E. 2014. Large cardamom farming in changing
climatic and socio-economic conditions in the Sikkim
Himalayas. ICIMOD working paper 2014/2.
Rai, S.N. and Dutta, I.C. 2010. Concept note on
Conservation and Development of Churia and Terai
Landscape in Nepal. TCP/NEP/3203-FAO. Kathmandu.
Paudel, G.P. 2010. Comprehensive socio-economic
baseline survey of selected SCAPES VDCs of Taplejung
and Panchthar districts in, Nepal. WWF-Nepal,
Kathmandu.
Rajbhandari, K.R. and Adhikari, M.K. 2009. Endemic
flowering plants of Nepal. Part I. Department of Plant
Resources Bulletin-Special Publication No. 1, Department
of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu.
Pei, S. and Sharma, U.R. 1998. Transboundary
biodiversity conservation in the Himalayas. In:
Ecoregional Cooperation for Biodiversity Conservation
in the Himalayas. United Nations Development
Programme, New York. pp 164-184.
Rajbhandari, K.R. and Dhungana, S.K. 2010. Endemic
flowering plants of Nepal. Part 2. Department of Plant
Resources Bulletin-Special Publication No. 2, Department
of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu.
Phuntsho, K., Chettri, N., and Oli, K.P. 2012.
Mainstreaming community-based conservation in a
transboundary mountain landscape – Lessons from
Kangchenjunga. ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
Poudel, R.C. 2013. Annotated bibliography of
Kangchenjunga Landscape – Nepal (1983-2013).
A report submitted to RECAST, Tribhuvan University,
Kathmandu.
Press, J.R., Shrestha, K.K. and Sutton, D.A. 2001.
Annotated Checklist of Flowering Plants of Nepal. The
Natural History Museum, London.
Primack, R.B. 2006. Essentials of Conservation Biology.
Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, USA.
Purvis, A., Agapow, P.M., Gittleman, J.L., and Mace, G.
2000. Nonrandom extinction and the loss of evolutionary
history. Science, 288:328-330.
Rajbhandari, K.R. and Dhungana, S.K. 2011. Endemic
flowering plants of Nepal. Part 3. Department of Plant
Resources Bulletin-Special Publication No. 3, Department
of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu.
Rajbhandary, S. 2010. Systematic revision of the Genus
Begonia L. (Begoniaceae) in the Himalayas. Ph.D.
Dissertation, Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan
University, Kathmandu.
Rajbhandary, S., Hughes, M. and Shrestha, K.K. 2010.
Three New species of Begonia, Sect. Platycentrum from
Nepal. Gard. Bull. Singapore 62(1): 155.
Ram, A. 2014. Report on elephant issues in Jhapa.
Report submitted to RECAST, TU, Kathmandu.
Rastogi, A., Shengji, P., and Amatya, D. (eds.).
1997. Regional Consultation on Conservation of the
Kanchanjunga Mountain Ecosystem. WWF-Nepal and
ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Raven, P.H. 1992. The nature and value of biodiversity.
In: Courrier, K. (ed.), Global Biodiversity Strategy. World
Resource Institure (WRI), The World Conservation Union
(IUCN) and United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP). pp. 1-5.
Rawat, G.S., Rawal, R.S., Chaudhary, R.P., and Peili, S.
2013. Strategies for the management of high-altitude
rangelands and their interfaces in the Kailash Sacred
Landscape. In: Ning, W., Rawat, G.S., Joshi, S., Ismail,
M., and Sharma, E. (eds.). High-altitude rangelands and
their interfaces in the Hindu Kush Himalayas. ICIMOD,
Kathmandu, pp. 25-36.
Regmi, M.C. 1978. Thatched Huts and Stucco Palaces:
Peasants and Landlords in 19th Century Nepal. Adroit
Publishers, Delhi, India.
Regmi, P.P. 2008. Landscape elements and agricultural
issues in the border villages of eastern Nepal. In: Chettri,
N., Shakya, B., Sharma, E. (compilers.), Biodiversity
conservation in the Kangchenjunga landscape, pp
83–89. ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
Sgro, C.M., Lowe, A.J., and Hoffmann, A.A. 2011.
Building evolutionary resilience for conserving
biodiversity under climate change. Evolutionary
Applications, 4: 326-337.
Shah, K.B. and Tiwari, S. 2004. Herpetofauna of Nepal.
IUCN Nepal, Kathmandu.
Shakya, B. and Joshi, R.M. 2008. Protected areas and
biodiversity conservation in the Hindu Kush Himalayan
Region with special reference to the Kangchenjunga
Landscape. In: Chettri, N., Skakya, B. and Sharma, E.
(Comp.). Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga
Landscape, pp 13-20. ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
Shakya, B., Chettri, N., Sharma, E., and Golam, R.
2011. Towards valuation of ecosystem services for
biodiversity management in the Kangchenjunga
landscape. Mountain forum bulletin.
Sharma, E., Chettri, N., Gurung, J., and Shakya,
B. 2007. The landscape approach in biodiversity
conservation. In: A Regional Cooperation Framework
for Implementation of the Convention on Biological
Diversity in the Kangchenjunga Landscape. Framework
paper, ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
Sharma, E, Chettri, N. and Oli, K. 2010. Mountain
biodiversity conservation and management: A paradigm
shift in policies and practices in the Hindu KushHimalayas. Ecological Research, 25: 909-923.
83
Sherpa, L.N. 1994. Preliminary Assessment of the
Wildlife Conservation Value of the Kanchenjungha
Conservation Area. Report Series # 6. WWF Nepal
Program.
Sherpa, S. 2001. The high altitude ethnobotany of the
Walung people of Walangchung Gola, Kanchanjunga
Conservation Area, East Nepal. M.Sc. Dissertation,
Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University,
Kathmandu.
Shrestha, J., Singh, D.M., and Saund, T.B, 2009. Fish
diversity of Tamur river and its major tributaries of
eastern Himalayan region of Nepal. Nepal Journal of
Science and Technology, 10: 219-223.
Shrestha, K.K. 1994. Floristic diversity, vegetation
and ethnobotany of the proposed Kanchenjungha
Conservation Area.WWF-Nepal, Kathmandu.
Shrestha, K.K. and Ghimire, S.K. 1996. Plant diversity
inventory of the proposed Kanchenjunge Conservation
Area (Ghunsa and Simbua Khola Valleys). Report
submitted to WWF-Nepal.
Shrestha, K.K. and Shengji, P. 1997. A brief account of the
vegetation and flora of the Kanchanjunga Conservation
Area. In: Rastogi, A., Shengji, P., and Amatya, D.
(eds.). Regional Consultation on Conservation of the
Kanchanjunga Mountain Ecosystem. pp. 31-36. WWFNepal and ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
Shrestha, K.K., Kunwar, R.M., Dhamala, M.K., Humagain,
K., Pandey, J., and Khatri, N.B. 2008. Conservation of
plant resources in Kangchenjungha-Singhalila Ridge,
Eastern Nepal. Journal of Plant Science, 2: 62-68.
Shrestha, P. 2003. Conservation and sustainable
utilization of biodiversity for community development
in Kanchanjunga mountain ecosystem of Nepal. In:
Proceedings of International Seminar on Mountains.
pp. 29-38. RONAST, Kathmandu.
Shrestha, T.B. 2012. Help save the Chure Hills. Nepali
Times National Weekly Magazine. Issue no. 631 (23
Nov. 2012 - 29 Nov 2012).
Shrestha, T.B., and Joshi, R.M. 1996. Rare, endemic and
endangered plants of Nepal. WWF Nepal, Kathmandu.
Siwakoti, M., Sherchan R., Basnet, T. and Sharma, L.N.
2012. Report on Wetlands Inventory of Chure Region
(East of Narayani). The Rastrapati Chure Conservation
Programme Coordination Unit, Ministry of Forests and
Soil Conservation, Babar Mahal, Kathmandu.
84
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Smith, C. 1994. Butterflies of Nepal (Central Himalaya).
Revised Edition. Craftman Press, Bangkok.
Stainton, J.D.A. 1972. Forests of Nepal. John Murray,
London.
Tamang. R. 2013. Vascular plant diversity in
Kanchenjungha Conservation Area, Eastern Nepal.
M.Sc. dissertation, Central Department of Botany,
Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu.
Thapa, V.K. 1997. An Inventory of Nepal’s Insects
Volume I (Protura-Odonata). In: IUCN Nepal Biodiversity
Publication Series 1. IUCN Nepal, Kathmandu.
Thapa, V.K. 1998. An Inventory of Nepal’s Insects
Volume III (Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Coleoptera and
Diptera). In: IUCN Nepal Biodiversity Publication Series
3. IUCN Nepal, Kathmandu.
Thapa, I. and Karki, J. 2004. Birds of Kanchenjunga.
WWF Nepal and Bird Conservation Nepal, Kathmandu.
Timilsina, L.P. and Basnet, K. 2000. A case study of Blue
sheep in Kanchenjunga. Proceedings of the International
Symposium on the Himalayan Environment. Tribhuvan
University and Hokkaido University.
THT. 2014. Conference ends with Kathmandu declaration.
The Himalayan Times National Daily, 5/2/2014.
TU/CDB. 2010. Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation
Initiative Feasibility Assessment Report (Unpublished
report). Tribhuvan University, Central Department of
Botany, Kirtipur, Kathmandu.
Uprety, Y., Asselin, H., Bergeron, Y., Doyon, F., and
Boucher, J.-F. 2012. Contribution of traditional
knowledge to ecological restoration: Practices and
applications. Ecoscience, 19: 225-237.
Uprety, Y., Poudel, R.C., Gurung, J., Chettri, N.,
and Chaudhary, R.P. submitted. Traditional use and
management of NTFPs in Kangchenjunga Landscape:
Implications for conservation and livelihoods.
Wang, S. and Li, Y. 1998. Illegal wildlife trade in the Himalayas.
In: Ecoregional Cooperation for Biodiversity Conservation
in the Himalaya. pp. 55-82. UNDP, Kathmandu.
Wikramanayake, E.D., Dinerstein, E., Loucks, C.,
Wettengel, W., and Allnut, T. 1998. A Biodiversity
Assessment and Gap Analysis of the Himalayas. WWFUS, Washington, D.C.
Wikramanayake, E.D., Carpenter, C., Strand, H., and
McKnight, M. 2001. Ecoregion Based Conservation in the
Eastern Himalaya: Identifying Important Areas for Biodiversity
Conservation. WWF-Nepal and ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
WWF. 2006. Understanding the Changes in Livelihoods
Assets with Locals: A Case Study from Kanchenjunga
Conservation Area Project, Nepal. Sacred Himalayan
Landscape in Nepal, Series No.3. WWF-Nepal, Kathmandu.
WWF. 2007. Mai Pokhari, Ilam: Samrakchen ma
dharma, sanskirti ra parampara ko mahatyo (in
Nepali). Importance of Religion, Culture, and Tradition
in Conservation (unofficial translation). WWF-Nepal,
Kathmandu.
WWF. 2008. Timbung Pokhari, Taplejung/Panchthar:
Samrakchen ma dharma, sankirti ra parampara ko
mahatyo (in Nepali). Importance of Religion, Culture,
and Tradition in Conservation (unofficial translation).
WWF-Nepal, Kathmandu.
WWF. 2013. Snow leopard successfully collared in
Nepal’s Himalayas. Online [URL] http://www.wwfnepal.
org/media_room/news/?213420/Snow-leopardsuccessfully-collared-in-Nepals-Himalayas (Accessed
on 18 December 2013).
WWF and ICIMOD. (2001). Ecoregion-based
Conservation in the Eastern Himalayas: Identifying
Important Areas for Biodiversity Conservation.
Kathmandu: WWF Nepal.
Yonzon, P.B. 1996. Status of Wildlife in Kanchanjunga
Region. A Reconnaissance Study Report. Report Series
# 23. WWF Nepal Program.
Yonzon, P. 2000. Kanchenjunga Mountain Complex:
Biodiversity Assessment and Conservation Planning.
WWF-Nepal, Kathmandu.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Annexes
ANNEX I: KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL VDCs AND
MUNICIPALITIES
85
86
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Area (km2)
Ilam
Mabu
1
16.48
Ilam
Maimajhuwa
51
46.62
2
20.84
Ilam
Maipokhari
52
41.24
3
6.76
Ilam
Namsaling
53
27.62
4
11.81
Ilam
Nayabajar
54
21.73
5
61.22
Ilam
Paanchakanya
55
28.36
6
42.15
Ilam
Pashupati Nagar
56
28.39
7
37.49
Ilam
Phikkal
57
27.44
8
805.15
Ilam
Puwa
Maimajhuwa
58
21.26
37.03
Ilam
Pyang
59
23.65
Sakhejung
60
20.52
District
VDC
VDC ID
Taplejung
Ambegudin
Taplejung
Angkhop
Taplejung
Chaksibote
Taplejung
Dumrise
Taplejung
Ikhabu
Taplejung
Kalikhola
Taplejung
Khebang
Taplejung
Lelep
Taplejung
Limbudin
9
25.12
Taplejung
Mamangkhe
10
50
29.18
Taplejung
Mehele
11
14.28
Ilam
Taplejung
Olangchung
Gola
12
698.75
Ilam
Samalbung
61
23.97
Ilam
Shantipur
62
47.43
Taplejung
Papung
13
365.01
Ilam
Shree Antu
63
21.08
Taplejung
Pedang
14
13.12
Ilam
Soyang
64
24.51
Taplejung
Sablakhu
15
9.80
Ilam
Sulubung
65
14.52
Taplejung
Sadewa
16
8.35
Ilam
Sumbek
66
15.24
Taplejung
Sikaicha
17
33.58
Jhapa
Anarmani
67
18.39
Taplejung
Sinam
18
10.07
Jhapa
Arjundhara
68
31.12
Taplejung
Surumkhim
19
84.61
Jhapa
Bahundangi
69
57.26
Taplejung
Tapethok
20
218.99
Jhapa
Balubadi
70
10.85
Taplejung
Tellok
21
18.74
Jhapa
Baniyani
71
15.16
Taplejung
Thumbedin
22
10.97
Jhapa
72
10.56
Taplejung
Yamphudin
23
312.59
Bhadrapur
municipality
Panchthar
Chilingdin
24
14.19
Jhapa
Budhabare
73
31.19
Panchthar
Chyangthapu
25
56.84
Jhapa
Chakchaki
74
21.89
Chandragadhi
75
25.55
Panchthar
Ektin
26
31.27
Jhapa
Panchthar
Lungrupa
27
38.72
Jhapa
Charpani
76
17.41
Dangibari
77
22.98
Panchthar
Memeng
28
58.46
Jhapa
Panchthar
Nagin
29
25.91
Jhapa
Dhaijan
78
16.49
Duwagadhi
79
31.33
Panchthar
Oyam
30
29.90
Jhapa
Panchthar
Pauwasartap
31
19.62
Jhapa
Garamani
80
42.12
Ghailadubba
81
21.66
Panchthar
Phalaicha
32
84.62
Jhapa
Panchthar
Prangbung
33
46.31
Jhapa
Gherabari
82
30.60
Panchthar
Ranitar
34
35.02
Jhapa
Goldhap
83
17.99
Haldibari
84
18.52
Panchthar
Sidin
35
58.54
Jhapa
Panchthar
Tharpu
36
17.30
Jhapa
Jalthal
85
80.33
Jyamirgadhi
86
30.99
Panchthar
Yangnam
37
22.52
Jhapa
Ilam
Barbote
38
16.65
Jhapa
Kechana
87
15.89
Khudunabari
88
51.04
Ilam
Chamaita
39
35.13
Jhapa
Ilam
Erautar
40
32.19
Jhapa
Maheshpur
89
36.02
Jhapa
Mechinagar
municipality
90
55.69
Jhapa
Pathamari
91
11.34
Jhapa
Pathariya
92
25.35
Jhapa
Prithvinagar
93
23.22
Jhapa
Rajgadh
94
35.11
Jhapa
Sanischare
95
27.23
Jhapa
Shantinagar
96
48.24
Jhapa
Surunga
97
57.10
Ilam
Godak
41
21.82
Ilam
Gorkhe
42
22.13
Ilam
Ilam municipality
43
26.61
Ilam
Jamuna
44
30.70
Ilam
Jirmale
45
37.67
Ilam
Jogmai
46
40.70
Ilam
Kanyam
47
29.72
Ilam
Kolbung
48
37.09
Ilam
Laxmipur
49
56.24
ANNEX II: SOCIO-ECONOMIC FEATURES OF KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL VDCs AND MUNICIPALITIES BASED
SN
VDC/Municipality
Total HH Average
HH size
Population
Population
density
Male
Female
Total
Sex ratio
Average
annual
growth
rate
Absentee Population
Poverty
percentage
HH
Male
Female
Total
Taplejung
Ambegudin
625
4.77
1,442
1,537
2,979
180.73
93.82
-0.13
182
203
15
218
26.50
2.
Angkhop
451
5.20
1,122
1,224
2,346
112.55
91.67
-0.76
134
167
29
196
28.63
3.
Chaksibote
191
4.75
425
483
908
134.34
87.99
-1.75
61
70
12
82
28.75
4.
Dummrise
324
4.81
729
830
1,559
132.05
87.83
-2.13
138
186
18
204
28.75
5.
Ekhabu
396
5.13
971
1,061
2,032
33.19
91.52
-1.34
75
85
5
90
23.35
6.
Kalikhola
118
5.33
303
326
629
14.92
92.94
-1.38
27
32
0
32
28.63
7.
Khebang
526
5.12
1,283
1,408
2,691
71.77
91.12
-1.15
153
182
2
184
24.87
8.
Lelep
511
4.32
1,122
1,083
2,205
2.74
103.60
-0.49
116
110
47
157
24.87
9.
Limbudin
356
5.15
841
991
1,832
72.94
84.86
-1.98
130
162
3
165
26.93
10.
Mamangkhe
240
4.73
519
616
1,135
30.65
84.25
-1.70
65
74
4
78
24.87
11.
Mehele
463
5.09
1,148
1,209
2,357
165.07
94.95
-0.03
132
152
6
158
26.50
12.
Olangchung Gola
62
3.85
127
112
239
0.34
113.39
-1.25
7
9
6
15
23.35
13.
Papung
316
5.13
794
827
1,621
4.44
96.01
0.32
74
92
19
111
29.30
14.
Pedang
344
4.94
815
886
1,701
129.67
91.99
-0.77
105
117
3
120
26.50
15.
Sablakhu
432
4.94
997
1,136
2,133
217.59
87.76
-1.47
134
161
16
177
26.93
16.
Sadewa
211
4.97
515
533
1,048
125.53
96.62
-0.86
48
57
2
59
28.63
17.
Sikaicha
417
5.40
1,066
1,184
2,250
67.01
90.03
-1.01
139
167
22
189
26.50
18.
Sinam
461
4.54
977
1,116
2,093
207.84
87.54
-0.53
119
137
8
145
26.93
19.
Surumkhim
339
5.17
851
903
1,754
20.73
94.24
-0.82
68
73
8
81
24.87
20.
Tapethok
322
4.53
719
741
1,460
6.67
97.03
-0.55
69
75
4
79
23.35
21.
Tellok
449
4.96
1,013
1,214
2,227
118.81
83.44
-0.52
139
168
9
177
26.50
22.
Thumbedin
454
4.99
1,076
1,191
2,267
206.61
90.34
-1.41
153
177
13
190
26.93
23.
Yamphudin
165
4.42
367
363
730
2.34
101.10
-0.92
41
46
3
49
24.87
Sub-total
8,173
4.92
19,222
20,974
40,196
14.04
91.65
-0.94
2,309
2,702
254
2,956
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
1.
87
88
24.
Chilingdin
799
4.57
1,706
1,944
3,650
257.28
87.76
-0.68
252
294
31
325
10.05
25.
Chyangthapu
494
4.60
1,073
1,199
2,272
39.97
89.49
-1.46
182
229
36
265
9.97
26.
Ekteen
1,190
4.43
2,461
2,810
5,271
168.57
87.58
-0.49
171
210
18
228
9.98
27.
Lungrupa
1,090
4.97
2,552
2,860
5,412
139.77
89.23
-0.20
333
385
37
422
10.45
28.
Memeng
984
4.73
2,247
2,407
4,654
79.61
93.35
-1.15
294
378
26
404
10.59
29.
Nagin
1,388
4.84
3,114
3,598
6,712
259.05
86.55
0.07
507
596
24
620
10.96
30.
Oyam
766
5.08
1,876
2,015
3,891
130.13
93.10
-0.61
249
289
24
313
9.97
31.
Pauwa Sartap
939
4.62
1,961
2,377
4,338
221.05
82.50
0.04
380
464
31
495
10.05
32.
Phalaicha
652
5.00
1,587
1,674
3,261
38.54
94.80
-0.83
186
235
21
256
9.97
33.
Prangbung
34.
Ranitar
35.
Sidin
36.
Tharpu
1,036
4.55
2,212
2,504
4,716
37.
Yangnam
1,232
4.69
2,608
3,167
5,775
13,848
4.77
30,989
35,006
65,995
Sub-total
893
4.92
2,097
2,293
4,390
94.80
91.45
-0.43
305
383
82
465
10.59
1,500
4.71
3,345
3,720
7,065
201.75
89.92
-0.32
494
577
38
615
6.51
885
5.18
2,150
2,438
4,588
78.37
88.19
-0.23
330
383
28
411
9.98
272.66
88.34
-0.55
389
460
37
497
7.25
256.41
82.35
0.50
424
475
37
512
10.69
122.39
88.52
-0.39
4,496
5,358
470
5,828
Ilam
38.
Barbote
1,414
4.54
3,227
3,197
6,424
385.85
100.94
0.95
278
268
62
330
4.34
39.
Chamaita
1,230
4.79
2,830
3,061
5,891
167.67
92.45
-0.51
344
393
50
443
5.94
40.
Erautar
956
4.53
2,118
2,216
4,334
134.62
95.58
0.02
221
225
46
271
6.54
41.
Godak
1,137
4.38
2,451
2,527
4,978
228.11
96.99
0.82
315
368
105
473
4.97
42.
Gorkhe
1,122
4.31
2,391
2,450
4,841
218.76
97.59
-0.70
315
368
105
473
3.50
43.
Ilam Muncipality
4,732
3.94
8,946
9,687
18,633
700.11
92.35
1.48
889
958
162
1120
11.25
44.
Jamuna
777
4.12
1,523
1,677
3,200
104.24
90.82
-1.19
336
409
68
477
5.82
45.
Jirmale
1,069
4.41
2,376
2,342
4,718
125.26
101.45
0.00
247
260
62
322
6.54
46.
Jogmai
726
4.71
1,758
1,664
3,422
84.08
105.65
3.89
123
134
28
162
7.50
47.
Kanyam
1,715
4.25
3,596
3,694
7,290
245.29
97.35
0.14
317
341
47
388
2.89
48.
Kolbung
1,134
4.34
2,423
2,502
4,925
132.78
96.84
0.22
209
213
36
249
5.42
49.
Laxmipur
2,035
4.52
4,455
4,748
9,203
163.63
93.83
0.20
486
539
53
592
8.25
50.
Mabu
734
4.29
1,495
1,654
3,149
107.90
90.39
-0.64
293
388
56
444
5.49
51.
Maimajhuwa
758
4.58
1,745
1,724
3,469
74.41
101.22
-0.58
287
351
47
398
5.49
52.
Maipokhari
931
4.67
2,113
2,235
4,348
105.43
94.54
-0.22
301
354
50
404
6.20
53.
Namsaling
1,299
4.43
2,778
2,974
5,752
208.22
93.41
-0.51
269
305
22
327
5.36
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Panchthar
54.
Naya Bazar
1,090
4.35
2,355
2,388
4,743
218.32
98.62
-0.06
227
271
33
304
7.50
55.
Paanchakanya
1,911
4.44
4,127
4,359
8,486
299.27
94.68
0.41
362
376
57
433
4.97
56.
Pasupati Nagar
1,,980
4.18
4,042
4,229
8,271
291.30
95.58
0.43
384
412
113
525
1.90
57.
Phikkal
2691
4.19
5,568
5,696
11,264
410.43
97.75
1.20
480
478
125
603
3.07
58.
Puwa Maimajuwa
634
4.62
1,386
1,541
2,927
137.65
89.94
-0.31
187
207
20
227
5.97
59.
Pyang
604
4.56
1,331
1,424
2,755
116.50
93.47
-0.45
153
197
38
235
8.44
60.
Sakhejung
932
4.34
1,917
2,128
4,045
197.08
90.08
0.70
226
234
38
272
4.24
61.
Samalbung
1,099
4.23
2,341
2,311
4,652
194.05
101.30
-0.27
222
249
50
299
5.15
62.
Shantipur
1,192
4.33
2,472
2,686
5,158
108.75
92.03
0.07
332
365
36
401
7.36
63.
Shree Antu
1,086
4.26
2,276
2,350
4,626
219.46
96.85
0.39
154
181
57
238
4.24
64.
Soyang
1,064
4.59
2,404
2,485
4,889
199.44
96.74
-0.51
248
277
32
309
7.70
65.
Sulubung
799
4.49
1,721
1,863
3,584
246.80
92.38
0.33
198
230
8
238
5.82
66.
Sumbek
591
4.34
1,233
1,330
2,563
168.17
92.71
0.00
143
163
10
173
5.82
Sub-total
37,442
4.34
79,398
83,142 162,540
191.35
95.50
0.29
8,546
9,514
67.
Anarmani
10,235
4.17
20,892
21,820
42,712
2,323.05
95.75
5.39
2,223
2,407
534
2,941
1.56
68.
Arjundhara
4,560
4.41
9,466
10,637
20,103
645.89
88.99
2.43
1,551
1,740
299
2,039
4.77
69.
Bahundangi
5,479
4.35
11,105
12,717
23,822
416.00
87.32
0.40
2,233
2,643
530
3,173
4.75
70.
Balubadi
1,246
4.44
2,632
2,903
5,535
510.24
90.66
4.17
428
496
52
548
12.46
71.
Baniyani
1,444
4.47
3,043
3,415
6,458
426.09
89.11
22.21
476
583
75
658
11.99
72.
Bhadrapur Municip.
4,248
4.28
8,880
9,284
18,164
1,720.81
95.65
0.01
747
822
223
1,045
13.52
73.
Budhabare
5,270
4.35
10,938
11,998
22,936
735.36
91.17
1.62
1,733
1,926
345
2,271
2.97
74.
Chakchaki
2,196
4.65
4,716
5,486
10,202
465.95
85.96
0.54
835
1,014
85
1,099
14.46
75.
Chandragadhi
4,514
4.20
9,013
9,936
18,949
741.67
90.71
1.80
952
1,082
225
1,307
6.76
76.
Charpane
4,158
4.20
8,498
8,964
17,462
1,003.26
94.80
4.89
964
1,092
215
1,307
2.56
77.
Dangibari
1,758
4.41
3,581
4,180
7,761
337.67
85.67
0.39
725
894
98
992
8.91
78.
Dhaijan
2,204
4.46
4,544
5,276
9,820
595.60
86.13
1.89
1,518
1,853
298
2,151
4.56
79.
Duwagadhi
2,591
4.13
4,994
5,703
10,697
341.46
87.57
2.34
790
906
168
1,074
3.74
80.
Garamani
4,725
4.59
10,358
11,346
21,704
515.31
91.29
1.72
1,482
1,688
349
2,037
6.64
81.
Ghailadubba
2,969
4.27
5,924
6,747
12,671
584.89
87.80
1.33
1,075
1,172
225
1,397
7.35
82.
Gherabari
1,480
4.71
3,312
3,666
6,978
228.04
90.34
1.10
313
375
25
400
30.13
83.
Goldhap
1,701
4.50
3,509
4,141
7,650
425.17
84.74
0.22
776
973
178
1,151
12.46
84.
Haldibari
1,792
4.42
3,721
4,199
7,920
427.72
88.62
0.54
508
563
72
635
10.81
1,616 11,130
Jhapa
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
89
90
Jalthal
2,922
4.57
6,090
7,273
13,363
166.35
83.73
0.18
1,389
1,720
182
1,902
86.
Jyamirgadhi
2,076
4.75
4,765
5,088
9,853
317.90
93.65
1.53
532
635
91
726
14.13
87.
Kechana
1,284
4.64
2,850
3,107
5,957
374.97
91.73
1.11
308
395
11
406
26.96
88.
Khudunabari
3,457
4.35
7,011
8,020
15,031
294.49
87.42
0.06
1,293
1,454
232
1,686
5.91
89.
Maheshpur
2,853
4.60
6,251
6,885
13,136
364.66
90.79
0.29
863
998
198
1,196
13.33
90.
Mechinagar
Municipalty
13,181
4.37
27,588
29,957
57,545
1,033.35
92.09
1.73
3,629
4,059
992
5,051
22.24
91.
Pathamari
955
4.56
2,049
2,309
4,358
384.28
88.74
6.11
266
374
20
394
26.96
92.
Pathariya
2,333
4.39
4,821
5,431
10,252
404.48
88.77
0.29
662
822
66
888
11.70
93.
Prithivinagar
3,655
4.18
6,814
8,470
15,284
658.16
80.45
5.47
1,973
2,364
488
2,852
4.33
94.
Rajgadh
3,444
4.56
7,413
8,277
15,690
446.93
89.56
0.22
1,113
1,327
129
1,456
18.77
95.
Sanischare
5,606
4.47
11,948
13,123
25,071
920.67
91.05
2.35
2,636
3,022
578
3,600
4.34
96.
Shantinagar
4,228
4.41
8,704
9,945
18,649
386.60
87.52
0.70
1,637
1,848
302
2,150
6.94
97.
Surunga
6,457
4.25
12,612
14,858
27,470
481.05
84.88
2.71
2,561
2,927
476
3,403
5.92
Sub-total
115,021
4.37 238,042 265,161 503,203
536.11
89.77
1.85 38,191
44,174
7,761 51,935
Grand Total
174,484
4.42 367,651 404,283 771,934
148.73
90.94
1.10 53,542
61,748
10,101 71,849
Source: CBS (2012b, 2013)
11.70
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
85.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
ANNEX III: DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL DISTRICTS
Population density in KL Nepal
Sex ratio in KL Nepal
Population growth rate in KL Nepal
Distribution of poverty in KL Nepal
91
92
ANNEX IV: FOREST TYPES IN KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
Forest types
Sal forest
Tropical deciduous riverain forest
3.
5.
Tropical evergreen forest
Subtropical evergreen forest
6.
Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sisoo, Colebrookea oppositifolia, Pogostemon
benghalensis
Schima-Castanopsis forest
Schima wallichii, Castanopsis indica, Castanopsis tribuloides, Michelia
champaca, Macaranga pustulata
Quercus incana-Quercus lanuginosa Quercus incana, Quercus lanuginosa, Rhododendron arboreum, Lyonia
ovalifolia
forest
Lower temperate mixed broad-leaved Machillus odoratissima, Lindera species, Litsea species, Castanopsis
species
forest
Alnus woods (Alnus nepalensis forest) Alnus nepalensis, Betula alnoides, Populus ciliata, Prinsepia utilis
Castanopsis tribuloides- C. hystrix
Castanopsis hystrix, C. tribuloides, Eurya acuminata, Quercus species
forest
Quercus lamellosa forest
Quercus lamellosa, Q. semecarpifolia, Castanopsis tribuloides, Ilex
dipyrena
Quercus semecarpifolia forest
Quercus semecarpifolia, Abies spectabilis, Betula utilis, Lithocarpus
pachyphylla
Lithocarpus pachyphylla forest
Lithocarpus pachyphylla, Quercus semecarpifolia, Q. lamellosa, Litsea
species, Lyonia ovalifolia, Viburnum erubescens
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Associated species
Shorea robusta, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Terminalia belirica, T. chebula
Bombax ceiba, Adina cordifolia, Mallotus philippinensis, Cycas
pectinata, Dillenia pentagyna
Duabanga sonneratioides, Toona ciliata, Pandanus furcatus
Schima wallichii, Castanopsis tribuloides, Macaranga pustulata
Khair-Sisoo forest
Rhododendron arboreum, Eurya accuminata, Daphniphyllum himalense,
Acer species, Lyonia ovalifolia
Betula utilis forest
Rhododendron arboreum, R. campanulatum, R. hodgsonii, R. lindleyi,
Betula utilis
Upper temperate mixed broad leaved Quercus semecarpifolia, Q. lamellosa, Litsea species, Lindera species,
Rhododendron arboreum, Vaccinium nummularia
forest
Abies spectabilis forest
Abies spectabilis, Tsuga dumosa, Acer species, R. barbatum, Sorbus
cuspidata, Daphne bholua
Rhododendron forest
19.
Tsuga dumosa forest
20.
21.
22.
Larix forest (Larix griffithiana forest)
Juniper forest
Moist alpine scrub
23.
Dry alpine scrub
Tsuga dumosa, Quercus semecarpifolia, Acer acuminatum,
Rhododendron arboreum
Larix griffithiana, Abies spectabilis, Tsuga dumosa, Betula utilis
Juniperus indica, J. recurva
Rhododendron lepidotum, R. anthopogon, R. setosum, Iris clarkei,
Potentilla fructicosa, Primula species, Juniperus recurva
Rhododendron lepidotum, R. barbatum, Rosa sericea, Spirea arcuata,
Berberis species, Potentilla species
Source: Stainton (1972), Shrestha and Ghimire (1996), Kunwar et al. (2008), Field study (2013 and 2014)
Elevation (m) Location
62–700 Jalthal–Bahundangi forest (Jhapa)
80–600 Jhapa –Lower Ilam
100–300 Jhapa
1,100–1,700 Tapethok–Hellok; Yamphudin–Mamankhe
(Taplejung)
200–1,200 Jhapa – Lower Ilam
600–2,000 Lower part of Ilam, Panchthar, Taplejung
1,200–2,600 Mid hills of Ilam, Panchthar and Taplejung
1,500–2,200 Dabale Deurali, Chintapu (Ilam); Mamankhe–
Yamhudin (Taplejung)
1,500–3,000 Mid hills of Ilam, Panchthar, and Taplejung
1,800–2,200 Hangetham, Jamuna (Ilam)
2,000–2,600 Gairibas khola, Jamuna (Ilam)
2,200–3,000 Hangetham, Jamuna - Gairibas, Ramite, Jogmai
(Ilam) ; Amjelassa–Thangyang (Taplejung)
2,300–2,500 Goruaale, Chhintapu Maimajhuwa, Dobate,
Mabu, Hangetham Jamuna (Ilam), Amje Khola
(Taplejung)
2,300–2,800 Goruaale, Dhupi, Chhintapu CF Maimajhuwa,
Mabu, Gorkhepani (Ilam), Memeng (Panchthar)
3,000–3,800 Tarsing, Sidin (Panchthar); Ghuna–Selele
(Taplejung)
2,400–3,300 Hangetham Jamuna, Chandane, Mabu
Manedhunga (Ilam)
3,000–4,000 Lampokhari, Pasibhanjyang (Ilam), Prangbung,
Falaincha (Panchthar); Pholay - Ghunsa–Chairam
(Taplejung)
2,500–3,500 Upper temperate to Lower Subalpine zone of Ilam,
Panchthar, Taplejung
3,200–3,900 Ghunsa–Khambachen (Taplejung)
3,700–4,050 Chaira–Yalung (Taplejung)
3,000–4,000 Bikhepani, Phalaut (Ilam), Memeng, Dund, Pahare
Meghu, Ghumne-Falaincha (Panchthar)
3,000–4,500 Toriphule, Chyangthapu (Panchthar). Kambachen–
Lhonak (Taplejung)
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
SN
1.
2.
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
93
ANNEX V: FAUNA OF KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
MAMMALS
(27 Families, 70 Genera, 102 Species; 15 Species protected by
NPWC Act 1973; 39 Species in CITES List)
Ailuridae (1 genus, 1 species): Ailurus fulgens
Bovidae (3 genera, 4 species): Hemitragus jemlahicus,
Naemorhedus goral, Naemorhedus sumatraensis,
Pseudois nayaur
Canidae (2 genera, 4 species): Canis aureus, Canis
lupus, Vulpes bengalensis, Vulpes vulpes
Cercopithecidae (2 genera, 3 species): Macaca
assamensis, Macaca mulatta, Semnopithecus schistaceus
Cervidae (2 genera, 2 species): Axis axis, Muntiacus
muntjak
Elephantidae (1 genus, 1 species): Elephas maximus
Felidae (6 genera, 7 species): Cuon alpines, Felis
chaus, Felis temminckii, Panthera pardus, Pardofelis
nebulosa, Prionailurus bengalensis, Uncia uncia
Herpestidae (1 genus, 3 species): Herpestes edwardsi,
Herpestes javanicus, Herpestes urva
Martes foina, Mellivora capensis, Melogale personata,
Mustela altaica, Mustela kathiah, Mustela sibirica,
Mustela strigidora
Ochctonidae (1 genus, 2 species): Ochotona
macrotis, Ochotona roylei
Pteromyidae (1 genus, 1 species): Petaurista
petaurista
Pteropodidae (3 genera,3 species): Cynopterus
sphinx, Pteropus giganteus, Rousettus leschenaulti
Rhinolophidae (2 genera, 6 species): Myotis
siligorensis, Rhinolophus affinis, Rhinolophus lepidus,
Rhinolophus pearsonii, Rhinolophus pusillus, Rhinolophus
sinicus
Sciuridae (5 genera, 5 species): Callosciurus
pygerythrus, Dremomys lokriah, Funambulus pennantii,
Ratufa bicolor, Tamiops macclellandii
Hystricidae (1 genus, 2 species): Hystrix brachyura,
Hystrix indica
Soricidae (4 genera, 8 species): Chimarrogale
himalayica, Nectogale elegans, Soriculus baileyi,
Soriculus caudatus, Soriculus leucops, Soriculus
nigrescens, Suncus murinus, Suncus stoliczkanus
Leporidae (1 genus, 1 species): Lepus nigricollis
Suidae (1 genus, 1 species): Sus scrofa
Manidae (1 genus 1 species): Manis pentadactyla
Talpidae (1 genus, 1 species): Talpa micrura
Megadermatidae (2 genera, 3 species): Eptesicus
nilssoni, Eptesicus serotinus, Megaderma lyra
Tupaiidae (1 genus, 1 species): Tupaia glis
Ursidae (1 genus, 1 species): Ursus thibetanus
Moschidae (1 genus, 3 species): Moschus chrysogaster,
Moschus fuscus, Moschus leucogaster
Muridae (6 genera, 12 species): Bandicota maxima,
Dacnomys millardi, Mus booduga, Mus cookie, Mus
musculus, Mus platythrix, Mus terricolor, Rattus
andamanensis, Rattus nitidus, Rattus rattus, Tatera
indica, Vandeleuria oleracea
Mustelidae (7 genera, 11 species): Aonyx cinerea,
Lutra lutra, Lutrogale perspicillata, Martes flavigula,
Vespertilionidae (8 genera, 10 species): Barbastelle
leucomelas, Hipposideros armiger, Kerivoula hardwickii,
Nyctallus montanus, Pipistrellus babu, Pipistrellus
coromandra, Plecotus auritus, Scotophilus heathii,
Scotophilus kuhlii, Taphozous longimanus
Viverridae (5 genera, 5 species): Paguma larvata,
Paradoxurus hermaphrodites, Prionodon pardicolor,
Viverra zibetha, Viverricula indica
Source: BPP (1995), Sherpa (1994), Yonzon (1996), KCA (2005), Bhuju et al. (2007), Jnawali et al. (2011)
94
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
BIRDS
(42 Families, 176 Genera, 354 Species; 2 Species protected by
NPWC Act 1973; 1 Endemic species; 41 Species in CITES List)
Accipitridae (13 genera, 27 species): Accipiter
badius, Accipiter gentilis, Accipiter nisus, Accipiter
trivirgatus, Accipiter virgatus, Aegypius monachus,
Aquila chrysaetos, Aquila clanga, Aquila heliaca, Aquila
nipalensis, Butastur teesa, Buteo buteo, Buteo hemilasius,
Buteo rufinus, Circus cyaneus, Gypaetus barbatus, Gyps
bengalensis, Gyps fulvus, Gyps himalayensis, Gyps
tenuirostris, Hieraaetus pennatus, Ictinaetus malayensis,
Milvus migrans, Pernis ptilorhyncus, Sarcogyps calvus,
Spilornis cheela, Spizaetus nipalensis
Aegithalidae (1 genus, 2 species): Aegithalos
concinnus, Aegithalos iouschistos
Alcedinidae (1 genus, 1 species): Alcedo atthis
Anatidae (4 genera, 4 species): Aythya ferina, Anser
indicus, Anas penelope, Tadorna ferruginea
Apodidae (4 genera, 5 species): Apus affinis, Apus
pacificus, Collocalia brevirostris, Hirundapus caudacutus,
Tachymarptis melba
Ardeadae (4 genera, 4 species): Ardea cinerea,
Bubulcus ibis, Butorides striatus, Egretta garzetta
Columbidae (3 genera, 7 species): Columba hodgsonii,
Columba leuconota, Columba livia, Streptopelia
chinensis, Streptopelia decaocto, Streptopelia orientalis,
Treron sphenura
Coracidae (1 genus, 1 species): Coracias benghalensis
Corvidae (14 genera, 28 species): Aegithina tiphia,
Cissa chinensis, Coracina macei, Coracina melaschistos,
Corvus corax, Corvus macrorhynchos, Corvus splendens,
Dendrocitta formosae, Dicrurus aeneus, Dicrurus
hottentottus, Dicrurus leucophaeus, Dicrurus macrocercus,
Garrulus glandarius, Nucifraga caryocatactes, Oriolus
oriolus, Oriolus tenuirostris, Oriolus traillii, Oriolus
xanthornus, Pericrocotus brevirostris, Pericrocotus
ethologus, Pericrocotus flammeus, Pseudopodoces
humilis, Pyrrhocorax graculus, Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax,
Rhipidura albicollis, Rhipidura hypoxantha, Urocissa
erythrorhyncha, Urocissa flavirostris
Cuculidae (7 genera, 12 species): Cacomantis
passerines, Cacomantis sonneratii, Chrysococcyx
maculates, Cuculus canorus, Cuculus micropterus,
Cuculus poliocephalus, Cuculus saturates, Eudynamys
scolopacea, Hierococcyx sparverioides, Hierococcyx
varius, Phaenicophaeus tristis, Surniculus lugubris
Bucerotidae (1 genus, 1 species): Buceros bicornis
Dacelonidae (1 genus, 1 species): Halcyon smyrnensis
Caprimulgidae (1 genus, 2 species): Caprimulgus
indicus, Caprimulgus macrurus
Certhidae (2 genera, 4 species): Certhia discolor,
Certhia familiaris, Certhia nipalensis, Troglodytes
troglodytes
Cerylidae (2 genera, 2 species): Ceryle rudis,
Megaceryle lugubris
Charadridae (1 genus, 1 species): Ibidorhyncha
struthersii
Ciconidae (3 genera, 3 species): Anastomus osciatu,
Ciconia episcopus, Leptoptilos javanicus
Cinclidae (1 genus, 2 species): Cinclus cinclus, Cinclus
pallasii
Cisticolidae (1 genus, 1 species): Prinia criniger
Falconidae (1 genus, 6 species): Falco cherrug,
Falco naumanni, Falco peregrines, Falco severus, Falco
subbuteo, Falco tinnunculus
Fringillidae (10 genera, 23 species): Carduelis
flavirostris, Carduelis spinoides, Carpodacus erythrinus,
Carpodacus nipalensis, Carpodacus pulcherrimus,
Carpodacus puniceus, Carpodacus rodopeplus,
Carpodacus rubicilla, Carpodacus rubicilloides,
Carpodacus subhimachala, Carpodacus thura, Emberiza
cia, Emberiza pusilla, Haematospiza sipahi, Leucosticte
brandti, Leucosticte nemoricola, Loxia curvirostra,
Melophus lathami, Mycerobas affinis, Mycerobas
carnipes, Propyrrhula subhimachala, Pyrrhoplectes
epauletta, Pyrrhula erythrosephala
Halcyonidae (1 genus, 1 species): Halcyon coromanda
Hirundidae (3 genera, 7 species): Delichon dasypus,
Delichon nipalensis, Delichon urbica, Hirundo daurica,
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Hirundo rupestris, Hirundo rustica, Riparia riparia
Irenidae (2 genus, 2 species): Chloropsis hardwickii,
Irena puella
Indicatoridae (1genus, 1 species): Indicator
xanthonotus
Lanidae (1 genus, 2 species): Lanius schach, Lanius
tephronotus
95
Phasianidae (8 genera, 8 species): Arborophila
torqueola, Francolinus francolinus, Ithaginis cruentus,
Lerwa lerwa, Lophophorus impejanus, Lophura
leucomelana, Tetraogallus tibetanus, Tragopan satyra
Picidae (6 genera, 8 species): Blythipicus pyrrhotis,
Dendrocopos darjellensis, Dendrocopos hyperythrus,
Gecinulus grantia, Picumnus innominatus, Picus canus,
Picus squamatus, Sasia ochracea
Psittacidae (1 genus, 1 species): Psittacula himalayana
Megalaimidae (1 genus, 3 species): Megalaima
asiatica, Megalaima franklinii, Megalaima virens
Muscicapidae (21 genera, 56 species): Brachypteryx
montana, Chaimarrornis leucocephalus, Copsychus
saularis, Culicicapa ceylonensis, Cyornis unicolor,
Enicurus immaculatus, Enicurus maculates, Enicurus
schistaceus, Enicurus scouleri, Eumyias thalassina,
Ficedula monileger, Ficedula parva, Ficedula
strophiata, Ficedula superciliaris, Ficedula tricolor,
Ficedula westermanni, Grandala coelicolor, Luscinia
brunnea, Luscinia pectoralis, Monticola cinclorhynchus,
Monticola rufiventris, Monticola solitaries, Muscicapa
dauurica, Muscicapa ferruginea, Muscicapa ruficauda,
Muscicapa sibirica, Muscicapella hodgsoni, Myiomela
leucura, Myophonus caeruleus, Niltava grandis,
Niltava magrigoriae, Niltava sundara, Phoenicurus
erythrogaster, Phoenicurus erythronota, Phoenicurus
frontalis, Phoenicurus hodgsoni, Phoenicurus ochruros,
Phoenicurus schisticeps, Rhyacornis fuliginosus, Saxicola
caprata¸ Saxicola ferrea, Saxicola torquata, Tarsiger
chrysaeus, Tarsiger cyanurus, Tarsiger hyperythrus,
Tarsiger indicus, Turdus albocinctus, Turdus boulboul,
Turdus rubrocanus, Turdus ruficollis, Turdus unicolor,
Zoothera dauma, Zoothera dixoni, Zoothera molissima,
Zoothera monticola., Zoothera wardii
Paridae (3 genera, 9 species): Melanochlora sultanea,
Parus ater, Parus dichrous, Parus major, Parus monticolus,
Parus rubidiventris, Parus spilonotus, Parus xanthogenys,
Sylviparus modestus
Passeridae (5 genera, 17 species): Anthus hodgsoni,
Anthus richardi, Anthus roseatus, Anthus rufulus,
Anthus sylvanus, Montifringilla adamsi, Motacilla alba,
Motacilla cinerea, Motacilla citreola, Motacilla flava,
Passer domesticus, Passer montanus, Prunella collaris,
Prunella himalayana, Prunella immaculata, Prunella
ruberculoides, Prunella strophiata
Phalacrocoracidae (1 genus, 1 species):
Phalacrocorax carbo
Pycnonotidae (2 genera, 5 species): Hypsipetes
leucocephalus, Hypsipetes mcclellandii, Pycnonotus
cafer, Pycnonotus leucogenys, Pycnonotus striatus
Scolopacidae (3 genera, 5 species): Gallinago
nemoricola, Gallinago solitaria, Scolopax rusticola,
Tringa glareola, Tringa nebularia
Sittidae (2 genera, 4 species): Sitta castanea, Sitta
frontalis, Sitta himalayensis, Tichodroma muraria
Strigidae (7 genera, 8 species): Asio falmmeus,
Athene brama, Bubo nipalensis, Glaucidium brodiei,
Glaucidium cuculoides, Otus bakkamoena, Otus
spilocephalus, Strix aluco
Sturnidae (3 genera, 3 species): Acridotheres tristis,
Gracula religiosa, Sturnus malabaricus
Sylvidae (27 genera, 72 species): Actinodura
nipalensis, Aethopyga gouldiae, Aethopyga ignicauda,
Aethopyga nipalensis, Aethopyga saturate, Aethopyga
siparaja, Alcippe castaneceps, Alcippe chrysotis,
Alcippe vinipectus, Calandrella brachydactyla, Cettia
acanthizoides, Cettia brunnifrons, Cettia flavolivacea,
Cettia fortipes, Cettia major, Conostoma oemodium,
Cutia nipalensis, Dicaeum concolor, Dicaeum ignipectus,
Dicaeum melanoxanthum, Garrulax affinis, Garrulax
albogularis, Garrulax erythrocephalus, Garrulax
leucolophus, Garrulax lineatus, Garrulax ocellatus,
Garrulax squamatus, Garrulax striatus, Garrulax
subunicolor, Heterophasia capistrata, Leiothrix lutea,
Minla cyanouroptera, Minla ignotincta, Minla strigula,
Myzornis pyrrhoura, Nectarinia asiatica, Orthotomus
sutorius, Paradoxornis fulvifrons, Paradoxornis nipalensis,
Paradoxornis oemodium, Paradoxornis unicolor,
Phylloscopus affinis, Phylloscopus cantator, Phylloscopus
chloronotus, Phylloscopus humei, Phylloscopus inornatus,
Phylloscopus maculipennis, Phylloscopus magnirostris,
Phylloscopus occipitalis, Phylloscopus pulcher,
Phylloscopus reguloides, Phylloscopus trochiloides,
Pnoepyga albiventer, Pnoepyga pusilla, Pomatorhinus
96
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
erythrogenys, Pteruthius flaviscapis, Pteruthius rufiventer,
Pteruthius xanthochlorus, Seicercus whistleri, Seicercus
burkii, Seicercus castaniceps, Seicercus xanthoschistos,
Spelaeronis caudatus, Stachyris nigriceps, Stachyris
ruficeps, Tesia castaneocoronata, Tesia cyaniventer,
Turdoides nipalensis, Xiphirhynchus superciliaris, Yuhina
flavicollis, Yuhina gularis, Yuhina occipitalis
Upupidae (1 genus, 1 species): Upupa epops
Zosteropidae (1 genus, 1 species): Zosterops
palpebrosus
Source: BPP (1995), Thapa and Karki (2004), Baral and Inskipp (2005), KCA (2005), Bhuju et al. (2007), Inskipp and Inskipp (2009), Basnet
(2011), BCN and DNPWC (2011, 2012)
HERPETOFAUNA
(19 Families, 64 Genera, 98 Species; 2 Species protected by NPWC Act 1973; 2
Endemic species; 2 Species in CITES List)
Amphibia
Bufonidae (1 genus, 4 species): Bufo himalayanus,
Bufo melanostictus, Bufo microtympanum, Bufo
stomaticus
Gymnophiona (1 genus, 1 species): Ichthyophis
sikkimensis
Megophryidae (2 genera, 3 species): Megophrys
parva, Megophrys robusta, Scutiger sikkimmensis
Microhylidae (3 genera, 4 species): Kaloula
taprobanica, Microhyla ornata, Microhyla ornata,
Uperodon globulosus
Ranidae (10 genera, 19 species): Amolops formosus,
Amolops marmoratus, Amolops monticola, Chaparana
sikimensis, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis, Hoplobatracus
crassus, Hoplobatracus tigerinus, Limnonectes
nepalensis, Limnonectes pierrei, Limnonectes
syhadrensis, Limnonectes teraiensis, Paa annandalii,
Paa blanfordii, Paa liebigii, Paa rostandi, Rana humeralis,
Rana nigrovittata, Rana tytleri, Sphaerotheca rolandae
Bataguridae (1 genus, 1 species): Cyclemys oldhamii
Gekkonidae (3 genera, 8 species): Cosymbotus
platyurus, Cyrtopodion markuscombaii, Cyrtopodion
martinstollii, Gekko gecko, Hemidactylus brookii,
Hemidactylus flaviviridis, Hemidactylus frenatus,
Hemidactylus garnotii
Scincidae (4 genera, 5 species): Asymblepharus
sikimmensis, Lygosoma albopunctatum, Mabuya
carinata, Sphenomorphus indicus, Sphenomorphus
maculatus
Testudinidae (1 genus, 1 species): Indotestudo
elongata
Trionychidae (3 genera, 3 species): Aspideretes
gangeticus, Chitra indica, Lissemys punctata andersoni
Varanidae (1 genus, 2 species): Varanus bengalensis,
Varanus flavescens
Reptilia: Snakes
Rhacophoridae (3 genera, 5 species): Philautus
annandalii, Polypedates leucomystax, Polypedates
maculatus, Polypedates taeniatus, Rhacophorus maximus
Salamandridae (1 genus, 1 species): Tylototriton
verrucosus
Reptilia: Turtles and Lizards
Agamidae (5 genera, 5 species): Calotes versicolor,
Japalura variegata, Laudakia tuberculata, Ophisaurus
gracilis, Oriotiaris tricarinatus
Boidae (1 genus, 1 species): Python molurus
Colubridae (15 genera, 24 species): Amphiesma
parallelum, Amphiesma platyceps, Amphiesma stolatum,
Atretium schistosum, Boiga nuchalis, Boiga ochracea
stoliczkae, Boiga trigonata, Chrysopelea ornata ornata,
Dendrelaphis tristis, Elaphae cantoris, Elaphae hodgsonii,
Elaphae porphyracea, Lycodon aulicus, Lycodon
striatus striatus, Oligodon albocinctus, Psammodynastes
pulverulentus, Pseudoxenodon macrops, Ptyas mucosa
mucosa, Rhabdophis himalayanus, Sibynophis
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
97
collaris, Trachischium fuscum, Trachischium tenuiceps,
Xenochrophis piscator, Xenochrophis sanctijohannis
Typhlopidae (2 genera, 2 species): Rhamphotyphlops
braminus, Typhlops jerdoni
Elapidae (4 genera, 7 species): Bungarus bungaroides,
Bungarus caeruleus, Bungarus fasciatus, Hemibungarus
macclellandii univirgatus, Naja kaouthia, Naja naja,
Ophiophagus hannah
Viperidae (2 genera, 2 species): Gloydius
himalayanus, Ovophis monticola monticola
Source: BPP (1995), Shah and Tiwari (2004),
KCA (2005), Bhuju et al. (2007), Basnet (2011)
FISH FAUNA
(6 Families, 22 Genera, 44 Species)
Anguillidae (1 genus, 1 species): Anguilla bengalensis
Belonidae (1 genus, 1 species): Xenentodon cancilla
Chandidae (1 genus, 2 species): Channa barca,
Channa gachua
Cyprinidae (14 genus, 32 species): Barilius barila,
Barilius barna, Barilius bendelisis, Barilius shacra,
Barilius vagra, Botia almorhae, Botia dario, Botia
histrionica, Botia lohachata, Crossocheilus latius,
Garra annandalei, Garra gotyla, Garra nasuta,
Labeo coeruleus, Labeo dero, Naziritor chelynoides,
Neolissiochilus hexagonolepis, Noemacheilus
beavani, Noemacheilus elongatus, Puntius sarana,
Schizothoraichthys curvifrons, Schizothoraichthys
labiatus, Schistura rupecula inglisi, Schistura
multifasciatus, Schizothoraichthys progastus,
Schizothorax molesworthii, Schizothorax nepalensis,
Schizothorax richardsonii, Schizothorax semiplotus,
Schizothorax sinuatus, Semiplotus semiplotus, Tor
putitora
Psilorhynchidae (1 genus, 1 species): Psilorhynchoides
pseudecheneis
Sisoridae (4 genera, 7 species): Bagarius bagarius,
Glyptothorax indicus, Glyptosternum pectinopterus,
Glyptothorax telchilta, Myersglanis blythi, Pseudecheneis
crassicauda, Pseudecheneis sulcatus
Source: Bhattarai et al. (2008), Shrestha et al. (2009)
and Siwakoti et al. (2012).
ARTHROPODA (INSECTS)
(9 Orders, 234 Genera, 391 Species)
Collembola (7 genera, 7 species): Desoria notabilis,
Isotoma diverticula, Isotomiella minor, Lepidocyrtus sp.,
Lobella roseola, Odontella lamellifera, Pseudachorutella
nakaoi
Psocoptera (13 genera, 18 species): Blaste sp.,
Caecilius coei, Caecilius himalayanus, Caecilius
ilamensis, Caecilius martensis, Caecilius pictifrons,
Caecilius roseus, Dypsocus fucosus, Fulleborniella
persimilaris, Heterocaecilius nepalensis, Hinduipsocus
coleoptratus, Myopsocus sanguensis, Peripsocus
quercicola, Psococeratis nirvana, Scytopsocopsis
hirtipenna, Seopsis nepalensis, Trichadenotecnum
dobhanensis, Trichadenotecnum pokhariense
Ephemeroptera (5 genera, 5 species): Ecdyonurus
apicatus, Epeorus bispinosus, Ephemerella serrata,, Iron
psi, Teloganodes tritis
Dermaptera (5 genera, 6 species): Brachylabis
sp., Cordax politus, Forticula schlagintweiti, Liparura
punctata, Liparura simplex, Nannisolabis sp.
Odonata (17 genera, 22 species): Allophaea
ochracea, Anisogomphus bivittatus, Anotogaster
nipalensis, Calicnemis pulverulans, Cephalaeschna
orbifrons, Ceriagrion coromandelianum, Chlorogomphus
mortoni, Chlorogomphus preciosus, Crocothemis servilia,
Diplacodes tribialis, Himalagrion exclamationis, Idionyx
98
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
stevensi, Indolestes cyanea, Orthetrum glaucum,
Orthetrum japonicum, Orthetrum sabina, Orthetrum
triangulare, Pantala flavescens, Philoganginae montana,
Rhinocypha cuneata, Rhinocypha quadrimaculata,
Stylogomphus insiglisi
Hemiptera (24 genera, 31 species): Acyrthosiphon
pisum, Agnesiella distant, Agnesiella dubia, Agnesiella
roxana, Agnesiella quadridens, Almunisna bulbosa,
Amphiareus obscuriceps, Amphiareus Panchtharensis,
Capitophorus sp., Chaetosiphon tetrarhodus,
Chionapsis clematidis, Dikraneura denticulate, Eupteryx
cristagalli, Eupteryx irminae, Eupteryx janeki, Greenidea
formosana, Helopeltis theivora, Kerria lacca, Ledeira
callosa, Lippomanus carayani, Lippomanus hirsutus,
Neoquernaspis takagii, Neparla katus, Nephotettix
nigropictus, Pentalonia nigrinervosa, Sannella otiosa,
Tamuraspis malloti, Tetraphleps alticola, Thaia oryzivora,
Toxoptera aurantii, Wagneriunia thecata
Hymenoptera (2 genera, 4 species): Apis dorsata,
Apis florae, Apis indica, Vespa orientalis
Coleoptera (70 genera, 121species): Abaeletes
perroti, Abraeomorphus atomarius, Abraeomorphus
topali, Agathidium caelebs, Agathidium fallax,
Agathidium glaciale, Agathidium ilamense, Agathidium
indicum, Agathidium laticorne, Agathidium martensi,
Agathidium microreticulatum, Agathidium nivale,
Agathidium pseudoparia, Agathidium shermathangense,
Agathidium singmaricum, Agathidium transversum,
Agathidium unumvesciculatum, Agrosteomela indica,
Aloconota spectabilis, Altica coerulea, Amara
darjelingensis, Anapleus cyclonotus, Anastena cyanca,
Aplosonyx chalybeus, Aspidolopha rugosa, Atheta
aptera, Atheta disputanda, Atheta furtive, Atheta
lewisiana, Atheta maiensis, Atheta martensi, Atheta
nagaorum, Atheta pokhariensis, Atheta sculticeps,
Atheta sordiduloides, Atheta sororcula, Atheta
subamicula, Atheta subgranulithoracia, Basilepta
femoratum, Basilepta nepalense, Basilepta variabile,
Carabus pseudoharmandi, Chrysolina Vishnu, Cicindela
dromicoides, Cicindela virgule, Clavicomus harmandi,
Cneorane tibialis, Coccinella septempunctata,
Colasposoma downesi, Cordalia vestita, Crypsis
blairi, Crypsis rufomarginatus, Cryptocephalus
exsulans, Cynorta yasudai, Dactylispa brevispinosa,
Derispia bistrimaculata, Derispia confluens, Derispia
notate, Derispia truncate, Derispiola blairi, Derispiola
darjeelingiana, Diapromorpha dejeani, Edaphus
brevipennis, Encephalus himalayiensis, Epicauta
nepalensis, Epipedocera undulata, Eulomalus brevipes,
Eulomalus pupulus, Falsotithassa pterolomoides,
Gyrophaea limbuorum, Hespera nepalensis, Himalhopalia
furcata, Hoplasoma sexmaculata, Hylaspes longicornis,
Hypocyphtus besuchetiellus, Ipelates castaneicolor,
Ipelates indicus, Leiochrodes assimilis, Leiochrodes
lanceolatus, Leiochrodes sikkimensis, Leptusa ilamensis,
Leptusa lophophororum, Leptusa martensi, Liopygus
diopsipygus, Liroetis nepalensis, Litoglossa opaca,
Lucanus atratus, Lucanus gracilis, Lucanus smithi,
Mandarella itoi, Meloe aruanachale, Merista pulunini,
Merista sexmaculata, Merista trifasciata, Myllaena
tricolor, Neolucanus baladeva, Nirmala cincta, Nodina
parvula, Nonarthra variabile, Onthophilus sculptilis,
Oomorphoides sp., Oxypoda campestris, Oxypoda
exilis, Oxypoda kashmirica, Oxypoda subconformis,
Oxypoda subsericea, Paridea octomaculata, Paridea
unifasciata, Pelioptera martensi, Pelioptera opaca,
Perexosoma cuprescens, Periclitena vigrosi, Platycorynus
pyrophorus, Prostomis edithae, Prostomis morsitans,
Saprinus frontistrius, Sphenoraia rutilans, Spitiella
auriculata, Stenaesthetus quadrisulcatus, Temnaspis
septemmaculata, Tomoderus martensi
Diptera (91 genera, 177 species): Acanthoclinocera
saigusa, Anopheles aitkeni, Anopheles balabacensis,
Anopheles dirus, Anopheles karwari, Anopheles konchi,
Anopheles lindesayi, Anopheles majidi, Anopheles
nigerrimus, Anopheles philippinensis, Anopheles
pseudojamesi, Anopheles ramsayi, Apsinota rufipes,
Asarkina aegrota, Asarkina ericetorum, Atherigona
ovatipennis, Baccha maculata, Baccha sp., Bengalia
subnitida, Betasyrphus albipilus, Betasyrphus serarius,
Bibio ablusus, Bibio affiniproximus, Bibio nigerrimus,
Bibio scaurus, Bibio totonigra, Callantra nepalensis,
Callicera nitens, Callicera sanguensis, Callomyia
coei, Campiglossa brahma, Celyphus coei, Celyphus
obtectus, Cephenius mucronatus, Cephenius sikkimensis,
Cerodontha duplicate, Chelifera sp., Chelipoda bakra,
Chelipoda keta, Chelipoda sp., Chrysotoxum baphyrus,
Clinocera chilamche, Clinocera evae, Clinocera nadi,
Clinocera pani, Clinocera sp., Conops claripennis,
Conops coei, Conops sinensis, Culex fatigans, Cyrtosia
amnicola, Dasyphora himalayensis, Decachaetophora
aeneipes, Delia coei, Dichaetomyia heteromma,
Dicranosepsis bicolor, Dicranosepsis pubipes,
Dolichocephala flamingo, Drapetis coei, Drapetis
kala, Drapetis kholsa, Drapetis litoralis, Drapetis
sanguensis, Drapetis ukhalo, Drapetis uralo, Elfriedella
flavipilosa, Emmesomyia kempi, Episyrphus balteatus,
Eristalinus arvorum, Eristalinus brevifacies, Eristalinus
cerealis, Eristalinus errans, Eristalinus multifarious,
Eristalinus paria, Eristalinus quadristriatus, Eristalinus
simplicipes, Eristalinus tarsalis, Eristalinus zonata,
Ferdinandea longifacies, Haematobosca sanguinolenta,
Harpagophalla raciproca, Heleodromia ausobskyi,
Heleodromia hilo, Hemerodromia chita, Hemerodromia
lomri, Hemerodromia pila, Hemerodromia serpa,
Hemipenthes melanus, Hilara bhiga, Hilara gila, Hilara
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
khola, Hybos aimai, Hybos bhainse, Hylemya detracta,
Hylemya probilis, Hypenella bhura, Hypenella spumarius,
Ischiodon scutellaris, Japanagromyza trispina, Lasiomma
eriophthalmum, Lemurimyza admirabilis, Leptothelaira
latistriata, Lycastris flavohirta, Melanagromyza
metallica, Melanagromyza phaseoli, Melanostoma
formmelanoides, Melanostoma oreintale, Melanostoma
univittatum, Meliscaeva cinctellus, Metallea setiventris,
Microdon bellus, Miltogramma nepalicum, Nepalisca
dasyops, Nepalometopia brunneipennis, Oxyphyllomyia
alticola, Paragus auratus, Paragus crenulatus, Paragus
tibialis, Paragus yerburiensis, Paralimosina brevis,
Parasarcophaga orchidea, Parasarcophaga sp.,
Penthetria japonica, Penthetria mallochi, Pericoma
coei, Phaonia kambaitiana, Phytoliriomyza australensis,
Phytomyza nepalensis, Platensina zodiacalis, Platypeza
nepalensis, Proclinopyga seticosa, Pseudovolucella
hingstoni, Psychoda cinerea, Psychoda magna,
99
Rhagoletis rumpomaculata, Rhinomorinia longifacies,
Ringia binotata, Ringia laticincta, Saltella stigera,
Sarcophaga albiceps, Sarcophaga doleschalii,
Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis, Sarcophaga khasiensis,
Sarcophaga macroauriculata, Sarcophaga sericea,
Senotainia himalayica, Senotainia nepalica, Sepsis
albopunctata, Sepsis himalayensis, Sepsis lateralis,
Sepsis thoracica, Sicodus sp., Simulium nepalense,
Siphunculina hirtifrons, Spaniocelyphus nepalensis,
Sphaerophoria fulvifacies, Sphaerophoria indiana,
Sphaerophoria nitens, Sphaerophoria torvus,
Stenoproctus nepalensis, Stilpon löew, Tachydromia
brunette, Tachydromia kosi, Tachydromia sanguensis,
Tachydromia shealsi, Tachydromia tapa, Tachydromia
taplejungensis, Telmatoscopus arcuatus, Telmatoscopus
nepalensis, Tephritis coei, Tephritis daedala, Tephritis
interrupta, Tephritis spiloptera, Thecophora nepalensis,
Trichoclinocera maewa, Trichopsychoda atra, Trixella nox
Source: Thapa (1997, 1998)
ARTHROPODA (BUTTERFLY)
(9 Families, 120 Genera, 186 Species)
Papilionidae (9 genera, 16 species): Atrophaneura
(Byasa) dasarada, Belenois aurota, Colias erate,
Graphium (Idaides) agamemnon, Graphium (Idaides)
doson, Graphium (Paranticopisis) xenocles, Leptosia
nina, Metaporia leocodice, Papilio (Aarcturus) krishna,
Papilio (Achillides) paris, Papilio (Menelaides) helenus,
Papilio (Mimbyasa) janaka, Papilio (Pachliopta)
aristolochiae, Synchloe sherpae, Troides aeacus, Troides
helena
Pieridae (46 genera, 75 species): Acytolepsis
puspa, Albulina asiatica, Appias (Catophaga) lyncida,
Appias libythea, Arhopala abseus, Arhopala perimuta,
Arhopala rama, Caleta caleta, Caleta elna, Castalius
rosimon, Catochrysops strabo, Catopsilia pyranthe,
Celastrina argiolus, Cepora nadina, Cepora nerissa,
Charana (Rachana) jalindra, Cheritra freja, Chilades
laius, Chrysozephyrus birupa, Colias fieldii, Colias
stoliczkana, Curetis acuta dentate, Curetis bulis, Delias
(Anaemorpha) agostina, Delias (Cathaemia) eucharis,
Delias (Anaemorpha) descombesi, Delias (Cathaemia)
hyparete, Delias acalis, Delias belladonna, Delias
pasithoe, Delias sanaca, Dercas verhuelli, Deudorix
epijarbus, Flos areste, Gandaca harina, Hebomoia
glaucippe, Heliophorus epicles, Ixias marianne,
Ixias pyrene, Jamides alecto, Jamides celeno, Lade
(Appias) indra, Lade (Appias) lalage, Logania distant,
Loxura atymnus, Megisba malaya, Nacaduba hermus,
Nacaduba kurava, Nacaduba pactolus, Orthomiella
pontis, Pareronia avatar, Pieris brassicae, Pieris canidia,
Pithecops corvus, Pithecops zalmora, Poritia hewitsoni,
Prosotas (Petrelaea) dubiosa, Prosotas (Petrelaea) lutea,
Prosotas (Petrelaea) nora, Rapala damona, Rapala
dieneces, Rapala manea, Rapala nissa, Rapala rectivitta,
Spalgis epeus, Spindasis lohita, Spindasis schistacea,
Spindasis syama, Surendra quercetorum, Taraka
hamada, Terias blanda, Terias brigitta, Terias hecabe,
Virachola isocrates, Zeltus amasa, Zizeeria karsandra,
Zizeeria otis
Nemeobiidae (1 genus, 1 species): Zemeros flegyas
Acraeidae (1 genus, 1 species): Acraea violae
Nymphalidae (25 genera, 37 species): Aglais
cashmirensis, Apatura ambica, Argyreus hyperbius,
Ariadne merione, Athyma jina, Athyma nefte, Cethosia
biblis, Chilrena childreni, Cirrochroa aoris, Cirrochroa
tyche, Doleschallia bisaltide, Euthalia garuda, Euthalia
phemius, Herona marathus, Hypolimnas bolina,
Kallima inachus, Kaniska canace, Lebadea martha,
Limenitis (Sumalia) daraxa, Neptis cartica, Neptis clinia,
100
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Neptis hylas, Neptis magadha, Neptis miah, Neptis
pseudovikasi, Neptis sappho, Phaedyma columella,
Polyura arja, Precis hierta, Precis iphita, Precis lemonias,
Precis orithya, Pseudergolis wedah, Sephisa chandra,
Stibochiona nicea, Tanaecia julii, Vanessa indica
Amathusiidae (1 genus, 1 species): Discophora
sondaica
Satyridae (11 genera, 20 species): Aulocera swaha,
Elymnias hypermnestra, Elymnias malelas, Lethe confusa,
Lethe europa, Lethe rohria, Lethe verma, Melanitis leda,
Melanitis zitenius, Mycalesis anaxias, Mycalesis perseus,
Nemetis (Lethe) mekara, Neope pulahoides, Orsotioena
medus, Raphicera moorei, Ypthima baldus, Ypthima
hannyngtoni, Zophoessa jalaurida, Zophoessa maitrya,
Zophoessa sidonis
Danaidae (4 genera, 9 species): Danaus chrysippus,
Danaus genutia, Danaus sita, Euploea algea, Euploea
sylvester, Parantica aglea, Parantica melaneus, Tirumala
limniace, Tirumala septentrionis
Hesperiidae (22 genera, 26 species): Ancistroides
nigrita, Arnetta atkinsoni, Borbo bevani, Celaenorrhinus
putra, Chamunda chamunda, Coladenia indrani, Gerosis
bhagava, Gerosis phisara, Halpe homolea, Halpe zema,
Hosora chromus, Matapa druna, Notocrypta curvifascia,
Ochus subvittatus, Parnara guttata, Pelopidas sinensis,
Pseudocoladenia dan, Sarangesa dasahara, Scobura
cephala, Spialia galba, Suada swerga, Tagiades litigiosa,
Tagiades menaka, Tagiades parra, Telicota bambusae,
Zographetus ogygia
Source: Smith (1994), Thapa (1998) and Bhuju et al. (2007)
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
101
ANNEX VI: FLORA OF KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
Gymnosperms: 6 Families, 10 Genera, 15 Species; Angiosperms: Dicots (140
Families, 731 Genera, 1861 Species); Monocots (32 Families, 239 Genera,
587 Species). Total Number of Flowering Plants: 178 Families, 980 Genera and
2,463 Species
GYMNOSPERMAE (Gymnosperms)
Cupressaceae (incl. Taxodiaceae; 1 genus, 4 species):
Cryptomeria Japonica, Juniperus communis, J. indica, J.
recurva, J. squamata
Cycadaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Cycas pectinata
Ephedraceae (1 genus, 1 species): Ephedra
gerardiana
Gnetaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Gnetum montanum
Pinaceae (4 genera, 6 species): Abies densa, A.
spectabilis, Larix griffithiana, Pinus roxburghii, P.
wallichiana, Tsuga dumosa
Taxaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Taxus wallichiana
ANGIOSPERMAE (Angiosperms)
DICOTYLEDONAE (Dicots)
Acanthaceae (18 genera, 42 species): Barleria cristata,
B. dichotoma, B. strigosa, Dicliptera bupleuroides, D.
roxburghiana, Echinacanthus attenuatus, Eranthemum
splendens, E. strictum, Hemigraphis latebrosa var.
rupestris, Hygrophila polysperma, H. salicifolia,
Hypoestes triflora, Justicia adhatoda, J. procumbens,
J. quinqueangularis, J. tukuchensis, Lepidagathis
incurva, Peristrophe bicalyculata, P. speciosa,
Phaulopsis parviflora, Phlogacanthus pubinervis,
P. thyrsiflorus, Pseuderanthemum pataliferum,
Pteracanthus agrestis, P. urticifolius, Rungia himalayensis,
R. parviflora, Strobilanthes agrestis, S. atropurpureus,
S. attenuata, S. auriculatus, S. capitatus, S. coloratus,
S. glutinosus, S. helicta, S. tamurensis, S. thomsonii, S.
urophyllus var. sikkimensis, Thunbergia coccinea, T.
fragrans, T. grandiflora
Achariaceae (incl. Flacourtiaceae; 1 genus, 1
species): Gynocardia odorata
Actinidiaceae (incl. Saurauiaceae; 2 genera, 3
species): Actinidia callosa, A. strigosa, Saurauia
napaulensis
Adoxaceae (incl. Caprifoliaceae; 2 genera, 11
species): Sambucus adnata, S. canadensis, S. hookeri,
Viburnum colebrookeanum, V. cordifolium, V. coriaceum,
V. cotinifolium, V. cylindricum, V. erubescens, V. mullaha,
V. nervosum
Alismataceae (1 genus, 1 species): Butomopsis
latifolia
Amaranthaceae (8 genera, 14 species): Achyranthes
aspera, A. bidentata, Alternanthera bettzickiana, A.
sessilis, Amaranthus caudatus, A. spinosus, A. viridis,
Celosia argentea var. cristata, Centrostachys aquatica,
Cyathula capitata, C. prostrata, C. tomentosa, Deeringia
amaranthoides, Iresine herbstii
Anacardiaceae (6 genera, 12 species): Cherospondias
axillaris, Dobinea vulgaris, Mangifera indica, Rhus
hookeri, R. insignis, R. javanica, R. parviflora, R.
punjabensis, R. succedanea, R. wallichii, Semecarpus
anacardium, Spondias pinnata
Annonaceae (4 genera, 4 species): Annona
squamosa, Desmos chinensis, Miliusa velutina, Uvaria
hamiltonii
Apiaceae/Umbelliferae (17 genera, 27 species):
Acronema hookeri, Angelica cyclocarpa, A. harae,
Bupleurum candoleii, B. dalhousieanum, B. hamiltonii, C.
asiatica, Chaerophyllum villosum, Coriandrum sativum,
Cortia depressa, C. staintonia, C. wallichiana, Cortiella
lamondiana, Eryngium foetidum, Heracleum lallii, H.
nepalense, H. wallichii, Oenanthe thomsonii, Pimpinella
diversifolia, Pleurospermum dentatum, Sanicula elata,
Selinum candollii, S. tenuifolium, S.wallichianum,
Sinocarum pulchellum, Torilis japonica, Vicatia coniifolia
Apocynaceae (incl. Asclepiadaceae; 21 genera, 33
species): Alstonia neriifolia, A. scholaris, Asclepias
curassavica, Calotropis gigantea, Catharanthus roseus,
Ceropegia hookerii, C. macrantha, C. pubescens,
Chonemorpha macrophylla, Gymnema tingens,
Holarrhena pubescens, Hoya arnottiana, H. edeni, H.
fusca, H. lanceolata, H. linearis, H. longifolia, H. serpens,
Ichnocarpus frutescens, Marsdenia calesiana, M. lucida,
102
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
M. roylei, M. tinctoria,Nerium indicum, Pentasachme
wallichii, Periploca calophylla, Plumeria rubra, Rauvolfia
serpentina, Tabernaemontana divaricata, Thevetia
peruviana, Trachelospermum lucidum, Treutlera insignis,
Wrightia arborea
Aquifoliaceae (1 genus, 8 species): Ilex dipyrena, I.
excelsa, I. fragilis, I. godajam, I. insignis, I. intricata, I.
sikkimensis, I. umbellulata
Araliaceae (incl. Apiaceae;13 genera, 22 species):
Acanthopanax cissifolius, Aralia alpina, A. cachemirica,
A. gigantea, Brassaiopsis glomerulata, B. hainla, B.
mitis, Gamblea ciliata, Hedera nepalensis, Heteropanax
fragrans, Hydrocotyle himalaica, H. nepalensis, H.
sibthorpioides, Macropanax dispermus, Merrilliopanax
alpinus, Panax pseudo-ginseng var. pseudo-ginseng, P.
pseudo-ginseng var. angustifolia, P. pseudo-ginseng var.
bipinnatifidus, Pentapanax fragrans, P. leschenaultii, P.
racemosus, Schefflera impressa, S. venulosa, Trevesia
palmata
Aristolochiaceae (2 genera, 3 species): Aristolochia
griffithii, A. roxburghiana, Asarum himalaicum
Asteraceae/Compositae (62 genera, 138 species):
Acanthospermum hispidum, Adenostemma lavenia,
Ageratina adenophora, Ageratum conyzoides,
Ainsliaea aptera, A. latifolia, Anaphalis adanta,
A. busua, A. cavei, A. contorta, A. margaritacea,
A. nepalensis, A. triplinervis, Artemisia dubia, A.
indica, A. japonica, A. vulgaris, Aster ageratoides, A.
albescens, A. asteroides, A. falconeri, A. flaccidus, A.
sikkimensis, A. stracheyi, A. tricephalus, Bidens pilosa,
B. tripartita, Blainvillea latifolia, Blumea falcata, B.
hieraciifolia, B. lacera, Blumeopsis flava, Caesulia
axillaris, Carpesium abrotanoides, C. nepalense var.
nepalense, C. nepalense var. lanatum, Centipeda
minima, Chromolaena odorata, Chrysanthemum
indicum, C. morifolium, Cicerbita cyanea, C. macrantha,
C. macrorhiza var. saxatilis, Cirsium falconeri, C.
nishiokae,C. verutum, C. wallichii, Conyza canadensis,
C. japonica,C. leucantha, C. stricta var. pinnatifida,
C. stricta var. stricta, C. sumatrensis, C. viscidula,
Cosmos bipinnatus, Crassocephalum crepidioides,
Cremanthodium nepalense, C. oblongatum, C.
palmatum, C. reniforme, Cyathocline purpurea, Dahlia
imperialis, Dichrocephala benthamii, D. integrifolia,
Dubyaea hispida, Eclipta prostata, Elephantopus
scaber, Emilia sonchifolia, Erigeron bellidioides, E.
karvinskianus, E. sumatrensis, Galinsoga parviflora,
Gazania rigens, Gerbera maxima var. glabrata, G.
maxima var. maxima, G. piloselloides, Gnaphalium
affine, G. leuto-album, Guizotia abyssinica, Gynura
cusimbua, G. nepalensis, G. pseudo-china, Hieracium
umbellatum, Inula eupatorioides, I. nervosa, Jurinea
dolomiaea, Lactuca dolichophylla, L. graciliflora,
L. rostrata, Laggera alata, Leibnitzia nepalensis,
Leontopodium monocephalum, Mikania cordata
var. indica, M. micrantha, Myriactis nepalensis,
Parthenium hysterophorus, Saussurea crispa, S.
deltoidea, S. gossypiphora, S. obvallata, S. taraxisifolia,
S. topkegolensis, S. tridactyla, S. uniflora, Senecio
acuminatus, S. alatus, S. brunneo-villosus, S. buimalia,
S. cappa, S. chrysanthemoides var. chrysanthemoides,
S. chrysanthemoides var. spectabilis, S. densiflorus
var. densiflorus, S. densiflorus var. pubescens, S.
diversifolius,S. graciliflorus, S. quinquelobus, S.
scandens, S. topkegolensis, S. triligulatus, S. wallichii,
Siegesbeckia orientalis, Solidago virga-aurea, Sonchus
arvensis var. laevipes, S. wightianus, Soroseris
hookeriana, Sphaeranthus indicus L., Spilanthes
acmella, S. calva, S. iabadicensis, Synedrella nodiflora,
Synotis alata, S. cappa, S. tetrantha, Tagetes erecta,
T. patula, Taraxacum officinale, Tithonia diversifolia,
Vernonia anthelmintica, V. cinerea var. cinerea, V.
cinerea var. parviflora, V. subsessilis var. macrophylla,
V. volkameriaefolia, Wedelia biflora, W. wallichii,
Zinnia elegans
Balanophoraceae (2 genera, 4 species): Balanophora
dioica, B. involucrata, B. polyandra, Rhopalocnemis
phalloides
Balsaminaceae (1 genus, 18 species): Impatiens
amplexicaulis, I. arguta, I. bicornuta, I. discolor, I. exilis, I.
falcifer, I. graciliflora, I. insignis, I. jurpia, I. occultans, I.
puberula, I. racemosa, I. radiata, I. spirifer, I. stenantha,
I. sulcata, I. tripelata, I. urticifolia
Begoniaceae (1 genus, 15 species): Begonia
adscendens, B. dioica, B. dolichoptera, B. flaviflora, B.
gemmipara, B. hatacoa, B. josephii, B. leptoptera, B.
megaptera, B. nepalensis, B. palmata var. gamblei, B.
Panchtharensis, B. picta, B. roxburghii, B. sikkimensis
Berberidaceae (3 genera, 19 species): Berberis
angulosa, B. aristata, B. asiatica, B. concinna, B.
erythroclada, B. hookeri, B. insignis, B. lycium, B. mucrifolia,
B. petiolaris, B. praecipua, B. thomsoniana, B. tsarica,
B. umbellata, B. wallichiana, Mahonia acanthifolia, M.
borealis, M. napaulensis, Sinopodophyllum hexandrum
Betulaceae (incl. Corylaceae; 4 genera, 5 species):
Alnus nepalensis, Betula alnoides, B. utilis, Carpinus
viminea, Corylus ferox
Bignoniaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Oroxylum indicum
Boraginaceae (incl. Cordiaceae; 10 genera,
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
12 species): Chionocharis hookeri, Cynoglossum
lanceolatum, C. wallichii, C. zeylanicum, Ehretia laevis,
Eritrichium canum, Hackelia uncinata, Lasiocaryum
diffusum, Maharanga emodi, Microula pustulosa,
Onosma verruculosum, Trigonotis ovalifolia
Brassicaceae/Cruciferae (12 genera, 20 species):
Brassica juncea, B. rapa, Braya alpina, B. oxycarpa,
Capsella bursa-pastoris, Cardamine flexuosa, C.
macrophylla, C. scutata, C. violacea, C. yunnanensis,
Draba altaica, D. gracillima, D. oreades, Eutrema
heterophyllum, Lepidium sativum, Lignariella hobsonii,
Loxostemon pulchellus, Raphanus sativus, Rorippa
nasturtium-aquaticum, Thlaspi cochlearoides
Buxaceae (1 genus, 3 species): Sarcococca coriacea,
S. hookerana, S. wallichii
103
var. hallisanense, Dianthus barbatus, D. chinensis,
Drymaria cordata, D. villosa, Gypsophila cerastoides,
Lychnis nigrescens, Sagina japonica, S. saginoides,
Stellaria decumbens, S. himalayensis, S. media, S.
monosperma, S. ovalifolia, S. patens, S. sikimensis, S.
subumbellta, S. uliginosa
Celastraceae (incl. Parnassiaceae; 6 genera, 16
species): Cassine glauca, Celastrus hookeri, C.
paniculatus subsp. multiflorus, C. stylosus, Euonymus
amygdalifolius, E. frigidus var. frigidus, E. frigidus
var. elongatus, E. grandiflorus, E. hamiltonianus, E.
porphyreus, E. tingens, E. vagans, Maytenus rufa,
Parnassia chinensis, P. nubicola, P. pusilla, Reissantia
arborea
Chenopodiaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Chenopodium
album
Cactaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Opuntia monocantha
Calceolariaceae (incl. Scrophulariaceae; 1 genus, 2
species): Calceolaria gracilis, C. maxicana
Campanulaceae (7 genera, 23 species): Campanula
cana, C. colorata, C. pallida, Codonopsis affinis,
C. bhutanica, C. inflata, C. thalictrifolia, C. viridis,
Cyananthus hookeri, C. incanus, C. inflatus, C. lobatus,
C. pendunculatus, C. spathulifolius, Lobelia alsinoides,
L. erectiuscula, L. heyneana, L. pyramidalis, L. seguinii
var. doniana, L. zeylanica, Peracarpa carnosa, Pratia
nummularia, Wahlenbergia marginata
Cannabaceae (incl. Ulmaceae; 3 genera, 4 species):
Cannabis sativa, Celtis tetrandra, Trema cannabina, T.
orientalis
Chloranthaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Chloranthus
officinalis
Cleomaceae (incl. Capparaceae; 1 genus, 2 species):
Cleome gynandra, C. speciosa
Combretaceae (2 genera, 9 species): Combretum
chinense, C. decandrum, C. flagrocarpum,C. roxburghii,
C. wallichii, Terminalia alata, T. bellirica, T. chebula, T.
myriocarpa
Convolvulaceae (5 genera, 17 species): Argyreia
atropurpurea, A. hookeri, A. roxburghii, Cuscuta
europaea, C. reflexa, Evolvulus alsinoides, Ipomoea
aquatica, I. batatus, I. carnea subsp. fistulosa, I.
congesta, I. pes-tigridis, I. purpurea, I. quamoclit, Porana
grandiflora, P. paniculata, P. racemosa, P. stenoloba
Capparaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Capparis multiflora
Coriariaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Coriaria terminalis
Caprifoliaceae (incl. Dipsacaceae, Morinaceae,
Valerianaceae; 8 genera, 20 species): Acanthocalyx
nepalensis, Dipsacus inermis var. mitis, Leycesteria
formosa, L. glaucophylla, L. gracilis, Lonicera acuminata,
L. angustifolia, L. glabrata, L. lanceolata, L. macrantha, L.
myrtilloides, L. myrtillus, L. obovata, L. webbiana, Morina
longifolia, M. nepalensis, Nardostachys jatamansi,
Triplostegia glandulifera, Valeriana hardwickii, V.
jatamansi
Cornaceae (incl. Alangiaceae; 2 genera, 3 species):
Alangium alpinum, A. chinense, Swida oblonga
Crassulaceae (3 genera, 13 species): Kalanchoe
spathulata, Rhodiola bupleuroides, R. chrysanthemifolia
subsp. chrysanthemifolia, R. chrysanthemifolia subsp.
sacra, R. cretinii, R. fastigiatum, R. himalensis, R.
tibetica, R. wallichiana, Sedum discolor, S. himalense,
S. multicaule, S. oreades, S. triactina
Caricaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Carica papaya
Carlemanniaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Carlemannia
griffithii
Caryophyllaceae (8 genera, 23 species):
Arenaria glanduligera, A. globiflora, A. orbiculata, A.
polytrichoides, Cerastium glomeratum, C. holosteoiodes
Cucurbitaceae (15 genera, 21 species):
Biswarea tonglensis, Bryonopsis laciniosa, Cucumis
sativus, Cyclanthera pedata, Diplocyclos palmatus,
Gomphogyne cissiformis, Gynostemma pentaphyllum,
Herpetospermum pedunculosum, Melothria heterophylla,
M. maderaspantana, M. perpusilla, Momordica
charantia, Sechium edule, Solena heterophylla,
104
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Thladiantha calcarata, T. cordifolia, Trichosanthes
cucumerina, T. himalensis, T. tricuspidata, T. wallichiana,
Zehneria maysorensis
Daphniphyllaceae (1 genus, 1 species):
Daphniphyllum himalense
Diapensiaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Diapensia
himalaica
Dilleniaceae (1 genus, 2 species): Dillenia indica,
D. pentagyna
Dipterocarpaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Shorea
robusta
Droseraceae (1 genus, 1 species): Drosera peltata
var. lunata
Ebenaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Diospyros virginiana
Elaeagnaceae (2 genera, 5 species): Elaeagnus
caudata, E. conferta, E. infundibularis, E. parvifolia,
Hippophae tibetana
Elaeocarpaceae (2 genera, 2 species): Elaeocarpus
sphaericus, Sloanea sterculiaceus
Ericaceae (incl. Monotropaceae; 9 genera, 52
species): Agapetes hookeri, A. incurvata, A. serpens,
A. smithiana, Cassiope fastigiata, Enkianthus deflexus,
Gaultheria fragrantissima, G. griffithiana, G. hookeri,
G. nummularioides, G. pyroloides, G. semi-infera, G.
trichophylla, Lyonia ovalifolia, L. villosa, Monotropa
hypopitys, M. uniflora, Pieris formosa, Rhododendron
anthopogon, R. arboreum var. arboreum, R. arboretum
var. campbelliae, R. arboreum var. roseum, R. barbatum,
R. camelliieflorum, R. campanulatum var. campanulatum,
R. campanulatum var. wallichii, R. campylocarpum, R.
ciliatum, R. cinnabarinum, R. dalhousiae, R. elaeagnoides,
R. falconeri, R. fulgens, R. glaucophyllum, R. grande, R.
griffithianum, R. hodgsonii, R. lanatum, R. lepidotum, R.
lindleyi, R. nivale, R. pendulum, R. pumilum, R. setosum,
R. thomsonii, R. triflorum, R. vaccinioides, R. wightii,
Vaccinium dunalianum, V. gaultherifolium, V. glaucoalbum,
V. nummularia, V. retusum, V. sikkimense, V. vacciniceum
Euphorbiaceae (13 genera, 24 species): Alchornea
mollis, Baliospermum montanum, B. nepalense,
Chamaesyce supina, Croton caudatus, Euphorbia
heterophylla, E. hirta, E. pseudosikkimensis, E.
pulcherrima, E. royleana, E. sikkimensis, E. stracheyi,
E. wallichii, Jatropha curcas, Macaranga denticulata, M.
indica, M. pustulata, Mallotus albus, M. philippinensis,
Manihot esculenta, Mercurialis leiocarpa, Ostodes
paniculata, Ricinus communis, Sapium insigne
Fabaceae/Leguminosae (63 genera, 145
species): Abrus pulchellus, Acacia catechu, A. intsia
var. oxyphylla, A. pennata, Acrocarpus fraxinifolius,
Aeschynomene aspera, A. indica, Albizia chinensis,
A. gamblei, A. julibrrissin, A. lebbeck, A. lucida,
A. myriophylla, A. odoratissima, A. procera, A.
sherriffii, Alysicarpus rugosus, A. vaginalis, Apios
carnea, Argyrolobium roseum, Astragalus donianus,
A. sikkimensis, A. stipulatus, Atylosia elongata, A.
mollis, Bauhinia purpurea, B. vahlii, B. variegata,
Butea minor, Caesalpinia bonduc, C. cucucllata, C.
decapetala, C. digyna, Cajanus cajan, C. elongatus,
Campylotropis macrostyla, C. speciosa,Cassia
fistula, C. mimosoides, C. occidentalis, C. sophera,
C. tora, Chesneya nubigena, Cochlianthus gracilis,
Codariocalyx motorius, Colutea multiflora, Crotalaria
alata, C. albida, C. cytisoides, C. ferruginea, C. hirsuta,
C. humifusa, C. mucronata, C. pallida, C. prostrata, C.
retusa, C. sessiliflora, C. tetragona, Dalbergia latifolia,
D. sissoo, D. stipulacea, Delonix regia, Dendrolobium
triangulare, Derris acuminata, D. marginata, D.
thyrsifl ora, Desmodium concinnum var.conncinum,
D. concinnum var.retusum, D. confertum, D. elegans,
D. gangeticum, D. heteropcarpum, D. heterophyllum,
D. khasianum, D. laxifl orum, D. microphyllum, D.
multifl orum, D. nepalense, D. podocarpum subsp.
mandschuricum, D. podocarpum subsp.oxypohyllum,
D. renifolium, D. retusum, D. sequax, D. tilliaefolium
D. triflorum, D. velutinum, Dolichos falcatus, D. lablab,
D. tenuicaulis, Dumasia villosa, Dunbaria rotundifolia,
Entada phaseoloides, Eriosema himalaicum, Erythrina
arborescens, E. variegata, Flemingia macrophylla,
Glycine max, Gueldenstaedtia himalaica, Indigofera
atropurpurea, I. dosua, I. exilis, I. heterantha, I. linifolia,
I. pseudoreticulata, I. pulchella, I. stachyodes, I.
trifoliata, Macrotyloma uniflorum, Meizotropis pellita,
Mezoneurum cucullatum var. cucullatum, M. cucullatum
var. grandis, Millettia auriculata, Mimosa pudica, M.
rubicaulis, Mucuna macrocarpa, M. nigricans, Oxytropis
microphylla, Parochetus communis, Phaseolus lunatus,
P. pubescens, P. pulchellum, Piptanthus nepalensis,
Pisum sativum, Pterocarpus marspium, Pueraria
peduncularis, P. phaseoloides, P. tuberosa, P. wallichii,
Senna floribunda, Shuteria vestita, Smithia ciliata, S.
sensitiva, Spatholobus parviflorus, Stizolobium pruriens,
Tadehagi triquetrum, Tamarindus indica, Tephrosia
candida, Thermopsis inflata, Tibetia himalaica, Trifolium
repens, Uraria lagopodioides, U. lagopus, Vicia bakeri,
V. hirsuta, Vigna angularis, V. sinensis, V. umbellata,
V. unguiculata, Zornia gibbosa
Fagaceae (3 genera, 17 species): Castanopsis
hystrix, C. indica, C. tribuloides, Lithocarpus elegans,
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
L. fenestratus, L. pachyphyllus, Quercus glauca, Q.
incana, Q. lamellosa, Q. lanata, Q. lineata, Q. lobbii,
Q. mespilifolioides, Q. oxyodon, Q. pachyphylla, Q.
semecarpifolia, Q. spicata
Gentianaceae (9 genera, 32 species): Canscora
decussata, Crawfurdia angustata, C.speciosa, Exacum
teres, E. tetragonum, Gentiana capitata, G. cephaloides,
G. depressa, G. elwesii, G. ornata, G. pedicellata, G.
sikkimensis, Gentianella paludosa, G. pedunculata,
Halenia elliptica, Lomatogonium brachiantherum, L.
carianthiacum, L. sikkimense, Swertia angustifolia,
S. bimaculata, S. chirayita, S. dilatata, S. hookeri, S.
macrosperma, S. multicaulis, S. nepalensis, S. nervosa, S.
paniculata, S. pedicellata, S. petiolata, Tripterospermum
nigrobaccatum, T. volubile
Geraniaceae (1 genus, 10 species): Geranium
donianum, G. lambertii, G. nakaoanum, G. nepalense,
G. polyanthes, G. pratense, G. procurrens, G. refractum,
G. robertianum, G. wallichianum
Gesneriaceae (9 genera, 21 species): Aeschynanthus
bracteatus, A. hookeri, A. parviflorus, Chirita macrophylla,
C. pumila, C. urticifolia, Corallodiscus lanuginosus,
Didymocarpus albicalyx, D. andersoni, D. aromaticus, D.
macrophyllus, D. oblongus, D. primulifolius, D. pulcher,
D. villosus, Henckelia pumila, Leptoboea multiflora,
Loxostigma griffithii, L. serrata, Rhynchoglossum
obliquum, Rhynchotechum ellipticum
Grossulariaceae (1 genus, 5 species): Ribes
acuminatum, R. glaciale, R. griffithii, R. luridum, R. takare
Hamamelidaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Exbucklandia
populnea
Helwingiaceae (incl. Cornaceae; 1 genus, 1 species):
Helwingia himalaica
Hydrangeaceae (4 genera, 10 species): Deutzia
bhutanensis, D. compacta, D. hookeriana, D. staminea,
Dichroa febrifuga, Hydrangea anomala, H. heteromalla,
H. paniculata, H. robusta, Philadelphus tomentosus
Hypericaceae/Clusiaceae (1 genus, 9 species):
Hypericum choisianum, H. cordifolium, H. elodeoides, H.
hookeranum, H. japonicum, H. patulum, H. perforatum,
H. petiolulatum, H. uralum
105
Lamiaceae (incl. Verbenaceae; 42 genera, 88
species): Achyrospermum wallichianum, Ajuga
bracteosa, A. lobata, A. macrosperma var. macrosperma,
A. macrosperma var. thomsonii, Anisochilus carnosus,
A. pallidus, Anisomeles indica, Callicarpa arborea,
C. macrophylla, C. vestita, Caryopteris foetida,
Clerodendrum chinense, C. colebrookeanum, C.
infortunatum, C. japonicum, C. viscosum, C. wallichii,
Clinopodium umbrosum, Colebrookea oppositifolia,
Coleus barbatus, C. forskohlii, Colquhonia coccinia,
Craniotome furcata, C. versicolor, Elsholtzia blanda,
E. ciliata, E. flava, E. fruticosa, E. incisa, E. pilosa, E.
stachyodes, E. strobilifera, Geniosporum coloratum,
Gmelina arborea, Gomphostemma melissaefolium,
Holmskioldia sanguinea, Hyptis suaveolens, Isodon
coetsa, I. lophanthoides, I. maddeni, I. repens, I.
scrophularioides, I. striatus, I. ternifolius, Lamium
amplexicaule, Leucas cephalotes, L. ciliata, L. indica,
L. lavandulaefolia, L. mollissima var. mollissima, L.
mollissima var. scaberula, Leucosceptrum canum, Melissa
axillaris, M. parviflora, Mentha arvensis, Micromeria
nepalensis, Microtoena nepalensis, Nepeta laevigata,
N. lamiopsis, Notochaete hamosa, Ocimum basilicum,
O. canum, O. grattissimum, O. tenuiflorum, Orthosiphon
incurvus, Perilla frutescens, Phlomis macrophylla, P.
setigera, Plectranthus incanus, P. mollis, Pogostemon
amarantoides, P. benghalensis, Premna barbata,
Prunella vulgaris, Rotheca serrata, Salvia campanulata
var. hirtella, S. coccinea, S. hians, S. leucantha, Scutellaria
discolor, S. grossa, S. prostrata, S. repens, S. scandens,
S. violacea, Stachys melissaefolia, Teucrium viscidum,
Vitex negundo, V. peduncularis
Lardizabalaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Holboellia
latifolia var. angustifolia, H. latifolia var. latifolia
Lauraceae (11 genera, 33 species): Actinodaphne
reticulata, Beilschmiedia roxburghiana, Cinnamomum
bejolghota, C. glanduliferum, C. glauscescens,
C. impressinervum, C. parthenoxylon, C. tamala,
Cryptocarya amygdalina, Dodecadenia grandiflora, D.
griffithii, Lindera assamica, L. heterophylla, L. neesiana,
L. pulcherrima, Litsea cubeba, L. elongata, L. glutinosa,
L. kingii, L. monopetala, L. salicifolia, L. sericea, Machilus
duthiei, M. gammieana, M. glaucescens, Neolitsea
cuipala, N. foliosa, N. pallens, N. umbrosa, Persea
gammieana, P. lanceolata, P. odoratissima,Phoebe
pallida
Lecythidiaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Careya arborea
Icacinaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Natsiatum
herpeticum
Juglandaceae (2 genera, 2 species): Engelhardtia
spicata, Juglans regia
Lentibulariaceae (1 genus, 4 species): Utricularia
aurea, U. gibba, U. scandens, U. striatula
Linaceae (2 genera, 3 species): Anisadenia saxatilis,
106
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Reinwardtia cicanoba, R. indica
Linderniaceae (incl. Scrophulariaceae; 3 genera, 14
species): Lindernia antipoda, L. ciliata, L. crustacea,
L. oppositifolia, L. parviflora, L. pusilla, L. ruellioides,
Torenia asiatica, T. cordifolia, T. diffusa, Vandellia
anagalis var. verbenafolia, V. antipoda, Vandellia
pusilla, V. tenuifolia
Loganiaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Mitreola
oldenlandioides
Loranthaceae (5 genera, 10 species): Dendrophthoe
falcata, D. granulata, D. pentandra, Loranthus odoratus,
Macrosolen cochinchinensis, Scurrula elata, S. parasitica,
S. pulverulenta, Taxillus cuneatus, T. umbellifer
elegans, S. glabra. S. glandulifera, S. gracilenta, S.
japonica var. discolor
Molluginaceae (1 genus, 3 species): Mollugo
nudicaulis, M. pentaphylla, M. stricta
Moraceae (4 genera, 22 species): Artocarpus
Chama, A. heterophyllus, A. integra, A. lakoocha, Ficus
benghalensis, F. curtipes, F. drupacea var. pubescens, F.
hederacea, F. hispida, F. hookeriana, F. lacor, F. laevis,
F. neriifolia, F. pubigera, F. religiosa, F. roxburghii, F.
rumphii, F. sarmentosa, F. semicordata, F. subincisa,
Morus australis, Streblus asper
Moringaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Moringa oleifera
Myricaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Myrica esculenta
Lythraceae (incl. Sonneratiaceae; 5 genera, 8
species): Ammannia baccifera, Duabanga grandiflora
Lagerstroemia parviflora, Rotala diversifolia, R. indica,
R. rotundifolia, R. rubra, Woodfordia fruticosa
Magnoliaceae (2 genera, 8 species): Magnolia
campbellii, M. doltsopa, M. globosa, M. lanuginosa,
Michelia champaca, M. doltsopa, M. kisopa, M. velutina
Malpighiaceae (2 genera, 2 species): Aspidopterys
nutans, Hiptage benghalensis
Malvaceae (incl. Bombacaceae, Sterculiaceae, Tiliaceae;
15 genera, 32 species): Abelmoschus manihot var.
manihot, A. manihot var. pungens, Abroma augusta,
Bombax ceiba Corchorus aestuans, C. capsularis, C.
olitorius, Gossypium hirtusum, Grewia eriocarpa, G.
laevigata, G. multiflora, G. oppositifolia,Hibiscus
cannabinus, H. furcatus, H. rosa-sinensis, H. sabdariffa,
H. solandra, H. syriacus, Kydia calycina, Melochia
corchorifolia, Pterospermum acerifolium, Sida acuta, S.
cordata, S. cordifolia, S. multicaulis, S. rhombifolia, S.
veronicaefolia, Sterculia hamiltonii, Thespesia lampas,
Triumfetta annua, T. bartramia, T. pilosa, Urena lobata
Mazaceae (incl. Scrophulariaceae; 1 genus, 4
species): Mazus arvense, M. japonicus, M. pumilus,
M. surculosus
Melastomataceae (5 genera, 9 species): Melastoma
melabathricum, M. normale, Osbekia nepalensis, O.
nutans, O. sikkimensis, O. stellata, Oxyspora paniculata,
Sarcopyramis nepalensis, Sonerila tenera
Meliaceae (6 genera, 7 species): Azadirachta indica,
Cipadessa baccifera, Heynea trijuga, Melia azaderach,
M. dubia, Munronia pinnata, Toona ciliata
Menispermaceae (3 genera, 8 species): Cissampelos
pariera, Pericampylus glaucus,Stephania delavayi, S.
Myrtaceae (3 genera, 5 species): Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, Psidium guajava, Syzygium cumini, S.
tetragonum, S. wallichii
Nelumbonaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Nelumbo
nucifera
Nyctaginaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Bougainvillea
spectabilis
Nymphaeaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Nymphaea
odorata
Oleaceae (6 genera, 9 species): Fraxinus floribunda,
Jasminum dispermum, J. humile var. humile, J. humile
var. pubigerum, J. sambac, Ligustrum confusum, L.
indicum, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis., Osmanthus suavis,
Syringa emodi
Onagraceae (4 genera, 10 species): Circaea
alpina var. alpina, C. alpina var. imaicola, Epilobium
brevifolium, E. cylindricum, E. wallichianum, Ludwigia
adscendens,L. hyssopifolia, L. octovalis, L. perennis, L.
prostrata, Oenothera erythrosepala
Opiliaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Lepionurus sylvestris
Orobanchaceae (incl. Scrophulariaceae; 8 genera,
35 species): Aeginetia indica, Boschniakia himalaica,
Buchnera hispida, Centranthera grandiflora, Euphrasia
himalayica, E. platyphylla, Lindenbergia grandiflora,
L. indica, Orobanche cernua, Pedicularis albiflora, P.
anserantha, P. bifida, P. clarkei, P. collata, P. confertiflora,
P. elwesii, P. flexuosa, P. furfuracea, P. gracilis, P. heydei,
P. instar, P. kansuensis, P. lachnoglossa, P. longiflora,
subsp. tubiformis, P. megalantha, P. microcalyx, P.
mollis, P. nepalensis, P. oxyrhyncha, P. pennelliana,
P. roylei, P. scullyana, P. siphonantha, P. tamurensis,
P. terrenoflora
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Oxalidaceae (2 genera, 4 species): Biophytum
sensitivum, Oxalis acetosella var.acetosella, O.
acetosella var.griffithii, O. corniculata, O. latifolia
Papavaraceae (4 genera, 23 species): Cathcartia
villosa, Corydalis cashmeriana var. ecristata, C.
casimiriana, C. chaerophylla, C. cornuta, C. juncea, C.
leptocarpa, C. longipes, C. pachypoda, C. polygalina,
C. staintonii, C. stracheyi, Dicentra macrocapnos, D.
scadens, Meconopsis bella, M. grandis, M. horridula, M.
lyrata, M. napaulensis, M. paniculata, M. simplicifolia,
M. sinuata, M. villosa
Passifloraceae (1 genus, 3 species): Passiflora
caerulea, P. edulis, P. nepalensis
107
Polygonaceae (9 genera, 37 species): Aconogonum
campanulatum, A. molle var. molle, A. molle var.
frondosum, Bistorta affinis, B. amplexicaulis, B. diopetes,
B. emodi, B. jaljalensis, B. macrophylla, B. vaccinifolia, B.
vivipara, Fagopyrum dibotrys, F. esculentum, F. tataricum,
Fallopia pterocarpa, Koenigia nepalensis, Persicaria
barbata, P. capitata, P. chinensis var. chinensis, P.
chinensis var. brachiata, P. chinensis var. ovalifolia,
P. hydropiper, P. kawagoeana, P. microcephala
var. microcephala, P. microcephala var. wallichii, P.
nepalensis, P. perfoliata, P. polystachya, P. posumbu,
P. pratermissa, P. pubescens, P. punctata, P. runcinata
var. runcinata, P. runcinata var. acuminata, P. thunbergii
var. hastata, P. wallichii, Polygonum plebeium, Rheum
australe, R. nobile, Rumex acetosa, R. nepalensis, R.
vesicarius
Pedaliaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Sesamum orientale
Pentaphylacaceae (incl. Theaceae; 1 genus, 2
species): Eurya acuminata, E. cerasifolia,
Phrymaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Mimulus tenellus
var. nepalensis
Phyllanthaceae (incl. Euphorbiaceae, Staphyleaceae;
8 genera, 19 species): Antidesma acidum, A.
acuminatum, Aporosa octandra, Baccaurea ramiflora,
Bischofia javanica, Bridelia retusa, B. stipularis, B.
tomentosa, Glochidion metanubigenum, G. velutinum,
Phyllanthus emblica, P. glaucus, P. nirurii, P. parvifolius,
P. reticulatus, P. sikkimensis, P. urinaria, Sauropus
androgynus, S. compressus
Primulaceae (incl. Myrsinaceae; 7 genera, 47
species): Anagallis pumila, Androsace geranifolia, A.
lehmanii, A. selago, A. strigillosa, Ardisia macrocarpa,
A. solanacea, Lysimachia alternifolia, L. debilis, L.
ferruginea, L. japonica, L. laxa, L. ramosa, Maesa
argentea, M. chisia, M. indica, M. macrophylla, M.
montana, Myrsine capitellata, M. semiserrata, Primula
atrodentata, P. boothii, P. buryana, P. calderiana, P.
capitata, P. denticulata, P. deuteronana, P. elongata,
P. floribunda, P. glabra, P. glomerata, P. gracilipes,
P. ianthina, P. listeri, P. macrophylla, P. megalocarpa,
P. muscoides, P. obliqua, P. petiolaris, P. primulina,
P. rotundifolia, P. sikkimensis, P. soldanelloides, P.
stirtoniana, P. stuartii, P. tenuiloba, P. wattii
Proteaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Grevillea robusta
Piperaceae (2 genera, 8 species): Peperomia
heyneana, P. pellucida, P. tetraphylla, Piper betle, P.
longum, P. mullesua, P. peepuloides, P. wallichii
Plantaginaceae (incl. Callitrichaceae, Scrophulariaceae;
13 genera, 24 species): Adenosma indianum,
Callitriche stagnalis, Digitalis purpurea, Dopatrium
junceum, Ellisiophyllum pinnatum, Hemiphragma
heterophyllum, Lagotis clarkei, Limnophila aromatica,
L. repens, L. sessiliflora, Microcarpaea minima,
Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora, Plantago erosa, P.
himalaica, P. major, Scoparia dulcis, Veronica cana,
V. deltigera, V. himalensis, V. javanica, V. retusum, V.
robusta, V. umbelliformis, V. undulata,
Plumbaginaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Plumbago
zeylanica
Podostemaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Hydrobruym
griffithii
Polygalaceae (1 genus 4 species): Polygala arillata,
P. chinensis, P. furcata, P. persicarifolia
Ranunculaceae (12 genera, 57 species): Aconitum
alpine-nepalense, A. bisma, A. deltoideum, A. elwesii,
A. ferox, A. funiculare, A. gammiei, A. heterophyllum,
A. heterophylloides, A. hookeri, A. novoluridum,
A. orochryseum, A. spicatum, A. staintonii, Adonis
nepalensis, Anemone fusco-purpurea, A. obtusiloba,
A. rivularis, A. rupicola, A. trullifolia, A. vitifolia, Caltha
palustris, C. scaposa, Cimicifuga foetida, Clematis
buchananiana, C. connata, C. gouriana, C. grewiiflora,
C. montana, C. napaulensis, C. tongluensis, C. tortuosa,
Delphinium caeruleum, D. cooperi, D. nepalense, D.
stapeliosmum, Dichocarpum adiantifolium, Naravelia
zeylanica, Ranunculus adoxifolius, R. affinis, R. brotherusii,
R. diffusus, R. ficariifolius, R. hirtellus, R. microphyllus, R.
pegaeus, R. pulchellus, R. tricuspis, Thalictrum cultratum,
T. elegans, T. foliolosum, T. montanum, T. reniforme,
T. rotundifolium, T. saniculiforme, T. virgatum, Trollius
pumilus
Rhamnaceae (6 genera, 11 species): Berchemia
flavescens, B. floribunda, Gouania leptostachya,
Hovenia acerba, Rhamnus purpureus, R. virgatus,
108
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Sageretia filiformis, Ziziphus incurva, Z. jujuba, Z.
oenoplia, Z. xylopyrus
Rosaceae (18 genera, 85 species): Agrimonia pilosa,
Cotoneaster acuminatus, C. adpressus, C. congestus,
C. frigidus, C. microphyllus, C. nitidus, C. staintonii,
Docynia indica, Duchesnea indica, Eriobotrya elliptica,
E. hookeriana, Fragaria nilgerrensis, F. nubicola, F.
rubiginosa, Geum elatum, G. sikkimense, Neillia rubiflora,
N. thyrsiflora, Photinia integrifolia, Potentilla biflora, P.
cuneata, P. eriocarpa, P. fructicosa var. rigida, P. fulgens,
P. griffithii, P. kleiniana, P. leuconata, P. lineata, P.
microphylla, P. monanthes var. alata, P. peduncularis, P.
polyphylla, P. saundersiana, P. sundaica, P. turfosoides, P.
williamsii, Prunus cerasoides, P. cornuta, P. napaulensis,
P. persica, P. rufa, P. napaulensis, P. undulata, P. venosa,
Pyracantha crenulata, Pyrus communis, P. pashia, Rosa
sericea, Rubus acuminatus, R. biflorus, R. calycinoides,
R. calycinus, R. diffusus, R. ellipticus, R. fockeanus, R.
foliolosus, R. fragaroides, R. griffithii, R. hamiltoni, R.
hexagynus, R. hypargyrus var. niveus, R. nutaniflorus,
R. paniculatus, R. pentagonus, R. reticulatus, R.
rugosus, R. splendidissimus, R. thomsonii, R. truetleri,
Sibbaldia cuneata, S. micropetala, S. purpurea, Sorbus
arachnoidea, S. cuspidata, S. foliolosa, S. hedlundii, S.
insignis, S. kurzii, S. microphylla, S. rhamnoides, Spiraea
arcuata, S. bella, S. canescens, S. micrantha
Rubiaceae (31 genera, 64 species): Adina cordifolia,
Anthocephalus cadamba, Borreria laevicaulis, B. latifolia,
B. setidens, Canthium parvifolium, Catunaregam
longispina, C. spinosa, Coffea bengalensis, Fagerlindia
fasciculata, Galium acutum, G. asperifolium var.
asperifolium, G. asperifolium var. sikkimense, G.
asperuloides var. hofffmeisteri, G. elegans var. elegans,
G. elegans var. glabriusculum, G. hirtiflorum, Hedyotis
corymbosa, H. diffusa, H. ovatifolia, H. scandens, H.
verticillata, Hymenodictyon excelsum, H. flaccidum,
Hymenopogon parasiticus, Hyptianthera stricta, Knoxia
corymbosa, Leptodermis lanceolata, L. ludlowii, Luculia
gratissima, Meyna pubescens, M. spinosa, Morinda
angustifolia, Mussaenda roxburghii, M. treutleri, Mycetia
longifolia, Neanotis calycina, N. gracilis, N. ingrata, N.
wightiana, Neohymenopogon parasiticus, Oldenlandia
diffusa, Ophiorrhiza fasciculata, O. harrissiana, O.
nepalensis, O. succrirubra, O. treutleri, Paederia foetida,
P. scandens, Pavetta indica, P. polyantha, P. tomentosa,
Psychotria erratica, Randia tetrasperma, Rubia cordifolia,
R. manjith, R. sikkimensis, R. wallichiana, Spermadictylon
suaveolens, Uncaria pilosa, U. sessilifructus, Wendlandia
coriacea, W. exserta, W. puberula, W. sikkimensis
Rutaceae (8 genera, 17 species): Aegle marmelos,
Boenninghausenia albiflora, Citrus aurantium, C.
hystrix, C. limon, C. medica, Euodia fraxinifolia,
Micromelum minutum, Skimmia arborescens, S. laureola,
S. melanocarpa, Toddalia asiatica, Zanthoxylum
acanthopodium, Z. armatum, Z. nepalense, Z. nitidum,
Z. oxyphyllum
Sabiaceae (2 genera, 6 species): Meliosma
delleniifolia, M. pungens, M. simplicifolia, Sabia
campanulata, S. leptandra, S. paniculata
Salicaceae (incl. Flacourtiaceae; 4 genera, 15
species): Casearia graveolens, C. zeylanica, Homalium
nepalense, Populus ciliata, Salix anticecrenata, S.
babylonica, S. daltoniana, S. disperma, S. hylematica,
S. lindleyana var. microphylla, S. myrtillacea, S. plectilis,
S. serpyllum, S. sikkimensis, S. wallichiana
Santalaceae (incl. Loranthaceae, Viscaceae; 3 genera,
4 species): Osyris wightiana, Pyrularia edulis, Viscum
album, V. articulatum
Sapindaceae (incl. Aceraceae; 4 genera, 11 species):
Acer campbellii, A. caudatum, A. laevigatum, A.
oblongum, A. pectinatum, A. sikkimense, A. spicatum,
A. sterculiaceum, Cardiospermum halicacabum,
Mischocarpus pentapetalous, Sapindus mukorossi
Sapotaceae (2 genera, 2 species): Diploknema
butyracea, Madhuca longifolia
Saururaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Houttuynia cordata
Saxifragaceae (5 genera, 30 species): Astilbe rivularis,
Bergenia ciliata, B. purpurascens, Chrysosplenium
carnosum, C. griffithii, C. lanuginosum, C. nepalense,
C. singalilense, Saxifraga brachypoda, S. consanguinea,
S. diversifolia, S. filicaulis, S. flagellaris, S. glabricaulis,
S. hemisphaerica, S. kingiana, S. kumaunensis, S.
latiflora, S. montanella, S. moorcroftiana, S. pallida,
S. parnassifolia, S. pseudopallida, S. punctulata, S.
saginoides, S. strigosa, S. umbellulata, S. viscidula, S.
williamsii, Tiarella polyphylla
Schisandraceae (1 genus, 3 species): Schisandra
grandiflora, S. neglecta, S. propinqua
Scrophulariaceae (incl. Buddlejaceae; 3 genera, 6
species): Buddleja asiatica, B. colvilei, Scrophularia
elatior, S. pauciflora, S. urticaefolia, Wightia speciosissima
Solanaceae (9 genera, 24 species): Capsicum annum, C.
frutescens, Cestrum aurantiacum, C. elegans, C. nocturnum,
C. purpureum, Datura stramonium, D. suaveolens,
Lycianthes biflora, Mandragora caulescens, Nicandra
physaloides, Nicotiana tabacum,Physalis peruviana,
Solanum aculeatissimum, S. biflorum, S. crassipetalum,
S. indicum, S. lysimachioides, S. melongena, S. nigrum, S.
pseudocapsicum, S. surattense, S. torvum, S. tuberosum
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Stachyuraceae (1 genus, 1 species): Stachyurus
himalaicus
Staphyleaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Turpinia
nepalensis
Styracaceae (1 genus, 2 species): Styrax grandiflorus,
S. serrulatus
Symplocaceae (1 genus, 9 species): Symplocos
caudata, S. dryophila, S. glomerata, S. laurina, S. lucida,
S. phyllocalyx, S. pyrifolia, S. ramosissima, S. theifolia
109
macrophylla, Parthenocissus semicordata, Tetrastigma
bracteolatum, T. dubium, T. hookeri, T. leucostaphyllum,
T. rumicispermum, T. serrulatum, Vitis lanata
MONOCOTYLEDONAE (Monocots)
Acoraceae (1 genus, 1 species): Acorus calamus
Amaryllidaceae (2 genera, 5 species): Allium cepa,
A. fasciculatum, A. sativum, A. wallichii, Zephyranthes
carinata
Theaceae (2 genera, 3 species): Camelia kissi, C.
sinensis, Schima wallichii
Araceae (10 genera, 19 species): Alocasia fornicata,
Arisaema costatum, A. flavum, A. griffithii, A. intermedium,
A. jacquemontii, A. nepenthoides, A. speciosum, A.
tortuosum, Colocasia esculenta, Gonatanthus pumilus,
Lasia spinosa, Pothos cathcartii, Remusatia hookeriana,
R. vivipara, Rhaphidophora decursiva, R. glauca,
Sauromatum brevipes, Scindapsus officinalis
Thymelaeaceae (3 genera, 5 species): Daphne
bholuavar. bholua, D. bholua var. glacialis, D. papyracea,
D. sureil, Edgeworthia gardneri, Stellera chamaejasme
Arecaceae/ Palmae (5 genera, 7 species): Areca
catechu, Calamus acanthospathus, C. latifolius, Cocos
nucifera, Phoenix acaulis, P. humilis, Wallichia densiflora
Trochodendraceae (incl. Tetracentraceae; 1 genus,
1 species): Tetracentron sinense
Asparagaceae (incl. Agavaceae, Liliaceae; 10
genera, 26 species): Agave americana, Asparagaus
filicinus var. brevipes, A. filicinus var. lycopidanales,
A. racemosus var. racemosus, A. racemosus var.
subacerosus, Campylandra aurantiaca, Chlorophytum
breviscapum, C. nepalense, Maianthemum fuscum, M.
oleraceum, M. purpureum, Ophiopogon intermedius,
O. parviflorus, O. wallichianus, Peliosanthes
griffithii, P. macrophylla, Polygonatum cathcartii, P.
cirrhifolium, P. hookeri, P. kansuense, P. leptophyllum,
P. oppositifolium, P. punctatum, P. sibiricum, P.
singalilense, P. verticillatum, Theropogon pallidus,
Tupistra aurantiaca
Tamaricaceae (2 genera, 2 species): Myricaria rosea,
Tamarix dioica
Ulmaceae (1 genus, 2 species): Ulmus lanceifolia,
U. wallichiana
Urticaceae (13 genera, 34 species): Boehmeria
clidemioides, B. hamiltoniana, B. macrophylla, B.
platyphylla, B. polystachya, B. rugulosa, B. sidaefolia,
B. ternifolia, Chamabainia cuspidata, Debregeasia
salicifolia, D. wallichina, Elatostema monandrum,
E. obtusum, E. platyphyllum var. polycephalum, E.
platyphyllum var. platyphyllum, E. sessile, E. surculosum,
Girardinia diversifolia, G. palmata, Gonostegia hirta,
Laportea terminalis, Lecanthus peduncularis, Maoutia
puya, Oreocnide frutescens, Pilea anisophylla, P.
bracteosa, P. glaberrima, P. scripta, P. symmeria, P.
ternifolia, P. umbrosa, Pouzolzia hirta, P. zeylanica,
Urtica atrichocaulis, U. dioica
Verbenaceae (3 genera, 3 species): Duranta repens,
Lantana camara, Verbena officinalis
Violaceae (1 genus, 13 species): Viola betonicifolia,
V. biflora, V. bulbosa, V. canescens, V. diffusa, V.
glaucescens, V. hookeri, V. inconspicua, V. paravaginata,
V. pilosa, V. serpens, V. thomsonii, V. wallichiana
Vitaceae (incl. Leeaceae; 7 genera, 20 species):
Ampelocissus barbata, A. divaricata, A. rugosa, A.
sikkimensis, Cayratia trifolia, Cissus adnata, C. assamica,
C. javana, C. repanda, C. repens, Leea aequata, L.
Burmanniaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Burmannia
nepalensis
Butomaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Butomopsis latifolia
Cannaceae (1 genus, 2 species): Canna edulis,
Canna speciosa
Colchicaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Disporum
cantoniense
Commelinaceae (10 genera, 19 species):
Amischophacelus axillaris, Amischotolype hookeri,
Aneilema scaberrimum, Commelina benghalensis, C.
diffusa, C. hasskarlii, C. maculata, C. paludosa, Cyanotis
cristata, C. fasciculata, C. vaga, Dictyospermum
scaberrium, Floscopa scandens, Murdannia edulis,
M. elata, M. nudiflora, M. spirata, Rhopalephora
110
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
scaberrima, Streptolirion volubile
Cyperaceae (15 genera, 73 species): Blysmus
compressus, Bulbostylus densa, Carex anomoea, C. atrata,
C. baccans, C. capillacea, C. cruciata var. argocarpa, C.
cruciata var. cruciata, C. duthiei, C. filicina, C. foliosa,
C. inanis, C. inclinis, C. insignis, C. japonica subsp.
chlorostachys, C. longipes, C. moorcroftii, C. nubigena,
C. orbicularis, C. parva, C. polycephala, C. setigera,
C. stramentitia, C. vesiculosa, Cyperus brevifolius, C.
compactus, C. cuspidatus, C. difformis, C. diffusus,
C. haspan, C. iria, C. malaccensis, C. michelianus, C.
niveus, C. pilosus, C. pseudokallingoides, C. pumilus,C.
rotundus, C. sanguinolentus, C. substramineus, C.
tenuispica, Eleocharis chaetaria, E. congesta, E. palustris,
E. tetraquetra, Eriophorum comosum, Fimbristylis
aestavalis, F. complanata, F. dichotoma, F. littoralis, F.
miliacea, F. schoenoides, F. squarrosa, Kobresia curvata,
K. filicina, K. nepalensis, K. seticulmis, K. uncinoides,
Kyllinga brevifolia, K. nemoralis, Lipocarpha squarrosa,
Mariscus sumatrensis, Pycreus diaphanous, P. flavidus,
P. pumilus, P. sanguinolentus, Schoenoplectus juncoides,
S. supinus, Scirpus comosus, S. grossus, S. juncoides, S.
mucronatus subsp. robustus, S. supinus subsp. lateriflorus,
Scleria terrestris
Dioscoreaceae (1 genus, 8 species): Dioscorea alata,
D. bulbifera, D. deltoidea, D. glabra, D. kamoonensis,
D. pentaphylla, D. pubera, D. prazeri
Eriocaulaceae (1 genus, 6 species): Eriocaulon
cinereum, E. exsertum, E. obclavatum, E. nepalense, E.
staintonii, E. trisectoides
Hydrocharitaceae (2 genera, 3 species): Blyxa
aubertii B. echinosperma, Hydrilla verticillata
Hypoxidaceae (1 genus, 3 species): Curculigo
capitulata, C. crassifolia, C. orchioides
Iridaceae (2 genera, 2 species): Belamcanda
chinensis, Iris clarkei
Juncaceae (2 genera, 18 species): Juncus allioides,
J. benghalensis, J. bhutanensis, J. bufonius, J.
chrysocarpus, J. clarkei, J. duthiei, J. grisebachii, J.
inflexus, J. khasiensis, J. luteocarpus, J. monticola,
J. prismatocarpus, J. sphenostemon, J. thomsonii, J.
uniflorus, J. wallichianus, Luzula effusa
Lemnaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Lemna perpusilla
Liliaceae (9 genera, 13 species): Cardiocrinum
giganteum, Clintonia udensis var. alpina, Diosporum
cantoniense, Fritillaria cirrhosa, Lilium nanum, L.
nepalense, Lloydia flavonutans, L. serotina var. parva,
Notholirion bulbuliferum, N. macrophyllum, Streptopus
parasimplex, S. simplex, Tricyrtis maculata
Marantaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Phrynium
placentarium
Melanthiaceae (incl. Liliaceae; 2 genera, 3 species):
Paris polyphylla var. polyphylla, P. polyphylla var.
wallichii, P. violacea, Trillidium govanianum
Musaceae (1 genus, 2 species): Musa balbisiana,
Musa paradisiaca
Nartheciaceae (incl. Liliaceae; 1 genus, 4 species):
Aletris glabra, A. gracilis, A. pauciflora, A. sikkimensis
Orchidaceae (62 genera, 171 species): Acampe
papillosa, Aerides multiflorum, Agrostophyllum
callosum, A. planicaule, Anthogonium gracile, Arundina
graminifolia, Ascocentrum ampullaceum, Bulbophyllum
affine, B. careyanum, B. cylindraceum, B. dyerianum, B.
guttulatum, B. leopardium, B. parvulum, B. polyrhizum,
B. reptans, B. retusiusculum, B. sterile, B. viridiflorum, B.
wallichii, Calanthe brevicornu, C. chloroleuca, C.griffithii,
C. mannii, Chilochista lunifera, Cleisostoma filiforme,
C. racemiferum, Coelogyne corymbosa, C. cristata, C.
elata, C. fimbriata, C. flavida, C. longipes, C. ochracea,
C. stricta, Cremastra appendiculata, Cryptochilus lutea,
C. sanguineus, Cymbidium aloifolium, C. devonianum,
C. elegans, C. gammieanum, C. grandiflorum,
C. hookerianum, C. longifolium, C. pendulum, C.
simulans, Cypripedium elegans, Dactylorhiza hatagirea,
Dendrobium amoenum, D. ampulum, D. anceps, D.
aphyllum, D. candidum, D. chrysanthum, D. densiflorum,
D. eriiflorum, D. fimbriatum, D. formosum, D.
heterocarpum, D. longicornu, D. moschatum, D. nobile,
D. porphyrochilum, Diphylax urceolata, Ephemerantha
macraei, Epigeneium amplum, E. fuscescens, Epipactis
helleborine, Eria acervata, E. coronaria, E. discolor, E.
excavata, E. graminifolia, E. lasiopetala, E. muscicola,
Esmeralda clarkei, Eulophia dabia, Flickingeria fugax,
Galearis spathulata, Gastrochilus affinis, G. bigibbus, G.
calceolaris, G. distichus, Goodyera biflora, G. foliosa,
G. repens, G. vittata, Habenaria arietina, H. bicornuta,
H. densa, H. dentata, H. diphylla, H. goodyeroides,
H. latilabris, H. malleifera, H. pectinata, Herminium
angustifolium, H. fallax, H. josephii, H. lanceum, H.
macrophyllum, H. quinquelobum, Kingidium taenalis,
Liparis cordifolia, L. deflexa, L. nervosa, L. platyrachis,
L. resupinata, L. togashii, L. viridiflora, Listera tenuis,
Malaxis latifolia, M. muscifera, Neottianthe secundiflora,
Nervilia crociformis, Oberonia acaulis, O. brachystachys,
O. ensiformis, O. falcata, O. falconeri, O. iridifolia,
O. myriantha, O. pachyphylla, O. pachyrachis,
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Oreorchis micrantha, Ornithochilus difformis, Otochilus
albus, O. fuscus, O. porrectus, Panisea parviflora, P.
uniflora, Papilionanthe uniflora, Peristylus aristatus,
P. densus, P. fallax, P. goodyeroides, P. richardianus,
P. tipuliferus, Phalaenopsis decumbens, P. mannii, P.
taenialis, Pholidota articulata, P. imbricata, P. protracta,
Platanthera bakeriana, P. clavigera, P. exelliana, P.
latilabris, Pleione hookeriana, P. praecox, Podochilus
cultratus, Poneorchis chusua, Porpax elwesii, P. meirax,
Rhynchostylis retusa, Satyrium ciliatum, S. nepalense,
Schoenorchis gemmata, Smitinandia micrantha,
Spathoglottis ixioides, Spiranthes sinensis, Sunipia
bicolor, S. scariosa, Thunia alba, Tipularia josephii,
Vanda cristata, V. parviflora, V. teres, Vandopsis
undulata, Zeuxine flava
Pandanaceae (1 genus, 2 species): Pandanus
fascicularis, P. nepalensis
Poaceae/ Gramineae (82 genera, 161 species):
Agrostis micrantha, A. pilosula, A. zenkeri, Alopecurus
aequalis, Andropogon brevifolius, Apluda mutica,
Arthraxon lanceolatus, A. lancifolius, A. quartinianus,
A. sikkimensis, Arundinaria falcata, A. hookeriana,
A. intermedia, A. suberecta, Arundinella bengalense,
A. birmanica, A. nepalensis, A. pumila, A. setosa,
Avena fatua, Axonopus compressus, Bambusa nutans,
Bothriochloa intermedia var. intermedia, B. intermedia
var. punctata, Brachiaria subquadripara, B. villosa,
Brachypodium pinnatum, B. sylvaticum, Bromus
himalaicus, B. ramosus, Calamagrostis emodensis,
C. pseudophragmites, Capillipedium assimile, C.
parviflorum, Centotheca lappacea, Chrysopogon
aciculatus, C. gryllus, C. serrulatus, Coelorhachis striata,
Coix lachryma-jobi, Cymbopogon microtheca, C.
pendulus, C. stracheyi, Cynodon dactylon, Cyrtococcum
accrescens, Dactylis glomerata, Dactyloctenium
aegyptium, Danthonia schneideri, Dendrocalamus
hamiltonii, D. hookeri, Desmostachya bipinata, Deyeuxia
scabrescens, Dicanthium annulatum, D. caricosum,
Digitaria adscendens, D. cruciata, D. longiflora,
D. radicosa, D. setigera, D. stricta, D. timorensis,
Echinochloa colonum, E. crusgalli, E. frumentacea, E.
picta, E. pyramidalis, Eleusine coracana, E. indica, Elymus
nutans, Elytrophorus spicatus, Eragrostiella nardoides,
Eragrostis atrovirens, E. japonica, E. nigra, E. tenella,
E. tremula, E. unioloides, Erianthus longisetosus var.
longisetosus, E. longisetosus var. hookeri, E. ravennae, E.
rufipilus, E. sikkimensis, Eulalia leschenaultiana, E. mollis,
111
Eulaliopsis binata, Festuca ovina, F. parvigluma, Garnotia
emodi, Glyceria tonglensis, Helictotrichon virescens,
Hemarthria compressa, H. vaginata, Heteropogon
contortus, Hordeum vulgare, Hygroryza aristata,
Hymenachne pseudointerrupta, Imperata cylindrica,
Isachne albens, I. miliacea, I. sikkimensis, Ischaemum
rugosum var. rugosum, I. rugosum var. segetum, Leersia
hexandra, Melica scaberrima, Microstegium ciliatum, M.
nudum, M. vagans, M. vimineum, Miscanthus nepalensis,
Muhlenbergia huegelii, Narenga porphyrocoma,
Neyraudia reynaudiana, Oplismenus burmanii, O.
compositus, Oryza sativa, Panicum notanum, P. paludosum,
P. trypheron, P. walense, Paspalidium punctatum,
Paspalum conjugatum, P. distichum, P. longifolium, P.
scrobiculatum, Perotis hordeiformis, P. indica, Poa annua,
P. himalayana, P.hirtiglumis, P.imperialis, P. nepalensis,
P. pagophila, P. sikkimensis, P. stewartiana, P. supina,
Pogonatherum crinitum, P. paniceum, Polypogon fugax,
Pseudechinolaena polystyacha, Pseudopogonatherum
contortum, Saccharum spontaneum, Sacciolepis indica,
S. interrupta, Setaria geniculata, S. glauca, S. pallidafusca, S. palmifolia, S. plicata, S. verticillata, S. viridis,
Sporobolus diander, S. fertilis, S. piliferus, Stipa roylei,
Thamnocalamus aristatus, Themeda caudata, T. hookeri,
T. triandra, T. villosa, Thysanolaena maxima, Tripogon
trifidus, Triticum aestivum, Vetiveria lawsonii, Yushania
maling
Pontederiaceae (2 genera, 2 species): Eichhornia
crassipes, Monochoria vaginalis
Smilacaceae (1 genus, 13 species): Smilax aspera,
S. aspericaulis, S. elegans, S. ferox, S. glaucophylla,
S. lanceifolia, S. menispermoidea, S. minutiflora, S.
ocreata, S. ovalifolia, S. prolifera, S. rigida, S. vaginata
Tofieldiaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Tofieldia himalaica
Typhaceae (1 genus, 1 species): Typha angustifolia
Xanthorrhoeaceae (incl. Liliaceae; 1 genus, 1
species): Aloe vera
Zingiberaceae (7 genera, 16 species): Amomum
subulatum, Cautleya gracilis, C. spicata, Costus
speciosus, Curcuma angustifolia, C. aromatica, C. longa,
Globba clarkei, Hedychium coccineum, H. densiflorum,
H. glaucum, H. spicatum, H. thyriforme, Roscoea alpina,
R. capitata, R. purpurea.
112
SN
Family
Species
Elevation (m) Location and district
1.
Acanthaceae
Justicia tukuchensis V.A.W. Graham
2.
Apiaceae
Cortia staintoniana Farille & SB Malla
4,000 S. Topke Gola, Arun-Tamur watershed,
Taplejung
JDA Stainton 894 (Holotype: E). Rajbhandari &
Dhungana (2011)
3.
Apiaceae
Cortiella lamondiana F. Fullarton & MF
Watson
4,200 Kambachen–Lhonak, Taplejung
KEKE 506 (Holotype: E). Rajbhandari & Dhungana
(2011)
4.
Asteraceae
Senecio topkegolensis Kitam.
5.
Begoniaceae
Begonia dolichoptera S. Rajbhandary &
KK Shrestha
6.
Begoniaceae
Begonia leptoptera H. Hara
7.
Begoniaceae
Begonia Panchtharensis S. Rajbhandary
8.
Berberidaceae
Berberis mucrifolia Ahrendt
2,100-4,500 Nessum–Surkepati, Taplejung
H. Ohashi 771165 (TI). Rajbhandari & Adhikari (2009)
9.
Boraginaceae
Onosma verruculosum I.M. Johnst.
2,000-3,000 Papung–Sangrapati, Taplejung
H. Ohashi et al. 775380 (TI). Rajbhandari & Adhikari
(2009)
10.
Eriocaulaceae
Eriocaulon exsertum Satake
200-300 Ghorwa–Sanischare, Jhapa
H. Hara et al. 6305472 (Holotype: TI); Hara et al.
6300935 (TI). Rajbhandari & Dhungana (2011)
11.
Eriocaulaceae
Eriocaulon obclavatum Satake
200-300 Ghorwa–Sanischare, Jhapa
H. Hara et al. 6305469 (Holotype: TI); Rajbhandari &
Dhungana (2011)
12.
Eriocaulaceae
Eriocaulon trisectoides Satake
13.
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia pseudosikkimensis (Hurusawa
& Ya. Tanaka) Radcl.-Smith
14.
Orobanchaceae
(Scrophulariaceae)
15.
1,700-2,400 Bomrang–Singoa Kharka, Taplejung
3,600-4,350 Tashi Gaon–Topke Gola, Taplejung
2,500 SW of Amjilassa, Ghunsa Khola,
Taplejung
1,500-2,600 Kiwa–Tapethok, Taplejung
2,250 Pranbung, Sisire, Panchthar
700-2,400 Dobhan–Mul Pokhari, Taplejung;
Chyangthapu–Birwa, Panchthar
Collectors/References
H. Ohba et al. 9120372 (TI). Rajbhandari & Adhikari
(2009)
H. Ohashi et al. 775175 (Holotype: TI). Rajbhandari &
Adhikari (2009)
M. Crawford et al. 248 (Holotype: K); Rajbhandary
(2010)
TI 6304546 (TI). Rajbhandari & Adhikari (2009)
U. Thumsuang s.n. (Holotype: E). Rajbhandary, Hughes
and Shrestha (2010)
H. Hara et al. 6305468 (Holotype: TI). Rajbhandari &
Dhungana (2011)
1,500-3,200 Helok–Baroya Khimty, Taplejung
H. Hara et al. , 6306781 (Holotype, TI). Rajbhandari &
Adhikari (2009)
Pedicularis anserantha T. Yamaz.
3,490 Mane Bhanjyang–Jaljale Pokhari
(Taplejung/ Sankhuwasabha)
Y. Omori et al. 9950025 (TI). Rajbhandari & Dhungana
(2011)
Orobanchaceae
(Scrophulariaceae)
Pedicularis oxyrhyncha T. Yamaz.
4,100 Tashi Gaon–Topke Gola, Taplejung
Ohashi et al. 770870 (Holotype: TI). Rajbhandari &
Dhungana (2011)
16.
Orobanchaceae
(Scrophulariaceae)
Pedicularis tamurensis T. Yamaz.
3,500 Tamur valley, Mewa khola, Taplejung
Stainton 1313 (Holotype: BM). Rajbhandari & Dhungana
(2011)
17.
Orobanchaceae
(Scrophulariaceae)
Pedicularis terrenoflora T. Yamaz.
18.
Poaceae
Poa imperialis Bor
2,000-2,200 Shewaden–Mewa Khola; Shewaden –
Papung, Taplejung
4,400 Yangma Khola, NE of Olungchung
Gola, Taplejung
H. Kanai et al. 720925 (Holotype: TI); Ohashi et al.
773961 (TI)
Stainton 1105 (Holotype: BM). Rajbhandari & Dhungana
(2010)
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
ANNEX VII: ENDEMIC FLOWERING PLANTS OF KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
19.
Polygonaceae
Bistorta diopetes H. Ohba & S. Akiyama
20.
Ranunculaceae
Aconitum staintonii Lauener
21.
Ranunculaceae
Anemone fusco-purpurea H. Hara
22.
Salicaceae
Salix plectilis Kitam.
3,570-4,360 Shuwan Kharka–Topke Gola,
Taplejung
3,510 Tamur Valley, Olangchung Gola,
Taplejung
3,600-4,400 Saju Pokhari–Topke Gola, Taplejung
200 Gauriganja–Kathgara, Jhapa
TI 9110377 (TI). Rajbhandari & Dhungana (2010)
Stainton 1034 (Holotype: BM). Rajbhandari & Dhungana
(2011)
H. Kanai et al. 723626 (TI); Shrestha & Ghimire (1996).
Rajbhandari & Dhungana (2011)
Kanai et al. 6304749 (Holotype; TI). Rajbhandari &
Dhungana (2011)
Doubtful endemic species (Data deficient)
1.
Apiaceae
Heracleum lallii C. Norman
2.
Asteracaeae
Saussurea topkegolensis H. Ohba & S.
Akiyama
4,500 Topke Gola–Bomrang, Taplejung
H. Ohba et al. 9153380 (Holotype: TI). Rajbhandari &
Adhikari (2009)
3.
Gentianaceae
Swertia nepalensis J. Shah
3,300 Falaincha, Dund, Panchthar
Kunwar et al. (2008). Rajbhandari & Dhungana (2010)
4.
Hypericaceae
Hypericum cordifolium Choisy
2,350-3,150 Gyabla, Olangchung Gola, Taplejung
Shrestha & Ghimire (1996). Rajbhandari & Dhungana
(2010)
5.
Lamiaceae
Micromeria nepalensis Kitam. & Murata
1,900-3,600 Ghunsa Valley, Taplejung
R. Tamang (2013). Rajbhandari & Dhungana (2010).
6.
Lamiaceae
Microtoena nepalensis Stearn
2,100-2,600 Above Lelep, Taplejung; Memeng,
Prangbung, Panchthar
Shrestha & Ghimire (1996); Kunwar et al. (2008).
Rajbhandari & Dhungana (2010)
7.
Lythracaeae
Rotala rubra (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) H.
Hara
1,000-1,700 Bharomdin–Khebang, Taplejung
H. Hara et al. 6306593 (TI). Rajbhandari & Dhungana
(2010)
1,500-3,650 Failaincha, Gairi-Sukhadhap,
Panchthar; Maimajhuwa, Sisne, Ilam
Kunwar et al. (2008). Rajbhandari & Dhungana (2011)
Source: Shrestha and Ghimire (1996), Kunwar et al. (2008), Rajbhandari and Adhikari (2009), Rajbhandari and Dhungana (2010, 2011), Rajbhandary (2010), Rajbhandary et al. (2010)
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
113
114
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
ANNEX VIII: RARE AND THREATENED PLANT SPECIES OF KANGCHENJUNGA
LANDSCAPE NEPAL
SN
Family
Species
Altitude (m) Locality
Threatened
category
1.
Anacardiaceae
Choerospondias axillaris
(Roxb.) Brutt.
1,300–1,500 Tapethok–Helok
(Taplejung)
Threatened (IUCN–V)
2.
Apiaceae
Heracleum lallii C. Norman
3,640 Gairi–sukhkhadhap
Failaincha (Panchthar)
Rare and Endemic
3.
Apocynaceae
(Asclepiadaceae)
Ceropegia hookerii C.B. Clarke
ex Hook.f.
2,480 Maklabu (Panchthar)
Threatened (CITES–II)
4.
Berberidaceae
Sinopodophyllum hexandrum
(Royle) T.S. Ying
3,220 Mabu, Bikhe Bhanjyang,
(Ilam)
Threatened (IUCN–V)
5.
Boraginaceae
Maharanga emodi (Wall.)
A.DC.
2,800–3,400 Prangbung, Ghamaile,
(Panchthar); Thakma
Khola, Deurali-Hellok
(Taplejung)
6.
Caprifoliaceae
(Valerianaceae)
Nardostachys grandiflora
Pennell
3,200–4,300 Paharemeghu, Falaincha-9 Threatened (IUCN–V,
(Panchthar); Olangchung, CITES–II)
Topke Gola–Chhyongo
(Taplejung)
7.
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex
Griseb.
1,800–3,820 Falaincha, Betini,
(Panchthar); Mamankhe
(Taplejung)
Threatened (IUCN–CT,
CITES–II)
8.
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea prazeri Prain &
Burkill
1,570 Falaincha, Betini,
(Panchthar)
Threatened (IUCN–CT,
CITES–II)
9.
Eriocaulaceae
Eriocaulon exsertum Satake
10.
Eriocaulaceae
Eriocaulon trisectoides Satake
11.
Fagaceae
Lithocarpus fenestratus (Roxb.)
Rehder
3,210 Faleke–Betini, Falaincha
(Panchthar)
Threatened (IUCN–K)
12.
Gentianaceae
Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) Karsten 1,500–3,000 Menjuwa (Panchthar);
Helok, Lelep (Taplejung)
Threatened (IUCN–V)
13.
Juglandaceae
Juglans regia L.
Threatened (Gon–I, III)
14.
Lauraceae
Cinnamom glaucescens (Nees)
Hand.-Mazz.
15.
Magnoliaceae
Magnolia campbelli Hook.f. &
Thoms.
16.
Magnoliaceae
17.
200–300 Ghorwa–Sanischare
(Jhapa)
700–2,400 Chamling gaun,
Chyangthapu (Panchthar);
Taplejung
1,900–2,400 Mai Majhuwa (Ilam);
Mamankhe, Lungthung
(Taplejung)
2,870 Sidin, Jamle (Panchthar)
Threatened (IUCN–K)
Rare and Endemic
Rare and Endemic
Threatened (GoN–II)
2,000–2,800 Faleke–Betini, Falaincha
(Panchthar); Dorangding–
Amje Khola (Taplejung)
Threatened (IUCN–R,
CITES–II)
Magnolia globosa Hook.f. &
Thomson
2,040 Mai Majuwa, Naule Gaun
(Ilam)
Threatened (IUCN–R,
CITES–II)
Magnoliaceae
Michelia champaca (L.) Baill.
ex Pierre
2,040 Mai Majuwa, Naule Gaun
(Ilam)
Threatened (IUCN–E,
CITES–II, GoN–III)
18.
Magnoliaceae
Michelia kisopa Buch.-Ham.
ex DC.
1,500–2,000 Helok–Ila danda,
Mamankhe, Lungthung
(Taplejung)
Endangered
19.
Magnoliaceae
Michelia velutina DC.
1,700–2,650 Newa khola, Mai
Majhuwa (Ilam); Fungling,
Gairibas, Yamphudin
(Taplejung)
Threatened (CITES–II)
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
115
20.
Melanthiaceae
(Trilliaceae)
Paris polyphylla Sm.
21.
Pinaceae
Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Mirbel 2,800–3,800 Mai Majuwa, Dhupi (Ilam); Threatened (IUCN–V,
Simbua Khola, GyaplaGoN–II)
Ghunsa–Olangchung
(Taplejung)
22.
Pinaceae
Larix griffithiana Carriere
2,800–3,900 Gyapla–Kambachen,
Simbua Khola Valley
(Taplejung)
Rare, Threatened (CT)
23.
Pinaceae
Pinus roxburghii Sargent
1,000–2,000 Maimajuwa, Naule Gaun
(Ilam); Sinam, Tellok,
Fundraba (Taplejung)
Threatened (IUCN–V)
24.
Plantaginaceae
Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora
(Scrophulariaceae) (Pennell) D.Y. Hong
3,000–4,330 Timbu Falaincha
(Panchthar); Yamphudin,
Olangchung Gola
(Taplejung)
Threatened (IUCN–V,
CITES–II, GoN–I)
25.
Polygonaceae
Rheum nobile Hook.f. &
Thomson
4,330 Timbu Falaincha
(Panchthar)
Threatened (IUCN–R)
26.
Ranunculaceae
Aconitum spicatum (Bruhl) Stapf
27.
Saxifragaceae
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.
1,600–2,300 Sekathum –Mamankhe
(Taplejung)
Threatened (CT)
28.
Taxaceae
Taxus wallichiana Zucc.
2,600–3,000 Dabale Deurali
(Panchthar); Guranse
danda, Helok, Thakma
Khola (Taplejung)
Threatened (IUCN–V,
CITES–II, GoN–II)
29.
Trochodendraceae Tetracentron sinense Oliv.
(Tetracentraceae)
2,600–3,200 Thakma Khola–Deurali
Bhanjyang, Mewa–Tamur
(Taplejung)
Rare (IUCN), CITES
Appendix III
30.
Ulmaceae
Ulmus wallichiana Planch.
2,680–3,100 Mabu, near Mai Khola,
Chauri Chowk (Ilam),
Talkharka-Prangbung,
(Panchthar)
300–3,850 Dund, Falaincha
(Panchthar); Olangchung
Gola (Taplejung)
1,700 Above Helok (Taplejung)
Source: Shrestha and Ghimire (1996), Shrestha and Joshi (1996), Kunwar et al. (2008)
Threatened (IUCN–V)
Threatened (IUCN–CT)
Rare (IUCN)
116
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
ANNEX IX: LIST OF REGULATIONS RELATED TO THE FORESTRY SECTOR
SN Name of Regulations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Remarks
Sector-specific Regulations
National Parks and Wildlife Conservation
Regulations 1974
Himalayan National Parks Regulations 1980
Framed as provisioned by Section (33) of National Parks and Wildlife
Conservation Act (1973)
Framed as provisioned by Section (33) of National Parks and Wildlife
Conservation Act (1973)
Forest Regulations 1995
Framed as provisioned by Section (72) of Forest Act (1993)
Buffer Zone Management Regulations 1996
Framed as provisioned by Section (33) of National Parks and Wildlife
Conservation Act (1973)
Conservation Area Management Regulations 1997 Framed as provisioned by Section (33) of National Parks and Wildlife
Conservation Act (1973)
Kangchenjunga Conservation Area Management
Framed as provisioned by Section (33) of National Parks and Wildlife
Regulations 2008
Conservation Act (1973)
Other Related Regulations
Land Regulations 1964
Framed as provisioned by Section (61) of Lands Act (1964)
Electricity Regulations 1993
Framed as provisioned by Section (40) of Electricity Act (1992)
Water Resources Regulations 1993
Framed as provisioned by Section (24) of Water Resources Act (1992)
Drinking Water Regulations 1998
Framed as provisioned by Section (24) of Water Resources Act (1992)
Environmental Protection Regulations 1999
Framed as provisioned by Section (24) of Environment Protection Act
(1996)
Local Self-Governance Regulations 2000
Framed as provisioned by Section (265) of LSG Act (1999)
Land Survey and Measurement Regulations 2002 Framed as provisioned by Section (14) of Land Survey and Measurement
Act (1963)
Irrigation Regulations 2003
Framed as provisioned by Section (24) of Water Resources Act (1992)
Source: Belbase and Thapa (2007)
www.lawcommission.gov.np
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
117
ANNEX X: LIST OF DIRECTIVES/GUIDELINES RELATED TO FORESTRY SECTOR
Directives/Guidelines
Community Forest Directives 1996
Leasehold Forest and Pasture
Development Project Programme
Implementation Guidelines 1998
Buffer Zone Management
Guidelines 1999
Approved/Published by
Department of Forests
Department of Forests
Focus
Setting working procedures of the community forestry process
Processes for the formation of LFUGs and formulation of the
operational plan and its implementation.
Standard Norms for Development
Activities in the Forestry Sector
2000
Collaborative Forest Management
Directive 2003
IEE Directives for Forestry Sector
2003
Guidelines for Review of IEE and
EIA of Forestry Sector 2004
Department of National
Parks and Wildlife
Conservation
Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Setting working procedures for the sustainable utilization
and conservation of the natural resources and community
development in the buffer zone.
Revised norms for implementing the development and
conservation activities.
Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Non Government Service Provider
Guidelines 2004
Forest Sector Foreign Aid Policy
Guidelines 2004
Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Community Forestry Resource
Inventory Guidelines 2005
Biosafety Guidelines 2005
Department of Forests
Establishing collaborative forest, formulation of operational
plan and organizational structure of the collaborative forest.
Guidelines for the preparation of terms of reference and initial
environmental examination for forestry sector projects
Guidelines to assist in the review process of IEE, EIA and
associated documents of forestry projects or others projects
likely to affect forest and biodiversity environments in order to
provide information for decision-making process
Involvement of NGOs in provision of services in forestry sector
development and sustainable forest management
Sector- wide approach in foreign sector development, donor
coordination, sustainable forest development and poverty
reduction
Setting different procedures and processes to carry out resource
inventory for forest products in community forests
Establishment of procedures in the protection of natural
environment, human health, and biodiversity from the adverse
impact of the use of modern biotechnology, and regulate transboundary movement of genetically modified organisms
Establishment of operational procedures for allocation/
utilization of National Forests to national development priority
programmes with prior approval of GoN
Operational Directives for
Allocation/Utilization of National
Forest for Non Forestry Purposes
2006
District Forest Products Supply
Committee Directives 2006
Operational Directives of
Fund Mobilisation for Timber/
Firewood Collection and Depot
Management 2006
Forest Products Auctioning and
Selling Operational Directives
2007
Forest Products Collection and
Distribution Directives 2007
Resin Collection Operational
Directives 2007
Operational Guidelines for
Community Forestry Development
Programme 2008
Operational Directives for Physical
Infrastructure Development and
Implementation in the Protected
Areas 2008
Wildlife Damage Relief Directives
2009
Operational Directives for
Rastrapati Churia Conservation
Program 2011
District Forest Sector Coordination
Committee Establishment and
Implementation Directives 2011
Department of Plant
Resources
Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Establishment of operational procedures for collection and
sales/distribution of the forest products by the committee
Operational procedures for mobilizing fund for Timber/
Firewood Collection and Depot Management in the Government
Managed Forests of Tarai and Inner Tarai Districts.
Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Establishment of procedures to be followed for auctioning/
selling forest products of the national forests
Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Department of Forests
Establishment of procedures for collection and sales/distribution
of the forest products under government managed forests
Setting different procedures and processes to carry out resin
collection in community and government managed forests.
Processes of the formation of CFUGs, formulation of constitution
and the operational plan and operational procedures
Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Establishment of operational procedures for handing over
protected area and implementation of programmes in the
protected areas with prior approval of GoN
Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Establishment of procedures for compensatory measures in
the wildlife damage relief activities
Guidelines for the protection of Churia forest area, formulation of
operational plans and operational procedures, and coordination
mechanism at central, regional and district levels
Guidelines for procedures and processes for preparation of the
plan, policy recommendation, facilitation for forest products
distribution, monitoring and coordination and fund mobilization
Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Source: DoF (2009), MoFSC (2013), www.mofsc.gov.np; www.dof.gov.np; www.dnpwc.gov.np
118
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
ANNEX XI: MAJOR INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS, TREATIES
AND AGREEMENTS SIGNED BY NEPAL
Name of the Convention
Date signed
Plant Protection Agreement for
the South East Asia and Pacific
Region
12 August
1965
•
Prevent introduction into and spread of destructive plant diseases and pests
•
Regulate trade in plants and plant products
Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora
16 September
1975
•
Protect and regulate the trade of wild fauna and flora and their products
•
Legal protection to all species threatened with extinction with appropriate
measures and trade regulation
Convention for the Protection
of World’s Cultural and Natural
Heritage
20 September
1978
•
Identify, protect, conserve and transmit its cultural and natural heritage for future
generations
•
Take appropriate legal, scientific, technical or financial measure to conserve
cultural and natural heritage
Convention on Wetlands
of International Importance
especially as Waterfowl Habitat
(known as Ramsar Convention)
17 April 1988
•
Conserve, manage and wise use of migratory waterfowl and promotion of wetland
conservation.
•
Formulate and implement measures to make wise use of wetlands
Agreement on the Network of
Aquaculture Centres in Asia and
the Pacific
04 January
1990
•
Promote aquaculture development for increasing production, improving rural
income and employment
•
Strengthen institutional capacity
•
Promote the exchange of information
•
Ensure conservation and sustainable use of timber
•
Implement activities for forest management and decisions on timber trade
•
Ensure conservation and sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits of the
biological diversity
•
Prepare and implement national strategies, plans and programme including
NBSAP for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity
•
Conserve both in-situ and ex-situ conditions and promote biotechnology and
genetic research
International Tropical Timber
Agreement
03 July 1990
Convention on Biological
Diversity
21 February
1994
Remarks (Objectives/Obligations)
Global Tiger Forum
1994
•
Promote the rationale of tiger preservation and provide leadership and common
approach throughout the world in order to safeguard the survival of the tiger, its
prey and its habitat in tiger range countries
United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change
31 July 1994
•
Adopt precautionary measures to prevent or minimize the release of green house
gases and mitigate effects of climate change
Vienna Convention for the
Protection of Ozone Layer
04 October
1994
•
Adopt appropriate measures to protect human health and the environment
resulting from change in ozone layer.
•
Adopt measures to reduce ozone depleting substances
United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification
13 January
1997
•
Adopt measures to combat desertification
•
Address physical, biological, and socio-economic aspects of the processes of
desertification and drought
Basel Convention on the Control
of Transboundary Movements
of Hazardous Wastes and their
Disposal
13 January
1997
•
Adopt measures for safe transport, disposal and management of hazardous waste
for environment protection
•
Control illegal traffic in hazardous wastes
The World Trade Organization
23 April 2004
•
Protect intellectual property over plant varieties through development of a patent
regime (TRIPs agreement)
•
Make legal regime compatible with the WTO
Kyoto Protocol to UNFCCC
14 December
2005
•
Regulate the reduction of GHG in Annex I countries with Kyoto mechanism to
support Annex II countries
Source: Bhuju et al. (2007), MoSTE (2008), MoFSC (2014)
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
119
GLOSSARY
Abiotic
Non-living matter
Adaptation
Adjustments in ecological, social or economic systems in response to climatic conditions that may be
used to reduce vulnerability
Agrobiodiveristy
Diversity of crops (varieties and variability among crops)
Alien
Species living outside of its native range
Alpine
Mountainous region above 4000m altitude above sea level (in Nepal Himalaya)
Angiosperms
Flowering plants
Aromatic
Spicy or fragrant organic compound or matter
Assessment
Estimate the size/quantity or quality or the value of a matter/resources
Asset
Useful or valuable thing or person or property, etc that can be set against debt
Awareness
State of being conscious or having knowledge
Biodiversity
The variety and variability of genes, species, and ecosystems in a particular place
Biome
Ecosystem that is characterized by the structure and characteristics of its vegetation, which supports
unique biological communities
Biotic
Biological system, especially including all the species and the occurrence of all ecological processes
Botany (botanical)
Science that deals with study of plants
Census
A count of the number of individuals in a population
Climate
Climate can be viewed as average weather which represents the state of climate system over a given
time period and usually described by the means and variation of variables such as temperature,
precipitation, and wind
Climate change
Any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity
Commodity value
Value assigned to products, such as timber and animals, harvested by peoples
Community
An assemblage of organisms that live in a particular habitat and interact with one another
Connectivity
Generally refers to the effect of terrestrial or wetland ecosystem structure on organisms’ ability to move
and survive within and among patches of resources/ habitats
Conservation
Maintenance of natural resources/biological diversity of a particular place (saving life)
Consultation
Meeting arranged to seek information or advice
Convention
Formal agreement on the matter of common interest by majority consent
Corridor
A dispersal/migration route that permits the direct spread of many or most taxa from one region to
another
Cryosphere
Region of snow and ice
Cultural
Customs, achievements, practices, etc of a particular civilization or group
Deficiency
Lacking particular thing
Deforestation
Conversion of forest to non-forested ecosystem, persisting for a significantly prolonged period
Degradation
Reduction of the natural quality of a matter to lower level
Delineation
Drawing or to sketch out
Demography
The study of the statistics of births, deaths, disease, etc
Diversity
Variety and variability (also see biodiversity)
Ecological
Having relationships between organisms and their environments
Ecoregion
Geographic region based on ecological factors (not political boundaries)
Ecosystem
A group of interacting organisms (community) and the physical environment they inhabit at a given
point in time
Ecosystem goods
Ecosystem goods are the products arising from the ecological functions of healthy ecosystems (eg.
food, medicine etc)
Ecosystem services
Range of benefits provided to people from ecosystems, including flood control, clean water and
reduction of pollution (eg. clean air, fresh water )
120
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Ecotourism
Tourism focussed on viewing spectacular mountain views and landscape, biological communities and
species
Endangered species
Species that is facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild based on several objective criteria (see
threatened species)
Endemic species
A species found only in a defined geographic area
Endemism
Extent of having endemic species
Environment
Surrounding that include soil, water and air
Ethnobotany
The study of the way plants are identified, classified, and used by various ethnic (indigenous) and local
groups
Exotic species
A species living outside its native range
Exploitation
Fundamental human activity to make use of wild plants and animals; including commercial,
subsistence, recreational, non-consumptive, indirect, incidental, etc.
Extinct
A taxon is extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died
Extinction
Disappearance of a species from the earth
Family
A taxonomic category above the level of genus and below the level of order
Fauna
Animal life of a region or period
Feasibility
Possibility or practicability or implacability
Flagship species
Charismatic species that captures the public’s heart and wins support for its conservation; often a
fellow mammal
Flora
Plant life of a region or period
Food security
Having sufficient nutritious food for particular time period
Framework
Essential supporting structure
Gap analysis
A technique for determining the steps to e taken in moving from a current state to a desired future
state
Genetic diversity
Variation in the gene composition of individuals within or among species; the heritable genetic
variation within and among populations
Genus (pl. genera)
Unit of classification that includes one or more species
Geographic
Information System
(GIS)
Computer system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analyzing, and displaying
data related to positions on the earth’s surface
Glacier
Mass of land ice formed by accumulation of snow
Globalization
State of having worldwide network or access
Goal
A desired result that a system invisions, plans and commits to achieve within a finite time by setting
deadlines
Gradient
Gradual change in the value of any parameter
Grassland
Large open area dominantly covered with grasses (see also pastureland)
Gymnosperms
Plants, such as conifers and cycads, whose seeds are bare, the ovules not being enclosed in an ovary
Habitat
The physical and biological environment used by an individual, a population, a species, or perhaps a
group of species
Habitat degradation
The process by which habitat quality of a given species is diminished/degraded
Habitat loss
When habitat quality is so low that the environment is no longer usable by a given species
Habitat corridors
Connections between protected areas/habitats that allow for dispersal/migration
Heritage
Historic buildings, monuments, natural/cultural landscapes, etc especially when regarded as worthy of
preservation
Herpeto
Animals grouped under reptilian and amphibian groups
Hotspots
Areas with high biodiversity, endemism and facing imminent threat of habitat loss
Important Bird Areas
Natural or semi-natural sites exhibiting exceptional bird richness and/or supporting populations of
rare, threatened and/or endemic bird species
Important Plant Areas
Natural or semi-natural sites exhibiting exceptional botanical richness and/or supporting an
outstanding assemblage of rare, threatened and/or endemic plant species and/or vegetation of high
botanic value (eg. medicinal plants)
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
121
Indicator species
Health of these populations is an easy-to-monitor indication of environmental conditions or status of
other species
Indigenous
Native or belonging naturally to a place
Infrastructure
Basic structural foundations of a society or enterprise, e.g. roads, bridges, electricity, etc.
Integrated
Brought or came into equal membership or unity
Intellectual property
rights
Legal rights of ownership granted to the inventors who create products through their intellectual
contribution
In situ conservation
Preservation of natural communities and populations of species in wild
Interim Plan
A provisional or temporary plan for an intervening time
Invasive species
Introduced species that increases in abundance at the expense of native species
Inventory
A count of the number of individuals in a population
Irrigation
Supplying water to land through channels
Landraces
Crop grown locally, often in only one small area of the world by traditional farmers
Land use
Pattern of a land mass being used for various purposes
Landscape
A large-scale mosaic of ecosystems often consisting of a matrix with patches (small ecosystems)
imbedded within it
Literacy rate
Rate of peoples of a region being literate
Livelihood
The capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources), and activities required for a
means of living (job, income, production, etc)
Management
Administration for sustainability
MAPs (Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants)
Plants having medicinal values and possessing fragrant compounds
Marginalized
Made or treated as unimportant or insignificant
Mitigation
Entails all human interventions that reduce the sources of enhancing the sinks of greenhouse gases
Monitoring
Observation of species, ecosystems and communities over time
Mosaic
Diversified pattern or thing
Non-governmental
organizations (NGOs)
A term covering a broad spectrum of private, not-for-profit groups
Non Timber Forest
Products (NTFPs)
All the plant products derived from forest other than timber and fuel-wood
(Non Wood Forest Products)
Objective
Something sought or aimed
Outcome
The end result or final product produced as a result of plan and process
Output
The action in which quantity of goods or services is delivered in a given time period
Overexploitation
Harvesting a resource or species at a high level, resulting in a decline or loss in that resource or
species
Pasturelands
Open areas predominantly covered with grasses and other herbs which are used for grazing of cattle
(see also grassland)
PES (Payment for
Ecosystem Services)
Multiple benefits that people receive from nature, such as water purification, flood control by
wetlands, etc. (also known as payment/benefits for environmental services)
PES scheme
Reward those whose lands provide these services, with subsidies or market payments from those who
benefit
Pollution
Addition of any external matter in- or degradation of quality or quantity of- any component of
environment to deplete its natural quality
Protected Area
Areas created for the preservation of historic, scenic, cultural and wildlife values of the territory
Ramsar Site
Wetland sites designated as having exceptionally rich biodiversity of international importance
Rangelands
High altitude areas dominantly covered with grasses and herbs (see also pastureland)
Rare species
Species that are geographically specific or habitat specific, or have naturally small populations
Red Data Book
List of endangered species prepared by the IUCN and other conservation organizations
Remote
Far away or far apart
Resilience
Ability of an ecosystem/communities to remain in the same state even with ongoing disturbances
Resource
Stock or supply that can be drawn on
122
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
Restricted range
Organism having a narrow range of distribution beyond which the organism can not migrate
Ritual
Prescribed order of a ceremony, etc.
Rural
Areas that are not urbanized, have a low population density and typically much of the land area is
devoted to agriculture and animal husbandry
Sacred
Dedicated to a god, connected with religion, safeguarded or required by tradition
Sanitation
Make sanitary or disinfection, disposal of sewage, refuse, etc.
Species
Groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated
from other such groups
Species richness
Number of different species in an ecosystem or a geographical area
Stakeholder
Refers to a person, group, organization, or system who affects or can be affected by an organizations’
actions
Strategy
Long-term plan or policy
Survey
Repeatable sampling method to estimate population size or density, or some other aspects of
biodiversity
Sustainable
Something maintained over period of time without being diminished
Sustainable
development
Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the capacity of future
generations to meet their own needs
Threatened species
Category of jeopardy one step below ‘endangered’ (see endangered species)
Traditional
Custom, opinion or belief handed down to posterity
Traditional knowledge
Knowledge or practices that has remained in societies through generations, and is being transferred
orally from generation to generation
Transboundary
Across the politically defined boundaries
Trans-Himalaya
Across the Himalayan range (e.g., upper part of Darchula, Humla , Manang and Mustang districts)
Transhumance
Seasonal and migratory grazing practice followed by peoples of rural areas
Urbanization
Make urban or modern town/city especially by destroying rural quality of a region
Vision
Overall picture or sight about a thing or a program/project
Vulnerability
The degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, the adverse effects and
extremes
Vulnerable
A taxon is vulnerable if it faces a high risk of extinction in the wild based on several objective criteria
Watershed
Source region from where water is flowing to different rivers, basins, etc.
Wetland
Areas of peat, marsh, swamp and other damp areas
Wildlife
Wild animals
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
123
INDEX
A
Abiotic, 5, 6
Adaptation, 54, 67,68, 72
Access and benefit sharing (ABS),
64, 72
Agroforestry, 46, 48, 55, 56
Agrobiodiversity, 6, 36,
52,61,66,72
Alien, 36, 68
Alpine meadows, 48,49
Angiosperms, 35, 36
Animal husbandry, 18, 20, 22,
38, 39,45,47,57,122
Area, 6,10,19,31
Aromatic, 38, 82
Arthropoda, 34
Assessment, 2, 13,
30,32,38,47,62,66,64,
Awareness, 47, 51, 53-56, 60,
63,64
B
Bhabar region, 9
Bioclimatic zone, 30
Birds, 31, 32, 34, 43,44, 57
Biodiversity,
29,36,46,50,54,56,60,61,66,68
Biodiversity hotspot, 1,5, 6,29,30
Biogas, 25-27
Biomass, 26, 38
Biotic, 5, 6, 119
Biome species, 31, 32
Boundary, 2,5,6,31, 42,43,49
Bryophytes, 35, 36
C
Cash crop, 18-20, 22,
23,37,41,48,57,66,67
Large cardamom, 18,
19,22,37,38,47,57,68
Tea, 4, 18, 19,22,47,52
Chiraito, 18,19,39,55,68
Round chilli, 19
Census, 17,18, 20,27
Cereals, 20, 37
Churia, 9, 53, 60,64,66,67
Climate,2,10,11,15,34,35,38,
61, 64
Climate change,2,34,35,56, 57,
61,64, 67,68,
Community resilience, 56
Connectivity, 5, 6, 32. 48, 66
Conflict, 34, 51,52,55,62,63,65,
68,72
Conservation, 42-44, 48,54,
61-64,67,68,71
Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD), 33
Corridor, 6, 32,38,40,48,64,
66,72
Criteria, 5, 6,31,41,61
Cropping pattern, 18, 56
Cultivation, 9, 18,19,41,47,55,
56,62
D
Deforestation, 35, 36
Degradation, 35, 48,
50,51,66,68
Decline, 18, 21,35-37,49,52,56
Delineation, 2,5,6
Demography,3,18
Development, 1,2,5,6
District, 31,34-41,44-57,68
Diversity,18,29,31,34-36,43
E
ECDF (Environmental
Conservation and Development
Forum), 56, 57
Ecosystem, 1, 5, 6, 29-31, 39.
42-44, 47, 56, 60, 61, 65-68
Ecosystem services,
1,6,30,38,39,61,65,66,68
Ecoregion, 1,6,30,38
Ecotourism, 6,53,75
Enabling environment,
59,60,65,67
Energy sources, 25
Energy generation, 26
Endangered species, 30,33,66
Endemic species, 34,36,96
Environment, 2,
15,26,33,51,56,60-62,63-69
Ethnic diversity, 18, 36
Export, 19,23,24
Exotic species, 53
F
Faunal diversity, 31,32,34
Feature,7,10,18,29,43,44
Fertilizer,15,22,23,27,53,
Fish, 32,34,53,54
Flagship species, 48,66
Flora, 21, 30, 35, 36, 39, 44, 56,
61, 66, 67
Food security, 20,21,55,61
Forest coverage, 31,45,46
Forest category,30,45,46
Community, 2,26,45,46
Government managed, 46,48
Leasehold,45,46,47
National, 44,117
Private, 26, 38,46,47,48,61
Protected,61
Religious, 44-47,61
Forest management, 45,
46,54,63,64
Forest policy, 40,60,64
Foreign employment,
17,20,41,55
Framework, 47,61-64
Fuel, 72
Cow dung, 25,26
Firewood,
19,25,26,27,38,47,48
Biogas, 25,26,27
LP gas, 25
Kerosene,23,25,26
G
Gender, 27,28,54,60,63,66
Genetic diversity, 6,29,43
GESI (Gender Equity and social
Inclusion),72
Glaciers,13,14,27,30,42
Globally threatened species,
31,33,51
Globalization, 6,120
Gradient, 10,11,32,34,37
Grasslands, 30,34,35,41,43,51
Gymnosperms, 35,36
H
Habitat, 51, 53,56,66,68
Herbivore,33,39
Heritage tourism, 21
Herpetofauna, 32,34,83
High mountain,
9,12,15,20,30,41
HDI (Human Development Index),
21
HPI (Human Poverty Index), 21
Historical place, 22
Household, 17,25-28
Human wildlife conflict, 33,66,68
Hunting, 48, 74, 75
Hydro-meteorology, 10
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
124
I
Ice, 7,13,18
Illegal transborder trade, 48
Import, 23
Important Bird Areas (IBA), 22,32
Important Plant Areas (IPA),
22,32,33
Improved Cooking Stove (ICS), 26
Indigenous, 20, 44, 52,53,56,57
Insects, 32,34
Invasive alien species, 36,67
Invertebrate, 34
J
Jalthal, 30,33
K
Kharka, 40, 41,49,50
Lekali,49,50
Himali, 49,50
Kipat system, 49,55
a de facto, 49
KL (Kanchenjunga Landscape),
50,51,55,56,57.60
KL Nepal, 60,66,68,71,73
KL Nepal districts,
6,10,13,14,15,21,25
KLCDI (Kanchenjunga Landscape
Conservation and Development
Initiative), 5, 63
Kanchenjunga Conservation Area
(KCA), 63
Knowledge, 65,67,68,69
L
LAPA (Local Adaptation Plan of
Action), 56,67
Landscape, 1-3, 5, 6,17,18
Land use and land cover,
14,15,67,68
Latitude,10,41
Longitude, 10, 41
Lichens, 24,35,36
Lithocarpus forest, 34
Livelihood, 18,43,47,55,56
Livestock, 20,37,39,41,51
M
Mai Valley forest,7 ,31,32
Mammals, 32-34
Management, 45-53, 55, 56,
63-69
MAPs (Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants), 47,67,68,121
MEA (Multilateral Environment
Agreement),38
Migration, 20, 35, 41,66,67,64
Minerals, 14,15
Mini/Micro-hydro power, 26
Mitigation, 52, 56,72
Municipality, 18
N
NCDC (Namsaling Community
Development Centre), 5,
22,24,26,38,39
Non Governmental Organization
(NGO), 42,47,51
NTFP (Non Timber Forest
Products), 54,60,68
Resilience, 56,67,121
Research, 52,68, 75
Resource governance,
55,65,66,68
River systems, 7,12,27
S
Sacred forests, 42,44,68
Sacred groves, 44,80
Sacred place, 22
Sanitation, 25,54
Shifting cultivation, 52,55,56
SHS (Solar Home System), 26,27
Snow, 30, 33,35,42,51
Socio-economic, 54,56,65,68
Social inclusion, 2,27,54,61
Solar energy, 26,27
Species richness, 34,47
Sustainable, 2,61
O
Olangchung Gola, 2, 5,
11,18,20-23,33
P
Participatory, 5, 61,72
Pastureland, 40,49,50,61,121
PBR (Plant Diversity Register), 66
Poaching, 34,35,48,53,44,66
Policy, 58,69
Pollution, 27,53,68
Air, 27
Water,27
Solid-wastes, 27
Chemical, 27
Population, 3,6,7,17,18,20
Poverty, 21,45,60,61,71,72
Precipitation, 11,12,119
Production, 21,45,60,61,71,72
Protected area, 41,42,43,50,51
Protected Area System,34,72
Protected species, 33,36
Pteridophytes, 35,36
T
Tarai, 9,11,15
Technology, 26,47,56,60
Transmission, 14,35
Threats, 6,34,35,36,53,68
Threatened species, 6,30,31,3436,51
Trade, 62,66-68
Traditional Stove, 26
Traditional, 60,68
Transboundary, 50,52,59,60,63,
66,67
U
Upstream downstream linkage,
5,75
Urbanization, 6
V
Vascular plants, 35
Vulnerable, 2,30,35,57
Vulnerability, 67, 68,119
Vegetation, 6,19,30,32,34
Q
Quarantine, 62
R
Rangeland ,
30,38,39,40,49,50,51,60,64,66
Ramsar site, 6,35,44,46,51
Rare and endangered species, 30
Regional cooperation, 67, 69
Remittance, 20, 21
W
Watershed, 13,31,54,61
Wetland, 30, 42,52,53,60
Wildlife conservation, 44
Wildlife species, 31,33,35,57
Wildlife corridor, 32
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
125
ABOUT AUTHORS
Ram P. Chaudhary, PhD, Professor of Botany in Tribhuvan
University (TU), Nepal, is the Executive Director of RECAST, TU. He
has served as a member of the National Planning Commission,
GoN, and Board Member of ICIMOD. Prof. Chaudhary has
an experience of teaching and research for over 37 years,
received several awards, conducted biodiversity conservation
and development related research projects, supervised PhD and
Masters theses, published books and articles in reviewed journals
in the areas of systematics, conservation biology, traditional
knowledge, climate change and livelihoods, and established
academic collaboration of TU with other universities. He has
an extensive field experience in several parts in the Himalayas.
Yadav Uprety, PhD, got his Master degrees in Botany (ecology
specialization) and Human Ecology from TU, Nepal and Vrije
Universiteit Brussel, Belgium, respectively. He received his PhD in
Environmental Science from the University of Quebec, Canada, in
2013. He works at the interface of social and natural sciences. His
research focuses on traditional ecological knowledge, restoration
ecology, ecosystem services, human-environment interactions,
biodiversity use and conservation, plant ecology, etc. He has
published several peer-reviewed journal articles on different fields
encapsulating geographical regions from Nepal and Canada.
Currently, Dr. Uprety is coordinating landscape programmes
in RECAST.
Surya P. Joshi has more than 30 years of working experiences at
Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MoFSC), GoN, in various
capacities in the field of community-based forest management, forest
policy and landscape management. He began his professional
career after graduating from Indian Forest College, Dehra Dun
(India) in 1976. Later, he received a Masters degree in Forest
Resources Management from the University of Philippines (Los
Banos) in 1985. Mr. Joshi also completed advanced international
courses in forestry planning, management and policy analysis.
Working as the Joint Secretary and Chief of Foreign Aid Coordination
Division, he has successfully contributed in formulation, coordination
and convergence of foreign aid programmes.
Krishna K. Shrestha, PhD, a Professor at the Central Department
of Botany, TU, Nepal, has been teaching plant systematics,
biodiversity and ethnobotany for the last 35 years. He obtained
his PhD degree in plant systematics from the Komarov Botanical
Institute, St. Petersburg (Russia) in 1993, and was deputed as the
Postdoc Darwin Fellow at the Natural History Museum, London,
during 1997-1999. He is the founder President of Ethnobotanical
Society of Nepal (ESON) since 1997, and General Secretary
of Nepal Botanical Society since 2005. He has published five
books, 42 research articles in international journals, 30 research
articles and over 30 popular articles in national journals. Prof.
Shrestha also serves as the editorial board member of Flora of
Nepal (10 volume).
Khadga B. Basnet, PhD, with 34 years of teaching and research
experience, is currently a Professor at the Central Department
of Zoology, TU. He has MSc in Zoology and PhD in Ecology and
Environment. With research interests in biodiversity conservation,
ecosystem services, EIA and climate change, he has led numerous
research and conservation projects and supervised many
graduate students. He was instrumental in conceptualizing
and developing Banke National Park (1997-1998), ChitwanAnnapurna Landscape (1999-2000), Tarai Arc Landscape (2000-
2001) and community-conserved conservation areas (20092012). He is associated with several professional societies and
organizations, including IUCN/WCPA Commission Member.
Govinda Basnet got his PhD in Environmental Anthropology
from the University of Georgia, Athens, USA, in 2007. Currently,
he is working as a Freelance Consultant. He has worked for
over 15 years in the fields of environmental conservation,
climate change, water resources management and community
development in policy analysis, programme development,
implementation and evaluation. Coming from Solukhumbu
district, he has worked extensively in remote areas of Nepal.
His research focuses on interfaces of water resource management
and environmental conservation and won prestigious research
grants from institutions like National Science Foundation and
Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research (USA)
among others.
Krishna R. Shrestha is a Professor at RECAST, Tribhuvan
University, and has more than 35 years of professional experience
in the field of renewable energy and holds a PhD degree in
Chemical Engineering from IIT-Delhi. He has in-depth knowledge
on research and development of technologies related to biomass
energy systems, biomass densification, laboratory research
and field-testing on biomass gasification, briquetting, biomass
production from different agro-processing units, etc. His expertise
lies in the application of appropriate technologies for enhancing
the livelihood of rural communities. In the present study, he looks
after the livelihood component of the project.
Kuber P. Bhatta did his Masters degrees in Botany (2004) and
in Biodiversity and Environmental Management (2010) from TU,
Nepal, and University of Bergen, Norway. He has been working
as a Lecturer of Botany in TU since 2011. Currently, he is a PhD
fellow in the University of Bergen, Norway. He also served as a
core team member for the preparatory phase of Kailash Sacred
Landscape Conservation and Development Initiative.
Krishna P. Acharya is the Joint Secretary and Chief of Planning
and Human Resource Development Division of MoFSC, GoN. He
is responsible for planning and budgeting of the programmes of
MoFSC and its Departments, and coordinating and facilitating
policy and strategy formulation. He is also the focal point for
the United Nations Forum on Forests, Chairperson of Timber
Corporation of Nepal, Member of REDD Working Group, faculty
board member of the Institute of Forestry, TU, coordinator of
KLCDI and TAL Strategy formulation team. He has served MoFSC
in various capacities. He received Master degree in Forest Science
from the University of Edinburgh, UK, in 1997. Since then, he has
published about 50 papers and co-edited three books.
Nakul Chettri, PhD, a senior Biodiversity Specialist in ICIMOD,
joined ICIMOD in 2002 as the Project Coordinator for
Transboundary Biodiversity Conservation and Management,
promoted to Action Area Team Leader for Biodiversity
Conservation and Management (2006), has been promoting
regional cooperation in conservation through participatory
conservation planning, policy analysis and the development of
a new policy framework in the Hindu Kush Himalayas. Dr. Chettri
has an MSc (1995) and a PhD in Zoology (2000) from North
Bengal University, India, and is leading a team of multidisciplinary
professionals in Kangchenjunga and Kailash Sacred Landscapes.
126
KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL
from conservation and development perspectives
ABOUT PUBLISHERS
Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Government of Nepal
The Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MoFSC) is the apex institution of the Government of Nepal mandated
to the sustainable management of forests and watershed, protected area management, biodiversity conservation,
employment generation through forest-based enterprises and poverty alleviation through people’s inclusive
participation. It facilitates in integrating conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of its components
with a focus on the need to the conservation of biological resources, its sustainable use, and fair and equitable
sharing of its benefits arising out of the use of natural resources. The MoFSC is the national focal point for
implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). It is the nodal agency with an overall responsibility
of formulating and implementing policies and programmes related to the conservation and sustainable use of
biological diversity in the country, keeping records of relevant activities and communicating with the CBD Secretariat
and other conventions related to biodiversity. The MoFSC undertakes monitoring and evaluation through five
regional forest directorates, and implements its plans and programmes through the following five departments,
namely, the Department of Forests, (DoF), Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC),
Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management (DSCWM), Department of Plant Resources (DPR)
and the Department of Forest Research and Survey (DFRS).
Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University
Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST) was established on September 8, 1977, as a premier
Research and Development (R&D) institution within the organizational framework of Tribhuvan University (TU).
RECAST functioned as a secretariat to the National Council for Science and Technology, Government of Nepal till
1999. It is designated as a national focal point of Asia-Pacific Centre for Transfer of Technology (APCTT) of the
UNESCAP. The goal of RECAST is to contribute to rapid and sustainable development of the country through enhanced
R&D with the optimum utilization of natural resources, improvement and dissemination of socio-economically
relevant and environmentally sustainable technologies to the communities and the institutions concerned. The
objectives of RECAST are to: undertake research for the identification, development, conservation, utilization
and dissemination of indigenous technology; search and identify exogenous technologies appropriate to Nepal
and explore their prospects for technology transfer and adaptation; and conduct research in basic and applied
sciences. RECAST has been conducting research in the areas of (i) renewable energy, (ii) natural products utilization,
(iii) biotechnology, (ii) low cost building materials, (iv) small scale food processing; (v) appropriate technology,
(vi) ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation, and (vii) life Science. Currently, RECAST is a collaborating
institution for Kailash Sacred and Kangchenjunga Landscape Conservation and Development Initiatives.
ICIMOD
The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, ICIMOD, is a regional knowledge development and
learning centre serving the eight regional member countries of the Hindu Kush Himalayas–Afghanistan, Bangladesh,
Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal and Pakistan–and based in Kathmandu, Nepal. Globalization and climate
change have an increasing influence on the stability of fragile mountain ecosystems and the livelihoods of mountain
people. ICIMOD aims to assist mountain people to understand these changes, adapt to them, and make the
most of new opportunities, while addressing upstream-downstream issues. We support regional transboundary
programmes through partnership with regional partner institutions, facilitate the exchange of experience and
serve as a regional knowledge hub. We strengthen networking among regional and global centres of excellence.
Overall, we are working to develop an economically and environmentally sound mountain ecosystem to improve
the living standards of mountain populations and to sustain vital ecosystem services for the billions of people living
downstream–now, and for the future.
RESEARCH CENTRE FOR APPLIED
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (RECAST)
TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY
P.O. Box 1030, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal
Tel: +977-1-4330348 | Fax: +977-1-4331303
Web: www.recast.edu.np
Kuber P Bhatta