World Heritage Scanned Nomination

Transcription

1 World Heritage Scanned Nomination File Name: 306rev.pdf UNESCO Region: AFRICA SITE NAME: Matobo Hills DATE OF INSCRIPTION: 5 th July 2003 STATE PARTY: CRITERIA: ZIMBABWE C (iii)(v)(vi) DECISION OF THE WORLD HERITAGE COMMITTEE: Excerpt from the Report of the 27 th Session of the World Heritage Committee Criterion (iii): The Matobo Hills has one of the highest concentrations of rock art in Southern Africa. The rich evidence from archaeology and from the rock paintings at Matobo provide a very full picture of the lives of foraging societies in the Stone Age and the way agricultural societies came to replace them. Criterion (v): The interaction between communities and the landscape, manifest in the rock art and also in the long standing religious traditions still associated with the rocks, are community responses to a landscape. Criterion (vi): The Mwari religion, centred on Matoba, which may date back to the Iron Age, is the most powerful oracular tradition in southern Africa BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS The area exhibits a profusion of distinctive rock landforms rising above the granite shield that covers much of Zimbabwe. The large boulders provide abundant natural shelters and have been associated with human occupation from the early Stone Age right through to early historical times, and intermittently since. They also feature an outstanding collection of rock paintings. The Matobo Hills continue to provide a strong focus for the local community, which still uses shrines and sacred places closely linked to traditional, social and economic activities. 1.b State, Province or Region: Matebeleland, South Province 1.d Exact location: S E

2 Nomination Dossier for the proposed Matobo Hills World Heritage Area

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8 IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROPERTY 1.1 Country Republic of Zimbabwe 1.2 Province Matebeleland South Province 1.3 Name of Property Matobo Hills Matobo derives from the Kalanga word Matombo meaning rocks. Early missionaries who could not pronounce Matobo later introduced the names Matopo Hills or Matopos. However, Matobo Hills is now more acceptable than Matopo or Matopos. The local people also refer to the area as Matojeni. 1.4 Location on map and indication of geographical co-ordinates E to E; S to S Regional Map, (Figure 1). 1.5 Maps and/or plans showing boundary of area proposed for inscription The proposed World Heritage Site (WHS) boundary and buffer zone are presented in Figure 2 and 3. In establishing the boundary of the proposed Matobo Hills World Heritage Site (Figure 2), it was initially agreed that the geological boundary of the Matobo granite be used as the definition. However, consideration was given to the administrative implications and practical nature of the proposed boundary. This is in view of the large extent of the Matobo granite landscape, which extends almost to the Botswana border in the west while to the east it merges with the Mbalabala granite pluton. In order to strike a balance a decision was made to use both natural and man-made features such as drainage, roads and administrative boundaries to demarcate the proposed area for nomination. As a result only two administrative districts, Matobo and Umzingwane were considered. Although the area west of the Shashani River is an extension of the Matobo granite and falls under the Bulilimamangwe District, it was excluded from the proposed site in order to limit administrative problems. However, the importance of this area was recognised by including it in the buffer zone. Thus the Shashani River marks the western boundary of the proposed WHS. The southern boundary coincides with the southern boundary of the Khumalo and Matobo Communal Lands, extending along the northern boundaries of three commercial properties. The eastern boundary follows the Matobo Communal Land boundary, the Lumane River, and an established road. In the north, the boundary makes use of Maleme and Ngezi rivers, the Bulawayo-Kezi road and some commercial farm boundaries. The following list of properties are incorporated in the proposed Matobo World Heritage Site: Rhodes Matopo National Park (also known as the Matopo National Park) (Figure 3); the Lake Matopos Recreational Park; portions of the Rhodes Matopos Estate; Gulati Communal Lands (Matobo Rural District); Khumalo Communal Lands (Matobo RD);

9 - 2 - Matobo Communal Lands (Matobo RD); small southern limit of the Mzinyatini Communal Lands (Umzingwane RD); small western portion of the Nswazi Communal Lands (Umzingwane RD) and some commercial farms all of which are located within the Matobo RD. 1.6 Area of property proposed for inscription (km 2 ) The proposed nomination covers an area of about 2050 km 2 (Garson 1995) and the associated buffer zone is 1050 km 2 in extent, making a total of 3100 km 2.

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13 JUSTIFICATION FOR INSCRIPTION. The Matobo Hills landscape contains both cultural and natural attributes of exceptional aesthetic, scientific and educational significance. The diverse cultural heritage in the area spans a period of more than five hundred thousand years, with continual settlement over at least one hundred thousand years from Early Iron Age to the present. There are numerous rock art sites, rock shelters with Stone Age and Iron Age deposits, religious sites, burial sites and historical buildings. The cultural time-depth and variety of the cultural landscape is not represented anywhere else in the country and possibly in the region. The natural landscape comprises scenic geological formations and diverse biological assemblages. The area possesses a great variety and large population density of predator species, especially raptors and leopards. It is regarded as the most important sanctuary for birds of prey, and includes the largest population of Black Eagle Aquila verreauxii, to be found anywhere in the world. The hills also possess one of the largest populations of Leopard Panthera pardus, and are an important sanctuary and research centre for two endangered Rhino species Ceratotherium simum and Diceros bicornis. The more than 210 tree species and 17 species of wild orchid give the area a botanical significance. 2.1 Statement of significance Natural property The Matobo Hills area is a cultural landscape with natural attributes of exceptional significance. The natural landscape comprises geological formations providing a wide diversity of niches supporting a variety of flora and fauna. The geomorphology of the Matobo Hills gives rise to microclimates and soil conditions that change markedly over short distances. The ecological processes of Matobo Hills are determined largely by the landscape, which underpins ecosystem structure and function. Thus, the geomorphology of Matobo Hills in itself is of outstanding universal value. The complex geomorphology of Matobo Hills supports a unique landscape comprising extensive open grasslands with groups of kopjes (rock outcrops) interspersed with wetlands (marshes and streams). The huge whalebacks (dwalas) and numerous caves contribute to the high diversity of habitats in Matobo Hills. The combination of physical and climatic factors has resulted in the creation of special habitats such that in spite of their situation in dry semi-arid savannah, the Matobo Hills represent a western extension of the ranges of many species characteristic of the higher rainfall areas in eastern Zimbabwe and parts of Mozambique (Grobler & Wilson 1972). The ecological complexity of this landscape is expressed in the unusual density and diversity of predators. The result is a combination and diversity of flora and fauna worthy of special attention and preservation Geomorphology Matobo Granite, 2.65 billion years old, extends for about 2050 km 2 and occupies most of the area to be nominated. The batholith is an irregular oval body with the maximum eastwest and north-south dimensions of about 100 km and 30 km respectively. Other rock pockets include augen gneisses, older granites and granodiorities. The resistant rocks of the granitic shield form an imposing relief of varied landforms including caves, inselbergs, whalebacks, dwalas and castellated hills (commonly termed

14 - 7 - kopjes). Nowhere else on the granitic shield of Zimbabwe, if not the world, can one find so profuse an expression of granitic landforms in so limited an area. The singular ecological feature is the diversity of habitats available to organisms such as patches of bare rock, broken rock, wooded slopes, forest stands, grasslands, granitic sponges and rivers. The unusually high density and diversity of predators is a result of the ecological complexity of the landscape. The presence of a mosaic of highly varied habitats in the Matobo Hills area has also given rise to the establishment of a self-sustaining cultural landscape Habitat and Vegetation Diversity The Matobo lies in the savannah biome under a climate generally too dry for miombo woodland. It is placed in the broad Zambezian phytochorion under undifferentiated woodland, although it also contains some Afromontane elements. The soils are derived from granite rocks and hence are generally coarse and sandy with only pockets of clay soil. In vleis and on some uplands there are local patches of organic soils and peat. Although the diversity of parent material, hence soil types, is low, there is a great range of vegetation formations and types. Thus, vegetation diversity ranges from almost desertlike aridity and extreme temperatures on the rock domes to mesic dense woodland. This reflects a response to geomorphology and climate and (to a lesser extent) the effects of human activities over the centuries. Within the southern African region, it would appear that the Matobo area is one of the most concentrated manifestations of the diversity of vegetation and plants associated with granite landforms. This is due to (a) its fairly extensive area compared to other, more isolated, occurrences, (b) the marked impact of winter moisture (guti) in the eastern parts, and (c) the mosaic nature of the impact of human activity compared to similar communal land situations e.g. in Mutoko in northeastern Zimbabwe Endemic Species and Outlying Populations There are at least five plant species endemic to the Matobo area and the surrounding granite area. These include Lobelia lobata (herb), Cyphostermma milleri (climbing herb), Maytenus heterophylla puberula (spiny shrub), Triaspis dumeticola (shrub), and Turrea fischeri eylesii (shrub). In addition the Matobo Hills support a major and significant portion of a further nine plant species Predator-prey interactions The interaction between the main prey species (the rock daisy and the yellow-spotted hyrax) and their predators (the raptors, leopards and snakes) demonstrate an important ecological process. Behavioural avoidance is the most significant survival strategy for the dassies rather than reproductive adaptation, as they have a gestation period of seven months Type specimens The Matobo Hills have been comparatively well collected by botanists. Some of the species with type specimens from the area include: Strychnos matopensis, Eriocaulon

15 - 8 - matopense, Maytenus heterophylla puberula, Lobelia dentate, Triaspis dumeticola, Turrea fischeri eyelsii, Streptocarpus eylesii eylesii, Abutilon matopense, Cyphostermma milleri, and Elaedendrom matabelicum Cultural property The presence of a mosaic of highly varied habitats in the Matobo Hills area, including caves, whalebacks, patches of bare rock, broken rock, wooded slopes, forest stands, grasslands, granitic sponges, rivers and aquatic vegetation has given rise to the establishment of a self-sustaining cultural landscape. The diversity of the cultural patrimony in the Matobo Hills area bears testimony to the intertwined relationship between man and the natural environment. There is evidence of a long sequence of human occupation in the Matobo Hills area, with breaks during the coldest and driest periods (Walker 1995). The long history of occupation (from Stone Age to Historical period); the rich biodiversity, the awe-inspiring geological landscape and the extant living traditions define the Matobo Hills area as one of the most important cultural landscapes in Zimbabwe and the sub-region. A symbiotic relationship still exists between the indigenous people (local communities) and the hills Living traditions and the Intangible Heritage In the Matobo Hills area the indigenous traditional religious beliefs and practices (intangible heritage) were and still are instrumental in the preservation of the tangible heritage through a system of taboos and cultural norms that prohibit desecration. The most important examples of intangible heritage sites in the Matobo Hills area include such shrines as Njelele, Dula, Zhilo, Manyangwa and Wirirani/Wililani; all of them centres of the Mwari/Mwali religion, an indigenous religion that has been practiced for many centuries. The voice of Mwari is believed to be heard from the rocks. Mwari of the Matojeni, as Matobo area is also known, has attracted the attention of politicians, lay persons, missionaries and scholars in both the past and the present. It is believed that the ancestral spirits reside in forests, mountains, caves, hollowed trees and pools. In other words, the intangible heritage makes use of the tangible heritage as its home. The adherents of the traditional Mwari and the ancestral spirits therefore attach great respect to the environment because they argue, by despoiling it; they will be depriving their god and the spirits of a home to live in. The Matobo Hills area has always played a very important role in lives of past and contemporary communities. According to Ranger (1999) people of the Matobo value their special relationship to a unique environment, their ownership of shrines, their very particular form of agriculture ; all these associated with the Matobo Hills area. It is these intangible values that have helped to maintain close links between the indigenous communities and the Matobo Hills area. People converge on these places to pray for rainfall or ask for good health. The tutelary functions of Mwari and the ancestral spirits are believed to be enhanced through such gatherings where individuals or their priests and priestesses commune with them. Njelele is the most important shrine in the Matobo Hills area and people from as far as

16 - 9 - South Africa, Namibia, Botswana and Lesotho join their Zimbabwean counterparts there to pray for rains, good harvests, good health, peace and guidance in many national and regional issues. Thus, it is a regional shrine. Given the belief that the spirits reside in forests, mountains, caves, hollowed trees and pools the adherents of the traditional Mwari and the ancestral spirits therefore attach great respect to the environment because they argue that, despoiling it, deprives their god and the spirits of a home to live in History of Human Habitation The rock shelters of the Matobo Hills area date from the latter part of the middle Pleistocene ( to BP) through the Late Pleistocene ( to BP) to the end of the Holocene ( to the present) (Walker 1995). Some of these rock shelters were important settlement sites with evidence of Early, Middle, Later Stone Age, Iron Age and the Historical Period activities in the form of stone tools, rock paintings, iron implements and historical remains, respectively. Special mention should be made of some historical icons that relate to the use of the Matobo Hills area as refuge for the ancestors of the present Ndebele and Shona ethnic groups during the first Ndebele and Shona Wars of Liberation (Umvukela and Chindunduma respectively) uprisings against colonial settlers. Some of the icons of the succeeding colonial era include the important graves of King Mzilikazi and Cecil John Rhodes, shrines commemorating fallen heroes of the 2nd World War and many indaba sites (sites associated with peace talks) Stone Age Sites (Middle Pleistocene to Holocene) There is an abundance of sites representing the Stone Age identified on the basis of such evidence as stone tools, bones, ash and rock art. Some of the most spectacular hemispherical caves such as Bambata, Nswatugi, Pomongwe and Inanke, have yielded invaluable archaeological information that has contributed immensely to the understanding of past lifestyles. Excavations at Bambata Cave, for example, have revealed the oldest decorated piece of stone in Zimbabwe and Bambata pottery is one of the riddles in Zimbabwean archaeology regarding its dates and traditional associations. No less can be said of Nswatugi Cave which yielded the oldest human skeleton in Zimbabwe and evidence of Middle Stone Age dating to circa years BP. Pomongwe Cave is the only site in Zimbabwe where Early, Middle and Late Stone Age deposits have been found in the same stratigraphy with a wide range of stone tools and implements, bone tools and other related domestic paraphernalia. The same caves and many others are associated with some of the most outstanding rock paintings in Southern Africa. The multichrome galloping giraffe at Inanke cave is the finest known naturalistic painting in Zimbabwe Iron Age Sites (from the 5th Century AD to 19th Century AD) There are several Iron Age sites in the Matobo Hills area most of which overlie Stone Age deposits in the rock shelters such as Ntswatugi, Inanke and Bambata. This period is characterised by communities using iron tools and weapons, which practised agriculture and established permanent settlements. Also attributable to this period is the occurrence of dry-stone walled enclosures of the Khami-phase of the Zimbabwe Tradition.

17 Historical Sites The Matobo Hills area possesses some of the most significant sites that depict important events in the history of Zimbabwe. These include burial sites of King Mzilikazi, founder of the Ndebele nation and Cecil John Rhodes after whom the country came to be known as Rhodesia (renamed Zimbabwe after it attained independence in 1980). Other sites include Rhodes Indaba site, the MOTH Shrine, Mzilikazi s Wagon Cave, Rhodes Summer House and Stables, and Matobo Railway Terminus. Also, the Matobo Hills area provided refuge, firstly to the Karanga ethnic groups from the Ndebele invasions of the 1830s and secondly, to both the Karanga and Ndebele from the white colonialists in 1893 and The most prevalent evidence of this period is intact granaries that are found in some rock shelters Rock Art The Matobo Hills area is part of the distinctive art region of the well-known prehistoric art of Southern Africa, which stretches from South Africa to Tanzania (Walker 1996). According to the records in the National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe national database, there are no less than rock art sites in the area. The paintings of the Matobo explore diverse aspects of hunter-gatherer society and its ideology. Thus, the paintings have richer symbolic resources and are not susceptible to simple readings (Garlake 1995). The paintings are password to the deeper meaning of the socio-religious beliefs of the hunter-gatherer communities. Most researchers view the paintings as a response to an innate range at the same time painting for enjoyment and decoration (Walker 1996). The new scope of interpretation pointed out that the art is symbolic in nature and is closely linked to Shamanism and potency theories, and other related rituals. Some rock art studies in Southern Africa suggest that the nature of the designs and character of subjects are due to the fact that the paintings were executed when the artists were in a trance. This religious concept is referred to as Shamanism. According to Garlake (1995) the significance of the paintings is that they are archetypes, revealing the essence of the human condition, the basic roles of their society, the parents, the family band and community. They are visual generalizations, idealised constraints of the fundamental realities of the artists society. For the Matobo Hills area the paintings reveal important interactions between man and his environment. They also chronicle the changes that have taken place in the environment from as far back as the Late Stone Age. Within the context of Shamanism the rock paintings in Matobo Hills area represent the only historical record of the intangible beliefs and ideas of the original inhabitants of the area. As a history, rock art therefore predates written records by Arab and European visitors to the continent, and retain authenticity unaffected by foreign observers (Deacon 2000). The paintings are inseparable from the granites of the Matobo Hills area. The distinctiveness, age and magico-religious symbolic character of the art in the Matobo

18 makes it unique and therefore significant in its own way (Walker 1995). 2.2 Comparison with other sites Natural property Comparison with areas within Zimbabwe One of the World Heritage Sites with comparable natural attributes to Matobo Hills is the Victoria Falls. The Victoria Falls was listed in 1989 on the basis of those values and attributes that demonstrate the ecological and biological processes, evidence of ecosystem evolution, and aesthetic values of the landscape. According to Fagan (1964) the Victoria Falls, like Matobo, illustrates the influence of geological formations on the distribution of vegetation. The river flows over red-brown basalt, with beds of overlying Kalahari Sand, which form the greater portion of the area. The basalt soils are generally shallow and stony and the dominant tree type is Mopane, Colophospermum mopane. The Kalahari Sands on the other hand, are deeper and support taller trees like Baikiaea plurijuga, Guibourtia coleosperma and Burkea africana. In addition to these two main types of vegetation is the distinct fringing vegetation consisting of riverine forest, which due to the effects of the continuous spray from the Victoria Falls has resulted in the formation of the rain forest. The rain forest is a pristine environment for floral integrity. However, the decision to fence off the rain forest from the rest of the Kalahari veld to exclude large game animals from the tourist area created a false boundary of natural ecosystems, in particular with regard to faunal species (Kumirai et. al. 2000). Thus, the large animals can only be viewed outside the Victoria Falls World Heritage area, the main attraction being the waterfalls themselves. In comparison to the Victoria Falls the Matobo Hills provide a wide diversity of large and small animal species within a large continuous landscape with a wide range of micro-habitats. Thus, the Victoria Falls is limited in extent as well as in diversity of faunal and floral species. Mana Pools National Park together with adjacent Sapi and Chewore Safari Areas were placed on the World Heritage List in The area spans ha and comprises mainly sandy alluvial plains with Fandherbia albida as well as cliffs and escarpments bordered in the south by granite with very thin soils. Vegetation mainly comprises woodlands (Acacia, mopane, Jesse bush) and grassland dotted with Brachystegia shrubs. Like most savannah landscapes the greatest activity occurs during the rainy season when plant material is in abundance and wild life spreads out in search of food. In the dry season the animals are restricted to the surviving grasslands along the riverbanks. Management of the Mana Pools system is therefore complicated by the need to maintain the delicate balance between seasonal movements of animals and the availability of resources, especially water. Thus, although it is an important site for large mammals, particularly elephant, Mana Pools is surpassed by Matobo both in spatial and temporal distribution of ecological resources mainly due to the availability of a large diversity of microhabitats attributable to the latter s geomorphology. Hwange National Park in western Zimbabwe is the biggest National Park spanning ha and is renowned for its big game. Hwange experiences a harsh climate with a hot, dry season and a cold frost-prone winter. The harsh climate coupled with the generally poor and infertile soils on Kalahari sand results in a typical dry savannah

19 deficient in plant food. The predominant vegetation types are Colophospermum mopane on basalt soils in the north interspersed with Kalahari woodlands of teak (Baikiaea plurijuga). The fauna is also typical of dry savannah with browsing and grazing animals and their predators. Over 100 mammalian and 400 bird species occur in Hwange in an area about four times that of Matobo. Thus the densities of animal life supported by Matobo far exceed Hwange presumably due to the wider variety of microhabitats in the former Comparison with areas outside Zimbabwe The Matobo Hills area is one of the most concentrated manifestations of the diversity of vegetation associated with granite landforms. This is due to (a) its fairly extensive area compared to other, more isolated, occurrences, (b) the wide range of microclimates and the equally large diversity of microhabitats as well as (c) the mosaic nature of human activity compared to similar landscapes. The ecology of the Matobo landscape rivals that of the Serengeti-Masai Mara ecosystem in East Africa. Compared to the Matobo Hills, the latter landscape (predominantly savannah grassland) is remarkably uniform. Hyrax population densities are comparable to those of Serengeti (Barry & Mundy 1998). In general, leopards tend to be opportunists. While this is true in the Serengeti, leopards in the Matobo Hills prefer mammalian prey and this is supported by the presence of a large mammalian food base provided especially by the hyrax populations (Barry & Mundy 1998). Vertebrate species such as the black mamba Dendroaspis polylepis, the leopard Panthera pardus, and the black eagle Aquila verreauxii, occur at exceptionally high densities in the Matobo Hills that are unmatched throughout their ranges elsewhere in Africa. The Matobo Hills closely resembles Kakadu National Park of Australia. The latter covers an area about six times that of Matobo Hills (19 804km 2 compared to 3100km 2 ) but both include a wide variety of land use systems within the designated World Heritage areas. In spite of their location in African savannah and Australian tropical savannah respectively, both sites have large habitat diversity and manifest comparable juxtaposition of wide ranges of ecosystems. Large populations of herbivores provide the food base for large predators. While the Kakadu boasts the largest diversity of mammals, especially bat species in Australia; the Matobo Hills support some of the largest hyrax populations in Zimbabwe. About 300 bird species and 64 mammal species occur in Kakadu in an area more than six times that of Matobo Hills which boasts about 400 bird species and 120 mammal species Cultural Property Comparison with areas within Zimbabwe The Matobo Hills area possesses one of the largest concentrations of rock art, archaeological, historical sites and traditional shrines in Zimbabwe. While there is a number of isolated rock art sites in Manicaland (Diana s Vow), Mashonaland East (Ruchera and Makwe), Masvingo (Dengeni) and Mashonaland Central (Domboshava and Chikupo) there is an unparalleled concentration of world famous rock art caves in the Matobo landscape. These include Nswatugi, Gulubahwe, Bambata, Silozwane,

20 Pomongwe, Amadzimba, Tshangula and Inanke. However, the styles and techniques used in executing the paintings are similar with slight variations in the motifs. Walker (1995) estimated that there is an average of 6 10 paintings per site within the National Park. There are probably paintings in the Matobo National Park alone. Thus the total number of individual paintings in the Matobo Hills area proposed for nomination is in the region of a million, higher than any other area in Zimbabwe and Southern Africa. Archaeological researches at Pomongwe (Cooke 1963a), Bambata (Arnold and Jones 1919), Nswatugi (Jones, 1933) and Tshangula (Cooke 1963a) have contributed immensely to the understanding of the Stone Age archaeology of Zimbabwe and Southern Africa. Some of these sites have religious significance and are important shrines for rainmaking and propitiation ceremonies. These include Njelele, Silozwane, Dula, Zhilo, Inanke and Amadzimba. The Matobo Hills area possesses some of the most significant historical sites in Zimbabwe. Most of these, including the burial places of King Mzilikazi and Cecil John Rhodes, Rhodes Indaba Site, Rhodes Summer House, Rhodes Stable and the Allan Wilson Memorial depict important events in the national history. Generally, archaeological, historical and traditional sites in the Matobo Hills area are better preserved than anywhere else in Zimbabwe. The first two categories are protected by the National Museums and Monuments Act (Cap. 25:11) while the last category is under traditional protection. The sacredness of the Matobo Hills area has ensured maintenance of the authenticity and integrity of the cultural and natural patrimony found in the area. Many other sites in areas that are not similarly regarded have been subjected to one form or another of vandalism Comparison with areas outside Zimbabwe In terms of living traditions, the Matobo Hills area compares well with such outstanding cultural landscapes like Tsodilo in Botswana, Sukur in Nigeria, Drakensberg in South Africa, Kakadu and Uluru-Kata Tjuta both in Australia. In all these cases the people derive inspiration, fertility, good health from their ancestral spirits. As in the other cultural landscapes, some natural features in the Matobo Hills area have acquired spiritual significance thus creating a link between the people and the environment. The long history of occupation as demonstrated by the rich archaeological deposits and historical sites in the Matobo Hills area compares well with that of Tsodilo and Sukur. Archaeological occurrences in Matobo Hills area are associated with rock shelters and the identification of shelters with working and living places is a distinctive trait of the landscape when compared with most other Later Stone Age land-use systems in Southern Africa. Examination of Table 1 below demonstrates the relatively higher density of rock art in the Matobo Hills area compared to among others, Tsodilo, Kondoa and Kakadu.

21 Table 1: Comparison of Matobo and other areas. Name Area Number of km 2 rock art sites Estimated number of individual paintings. Matobo Hills (Zimbabwe) Brandberg (Namibia) Kondoa (Tanzania) Tsodilo (Botswana) Drakensberg (South Africa) Kakadu (Australia) ± Authenticity and integrity The issues of authenticity and integrity in the Matobo Hills area are intertwined. This is because the nature and diversity of the natural environment directly influence human activities in the area Geomorphology The imposing geomorphology of the Matobo Hills is expressed in the granitic shield, which covers at least 70% of the country. The resistant rocks of the granitic shield form an imposing relief of varied landforms. One finds a profuse expression of granitic landforms in so limited an area, expressed in the unique and complex ecology of a landscape structured by the underlying granitic rocks. More than 2.6 billion years of weathering and erosion of the Matobo Hills rocks has generated a distinct system of landforms in the resultant drainage and relief. These include river valleys and a contiguous granitic mass of whalebacks, bornhardts and castle kopjes. These account for the uniqueness of the Matobo ecosystems in providing a plethora of habitats for organisms. The ecological complexity of this landscape is expressed in the unusual density and diversity of predators Flora and fauna: issues of integrity The Matobo Hills complex supports an ecosystem with a high diversity of habitats ranging from open grasslands and wetlands to kopjes and numerous caves, in an area of 3 100km 2. The combination of physical and climatic factors in the Matobo has resulted in extensions of ranges of species characteristic of the high rainfall, high altitude areas in eastern Zimbabwe and Mozambique, which is not characteristic of the geoclimatic zone in which the Matobo Hills area is located. The habitat diversity of the Matobo cannot be matched where other granitic landscapes occur in Zimbabwe as for example in Mutoko and Chivi districts (Lightfoot 1981).

22 There are at least five plant species endemic to the Matobo Hills area: Cyphostemma milleri, Lobelia lobata, Triaspis dumeticola, Maytenus heterophylla puberula and Turrea fischeri eylesii. The first three have only been recorded once or twice, but may prove to be more widespread in the Matobo Hills. In addition, the Matobo Hills is a western outlier of the tree fern, Cyathea dregei (J. Timberlake pers. com.). With over 70 pairs nesting in an area of 100km by 30km, the Matobo Hills area boasts the highest known density of Black Eagles in Africa. They owe this high density to the large food base provided by two hyrax species, Procavia capensis and Heterohyrax brucei, which comprise 98% of their prey and 69% of the leopard s diet. As a result Matobo Hills has become a globally important source habitat for raptors in southern Africa, supporting one of the highest densities of Black Eagles. However, due to the history of human settlement in the area, certain exotic species such as eucalyptus and Lantana camara were introduced for various reasons. While the former plays a conservation role, the latter has become a problem. In its Management Plan, Rhodes Matopo National Park has targeted Lantana camara for eradication. The Rural District Councils and their communities are complementing its efforts. Due to the nature of the landscape, human activities within the Matobo Hills area such as horticulture, crop and livestock production are limited to the valley areas. The scale of operations therefore, is not high. Thus, the level of degradation due to human activities is equally low Authenticity of living traditions and the intangible heritage Traditional religious beliefs and practices (intangible heritage) were and still are instrumental in the preservation of the tangible heritage through a system of taboos and cultural norms that prohibit desecration. The most important examples of intangible heritage sites in the Matobo Hills area include such shrines as Njelele, Dula, Zhilo, Manyangwa and Wirirani/Wililani; all of them centres of the Mwari/Mwali religion, an indigenous religion that has been practiced for many centuries. The voice of Mwari is believed to be heard from the rocks. The adherents of the traditional Mwari and the ancestral spirits therefore attach great respect to the environment because they argue, by despoiling it; they will be depriving their god and the spirits of a home to live in. Even Christianity realised the importance of the word Mwari as applied by the local people by adopting it to refer to their Christian God. In Zimbabwe today the western (Christian) God is known as Mwari. Since the beginning of Mwari/Mwali worship in Matobo approximately years ago, the practice has changed very little. From that early beginning the ritual paraphernalia has largely been maintained and Matobo Hills area has remained the only recognised arena for all associated traditional practices and beliefs. The point to note is that Matobo Hills area has always been considered sacred and as a result important shrines are located on the landscape. Njelele is the most important shrine in the area and people from as far as South Africa, Namibia, Botswana and Lesotho join their Zimbabwean counterparts there to pray for rains, good harvests, good health, peace and guidance in many national and regional issues. In Southern Africa, even rock art studies

23 have been influenced by such religious concepts as Shamanism. In this case Matobo Hills area demonstrates one of the longest religious continuums involving initially Stone Age and later Iron Age communities. Such intangible values have helped to maintain close links between the indigenous communities and the environment in the Matobo Hills area in spite of changes resulting from economic and other considerations Authenticity of the archaeological record Stone Age Sites The Matobo Hills area has an abundance of sites representing the Stone Age period. Some of the most researched sites include Bambata, Nswatugi, Pomongwe and Inanke, which have yielded invaluable archaeological information such as stone tools, bones, ash and rock art. These studies have contributed immensely to the scientific knowledge of past lifestyles. Bambata pottery from the site name continues to present a challenge to national and international scholars. At Nswatugi Cave the oldest human skeleton in Zimbabwe and evidence of Middle Stone Age dating to circa years BP was recovered. The same caves and many others are associated with some of the most outstanding rock paintings in Southern Africa. The multi-chrome galloping giraffe at Inanke cave is the finest known naturalistic painting in Zimbabwe. Although the above caves have been excavated they have been so well refilled that a visitor would not be able to notice the disturbance. The focus of research on rock art has been on the distribution and interpretation. The fabric of the paintings was therefore, not tempered with. The situation of the rock art in sheltered caves ensures protection from the elements. The scientific value of the sites has not diminished Iron Age Sites Iron Age in the Matobo Hills area is attested to the 9 th Century AD. Evidence abounds that the distribution of most Early Iron Age sites coincides with that of Stone Age sites. Their identification is based on the fact that tools and weapons recovered during excavations are made of iron. The few open sites are associated with scatters of pottery, iron slag, furnaces and free-standing stone-walled enclosures. The material culture of these sites compares favourably with that from Leopard s Kopje and Khami, Early Iron Age and Later Iron Age sites respectively, which are located on similar landscapes in South-western Zimbabwe Historical Sites Some historical events that took place in Zimbabwe are represented in the Matobo Hills area by such icons as burial sites of important personalities like King Mzilikazi and Cecil John Rhodes, battle sites, indaba sites and settlements. Mzilikazi and Rhodes were buried in graves situated on rocky outcrops in 1868 and 1902 respectively. The two men are still regarded as important empire builders and their graves were accorded national monument status in 1937 and 1942 respectively. While a traditional custodian cares for King Mzilikazi s grave, Rhodes s grave is under the care of both National Parks and National Museums and Monuments officials. The graves and other historical sites in the area owe their pristine condition to the importance that people attach to the national history and the

24 role they are playing in the tourism industry. The Matobo Hills area also played an important role during periods of unrest in the country. The associated events of these periods include foreign invasions, displacement of local people and wars of resistance. The Hills provided refuge to young and old people during the Mfecane, when Zimbabwe was invaded by groups of Nguni people from Zululand and also during the early stages of its colonization, which were characterised by wars of resistance. The most prevalent evidence of this period is the presence of intact granaries in some rock shelters Rock Art The Matobo Hills area has one of the largest concentrations of rock art sites in Zimbabwe and the sub-region with no less than rock art sites. More surveys are likely to reveal additional sites in the Matobo Hills area. Most of the rock paintings of the Matobo Hills, and Zimbabwe in general, are attributed to the hunter-gatherer communities of the Late Stone Age period, but some belong to the Early Farming Communities (Walker 1995; Garlake 1995). The red oxides commonly known as red ochre and white pigments were used in the execution of the paintings. Generally the red paintings are attributed to the Hunter-gatherer communities while those in white pigments belong to the early farming communities. Hematite and magnetite iron oxides provided the pigments used in drawing the paintings. The ochre happens to occur in a variety of shades ranging from browns to yellows, oranges and purples. The white pigments were derived from kaolin clays or by crushing quartz. These pigments were pounded, crushed and rubbed to a fine powder, then mixed with a binder to produce the different shades seen today in the Matobo Hills area. The binding medium also made the paintings more permanent when applied to the granite surfaces. Researchers have suggested organic and inorganic binding mediums, but to date none has yet been identified in the Matobo Hills area (Garlake 1995; Goodall 1959). Also the recipes of individual artists have not been ascertained throughout Southern Africa. Indirect methods have been used to date the Matobo rock art to years ago (Garlake 1995). This date was derived from an excavation carried out at Bambata cave in the Matobo by Walker between 1972 and The date is derived from an exfoliated piece of rock, which therefore refers to the time the stone got incorporated into the archaeological deposit. There is therefore a possibility that the rock art of Matobo may be much older than what is generally believed. The generally agreed dates are also supported by the subject matter of the art itself, for example, man with bows and arrows are typical of the Stone Age period, while paintings of sheep denote the presence of early farming communities. The rock art of Matobo is essentially naturalistic, but impressionistic in that movement was often conveyed by dramatically distorting body proportions and positions (Walker 1996). Artists frequently used size to show importance, with most figures between 15-25cm high. However small figures were also drawn. Another important feature of the art of Matobo is the style\technique of superimposition, whereby paintings are drawn one on

25 top of the other. This in most cases brings out the complexity of the message being conveyed, as well as the technique employed in terms of artistic skills. This is a frequent phenomenon in Zimbabwe, and Southern Africa at large. In terms of styles, the artists of Matobo paid particular attention to the way in which they applied the paint. Initially, the styles were distinguished on the basis of colours used rather than the effect produced (Walker 1996; Garlake 1995). But contemporary researches have produced well-defined styles on the basis of colour, technique and effect. Broad styles include (i) outlines (figure drawn out of a line in one colour or line drawn as flakes, dashes, or chevrons), (ii) monochromes (flat wash, outline and fill, fine outline, wide outline or outline and body fill using one colour), (iii) bichromes (two colours; different colour outline with different colour detail or contrast colours), and (iv) polychromes; unblended or shaded, (Walker 1996). Generally the styles of the Matobo range from Outlines to Monochrome, Bichromes and Polychromes. Other paintings were simply retouched in another colour. What is unique about paintings of the Matobo is that colour and technique were used to encode the significance of the paintings (Walker 1996). However a contrast is seen between the hunter-gatherer and early farming community paintings. The latter were not executed with the same skill, accuracy and precision as that of the hunter-gatherers. In the whole, it is noted that styles gradually changed from simple outlines to polychromes in the Matobo Hills area. Some sites have a multi-representation of all these styles and techniques. Studies of superimposed paintings help in deciphering the meanings and styles of the art (Cooke 1969; Garlake 1995; Goodall 1959). According to Walker (1996) the paintings of Matobo, on the basis of the defined style, is relatively homogeneous throughout the Matobo cultural landscape. However, he acknowledges the existing indications that different groups painted distinctive images deliberately or because of isolation in their respective home bases Instruments maintaining the authenticity and integrity of the Matobo Hills area The National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe Act (Cap 25:11) It provides protection to archaeological sites, rock art shelters and historical sites in the entire Matobo Hills area. The natural elements are protected by the Parks and Wild Life Act (Cap 20:14) and the Natural Resources Act (Cap 20:13) covering the entire Matobo Hills landscape. The protection in the communal and commercial farming areas of Matobo Hills area is accentuated by a provision in the National Parks and Wildlife Act granting Appropriate Authority to Rural District Councils, a status that empowers them to adopt and implement a Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) with a focus towards community participation and benefits. The combined institutional preservation effort ensures sustainable management, maintenance of authenticity and integrity of the cultural and natural heritage in the Matobo Hills area Accessibility Access to rock art and other cultural sites, in the National Park, communal and commercial farming areas is restricted to the few that have custodians. In some cases, the distance from prescribed routes has a regulatory effect on the number of visitors thus reducing adverse impacts on such sites.

26 Living traditions The Mwari religion and its associated taboos still in practice engender in the people a sense of respect for the cultural and natural elements of the landscape. For example certain tree species can only be cut with express permission of the traditional leadership. Pristine forests are still evident in the communal areas, which in Zimbabwe are commonly associated with environmental degradation Permits The issuing of permits by both National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe and the Department of National Parks and Wild Life Management ensures that research; hunting and commercial filming are carried out according to set rules and regulations throughout the Matobo Hills landscape CAMPFIRE Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) projects as implemented by the Rural District Councils (RDCs) ensure the preservation of both cultural and natural resources in the communal areas of the Matobo Hills area. In addition, Rural District Councils have established Conservation Committees to further this cause DNPWLM, NMMZ and RDCs The statutory bodies above insist on tourist facilities that are empathetic to the cultural and natural environment of the Matobo Hills area through the use of local building material. The location of these facilities are well planned to avoid interfering with cultural sites and they are not close to sacred shrines. Furthermore all roads, except the tarred main routes in the park, are gravel roads Fire management Programmes exist in the National Park, commercial and communal farming areas with the first two practising modern methods and the last employing traditional methods Outreach programmes Through Heritage Education outreach programmes, NMMZ and DNPWLM are bringing about increased awareness of the importance of the cultural and natural elements of the Matobo Hills area to thousands of school children. Non-governmental organisations such as the Wild Life Society and the Matobo Conservation Society also play an important role in creating conservation awareness in the Matobo Hills. 2.4 Criteria under which inscription of Matobo Hills area is proposed: Category of Matobo Hills area as a cultural landscape For more than years, Matobo Hills landscape has hosted different communities that interacted with the natural environment in many different ways. From Stone Age period to the present, there is ample evidence that designates the area as a venerated landscape. The rock art painted by the San people supposedly while they were in a trance, a religious phenomenon known as Shamanism, and the existence of religious shrines all over Matobo Hills area are clear testimony that the cultural landscape has maintained and

27 sustained its religious status for the greater part of its human occupation. Although rock art painting stopped with the in-migration of iron using communities, Mwari/Mwali religion has persisted to this day thus manifesting Matobo Hills area as an associative cultural landscape. The powerful religious and artistic associations of the peoples of the Matobo Hills area with their natural environment over a very long period of time are quite evident. The natural environment has benefited enormously from these traditional/religious beliefs and practices especially in the area of conservation while providing the ideal ingredients for the development and refinement of the cultural and economic activities of the communities. The Matobo Hills area is probably one of the richest Cultural Landscapes in the world Criteria for Cultural Property Criterion 24 (vi) The establishment, development and sustenance of the Matobo Hills cultural landscape was due to the conducive physical environment. Notable among the physical components are the various granitic landforms, which gave rise to one of the highest diversities of vegetation and animals associated with such landforms. The landform-floristic diversity, which influenced plant-herbivore, host-parasite, and predator-prey interactions, ensured that there was and continue to be ample resources for the various communities. While this manifestation of high diversity and densities of certain flora and fauna had a pulleffect on the said communities, the same characteristics continue to render the hills a globally important area for conservation and research. So communities then and now in both communal and commercial farming areas, have continued to interact with this physical environment to produce a cultural landscape worth cherishing and preserving. The Matobo Hills area demonstrates one of the longest religious continuums from Stone Age to the present. The rock paintings represent the only historical record of the intangible beliefs and ideas of the original Stone Age hunter-gatherer inhabitants. The paintings are password to the deeper meaning of the socio-religious beliefs of the communities, which were based on Shamanism. Within the context of Shamanism, the nature of the designs and character of subjects are attributed to the fact that the paintings were executed while the artists were in a trance. The religious status of the Matobo Hills area continued even after the Stone Age communities had been displaced by their ironusing counterparts who also communicated with their God while in a trance. It is these Iron Age communities who established the Mwari religion, which is practiced to date. Some historical events, such as the First Chimurenga (Umvukela/Chindunduma), were inspired by Mwari through the oracles who operated from shrines in the Matobo Hills area. Drought, famine, wars and epidemics are some of the natural disasters that have been chronicled in human history. The Matobo Hills area had a fair share of such phenomena. The reaction to these disasters by the Bantu speaking communities was and still is to appeal to the spiritual world for ancestral intervention. The appeal was and still is made at selected and scared shrines found within the sprawling hills. This appeal is in the form of rainmaking, thanksgiving and propitiation ceremonies. In this respect the Matobo Hills area has always played an important role within Zimbabwe, and in the sub-region. The

28 extant three major shrines are Njelele, Dula and Zhilo, and there are many other smaller shrines that are interrelated and strategically located in the Matobo Hills area. The shrines are what separate the spectacular hills of the Matobo from any other similar landscape in Zimbabwe and the entire sub-region. The living traditions and associated shrines represent one of the most powerful oracles of the Mwari religion, which Bantu speaking communities of Southern Africa still practise. According to the local people, the oracle represents the authority of Mwali (God) whose voice speaks from the sacred rocks of the Matopos (Ranger 1999). The link between the people s lives and these sacred shrines is many centuries older than thought by most scholars (Ranger 1999). Zimbabweans, South Africans, BaTswana and Zambians make pilgrimages to the shrine. Traditionally appointed shrine custodians lead pilgrims to the shrines and at the various ceremonies. The pilgrimages signify the religious importance of the Matobo Hills area to the Bantu communities of Southern Africa, who believe in their strong ties with the spiritual world. The oracles have continued to play tutelary and mediatory roles. Even during resistance to colonialism and wars of liberation, right through to the postindependence period, the shrines have always played an important political role in making war and peace in Zimbabwe (Ranger 1999). In a World Heritage Committee meeting held in Harare (1998), Matobo Hills was identified as one of the several sites representing the unique living traditions and sites associated with rain making ceremonies. The spiritual value of the Matobo Hills area has been extended to some of the most significant historical sites in Zimbabwe. Icons such as battlefields, settlements and burial places evident in the Matobo Hills area have not only chronicled the history of Zimbabwe from inception to the present but have also brought groups of people together to honour those who took part in the celebrated events. Some of the outstanding historical relics include the World s View, where Cecil John Rhodes and other eminent settlers were buried, the Moth shrine and many others. Close to World s View lies the grave of the Great King of the Ndebele Mzilikazi, while the Njelele rain making shrine, which draws thousands of pilgrimages from Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana and South Africa, marks the spiritual or religious heritage of the area. The foregoing demonstrates the importance of the intangible heritage in the Matobo Hills area qualifying it for nomination under criterion 24 (vi) as a landscape directly associated with events and living traditions, ideas and beliefs, as well as artistic works of outstanding universal value Criterion 24 (iii) Stone Age research in the Matobo Hills area has revealed that human occupation dates back more than years though not continuously. Evidence shows that the Matobo Hills area was occupied from the Middle Pleistocene ( to ) through to Late Pleistocene ( BP to ) and to the end of the Holocene (12 000BP to present). Excavations at some sites in the area, which include Bambata, Pomongwe, Nswatugi and Inanke, have contributed significantly to the discipline of archaeology in

29 Southern Africa. The pottery from Bambata Cave, now known by that site name (Bambata pottery), has attracted the attention of both national and international scholars because some believe that it was produced by hunter-gatherer societies while others argue that it was the product of iron-using communities. Nswatugi cave on the other hand yielded the oldest human skeleton in Zimbabwe and Middle Stone Age material dating to circa years BP. The relationship between Early, Middle and Later Stone Ages was clearly demonstrated in the stratigraphy at Pomongwe Cave where material representing the three stages was recovered in-situ. The use of terms such as Pomongwan, Bambata, Matopan etc. to describe Stone Age material and phases are an indication of the contribution that Matobo Hills area has made to the scientific knowledge. Both archaeology and historical records demonstrate that people who account for the different cultures occupied the Matobo Hills landscape at different and definite times throughout its history. According to recent studies by Walker (1995) LSA prehistory of Matopos provides a full picture of the kind of foraging societies that emerged in Southern and Central Africa during or after the last cold maximum and which maintained their lifestyles into the last two millennia before disruption in the face of new communities with different lifestyles based on agriculture. The rich archaeological deposits of the area and the rich art found in the hemispherical caves and other rock faces provide an invaluable insight into the lifestyles of past communities and the man-environment relationships. Stone Age communities who were essentially Hunter-gatherers gave way to Iron using communities who integrated pastoral and crop farming at approximately 1st century AD. The Matobo Hills area has one of the highest concentrations of rock art sites in Southern Africa. The rock art of Matobo dates back to years ago (Walker 1995; Garlake 1995). This date is based on the spalls of stones with traces of pigments recovered in the archaeological deposit at Bambata cave since no direct dating has been done on the paintings. It is generally believed that the paintings could be much older than this date, making them some of the oldest on the sub-continent, and probably in the whole of Africa. However, this tradition is no longer being practised in Zimbabwe and in other countries of Southern Africa. The techniques and styles exhibited by the paintings, ranging from outlines of images with a single line to monochromes (with colour blocked in), bichromes and polychromes, bear testimony to this unique, invaluable and irreplaceable artistic achievement of the Hunter-gatherer communities of the Matobo Hills area. The prevalence of the phenomenon of superimposition on several panels has provided researchers with comparative material for determining different styles and techniques used in executing the paintings. The styles and techniques in turn illustrate the deeper and diverse cosmology of the extinct hunter-gatherer communities of Zimbabwe. This cosmology is linked to the socioreligious beliefs of the painters, particularly the shamanism and potency theories (Garlake 1997; Vinnicombe 1972; Walker 1995). They explore aspects of the painter s society ranging from people to the magico-religious symbolisms. The hunter-gatherer cosmology

30 exhibited in the Matobo Hills area fits very well in the Southern African Hunter-gatherer cosmology stretching from South Africa to Tanzania. Given that the Hunter-gatherers and their painting tradition are extinct, the rock art and the Stone Age material in the Matobo Hills area testify to a rich cultural tradition that has since disappeared. Therefore, the Matobo Hills area bears an exceptional testimony both to a living cultural tradition and to a rock-painting tradition that has disappeared and thus qualifies to be nominated onto the World Heritage List on the basis of criterion 24 (iii).

31 DESCRIPTION 3.1 Description of property The Matobo Hills is a region of approximately 3100 km 2 in extent. It is located between the western lowveld and the Zambezi-Limpopo watershed, and is part of the northern Limpopo catchment area. Zimbabwe s second largest city, Bulawayo, lies about 25km to the north of this area Physical and climatic attributes of the property Climate Matobo is a semi-arid region that lies in agro-ecological zone III. It receives a normal annual rainfall of around mm. The rainfall pattern is not evenly distributed throughout the year. Rainfall mostly falls between October and March. According to Tredgold (1956), January to March period receives the greatest (about 322 mm) followed by October to December period (about mm). April to June period receives mm and finally the least (3.5 mm) during the period July to September. Presently, substantive/official information about variations in rainfall according to sections of the park is not readily available. In the absence of such information, use can be made of the recordings taken at the different stations by the Parks officers taking of course the question of reliability and integrity of the data into consideration. Owing to the considerable run-off from the granite hills, water is plentiful throughout the year (except in drought years) in dams, springs and streams. Daily mean temperatures tend to be comparatively high, mean night daily range can be as low as 8.6 degrees Celsius, making the nights relatively cool. High temperatures are recorded during the months of September to November, with October normally being the hottest month, having a mean monthly temperature of about 26.3 degrees Celsius, and the mean maximum and minimum temperatures being 32.8 degrees Celsius and 21.9 degrees Celsius and daily range 11 degrees Celsius. The hottest months are October and November, temperatures falling during the months of December to March due to overcast days. Night temperatures are the same as for October. The May to mid-august period has the ideal climatic conditions characterised by cloudless days, mild temperatures and cold nights often with frosts. Cold cloudy spells with drizzle (known as guti ), occasionally occur in winter, with June normally being the coldest month having a mean average temperature of 20.4 degrees Celsius with a mean minimum of 14.6 degrees Celsius Geology Matobo Granite, 2.65 billion years old, extends for about 2050 km 2 (Garson 1995) and occupies most of the area to be nominated (Figure 4). The batholith is an irregular oval body with the maximum east-west and north-south dimensions of about 100 km and 30 km respectively. Other rock pockets include augen gneisses, older granites and grandiosities. The augen gneisses form most of the buffer zone. Matobo granites are mostly grey to pinkish grey and buff, medium to coarse- grained with microcline as phenocrysts or porphyroblasts in the groundmass of quartz, feldspar and biotite. Because of the variation

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33 in the composition, grain size and grain alignment the Matobo Hills region was carved into unique landscape features as the rocks responded differently to the agents of weathering (Fountain 1982) The elongate phenocrysts are aligned subvertically in an east-west direction (Fountain 1982; Garson 1995). In densely porphyritic zones, the alignment inhibits the development of minor joints (Fountain 1982), which are very important in the development of topographic features. Lack of joints resulted in the development of dwalas, instead of castle kopjes. Augen gneisses are located in the northern boundary and northwest corner. Their composition varies from tonalitic to granodioritic (Garson 1995). Medium- to coarse grained, grey and black augen gneiss is the main rock type. Both leucocratic (light coloured) and mesocratic (dark coloured) rock types are present. There are xenoliths, which were derived from greenstone rocks. The lengths of the xenoliths range from 2 to 4 metres, and are aligned parallel to the gneissic foliation (Fountain 1981, 1982; Garson 1995). The augen gneisses were further modified by the introduction of feldspar megacrysts from the later intrusion of the porphyritic granodiorite and granite. As a result the rocks are often porphyroblastic having feldspar (microcline and oligoclase) porphyroblasts (large crystals). The transition between gneisses and other rocks (granites and granodiorites) is marked by a break in slope, which is up to 100 metres. The low-lying gneissic plain is however interrupted by isolated granitic hills. Paul s Rest type and Lucydale are the only granodioritic rocks present. The former is found on the northwest corner whereas the latter is restricted to the north and northwest. Both rock formations were intruded into the augen gneisses and were also affected by the later intrusion of the Matobo Granite Porphyry. Most of the rocks are medium-to coarse- grained, pale pinkish grey with microcline porphyroblasts in the groundmass of quartz, feldspar and biotite. The porphyroblasts developed ahead of and during the emplacement of the Matopos and Falls porphyritic intrusions (Garson 1995) Geomorphology The imposing geomorphology of the Matobo Hills is expressed in the granitic shield. The granitic shield in Zimbabwe covers at least 70% of the country. The resistant rocks of the granitic shield form an imposing relief of varied landforms. The granites of the Matobo region form the southwest margin to the granitic shield. The geology and geomorphology of the Matobo region is outstanding; the most distinctive landforms are the inselbergs, whalebacks, dwalas and castellated hills (commonly termed kopjes). Nowhere else on the granitic shield, if not the world, can one find so profuse an expression of granitic landforms in so limited an area, expressed in the unique and complex ecology of a landscape structured by the underlying granitic rocks. The singular ecological feature is the complexity of habitats available to organisms. The ecological complexity of this landscape is expressed in the unusual density and diversity of predators. Weathering and erosion of the Matobo Hills rocks has generated a distinct system of landforms in the resultant drainage and relief (Figures 3, 5 and 6). These landscape patterns are most feasibly construed in terms of differences in spatial scale. At the largest scale is the network of large river valleys (approximately twelve in total), which in turn have structured smaller landforms, notably the relief of dwalas and kopjes. These form the sea of hills that dominates the landscape. These are the residual detritus of millions of years of weathering and erosion of the parent granites. Finer scaled patterns in smaller

34 granitic landforms (including gnamma, tafoni and crevices) contribute greatly to the complexity of the landscape. This complexity accounts for the uniqueness of the Matobo ecosystems in providing a plethora of habitats for organisms. The varieties of rock crystals in the granitic rocks comprise the finest grain in complexity of the Matobo landscape Scale-dependent patterns in the Geomorphology of the Matobo Hills The following is a summary of the hierarchical system of scale-dependent patterns in the geomorphology of the Matobo Hills area. This scale-dependent pattern renders the landscape to be of outstanding universal value Scale dependent Variety across the Landscape The largest scale is seen in the overall pattern across the landscape. This is the network of the drainage system. This large-scale pattern has been determined by the major jointing structures across the granites. The most distinctive manifestation of this pattern is the system of parallel valleys that run NNW to SSE. A major river has formed each valley. A myriad of tributaries feed these larger rivers. There are in fact three major systems of joints that have regulated patterns in the resultant drainage. These are NW-SE, WNW- ESE, and E-W. The result has been a complex drainage system at a scale of hundreds of metres to kilometres Medium scale - relief The history of weathering and erosion has left behind the residual detritus of a more contiguous granitic mass. These vary from whalebacks, bornhardts, and exposed boulders to castle kopjes and the more weathered hills Small Scale - weathering features and structures Each exposed granitic feature is unique in its plethora of small-scaled patterns. These range from cracks and joints to the more remarkable features produced by mainly sub aerial weathering. Exfoliation has been an important agent in generating a variety of landforms by onion-skin peeling. These include caves under fallen slabs and deep crevasses. Sub aerial weathering has produced spherical caves, gnamma, flared slopes, mammellated tafoni, among many other modifications to exposed granitic surfaces. It is at this scale of the Matobo landscape that perhaps the greatest diversity of habitats is generated for multicellular plants and animals, including mammals. One notable influence is the cave shelters for humans over the millennia. This has resulted in one of the greatest rock art galleries in the world. Other contributions to landscape heterogeneity at this scale are the inclusions and secondary features exposed on and in granitic rocks. These range from xenoliths (some many cubic metres in volume) to quartz veins and pegmatite. In some exposed granites, the constituent minerals have been poorly mixed, such that dark patches appear in the lighter coloured feldspar and quartz dominated granite. The mafic inclusions appear to be rich in biotite (mica rich) or hornblende.

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37 Finest scale - crystalline variation in rocks. Geochemical determinants, operating at local and microscopic scales, have resulted in the crystalline structure of the granitic rocks varying greatly. The precise determinants of their differences are geochemical (biotite, quartz, or feldspars), and the history of crystallization in deeper geological time - as the superheated magma cooled slowly or rapidly at great pressures. The ecological consequences are a variation in exposed crystals on the granitic rocks. These range from relatively huge feldspar phenocrysts (up to 5 cm long) and pegmatite in quartz veins to microscopic crystals. These provide very heterogeneous habitats for lichens and other microorganisms. The obvious fine scale products of geological processes are the soils. These are predominantly sandy, but vary in clay content (derived from feldspars) depending on how the mineral content has been altered by secondary processes besides primary weathering. Matobo soils rich in clays are localized in weathered seeps and at the bases of catenas. Soils have been differentiated across the catenas. There are some pronounced differences due to geochemical differences between parent rocks. One notable influence is sodium content of the soils, and the parent minerals (potassium or sodium rich feldspars) - discussed below. This difference is seen in some of the gneissic rocks abutting (and often intermingling with) the granites Deep Weathering Commonly known as seeps, the bases of the larger drainage systems are undergoing deep weathering by biochemical and inorganic chemical agents. These agents include microbes, and plant chemicals, and biochemical products of decomposition processes in the landscape. The result is a more subtle contribution to the diversity of landforms in the Matobo Hills. Seeps and underground wetlands vary from submerged rocks to masses of decomposed granite. They play a key role in the hydrological processes in the landscape. Their biodiversity (apart from plants, including grasses and orchids) has not been explored. The diversity of microbes is likely considerable, and their ecological and geomorphological influences even more important Biological attributes Vegetation Diversity The Matobo Hills area, lying in the Zambezian savannah biome, has a very high diversity of vegetation types within a comparatively small area. Most of these are on soils derived from granite. This diversity, ranging from arid, desert-like slopes of large granite inselbergs to small ephemeral pools and wetland patches on peat, and from dry woodland to semi-forest in gullies, is a product of the diversity of granite landforms and differential exposure to moist southeastern airflow during the dry season. The mosaic nature of the vegetation and the diversity of species is also maintained by the patterns of past and present human impact. Being one of the first comprehensively collected areas in the region, a number of taxa

38 (many now reduced to synonymy) were first described from the Matobo Hills area, which features in a number of early botanical accounts. The second oldest fire plots in Africa, which are still maintained, are found here, and much of the early work on the ecological distinction between broad-leaved savannah on sandy soils and microphyllous savannah on clays was carried out in the area. The Matobo Hills area, lying at the western extremity of the granite shield covering much of the country, is a moist and rocky island amidst the semi-arid savannahs of southwestern Zimbabwe. The Matobo Hills area lies in the savannah biome under a climate generally too dry for miombo woodland. White (1978) places it in the broad Zambezian phytochorion under undifferentiated woodland although it also contains some Afromontane elements. The area is almost entirely on granite rocks, from which the soils are derived; hence they are generally coarse and sandy with only pockets of clay soil. There are few areas of red clays or similar nutrient-rich soils present. Patches of organic soils and peat are found locally in vleis and on some uplands. Although the diversity of parent material is low, hence few soil types, there is a great range of vegetation types. This reflects geomorphology and climate, and (to a lesser extent) the effects of human activities over the centuries. Within the southern African region, it would appear that the Matobo Hills area is one of the most concentrated manifestations of the diversity of vegetation and plants associated with granite landforms. This is due to (a) its fairly extensive area compared to other, more isolated, occurrences, (b) the marked impact of winter moisture (guti) in the eastern parts, and (c) the mosaic nature of the impact of human activity compared to similar communal land situations in Zimbabwe. Vegetation diversity ranges from almost desert-like aridity with extreme temperatures on the rock domes to mesic dense woodland (including miombo) in protected, well-watered areas in the southeast part containing forest elements or outliers of the Eastern Highlands. Indeed, Wild (1956) and White (1978) call the Matobo Hills the westernmost outlier of the Limpopo escarpment forest element of the southern African flora. Small temporary pools support an ephemeral flora of tiny annual plants. Occasionally there are wet flushes on rock surfaces. These are comparatively species-rich, but a rare habitat on rock domes. The Matobo Hills area has a few such permanent flushes, which is a rare microhabitat. Vegetation on the rock domes is dominated by very drought-tolerant flowering plants. Zimbabwe has 28 species of these drought tolerant plants, 15 of which are found in the Matobo Hills area (R. Seine, pers. comm.) including Myriathamnus flabellifolius, Coleochloa setifera and Xerophyta villosa. These plants form small communities a metre or so wide on skeletal soil in hollows. At the base of the rocky slopes nutrients derived from disintegrating and weathering rock and moisture are much more available. Here dense woodland can form, consisting of such trees as Heteropyxis dehniae, Ptaeroxylon obliquum, Pterocarpus rotundifolia and Olea europea africana, and shrubs such as Strychnos matopensis. On the pediments the woodland is less dense and rich, being dominated by, Pterocarpus rotundifolia, Burkea africana, Peltophorum africanum, Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia and Terminalia

39 sericea, all species of dry woodland. There are significant patches of miombo woodland dominated by Julbernardia globiflora or Brachystegia glaucescens in moister sites in the eastern Matobo Hills area where fungal diversity is very high (C. Sharp. pers. comm.). The valley bottoms are often open with sluggish drainage (vleis) and support dense stands of tall grasses, including Hyparrhenia. Small wetlands are also found on the upland plateaux and have a rich flora of small herbs, many aquatic, otherwise rarely encountered this far west in the continent at this latitude. There are 16 species of orchid and one tree orchid in the Matobo Hills, which represents a greater diversity of orchids than any other area in Zimbabwe. It is this diversity of vegetation formation from low or tall grassland to open or dense woodland that gives rise to the diversity of habitats that underlies the Matobo Hills area s rich biodiversity Endemic Species and Outlying Populations There are only a few plant species endemic to the Matobo Hills or the surrounding granite area. These include Lobelia lobata (herb), Cyphostermma milleri (climbing herb), Maytenus heterophylla puberula (spiny shrub), Triaspis dumeticola (shrub), and Turrea fischeri eylesii (shrub). In addition, the Matobo supports a major and significant portion of the population of a further nine species, one of which is Cyathea dregei, the tree fern, which has its western-most distribution in the Matobo Hills. A point of importance is that the Matobo Hills supports the western-most populations in southern Africa of a number of mesic (moisture-requiring) plant species. The Matobo Hills are also the western-most extension of the Royal fern Osmondo regalis, the cabbage tree Cussoma spicata, the coral tree Erythrina latissima and E. lysistemon. It is also the eastern most limit of Ficus verruculosa, and is a western outlier of the tree fern, Cyathea dregei Type specimens Being close to Bulawayo, the major centre in this part of the country, the Matobo Hills were comparatively well collected by early botanists such as F. Eyles and O. B. Miller, as well as by more recent collectors. Hence a number of plant species were first described from specimens collected in the area. There are eleven currently accepted species/subspecies, the type specimens (holotypes) of which are from the Matobo area. Some of the species with type specimens from the area include: Strychnos matopensis, Eriocaulon matopense, Maytenus heterophylla puberula, Lobelia dentate, Triaspis dumeticola, Turrea fischeri eyelsii, Streptocarpus eylesii eylesii, Abutilon matopense, Cyphostermma milleri, and Elaedendrom matabelicum Lichens Although not much work has been done on lichens in Zimbabwe, the Matobo area is particularly species-rich with 78 species. A high proportion of the country s species in the genera Peltula, Parmotrema and Acarospora have been recorded here. The majority of the diversity is of lichens growing on rocks, a reflection of the high number of microhabitats on the rock domes, in particular with respect to moisture availability, aspect and elevation. Such a high diversity of lichen life forms and species, many of which are very colourful, add to the scenic interest and impact (Figure 7). The most

40 speciose and common genus is Peltula, which occurs in particular on rock surfaces. However, most species recorded on inselbergs in Zimbabwe, including the Matobo Hills, are distributed widely over the tropics and subtropics. The lower parts of the hills have a lichen flora more typical of the Zimbabwe middle and highveld, while the elevated peak support species more typical of the montane region of Eastern Zimbabwe (U. Becker, pers. comm.). Figure 7: Many species of lichens on the granitic rock surface Ecological Factors Human impacts over the centuries, particularly in the valleys (many of which were formerly cultivated), have maintained the extent of grassland vegetation. In communal and surrounding the protected National Park area, grassland and open woodland predominate and add to the habitat and species diversity of the area. It is an anthropogenic landscape, and needs human management to maintain the diversity. As well as clearance for cultivation, fire is an important ecological factor. It has been present in the Matobo for millennia and helped shape both vegetation pattern and composition. It is of interest that what are believed to be the second oldest fire plots in Africa, which are still maintained and recorded, are situated here. In addition, much of the early experimental and conceptual work on savannah ecology and determinants (e.g. effects of fire, moisture availability and nutrient differences between microphyllous and broad-leaved savannah) was developed and carried out on the Matopos Agricultural Research Station in the area (Barnes 1979; Huntley & Walker 1982). The juxtaposition of granite-derived oligotrophic and metavolcanic-derived eutrophic soils and vegetation in this area has significantly helped shape thinking on savannah ecology worldwide.

41 Predator prey interactions The complex geomorphology of Matobo Hills supports a unique ecosystem of extensive open grasslands with groups of kopjes interspersed with wetlands: marshes (dambos) and streams. The huge whalebacks (dwalas) and numerous caves contribute to the high diversity of habitats in Matobo Hills (Lightfoot 1981). The combination of physical and climatic factors has resulted in the creation of special habitats such that in spite of its situation in dry semi-arid savannah, Matobo Hills represent a western extension of the ranges of many species characteristic of the higher rainfall areas in eastern Zimbabwe and parts of Mozambique (Grobler and Wilson 1972; Vernon 1967). The result is a unique combination and a diversity of flora and fauna worthy of special attention and preservation. Predator-prey linkages are the prime movers of energy through food chains. They are an important factor in the ecology of populations, determining the dynamics that accompany prey mortality, predator births and recruitment. Mathematical models and logic suggest that a coupled system of predator and prey should cycle: predators increase when prey are abundant, prey are driven to low numbers by predation, the predators decline, and the prey recover, and so the cycle goes. Thus predation typically represents one of the important causes of the complex community interactions that one normally encounters in nature. In the Matobo Hills, a couple of predator-prey relationships are quite conspicuous because of the animal densities involved. While the predator spectrum includes leopards, raptors and snakes, an interesting observation is that dassies are a significant element of the prey base. Notably, dassies have no noticeable defence mechanism, behaviourally or otherwise, serve for high birth rates. It is easy, therefore to visualize the predators as a hindrance to the dassies flourishing, but in nature it is always the predators who are in trouble, not their prey. This in the Matobo is typified by the fact that it is actually the raptors and leopards that are more vulnerable and have thus attracted more research. This makes a lot of sense for if there is a disruption of a food chain at the bottom, this gets magnified at each succeeding level. When it reaches the top, the disturbance appears as a major environmental disruption. This makes the predators at the top of food chains vulnerable. Therefore a lot of benefit can be derived from utilizing Matobo hills predators as barometers of environmental health, and for detecting potential problems before they become too serious Invertebrates Data relating to invertebrate species are very limited although naturally, there is a higher diversity of invertebrates than vertebrates. Some of the significant predator-prey relationships involving invertebrates include the largest scorpion in the world, the rock scorpion, Hadogenes troglodytes, which grows to 21cm (M. J. FitzPatrick pers. comm.), and preys on other invertebrates such as millipedes and grasshoppers. It is in turn, preyed upon by baboons and owls. The wingless grasshopper, Threcles sp. feeds on the lichen substrates and is itself food for scorpions. Large populations of invertebrates, especially Arthropods ensure an abundance of protein needed to feed most avian nestlings as well as adult insectivores.

42 Herbivores The ecological system of Matobo Hills is driven by the abundance of plant life with its ability to harness solar energy otherwise unavailable to animals. The large diversity of plant life in the Matobo Hills is as a result of the equally high diversity of microclimates prevailing in the various niches within the landscape ranging from rock faces, ledges, watercourses, open grasslands and patches of savannah type vegetation. In addition to the breeding and roosting sites that this variety of vegetation provides, large amounts of seeds, fruits, leaves and grasses are available to small and large herbivores. The vegetation supports both browsing and grazing species. Important herbivores of Matobo Hills include the two largest herbivore residents, the rhinoceros species Diceros bicornis and Ceratotherum simum (Figure 8) and two of the smallest resident species, the rock dassy Procavia capensis and the yellow spotted hyrax Heterohyrax brucei that abound in the Matobo Hills (Barry and Mundy 1998). Other herbivores such as the klipspringer Oreotragus oreotragus, the common duiker Sylvicapra grimmia and the steenbok Raphicerus campestris also occur in Matobo Hills (Smith 1977). In all, thirteen species of antelope and 25 of rodents are found in Matobo Hills. This diversity of herbivores provides major prey species for vertebrate predators such as leopard, baboon, python, black mamba, raptors and humans. Figure 8: Rhinos in the Matobo Intensive Protection Zone Dassies/ Hyraxes Hyrax population density in the Matobo Hills is considered one of the highest in the region (Barry and Mundy 1998) and these are key to the larger predators. The two resident hyrax species, the rock and the yellow spotted hyrax, benefit mostly from the

43 rocky shelter provided by the numerous rock crevices as well as the large supply of vegetation matter to graze and browse (Figure 9). Hyrax populations have over the years suffered at the hands of humans through hunting for food and karosses; habitat a) b) Figure 9: Dassies from the Matobo Hills area a) rock dassy, b) yellow spotted dassy

44 modification as well as persistent droughts (N. Chiweshe pers. comm.). However, the populations have been able to stabilise, even increase, thanks to work conducted by the Ornithology Research Unit of the Department of National Parks and Wild Life Management in educating the surrounding communities on conservation of natural resources. Dassies provide the main source of food for many of the larger vertebrate predators in Matobo Hills Vertebrate Predators Raptors About 400 of the 674 Zimbabwean bird species occur in the Matobo Hills and some of these do not occur anywhere in the adjacent districts except as visitors or occasional wanderers. Of the 43 protected species of birds of Zimbabwe, 35 are found in Matobo Hills. Matobo Hills have one of the highest density and diversity of raptors in the world, with 33 breeding, 19 occurring but not known to breed and 7 vagrants. Of these 15 are eagles. To put this diversity into context it is worth noting that the whole of Europe has only nine eagles, South America six, North America two and Australia three. In Idaho, United States of America, an eight-year study revealed 27 species of raptors and it was decided to recommend to the President and Congress for preservation of the area. No doubt the Matobo Hills with perhaps the highest density of raptors in the world (Gargett 1990) qualify for preservation at an international level. Two raptor species have received special attention over the years: Mackinder s Eagle Owl Bubo capensis mackinderi, and the Black Eagle Aquila verreauxii (Figure 10). The former is currently considered a subspecies of the Cape Eagle Owl, which spans all of southern Africa, but is of taxonomic importance in that the Matobo population is isolated from the rest of the species in its southern African range (Irwin 1981). Preliminary work suggests that this population may be sufficiently distinct from the rest of the southern African birds to merit special study and consideration as a full species. The Black Eagle on the other hand, has been monitored for close to 40 years for breeding and other activities in Matobo (Gargett 1990). This is the longest running eagle study in the world. Matobo Hills support an unusually high density of Black Eagles. Normally the eagles defend large territories and an area the size of Matobo Hills would support only a few breeding pairs. However, in the Matobo the eagles nest at very close proximity with more than 70 pairs nesting in the 100km by 30km area. According to Gargett (1990) sizes of territory varied from 6 to 14km 2 in the central area. This is the highest known density of Black Eagles in their range. Dassies comprise 98% of the prey of the Black Eagle (Barry and Mundy 1998). The combined breeding density of diurnal and nocturnal raptors was estimated at 76 pairs per 100 square kilometres. This huge concentration of raptors in Matobo Hills is closely related to the availability of a high diversity and density of niches and suitable nest sites due to the special geomorphology of the area, on the one hand. On the other hand and also closely linked to the geomorphology is the unusually high population of prey species, especially small mammals, birds and reptiles.

45 Figure 10: Top: Black Eagle nest Middle: Black Eagle in flight

46 Bottom: Mackinder s Eagle Owl Leopards The leopard (Panthera pardus) is the biggest predator occurring in the Matobo Hills (Figure 11). Generally regarded as being widespread throughout Zimbabwe (Child & Savory 1964), in the Matobo Hills it is now primarily confined to the Rhodes Matopos National Park. The leopard has been eliminated from most of the countryside due to anthropogenic effects that have gradually depleted their habitat, leaving the Rhodes Matopos National Park as one of the remaining sanctuaries. Its conservation is of international concern (Turnbull-Kemp 1967). The leopard is the most adaptable predator in Africa; able to subsist in every biome except for outright desert (Myers 1974), as long as annual rainfall exceeds 50mm. Hence it has the widest distribution of the wild cats, showing also a great variation in appearance and behaviour. It is a generalist predator, with such terms as opportunist carnivore, ready scavenger being applied to it. Consequently the known prey items it consumes range from dung beetles (Fey 1964) to adult male eland (Grobler & Wilson 1972). In the Rhodes Matopos National Park, its food spectrum covers about 19 different prey species (Grobler & Wilson 1972), with Wilson (1981) describing this felid as being very catholic in its diet. Bailey (1993) found at least 92 prey species documented in the leopard s diet in sub-saharan Africa. In the study of the leopards in Matopos (Grobler & Wilson 1972) the common belief that leopards prey on the larger species of buck, like impala and reedbuck was challenged and Wilson (1981) is convinced that the largest percentage of prey animals are small mammals. However, it should be noted that Grobler and Wilson used scat analysis to identify prey animals and these do not allow for a direct measurement of volume in the diet (Smith 1977) which would be a lot more informative statistic. In the 1970s the Matobo Hills had the highest recorded densities of the leopard in its natural range of Africa and Asia. Smith (1977) recorded 20 animals in an area of about 123km 2 arriving at one animal per 6km 2. Factoring in allowances for juveniles and non-residents, he postulated an overall density of one leopard per 4.5 to 5km 2 or a population of some 100 animals in the Park. Probable determinants of density are habitat configuration, prey availability, and carnivore competition. In Matobo Hills, the wooded granite kopjes interspersed with open grasslands allow the leopard to thrive as it has use of both terrestrial and arboreal habitats availed to it. This alone eliminates pressure from any other of the great African felids that are exclusively terrestrial. Small mammals, especially the dassies (Procaviidae), comprise about 69% of the Matobo Hills leopard s diet (Grobler & Wilson 1972; Smith 1977). The Rhodes Matopos National Park has a high density of the yellow-spotted hyrax (Heterohyrax brucei) and the rock dassy (Procavia capensis) providing a plentiful supply of food to the leopard. Analyses of prey remains have shown that although leopards in Matobo are opportunists they show preference for mammalian prey, especially hyrax and antelope species. The only other large cat in the area is the cheetah, thus this minimal carnivore competition might be used to explain this high density. The high density of antelope and hyrax prey species as well as the availability of cover provided by the large number of kopjes help maintain the high

47 population of leopards in the Matobo Hills. In the Matobo Hills, the leopard occurs mainly in the National Park, then in the commercial farms, and in least numbers in the communal lands. Hence the ecological and behavioural attributes that permit the leopard a wide distribution in its range also enable it to live close by man s estate and also right within it. However, although the leopard appears tolerant of habitat modification and occurs in the vicinity of settled areas, density is certainly reduced when compared to occurrence in the natural habitat (exemplified here by the Rhodes Matopos National Park), and thus becomes more vulnerable to exploitation and population fragmentation. Figure 11: The African leopard (Panthera pardus)

48 Snakes All snakes are carnivorous, and therefore form a special predator group in any ecosystem. They are also conceived to be shy and elusive animals (Broadley 1983) and generally very difficult to encounter even where they abound. Consequently extremely intense studies are needed before any population figures of the snake species can be produced; it is no surprise therefore that in the absence of any such studies no figures exist for the snakes of the Matobo Hills. However based on the frequency of encounters and reported sightings, one can point to the important predatory snakes of an area. In the Rhodes Matopos National Park, these would be the Black Mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis), the black-phase of the snouted cobra (Naja annulifera), puff adder (Bitis arietans), and the rock python (Python natalensis, previously sebae). The Black Mamba is the most notorious snake in the Matobo Hills area. It seems to be the most frequently encountered snake in the Park. Its most widely used Shona name Rovambira relates to the generally held and accepted notion that it feeds exclusively on dassies, and thus throughout the country on rock outcrops where dassies occur, any snake that occurs there is invariably identified as a Black mamba. This snake feeds almost exclusively on warm-blooded prey small mammals and birds (Broadley 1983). It feeds especially on the former, with rock dassies being its most recognized prey item in the Matobo Hills area, and then squirrels and other rodents. It is territorial. Therefore obtaining a rough estimate of this snake s population in a given area is possible as it keeps to a permanent home in a termite mound or more often rock crevice. Therefore the high dassy population, and mamba encounter frequencies seem to point to high population densities of this species in the Matobo Hills area. The snouted cobra in its black phase is generally mistaken for black mambas. But a marked difference on its food prey preference can be shown. The cobra shows a marked preference for toads when they are available (Broadley 1983) but will also readily take any of the rodents, lizards, other snakes, frogs, birds and their eggs. Africa is generally regarded as the centre of cobra distribution with Asia being an eastward extension from this centre. Cobras are regarded as one of the most adaptable genera occurring at all the altitudes that snakes are known to occur. The puff adder is the typical adder of southern Africa, and is probably the most common and widespread snake on the African continent (Branch 1992). Hence although it is not the most venomous of the African snakes it is considered the most dangerous as its wide occurrence and predilection to bite means it inflicts the most bites on people by snakes in Zimbabwe (Broadley 1983). It is important ecologically because it is one of the few viviparous snakes in the country. Its diet is mostly made up of small ground-living mammals (rats, mice, etc.), and also birds, lizards, toads, frogs, and other snakes in their absence. Another important, and the only protected, predator species in the Matobo Hills area is

49 the rock python. This species is non-venomous, but its size and the possession of the ability to pick up heat waves from living prey make it as formidable an adversary as snakes come. It is the largest snake in southern Africa with lengths of some 4 to 6 metres being common for adult members. Its prey consists of warm-blooded animals, principal among them being dassies, hares, rodents, small antelopes, monkeys, and birds Description and inventory of Cultural Heritage History of human habitation Prehistory The rock shelters of the Matobo Hills area date from the latter part of the middle Pleistocene ( to BP) through the Late Pleistocene ( to BP) to the end of the Holocene ( to the present) (Walker 1995). The prehistory of the Matobo Hills area is therefore closely linked to the large number of natural shelters, which have formed under big boulders. Evidence includes Early, Middle and Later Stone age tools and rock paintings attributed to the San communities (Hunter-gatherers) whose economies comprised of gathering wild fruits and other plant foods and hunting wild animals. Evidence from the Iron Age occurs in the hemispherical caves and other forms of rock shelters and most of the sites overlay Stone Age deposits. Another feature of this period is the occurrence of dry stone walled enclosures of the Khami phase of the Zimbabwe Tradition. The prehistory in Zimbabwe spilled into the 19 th century. In the Matobo Hills the manifestations of the arrival of the Nguni groups fleeing Zululand in the 1830s include several granaries in the rock shelters. The events and the period of mass movements and social upheavals are generally known as Mfecane period. The Nguni groups came and displaced local Karanga ethnic groups who sought refugee in the Matobo Hills. The Hills provided refuge to both the Ndebele and the Karanga when they went to war against European Settlers in 1893 and 1896 in what are known as Matebele War and the Rebellion, respectively Stone Age Sites There is an abundance of sites representing the Stone Age periods. Most of the sites are found in the hemispherical caves and other forms of rock shelters and faces. In many of these sites, exceptional examples of a variety of subjects can be seen and these are attributed to the Late Stone Age inhabitants of the area. The most important Stone Age Sites where extensive research has been conducted since the early twentieth century are: Bambata Cave It is one of the most extensively researched cave sites in southern Africa. Excavations here have revealed the oldest decorated piece of stone in Zimbabwe. Bambata pottery (type-site name) is one of the riddles in Zimbabwean archaeology regarding its dates and traditional associations. Paintings in the cave are in a very good state of preservation Nswatugi Cave This is where the oldest human skeleton in Zimbabwe was recovered. From this cave was recovered evidence of Middle Stone Age dating to circa years BP. Of its paintings

50 Garlake (1987) says, the paintings are among the most varied, beautiful and colourful in the Matobo Pomongwe Cave (Figure 12) Middle and Late Stone Age deposits were recovered here with a wide range of stone tools and implements, bone tools and other related domestic paraphernalia. In addition, there is a big Site Museum with comprehensive displays explaining the Stone Age of Matobo Hills area in particular and that of Zimbabwe in general. Figure 12: Pomongwe Cave of the Matobo Hills

51 Inanke Cave (Figure 13) The paintings here are of outstanding beauty. The multichrome galloping giraffe could be the finest naturalistic painting in Zimbabwe. There is a display of exceptional complexity and skill in their execution. Garlake says of Inanke Cave, In the cave, the prehistoric art of Zimbabwe reaches its peak of beauty, technical skill and complexity (Garlake 1987) Figure 13: Inanke Cave showing rock paintings

52 Iron Age Sites The Matobo Hills area has many Iron Age Sites with most of them overlying Stone Age deposits in caves. Another important feature of this period is the occurrence of dry-stone walled enclosures of the Khami phase of the Zimbabwe Tradition, and the iron furnaces (Figure 14). Figure 14: Iron furnace in the Matobo Hills area

53 Historical sites Events of the 19 th century history of Zimbabwe include the Mfecane period when Nguni groups fleeing Zululand into different parts of southern Africa occupied most of southwestern Zimbabwe. They came into Zimbabwe in the 1830s and displaced local Shona ethnic groups who then sought refuge in the Matobo Hills. During the 1893 and 1896 wars between the European settlers on one hand and the Ndebele and the Shona on the other the latter sought refuge in the same hills. What can be seen now are the relics of that period that include intact granaries (Figure 15). The Matobo Hills area is thus rich in historical sites of great significance to the country. The following are examples of historical sites in the area: - Figure 15: Granaries in the Matobo Hills.

54 Burial sites The two most important graves in the area are those of King Mzilikazi and Cecil John Rhodes (Figure 16). The former founded the Ndebele nation and the latter led the European settlers into the country and Zimbabwe was originally known as Rhodesia after Cecil John Rhodes. The View of the World where Rhodes grave is located is visited by thousands of tourists every year. The tomb of King Mzilikazi, on the other hand, is deliberately restricted from public access in deference to traditional custom. Figure 16: Rhodes s Grave at the World s View, Matobo Hills Rhodes Indaba Site The first indaba (peace conference) was held at this site in an effort to end the 1896 war. The mound on which Rhodes and his colleagues sat is still existent and well preserved MOTH Shrine This is a memorial site for the servicemen who died during both World Wars Other sites Other sites of historical interest in the Matobo Hills include Mzilikazi s Wagon Cave, Rhodes Summer House and Stables, Matobo Railway Terminus and many others Rock Art Sites Status and Distribution of Rock Art Matobo Hills area contains the best-known rock art sites in Zimbabwe, the other concentrations being Mutoko (Northeast of Zimbabwe), Chiredzi (South-east Zimbabwe) and Chinamora communal areas (North-east of Zimbabwe). All these rock art areas are

55 found on the granitic belt of Zimbabwe, except in Chiredzi where they are located on sandstone rocks. In comparison with similar areas in the sub-region and the world at large, Matobo Hills area has one of the largest concentrations of rock art sites. The Matobo Hills area is also part of the distinctive art region of the well-known prehistoric art of Southern Africa, which stretches from South Africa to Tanzania (Walker 1996). Many researchers have carried out a number of studies on the rock art of Matobo Hills to document and decipher its significance. The Matobo Hills area contains no less than rock art sites, according to the records in the National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe national database. If more surveys are to be conducted in the Matobo Hills area, the total number of rock art sites is estimated to be around ( Most of the known sites contain a large number of paintings; therefore total individual paintings in the Matobo Hills area is likely to run into a million. The rock art sites of the Matobo Hills area consist of paintings located on spectacular granitic rock outcrops. These include caves, boulders, and cliff faces. The caves also provided shelter for the paintings, the artist and their communities. Therefore the paintings and the granite are inextricably linked. Although most of the rock paintings of the Matobo Hills, and Zimbabwe in general, are attributed to the hunter-gatherer communities of the Late Stone Age period, some belong to the Early Farming Communities (Walker 1995; Garlake 1995). Generally the red paintings are attributed to the Hunter-gatherer communities while those in white pigments belong to the early farming communities (Figure 17). Hematite and magnetite iron oxides provided the pigments used in drawing the paintings. The oxides are commonly known as red ochre. The ochre happens to occur in a variety of shades ranging from browns to yellows, oranges and purples. These ochres were pounded, crushed and rubbed to a fine powder, then mixed with a binder to produce the different shades seen today in the Matobo Hills area. The binding medium also made the paintings more permanent when applied to the granite surfaces. Researchers have suggested organic and inorganic binding mediums, but to date none has yet been identified in the Matobo Hills area (Garlake 1987, 1995; Goodall 1959; Walker 1987, 1996). Also the recipes of individual artists have not been ascertained throughout Southern Africa. On the other hand, the white pigments were derived from kaolin clays or by crushing quartz. Rock art sites in the Matobo Hills area, just like elsewhere in Southern Africa, have not been directly dated due to the non-availability of sufficient quantities of organic material in the pigments. Therefore, indirect methods have been used to date the Matobo rock art to years ago (Garlake 1995; Walker 1987, 1998). This date was derived from an excavation carried out at Bambata cave in the Matobo by Walker between 1972 and Scores of small spalls of granite that had traces of paintings were recovered at the site. These were dated in the context of the stratigraphy to give a date range between years. Given the fact that the date is derived from an exfoliated piece of rock, the date therefore refers to the time the stone got incorporated into the archaeological deposit. This technically implies that the rock art of Matobo may be much older than what is generally believed. Also the slow and variable weathering and exfoliation rates of granite rocks might support the fact that the paintings are much older

56 (Walker 1987). The generally agreed dates are also supported by the subject matter of the art itself, for example, man with bows and arrows are typical of the Stone Age period, while paintings of sheep denote the presence of early farming communities. a) b)

57 Figure 17: The Matobo Hills rock paintings, a) white paintings at Sikiti, b) red paintings at Nswatugi Cave However, more trials with possible direct dating methods are required to put the rock art of Zimbabwe in its proper cultural chronology (Taruvinga 1997). What is clear from the existing direct and indirect dating methods is that the paintings of Matobo are much older than years Techniques and Styles The rock art of Matobo is essentially naturalistic, but impressionistic in that movement was often conveyed by dramatically distorting body proportions and positions (Walker 1996). Artists gave attention to showing all parts of humans or animals by drawing limbs and horns incorrectly positioned or proportioned. Some trees were drawn with their roots, while animals and humans were shown in profile, and for the latter full frontal views or near-complete side views were used (Walker 1996). Artists frequently used size to show importance, with most figures cm high. However small figures were also drawn. Another important feature of the art of Matobo is the style\technique of superimposition, whereby paintings are drawn one on top of the other. This in most cases brings out the complexity of the message being conveyed, as well as the technique employed in terms of artistic skills. This is a frequent phenomenon in Zimbabwe, and Southern Africa at large. In terms of styles, the artists of Matobo paid particular attention to the way in which they applied the paint. Initially, the styles were distinguished on the basis of colours used rather than the effect produced (Walker 1996; Garlake 1995). But contemporary researches have produced well-defined styles on the basis of colour, technique and effect. Broad styles include (i) outlines (figure drawn out of a line in one colour or line drawn as flakes, dashes, or chevrons), (ii) monochromes (flat wash, outline and fill, fine outline, wide outline or outline and body fill using one colour), (iii) bichromes (two colours; different colour outline with different colour detail or contrast colours), and (iv) polychromes; unblended or shaded, (Walker 1996). Generally the styles of the Matobo range from Outlines to Monochrome, Bichromes and Polychromes. Other paintings were simply retouched in another colour. What is unique about paintings of the Matobo is that colour and technique were used to encode the significance of the paintings (Walker 1996). However a contrast is seen between the hunter-gatherer and early farming community paintings. The latter were not executed with the same skill, accuracy and precision as that of the hunter-gatherers. In the whole, it is noted that styles gradually changed from simple outlines to polychromes in the Matobo Hills area. Some sites have a multi-representation of all these styles and techniques. Studies of superimposed paintings help in deciphering the meanings and styles of the art (Cooke 1969; Goodall 1959). According to Walker (1996) the paintings of Matobo, on the basis of the defined style, is relatively homogeneous throughout the Matobo cultural landscape. However, he acknowledges the existing indications that different groups painted distinctive images deliberately or because of isolation in their respective home bases Living traditions and the Intangible Heritage Sacred Shrines

58 Among the important traditional shrines in the Matobo Hills area are Njelele, Dula, Zhilo, Ntunjambila, Wirirani, and Manyangwa, of which Njelele is the highest shrine (Figure 18). Njelele is situated west of Matobo National Park in the Khumalo communal area about 100 km. south of Zimbabwe s second largest city, Bulawayo. The site itself is a rock outcrop similar to hundred others in the Matobo. The outcrop is located on a mountain range that runs east west. Before getting to the site one passes through a well maintained forest which stretches for more than 500 metres before being interrupted by modern settlements. Within this forest is a variety of plants and wildlife. No human activities are allowed in the area. The tangible heritage is therefore benefiting from the sacredness of the place. The secret behind the respect accorded sacred areas and their environs lies in the taboos that are associated with such places. These shrines represent the authority of God (Mwari/ Mwali). The voice of Mwari is believed to be heard from the rocks. Mwari of the Matojeni has attracted the attention of politicians, laypersons, missionaries and scholars in both the past and the present (Daneel 1970; Ranger 1999). These people had varied interests that ranged from calls for the destruction of Mwari shrines to efforts to prove that Mwari and the concept of spirit possession are the figment of imagination. People like Daneel (1970) and Ranger (1999) produced more scholarly work. The integrity of traditional places of worship was negatively affected by the arrival into present Zimbabwe by groups of people who did not empathise with them. Many shrines and sacred places were desecrated and the culture of taking care of the tangible heritage waned in the process. In Zimbabwe today the poor state of the environment (the tangible heritage) is blamed on ignorance, overpopulation, overgrazing and several other woes. In the Matobo Hills area the indigenous traditional religious beliefs and practices (intangible heritage) were and still are conducive to the preservation of the tangible heritage. People converge on these places to pray for rainfall or ask for good health. The tutelary functions of Mwari and the ancestral spirits are believed to be enhanced through such gatherings where individuals or their priests and priestesses commune with them. The Njelele Shrine is often referred to as Dombo letshipoteleka ; the shifting or turning rock. This indigenous name refers to how different the hill looks as one walks around it. The Stone at Njelele, which used to talk, is said to have stopped in The hill has areas that are considered sacred, which are not supposed to be tampered with in any way, including cultivation and grazing. For instance the swampy sacred area was used to determine whether rains would fall or not (Ranger 1999). A traditionally appointed and tested Shrine custodian resides at the shrine to lead all Zimbabweans and other pilgrims from South Africa, Botswana and Namibia in all ceremonies performed at the site. The shrine custodian looks after the site in respect to set traditional rules, which everybody else should also observe. Among the ceremonies conducted at the Shrine is praying for rains, good harvests, diseases, appeasement of territorial spirits, and seeking guidance from the spiritual world in many issues. According to Ranger (1999) the shrine custodian controls the agriculture of the Matobo communal area (east) where several shrines and sub-shrines interact with each other. In that respect the custodian blesses the seeds by soaking them in water oozing from the

59 rocks of Njelele. These seeds are later distributed to local communities for planting at specified times, even the harvesting is also specified. Ranger (1999) summarizes this a)

60 b) Figure 18: The shrines in the Matobo Hills area, a) Njelele and b) Ntunjambila process: Njelele used to lay down everything-when to plant, when to eat certain plants, when to reap. In those days you did not harvest until early August when the corn was really dry and mature. The land was protected for longer, the cattle did not stray on the land. All the other shrines play a similar role to the Bantu communities of Southern Africa. It is important to note that these shrines were selected because of the abundance of water, and presence of caves, which are traditionally known as Daka. All the shrines are accessible throughout the week except on Wednesdays because on this day all people must rest, Chisi or izilo Taboos associated with the sacred places It is believed that the spirits reside in forests, mountains, caves, hollowed trees and pools. In other words, the intangible heritage makes use of the tangible heritage as its home. The adherents of the traditional Mwari and the ancestral spirits therefore attach great respect to the environment because they argue, by despoiling it, they will be depriving their god and the spirits a home to live in Individuals or groups of people are not allowed to visit a sacred place or its environs in the absence of the official priest or priestess or his/her appointee. Songs of praise precede approach to the shrine and an appropriate person leads the visitors. That way no mischief is envisaged It is taboo to cut down a tree in a sacred place. Trees constitute the dwelling place of the ancestral spirits and removing them is tantamount to exposing Mwari and the spirits. Such behavior is punishable. For anyone to remove a tree from the sacred forest or shrine, the priest or priestess has to ask for permission to do that giving a convincing reason. Failure to observe that would result in individuals or their families or the entire community being punished by the grieved spirits. Unsanctioned removal of trees from such places is interpreted as a sign of disrespect Traditionally, whenever hunters chasing after an animal saw it entering a sacred forest, the chase was immediately called off. The animal was regarded as part of the sacred herd. However, from time to time, residents close to such sacred places would find an animal in their midst and kill it. That was inevitably interpreted as a gift from Mwari or the ancestral spirits. The meat was shared amongst the households in the vicinity. Special parts of the animal were taken to the local spirit medium and to the chief both of whom were important custodians of the local traditions. The animals in the sacred areas did not belong to an individual and so no one could hunt them with impunity. That way, the wildlife was protected against poaching. Contemporary places such as Njelele and Dula are still in pristine condition, thanks to their sacredness The generally acceptable behaviour when entering a sacred shrine is to

61 remove one s shoes, watch and leave money outside. Visitors to Njelele, Zhilo, Dula and many other sites are expected to leave these items at the home of the keeper. The Matobo Hills area has always played a very important role in lives of past and contemporary communities. According to Ranger (1999) people of the Matobo value their special relationship to a unique environment, their ownership of shrines, their very particular form of agriculture ; all these associated with the Matobo Hills area. The communities also value their founding of the Ndebele State (as represented by Mzilikazi s grave at Entumbane), their links with the adepts of the Mwari religion, of which the Mwali resides in the Matobo. It is these intangible values that have kept the indigenous communities attached to the Matobo Hills area despite being alienated due to the establishment of a park in that area. According to Ranger (1999) Colonial Masters, European artists, explorers, adventurers and Jesuits did not realize the Matobo Hills area was the home of the wide ranging oracular cult of the high God, Mwali. It is this powerful oracle that links the indigenous communities with the Hills, which are sometimes referred to as Malindidzimu, home of spirits. In this traditional concept of Malindidzimu, the landscape, has no beginning or an end, it just rolls over and over, repeating itself through space in an almost homogeneous manner. 3.2 History and Development of the property Prehistory The potential for development of the Matobo Hills area dates back to the latter part of the middle Pleistocene through the Late Pleistocene to the end of the Holocene (Walker 1995). The availability of natural shelters, forests, spongy areas provided the necessary raw materials for the development of art, and later agriculture. Today the same assets are playing a pivotal role in the tourism industry. Early, Middle and Later Stone age tools and rock paintings evidence the interaction of man and the environment. Successive ironusing communities also left evidence of their activities in the form of iron tools and weapons, stonewalled settlements, and iron-smelting furnaces. From Stone Age therefore to the present, the icons in the Matobo Hills area chronicle a progression in human (intellectual) development and interaction with the environment. In the Zimbabwean context, the separation between the prehistoric and historic periods is not clearly defined. There is therefore an overlap that makes research exciting. Some events of the 19th Century, such as the arrival of the Nguni groups fleeing Zululand in the 1830s, belong to both the prehistoric and historic eras The Historical Era The history of the Matobo Hills area can be divided into three eras: the pre-colonial (before 1890), colonial ( ), and the post-colonial (1980 to present). The events of historical significance left indelible marks in the form of physical icons such as remains of early settlements, graves of great leaders, forts and many others Pre-colonial era (before 1890) The dividing line between the prehistoric period outlined above and the early pre-colonial is not distinct. The little that is known about this period was due mostly to

62 the presence of missionaries, mineral seekers, hunters and a few adventurers. Of note is the arrival and establishment of settlements of the ancestors of the present Ndebele ethnic groups during the first half of the 19th century under the leadership of King Mzilikazi. Mhlahlandlela, on the northern fringes of the Matobo Hills, was one of King Mzilikazi s earliest settlements. His son, Lobengula, who succeeded him as king in 1871, also built a settlement just north of Mhlahlandlela at KoBulawayo (the first Bulawayo). The pre-colonial period also saw the introduction of Christianity, by the missionaries who founded several mission stations including Cyrene and Matobo missions, which continue to be important centres of learning today (Ranger 1999). The arrival of the Nguni, the missionaries, the hunters and gold prospectors accounts for the cultural diversity and richness of Matobo Hills The Colonial era ( ) The events that took place during the colonial period had profound social, economic and political imprints on the indigenous population. The Pioneer Column raised its flag at Fort Salisbury in 1890 and moved southwest to Matebeleland in search of gold. This met with resistance from the Ndebele and the confrontations of 1893 and 1896 are well documented. Matobo Hills played a pivotal role in providing refuge to the indigenous people, who derived their inspiration from the oracles of the Mwari shrines (Ranger 1999) Post Colonial era (1980 to present) The major historical landmarks which impacted on the Matobo Hills landscape during this period include: land reform, Communal Areas Management Programme For Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) projects, development of a Management Plan for Rhodes Matopos National Park, cultural tourism, rock art, historical sites, minerals prospecting in the Matobo Hills area, Rural District Council tourism plans, and the development of roads, schools and clinics. 3.3 Form and date of most recent records of property. There is a computerised database for all the cultural sites in the Matobo Hills area, which is stored at the Archaeological Survey Centre, Museums of Human Sciences in Harare. In addition, records of each site are kept at the Natural History Museum in the form of registers and cards. These records are continually updated in line with operational, tactical and strategic plans of NMMZ, and are also incorporated with related research programmes in published annual reports of the organization. Annual reports of vegetation mapping, Black Eagle Survey, Raptor Survey, dassies, leopards, rhinoceros, and other fauna are kept at the DNPWLM regional office in Bulawayo and the Harare head office. Also, there is a partially computerised database of the Matobo Hills fauna housed at the departments of Herpetology, Ichthyology, Entomology, Mammalogy, Ornithology, and Arachnids at the Natural History Museum, Bulawayo. 3.4 Present state of conservation

63 Institutional arrangement for the conservation of Matobo Hills area. All key stakeholders in the Matobo Hills area play a vital role in the conservation of the heritage that falls under their jurisdiction. The conservation is carried out in accordance with the dictates of traditional practices and beliefs and pieces of respective legislation Community The activities of the Matobo Hills area community are governed not only by various pieces of legislation but more importantly by their traditional practices and beliefs. The need to keep the Matobo Hills area as a venerated landscape is inculcated into the local communities at ceremonial gatherings that take place annually at Mwari shrines. Individuals and/or groups also visit these shrines to make specific requests. Consequently, the pieces of legislation alluded to are more effective because of the conducive attitude of the people towards conservation of the area. Chiefs, headmen and spirit mediums all play an important role in coordinating such traditional activities and mobilising the people Department of National Parks and Wild Life Management The Department of National Parks and Wild Life Management takes care of the natural resources in accordance with the Parks and Wildlife Act (Cap. 20:14). A Management Plan for the period has since been produced for the Rhodes Matopos National Park. The Management Plan addresses: Ecological management, research and monitoring programme Stakeholder interaction and involvement in the park Law enforcement. Infrastructure development Business planning and financial management Tourism and tourist facilities or services in the Park National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe The National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe (NMMZ) manages all the cultural resources found in the Matobo Hills area irrespective of boundaries and ownership. This is in accordance with the NMMZ Act (Cap.25: 11). However the management is done in conjunction with other stakeholders who happen to be administrators of any particular area that falls under the defined Matobo Hills area Rural District Councils (RDCs) All RDCs have active Environmental Conservation Committees. They all have an option to apply for Appropriate Authority from DNPWLM to establish CAMPFIRE areas. Umzingwane and Matobo RDCs have viable CAMPFIRE projects Cultural Heritage of Matobo Hills area The Western Region, an administrative branch of the National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe, is managing the diverse cultural heritage in the Matobo Hills area. There are 3 resident archaeologists, and 2 technical officers to ensure that the conservation of the diverse cultural heritage in the Matobo is on course, and in accordance with international charters. Among the three archaeologists, one is a Monuments Inspector

64 whose duties include routine inspection of all monuments, and to recommend appropriate action where necessary. At some of the sites open to the public, custodians are stationed there to monitor and guide visitors. As for the shrines e.g. Njelele, traditionally appointed custodians reside at the site to enforce rules that relate to the shrine Natural heritage of the Matobo Hills area. The core area comprises the Rhodes Matopos National Park, communal and commercial farming areas. The park has been a conservancy since 1926 and boasts an invaluable game sanctuary that has been used to breed and reintroduce internationally and nationally threatened faunal species with great success. The success of animal breeding is attributed to the availability of high diverse plant species. Outside the park area, anthropogenic impacts on the fauna and flora have been appreciably higher. Communal areas have however become more aware of natural resource conservation through CAMPFIRE projects. These areas now have structures to manage and monitor the utilization of their resources. Therefore the flora and fauna that has survived within the communal areas is now under a regime of conservation. 3.5 Policies and programmes related to the presentation and promotion of the property. The reverence of the entire landscape is fostered through spirit mediums who work closely with chiefs and other traditional leaders. The communities are involved in periodic ritual performances that take place at shrines. The rituals therefore conscientise the community about the sites thereby promoting conservation of the entire landscape. There is a Management Plan ( ) for the Rhodes Matopos National Park, which among other things defines the benefits to and responsibilities of the contingent communities. CAMPFIRE programmes ensure that the communities benefit directly from the resources. The National Museums and Monuments (NMMZ) has a Management Plan for the conservation, promotion and presentation of cultural sites.

65 MANAGEMENT 4.1 Ownership The proposed World Heritage Site comprises three types of land ownership, recognised by Zimbabwean laws. These are State-protected areas such as national parks Communal lands, state land without individual tenure and Privately owned land with individual tenure, also called commercial land. Each land category is administered by Acts of Parliament that demarcate boundaries and regulate activities within. The DNPWLM manages the Rhodes Matopo National Park and the RDCs manage the communal areas on behalf of the President and people of Zimbabwe. The management of archaeological and other cultural properties fall under the National Museums and Monuments Act irrespective of land tenure. However, the ownership and management of shrines and ritual activities, is the responsibility of members of the community. 4.2 Legal status In all the land tenure systems represented in the proposed Matobo Hills area, the owners have to comply with the requirements of several pieces of legislation including Rural Districts Council Act (29:13), Parks and Wild Life Act, (20:14), Natural Resources Board Act, (20:13) and National Museums and Monuments Act, (25:11). 4.3 Protective measures and means of implementing them The DNPWLM, NMMZ and the RDCs have complementary roles in the management of the Matobo Hills area. The conservation objectives are achieved through strategies spelt out in the respective management plans of the three institutions. 4.4 Agencies with management authority The following are some of the agencies responsible for the management of the Matobo Hills area: Matobo and Umzingwane Rural District Councils National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe Department of National Parks and Wild Life Management (DNPWLM) Natural Resources Board Forestry Commission Rhodes Matopos Committee 4.5 Level at which management is exercised and name and address of responsible person for contact purposes National Parks The day-to-day management of Rhodes Matopos National Park is undertaken by a resident warden who reports to a provincial warden based in Bulawayo. The DNPWLM Headquarters in Harare is responsible for policy directives. In addition the administration of the park falls under the Rhodes Matopos Committee, which is constituted by the

66 Minister of Environment and Tourism. The person to contact for more information on the park is the Provincial Warden, Box 963,Bulawayo, Zimbabwe Sites and monuments (Archaeological, Rock art sites and shrines) All monuments are administered by NMMZ irrespective of where they are found. The cultural heritage of the hills is directly managed by the Monuments Inspectorate, which includes archeologists. For administration purposes NMMZ is divided into five regions namely Northern, Southern, Western, Eastern and Central. The Matobo Hills area falls within the Western Region. More information can be obtained from the Regional Director at the Natural History Museum, P. O. Box 240, Bulawayo Communal Lands Management of the communal areas is through Matobo and Umzingwane Rural District Councils in collaboration with the traditional leaders. The traditional leadership consists of Chiefs, Village Heads and Headmen and they participate in the decision making of RDCs through their representatives. All chiefs are ex-officio members of RDCs. Each RDC has an environmental officer who works with the community on conservation issues. More information can be obtained from the Chief Executive Officers, Umzingwane Rural District Council, Box 50, Esigodini and Matobo Rural District Council, Private Bag 1, Maphisa Commercial Farms For administrative purposes the commercial farms fall under the RDCs. 4.6 Agreed plans related to property Refer to the Draft Management Plan for Matobo Hills area. 4.7 Sources and levels of finance National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe Funded through: An annual grant from the National Government Budget, through the Ministry of Home Affairs. Fees and charges International donor support Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management Funded through the National Parks Statutory Fund, which receives income as follows: An annual grant from the National Government Budget, through the Ministry of Environment and Tourism Fees and charges Department of Natural Resources Funding is through an annual grant from the National Government Budget, through the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. 4.8 Sources of expertise and training in conservation and management

67 techniques Principal sources of expertise There are four principal government departments active in the Matobo Hills in matters of conservation, land management and preservation of historic sites. These are National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe (NMMZ) Rural District Councils (RDCs) Department of National Parks and Wild life Management (DNPWLM) Department of Natural Resources (DNR) Each of these bodies have staff based permanently within, or active within the proposed World Heritage Site Subsidiary sources of expertise Other professionally based organisations that operate in the area include: Chipangali Wildlife Sanctuary, which has an active research unit in the Matobo Hills area. The Biodiversity Foundation for Africa is also involved in research in the Rhodes Matopos National Park. Marwell Trust Zimbabwe is currently researching on small antelope within the Rhodes Matopos National Park. The Faculty of Environmental Studies at the National University of Science and Technology (NUST) The Matobo Conservation Society is engaged in education and research throughout the whole area. The Black Eagle Research group has been monitoring the Black Eagle, Aquila verauxii, for over forty years. The Matebeleland Branch of the Zimbabwe Wildlife and Environment Society also operates in the area. The Matebeleland Branch of the Zimbabwe Tree Society likewise takes a keen interest in the hills, conducting a number of field trips into the area. The Zimbabwe Ornithological Society, Matebeleland Branch is active in the hills, in conjunction with the other similar interest groups. The Bulawayo Aloe and Cactus Society has conducted studies in the area on the indigenous aloe species. The Bulawayo Orchid Society conducts regular field trips into the Hills to review indigenous orchid species. It should not be forgotten that traditional conservation techniques, as well as protection of specific sites, such as Njelele and other rain making sites, are important sources of expertise. This is passed down from generation to generation and forms an important, source of knowledge, practice and custom. 4.9 Visitor facilities and statistics Visitor facilities The National Park, commercial farms and communal lands offer a host of visitor facilities, which include accommodation (hotels, lodges, chalets, camping sites, caravan parks, etc.), picnic sites and offer various recreational activities.

68 Visitor statistics The Rhodes Matopos National Park and the cultural sites and monuments in and outside the park have been a favourite destination for many tourists. The Park averages visitors annually Property management plan and statement of objectives The management will be based on the attached Draft management plan, which draws from the following: Rhodes Matopos National Park The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management has a comprehensive development and management programme for the five-year period 2000 to Commercial farms individual farmers have specific plans Communal lands - Both the Matobo and Umzingwane Rural District Councils have broad-based programmes in place, in which conservation and restoration of the environment play a significant part. Specific projects include the DEAP programme in Ward 15 of the Umzingwane RDC. (DEAP = District Environmental Action Plan, a UNDP sponsored initiative) Proposed Management team for the World Heritage Site NMMZ, DNPWLM, Matobo Rural District Council, Umzingwane Rural District Council, Chiefs and Matobo Conservation Society 4.11 Staffing levels. For the conservation, maintenance and monitoring of the Matobo Hills, the following stakeholders have these key full-time staff complements: National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe 60 people; National Parks and Wildlife Management 123 people; Department of Natural resources 2 people; Matobo Rural District Council 1 person; Umzingwane Rural District Council 1 person.

69 FACTORS AFFECTING THE PROPERTY 5.1 Development Pressures Tourism has become one of the mainstays of the Matobo Hills area by providing employment. Visitor facilities such as, lodges, recreation and interpretive centers, camping and picnic sites have been established in order to lure visitors to the area. Roads have been provided to improve accessibility and all these developments have had an impact on the environment. With the high number of tourists more such facilities may be needed in future. However, the provision of these facilities is preceded by intensive consultations of stakeholders to ensure that the impacts on the environment are mitigated. Although the area receives higher rainfall relative to its environs, the rainfall distribution pattern is not conducive to viable crop production. To overcome this, some nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), RDCs and the Ministry of Water Resources and Rural Development have embarked on the construction of small-scale dams throughout the Matobo Hills area. These developments are aimed at improving the quality of life of the locals thereby making them appreciate their environment even more. 5.2 Environmental Pressures Population pressure has increased significantly over the past one hundred years, through natural growth and in-migration. There is no encroachment within the National Park and commercial farms. Because of the congestion in the communal lands of the Matobo Hills area there is a relatively higher level of environmental degradation compared with the protected areas alluded to above. However, the RDCs responsible and other stakeholders are working very closely with the affected communities to minimise and in some cases reverse the situation. Within the communal lands, there is little wildlife left due to the heavy population pressure. It is hoped that the current resettlement programme will result in the decongestion of the Matobo communal areas; a move that is likely to reduce pressure on the existing resources. There is a controlled harvesting of the Grey Mukwa, used to make curios. The state of conservation of rock art sites outside the National Park has greatly improved through the establishment of CAMPFIRE projects and the educational impact of the outreach programme of NMMZ. Local communities through their RDCs now realize the importance of such sites in the lucrative tourism industry and therefore protect them from graffiti. There have been a few reports of damage caused by children and in rare cases, tour operators who throw water on the rock art to improve the resolution of the paintings. The NMMZ works closely with RDCs, commercial farmers and tour operators to ensure the protection of archaeological and historical sites in the area. Within the entire region, the greatest threat to the environment after population pressure is that of the encroachment of exotic plants. High on the list is Lantana camara, which has established itself in the eastern hills and in parts of the National Park. Both the DNPWLM and the RDCs have ongoing programmes for the eradication of the pest.

70 The introduction of plots of Eucalyptus species in the Matobo Hills area is aimed at reducing dependence on the indigenous tree species by providing timber for both construction of houses and for firewood. 5.3 Natural disasters and preparedness The Hills are a watershed with rivers flowing towards the north and south. Flooding is restricted to localised rivers bursting their banks for very short periods of time. Approximately every ten years or so, cyclones crossing the Mozambique coast, and traveling inland will result in significant rainfall, but by the time that these reach the Hills, they will have been reduced to tropical depressions, and so are not characterised by destructive winds. However, the last such weather pattern, Cyclone Eline, experienced in the area in February 2000 resulted in extensive destruction of property and the environment. Seasonal fires that burn during the dry winter season are usually controlled. Some sporadic and uncontrolled fires have been recorded but were quickly contained 5.4 Number of inhabitants within the property. From the 1992 National Population census, the estimated number of inhabitants in the proposed Matobo Hills area is

71 MONITORING 6.1 Key indicators for measuring state of conservation The major cultural and natural components of the Matobo Hills area are continuously monitored in order to maintain a reasonable level of state of conservation. The major stakeholders involved in the monitoring process include the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management (DNPWLM), National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe (NMMZ), Chiefs and spirit mediums. NMMZ archaeologists based at the Natural History Museum in Bulawayo in conjunction with the local communities are responsible for monitoring the state of conservation of all the archaeological and rock art sites irrespective of where they are. NMMZ has established site museums at some archaeological and historical sites and stationed custodians at some sites to improve the presentation to the visitors. The site museums also serve as points where the visitors are made aware of the need to protect and preserve the sites. The custodians are also responsible for the day-to-day monitoring of the archaeological sites in the area. The number of participants at and visitors to sacred shrines in the Matobo Hills area has steadily increased over the years indicating their fidelity. Chiefs and the local community maintain the state of conservation of shrines within the Matobo hills. DNPWLM, DNR and RDCs monitor the state of conservation of both flora and fauna under their jurisdiction. The results of NGOs participating in the monitoring of specific environmental components provide an indication of the state of preservation of the environment. In communal areas, the number of CAMPFIRE projects are a useful measure of the state of conservation. 6.2 Administrative arrangements for monitoring the property The Regional Director of the Western Region administers the archaeological sites in the Matobo Hills area from the Natural History Museum in Bulawayo. However, members of the Monuments Department who are also based in Bulawayo do the daily monitoring exercise. The department is represented in the Matobo Hills area by a number of custodians. The conservation activities of the relevant department are based on the NMMZ Strategic Plan that details the conservation and related research programmes in the Matobo Hills area. Monthly, quarterly, half-yearly and annual reports of the conservation status as well as the activities carried out are produced and these reports are reposited at the NMMZ Head Office in Harare. The spirit mediums in consultation with the chiefs and the local community have the sole responsibility of monitoring the shrines. DNPWLM is mandated to take care of Rhodes Matopos National Park.

72 The DNR and RDCs are responsible for monitoring in both communal and commercial farming areas. 7.0 DOCUMENTATION 7.1 Photographs, slides and video A video of the property has been attached and photographs are included in the document. 7.2 Management plan Draft Management Plan for the Matobo Hills area. 7.3 Bibliography Arnold and Jones, N Notes on the Bushman cave at Bambata, Matopos. Transactions of the Rhodesian Scientific Association 17 (1): Bailey, T. N The African leopard: a study of the ecology and behavior of a solitary felid. Colombia Univ. Press, New York Barnes, D.L Cattle ranching in the semi-arid savannahs of east and southern Africa. In: Management of Semi-Arid Ecosystems (ed. B.H. Walker), Elsevier. Amsterdam. Barry, R. E. and Mundy, P. J Population dynamics of two species of hyraxes in the Matobo National Park, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology 36: Branch, W. R Field Guide to the Snakes and Other Reptiles of Southern Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape Town. Broadley, D. G FitzSimons Snakes of Southern Africa. Delta Books (Pvt.) Ltd., Johannesburg and Cape Town. Child, G. & Savory, C. R The distribution of large mammal species in Southern Rhodesia. Arnoldia (Rhodesia) 1(14): Cooke, C. K Report on excavation at Pomongwe and Tshangula caves, Matopo hills, Southern Rhodesia. Southern African Archaeological Bulletin 18(71): Cooke, C. K Rock Art of Southern Africa. Books of Africa (Pvt.) Ltd., Cape Town, South Africa. Daneel, L The God of the Matopos Hills. Mouton, The Hague. Deacon, J Common Heritage: A Comparative Analysis of the Rock Art of Southern Africa (unpublished paper). Fagan, B A Guide the Victoria Falls. Longmans, Salisbury.

73 Fey, V The diet of leopards. African Wildlife 18: Fountain, A. J The geology of an area south of Bulawayo. Annals of the Zimbabwe geological Survey 7: 1-9. Fountain, A. J On the geology and structure of the country around Bulawayo. Annals of the Zimbabwe geological Survey 8: Gargett, V The Black Eagle: A Study. Russel Friedman Books, Halfway House, Johannesburg. Garlake, P The Painted Caves: An introduction to the prehistone Art of Zimbabwe. Modus Publications, Harare. Garlake, P The Hunters Vision: The pre-histone Art of Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe Publishing House, Harare, Zimbabwe. Garlake, P The first eight years of Rock Art Studies, , in Gilbert Pwiti. Caves, Monuments and Texts: Zimbabwean Archaeology Today. Uppsala, Sweden. Garson, M. S The geology of the Bulawayo-Greenstone Belt and the surrounding granitic terrain. Bullettin of the Zimbabwe geological Survey 93: Goodall, E The Rock Paintings of Mashonaland. In: R. Summers (ed.). Prehistoric Rock Art of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. National Publication Trust Zimbabwe. Grobler, J. H. & Wilson, V. J Food for the leopard Panthera pardus (Linn.) in the Rhodes Matopos National Park, Rhodesia. Arnoldia (Rhodesia) 5(35): Huntley, B. J. and Walker, B. H. (eds.) Ecology of Tropical Savannahs. Springer Verlag, Berlin. Jones, N Excavations at Nswatugi and Madiliyangwa, and notes on new sites located and examined in the Matopos hills, Southern Rhodesia Occasional paper of the National Museums, Southern Rhodesia 1: Kumirai, A., Muringaniza, S. J. and Munyikwa, D Victoria Falls/Mosi-oa-Tunya World Heritage site (Zambia and Zimbabwe): Issues and Values. Authenticity and Integrity in an African Context: Proceedings of the Expert Meeting-Great Zimbabwe- 26/29 May 2000: Lightfoot, C. J The history and natural resources of the Matopo Hills. Zimbabwe Science News 15(11): Myers, N The status of the Leopard and Cheetah in Africa. In: R.L.Eaton, (ed.).

74 The World s Cats, Contributions to Status, Management and Conservation. University of Washington, Seattle, USA. Vol. 3 (1): Ranger, T Voices from the Rocks: Nature, Outline and History in the Matopos Hills of Zimbabwe. BAOBAB, Harare. Smith, R. M Movement patterns and feeding behaviour of leopard in the Rhodes Matopos N.P., Rhodesia. Arnoldia (Rhodesia) 8(13): Taruvinga, P The state of the Art: Rock Art in Zimbabwe. INORA, No 16: Tredgold, R The Matopos. Federal Department of Printing and Stationery, Salisbury. Turnbull-Kemp, The Leopard. Timmins, Cape Town. Vernon, C. J Birds of the Matopos, Rhodesia. South African Avifauna Series 48: Vinnicombe, P Motivation in African Rock Art. Antiquity 46: Walker, N The dating of Zimbabwean Rock Art. Rock Art Research 4(2): Walker, N Late Pleistocene and Holocene, Hunter-gatherers of the Matopos: An Archaeological Study of change and continuity in Zimbabwe s societies. Archaeological Upsailiensis, Uppsala Sweden. Walker, N The Painted hills, Rock of the Matopos. Mambo Press, Zimbabwe. Walker, N King of foods Marula economics in the Matopos. South African Wildlife 43(6): White, F The Afromontane Region. In: M.J.A Werger (ed). Biogeography and Ecology of Southern Africa. W. Junk, The Hague. Wild, H Flora of the Matopos. In: R. Tredgold (ed). The Matopos. Government Printer, Harare. Wilson, V.J Lions, Leopards and Lynxes: Twenty Years with the Wild Cats. Books of Zimbabwe Publishing Co., Bulawayo. 7.4 Address where inventory records and archives are held The Natural History Museum of Zimbabwe Leopold Takawira Avenue/Park Road, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe Copy held by: Zimbabwe Commission for UNESCO

75 Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management Matobo Conservation Society 8.0 SIGNATURE ON BEHALF OF THE STATE PARTY, REPUBLIC OF ZIMBABWE. Dr. S. Mumbengegwi Minister of Higher Education and Technology Date

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141 Matobo Hills World Heritage Area Management Plan CARING FOR ZIMBABWEAN CULTURAL HERITAGE IN ITS DIVERSITY 1