How to Identify the Amaranthaceae Family

25 Sep, 2022

How to Identify the Amaranthaceae Family

Achyranthes aspera has a spike inflorescence & tiny flowers hidden by bracts.
Achyranthes aspera has a spike inflorescence & tiny flowers hidden by bracts.

Table of contents

Introduction to the Amaranthaceae Family

 The Amaranthaceae family is part of the Caryophyllales Order of core Eudicots. It is made of mostly herbs or shrubs, or sometimes lianas. Inflorescences are typically elongated spikes, heads, compact cymes, or panicles and their flowers are mostly very small and inconspicuous with a sepaloid or non-existent perianth. Flowers are frequently surrounded by bracts that may or may not be persistent, and fruits are usually small and non-fleshy. The Amaranthaceae are often found growing in disturbed habitats, and many of them are introduced weeds, sometimes considered noxious. Many edible plants come from Amaranthaceae, including beets, quinoa, amaranth, spinach, and swiss chard.

Flowers of Amaranthaceae

Plants are usually hermaphrodite but otherwise monoecious, andromonoecious, gynomonoecious, dioecious, androdioecious, or polygamomonoecious (rarely).  Flowers are solitary, paired (axillary), or aggregated in terminal or axillary cymes, spikes, heads (often with conspicuous persistent bracts and bracteoles), panicles, or thyrses, and they may or may not be pseudanthial. Flowers are small to minute in size, they are bracteate and bracteolate, regular, and tricyclic when hermaphrodite, otherwise sometimes, they are cyclic or two-cyclic. Free hypanthium is usually absent except sometimes in the Chenopodioideae. The hypogynous disk is absent except in Chenopodioideae, where it is usually present. The perianth is dry and scarious, sepaloid or petaloid, or may be vestigial or absent (sometimes in Chenopodioideae). When present, there are 3–5(1-6) parts to the perianth. The perianth is typically interpreted as a calyx with 3–5 (1-6) parts that may be free, partially connate, or connate (almost always in Chenopodioideae). The calyx is regular, imbricate, usually non-fleshy except in Chenopodioideae, persistent in fruit, and may or may not be accrescent, enclosing the fruit with wings, tubercles, or spines. 

Androecium of Amaranthaceae

The androecium has 2-5 (1–10) members that are either free of the perianth or adnate to the perianth or disk. All members are usually unequal except in the Chenopodioideae and some Ptilotus, where they are all equal.  They are always in one whorl and are usually basally coherent 1 adelphous with filaments usually connate all or part of their length into a membranous tube, or in Chenopodioideae, they are often free of one another. The androecium can be made of exclusively fertile stamens (sometimes, or usually in Chenopodioideae) or may often include staminodes with some members lacking anthers or with petaloid or with pseudostaminodial scales alternating with the true androecial members.  When present, there are 1–3 or 5 staminodes in the same series as fertile stamens, and they may or may not be petaloid. There are 3-5(1) stamens that are oppositisepalous and usually isomerous with the perianth. Anthers dehiscing via longitudinal slits, and they are  introrse, unilocular to bilocular, and either bisporangiate or tetrasporangiate.  

Gynoecium of Amaranthaceae

The gynoecium is 2–3(4-5) carpelled, often 5 carpelled in Chenopodioideae, and the pistil 1 celled. The gynoecium is synovarious, synstylovarious, or syncarpous, and it is usually superior but can sometimes be partly inferior. Ovary is 1 locular and sessile to stipitate. The gynoecium may be non-stylate or stylate, when present, there are 1–3(2-4) styles that may be partially joined.  There are 1-3 stigmas 1–3 that are dry type, papillate, and Group II type. Placentation is always basal. There are 1 or 2-5 ovules in the single cavity, and they are ascending or pendulous, non-arillate, campylotropous, bitegmic, and crassinucellate.

Fruit of Amaranthaceae

The fruit may be fleshy or non-fleshy. It may be a dehiscent irregular or often circumscissile capsule, or it may be an indehiscent berry, drupe, nut, capsule, or often a utricle. Sometimes in the Chenopodioideae, the fruit may be enclosed in the fleshy hypanthium or perianth, and sometimes, the gynoecia also combine to form a multiple fruit. Seeds are non-endospermic and contain starch. Perisperm is present (abundant, mealy) or sometimes absent in Chenopodioideae. Seeds have starch.

Habit & Leaf Form of Amaranthaceae

Most are annual or perennial (sometimes biennial) herbs or subshrubs, some shrubs, and a few vines and small trees. Sometimes they are succulent and nearly always halophytic in the Chenopodioideae, where they can even be more or less cactoid with succulent photosynthetic stems (Salicornia). Many species have thickened nodes on their stems. The wood of the perennial stem has a typical anomalous secondary growth, and only the subfamily Polycnemoideae has normal secondary growth. Plants are green and photosynthesizing. Leaves may be well-developed, much-reduced, or absent, and they may be minute to large in size. Usually without a basal aggregation of leaves except sometimes in Ptilotus and the Chenopodioideae. The leaves are arranged alternate or opposite, and they are usually herbaceous but can also be fleshy or membranous. They are simple and may be petiolate or sessile, exstipulate, epulvinate, connate or not, sheathing or not, and flat or terete. Leaves can be extremely variable in shape, with mostly entire or occasionally toothed margins. The lamina is entire and is either one-veined or pinnately veined. A variety of hairs are often present.  Domatia are common. 

Uses of Amaranthaceae 

A few cultivated ornamentals from Amaranthus, Gomphrena, Iresine, and some noxious weeds, notably from Amaranthus, Iresine, Acnida. Amaranthus is also used as food in many parts of the world. In North America, natives used to cultivate it for both the greens which are eaten as a vegetable and the seeds which were often ground into flour.  Amaranth seeds and flour are a suitable replacement for wheat for those with grain allergies and gluten intolerance. Other commercially grown species include the sugar beet and Swiss chard from Beta vulgaris and spinach (Spinacia oleracea).

Morphology of Amaranthaceae in North America

Drooping panicles made of spike of small flowers, common in Amaranthaceae. From Amaranthus palmeri
Drooping panicles made of spike of small flowers, common in Amaranthaceae. From Amaranthus palmeri
Spike inflorescence of Achyranthes aspera also shows bracts & bracteoles common in Amaranthaceae.
Spike inflorescence of Achyranthes aspera also shows bracts & bracteoles common in Amaranthaceae.
Head of Gomphrena serrata w conspicuous bracts, Amaranthaceae often w bracts longer than flowers
Head of Gomphrena serrata w conspicuous bracts, Amaranthaceae often w bracts longer than flowers
Small flowers in leafy bracts of Bassia scoparia, almost all Amaranthaceae have small or tiny flowers w bracts
Winged Sepals of Salsola kali ssp tragus, as w many Amaranthaceae it’s perianth is sepaloid, these are larger than most, however
Persistent winged bracts of Atriplex canescens, persistent bracts are seen in many Amaranthaceae
Persistent winged bracts of Atriplex canescens, persistent bracts are seen in many Amaranthaceae
Rhombic leaves of Chenopodium album, common in many Amaranthaceae members
Rhombic leaves of Chenopodium album, common in many Amaranthaceae members
Terete leaves of Halogeton glomeratus are another common leaf form among Amaranthaceae
Terete leaves of Halogeton glomeratus are another common leaf form among Amaranthaceae
Reduced and spine-tipped leaves of Salsola kali ssp tragus, reduced leaves common in Amaranthaceae & spine-tipped leaves common in Salsoideae subfamily.
Reduced and spine-tipped leaves of Salsola kali ssp tragus, reduced leaves common in Amaranthaceae & spine-tipped leaves common in Salsoideae subfamily.
Tumbleweed of Salsola kali ssp tragus, many Amaranthaceae form tumbleweeds, this species is the most common large one in W North America.
Tumbleweed of Salsola kali ssp tragus, many Amaranthaceae form tumbleweeds, this species is the most common large one in W North America.

Amaranthaceae Species I have Covered So Far in North America

Amaranthoideae Subfamily

Achyranthes aspera – Chaff Flower

This is a tall herb, up to 2 m tall, with pilose to puberulent stems and variable leaves that are often roughly obovate, suborbicular, etc. Sessile flowers are in a long spike surrounded by persistent awned bracts and bracteoles. Pantropical herbs were introduced to the southern USA and Mexico.

Amaranthus hybridus – Smooth Pigweed

This is a hybrid species that readily hybridizes with numerous other species. It has highly variable morphology. Similar to Amaranthus palmeri, it grows to 2.5 m tall, and the stems are usually glabrous (hairless). Native to eastern North America but now widely introduced elsewhere.

Amaranthus palmeri – Palmer’s Amaranth

Is an herb that grows to 1.5 m (rarely to 3 m) tall. Stem and leaves are nearly glabrous, and the rhombic leaves have long petioles. Flowers are in terminal (only) spikes or drooping panicles. Native to southern North America but now widely introduced.

Amaranthus retroflexus – Red Root Amaranth

It is a tall herb, growing to 3 m tall, is pubescent hairy, and has rhombic or ovate leaves with long petioles. Flowers are in terminal and axillary spikes or panicles. It is believed to be native to eastern and central North America.

Camphorosmoideae Subfamily

Bassia scoparia is an annual herb up to 1.5 m tall, with linear-lanceolate leaves that often curl, and a stem that is often red. Inconspicuous flowers in leaf axils with 0.5 -1 cm long bracts. Highly invasive Eurasian introduced species.

Bassia scoparia – Summer Cypress

It is an annual herb up to 1.5 m tall, with linear–lanceolate leaves that often curl, and a stem that is often red. Inconspicuous flowers in leaf axils with 0.5 -1 cm long bracts.
Highly invasive Eurasian introduced species.

Chenopodioideae Subfamily

Atriplex canescens ~ sessile ~ oblong leaves, conspicuous winged greenish bracteoles in fruit that turn papery & beige when mature, few spines on branches. Native W + mid-W USA; of the Amaranthaceae Family

Atriplex canescens – Four Wing Saltbush

Has more or less sessile, somewhat oblong leaves, and conspicuous winged greenish bracteoles in fruit that turn papery & beige when mature (see photo). There are few spines on their branches. Native to western & midwestern USA

Atriplex confertifolia – Spiny Saltbrush

It is similar to A. canescens but with shorter, wider leaves, unwinged fruits, and many more spines on its branches. Native to dry areas of the western USA, especially in the Great Basin region.

Chenopodiastrum simplex – Giant-Seeded Goosefoot

This herb has larger leaves than most of the family that are 3 – 10 cm long and more than half as wide, with irregular large pointy teeth, lobes, or lobules (of varying depths), with mostly hairless stems & leaves and small apetalous flowers. Native to much of North America.

Chenopodium album – White Goosefoot

This is a very common erect annual with striations on its stems in green or reddish-purple; leaves are rhombic–ovate to broadly lanceolate. Flowers are in compact cymes in terminal or lateral spikes. Introduced from Eurasia, widespread.

Chenopodium berlandieri – Pitseed Goosefoot

This one is very similar to C. album, and it is extremely difficult to differentiate them in the field. They can only be differentiated by floral morphology & honeycomb-pitted seeds seen at high magnification. Native throughout North America.

Dysphania graveolens aromatic mostly pinnatifid leaves, flowers in compact terminal cymes w leafy bracts that are usu not persistent. Native SW USA and S to Guatemala, Peru, Argentina; of the Amaranthaceae Family

Dysphania graveolens – Fetid Goosefoot

This is an aromatic herb with mostly pinnatifid leaves. Flowers are in compact terminal cymes with leafy bracts that are usually not persistent. Native in southwestern USA south to Guatemala, Peru, and Argentina.

Krascheninnikovia lanata small shrub w flat lanceolate leaves, leaves & stems white-woolly turning reddish. Fruits (utricles) are densely woolly. Endemic to W NAM Canada s to N Mexico; of the Amaranthaceae Family

Krascheninnikovia lanata – Winterfat

This is a small shrub with flat lanceolate leaves. Leaves and stems are both white-woolly turning reddish. Fruits (utricles) are densely woolly, and visible all winter, giving it its common name of Winterfat. Endemic to western North America from Canada south to northern Mexico.

Gomphrenoideae Subfamily

Froelichia floridana annual w 1 erect or ascending stem, leaves on bottom 1/3 plant lanceolate to linear & sericeous-tomentose, flowers in 5 rank pubescent spikes, utricles flask shaped. Native C+E USA, N Mexico; of the Amaranthaceae Family

Froelichia floridana – Large Cottonweed or Plains Snakecotton

A small annual with a single erect or ascending stem leaves on the bottom 1/3 of the plant that are lanceolate to linear & sericeous–tomentose. Flowers are in 5 rank pubescent spikes, and utricles are flask-shaped. Native to central and eastern USA, northern Mexico.

Froelichia gracilis annual to perennial, erect + multi-branched from base, leaves on lower 1/3, often basal. flowers in 3 ranked grey pubescent spikes, utricles conical oblique. Native +E USA, N Mexico; of the Amaranthaceae Family

Froelichia gracilis – Slender Cottonweed

This is an annual to perennial, erect + multi-branched from the base, leaves on the lower 1/3 of the plant, and are often basal. Flowers are in 3 ranked grey pubescent spikes; utricles are conical and oblique. Native to eastern USA and northern Mexico.

Gomphrena serrata erect to prostate perennial/annual, stem pilose, leaves obovate to oblong pilose & sessile to petiolate, flowers in head covered by white lanceolate bracteoles Native SE USA to tropic America; of the Amaranthaceae Family

Gomphrena serrata – Prostrate Globe Amaranth

Is erect to prostrate perennial or annual, with a pilose stem, and obovate to oblong pilose leaves that are sessile to petiolate. Flowers in a head covered by white lanceolate bracteoles. Native from southeastern USA south to tropical Americas.

Iresine diffusa – Juba’s Bush

This is a branched erect to clambering annual to perennial with ovate–lanceolate leaves that are 3 – 14 cm long and glabrous to villous. Flowers are in villous open panicles (males) or compact panicles (females). Native to South America, introduced into North America.

Salsoideae Subfamily

Halogeton glomeratus highly branched halophytic annual with narrow fleshy blue-green leaves tipped w long spines, flowers in along branch w waxy winged bracts. C Asian intro to W NAM; of the Amaranthaceae Family

Halogeton glomeratus – Salt Lover

This highly branched halophytic annual has narrow fleshy blue-green leaves tipped with long spines. Flowers grow densely along the branches with large conspicuous waxy, winged bracts. Native to central Asia, introduced in western North America.

Salsola kali ssp tragus annual w branched tangled stems, leaves firm linear subulate & usu spine-tipped, flowers w long spiny bracts srnd by disk of winged white/pink sepals. Russian intro; of the Amaranthaceae Family

Salsola kali ssp tragus aka Kali Tragus – Tumbleweed

This is a low-growing annual with branched and tangled stems, firm linear subulate & usually very spine-tipped leaves. Flowers are surrounded by long spiny bracts and a disk of winged white/pink sepals. Widely introduced in western North America, native to Russia. Our most common ‘tumbleweed’.

Taxonomy of Amaranthaceae

There are currently about 2000 – 2500 spp in 180 accepted genera of the Caryophyllales order of core Eudicots. There are currently 10 subfamilies, but this may change. As with all families, current advances in molecular phylogenetics are causing us to re-evaluate family relationships, so this may change in the future as more information is discovered.    

  1. Amaranthoideae – Annual or perennial herbs to shrubs, occasionally small trees.  The inflorescence is branched or not but is usually spike-like or capitate. The bracts are disarticulating, and bracteoles may or may not be papyraceous or scarious. The perianth is typically scarious, and they possess staminodes or pseudostaminodes. Cuticle waxes lack platelets, and hairs are uniseriate. 
  2. Betoideae – Annual to perennial herbs or occasionally subshrubs or vines. Bracteoles are usually present, the perianth has 5 (3) parts and is persistent and accrescent in Beta. The androecium has 5 (1) members, and the gynoecium is sometimes partly inferior. Fruit is a circumscissile capsule or pyxidium.
  3. Camphorosmoideae – Often shrubby plants but sometimes annual herbs, often with C4 photosynthesis, leaves are terete, and ‘prickles’ are often present. Their hairs have swollen bases, styles are filiform with papillae all around. The perianth is fleshy and spiny.
  4. Chenopodioideae – Annual herbs or short-lived perennial herbs to shrubs that are more or less succulent and often have swollen nodes. They prefer dry and or saline temperate to subtropical habitats. Flowers are small and have a greenish perianth that often becomes more elaborate after flowering and is accrescent with the usually indehiscent fruits.
  5. Corispermoideae – Annual herbs without C4 photosynthesis. The inflorescence is spicate, simple, compact, or sometimes globular, and lacking bracteoles. Leaves are mostly alternate, sessile, or petiole-like. Hairs are branched or stellate. Perianth has 0-5 membranous tepals that are not persistent.
  6. Gomphrenoideae – Annual to perennial herbs or subshrubs with a perianth that is free to connate. Anthers are bisporangiate, monothecal, and their filaments are more or less connate. Their stigma is either capitate or bilobed.
  7. Polycnemoideae – Annual to perennial herbs or small shrubs that often inhabit saline habitats. Leaves are needle-like or succulent, bracts are disarticulating, and bracteoles are large. Flowers are axillary, the perianth is petaloid but never modified, and the androecium is basally connate. This subfamily is distinguishable from all other members of Amaranthaceae by normal secondary growth. 
  8. Salicornioideae – Annual or perennial herbs to low shrubs, usually with articulated stems. Plants are glabrous, and leaves are usually opposite, more or less terete or scaly or reduced to a rim. The inflorescence is dense, spicate, and leafless. Perianth has 3-4(2-5) parts and is typically at least partially connate. In fruiting, the perianth may remain membranous or become spongy, crustaceous, or horny.
  9. Salsoideae – Herbs, subshrubs, shrubs, or sometimes trees. Stems and leaves are often succulent, leaves are terete, and bracteoles are present. Scarious wings usually develop from the perianth in fruit. Anthers have colored appendages, and their stigmas are flattened.
  10. Suaedoideae – Annual to perennial herbs to shrubs that are usually glabrous and usually have well-developed terete leaves. The inflorescence is spicate axillary cymes that are loose, leafy, and possesses bracteoles. Styles are filiform, stigma may be capitate but is papillate all around. The perianth is persistent and usually accrescent and enlarged or winged when in fruit.

Genera:

Amaranthoideae: Achyranthes (14), Achyropsis (6), Aerva (6, 5 extant), Allmania (1), Allmaniopsis (1), Amaranthus (91 inc Acnida), Arthraerua (1), Bosea (3), Calicorema (2), Celosia (46), Centema (2), Centemopsis (13), Centrostachys (1), Chamissoa (3), Charpentiera (6), Chionothrix (2), Cyathula (28), Cyphocarpa (3 inc Kyphocarpa), Dasysphaera (4), Deeringia (10), Digera (1), Eriostylos (1), Hebanthodes (1), Henonia (1), Herbstia (1), Hermbstaedtia (14), Indobanalia (1), Lagrezia (14), Lecosia (2), Leucosphaera (1), Lopriorea (1), Marcelliopsis (3), Mechowia (2), Nelsia (3), Neocentema (2), Nothosaerva (1), Nototrichium (1), Nyssanthes (4), Omegandra (1), Ouret (8), Pandiaka (13), Paraerva (2), Pleuropetalum (3), Pleuropterantha (3), Polyrhabda (1), Psilotrichopsis (1), Psilotrichum (26), Ptilotus (122), Pupalia (4), Rosifax (1), Saltia (1), Sericocoma (3 inc Pseudosericocoma), Sericocomopsis (2), Sericorema (2), Sericostachys (2), Siamosia (1), Stilbanthus (1), Trichuriella (1), Volkensinia (1), Wadithamnus (1).  

Betoideae: Acroglochin (3), Aphanisma (1), Beta (10), Hablitzia (1), Oreobliton (1), Patellifolia (1).  

Camphorosmoideae: Bassia (22 inc Kirilowia, Kochia, Panderia), Chenolea (2), Didymanthus (1), Dissocarpus (4), Enchylaena (2), Eokochia (1), Eremophea (2), Grubovia (6), Londesia (?), Maireana (59 inc Eriochiton), Malacocera (4), Neobassia (2), Neokochia (2), Osteocarpum (5), Roycea (3), Sclerolaena (78 inc Sclerochlamys, Stelligera), Spirobassia (1), Threlkeldia (2).

Chenopodioideae: Archiatriplex (1), Atriplex (245 inc Cremnophyton, Halimione), Axyris (7), Blitum (10 inc Monolepis, Scleroblitum), Camphorosma (5), Ceratocarpus (1), Chenopodiastrum (8); Chenopodium (129 inc Einadia, Rhagodia), Cycloloma (1), Dysphania (43), Exomis (1), Extriplex (2), Girgensohnia (5), Grayia (4 inc Zuckia), Holmbergia (1), Krascheninnikovia (2), Lipandra (1), Manochlamys (1), Microgynoecium (1), Micromonolepis (1), Neomonolepis (1), Oreosalsola (9) Oxybasis (13), Proatriplex (1), Spinacia (3), Stutzia (2 inc Endolepis), Suckleya (1), Teloxys (1). 

Corispermoideae: Agriophyllum (6), Anthochlamys (5), Corispermum (68). 

Gomphrenoideae: Alternanthera (113), Blutaparon (4, 3 extant), Froelichia (15), Froelichiella (1), Gomphrena (129 inc Philoxerus, Pseudogomphrena), Guilleminea (8 inc Brayulinea, Gossypianthus), Hebanthe (6), Iresine (34 inc Dicaurus, Irenella, Woehleria), Lithophila (2), Pedersenia (8), Pfaffia (33), Pseudoplantago (2), Quaternella (3), Tidestromia (6), Xerosiphon (2).

Polycnemoideae: Hemichroa (1), Nitrophila (4), Polycnemum (6), Surreya (2).

Salicornioideae: Allenrolfea (3), Arthrocaulon (2), Arthroceras (1), Halocnemum (2), Halopeplis (3), Halostachys (1), Heterostachys (2), Kalidium (7), Mangleticornia (1), Microcnemum (1), Salicornia (52 inc Arthrocnemum, Sarcocornia), Tecticornia (45 inc Halosarcia, Pachycornia, Sclerostegia, Tegicornia). 

Salsoideae: Agathophora (1), Anabasis (30 inc Fredolia), Arthrophytum (8), Caroxylon (128), Climacoptera (40), Cornulaca (6), Cyathobasis (1), Gamanthus (5), Halanthium (5), Halarchon (1), Halimocnemis (16), Halocharis (6), Halogeton (3), Halothamnus (22 inc Aellenia), Haloxylon (11), Hammada (2), Horaninovia (7), Iljinia (1), Kaviria (9), Lagenantha (2), Nanophyton (8), Noaea (6), Nucularia (1), Ofaiston (1), Petrosimonia (11), Piptoptera (1), Pyankovia (3), Rhaphidophyton (1), Salsola (64 inc Kali, Physandra), Seidlitzia (3), Soda (2), Sympegma (2), Traganopsis (1), Traganum (2), Turania (4), Xylosalsola (4).

Suaedoideae: Baolia (1), Bienertia (4), Fadenia (1), Sevada (1), Suaeda (91 inc Alexandra, Borsczowia). 

Key Differences From Similar Families

Amaranthaceae differs from the similar but very small (only two genera) Achatocarpaceae family because Amaranthaceae usually have a herbaceous habit vs always woody and always with normal secondary growth in the Achatocarpaceae. Amaranthaceae also usually have dry fruits rather than the succulent berries found in the Achatocarpaceae.  

Distribution of Amaranthaceae

Temperate to tropical, a truly cosmopolitan family missing only from Antarctica and the most extreme Arctic areas. Widespread through all of the Americas., Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and South America.  

Distribution of Amaranthaceae in the Americas

Canadian Genera Include:

Amaranthoideae: Achyranthes 1 of 14 Old World Tropics spp intro ON; Amaranthus 20 of 91 cosmopolitan spp intro BC, NT, NB, NS, PE, NL Island, native AB, SK, MB, ON, QC. Camphorosmoideae: Bassia 2 of 22 Old World & USA spp intro to all S provinces exc NL, NS, PE. Chenopodioideae: Atriplex 18 of 245 cosmopolitan spp native all of Canada (inc GL) but exc NU?; Axyris 1 of 7 Asian spp intro all of S Canada exc PE, NL; Blitum 4 of 10 mostly N temperate spp inc 2 spp native and 2 spp intro in all of Canada inc Arctic but ephemeral PE, NL (exc Labrador); Chenopodiastrum 4 of 8 N temperate & subtropical spp inc 1 sp native all S provinces exc NL, and 3 spp intro S Canada and YT, NT, absent NU; Chenopodium 19 of 129 cosmopolitan spp native YT, NT, BC, AB, SK, MB, ON, QC, NS, intro in NB, PE, NL, NU (and GL); Cycloloma monospecific former C NAM endemic sp native SK, MB, ON, intro QC, Argentina, Europe; Dysphania 3 of 43 subcosmopolitan spp intro BC, ON, QC, NB, NS; Krascheninnikovia 1 of 2 N temperate spp native YT, AB, SK, MB; Lipandra monospecific Eurasian sp intro BC, SK, MB, ON, QC, NB; Oxybasis 6 of 13 subcosmopolitan spp inc 3 spp native all of Canada inc Arctic exc PE, NL, and 3 spp intro E Canada; Spinacia 1 of 3 WC Asian spp ephemeral YT, NT, AB, MB, plus cultivated Spinacia; Stutzia 1 of 2 NW NAM endemic spp native AB, SK; Suckleya monospecific N-C NAM endemic sp native to AB, SK. Corispermoideae: Corispermum 6 of 68 temperate & subtropical N hemisphere spp intro QC, native BC, AB, SK, MB, ON, QC, YT, NT.  Gomphrenoideae: Froelichia 1 of 15 former Americas endemic spp intro ON. Polycnemoideae: Polycnemum 3 of 6 Europe + C Asia spp intro BC, ON. Salicornioideae: Salicornia 5 of 52 cosmopolitan spp native to all of Canada exc Labrador, in coastal and inland saline areas. Salsoideae: Salsola (inc Kali) 3 of 64 mostly Eurasian spp intro all S provinces. Suaedoideae: Suaeda 4 of 91 cosmopolitan spp native all of Canada exc Labrador.

USA Genera Include:

Amaranthoideae:Achyranthes 4  of 14 Old World Tropics spp intro TX, LA, FL, AL, KY, WV, IN, OH, MD, native and intro HI, inc 2 spp endemic to HI; Aerva 1 of 6 mostly Old World Tropics spp native and believed extinct in HI; Amaranthus 45 of 91 cosmopolitan spp intro and native in all USA inc HI, intro AK; Celosia 4 of 46 almost pantropical spp inc 1?? native TX, FL and 3 spp intro most of E USA from WI S to MS and all E exc MI, GA, SC, RI, MA, NH, ME and inc MO, LA, KS, UT; Charpentiera 5 of 6 Pacific Islands spp endemic to HI; Digera monospecific Old World Tropics sp intro NJ; Hermbstaedtia 1 of 14 African spp sp intro MD; Nototrichium monospecific endemic HI. Betoideae: Aphanisma monospecific SW NAM endemic sp native CA; Beta 2 of 10 Eurasian spp intro MT, OR, CA, UT, TX, MO, AL, SC, NC, VA, WV, PA, MI, NY, CT, MA, RI, NH, ME. Camphorosmoideae: Bassia 6 of 22 Old World & USA spp inc 2 spp native and 4 spp intro most USA exc AR, GA, FL, native TX, intro HI; Enchylaena 1 of 2 Australian spp intro CA; Neokochia 2 of 2 W USA endemic spp of OR, CA, ID, NV, MT, WY, CO, UT, AZ, NM, TX; Spirobassia monospecific Eurasian spp intro PA, NJ, MD, NY, CT. Chenopodioideae: Atriplex 94 of 245 cosmopolitan spp native and intro most USA inc AK, exc AR, TN and intro HI; Axyris 1 of 7 Asian spp intro MT, CO, ND, WI, MO; Blitum (inc Monolepis) 4 of 10 mostly N temperate spp inc 3 spp native and 1 sp intro most of USA exc AR S to LA and E to NC S to FL plus VA, MD, DE, inc 1 narrow endemic of CA + Baja California Mexico; Chenopodiastrum 2 of 8 N temperate & subtropical spp inc 1 sp native most of USA inc AK exc OR, AZ, AL, GA, SC, FL where intro and 1 sp intro scattered throughout USA; Chenopodium 41 of 129 cosmopolitan spp (may inc Oxybasis) native and intro all USA inc AK and HI; Cycloloma monospecific former C NAM endemic sp native most of USA exc WA, OR, GA, FL, VT, NH, ME, now intro Argentina, Europe; Dysphania 11 of 43 subcosmopolitan spp native and intro entire USA, intro AK, HI, mosty native in S USA, mostly intro N USA; Stutzia (inc Endolepis) 2 of 2 NW NAM endemic spp native CA, NV, MT, WY, CO, ND, SD, NE; Extriplex 2 of 2 SW NAM endemic spp native CA, inc 1 narrow endemic of CA, other sp also native Baja California Mexico; Grayia (inc Zuckia) 4 of 4 W USA endemic spp from MT S to NM and all W; Krascheninnikovia 1 of 2 N temperate spp native W USA from ND S to TX and all states W; Lipandra monospecific Eurasian sp intro OR, WI, IL, MI, PA, NJ, NY, CT, ME; Micromonolepis monospecific W USA endemic of WA, OR, CA, NV, UT, CO, WY; Neomonolepis monospecific former SW NAM endemic of CA, NV, OR, now intro Australia; Oxybasis 6 of 13 subcosmopolitan spp native inc 2-3 spp native in most of USA exc the SE states and 2-3 spp intro in all of USA inc FL, AL, IL, IN, KY, WV, VA,NC,VT; Proatriplex monospecific S-C USA endemic of UT, AZ, CO, NM; Spinacia 1 of 3 WC Asia sp intro WA, OR, CA, UT, TX, KS, SC, NC, VA, OH, PA, CT, MA, NY, NH, ME, plus cultivated Spinacia; Suckleya monospecific N-C NAM endemic sp native MT, ND, WY, CO, NM, AZ, NE, OK, TX; Teloxys monospecific Asian sp intro MI, NY and AK. Corispermoideae: Corispermum 9 of 68 temperate & subtropical N hemisphere spp native and intro most USA exc ME, VT, NH, PA, MD, DE, WV, VA, TN, NC, SC, LA, MS, AL, FL, native AK, extirpated or extinct CA. Gomphrenoideae: Alternanthera 11 of 113 mostly pantropical spp inc 1 sp native FL and the rest intro CA, AZ, NM, TX, OK, MO, AR, LA, IL, KY, TN, MS, AL, GA, SC, NC, VA, MD, PA, NJ, NY and HI; Blutaparon 1 of 4 Americas, Africa & Japan spp native TX, LA, FL; Froelichia 6 of 15 former Americas endemic spp native most USA exc WA, OR, ID, MT, NV, UT, ND, VT, RI, ME, inc 2 narrow endemics of TX, intro CA?, now intro Australia, Japan; Gomphrena 8 of 129 now pantropical spp native AZ, NM, TX, LA, FL, GA, VA, and intro PA, MD, OH, NY, MA and HI; Guilleminea (inc Gossypianthus) 1 of 8 former Americas endemic spp native CA, AZ, NM, TX, OK, CO, SC, MD, AR, LA, genus now intro Africa, Australia; Iresine 6 of 34 former Americas endemic spp native AZ, NM, TX, KS, OK, MO, AR, LA, IL, IN, KY, TN, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, MD, PA, intro HI & pantropical; Tidestromia 5 of 6 NAM & Caribbean endemic spp native CA, NV, UT, AZ, CO, NM, TX, LA, OK, KS, SD, MO, IL, PA. Polycnemoideae: Nitrophila 2 of 4 Americas endemic spp native WA, OR, CA, NV, UT, AZ, inc 1 narrow endemic of Mohave desert of SE CA + SW NV, other 2 spp endemic C+S SAM; Polycnemum 1 of 6 Europe & C Asia spp intro IN, NY, MD, DE, NH. Salicornioideae: Allenrolfea 1 of 3 Americas endemic spp is a SW NAM endemic native to OR, ID, CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM, TX, other 2 spp endemic Argentina; Arthroceras monospecific SW NAM endemic sp native CA; Salicornia (inc Arthrocnemum) 5 of 52 cosmopolitan spp native most of USA inc AK but exc AZ, OK, AR, TN, KY, IN, WI, WV, PA, VT, intro in HI, MI, extirpated IL, found in coastal & inland saline areas. Salsoideae: Caroxylon 1 of 128 African & Eurasian  spp intro CA; Halogeton 1 of 3 Mediterranean & W Asian spp intro in all W USA MT S to NM and all W, inc SD, NE; Salsola 6 of 64 mostly Eurasian spp intro all of USA inc HI; Soda 1 of 2 Mediterranean spp intro CA. Suaedoideae: Suaeda 13 of 91 cosmopolitan spp intro and native most of USA exc IA, AR, TN, WV, VT, native AK.

Mexico Genera Include:

Amaranthoideae: Achyranthes 1 of 14 Old World Tropics spp intro all of Mexico; Amaranthus ?? of 91 cosmopolitan spp native through all of Mexico and intro to Mexican Pacific Is; Celosia ?? of 46 almost pantropical spp native most of Mexico exc Mex, Cd Mex, Tlx, Mor where it is intro; Chamissoa 1 of 3 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native in all of Mexico; Cyathula 1 of 28 pantropical spp native Nay, Jal, Col, Gro, Mch, Oax, Chp, Pue, Ver, Tab, Cam, QR, Yuc; Lagrezia 1 of 14 otherwise mostly Madagascar endemic spp endemic to Mexico in Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Pleuropetalum 2 of 3 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native N+SE+SE Mexico, Ver. Betoideae: Aphanisma monospecific SW NAM endemic sp native BC, BCS?, Mexican Pacific Is; Beta 2 of 10 Eurasian spp intro BC, BCS, Son, Sin. Camphorosmoideae: Bassia ?? of 22 Old World & USA spp intro BC, BCS, Son?, Sin?. Chenopodioideae: Atriplex ?? of 245 cosmopolitan spp native through all of Mexico inc Mexican Pacific Is; Blitum 4 of 10 mostly N temperate spp inc 2 spp native and 2 spp intro N Mexico BCN, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, SLP, Gto, Qro?, Hgo?, inc 1 narrow endemic of BC and California USA; Chenopodiastrum 1 of 8 N temperate & subtropical spp intro BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax; Chenopodium ?? of 129 cosmopolitan spp native throughout all of Mexico; Cycloloma monospecific former C NAM endemic sp native Chi, Dgo, Zac, SLP, Hgo, Gto, Qro, NL, Tam, Coa, now intro Argentina, Europe; Dysphania ?? of 43 subcosmopolitan spp native all of Mexico, intro Mexican Pacific Is; Extriplex 2 of 2 SW NAM endemic spp native BCN, BCS?; Krascheninnikovia 1 of 2 mostly N temperate spp native N Mexico BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Qro, Ags, Gto, SLP; Neomonolepis monospecific former SW NAM endemic native BCN, BCS?, now intro Australia; Oxybasis 4 of 13 subcosmopolitan spp inc 2 spp native Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Ags, SLP, Gto, Qro, Hgo, Mex, Cd Mex, Mor, Nay, Jal, Col, Gro, Mch, Oax, and 2 spp intro BC, BCS, Son, Sin, inc 1 sp endemic to most of Mexico. Corispermoideae: Corispermum ?? of 68 temperate & subtropical N hemisphere spp native Chi, Dgo, Zac, SLP, Hgo, Gto, Qro, NL, Tam, Coa. Gomphrenoideae: Alternanthera ?? of 113 mostly pantropical spp native throughout all of Mexico; Blutaparon 1 of 4 Americas, Africa & Japan spp native most of Mexico exc C Mexico; Froelichia 6 of 15 former Americas endemic spp native in all of Mexico, inc 1 narrow endemic of BCS, the genus now intro Japan, Australia; Gomphrena ?? of 129 now pantropical spp native all of Mexico; Guilleminea 2 of 8 former Americas endemic spp native N+SW+C Mexico, now intro Australia, Africa; Hebanthe 1 of 6 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Gto, SLP, Qro, Nay, Jal, Col, Gro, Mch, Oax, Ver, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Iresine ?? of 34 former Americas endemic spp native all of Mexico; Pfaffia ?? of 33 Neo endemic spp native S Mexico in Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Chp, Cam, Tab, QR, Yuc; Tidestromia 6 of 6 NAM & Caribbean endemic spp native N Mexico BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Gto, Qro, SLP, Hgo, Ags, inc 1 narrow endemic of Coa. Polycnemoideae: Nitrophila 1 of 4 Americas endemic spp native NW Mexico. Salicornioideae: Allenrolfea 1 of 3 Americas endemic spp is a SW NAM endemic native to BCN, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, NL, Tam, Dgo, SLP, other 2 spp endemic Argentina; Arthroceras monospecific SW NAM endemic sp native BC, BCS, Son?, Sin?; Salicornia ?? of 52 cosmopolitan spp native most of Mexico exc Pue, coastal & inland saline areas. Salsoideae: Salsola ?? of 64 mostly Eurasian intro BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Gto, Qro, Ags. Suaedoideae: Suaeda ?? of 91 cosmopolitan spp native in all of Mexico inc Mexican Pacific Is.

Neotropical Genera Include:

Amaranthoideae: Achyranthes 1 of 14 Old World Tropics spp intro CAM (exc Costa Rica), Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Aruba, Antilles (exc Cayman Is), SW Caribbean, Galapagos, tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, C+SE Brazil (exc Ecuador); Amaranthus ?? of 91 cosmopolitan spp native throughout N Caribbean, Antilles, SW Caribbean, Trinidad-Tobago, CAM, all of SAM, Galapagos, intro Bermuda, Juan Fernandez Is; Celosia ?? of 46 almost pantropical spp native Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Bahamas, Leeward & Windward Is, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, N+E+S Brazil, intro Belize, Cayman Is, Galapagos, Trinidad-Tobago, C Brazil, Bolivia, NE Argentina, Paraguay; Chamissoa 3 of 3 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), CAM S through tropical SAM to N Argentina exc French Guiana, N Chile, inc 2 spp endemic to SAM; Cyathula 3 of 28 pantropical spp inc 2 spp native CAM, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Trinidad-Tobago, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and 1 sp intro Puerto Rico, Leeward & Windward Is, Venezuelan Antilles, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana; Hebanthodes monospecific endemic of Peru; Herbstia monospecific E SAM endemic of E+S Brazil, Paraguay, NE Argentina; Lecosia 2 of 2 narrow endemic spp of E Brazil; Pleuropetalum 3 of 3 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM, Venezuela, Colombia. Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Galapagos, inc 1 narrow endemic of Galapagos. Betoideae: Beta 2 of 10 Eurasian spp intro Honduras, Cuba, Cayman Is, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Ecuador, N+C Chile, Juan Fernández Is, Argentina, Uruguay. Camphorosmoideae: Bassia 1 of 22 Old World & USA spp intro C Chile, Argentina; Maireana 1 of 59 Australian spp intro N Chile, Desventurados Is; Chenopodioideae: Atriplex ?? of 245 cosmopolitan spp native Honduras, Bermuda, Antilles (exc Windward Is), SW Caribbean, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay S Brazil; Blitum 1 of 10 mostly N temperate spp intro Argentina; Chenopodiastrum 1 of 8 N temperate & subtropical spp intro Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Bermuda, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles (exc Cayman Is, Windward Is), Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, C+E Brazil, Chile, N Argentina, Uruguay; Chenopodium ?? of 129 cosmopolitan spp native Honduras, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, S Brazil, intro C+E Brazil, Bermuda, Bahamas, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Trinidad-Tobago; Cycloloma monospecific former C NAM endemic sp intro NE Argentina; Dysphania ?? of 43 subcosmopolitan spp native CAM (exc Costa Rica), Bermuda, all of SAM exc Ecuador, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana where intro, also intro Bahamas, Antilles, SW Caribbean, Trinidad-Tobago, Galapagos, Juan Fernandez Is; Holmbergia monospecific C SAM endemic of Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, N Argentina; Oxybasis 5 of 13 subcosmopolitan spp inc 3 spp native Peru, Bolivia, Chile, NW+S Argentina and 2 spp intro Argentina, inc 2 narrow endemics of W + S Argentina (1), S Chile + S Argentina (1); Spinacia oleracea cultivated spinach, intro Hispaniola, Cayman Is. Gomphrenoideae: Alternanthera ?? of 113 mostly pantropical spp Bermuda, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Aruba, Antilles, CAM and and all of SAM inc Galapagos exc S Chile; Blutaparon 3 of 4 Americas, Africa & Japan spp native Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Bahamas, Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname,French Guiana, N+E+S Brazil, NE Argentina, Uruguay, inc 1 sp endemic to SAM, 1 endemic and extinct sp of Galapagos; Froelichia 8 of 15 former Americas spp native to Americas Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Ecuador, Galapagos, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, N Argentina, inc 4 narrow endemics of Galapagos (2), Para N Brazil (1), Paraguay (1); Froelichiella monospecific endemic C Brazil; Gomphrena ?? of 129 now pantropical spp native CAM, most of SAM exc Suriname, French Guiana, S Chile, intro Greater Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, Venezuelan Antilles; Guilleminea 4 of 8 former Americas endemic spp native Cuba, Hispaniola, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, C Brazil, Paraguay, N Argentina, Uruguay, inc 2 narrow endemics of Cuba (1), Uruguay (1); Hebanthe 6 of 6 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM (exc El Salvador), tropical SAM S to N Argentina exc N Chile, Uruguay, Guyana, Suriname, inc 3 spp endemic to Brazil; Iresine 34 of 34 former Americas endemic spp native from S USA, Mexico, Bahamas, Antilles (exc Aruba, Netherlands Antilles), CAM S through tropical SAM to N Argentina (exc French Guiana, N Chile), 1 sp now intro pantropical; Lithophila 2 of 2 Neo endemic spp native Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Cayman Is., Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Lesser Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, Galápagos, Suriname, Venezuela, inc 1 narrow endemic of Galapagos; Pedersenia 8 of 8 Neo endemic spp of Honduras S to Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Paraguay, N Brazil, plus Puerto Rico, Windward Is; Pfaffia 33 of 33 Neo endemic spp native from S Mexico, Haiti, Leeward & Windward Is, Venezuelan Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile); Pseudoplantago 2 of 2 SAM endemic spp endemic to Venezuela (1), S Brazil + NE Argentina (1); Quaternella 3 of 3 spp endemic to C+E+S Brazil; Tidestromia 1 of 6 NAM & Caribbean endemic spp native Dominican Republic; Xerosiphon 2 of 2 spp endemic to N+C+E Brazil. Polycnemoideae: Nitrophila 2 of 4 Americas endemic spp native Argentina, N Chile, with 1 sp endemic to each Antofagasta N Chile (1) and Argentina (1); Salicornioideae: Allenrolfea 2 of 3 Americas endemic spp are endemic to Argentina, other sp is endemic to SW NAM; Heterostachys 2 of 2 Neo & SAM endemic spp native Hispaniola, Colombia, Venezuela, Paraguay, Argentina, inc 1 narrow endemic of Buenos Aires, Mendoza & Rio Negro Argentina at N limit of Patagonia; Mangleticornia monospecific endemic of Ecuador, Peru; Salicornia ?? of 52 cosmopolitan spp native in coastal and inland saline areas of Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles (exc Windward Is), Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, S Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay. Salsoideae:  Salsola ?? of 64 mostly Eurasian intro Uruguay, C+S Chile, Argentina; Soda 1 of 2 Mediterranean spp intro NE Argentina. Suaedoideae: Suaeda ?? of 91 cosmopolitan spp native Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Cuba, Hispaniola, Leeward Is, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, and extinct or extirpated Juan Fernandez Is.

Patagonia Genera Include:

Amaranthoideae: Amaranthus 4 of 91 cosmopolitan spp native C+S Argentina, C+S Chile. Betoideae: Beta 1 of 10 Eurasian spp intro C Chile, S Argentina. Camphorosmoideae: Bassia 1 of 22 Old World & USA spp intro C Chile, S Argentina. Chenopodioideae: Atriplex 1 of 245 cosmopolitan spp native throughout Patagonia and intro Falkland Islands; Blitum 1 of 10 mostly N temperate spp intro S Argentina; Chenopodiastrum 1 of 8 N temperate & subtropical spp intro C+S Chile; Chenopodium 1 of 129 cosmopolitan spp native Patagonia; Dysphania 1 of 43 subcosmopolitan spp native Patagonia; Oxybasis 4 of 13 subcosmopolitan spp inc 3 spp native C+S Chile, S Argentina, Falkland Islands and 1 sp intro Patagonia. Gomphrenoideae: Alternanthera 1 of 113 mostly pantropical spp native just N of Patagonia in the mountains N of Bahia Blanca, S Argentina; Gomphrena ?? of 129 now pantropical spp native S Argentina. Polycnemoideae: Nitrophila 1 of 4 Americas endemic spp native S Argentina near N limit of Patagonia. Salicornioideae: Allenrolfea 1 of 3 Americas endemic spp is endemic to Argentina inc S Argentina; Heterostachys 1 of 2 Neo & SAM endemic spp a narrow endemic of Buenos Aires, Mendoza & Rio Negro Argentina at N limit of Patagonia; Salicornia ?? of 52 cosmopolitan spp native throughout Patagonia in salt marshes and lagoons. Salsoideae: Salsola ?? of 64 mostly Eurasian intro Patagonia. Suaedoideae: Suaeda 1 of 91 cosmopolitan spp native Patagonia inc Falkland Is.

Additional Information and References

  • Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles you can also get definitions from them there.
  • Willis, Lyrae (2022).  Plant Families of North America.  Not yet published. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this.
  • Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
  • Delta: Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. 1992 onwards. The families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com’. Accessed Spring through fall of 2020.
  • GBIF.org (2020), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
  • Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx Accessed 2020 – current.
  • Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B. & Baracat, A. eds (2009 onwards). Neotropikey – Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
  • Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • POWO (2019). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
  • Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
  • The Plant List (2013). Version 1.1. Published on the Internet; http://www.theplantlist.org/ (accessed 2020 to 2021). No longer updated. Use WFO below.
  • USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA; accessed throughout fall of 2020.
  • Wikipedia: The free encyclopedia. (2004, July 22). FL: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved throughout 2019-current, from https://www.wikipedia.org
  • WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet; http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current

25 Sep, 2022