Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
Review
Plectranthus: A review of ethnobotanical uses
Catherine W. Lukhoba a , Monique S.J. Simmonds b,∗ , Alan J. Paton b
a
University of Nairobi, Department of Botany, P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya
b Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3AB, UK
Received 23 May 2005; received in revised form 7 September 2005; accepted 8 September 2005
Abstract
Plectranthus is a large and widespread genus with a diversity of ethnobotanical uses. The genus is plagued with numerous nomenclatural
disharmonies that make it difficult to collate accurate data on the uses. The aim of this review is to gather together all ethnobotanical information
on Plectranthus and to map the data onto the most up-to-date phylogenetic classification in order to see if there are similar uses among related
species and hence provide a framework for the prediction and exploration of new uses of species.
The uses of 62 species of Plectranthus were mapped onto a current phylogeny based on DNA sequence data. The phylogeny reveals two major
Clades, 1 and 2. The members of Clade 1 (corresponding to the formally recognized genus Coleus) were richer in number and diversity of uses
than members of Clade 2 (comprising the remaining species of Plectranthus). The high incidence of synonymy can lead to problems in uncovering
a species’ ethnobotanical profile. About 30% of all citations of Plectranthus use a synonym and most of the synonyms are attributed to 10 of the
most used species, 9 of which are in Clade 1.
Members of the ‘Coleus’ Clade are the most studied group both taxonomically and economically. The higher incidence of study may be as a
result of the higher diversity of uses and the fact that species in Clade 1, such as Plectranthus barbatus, Plectranthus amboinicus and Plectranthus
mollis, are geographically more widespread than those in Clade 2.
Plectranthus species in Clade 1 are frequently used as medicines and are used to treat a range of ailments, particularly digestive, skin, infective
and respiratory problems. Plectranthus used as foods, flavours, fodder and materials are also mostly found in Clade 1.
Monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids and phenolics have been reported in species of Plectranthus. The abietane diterpenoids are the
most diverse of the diterpenoids isolated from species of Plectranthus. The labdane diterpenoid, forskolin, occurs in Plectranthus barbatus and
could explain some of the traditional uses of this species. This review highlights the fact that not enough is known about the chemistry of other
species of Plectranthus to explain their traditional uses.
© 2005 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Plectranthus; Ethnobotanical uses; Coleus
Contents
1.
2.
3.
∗
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Synonymy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Ethnobotanical uses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1. Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1.1. Digestive conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1.2. Skin conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1.3. Respiratory conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1.4. Infections and fever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1.5. Genito-urinary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.6. Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 208332 5328; fax: +44 208332 5340.
E-mail address: m.simmonds@kew.org (M.S.J. Simmonds).
0378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2005 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.09.011
2
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
4.
5.
6.
7.
3.1.7. Muscular–skeletal conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.8. Other medical conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2. Horticultural uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3. Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4. Food additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5. Fodder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6. Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geographical distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chemistry of Plectranthus species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ethnobotanical uses and phylogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
The family Lamiaceae contains several genera, such as
sage (Salvia), basil (Ocimum) and mint (Mentha), with a rich
diversity of ethnobotanical uses. Another important genus
is Plectranthus, a large genus containing about 300 species
found in Tropical Africa, Asia and Australia. Some species
of Plectranthus are difficult to identify because of a lack of
clear-cut morphological criteria to discriminate not only among
species within the genus but also among the closely related
genera. This has resulted in numerous taxonomic problems in
the naming of species with the result that species have often
been placed in several closely related genera like Coleus,
Solenostemon and Englerastrum. In addition, some species
formally placed in Plectranthus, are now recognized as the
more distantly related Isodon (Paton et al., 2004).
Because of these taxonomic issues, different names have
been used for the same species of Plectranthus and thus it
has been difficult to collate information about the ethnobotanical uses of this genus. Furthermore, the most commonly
used medicinal species of Plectranthus have a high degree
of synonymy. This review aims to collate data about the
different uses of species of Plectranthus, held in disparate
sources and frequently under several synonymous Latin
names. Information about the uses of the different species
was gathered from searching the published literature using
the databases NAPRALERT (Pharmacological Sciences
(PCRPS), College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois), Web of
Science (http://isiknowledge.com), CAB-direct (http://www.
cabdirect.org), SEPASAL (http://www.kew.org/ceb/sepasal),
Ingenta connect (http://www.ingentaconnect.com/;jsessionid=
fq5k5kae0rgi9.victoria), Medline (http://medline.cos.com),
Kew Library Catalogue, Elsevier ScienceDirect (www.
sciencedirect.com), Dr. Duke’s database (http://www.arsgrin.gov/duke/ethnobot.html) as well as looking through
the Floras of countries in Africa, South America, Asia and
Australia. Terms used in the searches included ‘ethnobotany,
traditional uses, chemicals, phytochemistry, of Plectranthus,
Coleus, Solenostemon, Anisochilus and Tetradenia’. All
voucher specimens of Plectranthus and Coleus as well as
relevant ones of in Solenostemon in herbaria at Kew (K), British
Museum (BR), East Africa (EA) and Nairobi (NAI) were also
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examined to verify the different synonyms used to describe
the species and to examine them for notes about their uses.
Collectors often made notes either on their vouchers or in their
field notebooks about the local use made of species they collect.
(Herbarium vouchers cited in the text and/or tables are given
at the end of the reference section.) Finally, the ethnobotanical
data were mapped onto the most recent phylogeny of the genera
(Paton et al., 2004) to see if there is any relationship among
species of Plectranthus with similar ethnobotanical uses.
2. Synonymy
This review covers the ethnobotanical uses of 62 species of
Plectranthus and about 30% of the literature citations covered
by this review use synonyms to describe these species. The
10 species with the most uses also have the greatest number
of synonyms. For example, Plectranthus barbatus Andr. has
commonly been referred to as Plectranthus forskohlii Briq, Plectranthus forskalaei Willd., Plectranthus kilimandschari (Gürke)
H.L. Maass., Plectranthus grandis (Cramer) R.H. Willemse,
Coleus forskohlii Briq., Coleus kilimandschari Gürke ex Engl.,
Coleus coerulescens Gürke and Coleus barbatus (Andr.) Benth.
Plectranthus amboinicus synonyms include Plectranthus aromaticus Roxb., Coleus aromaticus Benth. and Coleus amboinicus Lour. Those of Plectranthus esculentus N.E.Br are Coleus
esculentus (N.E.Br.) G. Tayl., Coleus dazo A. Chev. and Coleus
floribundus N.E.Br. and that of Plectranthus vettiveroides (K.C.
Jacob) H.I. Maass is Coleus vettiveroides K.C. Jacob. Those of
Plectranthus laxiflorus Benth. and Plectranthus mollis (Aiton)
Spreng. are Plectranthus albus Gürke and Plectranthus incanus
Link, respectively. Synonyms of Plectranthus rotundifolius
(Poir.) Spreng. are Coleus rotundifolius (Poir.) A. Chev. & E.
Perrot, Coleus dysentericus Bak., Solenostemon rotundifolius
(Poir.) J.K. Morton and Plectranthus tuberosus Blume. Plectranthus alpinus (Vatke) O. Ryding has been called Coleus assurgens
Bak. and Plectranthus assurgens (Bak.) J.K. Morton. Plectranthus aegyptiacus (Forssk.) C. Chr. is called Plectranthus tenuiflorus (Vatke) Agnew, whereas Plectranthus hadiensis (Forssk.)
Schweinf. ex Spreng. is refered to as Plectranthus zeylanicus
Benth., Plectranthus cyaneus Gürke ex Engler and Plectranthus
zatarhendi (Benth.) E.A. Bruce. The percentage of synonymy
would rise if the species Plectranthus vettiveroides (K.C. Jacob)
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
H.I. Maass, which is thought to be conspecific with Plectranthus
rotundifolius (Poir.) Spreng., is reduced to synonymy under the
latter name, as it is the earliest name.
The lack of an up-to-date, authoritative synonomised checklist is a significant barrier to synthesizing knowledge on plantuse from the diverse and fragmented data sources available. The
need for such checklists has been identified in other disciplines:
for example, in the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation
(UNEP, 2004). The fact that most taxonomic revisions of Plectranthus have tended to be regional rather than global could have
contributed to the confusion that has ensured the use of multiple
taxonomic names to describe the same species. Another issue
is the range of common names that can be used for different
species of Plectranthus, but collating this information is beyond
the remit of this review.
3. Ethnobotanical uses
The ethnobotanical data collated for this review have been
grouped using the categories in Economic Botany Data Collection Standard (Cook, 1995). A summary of the different
ethnobotanical uses of the 62 best documented species of Plectranthus is presented in Tables 1 and 2.
3.1. Medicine
The most frequently cited use of species of Plectranthus is
for their medicinal properties, which accounts for over 85%
of all uses. Plectranthus amboinicus and Plectranthus barbatus are used to treat a wide range of diseases (13 categories)
and accounts for about 68% of all traditional uses of the genus
(Tables 1 and 2). Plectranthus laxiflorus is used in 10 categories, Plectranthus mollis in 8 categories, both Plectranthus
vettiveroides and Plectranthus aegyptiacus in 6, Plectranthus
montanus (syn. Plectranthus cylindraceus) in 5 and both Plectranthus sylvestris and Plectranthus bojeri in 4. The rest of the
species are used in one to three categories (Table 1).
3.1.1. Digestive conditions
Disorders of the digestive system are treated using 21 species
of Plectranthus (Table 1). Species are used to treat stomach pain,
nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, mouth and throat infections and
are used as purgatives, carminatives and as antihelmintics. Plectranthus barbatus, Plectranthus amboinicus, Plectranthus laxiflorus, Plectranthus esculentus and Plectranthus vettiveroides
are the most frequently used species and Plectranthus barbatus
and Plectranthus amboinicus are used to treat a wide variety
of digestive problems. For instance, Plectranthus barbatus
is used for the treatment of stomachache and as a purgative
(Rounce, 1933; Jarrett, 1950; Johns et al., 1990; Kokwaro,
1993; Simon and Mollel, 1999), for nausea (Hamill et al., 2003)
and for gastritis and intestinal spasms in Brazil (Camara et
al., 2003). Plectranthus amboinicus is popular in the treatment
of dyspepsia, indigestion, diarrhoea and as a carminative in
India and Africa (Morton, 1992; Gurib-Fakim et al., 1996;
Jain and Lata, 1996; Ong and Nordiana, 1999). Plectranthus
caninus, Plectranthus laxiflorus and Plectranthus barbatus
are used in the treatment of teeth and gum disorders (Hulme,
3
1954; Kokwaro, 1993; Meyerhoff, 1978b). Plectranthus
laxiflorus is also used as a purgative (Kokwaro, 1993), while
Plectranthus defoliatus is used to treat diarrhoea (Schlage et
al., 2000). Plectranthus vettiveroides is used in India to treat
stomachaches, dyspepsia, nausea and vomiting (Dash and
Kashyap, 1987; Yoganarasimhan, 2000). Plectranthus esculentus and the leaves of Plectranthus aegyptiacus are also used
to treat stomachache (Morris, 1996; Parkia and Cooke, 2003).
In Eastern and Southern Africa, both Plectranthus elegans and
Plectranthus esculentus are reported to be used as anthelmintics
(Kokwaro, 1993; Burkill, 1995; Allemann et al., 2004).
3.1.2. Skin conditions
A total of 20 species are recorded as being used for skin
conditions (Table 1). Plectranthus barbatus and Plectranthus
amboinicus are the most frequently cited species for the
treatment of burns, wounds, sores, insect bites and allergies.
In Kenya and the Democratic Republic of Congo, Plectranthus
barbatus is used in the treatment of wounds and ringworms
(Githinji and Kokwaro, 1993; Chifundera, 2001), to reduce
swelling on bruises (Gentry, 1970) and for bathing babies
suffering from measles (Kokwaro, 1993). This species has
anti-ageing effects in combination with tocotrienol (Adachi et
al., 1996). The whole plant contains a forskolin-like compound
that is used in hair dyeing (Sugiyama et al., 1988). In addition,
Plectranthus barbatus contains an essential oil that exhibits
anti-allergic activities through passive cutaneous anaphylaxis
inhibition (Gupta et al., 1993a). Plectranthus amboinicus is
used in Brazil for the treatment of skin ulcerations caused by
Leishmania braziliensis (França et al., 1996). It is also used to
treat burns and as a poultice for centipedes and scorpion bites in
Malay (Morton, 1992). In India, the juice of the leaves is used
to treat skin allergies (Harsha et al., 2003). Other species used
to treat skin allergies include Plectranthus amboinicus (Harsha
et al., 2003) and Plectranthus asirensis which is used in Saudi
Arabia for diaper rash and itching, as well as an antiseptic
dressing (Abulfatih, 1987a,b). The leaves of Plectranthus congestus are used in Papua New Guinea as an antiseptic dressing
for wounds (Holdsworth, 1977; Woodley, 1991) and in the
treatment of scabies (Holdsworth and Rali, 1989). Plectranthus
madagascariensis is also used in the treatment of scabies and
small wounds (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Roberts,
1990; Rabe and van Staden, 1998; Neuwinger, 2000), the finely
ground leaves of Plectranthus bojeri are applied as dressing on
wounds and abscesses (Neuwinger, 2000), Plectranthus laxiflorus is rubbed onto the skin to treat leprosy (Chifundera, 2001),
Plectranthus vettiveroides is a hair tonic (Yoganarasimhan,
2000) and Plectranthus fruticosus was used in traditional
Romanian medicine for its healing properties, especially for
treating burns (Pages et al., 1991). Plectranthus ecklonii is used
in Zimbabwe to treat skin infections (Nyanyiwa and Gundidza,
1999) while in Rwanda, the essential oil of Plectranthus
sylvestris is used to treat skin diseases (Chalchat et al., 1996).
3.1.3. Respiratory conditions
A total of 15 species are recorded for the treatment of
respiratory conditions. Plectranthus barbatus is the most fre-
4
Table 1
Medicinal uses of species of Plectranthus categories are defined in Cook (1995)
Species
Geographical distribution
Plectranthus aegypticus
(Forssk.) C. Chr.
Plectranthus tenuiflorus
(Vatke) Agnew
Arabia, East and Northeast
Tropical Africa
Plectranthus alpinus
(Vatke) O. Ryding
Plectranthus ambiguus
(Bolus) Codd
Plectranthus assurgens
(Baker) J.K. Morton
East and Central Africa
Plectranthus
amboinicus (Lour.)
Spreng.
Coleus amboinicus Lour.,
Coleus aromaticus Benth.,
Plectranthus aromaticus
Roxb.
Plectranthus asirensis
J.R.I. Wood
Plectranthus barbatus
Andr.
Plectranthus beddomei
Raiz.
Plectranthus bojeri
(Benth.) Hedge
Plectranthus caninus
Roth
Medicinal categories
Digestive
Skin
Parkia and Cooke
(2003)
Meyerhoff (1978c),
Bos et al. (1983), de
Padua (1988), Morton
(1992), Gurib-Fakim
et al. (1996), Jain and
Lata (1996), Rabe and
van Staden (1998),
Ong and Nordiana
(1999), Rajendran et
al. (1999),
Yoganarasimhan
(2000), Hadi and
Bremner (2001)
Arabia
Coleus kilimandschari
Gurke ex Engl., Coleus
barbatus (Andr.) Benth.,
Coleus forskohlii Briq.,
Coleus comosus A. Rich.,
Plectranthus
kilimandschari (Gürke)
H.L. Maas, Plectranthus
forskohlii auct Briq.
North, East, Central Africa,
Asia, South America
de Padua (1988),
Morton (1992), França
et al. (1996),
Neuwinger (2000),
Harsha et al. (2003)
Genito-urinary
Abulfatih (1987b),
Othman and Shoman
(2004)
Parkia and Cooke
(2003)
Pain
Muscular–skeletal
Hedberg et al. (1983),
Neuwinger (2000)
Hulme (1954),
Hutchings et al.
(1996), Rabe and van
Staden (1998),
Neuwinger (2000)
Ayensu (1978), de
Padua (1988), Morton
(1992), Jain and Lata
(1996), Ruiz et al.
(1996), Castillo and
González (1999),
Yoganarasimhan
(2000), Cano and
Volpato (2004)
Morton (1992),
Gurib-Fakim et al.
(1996), Jain and Lata
(1996), Harsha et al.
(2002)
Morton (1992), Jain
and Lata (1996),
Ayensu (1998),
Neuwinger (2000),
Yoganarasimhan
(2000)
Meyerhoff (1978c), de
Padua (1988)
Meyerhoff (1978c)
Williams (1975),
Holdsworth (1977),
Milliken (1977),
Meyerhoff (1978b),
Baerts and Lehmann
(1989), Githinji and
Kokwaro (1993),
Gupta et al. (1993a,b),
Rwangabo (1993),
Rajendran et al.
(1999), Neuwinger
(2000), Matu and van
Staden (2003),
Vigneron et al. (2005)
Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk
(1962), Innamorati
(1973), Boily and van
Puyvelde (1986),
Rwangabo (1993),
Neuwinger (2000),
Chifundera (2001),
Cos et al. (2002)
Neuwinger (2000),
Yoganarasimhan
(2000), Chifundera
(2001)
Baerts and Lehmann
(1989), Githinji and
Mwangangi (1989),
Githinji and Kokwaro
(1993), Kokwaro
(1993), Rwangabo
(1993), Neuwinger
(2000)
Abulfatih (1987a,b)
Bally (1934, 1937),
Jarrett (1950), Hulme
(1954), Meyerhoff
(1978a,b,c), Baerts
and Lehmann (1989),
Johns et al. (1990),
Githinji and Kokwaro
(1993), Gupta et al.
(1993a,b), Kokwaro
(1993), Rwangabo
(1993), Johns et al.
(1995), Rounce
(1933), Rodrı́guez et
al. (1995), Simon and
Mollel (1999),
Neuwinger (2000),
Yoganarasimhan
(2000), Chifundera
(2001), Geissler et al.
(2002), Camara et al.
(2003), Costa and
Nascimento (2003),
Hamill et al. (2003)
Baerts and Lehmann
(1989), Gachathi
(1989), Kokwaro
(1993), Rwangabo
(1993), Neuwinger
(2000), Chifundera
(2001)
India
Rajendran et al. (1999)
Madagascar
Neuwinger (2000)
East Tropical Africa
Infections/fevers
Al-Yahya et al. (1985)
Burkill (1995)
South Africa
North, East, Central Africa,
Asia, South America,
Caribbean, Pacific
Respiratory
Kokwaro (1993),
Neuwinger (2000)
Bouquet (1969), Boily
and van Puyvelde
(1986), Baerts and
Lehmann (1989), van
Puyvelde et al. (1994),
Rajendran et al.
(1999),
Yoganarasimhan
(2000), Chifundera
(2001), Cos et al.
(2002), Benerjee
(2003), Schanberg and
Ikan (2003)
Neuwinger (2000)
Githinji (1990),
Githinji and Kokwaro
(1993)
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
Synomyms encountered
in the study
Plectranthus coeruleus
(Gürke) Agnew
Plectranthus congestus
R.Br.
East Tropical Africa
Australia
Plectranthus variifolius
De Wild
Plectranthus esculentus
N.E.Br.
Coleus dazo A. Chiev.,
Coleus esculentus G.
Tayl., Plectranthus
floribundus N.E.Br.
Plectranthus
hereroensis Engl.
Plectranthus igniarius
(Schweinf.) Agnew
Plectranthus insignis
Hook.f.
Plectranthus
kamerunensis
(Gürke)
Plectranthus lactiflorus
(Vatke) Agnew.
Plectranthus
lanceolatus Bojer ex
Benth.
Plectranthus
lanuginosus (Benth.)
Agnew.
Plectranthus laxiflorus
Benth.
Plectranthus longipes
Baker
Africa-DRC
Neuwinger (2000)
Asia Tropical
Schlage et al. (2000)
South Africa
East Tropical Africa
East and Southern Africa
Southern Africa,
West-Central Africa, Asia
Tropical
Nyanyiwa and
Gundidza (1999)
Githinji and Kokwaro
(1993)
Kokwaro (1993),
Neuwinger (2000)
West-Central
Africa–Cameroon
South Africa
Plectranthus zeylanicus
Benth., Plectranthus
cyaneus Gürke ex Engler,
Plectranthus zatarhendi
(Benth.) E.A. Bruce
Plectranthus myrianthus
Briq.
Northeast and East Tropical
Africa to India
Mehrotra et al. (1989)
Sothern Africa
Batista et al. (1995),
Ferraeira et al. (1997)
Tanner (1959)
Hutchings et al. (1996)
Timberlake (1987)
West-Central
Africa–Cameroon
West and East Tropical
Africa
Cheek et al. (2000)
East Tropical
Africa–Tanzania
Africa–Malgaches
Tanner (1961b)
East Tropical Africa
Kokwaro (1993),
Wirtu et al. (1997),
Neuwinger (2000)
Roberts (1990),
Kokwaro (1993),
Hutchings et al.
(1996), Rabe and van
Staden (1998),
Neuwinger (2000)
Neuwinger (2000)
East Tropical Africa–Kenya
Morris (1996),
Neuwinger (2000)
Ngassoum (2001)
East Tropical Africa
Plectranthus amaniensis
Gürke
Morris (1996)
Bally (1937), Githens
(1949), Neuwinger
(2000)
Pages et al. (1991)
Plectranthus urticoides
Baker
West-Central Africa, East
and Southern Africa
Neuwinger (2000)
Burkill (1995),
Neuwinger (2000)
South Africa
Plectranthus albus Gürke
Woodley (1991)
Holdsworth (1977),
Holdsworth and Rali
(1989), Woodley
(1991)
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
Plectranthus decurrens
(Gürke) J.K. Morton
Plectranthus defoliatus
Hochst. ex Benth.
Plectranthus ecklonii
Benth.
Plectranthus edulis
(Vatke) Agnew
Plectranthus elegans
Britten
Plectranthus fruticosus
L’Her.
Plectranthus
glandulosus Hook.f.
Plectranthus grallatus
Briq.
Plectranthus hadiensis
(Forssk.) Schweinf.
ex Spreng.
Neuwinger (2000)
Githinji and Kokwaro
(1993)
Lusigi et al. (1984)
Githinji and Kokwaro
(1993)
Kakudidi et al. (1996),
Neuwinger (2000),
Chifundera (2001)
Neuwinger (2000)
Neuwinger (2000)
Hutchings et al.
(1996), Rabe and van
Staden (1998),
Neuwinger (2000)
Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk
(1962), Roberts
(1990), Hutchings et
al. (1996), Rabe and
van Staden (1998)
Lindsay and Hepper
(1978), Kokwaro
(1985), Neuwinger
(2000)
Kokwaro (1993),
Neuwinger (2000)
Kokwaro (1993),
Neuwinger (2000)
5
6
Table 1 (Continued )
Species
Geographical distribution
Plectranthus hirtus Benth.
Southern Africa
Plectranthus luteus Gürke
East Africa Madagascar
Plectranthus incanus Link
India
Plectranthus montanus
Benth.
Plectranthus cylindraceus
Hochst. ex Benth.
East Tropical Africa
Plectranthus
parviflorus (Poir.)
Henckel
Plectranthus prostratus
Gürke
Plectranthus
pseudomarrubioides
Willemse
Plectranthus pubescens
Baker
Plectranthus punctatus
L’Her.
Plectranthus
stachyoides Oliv.
Plectranthus stolzii
Gilli
Plectranthus sylvestris
Gürke
Plectranthus tetensis
(Bak.) Agnew
Plectranthus
vettiveroides (K.C.
Jacob) H.I. Maass
Plectranthus austalis
R.Br., Coleus parviflorus
Benth.
Australia, Pacific
Plectranthus
madagascarensis
Benth.
Plectranthus
mandalensis Baker
Plectranthus melleri
Baker
Plectranthus mollis
(Aiton) Spreng.
Respiratory
Holdsworth (1977),
Roberts (1990), Rabe
and van Staden (1998),
Neuwinger (2000)
Githens (1949),
Roberts (1990), Rabe
and van Staden (1998),
Neuwinger (2000)
Infections/fevers
Genito-urinary
Pain
Morris (1996)
Jain et al. (1994)
Timberlake (1987),
Githinji and Kokwaro
(1993), Kokwaro
(1993)
Yoganarasimhan
(2000)
Yoganarasimhan
(2000)
Rahman et al. (2004)
Kokwaro (1993)
Sebastian and
Bhandari (1984),
Yoganarasimhan
(2000)
Kokwaro (1993)
Tewtrakul et al. (2003)
Mugisha (2002)
Luke (2004)
Morris (1996)
Malawi
Northeast and East Tropical
Africa–Ethiopia
East Tropical
Africa–Tanzania
East Tropical
Africa–Tanzania
East and Central Africa
Hedberg (1979)
Tanner (1961a)
Gaetan (1952)
Githinji and Kokwaro
(1993)
Chalchat et al. (1996),
Neuwinger (2000)
Kokwaro (1993),
Neuwinger (2000)
Meyerhoff (1978a)
Dash and Kashyap
(1987),
Yoganarasimhan
(2000)
Yoganarasimhan
(2000)
Yoganarasimhan
(2000)
East Tropical Africa
Coleus vettiveroides K.C.
Jacob
Asia Tropical–India
Asia Tropical–Papua New
Guinea
East Tropical
Africa–Tanzania
Synomyms encountered
in the study
Geographical distribution
Plectranthus tenuiflorus
(Vatke) Agnew
Plectranthus assurgens
(Baker) J.K. Morton
Coleus amboinicus Lour.,
Coleus aromaticus Benth.,
Plectranthus aromaticus
Roxb.
Arabia, East and Northeast
Tropical Africa
East and Central Africa
Kokwaro (1993),
Neuwinger (2000)
Yoganarasimhan
(2000)
Holdsworth (1977)
Tanner (1961c)
Kokwaro (1993)
Medicinal categories
Circulatory and blood
North, East, Central Africa,
Asia, South America,
Caribbean, Pacific
Muscular–skeletal
Yamada (1999)
East Tropical Africa,
Uganda
East Tropical Africa, Asia
temperate
Plectranthus sp.
Plectranthus aegypticus
(Forssk.) C. Chr.
Plectranthus alpinus
(Vatke) O. Ryding
Plectranthus
amboinicus (Lour.)
Spreng.
Skin
Africa–Malawi
Plectranthus sp.
Species
Medicinal categories
Digestive
Nervous
Sensory
Poisons treatment
Abulfatih (1987b)
Unspecific
Inflammation
Othman and Shoman
(2004)
Hedberg et al. (1983)
Morton (1992),
Neuwinger (2000)
Ayensu (1978),
Morton (1992), Jain
and Lata (1996), Ruiz
et al. (1996), Salmán
et al. (1996),
Neuwinger (2000),
Camara et al. (2003)
Zepernick (1972),
Morton (1992)
Yoganarasimhan
(2000)
Kuebel and Tucker
(1988), Prudent et al.
(1995), França et al.
(1996), Hutchings et
al. (1996), Bennett and
Prance (2000)
Morton (1992)
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
Synomyms encountered
in the study
Plectranthus barbatus
Andr.
Coleus kilimandschari
Gurke ex Engl., Coleus
barbatus (Andr.) Benth.,
Coleus forskohlii Briq.,
Coleus comosus A. Rich.,
Plectranthus
kilimandschari (Gürke)
H.L. Maass, Plectranthus
forskohlii auct Briq.
North, East, Central Africa,
Asia, South America
Madagascar
Plectranthus fruticosus
L’Her.
Plectranthus
glandulosus Hook.f.
Plectranthus grallatus
Briq.
Plectranthus
grandidentatus
Gürke
Plectranthus hadiensis
(Forssk.) Schweinf.
ex Spreng.
South Africa
Plectranthus igniarius
(Schweinf.) Agnew
Plectranthus kivuensis
(Lebrun & Touss.)
R.H. Willemse
Plectranthus
lanceolatus Bojer ex
Benth.
Plectranthus
lanuginosus (Benth.)
Agnew.
Plectranthus laxiflorus
Benth.
Plectranthus longipes
Baker
Plectranthus
madagascarensis
Benth.
Plectranthus
mandalensis Baker
Plectranthus mollis
(Aiton) Spreng.
Plectranthus montanus
Benth.
Plectranthus
occidentalis B.J.
Pollard
Plectranthus urticoides
Baker
Neuwinger (2000),
Chifundera (2001)
Baerts and Lehmann
(1989), Neuwinger
(2000), Geissler et al.
(2002), Benerjee
(2003)
Greenway (1946),
Tanner (1946),
Akendenué and Louis
(1994)
Neuwinger (2000)
Neuwinger (2000)
Fratkin (1975),
Caufield (1978),
Githinji and Kokwaro
(1993), Svoboda
(1996), Barnett
(2000), Bennett and
Prance (2000), Byavu
et al. (2000)
Australia
Maiden (1899)
East Tropical Africa
Githinji (1990),
Lukhoba and
Mathenge (1993)
Pages et al. (1991)
West-Central
Africa–Cameroon
South Africa
Yoganarasimhan
(2000), Chifundera
(2001)
Cheek et al. (2000)
Hutchings et al. (1996)
Cerqueira et al. (2004)
Plectranthus zeylanicus
Benth., Plectranthus
cyaneus Gürke ex Engler,
Plectranthus zatarhendi
(Benth.) E.A. Bruce
Neuwinger (2000)
Northeast and East Tropical
Africa to India
East Tropical Africa
Timberlake (1987)
East Tropical Africa
Napier (1933)
Africa–Malgaches
East Tropical Africa
Kakudidi et al. (1996)
Kokwaro (1993),
Neuwinger (2000)
Lindsay and Hepper
(1978), Neuwinger
(2000)
Plectranthus albus Gürke
West-Central Africa, East
and Southern Africa
Plectranthus amaniensis
Gürke
Plectranthus hirtus Benth.
East Tropical Africa–Kenya
Neuwinger (2000)
Southern Africa
Fleurentin et al. (1983)
Africa–Malawi
Plectranthus incanus Link
India
Plectranthus cylindraceus
Hochst. ex Benth.
Solenostemon mannii
(Hook. f.) Baker
East Tropical Africa
West Africa
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
Plectranthus bojeri
(Benth.) Hedge
Plectranthus congestus
R.Br.
Plectranthus edulis
(Vatke) Agnew
Neuwinger (2000),
Yoganarasimhan
(2000), Chifundera
(2001)
Morris (1996)
Yoganarasimhan
(2000)
Singh and Ali (1992)
Jain et al. (1994)
Sebastian and
Bhandari (1984)
Fleurentin et al.
(1983), Barnett (2000)
Harvey et al. (2004)
7
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
Gaetan (1952),
Cunningham and
Barigyira (1992)
Shankar and
Majumdar (1995),
Tandon (1996)
Lovett and Kayombo
(1989a,b)
Yoganarasimhan
(2000)
Morris (1996)
Plectranthus pubescens
Baker
Plectranthus punctatus
L’Her.
Plectranthus sp. aff.
occidentalis
Plectranthus stolzii
Gilli
East Tropical
Africa–Tanzania
Asia Tropical–India
Plectranthus
vettiveroides (K.C.
Jacob) H.I. Maass
Plectranthus viphyensis
Brummitt & J.H.
Seyani
Coleus vettiveroides K.C.
Jacob
East Tropical
Africa–Tanzania
Northeast and East Tropical
Africa–Ethiopia
West Tropical Africa
Malawi
Medicinal categories
Species
Table 1 (Continued )
Synomyms encountered
in the study
Geographical distribution
Circulatory and blood
Nervous
Sensory
Hedberg (1979)
Poisons treatment
Unspecific
Leeuwenberg (1972)
Inflammation
8
quently cited species used to relieve colds (Rajendran et al.,
1999), cough (Baerts and Lehmann, 1989; Neuwinger, 2000;
Yoganarasimhan, 2000; Chifundera, 2001), bronchitis (Boily
and van Puyvelde, 1986; Cos et al., 2002), pneumonia (Bouquet,
1969) and for general respiratory ailments (van Puyvelde et
al., 1994). Studies have shown that it reverses allergic bronchospasm (Kreutner et al., 1985). Plectranthus amboinicus is
also frequently cited in the treatment of chronic coughs, asthma,
bronchitis and sore throat in India and the Carribean (Morton,
1992; Jain and Lata, 1996; Ruiz et al., 1996), and in Cuba
it is used to treat catarrhal infections and asthma (Castillo
and González, 1999; Cano and Volpato, 2004). The leaves of
Plectranthus amboinicus have been found to have bronchodilator activity in guinea pig and anti-Mycobacterium tuberculosis
activity (Carbajal et al., 1991; Frame et al., 1998). Plectranthus madagascariensis is used for colds (Githens, 1949), cough
and chest complaints (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Rabe
and van Staden, 1998; Neuwinger, 2000) and asthma (Roberts,
1990). A decoction of the whole plant of Plectranthus bojeri,
together with Ocimum gratissimum, is drunk to treat pneumonia
(Neuwinger, 2000). Plectranthus aegyptiacus is used in Saudi
Arabia, for the treatment of sore throats and laryngitis (Al-Yahya
et al., 1985) and in Kenya, Plectranthus elegans is used to alleviate sore throats (Bally, 1937). Plectranthus montanus (Rahman
et al., 2004) and Plectranthus tetensis (Meyerhoff, 1978a) are
used to treat sore throats. Plectranthus mollis is used in India
as a respiratory stimulant and vasoconstrictor (Yoganarasimhan,
2000), while extracts from the roots of Plectranthus caninus are
used in Kenya for the treatment of coughs (Githinji, 1990). In
South Africa, tea made from the leaves of Plectranthus laxiflorus
is taken for coughs and colds (Hutchings et al., 1996; Rabe and
van Staden, 1998) and an infusion of the crushed leaves of Plectranthus ambiguus is mixed with a little hot water and sipped
for coughs (Hulme, 1954; Hutchings et al., 1996). The roots of
Plectranthus stolzii are eaten in Tanzania for coughs (Gaetan,
1959).
3.1.4. Infections and fever
Fifteen species have been recorded for the treatment of infections and fever. Plectranthus barbatus is used to treat a range of
infections including throat and mouth infections (Meyerhoff,
1978b), tonsillitis (Neuwinger, 2000), gastro-intestinal infections (Baerts and Lehmann, 1989; Gupta et al., 1993b), genitourinary infections (Rwangabo, 1993; Neuwinger, 2000) as well
as ear and eye infections (Baerts and Lehmann, 1989). It is
used to treat malaria in Brazil and to break fevers in East
Africa and India (Holdsworth, 1977; Rwangabo, 1993; Githinji
and Kokwaro, 1993; Milliken, 1977; Rajendran et al., 1999;
Neuwinger, 2000; Schlage et al., 2000; Steele et al., 2002),
whereas in Kenya it is used for the treatment of East Coast
Fever in cattle (Ole-Marion, 2003). The whole plant is said to
have antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal activity (Boily and
van Puyvelde, 1986; van Puyvelde et al., 1994; Vlietinck et al.,
1995; Alasbahi et al., 1999; Cos et al., 2002; Matu and van
Staden, 2003) and against protozoa, such as Giardia (Johns et al.,
1995). Plectranthus amboinicus is important in Asia and South
America for the treatment of fevers (Morton, 1992; Harsha et
Table 2
Non-medicinal uses of species of Plectranthus
Species
Synomyms encountered Geographical
in the study
distribution
Non-medicinal uses
Poisons
Plectranthus caninus
East Tropical Africa
Roth
Plectranthus ciliatus E. Plectranthus natalensis South Africa
Mey.
Bak.
Plectranthus crassus
N.E.Br.
Plectranthus decurrens
(Gürke) J.K. Morton
Plectranthus ecklonii
Benth.
Soil improvers
Food
Schoelhorn (2002)
Dymoc (1885)
Plectranthus edulis
(Vatke) Agnew
East Tropical Africa
Plectranthus elegans
Britten
Plectranthus esculentus Coleus dazo A. Chiev.,
N.E.Br.
Coleus esculentus G.
Tayl., Plectranthus
floribundus N.E.Br.
East and Southern
Africa
Southern Africa,
West-Central Africa,
Asia Tropical
Animal feeds
Materials
Social uses
Bees
Yuncker (1953), Morton (1992),
Morton (1992), Prudent et al.
(1995)
Prudent et al.
(1995)
Epling (1981),
Purseglove (1987),
Craig and Mayenda
(1990), Mayenda
(1991), Morton
(1992), Prudent et
al. (1995), Brown
(1997)
Schoelhorn (2002)
Owili (1977),
Mitchell and
Rook (1979)
Grimshaw (1993),
Bennett and Prance
(2000)
Maher (1935),
Hendy (1977),
Caufield (1978)
Fleurentin et al. (1983),
Drummond and
Battiscombe
Wiersema and Leon
Hemsley (1953),
(1912), Rounce
Mwangangi (1982) (1999)
(1933), Bush
(1943), Templer
(1960),
Rwaburindore
(1969), Mathew
(1970), Mwangangi
(1982), Riley and
Brokensha (1988),
Gachathi (1989)
Githinji (1990)
Bally (1934),
Gentry (1969,
1970),
Mwangangi
(1971, 1982),
Brokensha and
Riley (1978),
Githinji (1988)
Tabuti et al.
(2003)
Githinji (1990)
Githinji (1990)
Roberts (1990),
Rabe and van
Staden (1998)
Malawi
Eest-Central
Africa-DRC
South Africa
Food additives
Cheek et al. (2000)
Australia
North, East, Central
Africa, Asia, South
America
Hedges
Spicy hu (2004)
Yamada (1999)
Auchland Regional
Council (2002),
Schoelhorn (2002)
Fleurentin et al. (1983),
Lukhoba and Mathenge
(1993)
Githinji (1990)
Napier (1933)
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
Plectranthus argentatus
S.T. Blake
Plectranthus barbatus Coleus kilim & schari
Andr.
Gurke ex Engl., Coleus
barbatus (&r.) Benth.,
Coleus forskohlii Briq.,
Coleus comosus A.
Rich., Plectranthus kilim
& schari (Gürke) H.L.
Maass., Plectranthus
forskohlii auct Briq.
Ornmamentals
Rahman et al.
(2004)
Plectranthus aegypticus Plectranthus tenuiflorus Arabia, East and
(Forssk.) C. Chr.
(Vatke) Agnew
Northeast Tropical
Africa
Plectranthus alpinus
Plectranthus assurgens East and Central
(Vatke) O. Ryding
(Baker) J.K.Morton
Africa
North, East, Central
Plectranthus amboinicus Coleus amboinicus
Africa, Asia, South
(Lour.) Spreng.
Lour., Coleus
America, Caribbean,
aromaticus Benth.,
Plectranthus aromaticus Pacific
Roxb.
Jaarsveld (1991)
Allemann and
Ward (1935), Msyla
Hammes (1998)
(1944), Semsei
(1956a,b), Fleurentin et
al. (1983), Purseglove
(1987), Burkill (1995),
Morris (1996), Mooi et
al. (1999), Cheek et al.
(2000), Reinten and
Cootzee (2002),
Allemann and Hammes
(2003), Allemann et al.
(2004)
9
10
Table 2 (Continued )
Species
Synomyms encountered Geographical
in the study
distribution
Non-medicinal uses
Poisons
Plectranthus fruticosus
L’Her.
Plectranthus
glandulosus Hook.f.
Plectranthus graveolens
R.Br.
Plectranthus hadiensis
(Forssk.) Schweinf.
Ex Spreng.
South Africa
Plectranthus urticoides
Baker
West-Central
Africa–Cameroon
Australia
Hedges
Soil improvers
Food
Harvey et al.
(2004)
Plectranthus longipes
Baker
Plectranthus amaniensis East Tropical
Gürke
Africa–Kenya
Plectranthus
madagascarensis
Benth.
Plectranthus melleri
Baker
Plectranthus mollis
(Aiton) Spreng.
Plectranthus hirtus
Benth.
Southern Africa
Plectranthus luteus
Gürke
Plectranthus incanus
Link
East Africa
Madagascar
India
Tanzania
Bees
Roberts (1990)
Hutchings et al. NMK Expd.
(1996)
(1974),
Timberlake
(1987)
Sato (1976),
Timberlake (1987)
Cheek et al.
(2000)
Glover et al.
(1961a)
Glover et al.
(1961a)
Cheek et al.
(2000)
Githinji and
Kokwaro
(1993)
Parkia and
Cooke (2003)
Hepper and Jaeger
(1978)
Neuwinger
(2000)
Koritschoner
(1935a,b),
Kakudidi et al.
(1996)
Glover et al.
(1961b), Glover
and Samuel
(1962)
Schoelhorn (2002)
Yamada (1999)
Maikhuri and Gangwar
(1993)
Jain et al. (1994),
Yoganarasimhan
(2000)
Jain et al.
(1994)
Tanner (1952b)
Wiersema and Leon
(1999), Welsh and
Cotner (2000)
Tourle (2003),
Schmidt (2005)
Australia, Pacific
East Tropical Africa,
Ug&a
East Tropical Africa,
Asia temperate
Social uses
Roberts (1990)
Tanner (1952a)
East Tropical Africa
Plectranthus
cylindraceus Hochst. ex
Benth.
Brazil, South Africa
Plectranthus
oertendahlii
T.C.E.Fr.
Plectranthus parviflorus Plectranthus austalis
(Poir.) Henckel
R.Br., Coleus parviflorus
Benth.
Plectranthus prostratus
Gürke
Plectranthus
Plectranthus
pseudomarrubioides marrubioides Hochst.
Willemse
Plectranthus radiatus
A.J. Paton in ed.
Materials
Anon. (1874)
East Tropical
Africa–Tanzania
East Tropical Africa
West-Central Africa,
East and Southern
Africa
Animal feeds
Ramachandran and Nair
(1981), Purseglove
(1987)
McNew (2002)
Omolo et al.
(2004)
Meyer (1964)
Zaroug (1981)
Singh et al.
(2003)
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
West-Central
Africa–Cameroon
West and East
Tropical Africa
Food additives
Schoelhorn (2002)
Plectranthus zeylanicus Northeast and East
Tropical Africa to
Benth., Plectranthus
India
cyaneus Gürke ex
Engler, Plectranthus
zatarhendi Benth.) E.A.
Bruce
East Tropical Africa
Plectranthus igniarius
(Schweinf.) Agnew
Plectranthus insignis
Hook.f.
Plectranthus
kamerunensis
(Gürke)
Plectranthus lactiflorus
(Vatke) Agnew.
Plectranthus
lanuginosus (Benth.)
Agnew.
Plectranthus laxiflorus Plectranthus albus
Benth.
Gürke
Plectranthus montanus
Benth.
Ornmamentals
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
Lusigi et al. (1984) Riley and
Brokensha
(1988)
Winter and
Leistner (1957)
Githinji and
Kokwaro
(1993)
al., 2002) and as a cure of cholera in Rodrigues (Gurib-Fakim
et al., 1996). It also has antimicrobial activity (Bos et al., 1983;
Castillo and González, 1999) and is reported to have antiviral
activity against Herpes simplex virus-1 (Hattori et al., 1995) and
anti-HIV inhibition activity (Kusumoto et al., 1995). Plectranthus aegyptiacus and Plectranthus punctatus are used to treat
ear infections in Ethiopia (Hedberg, 1979) and Saudia Arabia
(Abulfatih, 1987b), respectively. Plectranthus glandulosus is
used to treat influenza in Cameroon (Ngassoum, 2001) and Plectranthus sylvestris is given to patients with malaria in East Africa
(Kokwaro, 1993). A decoction of the whole plant of Plectranthus
bojeri is used in Madagascar, to bathe children in order to reduce
fever (Neuwinger, 2000). Plectranthus mollis is a recognized
febrifuge (Varma and Sharma, 1963; Yoganarasimhan, 2000),
whereas Plectranthus laxiflorus is used by the Pokot in Kenya
as an enema for the treatment of influenza (Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962). Plectranthus fruticosus is also antimicrobial
and this activity may be attributed, in part, to the presence of kaurane diterpenoids (Gaspar-Marques et al., 2003). Both Plectranthus ecklonii and Plectranthus montanus have antibacterial and
antifungal activity (Chadya and Gundidza, 1999; Nyanyiwa and
Gundidza, 1999). Recently, Plectranthus parvifolius was shown
to contain compounds that inhibit HIV-1 integrase (Tewtrakul et
al., 2003).
Coe (2001)
South Africa
Europe–Belgium
Plectranthus
nummularius Briq.
Southern Africa
Plectranthus
ungentarius Codd
Plectranthus
verticillatus Druce
Plectranthus zuluensis
T. Cooke
Plectranthus sp.
Plectranthus dissitiflorus West Tropical Africa
(Gürke) J.K. Morton
East and Central
Africa
Plectranthus sp. aff.
occidentalis
Plectranthus sylvestris
Gürke
Plectranthus saccatus
Benth.
Plectranthus
rotundifolius (Poir.)
Spreng.
Coleus rotundifolius
(Poir.) A. Chev. & E.
Perrot.; Solenostemon
rotundifolius (Poir.) J.K.
Morton
South Africa
Motolese et al.
(1991)
Buitendag (1971)
Southern Africa
Joffe (1993, 2001),
Kahurananga and
Kiilu (1976)
Leeuwenberg (1972)
Riley and
Brokensha (1988)
Fleurentin et al. (1983)
Mooney (1954), Tadesse
(1967), Scott (1979)
Northeast and East
Tropical
Africa–Ethiopia
Tropical Asia,
Southern Africa
Plectranthus punctatus
L’Her.
11
3.1.5. Genito-urinary conditions
Eight species are used to treat genito-urinary conditions.
This includes Plectranthus barbatus that is used in the treatment of syphilis in Central Africa (Boily and van Puyvelde,
1986; Cos et al., 2002), as an emmenagogue and oral abortifacient or contraceptive (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962;
Almeida and Lemonica, 2000) and as an aphrodisiac in Somalia
(Innamorati, 1973). The contraceptive property of this species
is corroborated by the fact that the leaves were found to have an
anti-implantation effect in rats (Almeida and Lemonica, 2000).
The leaves of Plectranthus amboinicus are frequently utilized
in the treatment of urinary diseases in the Amazon and India
(Jain and Lata, 1996; Yoganarasimhan, 2000). This species is
also reported to relieve kidney troubles, treat vaginal discharges
and is drunk after childbirth (Morton, 1992). The Giriama of
Kenya use Plectranthus aegypticiacus as a medicine to treat ailments associated with sexual misconduct (Parkia and Cooke,
2003), while in Marakwet, Kenya, Plectranthus laxiflorus is
used as an abortifacient (Lindsay and Hepper, 1978; Kokwaro,
1985). Plectranthus vettiveroides is used as an emmenagogue in
India (Yoganarasimhan, 2000). Plectranthus prostratus is used
by women in Uganda to increase sexual stimulation and vaginal
fluids (Mugisha, 2002), while Plectranthus elegans is a potency
medicine in Malawi (Morris, 1996). In laboratory experiments,
Plectranthus caninus has been found to have diuretic activity
(Painuly and Tandon, 1983; Aswal et al., 1984), although we
could not find any ethnobotanical information to support this
activity.
3.1.6. Pain
Plectranthus barbatus is used for the treatment of gastric
and spasmodic pain in Africa and Asia (Dubey et al., 1981;
12
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
Yoganarasimhan, 2000; Chifundera, 2001), abdominal pain
(Baerts and Lehmann, 1989; Neuwinger, 2000), painful micturition (Dubey et al., 1981), muscular pains (Githinji and Kokwaro,
1993) and for generalized pain (Elisabetsky and Castilhos, 1990;
Woodley, 1991). In Kenya, an extract of Plectranthus sylvestris
is inserted into two holes cut in the chest to relieve chest pain.
When the leaf sap of Plectranthus sylvestris is mixed with
decoctions of Senna didymototrya and Clerodendron johnsonii
it is drunk for headache and abdominal pain and Plectranthus
montanus mixed with Microglossa oblongifolia is a remedy for
fever and severe headache (Kokwaro, 1993). In Africa, Plectranthus amboinicus is a remedy for headaches (Meyerhoff, 1978c;
de Padua, 1988) as is Plectranthus esculentus (Morris, 1996)
and Plectranthus laxiflorus is a treatment for abdominal pain
(Kokwaro, 1993; Neuwinger, 2000).
3.1.7. Muscular–skeletal conditions
Six species of Plectranthus are used to treat musculo-skeletal
conditions. Plectranthus amboinicus and Plectranthus barbatus
are used for treating stiff neck and backache (Meyerhoff, 1978b;
Githinji, 1990; Githinji and Kokwaro, 1993). The leaves of Plectranthus barbatus when burned a little and placed on the skin of
the neck relieve stiffness (Githinji and Mwangangi, 1989). Plectranthus barbatus is also used in the treatment of bone dislocations (Baerts and Lehmann, 1989). In Africa, Plectranthus barbatus (Rwangabo, 1993), Plectranthus laxiflorus (Koritschoner,
1935b; Kokwaro, 1993; Neuwinger, 2000), Plectranthus mandalensis and Plectranthus pubescens (Morris, 1996) are used to
treat rheumatism, whereas in India the species used is Plectranthus mollis (Sharma and Sharma, 1981; Sebastian and
Bhandari, 1984). Plectranthus mollis is reported to exhibit relaxant activity on smooth and skeletal muscles (Yoganarasimhan,
2000).
3.1.8. Other medical conditions
Plectranthus barbatus is used to treat heart, blood and circulation conditions, such as myalgia, angina, haemorrage and
hypertension in Africa and Asia (Dubey et al., 1981; Valdes et al.,
1987; Yoganarasimhan, 2000; Chifundera, 2001). Plectranthus
amboinicus is used in the Caribbean, to treat congestive heart
failure (Morton, 1992) and Plectranthus mollis is used in India
as a cardiac depressant (Yoganarasimhan, 2000). Species of
Plectranthus used to treat various blood conditions include Plectranthus mollis as a cure for haemorrahage (Yoganarasimhan,
2000) and Plectranthus grandidentatus which has antiproliferation activity on human lymphocytes (Cerqueira et al.,
2004).
Species of Plectranthus used in the treatment of nervous disorders include Plectranthus amboinicus. It is prescribed in cases
of epilepsy and convulsions (Morton, 1992; Ruiz et al., 1996;
Castillo and González, 1999) and meningitis (Neuwinger, 2000).
Plectranthus barbatus is used to treat psychiatric problems in
Tanzania (Chhabra et al., 1993; Neuwinger, 2000) as well as
treatment of insomnia and convulsions in Asia (Schanberg and
Ikan, 2003). Plectranthus alpinus is used in Tanzania as an anticonvulsant (Hedberg et al., 1983). Plectranthus pubescens is
used in Malawi for depression (Morris, 1996) and in Asia Plec-
tranthus mollis is used for the treatment of mental retardation
(Singh and Ali, 1992). In Uganda, Plectranthus laxiflorus is used
to treat psychological problems including madness (Kakudidi
et al., 1996). Plectranthus mandalensis is used in Malawi to
treat depression (Morris, 1996) and in India Plectranthus vettiveroides is used as a stimulant (Yoganarasimhan, 2000).
Species of Plectranthus are also used to treat sensory disorders associated with ear and eye problems. For example,
Plectranthus amboinicus seed oil is a treatment for acute edematous otitis acuta in Polynesia (Zepernick, 1972), whereas in
India its leaves are rubbed onto the eyes to alleviate conjunctivitis (Morton, 1992). Plectranthus barbatus is a recognized source
of useful antiglaucoma agents (Caprioli et al., 1984; Svoboda,
1996; Schanberg and Ikan, 2003). The leaves are used to treat
conjunctivitis in the Democratic Republic of Congo (Baerts
and Lehmann, 1989; Neuwinger, 2000) and earache in Kenya
(Geissler et al., 2002). In Malgaches, the finely ground leaves of
Plectranthus bojeri are used for the treatment of conjunctivitis
(Neuwinger, 2000). In Kenya, the leaves of Plectranthus igniarius and Plectranthus laxiflorus are used to treat inflamed eyes
and ophthalmia, respectively (Lindsay and Hepper, 1978).
A number of species including Plectranthus amboinicus
(Bhakuni et al., 1969), Plectranthus barbatus (Zelnik et al.,
1977; Schanberg and Ikan, 2003), Plectranthus caninus (Painuly
and Tandon, 1983), Plectranthus esculentus (Mooi et al., 1999;
Ali et al., 2000), Plectranthus mollis (Bhakuni et al., 1971) and
Plectranthus ternifolius (Aswal et al., 1984) have cytotoxic and
anti-tumour promoting activity and can be used in the treatment of cancer. Plectranthus barbatus is reported to stimulate
the immune system (Lasure et al., 1995). Plectranthus amboinicus (Yoganarasimhan, 2000), Plectranthus barbatus (Greenway,
1946), Plectranthus bojeri (Neuwinger, 2000) and Plectranthus
mollis (Jain et al., 1994) have been used against snakebites in
India, Gabon and Kenya. In Uganda and Kenya, Plectranthus
barbatus and Plectranthus aegyptiacus, respectively, are used
to treat spiritual ailments (Parkia and Cooke, 2003; Tabuti et
al., 2003). Plectranthus barbatus and Plectranthus amboinicus
are used to prevent or alleviate inflammation (Morton, 1992;
Chifundera, 2001). Plectranthus barbatus is also used in ethnoveterinary medicine in Africa (Holdsworth, 1977; Byavu et
al., 2000; Ole-Marion, 2003).
A number of Plectranthus species were recorded as being
used in medicine but no specific condition was stated. For
example, Plectranthus barbatus was cited as being used as
a traditional medicine in Machakos (Barnett, 2000), a children’s tonic (Caufield, 1978), an emetic used by Samburu of
Kenya for strength (Fratkin, 1975) and as an Ayurvedic medicinal plant (Svoboda, 1996). Plectranthus amboinicus is used
medicinally in South East Asia and Martinique (Kuebel and
Tucker, 1988; Prudent et al., 1995). Others include Plectranthus
aegyptiacus used medicinally in Egypt (Othman and Shoman,
2004), Plectranthus congestus used in Australia for internal
complaints (Maiden, 1899; Lassak and McCarthy, 1983), Plectranthus edulis is medicinal in Kenya (Lukhoba and Mathenge,
1993), Plectranthus gradulosus and Plectranthus occidentalis
in Cameroon (Cheek et al., 2000; Harvey et al., 2004) and
Plectranthus grallatus in South Africa (Cunningham, 1995).
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
Plectranthus vettiveroides is medicinal (Shankar and Majumdar,
1995) and Plectranthus mollis is a tonic in India (Sebastian and
Bhandari, 1984).
Some species of Plectranthus are reported to have caused
some adverse responses to people and domestic animals. Plectranthus barbatus causes perianal dermatitis (Owili, 1977) and
contact with unnamed species of Plectranthus has been reported
to cause skin irritations and dermatitis in susceptible persons
(Mitchell and Rook, 1979; Motolese et al., 1991). Plectranthus
caninus and Plectranthus longipes are poisonous to livestock
(Glover and Samuel, 1962; Githinji, 1990). Plectranthus barbatus (Kemtoff et al., 2002) and Plectranthus fruticosus (Chamorro
et al., 1991; Pages et al., 1998) have embryo- and fetotoxic activities on rodents.
3.2. Horticultural uses
Twenty species were reported as having horticultural uses.
The majority are ornamentals either planted for their coloured
and attractive foliage or for their beautiful flowers. Many species
of Plectranthus grown as ornaments are resistant to diseases,
they are usually succulent and can survive in dry conditions.
Some species of Plectranthus planted as ornamentals in Africa,
Asia, Northern and Southern America and Australia include
Plectranthus oertendahlii, Plectranthus parvifolius (syn Plectranthus australis) (Wiersema and Leon, 1999; Tourle, 2003;
Schmidt, 2005), Plectranthus argentatus, Plectranthus amboinicus, Plectranthus fruticosus, Plectranthus madagascariensis,
Plectranthus ciliatus (Garden Plants List, 2004), Plectranthus
barbatus, (Grimshaw, 1993; Bennett and Prance, 2000), Plectranthus ecklonii (Auchland Regional Council, 2002), Plectranthus zuluensis (Coe, 2001) and Plectranthus saccatus
(Kahurananga and Kiilu, 1976; Joffe, 1993, 2001). Plectranthus lanuginosus makes a splendid rock garden plant (Hepper
and Jaeger, 1978), Plectranthus elegans (Jaarsveld, 1991) and
Plectranthus verticillatus (Buitendag, 1971; Garden Plants List,
2004) are planted in gardens in South Africa while Plectranthus
parvifolius is grown as a house plant (Schmidt, 2005). Plectranthus prostratus has decorative, fuzzy leaves that develop
red markings in high light and is ideal for hanging baskets
(McNew, 2002) and likewise for Plectranthus purpatus and
Plectranthus oertendahlii (Welsh and Cotner, 2000). In East
Africa, Plectranthus barbatus (Rounce, 1933; Greenway, 1946;
Battiscombe, 1956; Templer, 1960; Mathew, 1970; Gachathi,
1989; Grimshaw, 1993) and Plectranthus sylvestris are planted
as a hedge, fence or boundary marker. Cowpeas, green grams
and maize are cultivated in areas where Plectranthus barbatus has been cleared as the plant is said to be a good indicator of fertile soil (Riley and Brokensha, 1988). The plant is
used for making manure (Mwangangi, 1982) and is planted on
the hillsides to prevent soil erosion (Drummond and Hemsley,
1953).
3.3. Food
Nine species of Plectranthus are reported to be edible. For
example, the tubers of Plectranthus esculentus are rich in
13
carbohydrates, Vitamin A and minerals and are usually boiled
or roasted and eaten as a substitute for sweet potato in most
parts of Africa (Dudgeon, 1909; Holland, 1915; Perrot, 1944;
Purseglove, 1944; Semsei, 1956a,b; Roberts, 1990; Morris,
1996; Blench, 1997; Allemann and Hammes, 2003; Allemann
et al., 2003). In Malaysia, the tuber is eaten as a vegetable
(Mooi et al., 1999). Those of Plectranthus punctatus (Mooney,
1954; Tadesse, 1967; Scott, 1979) and Plectranthus edulis
(Lukhoba and Mathenge, 1993) are eaten in Ethiopia and
Kenya, respectively. Tubers of Plectranthus rotundifolius are a
popular food in South Africa and research is currently underway
to see if they can be cultivated for use as a domestic crop
(Venter et al., 2000), whereas in Tropical Asia, the tubers of
Plectranthus parviflorus are popular (Ramachandran and Nair,
1981; Purseglove, 1987). In India, the fruits of Plectranthus
parvifolius are also eaten (Ramachandran and Nair, 1981).
The leaves of Plectranthus mollis (Maikhuri and Gangwar,
1993) and Plectranthus barbatus (Fleurentin et al., 1983;
Wiersema and Leon, 1999) are cooked as a vegetable. Leaves
of Plectranthus amboinicus are chopped, made into flour balls
and fried in oil or butter (Dymoc, 1885).
3.4. Food additives
The three species of Plectanthus reported as food additives
are Plectranthus amboinicus, Plectranthus esculentus and Plectranthus crassus (Table 2). The leaves of Plectranthus amboinicus are used in food stuffings (Purseglove, 1987), for flavouring
and marinating beef and chicken (Epling, 1981; Kuebel and
Tucker, 1988; Bodner and Gereau, 1988; Craig and Mayenda,
1990; Brown, 1997), to mask odor of strong smells associated with goat, fish and shellfish (Morton, 1992) and to spice
dishes containing tomato sauces (Mayenda, 1991). The leaves
are sometimes eaten raw with bread and butter and in India, they
may be added to beer and wine (Morton, 1992). The stems of
Plectranthus esculentus are used in Embu, Kenya, to sweeten
gruel (porridge) (Allemann and Hammes, 1998) and in Hungary, the leaves of Plectranthus crassus are used for culinary
purposes (Spicy hu, 2004).
3.5. Fodder
Plectranthus spp. are mostly used as dry season fodder. Plectranthus barbatus is the most frequently cited of the five species
used (Table 2). In Kenya and Yemen, it is fed to sheep, goats
and cattle (Maher, 1935; Hendy, 1977; Caufield, 1978). Plectranthus igniarius is an important succulent fodder for camels,
goats and cattle (Sato, 1976; Lusigi et al., 1984), Plectranthus sylvestris is recognized as fodder for domestic animals
(Lusigi et al., 1984) and in Oman, Plectranthus pseudomarrubioides is sometimes given to cattle (Zaroug, 1981) while
wild growing Plectranthus kamerunensis is reported to be eaten
by domestic animals in the Rift Valley of Kenya (Glover et
al., 1961a). Plectranthus hadiensis is eaten by rock rabbits in
Tanzania (Tanner, 1952a) and Plectranthus edulis is eaten by
elephants in the Aberdare National Park of Kenya (Githinji,
1990).
14
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
3.6. Materials
Plectranthus insignis is the only species whose wood is used
to build huts and temporary houses and for firewood (Cheek et
al., 2000; Table 2). In Kenya, the soft velvety leaves of Plectranthus barbatus are used as sanitary tissue (Githinji, 1988) to clean
milk guards (Brokensha and Riley, 1978) and both the leaves and
stems are used to hasten the ripening of bananas (Mwangangi,
1971, 1982). Plectranthus amboinicus has scented leaves and
these are often rubbed into the hair and body after bathing
(Morton, 1992). In the Amazon, the leaves are mixed with sugar
and used as an intoxicant (Jain and Lata, 1996), while in Tonga
and Martinique the leaves are used in the cleaning of textiles to
perfume them (Yuncker, 1953; Prudent et al., 1995). A decoction of Plectranthus kamerunensis is used in bathing newborn
babies in Kenya (Githinji and Kokwaro, 1993). Plectranthus ciliatus and Plectranthus montanus are used in personal hygiene
and to wash clothes and animal skins (Tanner, 1952b; Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). In Namibia, the roots of Plectranthus
unguentarius are used as an ingredient of aromatic pomade for
use by ladies (Winter and Leistner, 1957). In Kenya, old men
use the leaves of Plectranthus caninus as snuff, a habit that
can become addictive (Gentry, 1969). The mothers in Marakwet
are reported to use the succulent leaves of this species to clean
their breasts before suckling a baby after arriving from a journey
(Githinji, 1990).
A number of species are used for spiritual or religious purposes (see social use in Table 2). For instance, Plectranthus
amboinicus is offered to the spirits when a house is being built
(Morton, 1992). Plectranthus mollis, Plectranthus sylvestris and
the roots of Plectranthus laxiflorus are used to drive away
evil spirits in India, Kenya and Tanzania (Koritschoner, 1935a;
Githinji and Kokwaro, 1993; Jain et al., 1994). The tubers of
Plectranthus viphyensis are given to children in Tanzania to stop
them grinding their teeth in their sleep (Lovett and Kayombo,
1989a,b).
The seeds of Plectranthus mollis are fried in mustard oil and
then massaged all over the body as an insect repellant (Jain
et al., 1994). Plectranthus fruticosus, Plectranthus amboinicus
and Plectranthus pseudomarrubioides are also used as insect
repellants (Roberts, 1990; Prudent et al., 1995; Omolo et al.,
2004).
4. Geographical distribution
A survey of the ethnobotanical information by geographical
areas shows that 45 species are used in the African continent
(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Roberts, 1990; Kokwaro,
1993; Githinji and Kokwaro, 1993; Morris, 1996; Neuwinger,
2000), 14 species in Asia (Morton, 1992; Yoganarasimhan,
2000), 10 species in America (Prudent et al., 1995; Ruiz et al.,
1996), five species in Australasia (Morton, 1992) and one species
in the pacific (Mayenda, 1991) (Tables 1 and 2). In Africa,
the most frequently used species are Plectranthus barbatus and
Plectranthus laxiflorus, whereas in Asia Plectranthus amboinicus and Plectranthus mollis are the most frequently cited species.
Overall, Plectranthus amboinicus and Plectranthus barbatus
have the widest geographical range occurring beyond Africa and
Asia continents into the Americas, whereas Plectranthus laxiflorus is typically African in distribution occurring in Ethiopia
through Eastern Africa to Southern Africa and Plectranthus mollis is mainly Asiatic. Most of the species in Africa and Asia are
wild harvested, although some, such as Plectranthus esculentus, are now being commercially cultivated for use as a food
source (Reinten and Cootzee, 2002). Overall, there is very little
information about the harvesting methods used to supply these
species and whether these methods are sustainable.
5. Chemistry of Plectranthus species
To date, the majority of phytochemical studies on species
of Plectranthus have focused on the isolation of a range of
diterpenoids. Although, some of these studies report the biological activity of the diterpenoids isolated (Abdel-Mogib et al.,
2002), very few have used activity-guided fractionation to isolate the compounds associated with a specific ethnobotanical
use. Of the different types of diterpenoids found in the genus,
the abietane diterpenoids are the most diverse group. Some of
the abietane diterpenoids isolated include 6-formyloxy-7␣hydroxyroyleanone, coleon U and V in Plectranthus argentatus
(Adler et al., 1984), coleon F, C, coleonol C, cariocal and
plectrin in Plectranthus barbatus (Rüedi and Eugster, 1973;
Grob et al., 1978; Tandon et al., 1978; Kelecom and Dos
Santos, 1985; Kreutner et al., 1985; Jin et al., 1990), coleon
M, N, O, P, Q and R in Plectranthus caninus (Arihara et al.,
1975; Grob et al., 1978), edulone A and 16-O-acetylcoleon
D in Plectranthus edulis (Buchbauer et al., 1978; Kunzle et
al., 1987), 7␣,11-dihydroxy-12-methoxy-8,11,13-abietatriene
in Plectranthus elegans (Dellar et al., 1996), grandidone A and
grandidone B in Plectranthus grandidentatus (Uchida et al.,
1981), 6,7-dihydroxyroyleanone in Plectranthus hadiensis
(syn Plectranthus zeylanicus) (Mehrotra et al., 1989), horminone
and 7␣,12-dihydroxy-17(15 → 16)-abeo-abieta-8,12,16-triene11,14-dione in Plectranthus hereroensis (Batista et al., 1994,
1995, 1996; Ferraeira et al., 1997) and lanugon M, N, S, 15epilanugin F, coleon J and H in Plectranthus lanuginosus (Moir
et al., 1973a,b; Schmid et al., 1982; Matloubi-Moghadam et al.,
1984). A few of these compounds have been tested for antimicrobial activity and this could explain some of medicinal uses,
especially for the treatment of infections, fever and inflammation
(Table 1). For example, the abietane diterpenes 7-epigrandidone
D and grandidone D isolated from Plectranthus grandidentatus
have antimicrobial activity (Teixeira et al., 1997). 11-Hydroxy12-oxo-7,9(11),13-abietatriene, isolated from Plectranthus elegans inhibited spore germination of the fungus Cladosporium
cucumerinum and growth of Gram-positive bacteria, particularly Bacillus subtilis (Dellar et al., 1996; Gibbons, 2004).
Similarly, Plectranthus hereroensis produces an acetylated abietane quinone related to horminone that has potent antimicrobial
activity, especially against Staphylococcus (Batista et al., 1994,
1995; Htwe et al., 2001; Gibbons, 2004). Horminone isolated
from the roots of Plectranthus hereroensis can cause liver damage, an adverse response that justifies further investigation as
extracts of Plectranthus hereroensis are used to treat digestive
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
disorders (Ferraeira et al., 1997). Other diterpenoids including
derivatives of barbatusol, cariocal and coleonol derivatives have
hypotensive activity (Kelecom, 1983; Tandon et al., 1984, 1992;
Kelecom and Dos Santos, 1985).
Labdane diterpenoids found in Plectranthus barbatus,
include forskolin, forskolin E and F (Valdes et al., 1987; Gabetta
et al., 1989; Jin and He, 1998), ent-labda-8(17),12Z,14-trien-2␣ol and ent-3-acetoxylabda-8(17),12Z,14-trien-2␣-ol in Plectranthus fruticosus (Gaspar-Marques et al., 2003) and plectrornatin C and D in Plectranthus ornatus (Rijo et al., 2002). The
fact that forskolin directly activates adenyl cyclase and thus the
modulation of cAMP could underlie the diversity of different
traditional uses of forskolin-containing species of Plectranthus,
such as Plectranthus barbatus. For example, activation of adenyl
cyclase can stimulate gastric secretions and the presence of
forskolin in Plectranthus barbatus could explain why extracts
from the plant are used for the treatment of digestive disorders
(Bhat et al., 1979, 1980; Hersey et al., 1983; Mukherjee et al.,
2000). Forskolin is known to directly activate the catalytic subunit of adenylate cyclases in smooth muscle cells, an action
that is made possible by enhanced calcium intake (Metzger
and Lindner, 1981; Lindner and Metzger, 1983). Forskolin is a
known cardiotonic agent that mediates contractility by increasing levels of intracellular cAMP or by inhibiting its metabolism
(Ghisalberti, 1977). It is also effective in the treatment of hypertension (Lindner et al., 1978; Valdes et al., 1987). Thus, forskolin
could explain why extracts of Plectranthus barbatus are reported
to lower blood pressure of anaesthetized rat due to relaxation
of vascular smooth muscle (Dubey et al., 1981). The fact that
forskolin can activate the cAMP-dependent protein kinase A signalling pathway (Huang et al., 2005) indicates that it could have
beneficial anti-cancer properties. In fact, early studies showed
that forskolin strongly inhibits melanoma cell-induced human
platelet aggregation (Agarwal and Parks, 1983). Forskolin could
also contribute to the therapeutic antidepressive potential of
Plectranthus barbatus (Ozawa et al., 1997). Recently, products containing forskolin have been sold in the United States
of America as sliming treatments as extracts of Plectranthus
barbatus are reported to stimulate the breakdown of fat. However, there are concerns about the use of these products by
patients taking medicinal drugs as forskolin can influence the
drug-metabolizing enzymes in the liver and thus could be implicated in adverse herb–drug interactions (Ding and Staudinger,
2005).
As yet there are little data on the biological properties of
kaurane diterpenoids found in Plectranthus fruticosus (GasparMarques et al., 2003) and Plectranthus purpuratus (Katti et al.,
1985), the rare phyllocladane diterpenoids from Plectranthus
ambiguus (Liu and Rüedi, 1996; Liu et al., 2003), the neoclerodanes from Plectranthus ornatus (Rijo et al., 2002) and the
methylenequinones from Plectranthus barbatus (Rüedi, 1986;
Yoganarasimhan, 2000).
Biologically active mono- and sesquiterpenoids are frequently found in many species of Plectranthus but there are
little published data that directly link the presence of specific compounds in a species with the traditional uses of
that species. For example, Plectranthus barbatus contains a
15
wide range of mono- and sesquiterpenoids including humulene and -caryophyllene that are known for their antimicrobial properties (Ascensão et al., 1998). Plectranthus sylvestris
also contains -caryophyllene that could explain its use in
treating infections (Chalchat et al., 1996). Plectranthus mollis contains fenchone, limonene, piperitenone, -bisabolene,
-cubebene and ␣-humulene (Chalchat et al., 1996). These compounds have antimicrobial activity and could explain the use of
Plectranthus mollis as a febrifuge (Varma and Sharma, 1963;
Yoganarasimhan, 2000). The use of extracts of leaves of Plectranthus barbatus in birth control could be associated with the
presence of sabinyl acetate as this compound has been found to
be embryotoxic in rodents (Chamorro et al., 1991; Pages et al.,
1991, 1998; Kemtoff et al., 2002). Sabinyl acetate has also been
reported from Plectranthus fruticosus (Pages et al., 1998).
Other monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes have been reported
from different species and many have antimicrobial activity
including -caryophyllene, p-cymene and thymol from Plectranthus aegyptiacus (Smith et al., 1996), limonene, linalool,
myrcene and thymol from Plectranthus amboinicus (Baslas
and Kumar, 1981; Prudent et al., 1995), borneol, camphene,
-phellandrene and ␣-thujene from Plectranthus barbatus
(Mathela et al., 1986; Maia et al., 1988), fenchone, nerol and
terpinolene from Plectranthus glandulosus (Ngassoum, 2001),
-caryophyllene, fenchone and ␣-fenchyl acetate from Plectranthus madagascariensis (Ascensão et al., 1998), menthone
and thymol from Plectranthus montanus (Chadya and Gundidza,
1999). ␣-Amorphene and -cubebene occur in Plectranthus
amboinicus (Prudent et al., 1995; Pino et al., 1996), ␦-selinene,
␣-ionone and humulene are found in Plectranthus barbatus
(Mathela et al., 1986; Maia et al., 1988; Camara et al., 2003),
caryophyllene oxide and 15-hydroxyspathulenol in Plectranthus fruticosus (Gaspar-Marques et al., 2003) and germacrene
D occurs in Plectranthus sylvestris (Chalchat et al., 1996).
The role of phenolic compounds in the medicinal properties
of species of Plectranthus has not been well studied. An antioxidant activity-guided fractionation of Plectranthus ambiguus
resulted in the isolation of 5,6-dihydroxy-7,4′ -dimethoxyflavone
(ladanein) (Liu and Rüedi, 1996). Phenolics have also been
reported from Plectranthus amboinicus (Brieskorn and Riedel,
1977), Plectranthus caninus (Painuly and Tandon, 1983) and
Plectranthus sylvestris (Juch and Rüedi, 1997). As part of a
chemotaxonomic study, the flavonoids of 42 species of Plectranthus were studied and found to contain two non-flavonoid phenolics, the caffeic acid derivatives, nepetoidin A and B (Grayer
et al., 2003). Grayer et al. (2003) showed that nepetoidin B had
potent free radical scavenging activity and was more active than
rosmarinic acid and gallic acid. Nepetoidin A was not tested
due to lack of material. Both compounds had antifungal activity. Nepetoidin A and B were found in the water extracts of leaves
from 13 of the species of Plectranthus reported in this review
to have medicinal activity: Plectranthus ambiguus, Plectranthus asirensis, Plectranthus barbatus, Plectranthus coeruleus,
Plectranthus ecklonii, Plectranthus elegans, Plectranthus hadiensis, Plectranthus igniarius, Plectranthus kivuensis, Plectranthus lanuginosus, Plectranthus madagascarensis, Plectranthus
parviflorus and Plectranthus pseudomarrubioid. Whether these
16
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
two compounds contribute to the medicinal properties of these
species has not been studied. In addition, lipids have been
reported from Plectranthus mollis (Yoganarasimhan, 2000).
Lipids, resinous gum and compounds of nutritional value like
calcium, iron, proteins and carbohydrates have been recorded
from Plectranthus esculentus (Allemann and Hammes, 2003;
Allemann et al., 2003). Alcohols occur in Plectranthus aegyptiacus (Smith et al., 1996), Plectranthus amboinicus (Prudent et
al., 1995) and Plectranthus glandulosus (Ngassoum, 2001).
6. Ethnobotanical uses and phylogeny
In order to see if there are any relationships among the species
of Plectranthus with ethnobotanical uses, the ethnobotanical
data were mapped onto a phylogeny of the genus. The most
recent traditional classification of the genus proposed by Codd
(1975) is problematic because it does not include all species
encountered in the literature and it groups species by superficial morphological similarity based on one or two characters
leading to groupings which are incongruent with the phylogeny
proposed by Paton et al. (2004). The phylogeny by Paton et al.
(2004), based on DNA sequence data and augmented by morphological data, provides an informal classification that divides
the species into two main groups or clades (Fig. 1). Clade 1,
the ‘Coleus’ Clade of Paton et al. (2004), broadly corresponding to the formally recognized genus Coleus, is divided into
two subclades, Clades 1a and b. Clade 2 is recognized as the
‘Plectranthus’ Clade (Fig. 1). Not all species encountered in
this ethnobotanical survey are covered in the phylogeny. Species
not covered are grouped together with those included in the phylogeny that are morphologically similar. In this way it is possible
to assign most species to groups within one of the Clades 1a, b or
2 (Fig. 1). Species that form one of these groups were given numbers within the clade, for example, Clade 1a group 8 contains
species morphologically similar to Plectranthus amboinicus.
Occasionally, it was not possible to assign a species cited in
the literature to numbered groups in Clade 1 or 2 because they
did not share morphological characters with species in those
clades. Such species were placed in groups annotated by letters. For example, Plectranthus edulis belongs in Clade 1 as its
corolla, calyx and nutlet morphology are similar to species in
that Clade. However, Plectranthus edulis is not very similar to
Fig. 1. Figure illustrating the placement of utilized Plectranthus species on the phlyogeny following Paton et al. (2004). The thick unbroken lines represent groups
with species cited as useful; the broken lines indicate groups with no/or few cited uses; groups shown in bold have recorded medicinal uses.
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
any of the numbered groups represented in the phylogeny. Thus,
Plectranthus edulis is placed in Clade 1, group B along with
another species, Plectranthus punctatus that is morphologically
similar.
When the ethnobotanic data were mapped onto the phylogenetic cladogram for Plectranthus it shows that 70% of all
species of Plectranthus with medicinal uses are found in Clade
1 (Fig. 1). In fact, the majority is found in groups in Subclade
1b, except those in group 6. It is of interest that species in group
6 have no recorded medical uses. Subclade 1a has two medicinally important groups, groups 2 and 8. The unplaced groups
of species in Clade 1 are all used medicinally except group D
(Fig. 1). In Clade 2, the only medicinally used species fall into
groups 3, 6, B and E.
All species used as food or in flavouring food are found in
Clade 1 with the exception of Plectranthus glandulosus that
belongs to Clade 2. Within Clade 1, species used as food occur
within groups A, B and E and in Subclade 1b group 5. The
majority of species utilized as fodders also occur within Clade
1 (particularly Subclade 1a groups 2 and 7 and Subclade 1b
groups 2 and 8), except Plectranthus kamerunensis that belongs
to Clade 2 group 6. All species used in apiculture are also found
in Clade 1. The majority of species used in the materials and
social use categories are also from Clade 1 (Table 2; Fig. 1)
as are the species used for magic-religious activities. The same
trend is seen in the horticultural category, where Clade 1 has a
greater number of species than in Clade 2. In addition, species
of Clade 1 are used in a wide range of agricultural and horticultural procedures, such as preparing manure, preventing erosion
and as hedges (Bush, 1943; Drummond and Hemsley, 1953;
Mwangangi, 1982). The species recorded as having horticultural uses that are placed in Clade 2 all occur in group 3 and are
ornamentals.
7. Conclusion
Of the 300 species of Plectranthus, 62 species are reported
to be used as medicines, ornamentals, foods, flavours, fodder
and/or material. It could be that the number of species used is
greater as there were citations to unconfirmed species that were
only cited at the level of genus, but because it was unclear as to
the species used very few of these references have been cited in
this review. There are some interesting trends that emerge from
this review. Species with ethnobotanical uses are not randomly
distributed thoughout the genus but are related. The majority
of species with ethnobotanical uses belong to Clade 1, a group
of Plectranthus formally known as Coleus. Most species with
medicinal uses occur in Clade 1 Subclade 1b and Subclade 1a
groups 2 and 8. Whether other species in the other groups within
Clade 1 or those in Clade 2 have potential to be used as medicinal plants justifies further study as the compounds, especially
the diterpenoids, occur in species from both clades. To date the
majority of the phytochemical studies have concentrated on the
isolation of diterpenoids and although these compounds have
been shown to have potent antimicrobial activity few have been
tested in bioassays that are directly related to the traditional
uses of the species the compounds were isolated from. Further
17
research is needed to identify the active compounds, especially
in those species that are most frequently cited.
One of the most studied Plectranthus-derived compounds is
the labdane forskolin isolated from Plectranthus barbatus. It has
a range of pharmalogical propoperties and could explain many of
the diverse medicinal uses of Plectranthus barbatus. Despite the
interest in the activity of this compound our knowledge about its
distribution in the genus is poor. Natural product chemists have
mostly reported on novel diterpenoids in species of Plectranthus
and maybe not always reported on the occurrence of known
compounds. Thus, there is a scientific case for more research to
be undertaken on the activity and distribution of diterpenoids in
this genus.
The majority of the 300 species of Plectranthus occur in
Africa and around half are distributed within sub-Saharan Africa
of these most, about 110, species belong to Clade 1 and 40
species belong to Clade 2 (Paton et al., 2004). Madagascar
and Southern Africa both have around 50 species, although in
these areas around 75% of species belong in Clade 2. There
are around 70 species in Asia and Australia together and these
species can be placed in Clade 1 (Paton et al., 2004). The genus
is not native in the New World, the species which have been
introduced there largely belong to Clade 1. In this review, we
have collected information about the uses of 21% of the 300
species. The lack of documentation for the other species could
reflect the fact that it is not easy to differentiate among some
of the species and species with a limited distributed could have
been confused with the more common widespread distributed
species.
In this study, we have made use of the notes on herbarium
sheets and on collector notes for herbarium vouchers lodged
in herbaria in parts of Africa and the United Kingdom. If this
review was expanded to cover samples of Plectranthus from
herbaria in other countries as well as unpublished literature, such
as locally produced ethnobotanical reports from African and
Asian universities or research institute, our knowledge about
the diversity of species used and how they are used would most
likely increase.
Whatever the source of information, it is important that the
authors refer to voucher samples lodged in a herbarium. These
vouchers can be used to support the identification of the species.
The value and importance of vouchers and the notes associated
with the vouchers can be illustrated by reference to Plectranthus
stolzii. Plectranthus stolzii is restricted in its natural distribution
to parts of Southern Tanzania and Northern Malawi, and there
is very little information about its uses in the published literature. A survey of different herbaria found vouchers deposited at
Kew that had been made during general collecting trips (Gaetan,
1952) and projects aimed to record the importance of medicinal plants to the people of Africa to support their conservation
(Cunningham and Barigyira, 1992). The vouchers of P. stolzii
record the occurance of the species and its ethnobotanical uses
(Table 1). These data have not yet been documented in published
papers. The species is reported to treat a range of medicinal conditions including respiratory conditions (Table 1). This species is
very similar in appearance to the more widespread Plectranthus
laxiflorus that occurs in the same areas as Plectranthus stolzii
18
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
and is used to treat some of the sample medicinal conditions
(Table 1). However, because voucher specimens of Plectranthus stolzii were lodged in the herbarium at Kew, along with
notes about its traditional uses, the identification of the species
can be confirmed.
Species that have the greatest number of different medicinal
uses, such as Plectranthus barbatus and Plectranthus amboinicus, appear to be distributed widely in both the Old and New
World. The wide distribution of these frequently used species
reflects the fact that they have been semi-cultivated as “herbs”
and taken by people from one place to another as they have
migrated across the world. Generally, the uses in the New World
are similar to those in the Old World, although there are some differences. In Africa and Asia, Plectranthus species were mostly
used to treat digestive, skin and infections, whereas Plectranthus
amboinicus is used in the treatment of epilepsy and convulsions
in the Caribbean (Morton, 1992; Ruiz et al., 1996) and as an
intoxicant in the Amazon (Jain and Lata, 1996). These species
are also used in the treatment of pain in Africa but not so frequently in Asia. This could reflect the fact that in Asia other more
active species were available, whereas this was not the case in
Africa.
Plectranthus includes a few species that are often found in
dry open cleared areas near villages and could be classed as a
“weed” using the definition proposed by Baker (1965). Baker
(1965) defines a weed as a species that can successfully grow in
“any specified geographical area, its population grow entirely or
predominantly in situations markedly disturbed by man, without, of course, being deliberately cultivated”. Species classed
as weeds are often medicinal plants (Stepp, 2004). The natural
habitat of species, such as Plectranthus laxiflorus, can be associated with the behaviour of village people as it is found at the
margin of forests and near paths. Nevertheless, there are many
other species of Plectranthus found in similar habitats but they
are not recorded as having medicinal or other economic uses.
This could be because some are rare and thus not frequently
used or their economic uses have not been documented. Nevertheless, within Plectranthus the link between being classed as a
weed and having medicinal properties is at the moment weak,
as it is only supported by a few species.
The phenomenon of synonymy within the genera has also
made it difficult to collate together the uses of specific species.
Synonymy is most prevalent for species in Clade 1 and particularly in Subclade 1b, which contains both of the popularly
used species, Plectranthus barbatus and Plectranthus amboinicus. The diversity of names used to describe the same species
could in part reflect the widespread use of these species along
with the difficulties in differentiating among closely related
species. In this review, we have shown how a cladogram produced from the new molecular phylogeny of the genus (Paton et
al., 2004) has provided a framework to superimpose our knowledge about the uses of Plectranthus. Furthermore, the cladogram
can also serve as a guide to direct the search for information on the uses of other species, especially those in Clade 2.
Within Clade 1b it is highly likely that those species closely
related to those with traditional uses could also share these
uses.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the BAT Biodiversity Partnership
with RBG Kew for the grant that enabled this work to be carried
out. We are also grateful to Dr. T. Kokubun, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for designing the database used in this project. We
thank the following herbaria for use of their libraries and access
to their collections: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (K), British
Museum (BM), East Africa Herbarium (EA) and University of
Nairobi (NAI).
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Collector and source of herbarium vouchers refered to in
the text and tables
Bally, 1934. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at EA. Collected
from Tanzania (Bally 219).
Battiscombe, 1956. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Kenya (Battiscombe 554).
Buitendag, 1971. P. verticillatus Druce (syn. P. nummularius Briq.) A
herbarium specimen held at EA collected in South Africa (Buitendag
885).
Bush, 1943. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at EA collected
from Kenya (Bush 255).
Caufield, 1978. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at EA. Collected
from Kenya (Caufield 137).
Craig, Mayenda, 1990. P. amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng. Herbarium specimen
held at K. collected from the Pacific (Craig & Mayenda 25).
Cunningham, Barigyira, 1992. P. stolii Gilli. Herbarium specimen held at K
collected from Uganda (Cunningham & Barigyira 4107).
Drummond, Hemsley, 1953. P. barbatus. Andr. Herbarium specimen held at
K and collected in Tanzania (Drummond & Hemsley 4370).
Dudgeon, 1909. P. esculentus N.E.Br. Herbarium specimen held at K collected from Nigeria (Dudgeon s.n.).
Epling, 1981. P. amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng. Herbarium specimen held at K
collected from the Pacific (Epling 18080).
Gaetan, 1959. P. stolzii Gilli. Herbarium specimen held at K collected from
Tanzania (Gaetan 125).
Gentry, 1969. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at EA collected
from Kenya (Gentry 9).
Gentry, 1970. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at EA collected
from Kenya (Gentry 17).
Githinji, 1988. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at NAI collected
from Kenya (Githinji 20).
Githinji, Mwangangi, 1989. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at
NAI collected from Kenya (Githinji & Mwangangi 108).
23
Glover, et al., 1961a. P. kamerunensis Gürke. Herbarium specimen held at K
& EA collected from Kenya (Glover, et al., 1370).
Glover, et al., 1961b. P. longipes Bak. Herbarium specimen held at K & EA
collected from Kenya (Glover, et al., 2564).
Glover, Samuel, 1962. P. longipes Bak. Herbarium specimen held at EA
collected from Kenya (Glover & Samuel 3062).
Greenway, 1946. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Kenya (Greenway 7879).
Grimshaw, 1993. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Tanzania (Grimshaw 9339).
Hedberg, 1979. P. punctatus L’Her. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Ethiopia (Hedberg 6942B).
Hendy, 1977. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Yemen (Hendy 8).
Hepper, Jaeger, 1978. P. lanuginosus (Benth.) Agnew. Herbarium specimen
held at K collected from Kenya (Hepper & Jaeger 7032).
Jaarsveld, 1991. P. elegans Britten. Herbarium specimen from held at K
collected from South Africa (Jaarsveld 11328).
Jarrett, 1950. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at K collected from
Uganda (Jarrett 16).
Kahurananga, Kiilu, 1976. P. saccatus Benth. Herbarium specimen held at
EA collected from Kenya (Kahurananga & Kiilu 2953).
Koritschoner, 1935a. P. laxiflorus Benth. Herbarium specimen held at K collected from Tanzania (Koritschoner 880).
Koritschoner, 1935b. P. laxiflorus Benth. Herbarium specimen held at K collected from Tanzania (Koritschoner 1365).
Leeuwenberg, 1972. Plectranthus aff. occidentalis. Herbarium specimen held
at K collected from Cameroon (Leeuwenberg 10289).
Lovett, Kayombo, 1989a. P. viphyensis Brummit & J.H. Seyani. Herbarium
specimen held at K collected from Tanzania (Lovett & Kayombo 3317).
Lovett, Kayombo, 1989b. P. viphyensis Brummit & J.H. Seyani. Herbarium
specimen held at K collected from Tanzania (Lovett & Kayombo 3508).
Lukhoba, Mathenge, 1993. P. edulis (Vatke) Agnew. Herbarium specimen
held at NAI collected from Kenya (Lukhoba & Mathenge 220).
Maher, 1935. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Kenya (Maher 3229).
Mathew, 1970. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Kenya (Mathew 6163).
Mayenda, 1991. P. amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng. Herbarium specimen held at
K collected from the Pacific (Mayenda 43).
Meyer, 1964. P. pseudomarrubioides Willemse. Herbarium specimen at EA
collected from Ethiopia (Meyer 8590).
Meyerhoff, 1978a. P. tetensis (Bak.) Agnew. Herbarium specimen held at K
collected from Kenya (Meyerhoff 14M).
Meyerhoff, 1978b. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Kenya (Meyerhoff 28M).
Meyerhoff, 1978c. P. amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng. Herbarium specimen held
at K collected from Kenya (Meyerhoff 94M).
Mooney, 1954. P. punctatus L’Her. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Ethiopia (Mooney 6225).
Msyla, 1944. P. esculentus N.E.Br. Herbarium specimen held at EA collected
from Uganda (Msyla 1600).
Mwangangi, 1971. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Kenya (Mwangangi 1648).
Mwangangi, 1982. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Kenya (Mwangangi 2241).
Napier, 1933. P. kivuensis (Lebrun & Touss.) R.H. Willemse. Herbarium
specimen held at K collected from Kenya (Napier 5409).
NMK Expd., 1974. P. hadiensis (Forssk.) Schweinf. ex Spreng. Herbarium
specimen held at EA collected from Kenya (NMK Expd. 171).
Purseglove, 1944. P. esculentus N.E.Br. Herbarium specimen held at K collected from Uganda (Purseglove P1600).
Rounce, 1933. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Tanzania (Rounce 253).
Rwaburindore, 1969. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at K collected from Uganda (Rwaburindore Rwab. 32).
Sato, 1976. P. igniarius (Schweinf.) Agnew. Herbarium specimen held at EA
collected from Kenya (Sato 22).
24
C.W. Lukhoba et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 1–24
Scott, 1979. P. punctatus L’Her. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Ethiopia (Scott 63).
Semsei, 1956a. P. esculentus N.E.Br. Herbarium specimen held at EA collected from Tanzania (Semsei 2464).
Semsei, 1956b. P. esculentus N.E.Br. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Tanzania (Semsei 2498).
Simon, Mollel, 1999. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at K collected from Tanzania (Simon & Mollel 94).
Tadesse, 1967. P. punctatus L’Her. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Ethiopia (Tadesse 638).
Tanner, 1946. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Tanzania (Tanner 4877A).
Tanner, 1952a. P. hadiensis (Forssk.) Schweinf. ex Spreng. Herbarium specimen held at K collected from Tanzania (Tanner 629).
Tanner, 1952b. P. montanus Benth. (P. cylindraceus). Herbarium specimen
held at K collected from Tanzania (Tanner 728).
Tanner, 1959. P. hadiensis (Forssk.) Schweinf. ex Spreng. Herbarium specimen held at K collected from Tanzania (Tanner 4221).
Tanner, 1961a. P. stachyoides Oliv. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Tanzania (Tanner 5742).
Tanner, 1961b. P. lactiflorus (Vatke) Agnew. Herbarium specimen held at K
& EA collected from Tanzania (Tanner 5911).
Tanner, 1961c. Plectranthus sp. Herbarium specimen held at K collected from
Tanzania (Tanner 5907).
Templer, 1960. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at K collected
from Tanzania (Templer T11).
Ward, 1935. P. esculentus N.E.Br. Herbarium specimen held at K & EA
collected from Tanzania (Ward H39/35).
Williams, 1975. P. barbatus Andr. Herbarium specimen held at EA collected
from Tanzania (Williams 60).
Winter, Leistner, 1957. Herbarium specimen held at K collected from
Namibia (Winter & Leistner 5595).
Yuncker, 1953. P. amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng. Herbarium specimen held at
BM collected from Tonga (Yuncker 15232).
Zaroug, 1981. P. pseudomarrubioides Willemse. Herbarium specimen held at
K collected from Oman (Zaroug RMD 23).
Alan Paton