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306. Pale purple coneflower (Echinacea pallida)- At edge of a big bluestem-dominated tallgrass prairie in the Prairie Peninsula of southwest Missouri-northeastern Oklahoma this fine specimen of pale purple coneflower graced an equally fine May morning. The Echinacea species are the most common taxon of prairie composites knwon generally as coneflowers. These are also some of the most conspicuous--often striking--forbs on the prairie.
Unfortunately for these delightful native wildflowers and those who delight in the beauty they bring to native grasslands the affiliation of Echinacea roots with folk medicine led to gathering of these composites for use in herbal tonics. Root-digging has all too frequently led to local extirpation of local populations of Echinacea species. Any plant species that have valuable, legitimate medicinal properties should be grown as an agronomic or horticultural drug crops using seed as the means of propagation so as not to threaten native populations. Root-diggers of naturally occurring Echinacea "reap where they do not sow" and are a scourge of the human race on par with child-molesters, pimps, and drug-dealers (they all are of a criminal variety). A curse on all your houses!
Ottawa County, Oklahoma.
307. Prairie folk from two kingdoms- Pale purple coneflower being visited by the migratory monarch butterfly (Dananus plexippus) on a relict big bluestem-dominated tallgrass prairie in the western Ozark Plateau that had been managed as a hay meadow for decades. This herbaceous compositae was obviously a vascular range plant in kingdom, Plantae, and the insect was in kingdom, Animalia.
This showy scene provided another opportunity to hammer home the reality and concept that the range community consist of both plants and animals. Range plant community has often been used as synonymous and interchangable with range vegetation throughout this publication, but in total and from the more comprehensive perspective range community must, by definition, include both plants and animals (producers and consumers; along with decomposers and manipulators, of course).
Newton county, Missouri. Early June.
308. Inflorescence of pale purple coneflower - Like most of the leguminous forbs and the last three composite forbs presented, the purple coneflowers are indictor species and generally decreasers. In fact, the best place to find Echinacea species is on well-managed prairie hay meadows and in grassy fence rows where overgrazing by livestock and status-mowing by retirees on riding lawnmowers has not reduced the tallgrass communities to a stomp lots or manicured weed patches of crabgrass.
The word "coneflower" is one of the common names that can be misleading (not that scientific names never are!). Echinacea species are the "purple coneflowers" whereas Ratibida species are the "prairie coneflowers" (as was shown below there are other widely accepted common names for some Ratibida species) while Rudbeckia species are often just called "coneflower" (if not something like Black-eyed Susan or Brown-eyed Susan which are names for two separate species).
As a general rule, Echinacea species decline under any form of severe defoliation whether by animals or machines and whether too intense, too early, too late, etc. By contrast, many of the Rudbeckia species are less sensitive to abuse and, in fact, some are invaders and indicators of past or present abuse. For example, some Rudbeckia species are often common or even locally dominant on sacrifice areas, old-fields, infrequently traveled lanes or trails whereas Echinacea species are usually restricted to virgin sod (or flower beds of native plant enthusiasts).
Newton County, Missouri (on a pristine prairie hay meadow). June.
309. A blooming head- Details of a head or capitulum of pale purple coneflower with several tiny flowers inserted on the disk or common receptacle of this species. Capitulum was defined and described below.
Newton County, Missouri (on a relict prairie hay meadow in western Ozark Highlands). Early June.
A less common member of the clan- A plant of yellow coneflower (Echinacea paradoxa) on tallgrass prairie in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. This Echinacea species is much less common and locally abundant than pale coneflower treated above.
Newton County, Missouri. Mid-June; full-bloom stage.
A closer look- Upper shoot (upper slide) and capitula (lower slide) of yellow coneflower growing on tallgrass prairie in the Springfield Plateau of southwest Missouri.
Newton County, Missouri. Mid-June; full-bloom stage.
310. Two forms of two-toned flowers- Local stand of the widespread composite known variously as Mexican hat, thimbleflower, longheaded coneflower, upright prairie coneflower, and, simply as, prairie coneflower (Ratibida columnifera= R. columnaris). This is one of the most widespread composites in North America America ranging from Ontario to British Columbia and south to Mexico and east to Florida.
In northcentral Texas, where this "group portrait" was taken, plants green up in a typical fall and overwinter frequently growing to heights of eight to ten inches long before spring. There is considerable variation in pigmentation of phyllaries ranging from solid yellow to (less commonly) solid green to various two-tones of red and yellow. In this group there were heads (capitula) with solid yellow (left) and two-tone red and yellow (right).
Erath County, Texas. Mid-May.
311. "Coneflower", longheaded coneflower, thimbleflower, or Mexican hat (Ratibida columnifera= R. columnaris)- This multiple common-named, bright prairie denizen even has two ways to spell it's specific epithet! It even has variation in the color of its rays: yellow, red, or purple. These have been used to distinguish between forms, the taxon below variety or the subdivision unit of variety. (Observant viewers should have noted the difference between the rays of the two examples shown here.) "We won't even go there" as this was already too confusing for such a "purty little thang".
Mexican hat has customarily been treated as a decreaser or increaser. It is somewhat sensitive to heavy defoliation (typically reaching shorter stature after the first clipping), but it is much too common on improperly managed grasslands (eg. overmowed highway rights-of-way) to be the sensitive indicator plant that Echinacea or Engelmannia species are.
312. Another sombero- Capitaula of Mexican hat are so showy and of so many varied shapes, colors, etc. that another hat was thrown into the bull ring for fans' enjoyment. Each science has its own aesthetics, and the range scientist would be remiss the point of mindlessness if he failed to share in that bounty of wonder and amazement.
Earth County, Texas. Mid-May.
A grayhead on the prairie- Large specimens (some shoots were over five feet tall) of grayheaded coneflower (Ratibida pinnata) on edge of a tallgrass prairie just above a bottomland mixed hardwood bottomland forests in Springfield Plateau of southwest Missouri. Obviously, this is another member of the huge sunflower or daisy tribe, Heliantheae.
The author did not find references to the successional status of grayheaded coneflower, but his personal observations of tallgrass prairies, including prairie hay meadows, over more than half century has convinced that these are members of the climax vegetation. They are not found on overgrazed ranges and, instead, are most common in outside fencerows and borders of hay meadows.Makes a great native ornamental wildflower.
Newton County, Missouri. Early July; peak-bloom stage of phenology.
Heads up!- Heads of grayheaded coneflower. Heads or, more scientifically (supposedly) capitula (singular is capitulum) are the inflorescence type of the Compositae which refers th the "dense spherical or rounded inflorescence of sessile [not on a "stand" or a pedicel] flowers" (Smith 1977, 63). Capitate is the adjective meaning headlike, gathered in a dense cluster (Great Plains Flora Association, 1986, p.1318)
Newton County, Missouri. Early July; peak-bloom stage of phenology.
Colony of giants- Local colony of giant coneflower (Rudbeckia maxima) growing on mesic to wet prairie in the Blackland Prairie of northeast Texas. This restricted population was growing on the upper part of a barrow ditch in what was once virgin tallgrass prairie. Trees in the background were in a fenceline where they established after white man stopped prairie fires, plowed up the prairie for farm fields, and created fencerows, part of which--like that seen here--, could not be mowed.
Infrequent mowing for highway right-of-way maintenance like that presented above did not kill out (apparently did not even reduce the vigor of) giant coneflower. Some of the shoots seen here were almost nine feet tall. Giant coneflower is generally regarded as the largest of the coneflowers (including Rudbeckia, Ratibida, and Echinacea species).
Bowie County, Texas. Late June; early bloom stage of phenology.
Not spectacular but still impressive- Details of leaf and stem of giant coneflower. This was one of the shoots growing in the colony or local population of giant coneflower introduced in the immediately preceding two photographs. The habitat was wet tallgrass prairie in the famed Blackland Prairie of north Texas and and adjoining southeastern Oklahoma and southwestern Arkansas.
Bowie County, Texas. Late June; early bloom phenological stage.
A pasel of giant cone heads- In another (and smaller) colony or local population of gaint coneflower just down the road from the colony shown above, plants were at a slightly more advanced phenological stage. Flowering was farther along in the annual plant growth cycle of this perennial forb species. Several sexual shoots with heads (capitula) on those shoots were shown here. Interested students will appreciate the visual affects of such images, a sensation known as beauty.
These beauties werre produced on wet prairie in Texas' Blackland Prairie.
Bowie County, Texas. Late June; peak bloom stage for these shoots.
Texas-sized- Examples of the great-sized capitula or heads of giant coneflower growing on a wet habitat in the Blackland Prairie. This portion of that famed farming region was representative of northeast Texas and adjacent parts of southeastern Oklahoma and southwest Arkansas. In almost all of this area there is no tallgrass prairie (native grassland of any form for that matter) remaining. The rich soil beneath such virgin vegetation was more economically valuable to the white man than the marvelous native plant communities that were most responsible for formation of the blackland even before it was stolen from the red man.
Speaking of black (in a different context), in days less sensitive to matters of race, political correctness, historical injustices, and legal constraints the more commonly used common name for this massive-headed composite was giant "niggerhead", the latter noun being a generic colloquial name applied to various Rudbeckia species (Fernald, 1950, p. 1484).
Bowie County, Texas. Late June.
Pin cushion on the prairie- Pin cushion daisy (Gaillardia suavis) on the edge of a tallgrass prairie in the Grand Prairie adjoining the Western Cross Timbers in northcentral Texas.Pin cushion daisy is another member of the vast tribe, Heliantheae. G. suavis is a perennial that often grows in dense local populations, but it is much less common than its close relative, Indian blanket (Gaillardia pulchella) which is an annual characteristically growing in extensive populations on disturbed habitats, in particular old fields (abandoned farmland).
The strictly basal leaves and tall, bare (devoid of leaves) flowering shoot are very distinctive, and make a neat photographic subject. This morphological feature is known as scapiform (see next photogrphic caption).
Erath County, Texas. peak standing crop, full-bloom phenological stage.
Pinned on the prairie- Plants (upper or first photograph) and capitulum (second or lower slide) of pin cushion daisy on edge of tallgrass prairie and a tract of oak-tallgrass savanna (an ecotone of Grand Prairie and West Cross Timbers). Pin cushion daisy was described as scapiform, an adjective referring to the scape which is a leafless flowering stem that extends from ground level to inflorescence (Great Plains Flora Association, 1986, ps. 939, 1325).
Erath County, Texas. peak standing crop, full-bloom phenological stage.
313. A white blackfoot- Plains black foot (Melampodium leucanthum) on Forth Worth Prairie of northcentral Texas. This forb was associated with little bluestem, Indiangrass, sideoats grama, hairy grama, and gray or old-field goldenrod on near-climax tallgrass prairie (shown above). This is just one of "zillions" of species of DWC (Damn White Composite). It is in Heliantheae, one of the largest tribes of Compositae.
Somervell County, Texas. Mid-October;peak-bloom phenological stage.
A native weed of the tallgrass country- Featured below is common or rough cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium), another member of tribe Heliantheae that is an annual of modest to large size which colonizes areas of disturbance (including tilled land such as farm fields and flooded areas along streams, playas, lakes, etc.). Common or rough cocklebur has an immense species range that in North America that includes evry one of the :lower 48 contiguous states and in Canada extending from Nova Scotia to British Columbia.
There are a number of distinctive features and interesting aspects of rough cocklebur. This is a monecious species having sexually dimorphic inflorescences with staminate clusters produced apically above pistillate inflorescences (shown below). The seeming fruit or sort of "false fruit" is a bur-like organ having two flowers that upon fetilization and development become two achenes. One of the more interesting adaptations of common cocklebur is that one of these two achenes germinateds very quickly whereas the other achene takes longer to germinate or, at least germinates much later, typically the second growing season (Cheeke and Shull, 1985, p. 213; Tyrl et al., 2008, p. 485).
From a livestock production standpoint and from perspective of such disciplines/professions like Range Management, Weed Science, or Toxicology the relevant feature of rough cocklebur is toxicity of seeds, seedlings, and larger young plants to animals. The seedlings are quite palatable to some animals and pose the greatest threat to grazers and grainovres. Toxicity of common cocklebur were treated in such works as Kingsbury (1964, ps. 440-442), Schumtz et al.(1968, ps. 60-61), Stephens (1980, ps. 126-127), Hart et al. (2003, ps. 224-225), and Burrows and Tyrl (2013, ps. 221-225). In reviewing the literature Cheeke and Shull (1985, ps. 212-214) described the poisonous principle in cocklebur as a carboxyatractyloside which uncouples oxidative phosphorylation. Subsequent work indicated that carboxyatractyloside is a prototype of a series of diterpene glycosides. These were discussed along with disease etiology, clinical signs, and treatment from cocklebur toxicvity by Burrows and Tyrl (2013, ps. 223-225).
Although originally native to the Americas, rough cocklebur has spread thoroughout much of Earth so as to b a cosmopolitan weed (Gleason and Cronquist, 1991, p. 550). Livwestock poisoning from rough cockelbur has been documented in Australia and South Africa as well as in North America Cheeke and Shull (1985, ps. 213).
One of the more interesting--and, now, sad--ecological aspects of rough or common cocklebur was that the "burs" of this species were a staple food item in diets of the now-extinct Carolina parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis). In his famously beautiful and action-filled painting of the Carolina parakeet John James Audubon showed a small flock feeding on cockleburs. The diterpene glycosides, which are the toxic chemical principle of cockleburs, apparently were retained in the flesh of Carolina parakeets resulting in the birds being toxic prey to predators. John James Audubon reported that house cats died from eating cocklebur-feeding parakeets (a most fitting reward to bloody, free-roaming, maurding house cats). While fruit-eating Caroling parakeets were sometimes killed by orchardmen, these birds were also valued by "dirt farmers" as a form of biological control of cockleburs. Cockleburs presumedly grew in abundance along flood-disturbed river and creek banks in reasonable close proximity to old-growth trees the hollows and rotting cavities of which afforded homes for nesting Caroling parakeets. Now cockleburs are ablut all that remains of this once virgin and fascinating bit of Nature.
Standard sources for coverage of cocklebur included (Whitson, 1992, ps. 194-195; Diggs et al., 1999, p. 432; Nicholson, 2006, p.160; Tyrl et al., 2008, ps. 484-485).
314. On its preferred moist habitat- Robust plant of common or rough cocklebur growing on a disturbed cattail marsh in the Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas. Cocklebur is a hardy (as are most weed species), but it does best on mesic microsites. In fact, if the author's memory is correct cocklebur like annual sunflower, has been used as a standard mesophytic species when studying field capacity of soils. Anyway, common cocklebur often makes its home in moist, disturbed localities included lake shores, creek banks, and bottomland fields.
Erath County, Texas. Early September; immediate pre-anthesis stage of phenology.
No burs on the leaf- Leaf of rough or common cocklebur. Erath County, Texas.
315. Upper portions- Upper shoots of common or rough cocklebur growing on a disturbed cattail marsh in the Grqnd Prairie, a southern extension of the Tallgrass Prairie Region. The first slide was a general view as seen from the side whereas the latter two photographs were topdown views of the cocklebur shoot showing the staminate flower clusters which grow above the burlike pistillate inflorescences.
Erath County, Texas. Early September; immediate pre-anthesis stage of phenology.
316. Inflorescences of both sexes- Clusters of the burlike pistillate and the globose staminate flowers of common or rough cocklebur growing on a disturbed wetland in the Grand Prairie portion of the once-vast Tallgrass Prairie Region. Cocklebur species are in the huge Compositae tribe, Heliantheae some members of which have perfect flowers, others have a series of sterile pistillate flowers, while still others have separate flowers of the two sexes on the same plant (moneciousness). Rough or spiny cocklebur is one of the monecious species.
Each pistillate or female inflorescence or head (capitulum) consist of an involucre of fused barcts that encloses two pistillate florets in a two-chambered prickly or barbed bur (Great Plains Flora Association, 1986, p. 1019).
Erath County, Texas. Early September; immediate pre-anthesis stage of phenology.
Ready for cows' tails- This caption began on a personal note. The author could milk (including stripping) a cow at age eigh. One of the first lessons he learned was to hold a cows tail by clamping behind his knee to prevent being hit up aside the head with a switch full of cockleburs. (That lesson stayed with the farm boy throughout life and proved useful when dealing with pesky things like university administrtors.) With such memories and lessons in mind it was only natural to devote some space to the unique fruit of common or rough cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium).
In the first "episode" of that treatment last season's dead stalks (the sporophytic generation of this annual composite) bearing a heavy crop of cockleburs (the gametophyte generation) was presented for viewers education and enjoyment.
Erath County, Texas. Mid-April; dead sporophyte, dormant gametophyte (seed) phenological stage.
Ready for hook-up (or hook-on)- Retorsely barbed fruits of common cocklebur on dead stalks of last year's annual plants. Each of these burs is has two pistillate florets each of which develops within its own chamber into an achene with a single seed. The retorsely barbed spines or portuberences extending from the wall of the bur cling almost inextractably to fur. This is a textbook example of zoochory, dispersal of plant propagules by animals. It was from this evolutonary adaptration that velcro--a hook and loop fastener--was invented by an observant hunter trying to pick the bur of burdock (Arctium sp.) from his dogs' hair.
Cocklebur fruits, which are bouyant, are also transported by water (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1982, 219) or the means of germinule dispersal by water designated as hydrochory. Cockleburs often grown along water courses, some of their prime habitats, so fruits are readily carried downstream.
Eath County, Texas. Mid-April; dead sporophyte, dormant gametophyte (seed) phenological stage.
317. Burr of cocklebur- Fully mature (ripe) involucre of common cocklebur. The hardened involucre (of the phyllaries) surrounds two female flowers, hence there are two achenes (fruit type of Compositae) per bur at maturity.
Cockleburrs are another of numerous poisonous range plants. Important references included: Kingsbury (1964, ps. 17, 258, 440-443), Sperry et al. (1964, 47-48), Cheeke and Shull (1985, p. 212-214), Fuller and McClintock (1986, ps. 7, 99-1005), Burrows and Tyrl (2001, ps.214-218), and Hart et al. (2003, 224-225). Cockleburpoisoning occurs when cocklebur seedlings are eaten. Cocklebur sprouting takes place when inundated soil has dried out sufficiently. This condition exist on wet soil along shores of streams, ponds, and other bodies of water including, of course, playa lakes. According to Burrows and Tyrl (2001, ps. 215-217) the poisonous principle (= toxin) is any of a series of diterpene glycosides that induces a number of metabolic disorders, including inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation and ATP formation, and causes poisoning symptoms such as weakness, ataxia, vomiting, and seizures along with a decrease in blood glucose and liver necrosis. Cocklebur toxicity is almost always fatal. All livestock species have been reported to be susceptible. Swine are especially apt to be poisoned. Could this be a biological control of feral range hogs? Wishful thinking.
Involucres also cause mechanical to grazing animals, and especially to clueless humans who, when hand-milking cows, forget to catch Bossy's tail behind their knee joint and are slapped up-side the head with a bovine twitch loaded with cockleburs. One of the first lessons your Okie farmboy author learned in dealing with others was to avoid the mace of a cockle-burred cow tail. (It was a lesson that helped prepare him for dealing with university administrators who are much less useful, intelligent, and well-behaved than any high-headed Jersey-- and of about as much value as a cocklebur.)
Erath County, Texas. November.
Double-barrelled- Barbed burs of the common or rough cocklebur sliced (and that ain't easy to do) lengthwise and crossways revealing the two achenes, each with a seed inside, and each achene in its own chamber or cell. The female inflorescenc of spiny cocklebur has two florets (female or pistillate), each with its own chamber (a lodicule) and inside of an involucre comprised of of fused bracts. Upon maturity each of the two pistillate florets develops into an achene within which is its seed. These two achenes, each in its own chamber, are enclosed within the prickly or barbed bur (Great Plains Flora Association, 1986, p. 1019).
An interesting (and much studied) phenomenon if Xanthium species is split (two periods of) germination and aftrrripening. The two achenes in each bur differ in size and germination requirements. The smaller achene is often pushed up in its chamber or cell, hence is termed the "upper seed", where it undergoes dormancy. This "upper seed" usually does not germinate until later in the season after it was produced or, more commonly, in the second year following its production. This is the phenomenon of afterripening. The second achene is termed the "lower" or "larger seed", and this achene typically germinates and emerges in the spring of the year following its formation (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1982, 219).
This delayed germination (= dormancy) in Xanthium species has been regarded as due to the testa (the seed coat) restricting oxygen to embryoes to the extent that germination does not occur (Crocker, 1906; Crocker, 1916). Davis (1930) found that high temperatures in combination with oxygen concentration slightly below the level needed to induce germination created ideal conditions for dormancy.
Evolution of this feature in cockleburs appears ideal for survival on disturbed habitats such as soil tillage, formation of sand or mud bars, rolad berms, forest clearcuts, and overgrazed ranges.
Erath County, Texas. Mid-April; dead sporophyte, dormant gametophyte (seed) phenological stage.
Rosin up the bow (or something)- Rosin-weed (Silphium integrifolium) is a large, rank-growing (coarse), perennial composite that has numerous shoots arising from a short rhizomatous base (frequently the case) or a caudex (always the case). A caudex is a tough, rough, persistent base of an herbaceous plant (Great Plains Flora Association, 1986, p. 1318) or the root-shoot axis often termed proaxisis.
Rosin-weed is a characteristic composite of bottomland habitats. The specimen exhibited here and in the immediately following slides and caption set was growing in asociation with eastern gamagrass on the floodplain of a typical Ozark Plateau stream. The author watched this plant grew progressively larger each warm-growing season over a period of three decades with each of this year's clumps having more shoots and extending with a larger cover (basal and foliar) over more of the rich soil surface. Rosin-weed has to be a decreaser. The only plants this author has ever seen are either in fencerows, ungrazed relict areas, or well-managed prairie hay meadows.
There are several Silphium species and all are large plants with exception of the Texas endemic, Silphium albiflora, featured immediately above.
Rosined heads- Capitula (heads) of rosin weed on a bottomland range site in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. "Believe it or not" these flowers were produced in Severe Drought (Palmer Scale). Being on a bottomland range site there was more available soil moisture, plus native plants do not show experience drought stress (or show drought stress symptoms) as soon or to the pronounced degree observed in domestic field crops.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July .
If God had the "inordinate fondness" for composites that He allegedly had for beetles (Coleoptera, largest order of insects) the goldenrods (Solidago species) must have been one of His favorite groups of forbs. The goldenrods of Astereae (aster tribe) have to be the botanical equivalent of Darwin's finches or Leck's tits. Flora for states having considerable acreage of prairie, at least before they became the Corn and Soybean Belt, (eg. Illinois, Missouri) often listed 25-30 species of Solidago. Of course, Solidago is a taxonomic nightmare to anyone other than plant taxonomists who "groove out" on such things.
Successional response and status of the Solidago species vary, as might be expected from a genus of such diversity. Some are quite obviously rank weeds adapted to disturbed habitats such as old-fields, but others generally have been observed to be restricted to prairies or forest glades in pristine condition.
Four Solidago species commonly found on tallgrass prairie were included below just to give students a taste of plant speciation of the range. This short selection began with an overall treatment on one species from organizational level (and photographic scale) of stand, population, or colony through individual plant to that of shoot details of individual plants..
The goldenrods (Solidago species) of tribe, Asterae, comprise one of the most species-rich genera of range forbs on tallgrass prairie. A"spattering" of some of these species was provided for the education and viewing enjoyment of prairiemen, young and old.
318. Local population of a single goldenrod species- Stand or colony of willow goldenrod (Solidgo salicina= S. ludoviciana= S. patula) on the Grand Prairie in northcentral Texas. This is an example of one of the Solidago species that the experts cannot agree on as to scientific name (or maybe much of anything else). All who view this large group can agree that it is showy (rather attractive to say the least).
Some Solidago species grow in colonies or large, local stands such as the one shown here. Other goldenrod species occur more commonly as scattered individuals or in smaller groups than this one. The stand shown here was growing on an old field ("go-back land") on which various native though noxious shrubs had invaded. Willow goldenrod would be either invader (ie. weed) or, perhaps, increaser. At least something was growing to protect what would otherwise be mostly bare soil exposed to ravages of accelerated erosion.
Bosque County, Texas. Mid-October; peak full bloom stage.
319. Structure at its edge- Structure of range vegetation is not limited to the scale of plant communities such as range cover types. Even populations of a single species can have a structure consisting of individual plants (or shoots of a clonal species) of various age and size classes, different morphologies, etc. An example of that condition was presented in this view of an edge of the population of willow goldenrod introduced in the preceding two photographs. Whether the smaller shoots growing at the edge were younger, genetically unique plants (or perhaps genotypes of smaller size) or offshoots (clonal shoots) of older, established plants was unknown.
Bosque County, Texas. Mid-October; peak full bloom stage.
320. Top-heavy- A single plant with two shoots (or maybe two genetic plants each with a single shoot) of willow goldenrod growing in the colony or population introduced above on an old field on the Grand Prairie in northcentral Texas. The upper portions of these two shoots was so laden with leaves and flower clusters in relation to lower stems that they were bending over in a decumbent form. (Maybe they were of the "weeping willow" race.)
Bosque County, Texas. Mid-October; peak full bloom stage.
321. Details, details- Detailed views of two robust individuals of willow goldenrod (Solidgo salicina= S. ludoviciana= S. patula) along with some "sidekicks" of the same species growing on "go-back land "on the Grand Prairie in northcentral Texas. Features of leaves and inflorescencs were clearly visible, but identifiction depended on dichotomous characteristics of stems (Diggs et al., 1999, ps. 408-412 passim) or whichever other authorities were consulted as, for example, Correll and Johnston (1979, ps. 1585-1588 passim). Incidentially, the disparities within Solidgo between these two authoritative sources published 20 years apart was astounding.Plant Taxonomy is about as dynamic as vegetation.
Bosque County, Texas. Mid-October; peak full bloom stage.
322. Needleleaf goldenrod (S. gymnospermoides)- The pyramidal inflorescence and narrow lanceolate leaves made identification of this "happy camper" on a prairie hay meadow a "picture book" case. Ottawa County, Oklahoma (on the western edge of the Ozark Plateau). July.
323. Giant or late goldenrod (S. gigantea)- Flowering shoot apex of late goldenrod on a deep sand habitat in the Texas Cross Timbers. As suggested by the specific epithet this specimen grew as tall as the sumac it shared the fencerow with. Erath County, Texas. September.
324.Shoot details of a species of big plants- Upper shoot (first photograph) and leaves (second photograph) of giant or late goldenrod. Three parallel veins (two lateral veins on each side of the midrib or midvein) on serrated leaf margins is a key diagnostic feature of Solidago gigantea. Although the preferred habitat of this species is generally mesic microsites such as wetlands like wet prairie or lake margins giant or late goldenrod also does wet on drier upland sites that have deep, fertile soils and, in particular, those soils having a deep, well-mulched Organic horizon that minimizes evaporation of soil water. This specimen had called a fencerow protected from mowing and livestock grazing. Over the years, the author observed that grasshoppers made almost no use of foliage on this plant even in major grasshopper outbreaks in drought years. Incidentially these two slides were taken midway through Extreme Drought (Palmer Drought Index). The native range plant species are survivors.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July; prebloom phenological stage.
325. Sheer beauty on the prairie- Floral units (assemblages of numerous heads; a hed of heads so to speak) of giant or late goldenrod in the West Cross Timbers of northcentral Texas. Heads were being visited (and presumedly pollinated in the process) by blue-winged scoliid wasp (Scolia dubia).This is a widely distributed hymenopteran species that has an obvious preference for Solidago species.
Erath County, Texas. Mid-September, peak bloom phenological stage.
326. One cluster of heads- A cluster of capitula (a number of head type inflorescences) at terminal end of one branch of the entire flower cluster of giant or late goldenrod in the West Cross Timbers of northcentral Texas. Flowers were being visited by blue-winged scoliid wasp (Scolia dubia). This was a single unit of a much larger overall inflorescence (a floral assemblage of several such units) each such units composed of several heads, each of these units or "clusters" in turn had numerous heads of giant goldenrod.
A scoliid wasp was present in this and the two immediately preceding slides. See if you can spot the wasp in this slide (it was a task to find this insect even before the Epson Perfection 700 scanner marred the otherwise nearly perfect image). Although the scoliid wasp feeds on nectar the female is a parasitoid of grubs, such as the large green June beetle (Cotinis nitida), on which the female lays an egg which then becomes food for developing wasp larvae. Scoliid wasps are solitary insects.
Another note on scanners: "For intents and purposes" no scanner accurately catches the original color of slides. Evidence was provided by these three slides which were consecutive slides taken on the same roll of Provia 100F and they were scanned consecutively in an Epsom Perfection (which it is far from) 700 scanner. Note how the first slide was underscanned (underlighted) in background and overscanner (overlighted) on the subject matter (the inflorescence).
Erath County, Texas. Mid-September; peak-bloom stage of phenology.
327. Tall goldenrod (S. altissima)- One of the more common goldenrods in mesic tallgrass prairies and glades of the oak-hickory forest of the Ozark Plateau and adjacent Cherokee Prairie. Tall goldenrod lives up to it's name. This nice colony ranged from three and a half to over five feet in height and gayly proclaimed the onset of autum.
Tallgrass prairie in Newton County, Missouri. September.
328. More tall views- Sexual shoot with panicle inflorescence of tall goldenrod (first two slides) and upper portion of panicle (third slide) growing on tallgrass prairie in the Springfield Plateau. Tall goldenrod is one of the larger Solidago species.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August; early to mid-bloom stage of phenology.
329. Lower view- Basal shoots and leaves of tall goldenrod on tallgrass prairie in the far western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. These were lower shoots of the upper shoot and panicle presented in the immediately three-slide/caption unit.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August; early to mid-bloom stage of phenology.
In winter- Dead shoots of tall goldenrod (all of flowering portion or inflorescence in firest slide and upper portions of inflorescence branches in second slide) showing dormancy and dead shoot at end of the current annual cycle. Not all are dead however as there are still some unshed achenes which house live embryoes and stored starch so ready to produce baby plants next year. (Most achenes had been shed by this time.)
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January.
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328. Gray, field, or old-field goldenrod (S. nemoralis var. longipetiolata)- One of the smaller, shorter-growing goldenrods on the Forth Worth, Grand Prairie, Northcentral Prairie area of Texas is this species. In this general area field goldenrod can be found on a wide array of microhabitats ranging from denuded roadsides to virgin bluestem-Indiangrass tallgrass prairie, the latter being the case for the specimen seen here. Like most of the Solidago species gray goldenrod is a "late-bloomer" that typically flowers about a month or so before the first killing frosts of autumn.
Somervell County, Texas. Mied-October; full-bloom phenological stage.
329. Not so gray details- Features of gray or field goldenrod growing on a virgin tallgrass prairie of little bluestem and Indiangrass. With its short stature, cylindrical to pyramidal flower cluster this is a distinctive species commonly found on the prairies of northcentral Texas, southern and, especially eastern Oklahoma northwardthrough Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, and on to Minnesota and the Canadian Prairie Provinces.In fact, S. nemoralis in all its varietal forms is one of the most common goldenrods across North America. As suggested by the common name of old-field goldenrod, this species is well adapted to "go-back land" (old fields undergoing secondary plant succession).
Somervell County, Texas. Mied-October; full-bloom phenological stage.
An arch-typical species- Canada goldenrod (Solidago canadaensis) is strongly rhizomatous, colony forming species that typifies large areas of tallgrass prairie and adajacent forest edges. Some colonies of Canada goldenrod are extensive clonal units whereas others are smaller such as the one shown in the first of these two slides. A pyramidal-shaped flower cluster (second or lower slide) is found in many of the Solidago species--a taxonomic nightmare even for seasoned plant taxonomists--yet the pyramid-like outline of the flower cluster is very consistent in Canada goldenrod.
The Canada goldenrod shown here was associated with big bluestem, Mead's caric sedge (Carex meadii), prairie dropseed, and switchgrass on a virgin tallgrass prairie that had been used as a prairie hay meadow for almost a century before being managed more by prescribed burning.
Diamond Grove Prairie (a Catherine Ordway prairie), Newton County, Missouri. Early August; immediate pre-bloom stage of phenology.
One shoot singled-out- A single shoot of Canada goldenrod from the small colony (a rootstock-arising clonal unit) presented above in the first slide while the entire infloresecence of that shoot (from a slightly different focal angle) was shown in the second or lower slide. Canada (Canadian) goldenrod is one of the most widely distributed Solidago species in North America.
Diamond Grove Prairie (a Catherine Ordway prairie), Newton County, Missouri. Early August; immediate pre-bloom stage of phenology.
One of the smaller ones- Single individual plant with two shoots of Missouri goldenrod (Solidago missouriensis var. fasciculata) growing on a local site that was ecotonal between tallgrass prairie and oak-hickory forest, ssouthwestern part of the Prairie Peniinsula.. Missouri goldenrod is not one of the larger Solidago species. This example was only about 18-20 inches tall. One of the features of Missouri goldenrod is the parallel or opposite leaves on the shoot.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August.
Showing me (and you)- Entire flower cluster of a shoot of Missouri goldenrod as seen in a side view (first or upper slide) and from a topdown view (second slide).The third slide presented one lower branch of the inflorescence of one of the two shoots introduced in the two preceding photographs..
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August.
330. What the heck, let's throw in another one- Another widespread Solidago species is S. gigantea, known by a variety of common names including giant, late red-stem, glaborous goldenrod. The specific epithet, gigantea, is appropriate as this species can attain large size not infrequently reaching heights of eight feet or more. Like many of the other Solidago species S. gigantea produces sister plants from creeping root stocks (rhizomes) so that it commonly forms extensive colonies which also contributes to the gigantic proportions attained by this forb.
Giant goldenrod can abe found on more mesic sites on both grassland,more open woodlands, and savannas of these. The examples shown here were growing in a narrow transition zone between the Grand Prairie and West Cross Timbers on a low-lying local habitat.
Giant goldenrod is one of the more widely distributed of all the Solidago species perhaps explaining the array of common names.Range of S. gigantea extends from extreme peninsular Florida to Nova Scotia and British Columbia and the Northwest Territories south to the southernmost tip of Texas.
Erath County, Texas. Early September; peak-bloom stage of phenology.
331. Higher parts of giant goldenrod- Upper shoot (first slide) and details of one branch of the panicle (second slide) of giant, late, glaborous goldenrod. These were some of the shoots of the colony introduced in the immediately preceding photographs. Giant goldenrod is one of the showier forbs commonly found on prairie, marsh, and open oak-hickory forest. Given the huge geographic (speceis) range with tremendous adaptability, larage mature size, and showy inflorescence giant or late goldenrod is an ideal species for native plant enthusiasts, especially for those landscaping with prairie plants.
Forage value and response to grazing intensity (stocking rate) of this species was unknown to this author, but he has found it growing beside switchgrass and big bluestem.on moist environments including some in the Nebraska Sandhills.
Erath County, Texas. Early September; peak-bloom stage of phenology.
333. Elm-leaf (elmleaf) goldenrod (Solidago ulmifolia)- Elm-leaf goldenrod is another of numerous Solidago species that occurs in tallgrass prairie and tallgrass-oak-hickoy savanna ranges over much of the Central Lowlands and Ozark Plateau physiographic provinces. Elm-leaf goldenrod thrives best on more mesic environments such as bottomland range sites as in the examples seen here. This composite forb is also widespread throughout the Eastern Deciduous Forest Region from Quebec and Ontarion south to Florida and west to Texas.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July; peak flowering phenological stage.
334. Upper shoots- Upper (distal) portions of sexual (flowering) shoots of elmleaf goldenrod. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July; peak flowering phenological stage.
335. Flower clusters- Inflorescences (panicles) of elm-leaf goldenrod presented as entire flower cluster (first slide) and cloer view of floral units (second slide). The feeding and pollinating hymenopteran was sphecid wasp (Prionyx attratus).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July; peak flowering phenological stage.
336. Purty good (and purty) friends- Floral unit with several flowers of elm-leaf golden being visited by an attractive bluewing scolid wasp (Scolia dubia) in a bottomland tallgrass prairie. Scolid wasps are solitary insects.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July; peak flowering phenological stage.
Astered example- There are almost countless (basically becau;se contempory cladist 'taxonomists" have split up traditional taxa) species of Aster on prairies and savannahs of the North American interior; This specimen of stiffleaf aster (A. liomarofolis var. linearfolius) was growing on the virgin sod of a tallgrass prairie hay meadow on the far-western Springfield Plateau. Like most Aster species in this region stiffleaf aster is a perennial.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August.
A Texan that takes to sand- Texas groundsel or Texas ragwort (Senecio ampullaceus) growing on the deep sandy soil of a Bottomland range site in northcentral Texas. Texas ragwort is a cool-season annual. The clasping leaves that partially encircle the stem is a characteristic feature of this native composite that is in the aster tribe (Astereae). The plant seen here was growing at edge or local ecotone of a bottomland forest and tallgrass prairie in the Cross Timbers and Prairies vegetational (land resource) area. This individual specimen was one of a large local population as was visible in background of the first or upper slide.
Erath County, Texas. Early May; full-bloom and fruit shatter phenological stages.
Heads on the sand- Inflorecences of Texas ragwort or Texas groundsel with a top-down view of a flowering individual in the first or upper slide and a closer view of a unit of the flower cluster consisting of several heads in the second or lower slide. These examples were on plants that were part of a local population of this cool-season annual composite (placed in the aster tribe) that was growing on a Bottomland range site of deep, alluvial sand in the Cross Timbers and Prairies land resource (vegetational) area of northcentral Texas.
Erath County, Texas. Early May; full-bloom and fruit shatter phenological stages.
Spent heads, ready-to-fly fruits, and flew-the-coop fruits- Flowers and fruit of Texas ragwort or Texas groundsel with some capitula (heads) just finished flowering and progressing to fruit stage, a head of achenes with their litttle "parachutes" waiting to be dispersed by wind, and an empty disk with winged achenes already dispersed.
Erath County, Texas. Early May;late--bloom and fruit shatter phenological stages.
Last year's and this year's shoots- Curlycup gumweed (Grindelia squarrosa) on Grand Prairie in northcentral Texas shown as dead mature shoot (leaning rightwards) from previous growing season with new, young shoots of the current growing season.
Numerous other range plant speccies are seen in this photograph, including the predominant Texas wintergrass (Stipa leucotricha).
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch;, Erath County, Texas. Late March.
New gummed shoots and leaves- Current year's (growing season's) shoots and yeaves of the same plant featu;redin the immediately preceding photograph.
This perennial member of the Astereae (aster tribe) is not a palatable species, but it is oftenabundant on deteriorated ranges and plays an important role in restoring ranges via seondary plant succession. (And it was always a good distinctive species to put on the Future Farmers of America range contests).
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch;, Erath County, Texas. Late March.
337. Gummy on the prairie- Upper shoot (first slide) and capitulum or head inflorescence (second slide) of sawtooth gumweed (Grindelia papposa) in the Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas. This member of the aster tribe is one of the more common composites on overgrazed ranges in the tallgrass prairie range types. The specimen was growing on a low, ephemerally wet prairie.
Erath County, Texas. Early September; peak bloom stage.
338. Chlorophyllous sawteeth- Features of leaf and stem of sawtooth gumweed that was growing on a low, temporally wet tallgrass prairie in northcentral Texas. Erath County, Texas. Early September; peak bloom stage.
339. Just what the grasslands needed: another species of snakeweed (and yellow composite)- Annual or prairie broomweed (Gutierrezia draculoides). This is one of the most common and widespread composites on both tallgrass and mixed prairies, especially in more southernly locations. The two plants (one entire plant plus half the crown of its range mate) presented here was growing on the Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas, a little bluestem-dominated tallgrass prairie community. Annual broomweed is considerably less widely distributed across the Central Lowlands and Great Plains than is broom snakeweed (McGregor et al.,1977, p. 373), but its species range is more than large enough for rangemen preferring grass over annual, weedy composites. Annual broomweed has a far-flung distribution across Texas which has some of the greatest remaining acreage of mixed prairie range, albeit mostly in Poor and Fair range condition classes.
Annual or prairie broomweed is an early seral stage colonizer (sometimes a pioneer species) of abused land (eg. overgrazed ranges and those recovering from recent drought, go-back land, highway rights-of-way). Thus this annual broomweed is both an indicator plant as well as a protective (as against soil erosion) and facilitative species that enhances plant succession.
Erath County, Texas. October; full-bloom stage.
340. More yeller flowers- Closer-in views revealed an "ocean" of yellow flowers in part of one annual broomweed. Multiply this fraction of one plant times millions of other plants and it takes no imagination to understand why abused ranges--including those just recovering from extreme drought--look more like rape and canola fields than prairies.
G. draculoides is in the Astereae (aster tribe) of the Compositae.
Erath County, Texas. October;
Baby brooms- Small seedlings of annual broomweed. These litle folk can be super-abundant in certain years. They are still extremely difficult to photograph at this small, ground-hugging stage of development. To get as much of these tiny plants in focus as possible with a manual camera requires the photographer to lie on his belly or side. Keeps one "down to earth" or "close to the ground" in the parlance of farmers, hillbillies, and others who "know we belong to the land" in the words of the music composers, Oscar and Hammerstein.
Annual broomweed is a textbook example of an r-selected species. The annual life cycle with its tyical large investment into sexual reproduction along with disproportionate allocation of resources to shoot production relative to root growth and storage was exemplified in this image.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. Early April; third to fourth leaf stage of seedling phenology.
341. Heath aster (Aster ericoides= Symphyotrichum ericoides)- This palatable perennial commposite is usually the latest-blooming of all the asters with autumn being the season at which dense clusters of inflorescences bedeck many a tallgrass and mixed prairie range. Response of heath aster to grazing is apparently more site-and season-specific than many other range plants. As a rule-of-thumb heath aster is an increaser but on some range sites it responds as a decreaser. Heath aster is palatable, even to grass grazers like cattle, when plants are young (sometimes even up to pre-blooming stage) and become unpalatable at maturity (Phillips Pertroleum Company, 1963). If ranges are grazed when plants of this forb are immature the species responds as a decreaser whereas it responds as an increaser when ranges are grazed later in summer or autumn when heath aster is mature (especially when blooming).
Heath aster appears on "go-back land" or "old-fields" relatively early in secondary plant succession, but it persist into the climax (Phillips Petroleum Company, 1963). As such, heath aster is not a good indicator plant for determing seral stages. The plants shown in this and the next two slides were on a degraded Grand Prairie range at a location historically overgrazed by beef cattle.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. October, and obviously full-bloom phenological stage.
342. Blooming aster- Details of inflorescences of heath aster. Plants were growing on a deteriorated tallgrass prairie range in Texas' Grand Prairie. Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. October, and obviously full-bloom stage of phenological development.
343. A simple aster lined out- Oblongleaf aster (Aster oblongifolius) This is another of as many Aster species as there are taxonomic "splitters" devising keys (and desiring another publication) for this genus. One distinctive feature of this semi-woody stemmed, perennial species is the bearing of heads in which a single capitulum opens and flowers at a time. Another feature is the upturned tips of the small though oblong leaves.
Newton County, Missouri. June.
344. Pink blazing star or pink gayfather (Liatris elegans)- There are a number of Liatris species (though nothing like Solidago). Florae of Missouri and Texas listed nine and twelve species, respectively. L. elegans, shown growing here on a depleted range in the Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas, is a showy species that does well on overgrazed prairies where it's neighbors are other weeds. On this abused range that should support Indiangrass, little bluestem, and big bluestem associated species were curlycup gumweed (Grindelia squarrosa), tumble windmillgrass, and the alien King Ranch bluestem (Andropogon ischaemum= Bothriochloa ischaemum), invaders all. The brillance of the gayfeather inflorescence belies the fact that these species are generally nvaders.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. September.
345. Prairie blazing star or prairie gayfeather (L. pycnostachya)- A dense stand of prairie gayfeather on a prairie hay meadow that was routinely (as in every year) mowed too late (September instead of June). Bluestem prairies (those dominated by the Four Horsemen of the Prairie species) managed as hay meadows in the greater prairie region of western Missouri and eastern to central Oklahoma and Kansas should be mowed from mid June to mid July (southern to northern limits) to keep (or to get) and maintain the vegetation in climax condition. Prairie hay meadows that are dominated by the Four Horsemen will consistently produce maximum yields of nutrients and energy from the land. Under such a "calendar of cutting" the combination of herbage yield and nutritive value of this herbage will be such as to produce the optimum yield of hay for horses and beef cattle, the species for which such hay is outstanding.
The most detrimental time for heavy defoliation (as in mowing for hay) of warm-season prairie grasses, especially the panicoid Four Horsemen, is late summer or fall. Harvest of a high proportion of biomass (most of the shoot) of these species at this time (typically when these species are in advanced phenological stages from flowering to seed-shatter) deprives them of adequate time and other resources to regrow photosynthetic tissues and relinish root reserves, grow rhizomes or rootcrowns, etc. that will be essential for growth the next spring. Too-late mowing eventually leads to loss of the bluestems, Indiangrass, switchgrass, and even eragrostoid species like prairie dropseed (this is expressed as winter-killing) and their replacement by increaser and/or invader species such as the healthy colony of prairie gayfeather seen here. The lazy and ignorant farmer who owned this meadow always mowed it (located in northeastern Oklahoma) in September and had weeds for hay. An adjoining meadow was mowed in July and was in "mint-condition" (climax tallgrass prairie).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.
346. Scaley blazingstar (Liatris squarrosa)- Another Liatris species that is widely distributed on tallgrass prairie. This specimen was growing in the virgin sod of a meadow (in the western Ozark Plateau) that had been used for decades in production of prairie hay. Unfortunately for big bluestem haying had been improperly timed by mowing in late summer to early autumn for at least 40 years. This abusive mismanagement had about eliminated climax tallgrass species like the once-dominant big bluestem, but it was a blessing for scaley blazingstar which had entered or was entering dormancy at that late season. A defoliation--natural or artificial (human-caused)-- is selective, and this mowing selectivity benefitted earlier maturing species like the one shown here.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July.
347. Blooming shoots of scaley blazing star-Details of sexual shoots (first slide) and inflorescences (second slide) on the plant of scaley blazing star ented in the preceding photograph. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July.
348. Indian plantain (Cacalia tuberosa= C. paniculata=C. plantaginea= C. pteranthes)- This is one of the more characteristic herbaceous composites on Flint Hills and Osages Questas tallgrass prairies in higher successional status. This author was not able to find sources that gave response of this species to abusive grazing, but obvious greater abundances of tuberous Indian plantain on well-managed hay meadows, barrow ditches and fence rows, and lightly grazed ranges was practical proof that it is a decreaser or increaser depending on range site. The two plants presented here were growing on a big bluestem-dominated hay meadow in pristine condition. The whole "outfit" was a jewel.
Tuberous Indian plantain is another one of those species for which the experts--after better than a century of taxonomic study and publication--cannot agree on its scientific name, even as to genus.
Woodson County, Kansas. Late June; late-bloom stage.
349. Leafy base- Basal shoot including lower leaves of Indian plantain. This rosette-like arrangement of basal leaves and the red to brown lines on the stem are very distinctive of this species.
Woodson County, Kansas. Late June.
350. Corymb of achenes- The corymb type inflorescence is defined was defined by Smith (1977, p. 292) as a flat-topped or rounded inflorescence in which the pedicels are of varying length". Achene is the most common fruit type of the Compositae.
Greenwood County, Kansas (first photograph); Woodson County, Kansas (second photograph). Late June.
351. Shedding achenes- Ripe achenes of Indian plantain being shed in a very slight prairie breeze. This plant was growing on virgin sod of a big-bluestem dominated tallgrass prairie in western edge of Ozark Plateau.Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July.
An iron stand of invasives- Expansive stand of Baldwin ironweed (Vernonia baldwinii) that developed on an old field in the Springfield Plateau of northeastern Oklahoma. This land had originally been tallgrass prairie but then was converted to a farm field. The field had been planted to all the standard row crops and small grains for decades, then was abandoned and went back to the broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) stage, only to be broken out for one year, and thereupon abandoned the second time. This latter time secondary plant succession was not so "successful" and the land remained in a mixture of exotic annual grasses (mostly naturalized crabgrass and Eurasian bromes) for roughly three decades. About the only native species that did well on this routinely abused soil was Baldwin ironweed which, as seen here, after 25 to 30 years made this stand.
Stands such as this are not common, but they are still too plentiful from perspective of proper land management (no matter to what pupose the land was put). Many species of insects are attracted to the heads of this perennial composite forb. Again, Baldwin ironweed provides good soil protection and adds considerable organic matter to the soil in which it grows.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July; full-bloom phenological stage.
Covered in iron- Some flowering shoots of Baldwin ironweed plants in the stand presented in the previous slide. This native perennial composite has traditionally been placed in its own tribe, Vernonieae (Smith, 1977). Most rangemen regard Baldwin ironweed as an invader. Of course, under the abuse with which this land (former tallgrass prairie turned farm field) was treated (eg. improper cropping with very little fertilization and liming) even Baldwin ironweed died out. Unders such horrid treatment even Baldwin ironweed is a Godsend: at least it protected soil, the basic land resource.
Baldwin ironweed is admirably suited for use as a native plant for natural landscaping. The purple flowers are gorgeous and plants are "tough as iron". Probably about the best sources for general information regarding Baldwin ironweed were the old Phillips 66 standard (Phillips Petroleum Company, 1963, p. 159; a newer copyright, otherwise unchanged ) and the more recent work of Tyrl et al. (2008, ps. 482-483).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July; full-bloom phenological stage.
352. Iron on the sod- Upper shoot of Baldwin or western ironweed growing on virgin sod of a tallgrass prairie hay meadow in western margin of Ozark Plateau. Dominant prairie plant in this "photoquadrant" was Virginia wildrye (at grain-ripe stage).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July, peak flowering phenological stage.
353. Whole she-bang- Entire upper portion of a shoot of Baldwin ironweed with whole inflorescence. The flower cluster (inflorescence in its entirity) can be viewed as a panicle-like arrangementthat are "irregular corymbiform cymes" composed of heads or capitula with cyme defined as "a broad, flat inflorescence with central flower blooming first" (MGregor et al, 1986, p. 1017). A blooming sequence of central (interior) to exterior (so also lower to upper flowers) is indeterminate flowering. That sequence was clearly visible in this slide.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July; late-bloom stage.
When things are optimal- Shoots of Baldwin ironweed growing on a wet prairie in the western edge of the Springfield Plateau section of the Ozark Plateau.
Ottawa Cpunty,Oklahoma. Late July; peak-bloom stage.
354. Inflorescence of Baldwin ironweed (Vernonia baldwini)- This composite (Vernonieae tribe) is a major invader that serves as a common indicator species member of overgrazing on tallgrass prairies and tallgrass-oak-hickory savannas.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July; full-bloom stage of phenology.
Inviting flowers- The bright, pinkish heads of baldwin ironweed attract numerous insects, especially lepidopterans (butterflies and moths in order, Lepidoptera. Some examples were included below for viewers' education and enjoyment.
355. Skipping on Baldwin- Heads of Baldwin ironweed served as tasteful attraction to silver-spotted skipper butterfly (Epargyreus clarus) A pair of these comparatively small-sized butterflies were shown in the first slide while the butterfly on the right in that first photograph was presented alone and at closer camera distance in the second slide. These lively butterflies were at home on a tallgrass prairie-oak/hickory forest savanna in the Springfield Plateau in northeastern Oklahoma.
This member of family, Hesperiidae is one of the more common skippers in North America. Another member of this lepidopteran family was presented in the next slide/caption unit.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August.
356. Fiery all the way around- Four views of a fiery skipper butterfly (Hylephila phyleus) visiting heads of Baldwin ironweed at peak bloom on a tallgrass prairie/oak-hickory forest savanna in the Ozark (Springfield) Plateau in northeastern Oklahoma.
This little butterfly is another member of the family, Hesperiidae.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July.
357. Great sprangled wings- Three views of a great sprangled fritillary butterfly (Speyeria cybele) on capitula (heads) of Baldwin ironweed at late-bloom stage on a tallgrass prairie/oak-hickory forest savanna in the Springfield Plateau in northeastern Oklahoma.
This relatively large butterfly is a mamber of family, Nymphalidae.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August.
355. Still more iron on the sod- Great ironweed (Vernonia crinata) growing on virgin sod of a tallgrass prairie in the western Ozark Plateau. This meadow had been used for prairie hay production by the same family for better part of three generation. Fortunately for forbs like great ironweed, Baldwin ironweed, and two Liatris species introduced above this meadow had been mowed in late summer to early autumn for at least 40 years. Such late haying is imporper management that removed almost all of the once-dominant big bluestem. Climax tallgrasses like big bluestem and switchgrass should be mowed in early summer (late June to early July in the area of this photograph) to permit adequate time for recovery and adequate storage of reserve food in rootdcrowns and roots. Elimination of dominant climax tallgrass species permitted forbs like great ironweed to grow with lessened competition.
Vernonia crintata is a larger, taller-growing species than V. baldwinii. Both species co-exist, frequently almost side-by-side, but V. crinata prefers microsites at base of mima mounds as in the "photoplot" presented here. Perhaps there is sligtly more soil moisture for the bigger species on such microenvironments.
In this photograph there appeared to be three separate plants (three genotypes or genetic individuals) of great ironweed and not three shoots of the same plant. The larger grass plants growing beside the ironweed were switchgrass, a species that definitely prefers microsites of mima mounds.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July.
356. Flowers on an iron rod- A single shoot of giant ironweed on one of the plants growing on a prairie hay meadow that were introduced in the preceding photograph (first or upper slide). Closer-in view of a single shoot of giant ironweed on a dry, mesic chert tallgrass prairie (second or lower slide). First slide: Ottawa County, Oklahoma.; Late July. Second slide: Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri; Early August. Full-bloom phenological stage, both slides.
357. Inflorescences of great ironweed-Numerous heads in various stages of maturity on the upper shoot of great ironweed (first slide) and a single head of this grouop (second slide). Vernonia species basically are in their own tribe, Vernonieae.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July.
Another "nested" set- A second paired-set of slides showing inflorescence (first or upper slide) and head (second or lower slide) of giant ironweed on a dry-mesic chert tallgrass prairie in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau.
Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Early August; late full-blood phenological stage.
Darwin rides the range: A guild of Eupatorium species: in the section of this chapter immediately below presented was a selection of Eupatorium species that were all found within approximately a three-quarter mile radius (ie. a distance of about one and a half miles was the farthest the two most distant--those on farthest perimeter of the area--species were from each other) in the western edge of the Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. Two species that were (are) generally grassland composites grew within a few yards of each other.These species were all growing on tallgrass prairie, tallgrass-oak/hickory savanna, or (in case of one species) on an open floodplain forest with a well-developed herbaceous layer. This array--a guild--of Eupatorium species was a textbook example of Darwinian speciation, natural selection ("survival of the fittest species"), among range forbs on habitats (specifically, niches) some of which were almost identical to each other and others of which were notably different. This guild represented sympatric speciation, "the development of new taxa [species, ecotypes, etc.] from the ancestral taxon, within the same geographic range" (Allaby, 1998).
This group of species demonstrated the concept of niche (ecological niche) "the functional position of an organism [a species] in its environment, comprising the habitat in which the organism [species] lives, the periods of time during which it occurs and is active there, and the resources it obtains there" (Aallaby, 1998). This array of Eupatorium species constituted a guild (or partial guild), "a group of species all members of which exploit similar resources in a similar fashion" (Allaby, 1998). One feature that all North American Eupatorium species share is perennial longevity.
At the end of this "line-up" ofthe Eupatorium genus two species common on tallgrass prairie growing far to the south of the species found on the Ozark Plateau were included to show further diversity of this composite taxon.
Getting ready for summer- New shoots of Baldwin ironweed growing on a Grand Prairie range in northcentral Texas.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. Mid- April,
358. White snakeroot (Eupatorium rugosum)- This composite (Eupatorieae tribe) is one of the few poisonous plants of the tallgrass and true prairie range types. White snakeroot was the cause of the dreaded “milk sickness” on the prairie frontiers. Frontiersmen and early settlers were affected (often died) when they drank milk from cows which passed the toxic compounds tremetol or trementone on in lactation. "Milk sick" was a deterrent to settlement of the prairies which were eventually destroyed to utilize their rich brunizem and chernozem soils that became the basis of the Corn-Soybean and Livestock Belt.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. August.
359. Inflorescence of white snakeroot- A flower cluster on the preceding plant. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. August.
360. Late boneset or late snakeroot (Eupatorium serotinum)-.Shoot (first slide) and inflorescence (second slide ) of a specimen of late boneset. This large (almost seven feet in height) plant was growing on a somewhat degraded prairie hay meadow that was still, however, still dominated by tallgrass species though more increaser species like purpletop and beaked panicgrass than by big bluestem and Indiangrass. This area in the western Springfield portion of the Ozark Plateau is part of the Prairie Peninsula described first by Transeau (1935).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. September; peak-bloom phenological stage.
361. Tall boneset or tall thoroughwort (Eupatorium altissimum) Two entire shoots (first slide) and shoot apex (second slide) of tall boneset. The specimen seen here lived up to its name being over seven and a half feet in stature. This individual was growing on a tallgrass prairie within a few yards of an oak-hickory forest in the Ozark Plateau. This location was in a more southern extension of the Prairie Peninsula described by Transeau (1935).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. September; peak-bloom phenological stage.
As seen from the top- Two top-down views of the flower cluster of tall thoroughwort or tall boneset.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August; peak-bloom phenological stage. (This pair of slides was taken in a different year from the photographs presented in the immediately preceding slide/catpion set. Compare difference in time at which peak-bloom varied from one year to the next.).
Shoot, details- Two closer-in views of shoots of tall boneset or tall thoroughwort showing details of one of the larger species of this species-rich genus members of which exploit numerous ecological niches on hertland prairie, savanna, and forest plant communities.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August; peak standing crop and full-bloom phenological stage.
Invasion by a perennial- An invasion by tall thoroughwort or tall boneset on an overgrazed pasture that was previously a tallgrass prairie in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. This rank, tall-growing composite forb is a perennial, the life cycle of which does not typically permit an exponential increase in population, a feature that is more typical of annuals in extremely favorable growing conditions. In the case presented here, however, a "population explosion" of a perennial forb species took place for whatever reason(s) during a savage summer of unusually high temperatures and drought conditions (drought varied from Severe to Extreme on the Palmer Index). Perhaps such ambient and edaphic conditions contributed to the exponential increase in density, cover, and biomass of this native perennial species.
No, tall boneset is not generally regarded as a weed or weedy species (at least not a major one). Instead, tall thorough generally responds to disturbance as increaser on tallgrass prairie and tallgrass-oak-hickory savannah. The capacity of plant species to have such response--to grow to large body size and have an extraordinary fruit yield (sexual reproduction in abundance)--is an obvious evolutionary adaptation.
At end of this year there was a "refreshment" of tall boneset achenes in the soil seed bank of this abused pasture, a soil seed granery that can be stored for decades or, even, centuries. It can be predicted with nearly one hundred percent certainity that there will be another population explosion of tall boneset sometime in the future.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August; peak standing crop and full-bloom phenological stage.
362. Thoroughwort, agueweed, boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum)- This rhizomatous species exploits a wide spectrum of habitats (it has a broad niche) especially in regard to soil fertility and moisture content. Two examples of this species broad environmental adaptation were presented here. The first two slides were of plants growing on a comparatively shallow soil on degraded tallgrass prairie in the Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas. The second example was a shoot apex of a plant growing on deep (and highly fertile) sand alluvium on the immediate stream bank of Bosque River, the muddy water of which formed the backdrop of the inflorescence of common boneset.
Erath County, Texas. October, peak-bloom stage of phenology.
363. Pink boneset (Eupatorium incarnatum)-.This specimen was growing on a wet prairie dominated by bottomland switchgrass. Maximillian sunflower was the dominant forb, but this short-statured individual (well under two feet in height) colorfully represented its species and an obviously diverse genus.
Erath County, Texas. Mid-October; peak bloom stage.
Directions to other Eupatorium species in Range Types of North America: Other Eupatorium species can be found vriously throughout this publication to present an even greater selection of speciation and adaptation to habitation (niche formation) in this diverse Compositae genus. Purple-jointed, green-stem, or sweet joe pye weed (E. purpureum) and blue boneset, wild ageratum, or mist flower (E. coelestinum) can be found under the chapter, Southern and Central Forest-II (an example of a mixed hardwood bottomland forest along an Ozark stream), under Woodlands and Forest. These two species were found within roughly one mile of the above species (extreme eastern Ottawa County, Oklahoma), but they were growing along streams and in alluvial forests rather than on grassland so were not included at this juncture. These two forest species did, notheless, add to the array of this diverse genus and niches represented by it. Hairy joe pye weed or hairy boneset (E. pubescens) was included in the chapter devoted to the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) forest range type (under the Woodlands and Forest heading of roest types) where this species is a locally important forb.
364.Yard-tall composite- Two robust plants of western yarrow (Achillea lanulosa= A. millefolium subsp. lanulosa) growing on tallgrass prairie in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau after a wet winter and early spring. Western yarrow is a cool-season, rhizomatous, perennial composite. Older plants (or those on more favorable microsites) grow to larger size over course of growing sesons (years) by increasing the number of shoots which arise from rhizomes that radiate out from established shoots and root crowns. Both of the specimens seen in these two photographs were plants (genotypes) that the author had observed--and seen to grow larger each growing season--over a number of years.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; peak standing crop/peak bloom stage.
365.Yarrow shoots- General view of shoots (first slide) and close-up of a leaf attached to stem (second slide) of western yarrow. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June.
366. Lacy at the base- Basal shoots--at this stage mostly leaves--of western yarrow. This was a young--probably a two-year-old--plant that did not send up any shoots (at least not by the time neighboring plants were at peak bloom). These basal leaves were larger than "normal-sized" leaves on stems of older or more established plants.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; early leaf stage on a young plant in its firest spring.
Not much worse for winter wear- Winter rosette of an older plant western yarrow. Dead stalks (upright "sticks") of the previous year attest to this plant having been alive for at least one year (western yarrow is a perennial species). Leaves living in the current cool-growing season showed some freeze damage, but this plant had taken it in stride and "none the worse for the wear" as hillbillies put it. Western yarrow is obviously a cool-season species, and equally obvious, well-adapted to winter on tallgrass prairie. At least this is for moderate winter temperatures. At time of photograph this plant had retained this vigor, color, etc. after two consecutive nights of 18 degrees Fahrenheit.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December.
367. A wide-ranging Westerner- Western yarrow (Achillea lanulosa= A. millefolium subsp. lanulosa). According to Flora of the Great Plains (McGregor et al., 1986, p.854) A. millefolium is a botanica complex including various polyploid taxa tht range across much of North America as well as Eurasia.. Western yarrow has long been recognized by some authors simply as A. lanulosa, but Steyermark (1963, ps.1599-1600) explained that while there are two subspeices of A. millefolium that are "distinctive in their extremes" there are "many intergradations" that are difficult to classify as to one or the other of these subspecies.
All authorities agreed that western yarrow is--again, in Steyermark's words--"usually weedy". On tallgrass prairie in high successional states (such as well-managed hay meadows) western yarrow occurs as an incidental species limited to a few individuals which add beauty and diversity to an already beautiful range type.Western yarrow is in Compositae tribe, Anthemidae.
The second slide presented details of same sexual shoot shown in the first slide.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-June; full-bloom phenological stage.
A little tiny one for the worst habitat- Several "ittle-bittie" plants of bighead evax, bighead pygmy-gumweed, or bighead rabbit-tobacco (Evax prolifera= Filaago prolifera) on once-abon-a-time, now an almost-obliterated tallgrass prairie. These Lillipucian plants were growing on a local annaliated microsite--the berm of a ranch road- on the Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas, While far from the climax plant community for this range site, these little folks were doing their part to hold together what was left and start range regeneration via secondary plant succession of whatever potential for prairie is left. This minature composite, these speccimens were all of three inches in height, is in tribe, Inuleae.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. Mid-April.
368. A Texas original- Texas thistle (Cirsium texanum) on a locally disturbed area (burnt pile of bulldozed-brush) of degraded tallgrass prairie that was part of Grand Prairie in north Texas. This forb is one of several Cirsium species that are native to northcentral Texas. Typical of most Cirsium species C. texanum is a biennial though sometimes a perennial (Diggs et al., 1999, p. 340).
The first of these two slides presented the general habit of the species. Second slide showed details of basal shoot with emphasis on leaves.
Tarleton State University College Farm, Erath County, Texas. Mid-May (peak bloom stage).
369. Lone Star capitulum- Head or capitulum of Texas thistle. Capitullum is the inflorescence type in which flowers and fruit are more-or-less sessile (without a pedicel meaning stand or base) inserted on a common receptacle (Smith, 1977, ps. 63, 214, 291) A capitulum or head is one of the--if not the--most characteristic inflorescence types in the Compositae.
Tarleton State University College Farm, Erath County, Texas. Mid-May (peak bloom stage).
370. Grand waves- Wavyleaf thistle or, sometimes, gray thistle (Cirsium undulatum) growing on a degraded tallgrass prairie range in the Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas. True thistles (members of the thistle tribe, Cynareae, of Compositae) are species that are predominately adapted to disturbance. Most thistle composites are annuals or biennials, plant life cycles of pioneers or colonizers (typically of disturbed and/or stable harsh environments). Wavyleaf thistle is largely an exception to this rule. C. undulatum is a perennial, usually having rhizomes and, sometimes, tubers (ie. it relies on asexual as well as sexual reproduction) ((McGregor et al, 1986, p. 913; Diggs et al., 1999, p.340) and it is a common component of climax range plant communities. This author hs found numerous instances in which wavyleaf thistle was more abundant on properly grazed rather than overgrazed ranges and on areas not subject to livestock grazing such as outside fencerows. Incidentally, Indians ate rootstocks and taproots along with stems of wavyleaf thistle (Owensby, 1989, p. 53).
Wavyleaf thistle is a widespread grassland plant having a species range from the Great Lakes States west to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest and as far east as Pennsylvania and Georgia. Furthermore, wavyleaf thistle is often well-represented within a given large area. For example, it is probably found in every county in Kansas (Owensby, 1980, p. 53).
Wavyleaf thistle is sometimes called grey after the light-colored, tomentose or felt-like pubescence on the abaxial (underside) of leaves. More examples and discussion of wavyleaf thistle were included in the chapter, Mixed Prairie-III.
Hunewell Ranch, Tarleton State University, Erath County, Texas. Late May; early to mid-bloom phenological stage.
The following series of slide sets showed the life and annual growth cycle of the native tall thistle (Cirsium altissimum), biennial or short-lived composite.These photographs were taken ona tallgrass prairie-oak-hickory forest savanna which is part of the Prairie Peninsula described by Transeau (1935).a
Another spiny leafed native- Tall thistle (Cirsium altissimum) is a short-lived perennial thistle that is native to the Tallgrass Prairie Region and adjoining portions of the vast Eastern Deciduous Forest Region. Two separate plants (genotypes) were presented in these two slides. Both plants were three years old. Most thistles (both Cirsium and Carduus species) are biennials that overwinter in a basal rosette morphology. C. altissimum differs from this life cycle pattern, but only to the extent of being " weakley perennial" (persisting as a perennial for usually something less than, say, five or six years).
All Cirsium and Carduus species vary in palatability depending on such plant features as stage of growth, plant parts, and neighboring plant species as well as specific thistle species and, also, animal preference features such as animal species or, even, grazing experience of individual animals. For instance, horses love to eat flowers (heads= capitula) of thistles which cattle largely avoid and sheep usually cannot reach. Thistle heads (largely the nectar of them) are palatable to many insect species.
While the native tall thistle is is not weedy to the same degree as highly invasive, exotic species are, C. altissimum is, nonetheless, typically found on areas of disturbance (including small local areas such as overgrazed pastures). This is not a hard-and-fast rule, however, as shown in the very next slide set...
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August; immediate early bloom phenological stage.
Part of the native vegetation- Tall thistle growing on a relict area (managaed power line corridor) with three-flower melic (Melica nitens) and big bluestem as well as as brown-eyed susan.(Rudbeckia triloba) as its neighbors. On this microsite the native tall thistle appeared to be part of the climax vegetation. The author observed this phenomenon for over 60 years beginning as a school boy.
These three progressively closer-in views show the habit, plant architectre, and details of shoot.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August.
Speaking of spiny leaves- Detailed view of shoot (first slide) and more detail of leaves (second slide) of tall thistle. These organs were on the plant shown in the immediately preceding slide (second slide in the preceding two-slide/caption unit). The whitish or grayish underside (adaxial surface) of tall thistle leaves is a very distinctive, readily seen feature of this native perennial thistle. Herbage of tall thistle at this stage of maturity (this plant was at the immediate pre-bloom or onset of bloom stage of phenology) has a most zero palatability to range animals.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August.
Unopened-An unopened capitulum (head) of tall thistle. This short-lived perennial or, often biennial, species is a late-season bloomer.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August.
Current and future generation- A this year's seedling in front of an adult plant of tall thistle (first slide) and several this year's seedlings (second slide) of tall thistle. Tall thistle is either a short-lived perennial or a biennial species. This Cirsium species is native to the central tallgrass prairies and seems to do best on disturbed sites, but it is also at home with climax dominant tallgrasses like big bluestem and Indiangrass. Welcome, yongsters.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August.
Dead (and alive) of winter- The mature and now dead shoot of tall thistle with capitula (heads) with plumed pappuses attached to achenes the fruits, that are ready to germinate the next generation.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January.
Headed for the next generation- Heads, capitula, of tall thistle pried open to show the plummed achenes, the fruit, of this native thistle.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January.
Plumosed- Plumose achenes of tall thistle These plumose structures are pappuses of the Cirsium species. A pappus is the modified calyx of composite flowers (Smith, 1977, p. 303). Achenes and detached pappuses are on a leaf of black oak (Quercus velutina).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January.
Now and next- Four capitula (heads) of tall thistle laid on leaves of tall thistle. All organs were present at this (the same) time which was early winter.This site was a savanna, a transition, of tallgrass prairie dominated by big bluestem and Indiangrass and a black oak-dominated forest in the western Springfield Plateau.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January.
Winter life of a native forb- Winter rosettes (three are distinctly visible in the second slide) of tall thistle on a black oak-big bluestem savannah in early winter. Dead shoots of last year's tall thistle along with those of big bluestem surround the winter rosettes. Tall thistle is a biennial or short-lived perennial but it "takes forever" for plants to complete their annual cycle. Tall thistle grows almost yearlong commencing growth in autumn and growing throughout the winter on into late summer when it finally blooms.After blooming some plants die whereas others start anew and form another rosette.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January.
New life from last year's dead- Three examples (three plants) of tall thistle with winter rosette emerging from their root crowns beside last year's shoots. Tall thistle can be either a biennial or persist as ashort-lived perennial as in the case of these three example. In cases of pereennials like these there is a brief period of only two or three months of dormancy between late summer flowering and rosette formation. Developing on a saannah of black oak-dominated forest and big blustem-domonated prairie in the far western edge of the Springfield Plateau.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January.
Bearing up in winter- Two winter rosettes of tall thistle that grew from root crowns. Thus these two plants outlived the biennial stage and will persisst as perennials, at least for the current year. Growing on a black oak-big bluestem savanna in the wester Spring Plateau of the Ozark Highlands province.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January.
A closer look at winter life- Two closer-in views of a rosette of tall thistle. The second slide is showed the center of the rosette introduced in full in the first slide. On a black oak-big bluestem savanna at western edge of Ozark (Springfield) Plateau.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January.
Two slides, two with wrong color; two species anyway- Giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida), left; common ragweed (A. artemisifolia), right. These two specimens of the two weedy Ambrosia species were growingon the berm of a county road. Such habitat is a typical disturbance to which both of these annuals are well-adapted. Unfortunately, an Epson Perfection (which it is not) 600 scanner could not get the color right. In fac,t it was so botched up that the best Adobe Photoshop could offer could not restore these images back to the original color of slides taken on Fujichorme Provia 100F film. By the way, this film is closest to Kodachrome (but still a "fer piece" from that "gold standard").
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July; early growth stages.
Two ragweed species up close- Parts of three upper shoots (crowns) of giant ragweed, at left and center, and common ragweed at right. These plants are some of the same ones presented in the two immediately preceding slides. These two annual species have generally been regarded as providing good habitat for northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) as both "hard grain" feedstuffs and cover, depending on local conditions of course. Achenes of the various Ambrosia species are most abundant and important to bobwhite in the autumn and early winter seasons (Pierce and Gallagher, 2005). This situation applies over much of the immense region in which these species grow. For example, Ambrosia artemisifolia was listed as a highly desirable native forb for use in bobwhite food plot plantings in southeastern North America (Mississippi State University, Extension Service, 2012). Common ragweed is a member of disturbed natural plant communities throughout the tallgrass prairie and eastern deciduous forest regions.
Although giant ragweed is tall ( up to ten feeet) and rank-growing it does afford cover as well as achenes that are valuable for northern bobwhite.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July; early growth stages.
371. Western ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya)- This is one of several species of Ambrosia native to the central grasslands of North America. All of these increase under disturbance (ie. are invader species) with some being large annuals that pioneer denuded spots while others such as western ragweed are perennials that often persist in trace amounts in climax vegetation and become prominent only with disturbances like drought and fire. The fruits (achenes) of Ambrosia species are often major feed sources for upland game and song birds like bobwhite quail. Ragweed pollen is also one of the major allergens (causes of allergy) and sources of hay fever over the vast area called home by these weedy composites. Shoot and/or sneeze. Erath County, Texas. September.
372. Shoot apex of western ragweed- Leaves and immature flower cluster of the most widespread Ambrosia species in interior North American. Western ragweed is one of the most abundant herbaceous invaders on overgrazed grasslands extending from the eastern tallgrass to central mixed prairies. Achenes of giant ragweed are generally regarded as some of the best for northern bobwhite (Guthery, 2000, p. 16).
Cross Timbers National Grassland, Wise County, Texas. September.
Business end- Sexual shoot with nine flowering branches (first slide) and successively closer views (second and third slides) of a flowering branch (one unit of flowering heads) in western ragweed on degraded Grand Prairie in northcentral Texas.
Hunewell Ranch, Tarleton State University, Erath County, Texas. Mid-September; peak-bloom stage.
373. Western ragweed thriving on an overgrazed burn- A wild fire burnt off this portion of tallgrass prairie and these buffalo made the burned area their "base of operation" grazing the palatable big bluestem and Indiangrass as close to the ground as their bovid mouth parts allowed. Simulataneously the "buffers" avoided the foul-smelling western ragweed that was the most common forb. The pehnomenon of grazing selectivity (even by the relatively indiscriminate grazing characteristic of American buffalo) produced this textbook example of localized overgrazing. When the bison "camped out" on the burn they favored the invader species, western ragweed, by improving its ability to compete for resources with the weakened preferred grasses. This demonstrated the reason why sound range management usually requires either 1) adjusting stocking rates to what the burnt acreage can support without overuse (leading in time to overgrazing) or 2) with fixed stocking, firing the entire range so animals cannot overuse the preferred burned portion. Under more-or-less "natural" conditions of free-ranging wildlife and partially burnt-off range overgrazing is unavoidabe. Such combinations of lightening-ignited range fires and native grazing animal behavior occurred repeatedly in the pre-human history of grasslands. This created mosaics of plant communities in various stages of plant succession. It is an example of patch dynamics with resultant maintenance of a maximum (perhaps optimum) diversity of habitats and plant and animal species. In the example shown here, bobwhite quail and various species of passerines (perching songbirds having feet with clasping toes with the first toe pointed backward) will benefit by the increased availability of nutritions achenes produced by the combination of fire and overgrazing by buffalo.
PS: this image was washed out by an Epson Perfection 700 scanner. Do not buy Epson stuff. Your author was stuck with his.
Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge, Commanche County, Oklahoma. October.
Two species; one species' response to them- Two views of the same plants of two Ambrosia species under different light conditions (first slide was in full sun; second slide was under overcast sky) showing selective feeding by differential grasshopper (Melanoplus differentialis). Giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida) at left and center background (larger leaves) and common ragweed (A. artemisifolia) at right (smaller leaves) with grazing by nearly adult differential grasshopper limited strictly to giant ragweed.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July.
Selective grazing up close- Giant ragweed (left) with feeding damage by differential grasshopper and common ragweed (right) with zero feeding by differential grasshopper. Textbook example of selective grazing by range animals on range plants: species-specific reactions to specific species.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July.
374. Composite of grassland and savanna- Several plants of long-haired or hairy hawkwed (Hieracium longipilum) on a small tallgrass prairie in an opening within the Ozark Plateau portion of the oak-hickory-tallgrass Prairie Peninsula. This a native range forb is in the cichory tribe (Cichorieae), the largest in subafmily Liguliflorae of Compositae. Members of this subfamily (one of two in Compositae) have a latex sap. Most of the liguliflorus composites on North American ranges are exotic weedy species such as the lettuces (Lactuca species).
The plants seen here were growing on a small prairie hay meadow on which big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) and beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps) were the dominant species in the first photograph whereas hairy hawkweed plants in the second slide were growing with broomsedge bluestem. The author observed these local populations of hairy hawkweed, a perennial species, over a number of years.
First slide: Newton County, Missouri, late June; peak biomass and full-bloom to ripening fruit phenological stages.Second slide: Ottawa County, Oklahoma, late July, full-flower to fruit-ripening stage.(Capitula of long-haired hawkweed bloom seqentially so there will be immature flower buds and ripening achenes si;multaneously on thesame plant, same cluster of flowers.)
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Hawked-up heads- Flower cluster (inflorescence) of heads (capitula) of long-haied or hairy hawkweed growing with broomsedge on an old field undering seondary plant succession back to tallgrass prairie. These infloresences wee on the same plant as shown in the second slide in the immediately preceding slide set.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma, late July, full-flower to fruit-ripening stage.(Capitula of long-haired hawkweed bloom seqentially so there will be immature flower buds and ripening achenes si;multaneously.)
375. Hairy at base- Shoot base of hairy or long-haired hawkweed growing on a tallgrass prairie used as a hay meadow in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. Almost all leaves in the Hieracium species are at shoot bases of plants which send up a long sexual with an inflorescence of heads along sides of the upper shoot. This arrangement was presented in the immediately previous two slides while details of the spikelike panicle or corymb of heads was presented in the next slide-caption set.
Newton County, Missouri. Late June; peak biomass and full-bloom to ripening fruit phenological stages.
376. Perched on a shoot- Opened and unopened heads (capitula) (first slide) and flowering heads and heads of achenes (second slide) of hairy hawkweed on a tallgrass prairie in a small opening within an oak-hickory forest. Such a local mosaic of range vegetation in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau was part of the once-vast Prairie Peninsula, a complex patchwork of grassland, deciduous forest, and savanna thereof that extended from southern Canada to the Cross Timbers of Oklahoma and Texas.
The capitula of hairy hawkweed are compposed solely of ray or ligulate flowers. Achenes are fitted with a bristly pappus that assist in dispersal, especially by wind (anemochory). Most Hieracium species of undergo a form of apomixis. In one of the great ironies of biological research Gregory Mendel, Father of Genetics, tried to use Hieracium along with his famed domestic peas (Pisum sativumin) in his experiments with heredity only to be frustrated by what is now recognized as one form of asexual reproduction (Nogler, 2006; Koultunow et al., 2011). In other words, there was not genetic recombination in Mendel's experiments with Hieracium. Mendel died not knowing the "dirty little secret" of hawkweed heredity.
Newton County, Missouri. Late June; peak biomass and full-bloom to ripening fruit phenological stages.
Hoppered down- Removal of flower stalks (sexual shoots) on plants of hairy hawkweed by differential grasshoppers (Melanoplus differentialis) on tallgrass prairie during Severe Drought. Three different plants in three different degrees of defoliation were presented in these two slides.
This was just a differential set of views.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July; early flowering stage aborted by insect feeding.
377. Low one of a little family- Trailing ratany (Krameria lanceolata) is one of only a few members of the ratany family, Krameriaceae. In fact, this range forb, an herbaceous vine (from a large woody root), is the only member of Krameriaceae shown in Flora of the Great Plains (McGregor et al., 1986, p. 566). Other Krameria species that are shrubs are important browse plants in range types like those of the Sonoran Desert (refer to chapter, Sonoran Desert, for comparison of florl features).
The example of trailing ratany presented was growing on a shallow limestone outcrop habitat in the Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas on which the climax vegetation is little bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas wintergrass form of tallgrass prairie. Diggs et al. (1999, p. 750) cited work indicating that trailing ratany is a hemiparasite that forms haustoria on roots of numerous host plants.
Krameria species have been interpreted as legumes in subfamily Caespalioideae (McGregor et l., 1986, p. 566), but most contemporary authors placed these species in their own family. Unique range plant.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch. Late May; full-bloom phenological stage.
The Asclepiadaceae (milkweed family) is small (based on numbers of species); certainly nothing comparable to the composite and legume families. The milkweeds merit consideration beyond their numbers, however, due to their economic importance and historical prominence as livestock poisoning forbs on range and pasture. In addition, Asclepias species provide one of the best examples of speciation and ecological niches of plants on North Amrerican range. Several Asclepias species were presented below as examples of these two aspects of Range Management and basic Ecology and Evolution. Students should note with interest how many of these species grow on the same range type, in fact on the same range site and often almost side-by-side.
The poisonous principle (= toxin or poison) in Asclepias species is associated with two categories of symptoms of poisoning:: 1) gastrointestional-cardiac and 2) neurologic Digestive-cardiac is the opertive form or category responsible for animal poisoning in most of the Asclepias species. Here the asclepiad cardiotoxins are steroids called cardenolides. Toxicity within Asclepias species varies widely widely. This is assumed to be due to different concentrations of cardenolides in the different species (Burrows and Tyrl, 2001, ps. 131-133; see especially Table 12.1). Students were routed to this extraordinary encyclopedia of North American poisonous plants as well as the dated but ever-the-classic Kingsbury (1964, ps. 267-270).
The Asclepias inflorescnece is a unique, highly derived structure (set of structures) distinguished by presence of a corona extending beyond (outward from) the corolla. Smith (1977, p. 293) described the corona as an extra set of anatomical structures situated between the corolla and the androecium (entire male structure) that has been interpreted as a modified part of the corolla and/or male unit. The corona consist of five floral units each of which has petal-resembling hood with a beak or crest extending outward from inside each hood. Below and within the surrounding corona the male and female organs are joined or fused to form a compound structure known as a gynostegium . The stamen of the gyostegium are also unique annatomical modifications with side-by-side stamen joined by two connectives or translators that fuse to a central body called the corpusculum. Each of these "half-anthers" secretes a waxy mass of pollen termed a pollliuium. Pollinia are inadvertantly detached by pollinating insects and then almost miracleously inserted inside another milkweed flower to facilitate cross-pollination (Smith, 1977, ps. 187-188).
The fruit of Asclepias is a follicle: a podlike, one-carpeled, dry, dehiscent fruit that opens along a single suture. Inside the follicle there are many neatly aligned seeds each of which has an attached coma ( tuft) of ong, silky hairs that act as a natural parachute for dispersion of the seed (Smith, 1977, ps. 187-188, 296).
Colorful treatments of Asclepias were provided by Rickett (1966, ps. 317-321; 1967, ps. 400-406).
378. Butterfly milkweed (Asclepias tuberosa)- This showy milkweed is one of 16 Asclepias species listed as having some degree of cardiotoxicity in North America (Burrows and Tyrl, 2001, ps. 125-135 passim; see also the ever-popular Kingsbury, 1964). There are dozens of Asclepias species native to North America. These are especially common on the central grasslands where they are one of the most colorful examples of speciation and ecological niche. Butterfly milkweed is one of the more common (and showy) species in the tallgrass prairie and savanna region. The attraction of attractive spicebush swallowtails (Papilio troilus) to the milkweed illustrated the well-deserved common name of this prairie range forb.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June.
379. Flowering shoot of butterfly milkweed- Leaves and inflorescence of the milkweed known simply as butterfly weed. This species has very low levels of cardenolides so as to be of relatively low toxicity (Table 12.1; Burrows and Tyrl, 2001, p.133).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June.
380. Flowers of butterfly milkweed- One inflorescence unit of butterfly milkweed showing corona with hoods. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July.
381. Clasping milkweed (Asclepias amplexicaulis)- Clasping milkweed is widely distributed throughout eastern North America from some localities in the eastern Great Plains to eastern New Hampshire. This author has found it to be more common and in counties not shown on official USDA maps or in the various published flora. This was rather surprising given easy identification of this species by its broad leaves that attach directly (and conspicuously so) to the stem, hence the common name of clasping milkweed.
.A. amplexicaulis has one of the lowest concentrations of cardenolides and no estimate of toxicity was shown in Burrows and Tyrl, 2001, Table 12.1, p. 133). The specimen shown here and in the next two photographs was growing on degraded tallgrass prairie in the western part of the Springfield Plateau of the Ozark Mountain Region. It is also relatively common in tallgrass-oak-hickory savannahs in this same area.
Ottawa County; Oklahoma. Late May; peak bloom.
382. Inflorescence of clasping milkweed- This is one of the least showy or eye-catching of the Asclepias species, but the subtle two-toned hoods of the corona and conspicuous, ruffled leaves that wrap ever so slightly around the stem make this species an enjoyable beauty for wild flower fans and hard-bitten rangemen alike. Plus with its low levels of toxic compounds (glycosidic cardiotoxins) this species has much to recommend it as a native plant for rural landscaping.
The corolla and corona of the elaborate individual flower of Asclepias species was readily seen in this pair of photographs. Smith (1977, ps. 188, 293). gave a good description of the unique milkweed flower.
Ottawa County; Oklahoma. Late May; peak bloom.
Near full-term- Two ripening (maturing) capsules or follicles of clasping milkweed just before dehiscing (opening by splitting along a suture ("seam"). This example grew on a prairie in the far-western edge of the Springfiield portion of the Ozark Plateau.
Ottaw County, Oklahoma. Mid-July.
Babies all gone; mama alone- Mature plant of clasping milkweed with dehisced, empty capsule the plumose parachute-fitted seeds having been dispersed by prairie winds. Like the specimens of clasping milkweed introduced above, this plant grew on the far-western edge of the Springfiield portion of the Ozark Plateau.
Ottaw County, Oklahoma. Mid-July.
Appropriately named- Two views of one shoot of clasping milkweed showing the adnate (clasping) opposite leaves on the stem of this prairie denizen.
Ottaw County, Oklahoma. Mid-July
383. Into the wind- Split capsule or follicle of clasping milkweed releasing its parachute-equipped fruits into the prairie breeze to disperse in a manner most effective the next generation of this interesting species. This fruit is on the same showed in the two immediately preceding sets of photographs.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July, seed-relesse phenological stage.
384. Purple milkweed Asclepias purpurea)- Purple milkweed is one of several Asclepias species that grows in forest opening and glades within the oak-hickory forests as well as in tallgrass prairies. This specimen was growing in the western part of the Ozark (Springfield) Plateau, but it was just as abundant to the west in the Cherokee Prairie.
Purple milkweed is one of the broad-leafed (versus narrow-leafed) Asclepias species. It is generally one of the mid-sized milkweeds and no less attractive to nectar-feeding species ranging from butterflies to hummingbirds. It was not listed by Kingsbury (1964) as one of the poisonous Asclepias species.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; peak-bloom stage of phenology.
.
385. Inflorescence and leaves of purple milkweed- Details of flower cluster and leaves of purple milkweed that was growing in the western Springfield Plateau portion of the Ozark Mountains. This one of the broad-leafed milkweeds.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; peak-bloom stage of phenology.
385. Another-- though paler--example- Inflorescence and upper leaves on another plant of purple milkweeed. This image set the stage to show an example of the opening fruit of this species in the next slide...
Ottawa Couny, Oklahoma. Late May; peak-bloom phenological stage.
"Some glad morning when this life is o'er, I'll fly away...". I'll Fly Away (Albert E. Brumley, 1929).
386. Ready to fly away-Just-opened capsule of purple milkweed with its parachute (plumose pubescence) equipped ripe seeds "primed" and ready to "fly away" for the next generation, the renewed life of the perennial parent plant. Al Brumley's I'll Fly Away" is thought by many to be the most recorded country gospel song ever written. It seemed a fitting tribute to the milkweeds and, conversely, Asclepias species were a fitting living symbol of the life "...when this life is o'er".
Ottawa Couny, Oklahoma. Late June, just before the summer solstice; ripe-fruit, seed-shedding phenological stage.
386. Leaving the floral nest- Parachute-fitted (plumose pubescence attached to) seeds of purple milkweed. This example was found at edge of a tallgrass prairie and oak-hickory forest in the far-western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July; mripe fruit and fruit-shedding stage of phenology.
Colorful pardners- Purple milkweed being visited by great sprangled fritillary butterfly (Speyeria cybele) on tallgrass prairie in the western edge of the Ozark Plateau (Springfield Plateau portion thereof). This particular insect was a male
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June.
Another pardner- This time purple milkweed was being patronized by a monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus). Fencerow of tallgrass prairie that had been invaded by tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea). In a turn of events typical of Mother Nature, the Extreme Drought (Palmer Scale) in the first decade and first part of second decade of Twenty First century wiped out most of the tall fescue with native prairie grassees, including big bluestem, filling in the void. Purple milkweed continued to thrive during annd after this drought as did progeny of the monarch.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June.
387. Whorled milkweed (Asclepias verticillata)- Shoot (first slide) and inflorescence (second slide) of whorled milkweed in full bloom. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June.
388. Milky whorls on from the prairie sod- Whorled or horsetail milkweed (Asclepias verticillata) growing from the virgin sod of a tallgrass prairie that has been used as a prairie hay meadow for nearly a century. Horsetail milkweed has a large species range that extends from Massachusetts west to Montana and from Florida to Arizona (Great Plains Flora Assiociation, 1986, p. 630).
Whorled milkweed is one of the poisonous Asclepias speices. A detailed and throughly updated discussion of milkweed poisoning is that of Barrows and Tyrl (2013, ps. 85-94).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July; peak-bloom phenological stage.
389. horled details- Detailed views of inflorescences (flower clusters) of whorled milkweed. This is one of the narrow-leafed milkweed species. Although this specimen was growing on a virgin sod tallgrass prairie, the author has frequently observed this species on degraded ranges, pastures, and go-back ground. It--and, in fact, most milkweed species--are apparentely adapted to a wide spectrum of successional stages.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July; peak-bloom phenological stage.
390. Two day's difference- Ripe capsules or follicles of whorled milkweed: just waiting to open (first slide) and some capsules just opened two days later (second slide). Asclepias species are lumped into two groups based on leaf width: 1) broadleaf (broad-leafed) and 2) narrowleaf (narrow-leafed). Guess to which this group this species belongs.
According to Kingsbury (1964, p.268-269) and (Table 12.1; Burrows and Tyrl, 2001, p.133) whorled milkweed is one of the poisonous Asclepias species.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July.
391A. A big, milky bloomer - Common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) on a tallgrass prairie on the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. Common milkweed is one of the more robust Asclepias species. Shoots seen here exceeded four feet in height. A. syriaca is one of the broad-leaf milkweeds. It is one of the more widespread of the more-or-less grassland-restricted Asclepias species. For example, common milkweeed is not native to the Ozark Plateau where most of the accompanying species in this section were photographed.
Barton County, Missouri. Late June; peak-bloom phenological stage.
391B. Common enough for another set- Plants of common milkweed that were neighbors to those presented immediately above (except in another year). These two images appeared to present better examples of this species than those above.
Barton County, Missouri. Late June; peak-bloom phenological stage.
392. A pascel of flowers- Many individual flowers in this globose (globe-shaped; spherical) inflorescence or flower cluster of common milkweed, an Asclepias species largely restricted to grasslands or savannahs. The flowers of Asclepias species are perfect (= having both staminate and pistillate organs) with the corolla separated by a floral column from a corona, this latter being an arrangement of additional floral parts interpreted variously as part of the androecium or an elaborate modification of the corolla (Smith, 1977, ps. 188, 293).
Barton County, Missouri. Early June; conspicuously at peak-bloom stage of development.
393. A large commoner- Common milkweed is one of the larger Asclepias species that calls tallgrass prairie home. It is also one of the most widely distributed milkweeds with a species range extending from Nova Scotia westward to Oregon and from Texas to the Atlantic Seaboard. Common milkwed is one of the more conspicuous broadleafed milkweeds
Common milkweed is another of the poisonous Asclepias species according to Kingsbury (1964, p. 269; Burrows and Tyrl, 2001, p.126) containing cardenolides as well as the toxicand beta-amyrin such that this is a cardiotoxic species in contrast to such neurotoxic species which are less well undestood ( Burrows and Tyrl, 2001, p.130-135).
Barton County, Missouri. Late July; maturing-fruit stage.
394. Big leaves and tited fruit- Details of the large, broad leaves and follicles beset with teat-resembling processes of common milkweed. Everything about this large range forb is striking. It has ornamental value for plant lovers who can get past the botanica racism of a "weed" label. Although this species, like many of the Asclepias species, is toxic it is not apt to cause stock-poisoning problems given its low palatability. Nonetheless, a wide variety of range animals have been poisoned by Asclepias species, both birds and mammals and, among the latter, both ruminants and nonruminants, olften with high death losses (Burrows and Tyrl, 2001, p.129, 133).
Barton County, Missouri. Late July.
395. Antelopehorn milkweed (Asclepias asperula subsp. capricornu)- Asclepias asperula is one of the widely distributed milkweeds in North America. This species has a discontinuous or disjunct to diffuse biological range with populations centered in the eastern Great Plains and again in the vast region of southwestern deserts (Basin and Range physiogrphic province). There are two subspecies of A. asperula which accounts for this distribution pattern. A. asperula subsp. capricornu is the subspecies known as antelopehorn milkweed. It is the prairie taxon.
A. asperula has very high cardenolide concentrations with an estimate that consumption of between one and two percent of animal body weight can cause death (Burrows and Tyrl, 2001, Table 12.1, p. 131).
First two slides, Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch Mid-April; third and fourth slides, Tarleton State University College Farm, Erath County, Texas. Early May. All views at; peak bloom.
396. Inflorescence of antelopehorn milkweed- The flower cluster of Asclepias asperula subsp. capricornu is large and prominent so as to be conspicuous on the range. Its large size, low and sprawling form combined with large inflorescences make this species a favorite (and easily obtained) photographic trophy for wildflower enthusiasts.
Tarleton State University College Farm, Erath County, Texas. Early May; peak bloom.
397. American cowslip or shooting star (Dodecatheon meadia)- This member of the Primulaceae or primrose family is the most cherished of all prairie forbs except for the orchids by wild flower afficionados. It is rare except on the best managed prairie hay meadows such as the one where this one grew. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. April.
398. Some mint for flavoring- Wild bergamont (Monarda fistulosa) on a tallgrass prairie savanna in western Ozark Plateau Region (Springfield Plateau section). The mint family (Labiatae) is not one of the larger families of range forbs, but it furnish some colorful and charaacteristic species on most range types including tallgrass prairie. One of the larger and showier of these is wild bergamont, a perennial often described as a subshrub. Typically wild bergamont is not eaten (at least to any appreciable degree) by larger vertebrate animals being instead more conspicuously visited by nectar-seeking insects.
Wild bergamont is more common on somewhat disturbed range or, perhaps more precisely, disturbed range that is in various stages of recovery. It is a long-lived perennial and, being a large and showy plant, range folk who routinely walk or ride their favorite prairie haunts find themselves looking for the same plant year after year. Sort of an old botanical pal if you will.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July, full-bloom stage.
399. Bergamont blooms- Details of the inflorescence of Monarda fistulosa. Each of the tubelike units is a corolla consisting of five fused or united petals. There are at least four subfamilies of Labiatae. Monarda species are in Lamioideae which includes some of the most sought after mints and other flavorings. This does not include oil of bergamont, the defining flavoring of Early Gray tea, which is from a member of the citrus family.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July, full-bloom stage.
400. A long-lasting relationship- Several views of wild bergamont and spicebush swallowtail (Papilio troilus). Papilio species are in subfamily, Papilioninae of family Papilionidae which is one of the most species-rich genera in Lepidoptera (order of moths and butterflies). The common name of spicebush swallow refers to the fact that spicebush (Lindera benzoin) is regarded as the prime feedstuff species for the caterpillar (larval stage) of P. troilus. Where Monarda species are available those plants comprise one of the major nectar sources for the adults of Papilio species.
The proboscus (siphon feeding tube) of swallowtails was visible in the slides seen here. This organ fits handily into the corolla tube of Monarda species.
Various aspects of pollination in M. fistulosa were described
by Cruden et al. (1984). These workers reported that wild bergamont
was unique in having stigmas that were initially receptive to cross-polliation
and later to self-pollination though the latter was comparatively
unimportant. Cruden et al. (1984) found that pollination was achieved
primarily by various species of bees including those of the bumblebee
group (Bombus species).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July, full-bloom stage.
401. Another long-lsting relationship- Tiger swallowtail (Papilio glaucus) is another butterfly species that finds Monarda fistulosa particuarily attractive. This species is slightly larger than the spicebush swallowtail. The individual insects presented here were in one of the same patches of wild bergamont as shown in the immediately preceding set of four slides.
Although the swallowtails are very conspicuous--the Papilio species being some of the largest of North American butterflies--they are not very efficient pollenators. These is especially the case when Lepidoptera are compared with the Hymenoptera. Cruden et al. (1984) reported that pollination of M. fistulosa was largely done by various species of bees and not by butterflies as reported previous workers.
An interesting field note for fellow photographers: swallowtails quickly become adjusted to presence of a photographer. Though these insects are intially wary of a comparatively large, strange object they soon "gentle down" and become much less "flightly" if the photographer has patience and an appreciation for his subject. Come to think of it there are a lot of animals that way, including individuals of Homo sapiens.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July, full-bloom stage.
402. Doin' it Wright- Large single plant of Wright's skullcap (Scutellaria wrightii) growing on deteriorated tallgrass prairie in the Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas. Climax range vegetation for this range site was a little bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas wintergrass tallgrass prairie with local mottes of plateau live oak (Quercus virginiana var. fusiformis= Q. fusiformis). This range had been overgrazing by cattle for decdes and used as a staging area for Future Farmers of America range and pasture contests for almost as long. Numerous forb species, including Wright's skullcap, benefitted from such disturbances at the expense of dominant decreaser grass species. This seemed especially to be the situation for early spring-blooming forbs (largely cool-season species) like Wright's skullcap.
Wright's skullcap is a cespitose perennial with persistent woody base (Diggs et al, 1999, p.780). This tallgrass prairie forb would probably be best described as a suffrutescent ("becoming undershrubby") or suffruticose ("true undershrubby") species.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch. Mid-April; peak bloom stage of phenology.
403. Wright on Grand Prairie- The colorful and distinctive flower cluster and individual flowers of Wright's skullcap growing on a degraded formerly little bluestem-Indiangrass dominated tallgrass prairie in the Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas. The author was unable to find range site descriptions that referred to this perennial forb. It is likely that it is an increaser species under grazing by North American buffalo (Bison bison), the climax dominant grazer, and the domestic ecological equivalent, cattle (Bos taurus, B. indicus). Logically, it would be suspected that Wright's skullcap would decline under heavier grazing by sheep (Ovis aries). Specimens displayed here were growing on deteriorated grassland range that had not been subjected to grazing by forb-preferring animals other than resident white-tail deer (Odocoileus virginianus) which were infrequent on this specific location.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch. Mid-April; peak bloom stage of phenology.
404. A punk mint- A plant of Drummond's skullcap (Scutellaria drummondii) on a degraded range on tallgrass prairie of the Forth Worth or Grand Prairie, the largest natural prairie unit in northcentral Texas. Unfortunately most of this once-magnificant grassland is gone: lost to urban sprawl, conversion to farmland, bursh invasion, overgrazing, underburning, and so forth. This Scutellaria species is one that usually produces rather runty plants which, sadly, made it most appropriate to represent this range, this area, and this former little bluestem-Indianbrass dominated prairie.
Like the more colorful Wright's skullcap presented and discussed immediately above, Drummond's skullcap apeared to have benefitted from demise of climax dominant grasses (decresers) on this range. The author concluded (albeit tentatively) that both Scutellaria species were increasers. Carry on little plants, most of the good folks left decades ago.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. Mid-April, peak bloom stage.
405. At least it flowered- Inflorescence and individual flowers of Drummond's skullcap growing on the Forth Worth or Grand Prairie. Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. Mid-April, peak bloom stage.
406. Tall spice on tallgrass prairie- Large plant of Pitcher's or blue sage (Salvia pitcherii= S. azurea var. grandiflora) on chert glades grassland in Springfield Plateau. This is typically the largest, tallest-growing Salvia species on the central grasslands of North America. It has become a fovorite with wildflower gardeners and, of course, true-blue (pun intended) prairiemen have admired plants of this species since always. In this author's experience Pitcher's or blue sage has one of the longest flowering periods of any native forb species on tallgrass prairie. Individuals in this locality were observed by the author to remain in the flowering stage for over three weeks and, with several individual plants at a particular location, total time period of flowering can exceed six weeks. Coupled with the extraordinary size of this forb it makes for an impressive display to native plant fanciers. For example, this particular specimen was over seven foot tall (and on shallow soil during Palmer Scale Extreme Drought nonetheless).
Pitcher's or azure sage has long been interpreted as a member of the climax plant community with such a high degree of palatability that it is labeled a decreaser on most range sites. Good discussion of this prairie forb was provided by the timeless Pasture and Range Plants (Phillips Petroleum Company, 1963, p. 150) and the valuable Field Guide to Oklahoma Plants (Tyrl et al., 2008, ps. 444-445).
Newton County, Missouri. Late June; peak flowering stage of phenology.
407. Example of pitcher on the prairie- Inflorescence (first slide) and individual flowers (second slide) of Pitcher's or blue sage on the same plant as presented in the immediately preceding slide (photograph taken from a different firection or camera focal point). Color of petals in Pitcher's sage varies considerably from one plant to the next (see immediately following slides).
By the way, this plant was performing its sexual duty during an Extreme Drought (Palmer Scale).
Newton County, Missouri. Late June; peak flowering stage of phenology.
408. Another example of a pitcher on the prairie- Inflorescence and individual flowers of Pitcher's or blue sage growing on a tallgrass hay meadow (used strictly as a hay meadow for decades) in the Springfield Plateau during Extreme Drought. Compare color and morphological features of this specimen to those of the specimen presented in the two immedately preceding slides. Also note the nearly month difference in blooming between these two individual plants that grew approximately 15 miles or less apart.
Otttawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; peak bloom stage.
Can grow pretty and pretty thick- Local population of Pitcher's or blue sage on tallgrass prairie in the western Springfield Plateau in the southwestern Prairie Peninsula of Transeau (1935). This lovely patch of prairie had been used as a prairie hay meadow for over 80 years. (This photographer hauled hay off of this prairie gem as a kid a half century ago).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August.
Maybe these shots will be prettier- Two more views of flowers of blue of Pitcher's sage. An Epsom Perfection (which it ain't) 800 scanner managed to botch up almost all images taken by this photographer so a few more were scanned hoping for better views. DO NOT BUY EPSOM PRODUCTS.
Newton County, Missouri. Mid-July.
The Umbelliferae is another forb family that is well-represented among range plant communities on tallgrass prairie. Species of this family include both native species and naturalized aliens and range from decreasers of climax vegetation down to pioneer and early colonizing species on old fields and overgrazed ranges. Some examples of the carrot or parsley family were presented in the section below.
409. Poison hemlock, spotted hemlock, or California fern (Conium maculatum)- This intriguing biennial species has the dubious record of being one of the single most toxic plants known. Poison hemlock is enshrined in history as it was an extract from this species that was used to murder the proto-type professor, Socrates. Spotted hemlock is native to Eurasia, but following its introduction in the New World it naturalized across much of North America where it is now a common weed. Poison hemlock is so foul-smelling that it causes little livestock poisoning. Member of the Umbelliferae (parsley or carrot family). The poisonous principal (= toxicant or toxic chemical) is a series of pyridine alkaloids (eg. coniine) which have a mechanism similar to nicotine and can cause death through respiratory failure.
This robust (nine feet tall) specimen was growing on California annual grassland in the Russian River Valley. Mendocino County, California. June.
410. Characteristic stem of poison or spotted hemlock- Origin of the "spotted" designation was obvious on this prime specimen. Mendocino County, California. June.
411. Basal stem and tuber of spotted or poison hemlock- These plant parts are useful in identification of this and related members of the Umbelliferae (in contrast to water hemlock for instance). As is the case regarding all poisonous plants in North America readers are referred to Kingsbury (1964, ps. 379-383) and Burrows and Tyler (2002, ps.49-54). Cheeke and Shull (1985, ps. 115-119) is another useful, though less comprehensive, text that was organized around the toxicants rather than by plant families, the traditional approach. This sample was "collected" in the Ozark Plateau, McDonald County, Missouri. June.
412. What a toxic stand!- Phenomental (once in a half century happening) population of poison hemlock growing on an overgrazed tame pasture seeded to tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) and white clover (Trifolium repens) in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. The pasture had not been grazed in the last two years and rains came such that the white clover rebounded--and so did poison hemlock that, in typical weed fashion, seemed to come out of nowhere.
This field of permanent pasture had once been a big bluestem-dominated hay meadow. Then an agronomic grass-legume mixture was planted and did well until it was about grazed out. This unbelieveable "crop" of poison hemlock was so spectacular that the author included it here in the treatment given to this naturalized, biennial forb that is the most toxic plant in North America (if not on Earth).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June: peak standing crop, full-bloom stage of phenology.
Lesson in Weed Science: This extraordinary population, this unusually high density, of poison hemlock proved the ordinary case for invasion by weeds. It is ordinarily under conditions of disturbance--in particular, human-induced disturbance--that noxious (weedy) plants become established. The vast majority of plant species that man regards as weedy are species adapted to the pioneer and slighter later seral stages in development of vegetation (ie. they thrive under growing conditions present earlier succession of plant communities). This expecially the situation for introduced (= alien, exotic, non-native) weeds.
This author, who has seen thousands of acres of tallgrass prairie, cannot remember ever seeing a single plant of poison hemlock on prairies in higher successional stages of vegetation. It is on old-fields, road cuts, abandoned city lots, periodically tilled land, overgrazed pastures, and improperly hayed meadows that exotic (including naturalized) weeds like poison hemlock are found. Overgrazing of a once fine pasture "raised" the marvelous crop of poison hemlock seen here.
413. Standard specimen- A number of plants of poison hemlock growing in a recovering stand of white clover (first or vertical slide) and typical poison hemlock compound leaf (second or horizontal slide). The Great Plains Flora Association (1986, p. 590) described the leaf of poison hemlock as being "broadly ovate" and "pinnately compound". There never was a range plant species that better fit the description of "beautiful but deadly".
These examples were growing on a degraded but recovering tame grass-legume pasture in the Ozark Highlands shown in the immediately preceding slides.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; peak standing crop, full-bloom stage of phenology.
414. Shoot details- Portions of plants of poison hemlock including leaves, stem, and roots. The first (uppermost) slide was of a leaf on a standing (intact) plant whereas the second and third slide showed uprooted shoots to feature the the basal (axillary area) of leaves. The second slide also featured the intact, atrophied tap root while the third slide showed a longitudinal (length-wise) cross-section of the stem and root, a split stem and root, revealing its internal morphological structure. The tap root of this biennial had shrunk down from a small carrot-sized, first year root as the first year's stored food was used in the second year to produce the masive shoot including an immense umbel inflorescence with a large seed crop. See next two-slide/caption set.
Jasper County, Missouri. Early June; peak standing crop, full-bloom stage of phenology.
415. More deadly than "arsenic and old lace"- A plant of poison hemlock with a large inflorescence or, more descriptively, several flowering branches (first slide) and several units of this inflorescence (second slide). This inflorescence or flower cluster consits of "an umbel of umbels of umbels" (ie. it is a third-order or three-times subdivided umbel so to speak; an umbel divided into umbels that are then subdivided into smaller umbel units). This is a textbook example of a fractal design or fractal geometry (Mandelbrot, 1983): uniquely and distinctively pretty, and deathly toxic.
At this time in writing, the definitive source dealing with toxicity of poison hemlock was the encyclopedic Toxic Plants of North America (Burrows and Tyrl, 2013, ps. 66-70). This grand book should be on evry rangeman's bookshelf.
This plant grew in a drainage on a former tallgrass prairie.
Jasper County, Missouri. Early June; peak standing crop, full-bloom stage of phenology.
Deadly details- Shoot--main stem and branches--of poison or spotted hemlock showing telltale purple blotches and typical joint of stem and branch of this deadly, naturalized Eurasian forb. This member of the carrot or parsley family (Umbelliferae) is typically a biennial that grows to remarkable large size when considered from height to shoot diameter to crown cover.
Common names can be confusing with regard to the umbelliferous hemlock species. Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) is often referred to as spotted hemlock based on the numerous and, often, quite large spots or blotches of purple coloration on the shoot as seen in this slide. Water or spotted water hemlock (Cicuta maculata) also frequently carries the adjective "spotted" due to presence of pigmented spots on its shoot.
Colorado Bend State Park, San Saba County, Texas. Mid-May; peak standing crop, early fruit phenological stage.
Most deadly part- Main taproot of poison or spotted hemlock "halved" to show internal structure of the principal root of this biennial member of the carrot or parsley family. Roots have the greatest concentration of coniine, the main toxin in this naturalized Eurasian forb. Coniine and other poisons in poison hemlock are alkaloids. These alkaloids are some of most poisonous compounds found in plants.
Colorado Bend State Park, San Saba County, Texas. Mid-May; peak standing crop, early fruit phenological stage.
416. Water or spotted water hemlock (Cicuta maculata)- Authorities agree that this is the single most toxic plant in North America. This member of the Umbelliferae is easily and frequently confused with poison or spotted hemlock. Both species have similar habitats and niches (both prefer moist soils; both are usually biennials for example), but water hemlock is native to North America. The poisonous principals (= toxicant) are acetylenic alcohols (eg. cicutoxin and cicutol) with death due to cardiopulmonary arrest. Mechanism is unknown. Again, see Kingsbury (1964, ps. 373-379), Cheeke and Shull (1985, ps. 363-365), and Burrows and Tyrl (2002, ps.54-57 ). Water hemlock was also covered in the Range Plant Handbook (Forest Service, 1940, W52).
This colony of water hemlock was growing around a natural spring in the Ozark Plateau. Some of these shoots were over eight feet in height. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.
417. Section of basal stem and rootstock of water hemlock- Gross morphology and internal structure of stem and rootstocks have been some of the characteristics used in identification of various members of the Umbelliferae.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.
418. Inflorescence of water hemlock- Species of the Umbellifaerae have umbel inflorescences, the feature that was the source for the traditional family name. Umbel is a flat-topped or rounded inflorescence with all flowers borne on pedicels of approximately equal length and arising from a common point on the shoot apex.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.
183. Spotted deadly- Spotted waterlock (Cicuta maculata) shown as whole herbacous view (first slide) and upper shoots complete with inflorescence (second slide) growing in a freshwater marsh in the Salt Plains of northcentral Oklahoma. This plant was growing in association with American bulrush or chairmaker's rush and blue vervain. Larger shoots of all these wetland plants extended to heights of seven (or, rarely, more) feet.
This wetland range community was a botanically diverse (and interesting) assemblage of plants.
Technical note: The second slide was over-expoded due to lens malfunction or, more accurately, due to improper lens maintenance. Unbeknownst to the photographer, an incompetent servicemen had applied white grease as a lens lubricant years earlier when the lens underwent routine preventive maintenance! Yes,"believe it or not" the servicemen were downright stupid and used tool grease in a camera lens. Wonder is that the ole Nikon/Nikoor macrolense had worked for years and thousands of slides before it eventually could no longer perform properly. Fortunately there are competent servicemen and one of these restored the old Nikkor to its original proper functioning. Taken in conjuction with other photographs of spotted water hemlock, students atill get a composite view of spotted watr hemlock.
Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge, Grant County, Oklahoma. Late July; full-bloom phenological stage.
184. Poisonous on the plains- Upper shoots with umbels (first slide) and compound leaves (second slide) of spotted water hemlock growing in a freshwater marsh in the Salt Plains of northcentral Oklahoma.
Spotted water hemlock is one of the most toxic of North American range plants. In fact, many toxicologists and plant taxonomists regard it as the single most poisonous native to North America. The poisonous principle is cicutoxin, a naturally occuring alcohol. This is a species of large, rank-growing plants that are generally unpalatable to just about everything, However, numerous deaths--to both livestock and humans--have from ingestion of spotted water hemlock. Hence, "cowbane"is one comon name that reflects this toxicity to livestock.
Human deaths are almost always due to accidental poisoning when the immense roots of this member of the parsely family are mistakenly eaten for "carrots" or "parsnips". When handling plants of this species (as in photography of range plants) all body parts that came in contact with them should be washed thoroughly and as soon as possible.
Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge, Grant County, Oklahoma. Late July; full-bloom phenological stage.
185. Toxic details- Main stem and branches of spotted water hemlock growing in a freshwater marsh in the Salt Plains of northcentral Oklahoma. As is typical of many species of the Umbelliferae, the carrot or parsely family, spotted water hemlock is a biennial or, less commony, a perennial. Also typical of the umbelliferous species are the large, bulbous roots of this virulently poisonous plant.
Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge, Grant County, Oklahoma. Late July; peak standing crop phenological stage.
186. No spots on flowers- Umbel (upper slide) and clusters of flowers in umbel (seond slide) of spotted water hemlock growing in a freshwater marsh in the Salt Plains of northcentral Oklahoma.
Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge, Grant County, Oklahoma. Late July; peak standing crop phenological stage.
References: best sources of knowledge regarding poison hemlock and water hemlock include Burrows and Tyrl (2001, 2013), the most comprehensive, detailed aurhorities. Kingsbury (1964) is the now-dated, but old standby for poisonous plants in North Amcerica.
419. Prairie parsnip or prairie parsley, sometimes and more spedifically, Nuttall's prairie parsnip or prairie parsley (Polytaenia nuttallii)- Local stand of a biennial member of the Umbelliferae that is frequently common on southern tallgrass prairies such as those of northcentral Texas. This is a widespread species with a species range from the southeastern Gulf westward to New Mexico and north to the Lower Great Lakes Region and North Dakota, but not making it into Canada. Given the biennial life cycle of this species it could be expected that there are "parsley years" and other years when plants of prairie parsley are "few and far between". The scene shown here was at height of a good year for prairie parsley (came after break of a several-years drought).
Although membership in the Umbelliferae (Apiaceae) suggested possibility of toxicity, this species is apparently not a poisonous plant. Polytaenia nuttallii was not included in either Kingsbury (1964) or Burrows and Tyrl (2001).
Erath County, Texas. May (mid-spring); full-bloom stage.
420. .Attractive prairie forb- Single plant of Nuttall's prairie parsnip or prairie parsley in the West Cross Timbers part of the Cross Timbers and Prairies vegetational area of Texas. General all-in-one shot of another umbel forb of the central grasslands of North America. Prairie parsley is locally and sporadically a common forb on the tallgrass prairie and Prairie Peninsula Region.
Some authors distinguished a Polytaenia texana or P. nuttallii var. texana as distinct from P. nuttallii, but Diggs et al. (1999, ps. 256, 258) lumped all under P. nuttallii. (Texans have a big tendency to see things Texan as unique.)
Erath County, Texas. May (mid-spring); full-bloom stage.
421. Ample umbels- Detail of one unit of the umbel inflorescence of prairie parsnip or prairie parsley. Erath County, Texas. May; full-bloom phenological stage.
422. Another example- A specimen of prairie parsley from the Osage Ouesta of northern Oklahoma provided a better perspective of the branching pattern and general structure of the umbel of this perennial forb whose species range extends from Michigan and Alabama westward to New Mexico. This three-shot sequence ended (slide three) showing one branch off of a three limb unit (second slide) that was one of about nine such units on the entire plant (slide one). Umbels within umbels as it were.
White Oak Prairie, Kelly Ranch, Craig County, Oklahoma. Late May; peak bloom stage.
423. Rattlesnake master, yuccaleaf eryngo, or button snakeroot (Eryngium yuccifolium)- This wierd-looking forb is also a member of the Umbelliferae though of a different subfamily than the two previous characters. Rattlesnake master and button snakeroot were common names given to this plant when it was believed that extracts from its roots were an antidote for snakebite. Yuccaleaf eryngo is a common forb on tallgrass prairies, especially those at higher states of succession like hay meadows.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-June; near peak-bloom stage.
424. Upper shoot of snake namesake- Sexual shoot of rttlesnake master or button snakeroot growing on a tallgrass hay meadow (Plants and plant parts shown immediately above and below this slide-caption set were growing on the same meadow.) The most visible plants growing with this specimen of yucccaleaf eryngo was ashy sunflower (Helianthus mollis).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early-June; immediate pre-anthesis phenologicl stage.
Topped down- An exceptionally prolific flower cluster (or groups of flower clusers, the umbels) of rattlesnake master on the virgin sod of a hay meadow that was almost exclusively big bluestem. This upper shoot was so heavy it bent almost to the ground. The hymenopteran in the second slide was a scolid wasp (Scoolla dubia) who was having as good a time as her photographer.
Newton County,Missouri. Mid-July.
425. Inflorescence of yuccaleaf eryngo- Yes, this too is an umbel though in the form a dense headlike structure or a "button" formed by the umbrella pattern of arrangement of individual stalkless flowers. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June.
426. Predator eats parasite on an umbel- Green lynx spiders (Peucetia viridans, Arachnida: Araneae: Oxyopidae)-- female, left and large, male, right and smaller, in upper photograph; female only in lower photograph-on the umbel of Leavenworth eryngo (Eryngium leavenworthii) on degraded (Fair range condition class) tallgrass prairie range in the Grand Prairie of West Cross Timbers ecoregion. This gravid female spider (obviously approaching the egg-laying stage) was eating a gladiator horsefly (Tabanus gladiator Stone; Diptera:Tabanidae), major ectoparasite of herbivores, including horses (Equus caballus) in an adjoining pasture. The horsefly was a secondary consumer (horses being the primary consumer level) and the spider was a tertiary consumer so that the third and fourth trophic levels in the grazing food chain were represented. Levenworth eryngo, an annual forb of the grassland, was the producer trophic level of the grazing food chain.
Green lynx spiders are diurnal (daytime) hunters that are capable of leaping for considerable distances though they are not the so-called true jumping spiders. Lynx spider commonly ambush prey and although they spin silk and carry a silk dragline they do not rely on webs to catch prey. Green lynx spiders feed on a wide array of insect prey, especially dipterans and hymenopterans (Whitcomb et al., 1966; Turner, 1979). Ironically, certain members of the Hymenoptera (eg. mud-daubers) prey on this spider as do birds. This spider species is thus not necessarily at the top of the food chain (ie. not the top-order consumer). The green lynx spider produces venom (in fact it can spit this venom), but it is nonpoisonous to humans though painful bites are sometimes inflicted that causes a burning sensation and swelling (Sams et al, 2001. p. 569).
In the pattern of sexual dimorphism common to spiders, female green lynx spiders are much larger than the diminutive male. There are recorded cases of lynx spiders eating their mates, but this is uncommon. In fact, after five or more copulations with the same female the male may mate with several other females. Females apparently mate with just one male who seals both orifices of her epigynum with a resinous material. Besides the female is typically not receptive to a male after the several periods of copulation (Whitcomb and Eason, 1965; Whitcomb, Hite, and Eason, 1966).
This gravid female was "eating her fill" from a meal of gladiator horsefly so her mate was almost assuredly safe. It was not understood why this male was "hanging around" because this particular female would not mate again. (Perhaps "hope springs eternal" in the spider heart as in the human organ. Or maybe this unquestionably handsome male was resting up and restoring his palpi before moving off for further conquests. Or, still yet, he just enjoyed the company of his own kind.) Regardless of his plans or the hidden instincts of his arthropod brain, this mating-forlorn male was not taking any unnecessary chances and, instead, stayed in his part of the pair's house. Meanwhile, the female "in a family way" was distracted by other basic instincts that were perquisite to the regeneration of her green-pigmented race.
The eryngo was also completing its life cycle and setting the stage
for next year's generation.
A whole world on the flower cluster of a range plant.
College Farm, Tarleton State University; Erath County, Texas. September.
427. Another arthropodic drama on another umbel- Female green lynx spider on the umbel of Leavenworth eryngo with her snared (barely) prey, a stinkbug in genus (Euschisteus sp., most likely E. servus) on a reseeded tallgrass prairie in high Fair to low Good range condition class. The case of the green lynx spider and Leavenworth eryngo is one of the most species-specific ecological unions this author has found on the tallgrass cover type.
The brown stinkbug was but slightly entrapped in the web of the green lynx spider who appeared to have just finished a meal. Nonetheless, the prognosis for the hemipteran (order, Hemiptera) was not as bright as colors of the spider and the umbel.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch. Early September.
428. Could not resist still yet another arthropodic drama- Female green lynx spider with her unidentified hymenopteran prey (first slide) and her mate "hanging out" in the shade (second slide) on Leavenworth eryngo. This spider species has one of the strongest preferences for a given plant species of any animal that your author has encountered.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch. Early September.
A series of photographs of the Eurasian wild carrot or Queen Anne's lace (Daucus carota) growing naturalized on an old field (go-back land) in the Springfield Plateau (western part of Ozark Plateau Region) was presented below as a general example of umbelliferous forbs on tallgrass praire. Bailey (1949, p. 751) described the genus Daucus as consisting of roughly 600 species that were "very widely distributed" and consisting of "more or less weedy plants".
428. Mother Nature's own vegetable garden (with a little help from man)- View of part of an abandoned farm field (an old field or "go-back land") dominated at this season (late spring) by wild carrot, Queen Anne's-lace, or Devil's-plague (Daucus carota). This latter common name was used by Fernald (1950, p. 1104), and it certainly seemed to be the most apt colloquial name for the population of this "pernicious weed" (Fernald, 1950, p. 1104) that had infested this former farmland.
Wild carrot is the ancestor of the agronomic (domestic), root crop known as the carrot. Domestication of Daucus carota as an example of artificial selection was treated below in the caption describing the root of this biennial species. This member of the Umbelliferae, the parsley family, is a widespread weed naturalized from Eurasia.. Like almost all annual and biennial species (native and naturalized; grass and forb) wild carrot does best--in fact, probably requires--disturbed ground. It is sometimes a pioneer though more commonly it is a common member of second and/or third seral stages. Wild carrot frequently remains an important species into late seral stages as on the old field shown here that had been taken out of tillage roughly two decades to a quarter century prior to the "photo-plot" shown here.
What impact presence of wild carrot has on secondary plant succession through facilitation phenomenon was unknown to this author, but one canno t assume that influence, if any, would be positive or negative. "Weeds" on go-back ground are weeds in name only with forb being the proper or more correct term. Certainly such invading forbs provide some cover and protection of soil against erosion as well as adding soil organic matter.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-June.
429. Shoots of wild carrot- Specimens of wild carrot emphasizing features of shoot, including leaves and distant view inflorescences (umbels). Fernald (1950, p. 1104) described leaves of Daucus species as "pinnately decompound". The second photograph was of only one abundantly blooming plant. Students should retain this image in their minds (or refer back to this slide) when clusters of wild carrot were presented and described below.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June; full-bloom phenological stage, peak standing crop.
430. Beauty and study in a blooming umbel- The umbel of wild carrot (most members of the Unbelliferae for that matter) are the ultimate example of a compound arrangement of flowers with the entire inflorescence being divided into successively smaller units or subdivisions of umbels. Bailey (1949, p. 751) described the Daucus inflorescences as "compound involucrate umbels". The general umbel inflorescence type is one having a rounded or flat-topped indeterminate arrangement of flowers all of which are borne on pedicels of more-or-less equal length and arising from a common point on the peduncle. The flower cluster (and arrangement or pattern of flowers) of most members of the Umbelliferae go a degree or arrangement of complexity beyond this ahd have a compound umbel, " a flat-topped or rounded inflorescence in which the peduncles (now called rays) of simple umbels (now called umbellets) are inserted at the apex of the peduncle" (Smith, 1977, ps. 63, 311). In simplier--though not necessarily easier understood--terms, "an umbel of many umbels" (umbels composed of umbels composed of umbels). An umbellet and its supporting ray was shown below.
This floral arrangement or pattern of flower organization was shown at progressively finner photographic scale in this series of three slides with the unit organization ending with the individual flower in the third or final photograph. The actual individual (singular) flower of Daucus carota has four or five petals.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June; full-bloom stage of phenology.
431. Plant-built bird nest- Umbel of wild carrot with ripening fruit. The rays (peduncles) of the umbellets (smallest umbel units) have turned up and inward (toward center of the entire infloresceance, the overall compound umbel) resulting in the "bird nest" physical form of the maturing (and drying) and mature (mostly dried out) compound umbel. No, this photographer never saw a bird build her next in this outfit, but it is this tightly rolled form (most do not progress to this degree of curvature) of the compound unbel that possesses the strong scent of freshly cut carrots.
The side view of the compound umbel (second slide) presented the peduncle and showed how the major (largest or first-order) pedicels arise from a common point of origin on top of the peduncle. The first order pedicels (major branches) and second-order pedicels (the rays) of the compound umbel were presented in the first slide. All-in-all, a nifty arrangement; would make a neat pattern on a necktie.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June; fruit-ripening (though still green) stage.
432. Study of a fruit-bearing umbel- Mature compound umbel of wild carrot of the "bird nest" form. Pedicels and rays (see last two captions above for terminology) curved upward and inward forming a deeply cupped (tightly wrapped) "umbels of umbels". Second slide showed an umbellet and its supporting ray.
Those with interest in Weed Science should take careful note of the number of fruits in this one umbellet. Then note how many umbellets are in the compound umbel (first of these two slides). Next scroll back up above and note how many compound umbels are on a single plant of wild carrot. Finally, scroll up to the first photograph devoted to wild carrot and observe how many plants of wild carrot were in one small area (a "photo-plot") of one old field (one tilled unit of abandoned cropland). One need not be a mathematical whiz to visualize why and how weeds are some of the "humble that inherit the earth". Oh yes, almost forgot to mention that each fruit has two seeds.
The fruit is a schizocarp that separates into two one-seeded mericarps which come into physical contact to form a suture known as a commissure. The schizocarp is interpreted as an indehiscent (not opening by or along sutures, lids, or teeth) dry fruit because even though it splits along the commisure into its two one-seeded segments, these remain closed and do not shed their single seed (Smith , 1977, ps. 66, 177, 307).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June; fruit-ripe stage.
433. Wild carrot shoots at ground level- Basal parts of mature shoot of wild carrot featuring leaf axils and colororation of the finely pubescent stem. This is a quite pretty plant, especially for being such an invasive and noxious weed. That lesson in life should be obvious to the intelligent student (and, take it from a veteran classroom instructor, the dumb asses are not worth worrying over).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June; full-maturity at flowering and peak standing crop.
434. Wild carrot roots (or the carrot before man got ahold of it)- It is generally accepted that Daucus carota is the ancestrial or parent plant of D. carota var. sativa, the cultivated carrot (Bailey, 1940, p. 752). This is a textbook example of Darwin's artificial selection: "Selection by humans of individual plants or animals from which to breed the next generation, because these individuals posesses the most marked development of the required attributes.Typically the process is repeated in sucessive generations until those attributes are fixed in the descendent offspring. Such artificial selection can result in dramatic changes like those that took place in the domestication of plants from their wild forebears" (Allaby, 1998). In the case of Daucus carota var. sativa the most conspicuous "dramatic change" and the "attribute" of agricultural interest was a greatly enlarged--and edible--root. Artificial selection is the foundation of domestication.
The roots of naturalized wild carrot presented here were on typical specimens (at least typical of those growing on old fields) so that viewers could compare size, shape, dimensions, etc. of the trait chosen for artificial selection in the original genetic stock to those grown under domestication and industrial agriculture.
Wild carrot is a biennial with the enlarged (even by standards of natural selection) root serving as the source of stored food nutrients (energy, protein, minerals) for sexual reproduction during the second growing season of the sporophytic generation. The roots shown here were dug at peak standing crop and the simultaneous full-bloom stage of phenology so that roots had begun to "draw down" as stored food was rapidly expended for demands of fruit production. Unlike the strong role of asexual reproduction in adaptation of many perennial range plants, sexual reproduction is essential for production of the next generation of plants as well as survival of the species over time by periodic recombination of genetic material.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June; full-flower phenological stage.
There are several Verbena species, generally known by the common name of vervains, on tallgrass prairie and associated range types including oak-hickory-tallgrass savanna and true prairie. These species of the vervain family (Verbenaceae) offered an opportunity to illustrate the important concepts of niche and speciation. A few examples were shown below for pedagogic purposes and the pleasure of general viewers.
435. Prairie vervain (Verbena bipinnatifica)- This is probably the most common species of vervain on the Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas where it blooms early and blesses even degraded range with striking beauty .This is one of the most widely distributed Verbina species with lattitudinal exrtremes of its biological range extending from northern Canada and Alaska to Mexico. It contributes much color to the central grasslands of North America where it is an early bloomer and a welcome sight growing amid dull, weathered range herbage following a long winter.
Tarleton State University College Farm, Erath County, Texas. April; full-bloom stage of phenology.
436. Rose or Canada vervain (Verbena canadensis)- This rather low-growing vervain is one of the more common and widely distributed Verbena species on tallgrass prairie, especially in the Ozark through Flint Hills forms. It is less common than hoaryleaf vervain (coming up next) on degraded ranges being more abundant in the protection afforded by fencerows and hay meadows.
This species has a wide longitudinal range extending from Florida to New Mexico. With its bright rose to pink inflorescences rose vervain is a favorite among those who prefer to landscape with native plants. The similar appearing prairie vervain presented immediately above is another favorite prairie forb for native landscaping enthusiasts.
Ottawa county, Oklahoma. July; full-bloom, peak standing crop.
436. Hoary or hoaryleaf vervain (Verbena stricta)- Sometimes also called slender vervain this taller-growing Verbena species is a showy w7ed on abused ranges and pastures though not under heavy grazing by sheep which apparently eat it down under such management. This nice specimen was happily growing on a pasture of common bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) being grazed by black baldy replacement heifers who obviously did not find it particularly palatable.
Ottawa county, Oklahoma. July; full-bloom, peak standing crop.
438. Shoots and flowers of hoaryleaf vervain- Details of leaves and flowers of hoary vervain, one of the more common Verbena species on range and pasture with less than ideal management (not necessarily overgrazing, however). These specimens were growing on a tame pasture of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), common bermudagrass, and white clover (Trifolium repens). Ins spite of a dense sward of fiercely competitive agronomic species this prairie forb had held its own.
Actually, tame pasture may benefit hoaryleaf vervain. In repeated--though not quantified--observations ove many decades of on-the-ground experience this author has noted that hoary or slender vervain has greater density and larger size on agronomic than on range pastures. Perhaps this species can thrive more competitively, grow to larger size, and produce more fruit (and leave more offspring) due to fertilization, closer grazing, or local soil disturbance associated with more intensive management of grazing lands.
Ottawa county, Oklahoma. July; full-bloom, peak standing crop.
Now for what Ed Sullivan called the "really big shew"- Blue vervain (Verbena hastata), which is probably the largest of the Verbena species found on tallgrass prairie, growing on a upland chert grassland in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau in southwest Missouri. Big bluestem and switchgrass were co-dominants of this Ozark prairie, and the shoots of this prairie forb, some of which exceeded seven and a half feet in height, were a fitting complement to the tallgrass species.
Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Early August; peak standing crop, full-bloom phenological stage.
Green details of a big blue forb- Leaves and stem of upper shoots of blue vervain growing on an Ozark Plateau tallgrass prairie. The specific epithet of hastata refers to the roughly equal triangular basal leaf lobes resulting in an outline of a spear, hence spear-shaped or spear-like (Stearn, 1992, p. 424) or even more specifically Halbert-shaped (Diggs et al., 1999, p. 1438) in reference to the battle weapon that was a combination of spear and battle ax.
The general shape of leaves of V. hastata are quite variable ranging from "lanceolate or lance-oblong to narrowly ovate" and are coarsely serrate and "sometimes hastately lobed at base" (Fernald, 1950, p. 1210).
Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Early August; peak standing crop, full-bloom phenological stage.
Flowers enough, part 1- Upper shoots with their large flower clusters (inflorescences) of two plants of blue vervain produced on an upland chert tallgrass prairie (big bluestem and switchgrass, co-dominants) in the Springfield Plateau in southwest Missouri.
Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Early August; peak standing crop, full-bloom phenological stage.
Flowers enough, part 2- Whole flower cluster (first slide) and units of this entire inflorescence with individual flowers (second slide) of blue vervain on a big bluestem-switchgrass chert tallgrass prairie in the Springfield Plateau in southwest Missouri.
Photographers note: this entire species, especially flowers, proved to be a difficult photographic subject given 1) plant height (four to over seven feet) combined with 2) an unusually stiff breeze (by August standards) using 3) slow film (ASA 100) in 4) a fully manual 35 mm single lense reflex camera.
Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Early August; full-bloom phenological stage.
Bottom end emphasized- Shoot of blue vervain featuring the lower shoot..
Newton County, Missouri. Mid-July.
Top end emphasized- Couple more views of blue vervain that with possible exception of Verbena urticifolia, is the largest vervain on tallgrass prairie. The crown of a large specimen with a plentiful flower cluster was on the plant introduced in the immediately preceding slide. .
Newton County, Missouri. Mid-July, peak bloom stag
.
439. Slender vervain (Verbena halei)- Arguably the least conspicuous of all Verbena species on tallgrass prairie is the one presented here. This is clearly a species of disturbed areas such as abandoned city lots, barn yards, and, of course, overgrazed ranges and pastures. It was included to show further the diversity of species in a single genus of range forbs. Verbena provided a good "photographic case study" for speciation.
First slide presented an example plant while second slide was of a part of the diminitive inflorescence and tiny flowers of this weedy species.
Erath County, Texas. Mid-April, full-bloom stage.
440. White flower or nettle-leaf vervain (Verbina urticifolia)- Plants of V. urticifolia are typically some of the largest, if not the largest, of the Verbina species in the tallgrass prairie, oak-hickory association of the eastern deciduous forest, and the ecotone (savanna) between these two range types. Typically none of the Verbina species are abundant other than locally and even then they do not dominate others, have high density, or comprise high proportions of relative cover as do some forbs such as those that form colonies or extensive dense populations.
Ottawa county, Oklahoma. July; full-bloom, peak standing crop.
441. A closer look at white flower or nettle-leaf vervain- A photograph of the Verbina urticifolia plant introduced in the preceding photograph that afforded a more detailed view of the shoot, including leaves and the small-flowered yet coarse infloresecence of this species. Nettle-leaf vervain is a frequent rather rank-growing forb on both tallgrass prairie and adjoining tallgrass-oak-hickory savannah. Plants of white-flower vervain in this immediate vicinity seemed to equally at home under post oak, blackjack oak, and black oak (Quercus velutina) or beside beaked panicgrass and Florida paspalum. By contrast, the other vervains (V. stricta and V. canadensis) in this locality were restricted to prairies.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July; full-bloom, peak standing crop.
Not showy so not widely recognized- Here are a few more views of white-flower or nettle-leaf vervain growing in the southwesterrn Prairie Peninsula (Transeau, 1935) where it is equally at home on tallgrass prairie, more open oak-hickory forest, or savanna of these two general range types. This was an immense specimen about six foot tall, but with such a heavy inflorescence that it was bent over for a distance of over eight foot.
This forb is under-appreciated as a member of native plant lovers' flower gardens. There again, some of us have made a living out of being under-appreciated.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July; full-bloom, peak standing crop.
Higher up- The big infloresence and attractive leaves of white-flower or nettle-leaf vervain on the plant presented in the immediately preceding three-slide set.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July; full-bloom, peak standing crop.
Little flowers on a big flower cluster- Flowers and infloresecence on the white-flower or nettle-leaf vervain presented in the above two sets of slides.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July; full-bloom, peak standing crop.
442. OK, another vervain (for biodiversity sake)- Another vervain known variously as bigbract, prostrate and/or and carpet vervain (Verbena bracteata) growing on a disturbed microhabitat on degraded tallgrass prairie in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. Such disturbance is the more common habitat (ecological niche) for this weedy, cool-season species that can live as annual, biennial, or short-lived perennial. Prostrate vervain is also one of the most widely distributed native forbs in North America having been recorded for all of the "Lower 48 States" except New Hampshire and the lower range of Canadian provinces from Ontario across to British Columbia.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December (early winter); peak standing crop and full-bloom stage of phenology.
443. Wntertime foliage- Characteristic shoot (first slide) and three-lobed leaves (second slide) of bigbract, prostrate and/or and carpet vervain growing on a disturbed microsite on overgrazed tallgrass prairie in the Spring field Plateau.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December (early winter); peak standing crop and full-bloom stage of phenology.
444. Wintertime flowers- Inflorescences (and individual flowers) of bigbract, prostrate and/or and carpet vervain that had grown and bloomed profusely following a summer and autumn of Extreme Drought (Palmer Scale). To make plant performance even more difficult--and, in this instance, impressive--these dainty little flowers had been through two consecutive nights of 18 degrees Fahrenheit immediately prior to these macrolens images. Tough little "varmit" of a plant: a tribute to native North American forest and range plants (even if it is a weed in an ecological as well as agronomic meaning).
The inflorescence of this species is a a spike or spikelike head (Gleason and Cronquist, 1991, p. 428).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December (early winter); peak (though near-end) of bloom stage of phenology.
Author's ending observation on Verbena species: While this genus afforded illustrative subject material to present the important concepts of speciation and ecological niche, the species themselves are apparently of little utilitarian worth to larger grazing animals. Based on this rangeman's observations the vervains are of zero palatability to cattle, horses, or white-tailed deer. Your author could not recall ever seeing feeding on Verbena species by ungulates. For that matter, the vervains are not all that attractive to pollinating insects, certrtinly not when compared to the composites, legumes, or even members of the rose family. Verbena species on tallgrass prairie are mostly weedy forbs that make attractive wild flowers and add biological diversity to these amazing native grasslands.
445. Carolina, plains, prairie, blue, or white larkspur (Delphinium carolinianum)- This member of the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae) is one of a number of poisonous larkspurs in North America (Burrows and Tyrl, 2001, ps. 1010, 1012). Delphinium species have traditionally been divided into the three groups of: 1) tall larkspurs (roughly two yards or meters in height), 2) intermediate larkspurs, and 3) low larkspurs (generally one meter or yard or less in height). In conjuction with these arbitrary height criteria there are corresponding differences in "general growth form, the root systems, and the seasonal pattern of growth" (Burrows and Tyrl, 2001, ps. 1009). Carolina larkspurr is an intermediate larkspur. The specimen shown here was an individual of Delphinium carolinianum var. virescens. It was growing in a patch of Lindheimer's or Engelmann's pricklypear (Opuntia lindheimeri= O. engelmannii), as if its own toxin was not protection enough.
This strikingly attractive prairie forb is widely distributed in North America, extending from the Great Plains to the Atlantic Coast. Carolina larkspur has the most easterly species range of any of the major toxic Delphinium species in North America (Burrows and Tyrl, 2001, ps. 1012-1014). For discussion of larkspurs as poisonous plants readers were referred to Burrows and Tyrl ( 2001, ps. 1009-1017), the most recent "bible " of poisonous plants in North America, Hart et al. (2003, ps. 82-83), and of course, the classic Kingsbury (1964, ps. 131-140).
Historically Delphinium has been the most poisonous genus of range plants to cattle (at least those causing greatest economic loss to cattlegrowers) in North America. D. carolinianum has not been one of the more important (more deadly or costly) larkspurs. Larkspur species farther west are a far greater problem than this species of the central grasslands and eastern forests. Carolina or white (blue) larkspur is the major Delphinium species on tallgrass prairie and was included for that reason. Numerous members of the Ranunculaceae are poisonous.
Tarleton State University, College Farm, Erath County, Texas. Early May; full-bloom stage.
446. Basal shoots- Leaves and base of stems of Carolina, white, blue, or prairie larkspur. This is the shoot base of the plant introduced in the preceding photograph. Authorities were quoted above to show that morphological factors such as "general growth form" are important in description, separation, and identification of the various Delphinium species.This species--like most members of Ranunculaceae--are conspicuously showy plants. Many of these taxa are commonly used as ornamentals, including larkspurs. Carolina larkspur obviously as merit as a native landscaping plant.
Tarleton State University, College Farm, Erath County, Texas. Early May; full-bloom stage.
447. Flowers on a stick- Inflorescence and individual flowers of Carolina larkspur shown at progressively greater detail. The "lark's spur" of Delphinium species is actually the upper sepal (there are five of these which resemble petals) that is elongated and typically raised. Within this calyx are the upper pair of petals which also form spurs. Delphinium is derived from delphinus or dolphin, an allusion of flower shape to a marine mammal (Fernald, 1950, p. 668) so that the common name and scientific name make reference to different orders of the aninmal kingdom.
The flower cluster of Delphinium is a raceme
Tarleton State University, College Farm, Erath County, Texas. Early May; full-bloom stage.
The Cruciferae (= Brassicaceae), the cabbage or mustard family, also provides a few species of range forbs on tallgrass prairie. The Cruciferae is a major family for field and horticultural crops, including a few ornamentals as well as vegetable and field crops (particularily for oil-seed among row crops), but most of the more notable range crucifers are alien (from Eurasia) invaders. An example of one of these was presented next.
448. Local stand of bastard cabbage (Rapistrum rugosum)- An example of the density and nearly absolute crown cover in a population of this introduced (from the Mediterranean Region) annual crucifer that is expanding its range in North America. Mature lants were shown here at peak-bloom stage. Bastard cabbage was not a major weed at time of this writing, but appears to be spreading and is a cause for some concern.
Shoots and lower leaves of Rapistrum rugosum closely resembles those of the various Brassica species, especially B. nigra and B. oleracea.
Erath County, Texas. April, full bloom.
449. Plant of bastard cabbage - General habit and morphological features of Rapistrum rugosum at peak bloom phenological stage. Erath County, Texas. April.
450. Base of black mustard- Shoots of two specimens of bastard cabbage showing leaves and branching pattern of this naturalized Eurasian crucifer. These two plants were growing on a disturbance (a construction) site in northcentral Texas (Erath County) in April.
451. Flowers of bastard cabbage- Numerous flower clusters produced on a single plant of bastard cabbage (first of these two photographs) attested to the incrediable capacity for fruit production of this annual Eurasian forb. Details of the inflorescence were presented in the second of these two slides. This is one of several weedy crucifers that can be used for greens.
452. Plenty of bastards- Branches of bastard cabbage with a "zillion" silicles. Capacity for high rates of sexual reproduction was obvious in this photograph of naturalized bastard cabbage in northcentral Texas (Erath County, Texas). May.
453. Study in silicles- Close-ups of the fruit of bastard cabbage. The general fruit type of Cruciferae or Brassicaceae (mustard family) is the silique which is a dry, dihiscent fruit. The silicle is a silique not more than two to three times longer than thick (Smith, 1977, ps. 66, 130, 307). Erath County, Texas. May; seed-ripe stage.
Peppered on the prairie- Virginia pepperweed (Lepidium virginicum) growing in the barrow ditch of a section line road in the tallgrass prairie-oak-hickory forest savanna in the western Ozark Highlands.This native crucifer is an opportunisic annual well-adapted to highly disturbed habitats. It is typically a pioneering forb in the second (or slightly later) seral stages on the go-back ground of cut-over forest, overgrazed pastures, and abanoned crop fields.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June.Late-fruit stage.
Wwell-peppered- Fruit-bearing shoots of Virginia pepperweed produced in a bar ditch in a savanna area dominated by big bluestem and black oak. The fruit type of Lepidium species is a silique.The siliques sen here were ripening quickly but not fully mature (i.e. still "green").
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June.Late-fruit stage.
The Scrophulariaceae, the figwort or snapdragon family, also furnishes a number of forbs on tallgrass prairie. Most of these are quite showy and striking in appearance. On tallgrass prairie ranges many , probably most, members of the snapdragon family grown in early spring when there is less competition for light (and other ressources or production-restricting conditions). Some of the more common and conspicuous representatives of this forb family were included in the next section.
454. Painted purple- Two examples of purple Indian paintbrush (Castilleja purpurea var. purpurea ) on tallgrass prairie in northcentral Texas (Grand Prairie). The various Castilleja species are undoubtedly some of the showiest, most stricking of all forbs on the tallgrass prairie. They are also some of the earliest to bloom which most likely is an adaptation to shade given that these shorter or lower-growing plants would be overshadowed by taller-growing grasses, especially the long-shoot tallgrass species.
Castilleja species do not appear to be palatable to livestock or wildlife as one seldom sees evidence of grazing on them by vertebrates. They do add beauty to the prairie. These two specimens were growing on shallow, calcareous soil on a sunny west slope. The second of these two plants was a robust, multi-shooted individual..
Tarleton State University, College Farm, Erath County, Texas. Early May; peak bloom phenological stage.
455. Indian paintbrush (Castilleja coccinea)- This, the preceding two plants of purple Indian paintbrush, and the next two forb species are members of the figwort or snapdragon family (Scrophulariaceae). They are all short-day plants that bloom early in the spring before the dominant tallgrasses (at least the "long-shoot" or "culmed" tallgrass species) grow to overshadow and preclude light from them. Indian paintbrush is often the most common spring forb on tallgrass prairies in climax or advanced seral stages (eg. properly managed prairie hay meadows). These pretty specimens grew in the virgin sod of one of the remaining parcels of Burkhart Prairie in Newton County, Missouri. April.
456. Lousewort (Pedicularis canadensis)- This member of the snapdragon family blooms early in the spring before it is "overtopped" by larger, taller-growing grasses and summer or fall forbs. Lousewort and Indian paintbrush (and many other spring-flowering forbs) impart a distinctive vernal aspect to tallgrass prairies and oak-hickory and tallgrass savannas.
Missouri State Prairie Park, Barton County, Missouri. April; full-bloom phenololgical stage.
457. Shoot apex of lousewort at full-flower- Inflorescences and leaves of lousewort growing in virgin sod of tallgrass prairie. This species is indicative of climax or high seral stages in Andropogon-Sorgastrum-Panicum-dominated grasslands in the Central Lowlands physiographic province. Missouri State Prairie Park, Barton County, Missouri. April.
458. Cobaea (often, Cobey's) beardtongue or Cobey's penstemon (Penstemon cobaea)- This member of the snapdragon family is quite palatable to grazing animals. It has traditionally been categorized as a decreaser. It is an indicator species whose presence on a range usually signifies proper use (or somewhat on the light side of proper use).
Hunewell Ranch, Tarleton State University, Erath County, Texas. May.
459. Two more specimens- Two more plants of Cobey's beardtongue to show whole plant (shoot) habit and morphological characteristics of this beautiful prairie forb. These fine representatives were growing on a shallow calcareous microsite on a previously overgrazed range on the Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas. (This range currently was not being overgrazed--in fact, it was not being grazed by livestock at all--otherwise these palatable babes of the prairie would not have been there.)
Tarleton State University College Farm, Erath County, Texas.April: full-bloom stage.
460. Shoots and flowers of Cobey's beardtongue- Two plants of cobey's beardtongue showing shoot features at closer distance. Second and third photographs were of same plant with third slide a close-up of two opened and two unopened flowers. Note last year's dead shoot to right of this year's shoot. These showy specimens were on shallow calcareous microhabitats on a formerly abused range of northcentral Texas Grand Prairie.
Tarleton State University College Farm, Erath County, Texas.April: full-bloom stage.
461. Just for good measure- Another specimen of Cobey's beardtongue prsesented as entire aboveground part of plant (first slide) and whole inflorescence (second slide) in norhcentral Texas Grand Prairie. This example was growing on an extremely shallow soil on a limestone (caliche) outcrop. It was likely that rocks served as a diversion that directed water to crevices in the outcrop thereby increasing moisture in the interbedded soil (ie. a "natural cistern" or Mother Nature's own irrigation system). Whatever the explanation, this plant was over a yard tall--in a naturally occurring "rock pile". Good example of microhabitat (=microsite= microenvironment).
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch. Mid-April; maximum shoot development and biomass (peak standing crop), peak-bloom phenology.
462. A penstemon of the tallgrass prairie- Foxglove beardtongue, foxglove penstemon, or smooth beardtongue (Penstemon digitalis) growing on tallgrass prairie used as a meadow for production of prairie hay. This is the largest and one of the more commonly occurring Penstemon species of the Tallgrass Prairie Region.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-June; full-bloom phenological stage.
463. What about these for "wild flowers"?- Large and showy inflorescences of smooth beardtongue, smooth penstemon, or foxglove beardtongue. These large flower clusters are so heavy and high off the ground that they cause bendnng over of the shoot of these large prairie forbs.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-June; full-bloom phenological stage.
464. Inflorescence of foxglove beardtongue (Pensetmon digitalis)- This is one of the larger species of beardtongue found on tallgrass paraire. The flower cluster atop this one was growing on one of the prairie hay meadows featured periodically in this chapter.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-June; full-bloom phenological stage.
465. Our base- Basal shoots of foxglove or smooth beardtongue on a tallgrass prairie used as a prairie hay meadow. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-June.
466. A third Penstemon species- Trumpet, funnel, or tube beardtongue (P. tubaeflorus or tubiflorus). This is another widespread and locally abundant beardtongue in the tallgrass prairie and savannahs of oak-hickory forests and tallgrass prairie of the Prairie Peninsula Region. It is a perennial that seeds prolifically so that it is often quite common in some areas.
Trumpet beardtongue is considerably shorter in height than the associated smooth or foxglove beardtongue described immediately above, but the former is actually showier and certainly more readily self-propagating through prolific seed production. Both of these Penstemon species are characteristic of tallgrass prairie vegetation that has not been subjected to abusive treatment (mismanagement).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late May; peak full-bloom phenological stage.
467. Some more for good measure- Plants of trumpet, funnel, or tube beardtongue growing on tallgrass prairie in the western edge of the Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. Particulars of shoots were featured in these two photographs. A very high proportions of shoots of this species become sexually reproductive.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late May; peak full-bloom phenological stage.
468. Shoot apex (first slide) and several individual flowers (second slide) of trumpet or tube beard-tongue (Penstomenon tubaeflorus or tubiflorus)- Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late-May; full-bloom stage.
469. Dr. Culver's presence on the prairie- Culver's root (Veronicastrum virginicum) is another member of the Scrophulariaceae that is found on environments of minimal disturbance such as the virgin sod of this prairie hay meadow in western Ozark Plateau. Culver's root is typically a large plant. Taller shoots of the specimen shown here exceeded six feet in height. The common name of Culver's root is based on medicinal uses of the root by an early American physican, Dr. Coulvert.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July.
470. Blooms off the ole root- Portion of an inflorescence of Culver's root on one of the shoots presented in the preceding two photographs. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July, full-bloom stage.
Later shots- Five years (= warm-growing seasons), and with a prolonged Extreme Drought, after taking and posting the above three slides of Culver's root your author found that the above relatively small (confined to small place with few shoots) plant had amassed to great size. This meadow had been harvested for prairie hay for decaces, but it had not been hayed for the immediately preceding three years.
Your photographer hauled prairie hay off of this tallgrass hay meadow as a youth (a half century before these slides) and was elated to see the extent of increase of this now hard-to-find forb. He was delighted to be able to share the find with his students. The five-years-later shots demonstrated the ability of prairie plants to thrive--even under the worst of growing conditions--on the grassland environment to which they have evolved over millenia.
Palatability of Culver's root to grazing vertebrates is probably not known to rangemen (certainly not to this range observer), but as is the case for most forbs found on virgin tallgrass prairie sod, their absence (or nearly so) under heavy grazing or mowing (especically on overgrazed ranges and overharvested hay meadows) is strong circumstantial evidence that they are palatable to grazing animals and readily killed out by excessive mowing or grazing.
471. Remarkable stand- Local colony (one genotype or several?) of Culver's root on the virgin sod of a tallgrass prairie (used as a hay meadow for decades) in the western Ozark Plateau. Compare to the by-comparison runty, sparse shoots of five years earlier introduced in the three immediately above photographs.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July, full-bloom stage.
472. Movin' in on 'em- Upper sexual shoots of Culver's root produced by the colony introduced in the immediately preceding slide/caption set. These shoots were on virgin sod of a tallgrass prairie hay meadow in the western Ozark Plateau (Springfield Plateau portion of the greater Ozark physiographic province).
The flowers of this member of the figwort family were quite attractive to lepidopterans (Lepidoptera order) and hymenopterans (Hymenoptera order), especially bees.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July, full-bloom stage.
473. Flowers of the good doctor's root- Inflorescences and flowers of Culve's root, a forb in the Scrophulariaceae or figwort family. These examples were produced on shoots in the colony introduced above. Their home was the virgin sod of a tallgrass prairie used as a hay meadow in the Springfield Plateau in northeastern Oklahoma.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July, full-bloom stage.
474. Not a common one- Here and in the immediately following three-slide/caption set was presented American bluehearts (Buchnera americana), another member of the snapdragon family (Scrophulariaceae) growing on an upland chert prairie in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. This lone, two-shoot specimen was growing in association with big bluestem and switchgrass.
As forbs go, American blueheart is not particularly photogenic (consistent with the grasses themselves). This individual plant was slightly below six foot in height so details could not be presented. However, the long, elliptic to lanceolate leaves (Diggs et al., 1999, p. 996) were obvious. The three slides in the next unit should help with regard to flowers which are also not photogenic (again, by prairie forb standards).
American bluehearts was described by Diggs et al. (1999, p. 996) as being heimparasitic as it does have chlorophyll-containing tiesue (as obvious from this photograph) and hence capable of some photosynthesis, yet also being a parasite on roots of neighboring plants.
All in all, a unique prairie plant.
Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Early August; peak standing crop, mid-bloom phenological stage.
475. Present even if not particularly pretty- Flower cluster and individual flowers of American blueheart growing on a chert tallgrass prairie in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. These organs were on the plant introduced in the preceding slide. Given the lack-luster feature of these flowers, a stink bug (family, Pentatomidae) that was visiting this floral habitat was included in the first two slides. (Viewers have to look closely to see the stink bug in the second slide.)
Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Early August, mid-bloom phenological stage.
476. A more common one- Ready for another member of the Scrophulariaceae? Upper shoot (first slide) and three flowers (second slide) of prairie agalius or prairie gerardia (Agalinus heterophylla= Gerardia heterophylla) growing on a deep sand grassland in the West Cross Timbers-Grand Prairie vegetational mosaic typical of northcentral Texas. Prairie agalinus is a common, widely distributed grassland forb in this portion of the Central Lowlands physiographic province.
There are seven other Agalinis or Gerardia species in northcentral Texas (Diggs et al., 1999, ps. 992-994).
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. Late September, peak bloom stage.
There are numerous Oenothera and closely related species in the Onagraceae, evening-primrose family, native to tallgrass prairie. Diggs et al. (1999, ps. 862-866) showed twelve Oenothera species for northcentral Texas, and that did not include some species that were moved to other genera (eg. Calylophus) . Also in the evening-primrose family are species in Gaura, Ludwigia, and Stenosiphon. Some representative and more common species in Onagraceae were presented below. This author did not accept more recent interpretations of the Onagraceae.
477. Cutleaf, yellow, or plains evening primrose; halfshrub sundrop; or yellow sundrops (Oenothera serrulata= Calylophus serrulatus)- This warm-season, perennial member of the of the Onagraceae (evening primrose family) is a palatable forb classified as a decreaser, although Tyrl et al. (2002, p. 239) regarded it as a species of mid-sere. The more frequently used common name of halfshrub sundrop was derived from the semi-woody basal shoot (ie. probably best described as a suffrutescent species). This evening primrose species can serve as an indicator species of overgrazing, but is usually not abundant enough to be an important (at least not a major) forage plant.
Grand Prairie, Erath County, Texas. April, full-bloom phenological stage.
478. Close-up of one of the characteristic prairie forbs- Details of leaves and inflorescences of the specimen of halfshrub sundrop or cutleaf eving primrose shown in the preceding two photographs.
Erath County, Texas. April, full-bloom stage.
A grand one- Grand Prairie evening-primrose (Oenothera greggii= Calylophus hartwegii) growing on a degraded range (sie of a caliche quarry). The plant seen here and those of O. serrulata shown immediately above and those of O. macrocarpa= O. missouriensis shownimmediately below were all growing within roughly 100 yards of each other. This degree of species diversity may not be up to standard of Darwin's finches, but they rated respectable for biological diversity within a genus.
479. Missouri evening primrose (Oenothera macrocarpa subspecies macrocarpa= O. missouriensis)- This and the plant of this species below were growing with little bluestem on the Grand or Forth Worth Prairie of northcentral Texas. Individual plants of Missouri evening-primrose are some of the largest of the Oenothera species, but they do not usually form extensive populations in the same manner as do some of the others of this genus (see below). O. macrpcarpa is a perennial.
According to Diggs et al. (1999, p. 864) there are three subspecies of O. macrocarpa in northcentral Texas.
Erath County, Texas. Early May- full-bloom stage.
480. Showy blooms- Inflorescences of Missouri evening primrose. Thses blazing blooms were produced amid a dense stand of little blue stem on the Grand or Forth Worth Prairie. There is not much information concerning palatability and forage value of the Oenothera species. Erath County, Texas. Early May- full-bloom stage.
481. Sideview- Lateral view of the very showy flower of Missouri evening primrose showing its tube-like posterior portion below (behind) the calyx (sepals). Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch. Late March.
482. Bearing big fruit- A single plant of Missouri evening primrose that produced three fruits, this fruit type being an indehiscent capsule (next slide-caption set). Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch. Late May- ripening fruit stage of phenology.
483. Big fruit with wings- Two comparatively small plants of Missouri evening primrose each bearing four fruits. The fruit of this species is an indehiscent capsule with four prominent wings.This comparatively large and conspicuously winged fruit is basis of one specific epithet, macrocarpa. A previous eipthet, missouriensis was commemorative of the Show Me State and basis of the reigning common name (this author never saw any common name like "big-fruit evening primrose").
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch. Late May- ripening fruit stage of phenology.
484. A small showy sea of range forbs- Showy or white evening primrose (Oenothera speciosa) forming an extensive local colony in the Wst Cross Timbers of northcentral Texas. This species exhibits extreme population dynamics. In some springs showy everning-primrose is "everywhere", but then over course of the next few springs it seems to vanish only to re-appear a few springs later more abundant than before. This dynamics of abundance is from a perennial species.
Erath County, Texas. Early May- full-bloom stage.
485. Inflorescences of white or showy evening primrose- Examples of blooms from the dense stand presented above. Erath County, Texas. Early May- full-bloom stage.
486. Not so common beauty- Upper shoot and flowers of common evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) on edge of wet prairie in Ozark (Sringfield) Plateau. Of the numerous Oenothera species-- Steyermark (1963, ps. 1100-1106) described 14 species for Missouri; the Great Plains Flora Association (1986) gave species for the more-or-less greater Great Plains Region--O. biennis is arguably the one most associated with tallgrass prairie. It is certainly the tallest, largest of these species. The occurrence or presence of the biennial common evening primrose varies yearly (biennially, to be precise) depending on conditions for germination, growth, flowering, etc.
Steyermark (1963, p. 1101) specified that common evening primrose flowers open at various times from late afternoon through night to early morning with flowers sometimes remaining open longer on cloudy days. This blooming time is basis of the common name, evening primrose. The examples presented in this and the subsequent three-slide set did not stay open during any daylight period, but instead started closing at (or before) first morning light. As such, none of these inflorescences were fully open for photographs which had to be taken at roughly two one/half to three hours post-sunrise to get adequate light for images.
Another interesting aspect of photography as illustrated in this instance was that pastel colors such as this yellow vary in humanly perceived shades with varying light conditions,including direction of sunlight relative to camera position. Hence, the wide variation in yellow coloration in the slides presented here. (Plus, an Epson Perfection 600 scanner did its usual random gyrations whereby it would not scan the same slide showing or reproducing the same colors with any two scannings.)
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August; peak bloom phenological stage.
487. Uncommon beauty at the top- Flowering shoot terminus of common evening primrose seen from the side (first slide) and topdown (second slide) with two partly open flowers (third slide). This was the same shoot and flowers taken from different perspectives within a few minutes of each other. The spent flower to left of the two flowers in the second and third slides indicated direction of camera focaus point. These two slides also demonstrted how lighter shades of pastel colors vary relative to the location of a flowering subject with regard to predominant direction of sunlight (ie. orientation of subject in relation to position of the sun).
By the way, none of these shades of yellow were accurate reproductions of the yellow color of petals. Regardless of the actual perceived yellow color (be it light lemon-color to darker shade of yellow), the enamel paint-like, glossy finish and rich texture of these petals was missed by Fujichrome Provia 100F. Kodachrome would have accurately "captured" such gloss and shine of petals. This is why most modern field guides tdo not portray the rich colors (including greens) of plant material. Photographs in older wild flower field guides did accurately convey color richness and texture because they were taken with Kodachrome slide film, still the "gold standard". Colors of petals in O. biennis provided a most appropriate case to make that point. (And the snow was whiter then too.)
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August; peak bloom phenological stage.
488. Biennial base- Basal shoot of common evening primrose. This is a rank-growing, thick-stalked forb. The plant is a standout on tallgrass prairie and a great addition for wild flower gardens. The "problem" in both habitats is that presence of this attractive forb varies more than that of perennials. Even, some annuals are a "more dependable" floral crop.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August; peak standing crop stage.
Christmas-New Year's attire- Rosettes of biennial evening-primrose growing during an early cold winter in the Springfield Plateau of northeastern Oklahoma, the southwestern edge of Prairie Peninsula of Transeau (1935). Numerous biennial range forbs produce in late summer to early autumn rosettes of basal leaves which overwinter and from which adult shoots arise during late spring to early autumn. Three progressively close views of rosettes which showed signs of winter "burning" (cold damage to leaf tissue).
The red pigments in these leaves are anthocyanins which form when plants carry out photosynthesis during sunlight hours, but photosynthetates cannot be translocated during colder temperatures.Makes for their own Christmas coloration. Merry Christmas.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December.
Deeper down- Interiors of winter rosettes of biennial evening-primrose complete with anthocyanins giving this Christmas coloration to the rosette leaves.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December.
Below are four examples of biennial evening primrose plants that had been grazed by white-tailed deer and then resprouted (regrew) from intercalary meristem once the apical meristem had been removed from shoot terminuses.such that Iapical dominance had been eleminated. These four plants were in a local population of biennial evening primrose growing on the outside fencerow where, among large range animals, only deer had access. In each of these four sets of two slides, the first (upper) slide presented a general view while the second (lower) slide was at closeer camera distance and presented more detail of the regrowth response.
A "comeback kid"-Removal of the apical bud (with its apical meristematic tissue) from a plant of biennial evening primrose by white-tailed deer resulted in release fro apical dominance and the next lower level of meristem responded and another stem "replaced" the lost original shoot. The replacement shoot--the regrowth--was very conspicuous in this plant.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June
Another "Come-back kid"- Another example of shoot regrowth in a plant of biennial evening primrose that had been grazed by white-tailed deer. In this example, there was not production of a new or secondary shoot but instead increased growth of all previously existing shoots (branches) of the next lowest level of shoots off of the main shoot or tru;nk.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June.
A third examble of "comeback kids"- In this third example of response of biennial evening primrose to top (upper shoot) removal by white-tailed deer there were two side-by-side plants which had their upper primary (original) shoot grazed off. Both plants had responded by increased growth of secondary shoots immediately below (the first level of shoots below) the removed primary shoot. With elimination of apical dominance following removal of the apical or terminal bud the "next available" secondary shoots (next--and, now, the highest--shoots off of the origianal or primary shoot) exhibited increased growth as seen in elongated stems and further development.
The second (lower) of these two slides presented a top-down view of one of these "deer-topped" evening primrose plants.:
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June.
A fourth case of the "comeback kid"- A fourth example of regrowth in biennial evening primrose following grazing by white-tailed deer. In this plant, deer had not only removed the apical bud from the primary (original) shoot but also also removed the apical bud from two shoots immediately below the original shoot (two secondary shoots). The result was increased growth of four (only three shown to good advantage) secondary shoots in the level of branching immediately below the apical meristem of the primary shoot. Deer removed two out of four secondary shoots and the remaining four secondary shoots exhibited increased growth as shown by their elongted shoots.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June
489. "Cuttin' a fine figger" for a little one- Cutleaf evening-primrose (Oenothera laciniata) growing on a locally disturbed area on a former bottomland tallgrass prairie in the floodplain of Modoc Creek in the Springfield Plateau of northeastern Oklahoma (first slide). The second an third slide were on a depleted range in the West cross Timbers of northcentral Texas. This annual or, sometimes, biennial species is mostly "weedy" in character with its main beneficial ecological feature being soil protection and as an early seral species that facilitates plant succession. It is also popular with smaller species of pollinating insects.
Cutleaf evening-primrose is one of the smaller Oenothera species. It is adapted to a number of general habitats, including those of tallgrass prairie. Cutleaf evening-primrose is is found in every US state east of the Mississippi River and then westward sporadically to the Sonoran Desert of southeast California.
Specimens of cutleaf evening-primrose were included here to add breath to coverage of this genus that is characteristic of grasslands in central North America.
First slide: Ottawa County, Oklahoma; Mid-June. Secoand third slides: Erath County, Texas. Late Apri. All plants at full-bloom phenological stage.
490. Big forb without a good common name- False guara (Stenosphon linifolius) is a large, perennial member of the evening primrose family (Onagraceae). An example of the size and scale of this species was shown with this individual that was over seven feet tall. One unique thing about this rank-growing prairie forb was that it does have common name. False guara was about as close as it comes. Otherwise, there was nothing false about this big prairie plant.
McFarland Ranch, Parker County, Texas. Early October; full-bloom stage.
491. Not a false flower-
Lots of spikes- Spiked lobelia (Lobelia spicata) growing at edge of wet prairie in the far-western Springfield Plateau. In this area spiked lobelia appears to e equally at home on the grassland of tallgrass prairie, even under relatively wet conditions, or on rocky, shallow soil such as black oak-big bluestem savannas.iLobelia species are in the subfamily, Lobelioideae of the bellflower family, Campanulaceae.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June.
492. Out-phloxed on the prairie- Tall or blue phlox (Phlox divaricata) growing in associateion with big bluestem, prairie dropseed, and switchgrass on dry-mexic chert prairie. P. divaricata is taller and usually later-blooming than P. pilosa, the Phlox species common on prairies and savannas in the Ozark Highlands.
Diamond Grove Prairie (Natural Area), Newton County, Missouri. Late June; full-bloom stage.
493. Taller flowers on tallgrass prairie- Inflorescence of tall or blue phlox growing on a dry-mesic chert tallgrass prairie. This was the inflorescence on the left sexual shoot of the plant shown in the immediately preceding photograph. This specimen wqs blooming in an exceptional drought, and one of the worst ones in decades. The old natives manage to persist through the worst of it. They have had ample time to evolve adaptations to the vagaries and vicissitudes of Ma Nature.
Diamond Grove Prairie (Natural Area), Newton County, Missouri. Late June; full-bloom stage.
494. Anothr rattle out of the box- Seedbox (Ludwigia alternifolia), another member of the Onagraceae, on a virgin tallgrass prairie dominated by big bluestem. This prairie had been reserved as a hay meadow, but hayed improperly (mowed in late summer or early autumn) for decades. Then the owners "saw the light" and began to hay it properly (in early summer) and the prairie vegetation responded quickly, including return of seedbox..
There are several Ludwigia species across the vast region of the tallgrass prairie. Steyermark (1963, ps. 1096-1099) showed four Ludwigia species for Missouri prairies; Diggs et al. (1999, ps.858-862) described nine Ludwigia species for the general prairie and savanna region of northcentral Texas. Many of these are species of wet habitats.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July, flower to immature fruit stages.
495. Flower and fruit of seedbox- Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July, flower to immature fruit stages.
496. Fringeleaf false-petunia (Ruellis humilis)- This minor, even incidential, prairie forb was included to represent the Acanthaceae (acanthus family) thereby presenting still yet more botanical diversity of the tallgrass prairie to viewers. This also reinforced the lesson that there are many families of range plants which contribute relatively small numbers of species yet which contribute to the rich flora of this range cover type.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.
497 A. More details of fringeleaf false-petunia- The long throat of the corolla of this species presents a trumpet-resembling structure when observed from a side view. These flowers are extremely delicate and readily detach from their inflorescence bases (peduncles). Flowers of false prairie-petunia open by early morning and typically began to shed by midday (or earlier).
Ruelis humilis is a perennial prairie forb that is quite tolerant of conditions that are hot and dry by standards of the typically humid to subhumid environments of tallgrass prairie. It is an outstanding species for landscaping with native plants. More relevant from a natural pasture perspective is the fact that ruminants (both native and domestic) as well as horses find R. humilis very palatable. This make it difficult to find this rather unique range plant in other than well manged ranges or, more commonly, in grazing-excluded areas such as fence rows and borrow ditches which is where all of these examples were collected.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-June.
497 B. Still yet, more details of fringeleaf false-petunia- OK, so your author liked this one (or at least liked taking photographs of it); so what. Another side view of the flowers of Ruelis humilis (first slide) and an unusual view (take it from this photographer) of three flowers, and all in focus, (second slide) of this "cute" and higly palatable forb of the Acanthaceae or acanthus family.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July.
498. Smooth false-petunia (Ruelis strepens)- This fine specimen was same stretch of tallgrass prairie at the edge of the Springfield Plateau as the Ruelis humilis presented immediately above. The ever-so-slightly different ecological niches of these two species was known only to the Great Rangeman in the Sky, but mortal rangemen can certainly enjoy the beauty of this delightful plant.
For any arrogant bastrads viewing this (a web publication is afterall a broadcast) and snorting sarcastically, "So what is that runt weed good for anything? I outsnort with: "Yep, it is so palatable to livestock, even cattle, that it is a decreaser and essentially an ice crem species.That's why it is typically only found on the outside of fencerows on in well-managed hay meadows".
As a matter of fact, to make this point even more emphatically, included immediately below was another example ...
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June.
499. To make a point- Another plant of smooth false-petunia on tallgrass prairie at western edge of the Springfield Plateau. It was stressed immediately above that smooth false-petunia was an ice cream forb, one that could persist only under light grazing or where this highly palatable forb was not subjected to grazing at all.
This specimen and the one in the preceding slide/caption set were growing in the school yard of the one-room country school (Stony Point north Number 7) where this author received his first eight years of formal education. This example was included for Auld Lang Syne.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late May.
500. Spotlight on several; featuring one- A number of forb species were growing on this tallgrass prairie that had been used as a prairie hay meadow for two-thirds of a century. The forb being "highlighted" here was finger poppy mallow, fringed poppy mallow, or fringed winecups (Callirhoe digitata var. digitata) growing in its typical "bent-over" or "bowled-over" habit above pre-bloom stage ashy sunflower (Helianthus mollis) and blooming brown-eyed susan (hirta).
Fringed poppy mallow is a real challenge to photograph because its flexusus top-heavy shoot moves erratically in the slightest breeze. To compound the situation, this author prefers high depth-of-field photographs (to show neighboring plants) which requires slow shutter speed (this shot taken at 1/30 second) along with the ability to get in rhythm with the swaying subject or even lead the subject much like shooting waterfowl. Any way, this contankerous prairie plant was included to represent the Malvaceae, mallow family.
One of the more notable morphological features of the Callirhoe species is the enlarged, often fusiform (spindle-shaped) tap root (Gleason and Cronquist, 1991, p. 150; Diggs et al., 1999, p. 807) which was used as both food and medicine by Indians and when eaten either raw or fried in butter makes a "tasty meal" (Ownsby, 1980, p. 51).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; full-bloom phenological stage.
501. Wine-filled on the prairie- A solitary flower--inflorescence consist of several of these--on the specimen of finger (fringed) winecups or finger poppy mallow introduced in the preceding slide-caption set. Difficulty of capturing this species on film was noted in that caption. Double the difficulty to get the flower with detail to show the staminal column, the most distinguishing and unique feature of the Malvaceae inflorescence. Maybe viewers can get some idea of this feature after the Epson Perfection (not) 700 scanner got through with a crisp slide.
This author never observed any grazing on the Callirhoe species and, on the meadow where this specimen was collected, there was abundant herbage of palatable prairie grasses and other forbs so that this individual need not have feared being fed on. The main use of finger poppy mallow by contempory Homo sapiens, who were not likely to dig and eat it roots, is ejoyment of it as a showy prairie forb ("wildflower" to city slickers), a well-recognized value (Steyermark, 1963, p. 1050).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June.
502. Daddy longlegs of a range forb- This single plant, with its spindly shoots and numberous limbs, of fringed popy mallow (Callirhoe digitata) introduced mallow family (Malvaceae) members that have as their home the tallgrass prairie range community. C. digitata is the largest (tallest, and a conspicuously crown- spreading) member of its genus on tallgrass prairie grasslands.
The glaucous grey-green or magenta-colored shoots with their winecup flowers and prominent staminal columns (see next set of slides) make for a prominent range forb amid tallgrass panicoid grasses. In this photographer's decades of trampling the prairie the poppy mallows, especially the large fringed leaf poppy mallow, are stand-out range plants. Their forage value is next to nil given 1) their scarcity and 2) lack of evidence of animal-grazing on them.
From these facts no true-blue (or rose-red) rangeman could jump to the conclusion that this species is of no value as a range plant. As yet, range scientists do not know what function individual plant species have in the range plant community. As Aldo Leopold reminded us, one of the first and most essential sthings is save all the parts (at least as many as we can). Until the role of infrequent range plants like fringed poppy mallow are discovered it should suffice to enjoy the sheer beauty of such organisms. In this case, God's own "prairie ruby".
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late June; mid-bloom phenological stage, peak standing crop.
503. Wine cups on an herbaceous chandelier- Individual flowers on spindly limbs (first or upper slide) and an individual flower of fringed poppy mallow growing on viergin sod of a tallgrass prairie hay meadow in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau.
Another common name for the poppy mallows (one more like city slickers would use) is winecups. The staminal column of the Malvaceae was obvious in the lower slide featuring a solitry flower of this bright and flashy prairie forb. The conspicuously showy appearance of winecups is even more impressive given the spindly, sprawling habit of this range plant. In this author's experience the various species of winecups (Callirhoe spp.) are never numerous even on relict or pristine tracts of tallgrass prairie. Rather their populations consist of widely scattered individuals. The poppy mallows are always an enjoyable find for botanizing rangemen.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late June; mid-bloom phenological stage.
504. Numerously blessed- Numerous basal shoots of the fringed poppy mallow that was intorduced in two slide/caption sets above and featured in this short section devoted to the Malvaceae, the mallow family.The slender stems of fringed poppy mallow with their graceful limbs that were almost as large appears as a rather delicate range plant it is "prairie-tough" and one of the larger--at least taller and more sprawling--forbs on this virgin sod.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late June; peak standing crop.
505. Doesn't look like much there (but its enough)- Thin, decumbent stems and extremely narrow leaves (first or upper slide) and deeply dissected, spreading and ultra-linear leaves (second or lower slide) of fringed popphy mallow growing on tallgrass prairie hay meadow in western Ozark Plateau.
The unique leaf of this species provided the self-evident basis for both common name and specific epithet. Remarkable range plant. Made a nice addition to this collection of prairie characters.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; mid-growth stage (third slide). Late June; peak standing crop (first two slides).
506. Winecups off the ceiling chandelier- Bush's mallow or poppy mallow (Callirhoe papaver var. bushii= C. bushii= C. involucrata, at least in part) at edge of a chert glade and former tallgrass prairie in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. This Callirhoe species is one with some of the more brightly colored- and densely cluster-flowers. With its creeping habit and numerous, large flowers this winecup species is a favorite of native wild-flower fanciers.
McDonald County, Missouri. Mid June; full-bloom stage.
507. More wine, anyone?- Flowers and leaves of poppy mallow (first slide) and details of flowers with their staminal columns (second slide) growing on a chert glade adjacent to an area that was formerly tallgrass prairie. This taxon is a confusing one (as shown in the above caption) due to wide variation in its morphological features.
McDonald County, Missouri. Mid June; full-bloom stage.
508. Pale poppy mallow (Callirhoe alcaeoides)- This pallid-colored member of the Malvaceae was growing on a tallgrass prairie in the Cherokee Prairie (Osage Ouesta physiographic subunit) that was nearly a "pure stand" of big bluestem (consociation). This is one of the several Callirhoe species growing on tallgrass prairies.
White Oak Meadow, Kelly Ranch, Craig County, Oklahoma. Mid-May; obviously full-bloom stage.
509. A unique beauty- Meadow beauty (Rhexia interior) on tallgrass prairie in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. This specimen was associated with big bluestem and prairie dropseed (co-cominants) on a dry-mesic chert upland prairie. It was one of only a few plants on a large (by contemporary standards) tract of virgin tallgrass sod.
This perrenial prairie forb is a member of Melastomataceae, the melastoma family. It has a restricted range, growing in prairies in southwestern Missouri, southeastern Kansas and northeastern Oklahoma, part of the so-called Heart-Section of the United States. This species range is in the far-western fringe of the Ozark Region. Some authorities regard R. interior as a taxonomic variety of R. mariana, but this author followed Fernald (1950) and Steyermark (1963) and kept as a separate species.
An unusual one, hugh?
Diamond Grove Prairie (Natural Area), Newton Counton, Missouri. Late June; at peak bloom.
510. So unusual that it deserves another set- Some more examples of meadow beauty growing on the same tallgrass prairie as those seen in the immediately preceding set. What was interesting in this instance was time of blooming. Flowers above were blooming in early summer whereas the inflorescences seen here boomed in mid-summer: seven weeks later than the ones shown above and it was on the same prairie though in a different year.
Diamond Grove Prairie (Natural Area), Newton Counton, Missouri. Early August; peak-bloom phenological stage.
St. Andrew on the prairie- St. Andreww's cross (Ascyrum hypericoides var. hypericoides) on the virgin sod of a tallgrass prairie in the Springfield Plateau of the Ozark Plateau physiographic province. This is a relatively rare prairie plant with this being the only specimen this prairieman phtographer ever saw. (Rare may not be any organizational designation, but it most certainly describes this prairie-haunting photographers experience. By the way your author hauled hay off of this virgin-sod meadow over 50 years ago, and with fond memories of hard work and God's own prairie.)
St. Andrew's cross is in the St. Johnswort family (Hypericaceae) or, alternatively as the garcinia family (Clusiaceae or Gultiferae, subfamily Hyperioideae). In short another taxonomic mess.
Perhaps unworthy, but a prairie delight- Flowering shoots and flowers of a prairie forb named St. Andrw's cross on virgin sod of a tallgrass prairie used as a hay meadow for over 80 years..
St. Andrew was one of jesus' disciples, the brother of Simon Peter. The apostle Andrew was the disciple who told Jesus about the boy with the loves and fish from which the five thousand were fed. Andrew was martyred by crucifixation, but at his request on an X-shaped cross because he was unworthy to die in the exact manner as his Savior. The X-shaped cross style became known as St. Andres's cross.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August, peak bloom stage.
511. Unique rose on the prairie- Many flowered agrimony (Agromonia parviflora) growing on the bank of an ephemeral stream running through a big bluestem-switchgrass dominated tallgrass prairie in the Ozark (Springfield) Plateau in southwest Missouri. The attention-grabbing forb is a member of the rose family (Rosaceae) that is generally uncommon other than in local--though diverse--habitats.
Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Early August, early bloom stage of phenology.
512. Single-shooted specimen- A plant of many flowered agrimony in its first year of life (hence, a single shoot) growing on a rocky, dry upland tallgrass prairie in the Ozark (Springfield) Plateau in northeast Oklahoma.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August, early bloom phenological stage.
513. Worthy leaves- Three views of the beautiful compond leaves of many flowered agrimony growing in tallgrass parairie in the Springfield Plateau section of the ancient Ozark mountains in sotuwest Missouri and northeast Oklahoma. Leaves of the rosaceous forb are as attention-focusing as the entire spectacular plant itself.
First two slides, Ottawa County, Oklahoma; third slide, Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Early August, peak standing crop.
514. Shoot up closer- Three progressively closer-up views of the single shoot of many flowered agrimony featured in the two immediately preceding slide/caption sets.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August, early bloom phenological stage.
515. Yellow rose of the Ozarks A.- Terminal flower cluster of many flowered agrimony that developed on the shoot featured in the immediately three-slide-caption set.
It was interesting that this young plant was living on a rocky,
shallow soil habitat above a borrrow pit of a section line road whereas other
examples of many flowered agrimony presented herein were at home on a moist
bank of an ephemeral strea. Either way, it was tallgrass parairie in the Springfield
section of the Ozark Plateau.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August, early bloom phenological stage.
516. Yellow rose of the Ozarks B- Large inflorescence or flower cluster, individual flowers on branches of the inflorescence, and fruit (first, second, and third slides, respectively) of many flowered agrimony growing on the bank of an ephemeral stream on a tallgrass prairie in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau in southwest Missouri.
Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Early August, mid- to late bloom stage and immature fruit stage of phenology.
517. Flowering not foiled, plus four unfoiled chiques- Another forb of the rose family by represented by this large specimen of sulphur or rough-fruit chiquefoil (Potentilla recta in first slide and four flowers in second slide growing on ecotone of tallgrass prairie and an oak-hickory savanna in western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. This individual was almost a yard tall; somehow it managed to produce this herbage and profuse flowering during Moderate Drought (Palmer Index).
Ottawa county, Oklahoma. Early June; peak-bloom phenological stage.
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518. Leaves not foiled either- Shoots (first slide) and characteristic leaves (second slide) of sulphur or rough-fruit chiquefoil growing on ecotone of tallgrass prairie and an oak-hickory savanna in western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. These parts were o/of the same plant that was introduced in the first slide in the immediately preceding slide-caption set. It had produced these organs in/under Moderate Drought.
Five-finger is another common name for Potentilla species. Five-finger allludes to five (though these can vary from three up to seven) leaflets comprising one compound leaf of some species as shown in these two slides.
Steyermark (1963, ps. 826-830) described eight Potentilla species for Missouri. Three of these Potentilla species grow in the Ozarks and Osage Plains(of the Central Lowlands) provinces. Chiquefoil or five-finger species are in the rose subfamily (Rosoideae) of the rose family (Rosaceae).
Potentilla species, at least the herbaceous (forb) species, are generally quite palatable. Preference relative to other--especially climax grass--species was not known to this author, but he has observed, over a lifetime, that both P. recta and P. simplex are almost always found only on prairie hay meadows or ungrazed sides (outsides) of fencerows as was the case for this specimen that grew to this fine stage less than ten feet away frrom a dreadfully overgrazed introduced pasture of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea). This is yet another example that what those landowners who happen to be stupid and greedy (like the one who had the adjoining overgrazed pasture) call "weeds" are not weeds at all except in monoculture agronomic fields. The "little ole ladies in tennis shoes" who call native plants like P. recta "wild flowers" are closer to truth than "weed"-obscessed, amateurish land managers.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; peak-bloom phenological stage.
519. Pair of plantains- Two species of Plantago growing on a disturbed tallgrass paririe range. The taller and all-around larger plant was tallow-weed or red-seeded plantain (P. rhodosperma). In front of the conspicuous plant of red-seeded plantain was a smaller individual of Heller's or cedar plantain (P. helleri). Both species are native annuals, and both indicate degraded range. They are examples of indicator species; in this case, grazing indicators.
Tarleton State University College Farm, Erath County, Texas. April.
520. Heller's or cedar plantain (P. helleri)- This is the individual growing directly in front of the red-seded plantain specimen presented immediately above. This is the smaller-sized of these two species. They both hold some soil in place and provide some oxygen while fixing and sequestering carbon atoms. Otherwise, one would be hard put to come in with much practical or economic value to these native weeds that are indicators of deteriorated range.
Tarleton State University College Farm, Erath County, Texas. April.
521. Purple passionflower, apricot-vine, or maypops (Passiflora incarnata)- An herbaceous vine growth form, a viney forb on tallgrass pairie, and a member of a small family with a unique (and showy) inflorescence are combined in this member of the Passifloraceae. Leaves of this species are large and three-to five-lobed. Shoots have large tendrils so that this species s an herbaceous climber. Such a combination of plant features made this species an interesting range plant to include in this presentation of prairie forbs.
Plants of purple passionflower can be found growing either individually or in groups. This species does not appear to be eaten by livestock or game animals, at least not under light to moderate grazing, although it is more often found in fencerows.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July; full-bloom stage.
522. A passion for beauty where it is found- Views of the inflorescence of maypops or purple passionflower. The corolla of Passiflora species consist of series of "thread-like filaments" (Smith, 1977, p. 125) arranged in a three series around a flesh-colored crown (Fernald, 1950, p. 1042). All-in-all a most distinctive and attractive inflorescnce.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July; full-bloom stage.
505. Fruit of the herbaceous vine- Fruit of purple passionflower. Fruit type of the Passiflora genus is a many seeded berry (Fernald, 1950, p. 1042). It is the fruit of this species to which the term maypops is applied.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. September :ripening though still immature fruit stage.
506. Buffalobur (Solanum rostratum) or it ain't just pretty folks on the range- Tallgrass prairie plants run the scale or ecological spectrum from the climax tallgrasses, the ultimate decreasers (the "pretty people" of the prairie), down to the lowest of the noxious weeds, the invaders (the "untouchables" of the bottom ecological caste). The lowerst of the lowest , and literally one of the most untouchable, is the spine-ridden buffalobur. This is the range plant that perhaps more than any other species remains (and pioneers) on the most abused ranges and the most sacrificial of sacrifice areas.
The tough customer presented here was on a cattle winter feed ground. Almost all of the neighboring plants were goosegrass (Eleusine indica), the grass equivalent of buffalobur and, predictabily, the associate species on this localized degraded area. Both of these annual range plants are native to North America including tallgrass prairie. These pioneering species are not always weeds, certainly not when they are colonizing abused land. On sacrifice areas such range plants are the advance guard, the botanical equivalent of the US Marines, who first land on the battleground of degraded ranges. Invader species like buffalobur are the main plant species that establish a successional "beachhead" on a degraded sere of tallgrass prairie as the range vegetation progresses through the series of plant communities--the successional stages--toward the climax or, at least, the highest seral stage possible on the depleted range.
Obviously, presence of buffalobur indicates (ie. it is a plant indicator, an indicator species) range retrogression (the retrograde movement from climax) so that it is a weed on range that is currently being overgrazed. But whose fault was (is) that? The range manager. The one who was (is) improperly managing grazing and other tools and thereby permitting the range resources to deteriorate. Buffalobur is one of Nature's warning signs that retrogression is well underway, and one of Mother Nature's blessed species that helps heal damaged grazing land through secondary plant succession..
Buffalobur is one of the hardiest of the range plants. It is a textbook example of theorphyte (theorphytic species), plant species in the life-form grouping that complete their life cycle quickly and efficiently during favorable growing conditions and then survive the "bad times" (winter, drought, flood, fire, overgrazing, tillage) as seeds or spores. Among vascular plants, theorphytes are annuals (or empeherals), although not all annuals are necessarily theorphytes. For example, domesticated crops would probably not be interpreted as theorphytes, but buffalobur is a classic example. For instance, it is one of the few range plants that persists on the denuded land of black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) towns.
Buffalobur is a member of Solonaceae, the nightshade family, and also a member of the potato genus. In fact, S. rostratum is an alternative host for the Colorado potoato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) which is one of the major insect pest of S. tuberosum, one of man's major tuber crops. Though looked at fnothr way, the Colorado potoato beetle is a biological control agent for buffalobur. The "potato bug" is also a North American native.
Brief yet thorough sources on buffalobur included Phillips Petroleum Company (1963, p. 155), Hatch and Pluhar (1993, ps. 306-307), and Tyrl et al., (2008, ps. 458-459). Of course there is uncountable stuff on-line, some of it reliable and some of it otherwise.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July, full-bloom stage.
507. Even the ugly ones can have some pretty parts-Sexual shoots and inflorescences of buffalobur. Perhaps no other native range plant is held in lower esteem than buffalobur, but its successional value as a pioneer of denuded ranges and sacrifice areas was explained immediately above. Here attention was directed to the attractiveness of the inflorescence of buffalobur.
By the way the reference to color brought up a photography lesson. Slides of buffalobur presented here were taken with Fujichrome Provia 100HP, a fallback response when Eastman Kodak Company in June 2009 sold loyal customers "down the river" by the cowardly, deplorable act of stopping manufacture of Kodachrome. The lemon color of buffalobur corollas as shown by Provia 100Hp, the most logical replacement for the irreplacable Kodachrome, was incorrect. The true color of buffalo bur petals--as seen by the human eye--was a much deeper, richer yellow not the paler more pastel form portrayed by Fujichrome Provia 100HP. There was nothing else for acurate color reproduction that was in the same league as Kodachrome.
Mini-editorial: Boycot all Koday products. Eastman Kodak took our Kodachrome away, and remaining Kodak slide film is trash, pure rotten junk. Fujichrome is a real quality company dedicated to its customers. Provia is the least different from Kodachrome of all remaining slide films.
As with the other Solanum species, foliage and fruit of buffalobur is toxic, but nothing much is going to eat it under range conditions (Kingsbury, 1964, p. 292).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July, full-bloom stage.
508. Even pretty might not be good- Silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaegnifolium) is another invasive nightshade of tallgrass prairie and adjacent range types such as Cross Timbers. For being as common and widespread as this species is it does not have a good, readily available reference although there are (and likely will continue to be) references on-line. Source albeit brief coverage were Hatch and Pluhar (1993, ps. 304-305) and Tyrl et al. (2008, ps. 456-457).
Given that silverleaf nightshade--like most of the Solanum species--is a poisonous range plant there are a number of references for this species in that context. These sources range from those devoted to plants at state level as, for instance, Texas (Sperry et al, 1964, ps. 43-44; Hart et al., 2003, ps. 206-207) to North America in the timeless Kingsbury (1964, p. 290) and Burrows and Tyrl (2001).
Erath County, Texas. Mid-May; peak standing crop and full-bloom developmental stage).
Prairie cherry- Goround-cherries (Physalis species) comprise another group of nightshade members. Presented here is Virginia ground-cherry (P. virginiana) growing on a locally disturbed microsite in tallgrass prairie in the southwestern Prairie Peninsula (Transeau, 1935).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-June or late spring, full-bloom and immature fruit stages.
Prairie cherry flowers and fruits- Views of some of the inflorescences on the plant of Virginia ground-cherry introduced above.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-June or late spring, full-bloom and immature fruits stage.
Well-groomed- Narrowleaf groomwell or narrowleaf puccoon (Lithospermum incisum) on Grand Prairie range in northcentral Texas. Narrowleaf groomwell is one of the earliest spring-blooming forbs in tallgrass prairies, but it has a great-scale species range that extends from Ontario to British Columbia and south to California and northern Mexico across to Florida (Fernald, 1950, p. 1202 in part).
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. Late March; obviously full-bloom phenological stage.
509. Pretty annual- Blood milkwort (Polygala sanguinea) on big bluestem-dominated tallgrass prairie used as hay meadow. Native annuals are downright rare on tallgrass prairie, and this species is one of them. The milkwort family (Polygalaceae) is one of the smaller ones, but there are five Polygala species in the greater Great Plains Region ((McGregor et al., 1977). P. sanguinea is arguably the most striking of these five with its contrasting red and white color pattern.
This pretty specimen was growing with switchgrass and tall or littlehead nut-sedge on a tallgrass prairie hay meadow that had been degraded by late-season mowing.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late June.
510. Milk and blood- Upper shoot with inflorescences (first slide) and details of inflorescence (second slide) of blood milkwort growing on a big bluestem-dominated tallgrass prairie used as a hay meadow.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late June.
511. Diversity even as to photosynthesis- Plant of widow's cross (Sedum pulchellum) growing on a disturbed microhabitat of tallgrass prairie in the Ozark Plateau. There are about 40 Sedum species native to North America (Flora of North America, Volumn 8, 199) only three of which are indigenous to the general Great Plains-Central Lowlands provinces. S. pulchellum is one of these, and the one with a "purty" purple inflorescence (McGregor et al., 1986, 357-358).
For a number of years the author has watched the exact spot on thin soil of a sandstone ledge on a prairie where plants of this annual species appear, at the frequency of every three to five years. The epithet pulchellum means "beautiful" which is certainly an apt term for this "beauty". The generic common name for Sedum species is stonecrop (a most appropriate and descriptive name) and orpine.
From a physiological standpoint the most striking feature of Sedum--in fact, all members of the stonecrop family (Crassulaceae)--is the Crassulacian Acid Metabolism pathway of photosynthesis. This is not the venue for a discussion on superior water-use efficiency, unique plant anatomy, natural selection, and the array of plant species having CAM photosynthesis. The following reference was left with readers: Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (Ting and Gibbs, 1982). And there is probbly not a prettier species that has the CAM adaptation than Sedum pulchellum.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late May; peak-bloom stage.
512. More diversity yet- Yellow or Nuttall's stonecrop (Sedum nuttallianum) is another annual of the Crassulaceae (stonecrop family) that is well adapted to shallow, rocky soils of grassland and savanna vegetation. The specimen presented in these two nested "photoplots" was growing on a limestone outcrop on degraded tallgrass prairie on the Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas. Other plants of this species were found growing on an adjoining range in the West Cross Timbers. Diggs et al. (1999, ps. 564) described S. nuttallianum as growing on both sandstone-derived soils (as in Cross Timbers ) and limestone soils (as in Grand Prairie).
This dainty little succulent is as versatile and tough as it is eye-catching. Succulent, which is used as both noun and adjective, is a general (and thus somewhat vague) term describing the morphology (and associated anatomy and physiology) of plants having thick, heavy leaves and stems due to extra water-storing capacity. Fleshy is a related descriptive term and one often used synonymously with succulent, but the latter is more precise with regard to tissues modified to store greater amounts of water. Agave and cactus species are, of course, better known succulents (= succulent plants).
These latter mentioned succulents share with Sedum species (all members of Crassulaceae for that matter) the unique modified pathway of photosynthesis named after this family Crassulacean Acid Metabolism. Standard textbooks on Plant Physiology, Plant Ecology, Plant Taxonomy, etc. offered appropriate treatment of this photosynthetic adaptation. The published symposium proceedings edited by Ting and Gibbs (1982) was also recommended.
Erath County, Texas. Mid-May; peak-bloom phenology.
513. Short on rain, but long on buckwheat- Longleaf wild-buckwheat (Eriogonum longifolium) on degraded Grand Prairie range (formerly little bluestem-dominated tallgrass prairie). Shortly after recent soil-soaking rains that followed on the heels of the worst one-year drought in Texas records (a D4 or Exceptional Drought on the Palmer Drought Severity Index) numerous plants of longleaf wild-buckwheat exhibited "growth spurts" and grew to usually tall heights (four to five feet in specimens seen here) accompanied by profuse blooming.
Dead and drought-dormant grass "burnt to a crisp" attested to extreme shortage of soil water, but one could not have imagined the water stress by size and overall health of these wild-buckwheat plants.
There are "jillions" of Erigonum species--forbs and shrubs--across the Western Range, but on tallgrass prairie Eriogonum is represented by remarkably few. There were fourteen Eriogonum species listed in Flora of the Great Plains (Great Plains Flora Association, 1986, ps. 214-219), but almost all of these (except for three) were for the semiarid mixed and shortgrass prairies (Great Plains Flora Association, 1977, ps. 73-76). Kaul et al. (2006, ps. 732-735) showed three Erigonum species for mesic grasslands in Nebraska (counting outliers in the western Sandhills). Steyermark (1963, p. 574) described longleaf wild-buckwheat as the only Eriogonum species in Missouri and remarked that it was "one of the rarest plants in Missouri". E. longifolium was one of only two Eriogonum species described for northcentral Texas (Diggs et al., 1999, .ps. 898-899). See location below.
It seemed appropriate to include the perennial longleaf wild-buckwheat at this juncture as a representative of the Polygonaceae, knotweed or smartweed family.
Note on location: The Eriogonum species in the Cross Timbers and Prairies vegetational or land resource area of Texas is manyflowered or heart-sepal wild-uckwheat (Eriogoum multiflorum), a biennial or annual. That species grows on deeper sand of the Cross Timbers and in oak-tallgrass savannahs. An example of E. multiflorum was included in the chapter, Tallgrass Savanna, under Grasslands herein.
Hunewell Ranch, Tarleton State University, Erath County, Texas. Mid-September; full-bloom phenological stage.
514. Lower parts- Base of shoot showing linear leaves of longleaf wild-buckwheat on degraded Grand Prairie tallgrass prairie range. Photograph taken shortly after rains broke the worst one-year drought in Texas history.
Hunewell Ranch, Tarleton State University, Erath County, Texas. Mid-September; full-bloom phenological stage.
515. Upper parts- Inflorescence and flowers of longleaf wild-buckwheat. These organs were on some of the plants shown above. Diggs et al. (1999, p. 898) described this inflorescence as a cymosse panicle with flowers in "small funnelform involucres". The author has seen consumption of the inflorescence of this species by white-tailed deer. Cattle apper to make no use of it.
Hunewell Ranch, Tarleton State University, Erath County, Texas. Mid-September; full-bloom phenological stage.
An annual one- Annual wild-buckwheat (Eriogonum annuum) growing on a Deep Sand range site (Soil Conservation Service, 1973) in the West Cross Timbers-Grand Prairie vegetational (= land resource) area of northcentral Texas. The previous (immediately above) Eriogonum species was a perennial (as most members of this genus are) and growing on Grand Prairie calcareous soil. By contrast, specimens of E. annuum presented here were growing in a narrow transition zone between Grand Prairie and West Cross Timbers on non-calcareous soil.
As would be expected, annual wild-buckwheat has a much more spatially sporadic (year-to-year) occurrence than the perennial species, longleaf wild-buckwheat. The species range of annual wild-buckwheat is largely restricted to the central grasslands of North America extending from the Rio Grande Plains of Texas to northern Montana and as far east as Illinois and Indiana.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. Late September; peak-bloom stage.
Flowers of a short-lived wild-buckwheat- Inflorescence (first slide) and flowers (second and third slide) of annual wild-buckwheat in the Cross Timbers-Grand Prairie vegetational area of northecntral Texas.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas; early September (first and third slide). Former Brian Edwards Ranch, Wichita County, Texas; early October (second slide).
Pen's woods in minature- Large local stand (population) of the annual forb, Pennsylvania smartweed or Pennsylvania knotweed (Polygonum pensylvanicum) growing on a small disturbed microsite within a vast consociation of prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata) that developed on a wet prairie on the floodplain of the Marmaton River in the Osage Plains of upper southwest Missouri (part of the Central Lowlands physiographic province). Floodwater sometimes reaches a depth of 20 feet at this location.
Plowed-up soil at the edge of a closed county road served as ideal habitat for this moisture-loving prairie forb before the highly rhizomatious prairie cordgrass will soon reclaim its sod inheritance. According to Steyermark (1963, ps. 584-598 passim) there are 17 Polygonum species in this general area of southwest Missouri, but this included one species currently included in an expanded P. pensylvanicum. Pensylvania smartweed is one of the most widely distributed of the Polygonum species in central North America. For example, Pennsylvania knotweed was the only Polygonum species included in the Oklahoma range plant field guide by Tyrl et al. (2003, ps. 420-421).
Pennsylvania knotweed (along with several other Polygonum species) has usually been regarded as a wetland or aquatic plant species (Fassett, 1957 ps. 205-206) although this species is not strictly limited to aquatic environments. Pennsylvania knotweed is commonly found in numerous field habitats. In fact, Great Plains Flora Association (1986, p. 227) remarked that Pennsylvania smartweed was "often a troublesome weed". Nonetheless, this species of wet--often heavy clay soils--disturbed habitats is a valuable range plant for certain purposes, especially as a feed source (the fruit, which are achenes, especially) for birds ranging from upland to waterfowl species (Tyrl et al., 2001, p. 421).
A minor technical point concerning the name of this wetland forb is that in the "official" spelling of the specific epithet, pensylvanicum, there is only one letter n whereas the correct spelling of the state and, thus, the common name is Pennsylvania with two letters n. By the way, Tyrl et al. (2003, p. 421) explained that the one letter n traces to the grandfather taxonomist, father of the binomial nomenclature himself, Carolus Llinnaeus.
Vernon County, Missouri. Late July; peak standing crop, peak-bloom phenological stage.
Pennsylvanian on a central prairie- Pennsylvania smartweed growing on a locally disturbed area of prairie cordgrass-dominated prairie that developed on a heavy, "gumbo" clay in the Osage Plains of the Central Lowlands province in upper southwest Missouri.
The lower shoots of Pennsylvania smartweed are often ascending with frequent development of adventituous roots at nodes of these lower shoot portions. This pattern of rooting presents a superficial resemblance of shoots to stolons or, even, rhizomes.
The common name of "knotweed" was derived from the morphological feature of enlarged or swollen-appearing nodes of the shoots of Polygonum species. "Smartweed" is generally regarded as a reference to a stinging sensation in some people from coming into contact with the plant. The more commonly accepted explanation is that school children would playfully (usually done in play) slap bare arms or legs with shoots of this plant thereby resulting in a "that smarts" response and sometimes a welt or "knot", hence "knotweed" would also be pertinent in that regard. (All of this took place when children played outside instead of being "housecats" watching television and, currently [and worse] playing video games or playing with some cell-phone contraption.)
Pennsylvania smartweed can cause primary photosensitization (Burrows and Tyrl, 2001, 2013), but such poisoning is not likely to occur given the low palatability of this species to livestock under most conditions.
The red-colored stem is a key identifying feature of Pennsylvania smartweed (Tyrl et al., 2003, p. 421) as is the pink-toned inflorescence as shown in the next slides ...
Vernon County, Missouri. Late July; peak standing crop, peak-bloom phenological stage.
Probably not a keystone species- Inflorescences (terminal spicate racemes) with characteristic pinkish sepals is a key--though not strictly limiting--identifying feature of Pennsylvania smartweed (Tyrl et al., 2003, p. 421). This feature and the reddish stems (see immediately preceding slide) are basis of another common name of pink smartweed. The inflorescenece and individual flowers of the Polygonum species are confusing because the organs that appear to be petals are, in reality, the sepals or, more precisely, the tepals which are parts of the perianth in which sepals and petals are not differentiated (Diggs et al, 1999, ps. 899, 1452) and, instead, appear as if "fused".
The species P. bicorne has been merged into P. pensylvanicum.
This Keystone State namesake is not a major species species over large acreages (areas) within its species range, but in local wetland habitats it might well be a keystone species (a species whose presence, absence, or abundance can have an unusually important, perhaps even an essential, role in an ecosystem), especially where this species is the clear dominant (and often exclusive) species or one with a pivital function (eg. the major producer) in its habitat.
Vernon County, Missouri. Late July; peak-bloom phenological stage.
I'm just about everywhere- Four composite or general views of a smartweed or knotweed known variously (and in various combinations) as pale smartweed, peachleaf knotweed, dockleaf knotweed, nodding smartweed, willow knotweed, and curlytop smartweed (Polygonum lapathifolium= Persicaria lapathifolia) growing on a drainage area in the northeastern edge of the Rolling Plains region of north Texas. This rank-growing annual is widely distributed with a species range that includes Eurasia as well as North America from Atlantic to Pacific Coasts. As such, peachleaf or dockleaf smartweed is an extremely variable species. For example, Fernald (1950, p. 583) described four varieties for P. lapathifolium found in northeastern North America. Pale smartweed generally grows in wet to damp habitats, especially those with disturbance (Correll and Johnston, 1979, p. 525; Great Plains Flora Association, 1986, ps. 226-227; Allred and Ivey, 2012, p. 481) such as the specimens shown here growing along an old ditch. In something of a contrast, Whitson et al. (1992, p. 511) stated that this "amphibious species" preferred of wet to moist "undisturbed sites".
Correll and Johnston (1979, p. 525) and Diggs et al. (1999, p. 902) regarded willow smartweed as most likely being an exotic weed introduced from Europe, but Whitson et al. (1992, p. 511) did not designate this weed as being an alien.
As is the case for all Polygonum species, P. lapathifolium provides fruit that is a valuable concentrate for wildlife. This is particularly so for birds, often waterfowl in the instance of this species (Haukos and Smith, 1997, p. 139).
Wichita County, Texas. Early October; peak standing crop, full-bloom phenological stage.
Foolproof shoots- Features of the shoot of willowleaf knotweed or pale smartweed shown at progressively closer camera distance and increasingly detailed views. The rust-brown to pale red pubescence in leaf axils is a dead giveaway for this Polygonum species. The Polygonum genus is a large and seemingly complex taxon that frequently has been divided into sections when some groups recognized as separate genera (eg. Persicaria, Tovara) by some authors have been included. Steyermark (1963, ps. 582-598) and Fernald (1950, ps. 572-588) followed such treatment.
Wichita County, Texas. Early October; peak standing crop, full-bloom phenological stage.
Namesake leaves- Leaves of Polygonum lapathifolium frequently designated as dockleaf or peachleaf smartweed or knotweed. A fast look at this specimen confirmed validity of the adjective of the common name. The prominent midrib (midvein) is a conspicuous feature of the leaves of willow smartweed.
Wichita County, Texas. Early October; peak standing crop, full-bloom phenological stage.
Curly tops- Flower cluster or inflorescence of peachleaf smartweed or pale knotweed with the typical "drooping" or "nodding" habit (Correll and Johnston, 1979, p. 525). This inflorescences is essentially a terminal, open (= having widely spaced branches) panicle with axillary racemes or spikelike racemes of numerous flowers.
Wichita County, Texas. Early October; peak standing crop, full-bloom phenological stage.
Wildly peppered on prairie wetland- Wild water pepper, false waterpepper, or swamp smartweed (Polygonum hydropiperoides= Persicaria hydropiperoides) growing on a wet microsite in a black oak (Quercus velutina)-tallgrass prairie savanna in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. This is one more of numerous Polygonum species found on tallgrass prairie and savannahs range sites. Like the preceding species this smartweed or knotweed species has been included in the Persicaria genus or is included in the Persicaria section of Polygonum (Fernald, 1950, ps. 586-587; Steyermark, 1963, p. 594; Correll and Johnston, 1979, p. 526).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August; full-development stage of flower cluster.
Peppered panicles- Infloresences of wild water pepper or swamp smartweed produced on the specimen introduced in the immediately preceding two slides. Growing in a local wet area on a black oak-tallgrass prairie savanna in the Springfield Plateau of northeastern Oklahoma. This inflorescence type has been described as consisting of spikelike racemes (Correll and Johnston, 1979, p. 523). The overall or general type would seem to be a panicle.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August; full-development stage of flower cluster.
Blue on a degraded meadow- Meadow flax (Linum pratense) is a native, annual forb that is an early seral species (though not usually a pioneering species)that is typically found on degraded range. This specimen was growing on a depleted tallgrass prairie on calcareous soil of the Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas.
Meadow flax is a grassland speciews found from southeast Oklahoma across to Arizona and northern Mexico and north to Colorado (Great Plains Flora Association, 1986, p. 563). L. pratense is sometimes designated as Norton's flax after the original authority who "claimed" this species.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch. Late March; peak-bloom phenological stage.
No it won't make linen- Stiff or stiffstem flax (Linum rigidum) is an annual prairie forb with a species range that covers the interior of North America from manitoba to Alberta and south into northern Mexico thus being especially common in the Interior Lowland and Great Plains physiographic provinces.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch. Mid-April; peak-bloom phenological stage.
A showy annual- Crown of one plant(firstslide) and two flowers (second slide) of stiffstem flax. Stiffstem flax is a generally low growing that--as is typical of annuals--prospers in some years and is absent in others dependng on growing condtions. Obviously it had prospered in the year of these photographs. It is generally attractive to pollinators, but with annuals it is boom and bust (same as with mineral wealth).
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch. Mid-April; peak-bloom phenological stage.
Pucconed on the prairie- Cutleaf or narrowleaf puccoon (Lithospermum incisum) is one of the eaarlier-spring forbs on the southern prairies. This member of the borage family (Boraginaceae) is in its own tribe (Lithospermae) and is qite distinctive and almost always showing in college student plant collections. Like so many others it is easy to identify from field guides. (I do nott want to open the gate to computer "apps".). Nice parairie forb.
Royalty on virgin sod- Specimen of royal catchfly (Silene regina) growing on a pristine tallgrass prairie hay meadow.in the western edge of the Springfield Plateau. This was about the southwestern part of the Prairie Peninsula.
Silene species are in their own subfamily (Silenoideae) of the pink or carnation family (Caryophyllaceae).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early August, peak full-bloom phenological stage.
Twining rangeman- The twining, vinelike shoot of man-of-the earth (Ipomoea pandura), a native morning-glory, growin prairie in thefloodplaina of Modoc Creek, a stream in the Ozark Highland (Springfield Plateau). As with several other Ipomoea species, including I. batatus, the common sweetpotato, this pereennial forb has a large root for food storage. Hence the common name of man-of-the-earth. It is an uncommon forb and a real treat to find one blooming to the extent of this handsome specimen.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July.
Earthly flowers- Flowers of the native, perennial morning-glory, man-of-the-earth, on a profusely-blooming plant on a bottomland prairie that developed along a small floodplain in the western Springfield Plateau. Man-of-the-earth flowers are perfect (having both stamens and pistil). This healthy specimen had "outproduced itself", as we hillbillies are fond of saying for high-performing individuals.
Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July.
Man, oh, man- Perfect (bisexual) flowers of man-of-the-earth, a perennia,l native morning glory. Growing on a bottomand tallgrass prairie-oak-hickory savanna in Springfield Plateau..
Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July..
Another morning glory- Ivyleaf or blue morning glory (Ipomoea hederacea) growing on a distuurbed roadside through former tallgrass prairie-oak-hickory forest savanna.in the western Ozark Mountains (Springfield Pleteau). In contrast to preceding native, perennial morning glory, ivyleaf morning glory is an exotic annual most commonly growing on disturbed areas. Although ivyleaf morning glory is a weed it is not so invasive as to pose a problem at the present time. The author has observed use of ivyleaf morning glory by butterflys, including the larger swallowtails. On the prairie, even exotic pants may prove beneficial one way or the other. Even though rangemen do not advocate introductions of exotic plantss as a general practice we are opportunistic enough to make wise use of what is there.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June.
Sorrelful- Yellow wood sorrel (Oxalis stricta) growing near a barrow ditch in a tallgrass prairie-tallgrass prairie-black oak savanna in the western Springfield Plaeau in northeastern Oklahoma. This native is an early successional species so most commonly thought of as a weed. This early colonizer is an annual or short-lived perennial that often develops s rhizomes so as to form local colonies. It can be palatable, especially for sheep, and,; in some cases, humans some of the latter of whom enjoy the tart, succulent shoots as part of a salad or sandwich. The tartness is due to oxalic acid which in large amounts can be toxic, including to livestock, dogs, and humans. The same is true of numerous domestic food plants such as rhubarrb (Rheum rhabarbarum) of which this rangeman is particularily fond in his mom's lovely rhubarb pies.
Toxicology 101: “All things are poison and nothing is without poison; only the dose makes a thing not a poison.” ---Paracelsus (Theophrastus von Hohenheim), Father of Toxicology
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June, full-bloom phenological stage.
Has a little bite-back- Yeellow wood sorrel on a locally disturbed area (by a road bern and bar ditch). The Oxalis species are in their own family Oxalidaceae. O. strict is a widespread and common forb; this one was thriving in the southwestern Prairie Peninsula of Transeau (1935), specifically in the Springfield Plateau..
The following short section displayed and briefly described two similar
kinds of dodder (Cuscuta species), completely parasitic herbaceous
dicots, that are infrequently found of grasslands including tallgrass
prairie on which these examples were growing profusely. Surprisingly,
there are few publications devoted to the biology, ecology, or natural
history of these species. Some of the best treatments are in various
bullentins, fact sheets, etc. put out by the Cooperative Agricultural
Extension Service of land grant universities. the American Phytopathological
Society is the definitive authority on parasitic plants of North America.
In this regard the publication entitled, Introduction to Parasitic
Flowering Plants, (Nickrent1 and Musselman, 2010 ) was strongly
recommended and is available on-line from the American Phytopathological
Society.
Cuscuta species have traditionally been placed in their own dodder family (Cuscutaceae) although they are related to the morning-glory family (Convolvulaceae). In fact, some taaxonomists treated the Cuscuta species as a monogeneric tribe of the latter family (Smith, 1977, p. 191; Diggs et al., 1999, p. 572).
Cuscuta species are obligate parasites: they have no chlorophyll (hence the yellow, golden, amber, or honey color). Dodder species are heterotrophic ("other nourishing") and are completely dependent for life on chlorophyllous (chlorophyll-containing) plants. Obligate parasites are those that are dependent on one or more host species for completion of their life cycle.
Parasitic plant species are not of major ecological importance on tallgrass prairie, but they were included here to illustrate the diverse plant life and myriad biological interactions among the many species of plants of this grassland type (major association), an herbaceous range plant community with a highly developed and intricate structure (and a beauty all its own).
518. Strands of gold are not golden for all- Golden, yellow, or field dodder (C. campestris) parasitizing purpletop (Tridens flavus) on a tallgrass hay meadow in the western Ozark Plateau. This and the next slides were taken on a meadow on which the author had never before seen this species. Interestingly, plants of golden dodder were growing during the same spring that the photographer captured images of a closely related Cuscuta species growing on degraded tallgrass prairie four hundred miles to the south (see below).
C. campestris is a cosmopolitian species having a planet-wide distribution with, of course, an interrupted species range.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma..Early June; peak-bloom phenological stage.
519. Little flowers on a gold string- Views of shoots and inflorescences of the golden dodder plant introduced immediately above. The prey plant was purpletop. It was remarked in the introduction of these species that literature regarding the Cuscuta species is remarkably quite limited. One source for C. campestris was Weeds of the West (Whitson et al, 1992.,ps. 286-287), a joint publication by weed scientists of Agricultural Extension Services at western land grant universities.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma..Early June; peak-bloom phenological stage.
520. Strands of another tallgrass prairie parasite- Cusp dodder (C. cuspidata) growing on common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisifolia) at edge of a tallgrass prairie and an oak-hickory forest in the Springfield Plateau of southwestern Missouri.
Newton County, Missouri. Late July; pre-bloom stage.
521. Parasitic strands- Fiveangled dodder (C. pentagona) parasitizing Texas filaree (Erodium texanum) and Missouri evening-primrose (Oenothera macrocarpa= O. missouriensis) on deteriorated tallgrass prairie range of the Grand Prairie in northcentral Texas. C. pentagonia is very similar to C. campestris shown immediately above. Steyermark (1963, ps. 1221-1221) recognized both species in the flora of Missouri and distinguished between them on basis of minute details of lobes on calyxes. Diggs et al. (1999, p. 572-575) recognized and described three varieties of C. pentagona and did not include C. campestris in the flora Grand Prairie (northcentral Texas).
Hunewell Ranch, Tarleton State University, Erath County, Texas. Mid-April; immature fruit stage of phenology.
522. Stringing flowers- Chlorophyll-missing shoot of fiveangled dodder with immature fruit, a capsule, of an early maturing plant in first slide and a less advanced shoot with dense clusters of flowers parasitizing elegant gayfeather (Liatris splendens) in second slide. Plants of fiveangled dodder on this dreadfully degraded range fed on numerous plant species. Dodder plants did not have the luxury of being real choosey on this exploited pasture. It bore remarking again that Cuscuta species are obligate parasites: they lack chlorophyll and are dependent for life on chlorophyll-containing plants.
Hunewell Ranch, Tarleton State University, Erath County, Texas. Mid-April; immature fruit stage (first slide) and late May; peak-bloom stage of phenology (second slide).
523. Tried for a closer look- An "up-closerer" view of flowers of fiveangled dodder. Cuscuta species are commonly placed in their own family, Cuscutaceae.
Hunewell Ranch, Tarleton State University, Erath County, Texas. Mid-Late-October; flowering phenological stage.
Almost by definition there would be few, if any aquatic plants, growing in the terrestrial vegetation of grassland. A modification to this defining view or perception would be of plants growing on local wetlands like wet prairie (and including manmade impondments). Such an interpretation could be seen as blurring the distinction between prairie and marsh and, indeed, such distinctions are naturally blurry on tallgrass prairie ranges, especially where development of livestock water such as ponds (and any plant resulting therefrom) are part of the range.
Hence, a few exmples of truly aquatic range plants (hydrophytes) were included in this section that presented a survey of plants of tallgrass prairie range types. The species are native to North American tallgrass prairie in the locality in which they were photographed. They do not include exotic species that naturalized. The species in this section are primarily herbaceous dicotyledons because these plants have conspicuous corollas and are readily understood to be forbs. Hydrophytic monocotyledons with obvious petals and that have traditionally been classified as forbs--as distinct aquatic grasses and grasslike plants--were also included in this portion.
524. Two colonies of broadleafed (broad-leaf) arrowhead (Sagittaria latifolia)- A wetland or, on some habitats, an aquatic plant that is widespread on wet prairie. It is another monocotyledon. First (upper) slide, Cherokee County, Kansas; second slide, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.
525A. Broadleaf arrowhead on tallgrass prairie- Details of leaves and inflorescence on broadleaf arrowhead. Due to presence of a conspicuous corolla the arrowhead species have traditionally been interpreted as forbs, but given that they are monocots a case could be made for regarding them as grasslike plants. Slough along Indian Creek, Newton County, Missouri. August.
Nymphaceae (water lily family) includes some of the most spectacular of all aquatic plants both from standpoints of size of plants, beauty of their flowers, and unique fruit structures. Strange as it may seem to the prairie neophyte some of these aquatic forbs are indigenous to North American grasslands and associated wetlands. A beautous sample was presented to enlighten the initiates of Range Management.
This small--though somewhat sensational--sample of aquatic prairie forbs once again presented a lesson in "lumpers" versus "splitters", this time at the taxonomic level of family. Older interpretations included the two Nelumbo species in Nymphaceae More recent treatments view this two-species genus as constituting a family all to themselves, Nelumbonaceae (Cronquist, 1981, ps. 107-111; Takhtajan, 1997, ps. 77-78, 83-84).
Further details of common or broadleaf arrowhead:
525B. Foliage and flower- Leaf and flower of broadleaf arrowhead growing in a spring in the western edge of Springfield Plateau of Ozark Highlands.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July..
525C. Inflorescence and single floer of common or broadleaf arrowhead growing in a spring in the far-westerrn Springfield Plateau.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July..
525D. Wetland fruit- Fruit of broadleaf arrowhead produced in a spring in the karst features of the far-western Springfield Plateau of the Ozark Highlands.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July..
526. Arrowheads in the mud- Flatleaf arrowhead (Sagittaria platyphylla) or flatleaf variety of narrowleaf arrowhead (S. graminea var. platyphylla) growing in a caliche pit on the Grand Prairie in northcentral Texas.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. Mid-September; late bloom stage of phenology.
527. Flowers on the mud- Inflorescence (first slide) and two flowers (second slide) of flatleaf arrowhead or, another botanical interpretation, flatleaf form of narrowleaf arrowhead. Note that this was a determinate inflorescence (blooming from upper or outermost flowers downward and inward) with upper (earlier) flowers having already bloomed and now with early, developing fruit. These flowers were growing on plants next to the shoots presented in the preceding two slides.
Habitat was a caliche pit on Grand Prairie in northcentral Texas.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. Mid-September; late bloom stage of phenology.
526. Yep, a water lily- Fragrant water lily (Nymphaea odorata) covering the surface of a shallow stock pond in a wet prairie on the eastern border of the Cherokee Prairie (Central Lowlands physiographic province). Potential dominant range plant around the pond was bottomland switchgrass and prairie cordgrass, most of which had been grazed out in this sacrifice area. Backwater habitats like oxbow lakes were preferred range environments for this species before the white man dried up most of them through actions many of which were asinine, vain-glorous, misdiredted efforts. Chief among these vanity actions were re-channelization of streams, including numerous small creeks, that destroyed--at least largely so--the natural aquatic ecosystems.
With their emphasis on aquatic plants Correll and Correll (1975, ps. 902, 905) and Godfrey and Wooton (1981, ps. 164-166) were recommended as nice references along with time-tested Steyermark (1963, ps. 666, 667).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July.
527. Yes, it is a range plant and I don't want to hear anymore about it- The spectacular inflorescence of fragrant water lily growing in the shallow water of a stock pond (more like a hog wallow) on the eastern margin of the Cherokee Prairie. This hydrophytic species is native to this immediate locality. Water-filled depressionsalong with drainages into and seepages from rivers like Spring and Neosho Rivers provided the aquatic environments for this member of Nymphaeraceae. Human aactivity, especially lead and zinc and coal mining, drainage for farmland, and daming of rivers for construction of multi-purpose lakes, greatly modified the natural habitat of this and similar aquatic range plants. In some localities such human action dried up habitat whereas in others it created more wetlands, including pond construction. Overall, it is highly likely that more habitat was lost than created, but manmade lakes, water-filled strip pits (from open surface coal mining), increased surface runoff created other wetlands and bodies of surface water that were pleasing to this showy and sweet-smelling range plant.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July.
528. Spatterdock or yellow cow-lily (Nuphar luteum)- The second member of Nymphaceae to be presented is also an aquatic forb that grows on bodies of water from the tallgrass prairie region to the Florida Everglades to the wetlands of the Lauretian Shield and Great Lakes. Traditionally spatterdock was regarede as one continent(or even planet)-wide species. Recent research (Padgett, 2007) supports recognition of many nuphur. This author followed the (outdated?) interpretaation of one species and N. luteum has priority. The first photograph was of spatterdock leaves produced in a wetland northern Minnesota The scond photograph was of the relatively large leaf and a sexual shoot topped with an inflorescence that was shown in greater detail in the third photograph. Both of these photographs were of a plant in a tallgrass wetland.
Sptterdock has been regarded as valuable for wildlife as a source of both food and cover. American Indians of several tribes used the fruit (an achene) as well as the roots as food sources. It is thought that Indians used achenes medicinally.
In addition to the numerous flora such as Styermark (1963, ps. 665, 667) good sources for this species included Correll and Correll (1975, p. 906, 907) and Godfrey and Wooton (1981, 166-170).
First slide: wetland in St. Louis County, Minnesota. Second and third slides: Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. June; full-bloom stage.
Details of a cow-lilly- Three views of the flower of a wetland plant known variously as spatterdock, cow-lily, yellow pond-lily, or even gator-bonnet (depending on localisms). The peeled back petals to portray more details of the flower of this aquatic forb.
Wetland, St. Louis County, Minnesota.Late June.
529. American or yellow lotus (Nuphar lutea)- This rhizomatous aquatic forb with its spectacular bloom and fruit is closely related to the water lilies and spatterdock species. Other common names include duck nuts, water chinquapin, and alligator buttons. Nelumbo is the Greek word for "sacred bean".
Although waterfowl eat seeds of this species and thereby apparently help propagate it via their digestive tracts as they move from one body of water to the next it is not particularily a major or highly nutritious component of their diets. In fact, Strickland et al. (2009, ps. 20, 26) regarded yellow lotus as an undesirable plant for waterfowl habitat and suggested herbicides for its control. Yet, American lotus was clearly one of, if not the, dominant native species in backwater lakes of the Illinois River System Bellrose and Anderson, 1940; Bellrose, 1941). From the local colony shown here It was obvious why/how this species could dominant the aquatic habitat--and become a pest (weed) if not wanted by the pond owner.
American lotus is certainly an extremely effective species with regard to propagation and propagule dissemination. It spreads sexually by seeds (shown below) and asexually by rhizomes and tubers. American Indians ade extensive use of these vegetative propagules, especially the immense tubers.
Good references included Styermark (1963, ps. 667, 668-669), Correll and Correll (1975, p.911, 912), and Godfrey and Wooton (1981, ps. 158-160).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma.Early July.
530. Lotus bloom- Side and top-down views of the magnificant inflorescence of yellow or American lotus. There are many perfect (bi-sexual) flowers sunken within the flat upper surface of an expanded or enlarged receptacle. Individual petals, There are many obvious petals comprising the corolla of this interesting, aquatic, range plant. The inflorescence has a pleasant though mild fragrance. This native species has much ornamental value, at least for aquatic plant fans.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July.
531. Immature lotus fruit- Young receptacle of yellow or American lotus shown from sideview on sexual shoot (first slide), sideview detached from shoot and laid on a lotus leaf (second slide), and topdown view of detached receptacle on lotus leaf (third slide). (Same receptacle in second and third slides.) These receptacles were immature
The actual seeds have been variously termed nutlets which are individual ripened ovaries with the entire pistils encased within the large, saucerlike-surfaceed receptacle (see immediately below). Spent petals were dangling at base of this ripening fruit.
The lotus of the lotus-eaters enshrined in legend of Greek mythology as in The Odyssey or the poem, The Lotus-Eaters, of Alfred Lord Tennyson was most likely not fruit or seeds of Nuphar species and instead of some other plant species. Seeds of N. nucifera, the Nuphar species of the Orient, have been a a source of food and medicine for centuries. American Indians made extensive use of N. luteua though this was more for the starchy rhizomes and/or tubers or even the leaves as "greens" than the chestnutlike-flavored seeds according to Steyermark (1963, p. 668) who also described the fleshy rootstocks as being much smaller than those of Nymphaea and Nuphar species which were also eaten by Indians (Steyermark, 1963, ps. 665, 668). Diggs et al. (1999, p. 834) also noted consumption of yellow lotus by Indians.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July.
532. Concentrates for waterfowl (sometimes)- Dead sexual shoots with nutlet-filled receptacles (first slide) and various view of receptacles with nutlets (second slide) of American or yellow lotus. Seed dispersal by water, hydrochory, is self-evident in essentially all aquatic plants including Nymphaea, Nuphar, and Nelumbo species treated here. (See Polunin [1960, ps. 106-111] for example.) It is likely that there is some zochory, dispersal by animals, of American lotus by waterfowl and mammals either directly via consumption and excretion of intact seeds or indirectly by animal movements and other behavior. American lotus photographed on this stock pond were definitely not planted by human action leaving waterfowl as the most likely "suspects".
The fruit-bearing receptacles of yellow lotus do not float but sink quickly as the cavities containing nutlets quickly fill with water.
The longevity ofseeds of Nelumbo species is legendary-- and real. Seed of sacred lotus (N. nucifera) older than 1200 years germinated, most of them within four days, and subsequent vegetative growth of rhizomes and leaves from these seeds was robust (Shen-Miller et al., 1995)!
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. December.
533. Two decreaser shrubs of tallgrass prairies and oak-hickory savannas are redroot (Ceanothus ovatus) and ...
534. New Jersey tea (C. americanus)- New Jersey tea got its name from the practice of brewing a drink from its leaves by backswoodsmen along the Atlanic Coast and up above the Fall Line in the eastern deciduous forest in which this shrub was a dominant understory species.
Both plants in Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June.
535. Closer of New Jersey tea- More details of shoot with leaves and inflorescences (first slide) and still yet closer-in view of inflorecences (second slide) of C. americanus. On a tallgrass prairie used as hay meadow in western Springfield Plateau.
Newton County, Missouri. Early June; peak-bloom stage.
536. Rootstock of redroot- The large rootstocks of New Jersey tea (and sometimes the smaller rootstocks of redroot seen here) were called “grubs” by backswoodsmen who had to remove these organs from their fields carved from the virgin forests for certain crops (eg. sweet potato). According to the record left by frontier historians this was origin of the term “grubbing.
537. A fruitful plant of New Jersey tea and its fruit - Specimen of C. americanus with a heavy fruit crop (first photograph) and detail of a cluster of this fruit (second photograph) growing on a dune in Nebraska Sandhills. Fruit still immature.
Cherry County, Nebraska. June.
538. Prairie or climbing rose (Rosa setigera var. tomentosa)- A characteristically sprawling plant of prairie rose on tallgrass prairie in the Ozark Plateau. This is the most common native rose on prairies and savannas in more western areas of the Central Lowlands. For whatever reasons, this species does not commonly become a brush species. Instead it is trailing range plant--some specimens of which admittedly have shoots extending over a distance of a few yards--through which shoots of tallgrass species like big bluestem readily grow to their regular size.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late May.
539. Prairie rose- Shoot of the low-growing, native rose of the tallgrass prairie complete with an exceptionally dense group of the striking flowers of this species.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late May.
540. Really hip- A plant of prairie rose bearing hips (first slide) followed by detailed view of two ripening hips (second slide). Hip refers to the false fruit of the rose which is the structure resulting from fusion of separate true fruits of an apocarpous (carpels are separate from each other) gynoecium or the entire inflorescence (Smith, 1977, ps, 289, 296, 298). Range botany can get involved in a hurry. Regardless of the complexity of rose hips they are valuable feed for range animals, especially smaller species like birds and turtles.
This was the same plant shown in the preceding slide.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July, mid fruit-ripe stage.
541. Big foot, big root and big blooms- Big root or big root pricklypear, also twist-spine pricklypear (Opuntia macrohiza) on a road cut in the western tallgrass prairie. There are only a few species of cactus indigenous to the fire-prone, humid grasslands of the eastern prairie zone. Big root pricklypear is one, and it is not common. At least not in comparison to cactus cover slightly farther west as for example on the mixed and shortgrass prairies of the Great Plains. In fact, this rather fortunate--and certainly handsome--specimen was thriving in the northern Flint Hills of northcentral Kansas on the bared and land-depressed habitat created by road construction that was responsible for removal of herbaceous vegetation around this beauty. This artificial action eliminated all sources of fuel as well as competition from dominant climax tallgrass species.
This member of subfamily Opuntinoideae is in subgenus Platyopuntia, the species of which have flat and broad cladophylls (shoots) in contrast to those of the subgenus having round or cylinderical shoots.
Washington County, Kansas. Mid-June, and could it could not be doubted that this is full-bloom stage.
542. Big beauties- Inflorescences of the plant of big root pricklypear discussed immediately above. Note the many stamen surrounding the large stigma. Perhaps the most remarkable thing in these photographs was the absence of pollinferous or polliniferous (pollen-feeding) insects and other pollinators.
Washington County, Kansas. Mid-June.
543. Another prickly charmer- Inflorescence of eastern pricklypear (Opuntia compressa and, according to some authors, O. humiusa). The flowers of many species within the Platyopuntia subgenus of Opuntia cannot be distinguished one from another. This one was easy to identify because O. compressa is the only cactus member of native range plant communities in the Ozark Plateau where this beauty was "brought back alive" by your Frank Buck photographer.
Ottawa County Mid-June.
544. Got berries- Eastern pricklypear with developing fruit, the type of which is a berry. This one was growing on a chert tallgrass prairie in the Ozark (Springfield) Plateau.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma Mid-July.
545. Sand, western sand, or sandhill cherry (Prunus bessey= P. pumila var besseyi) This member of the Rosaceae calls the Nebraska Sandhills home. It was originally recognized as a separate species and named in honor of the famous botanist Charles E. Bessey, Father of the American Plant Ecology and mentor to such greats as Frederic E. Clements. Today sandhill cherry is regarded as a taxonomic variety of the widely distributed sand cherry which was one of the shrubs on the sand dunes of Lake Michigan where Henry Chandler Cowles was probably the first American ecologist to describe plant succession and recognize it as a dynamic phenomenon. It was from Cowles' use of dynamic that Clements took the concept and made famous his model of "dynamic vegetation". Cowles' major professor was John Colter who wrote famous flora of the Western Range Region including the classic, Botany of Western Texas (Colter, 1891-1894).
But back to the range plant ... Sand cherry is one of several low-growing shrubs in the postclimax tallgrass prairie of the Nebraska Sandhills. It is also distributed as far north and east as Newfoundland and Qubec. Western sand cherry undoubtedly provides some browse and nutient-rich fruit (plums are drupes) for wildlife or even livestock. All Prunus species should be considered potentially toxic (amygdalin, a cyanogenic glycoside, that breaks down to hydrocyanic acid is the poisonous principle), but the smaller P. bessey poses less threat than larger species such as P. virginiana and P. serotina.
Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June.
546. Cherries in the hills, green ones that is- Progressively closer-in views of leaves and drupes of Bessey's or western sand cherry growing at southern margin of Nebraska Sandhills. This was on the same plant that was introduced in the immediately preceding pair of slides.
Prunus species are in the Prunoideae or Amygdaloideae subfamily of Rosaceae. The drupes of this subfamily have structures consisting of both 1) hard, boney, or rock-like endocarp and 2) seed traditionally referred to as a stone or pit. The technical name for this stone or pit is pyrene (Smith, 1977, ps. 149, 305, 309).
Lincoln County, Nebraska. Mid-June; immature-fruit stage of phenology.
547. Plum thicket on the prairie- Thicket (first slide) and detail of fruit-bearing leader (second slide) of wild plum or American wild plum (P. americana) on tallgrass prairie in the Smoky Hills section of central Kansas. In some respects P american is the all-American wild plum. It forms comparatively small thickets (in contrast to invasive,extensive colonies of P. angustifolia for instance) and frequently produces relatively large, tasty fruits. This is the native Prunus that has greatest yields of fruit ideally suited for making jams and jellies. Perhaps the specific epithet reflected this favorable combination of features.
Mawell Game Preserve, McPherson County, Kansas. Mid-July; immature (yet quickly ripening) fruit stage.
548. What a crop!- Bountiful yield of plums of P. americana on tallgrass prairie in the western Ozark (Springfield ) Plateau. Fruit type of Prunus species is drupe, fleshy indehiscent with one seed enclosed inside an endocarp (together comprising a pyrene) that is descriped as "stony" or "bony" and with an exocarp called the "skin" and the flesh or "meat" of this fruit being the mesocarp. (Smith, 1977, ps. 69, 295).
This is the heaviest yield of wild plums that this author ever saw. As has often been the case with photographs, the extraordinary, rare, unique, unusual, or exteme cases are the ones chosen for subjects. The abnormally heavy crop shown here provided an example for viewers who should not expect to find such a bumper harvest any time soon.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma.. Late July; late fruit-ripening stage of phenology.
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549. Almost ready to pick- Details of fruit and twigs of P. americana. There had been much insect feeding on leaves as shown in these and the two preceding photographs. Ottawa County, Oklahoma.. Late July; late fruit-ripening stage of phenology.
550. Dressed to the nines- Profusely blooming leaders of common or Atlantic ninebark (Physocrpus opulifolius) growing at edges of an ephemeral prairie stream (more like a shallow draw or seasonally mesic drainage) in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. This woody member of the Rosaceae or rose family (spirea subfamily, the Spiraeoideae) was discussed in more detail in the next caption.
Newton County, Missouri. Late May; immediate post peak-bloom phenological stage (note dying or senescing petals indicated by brown coloration).
551. Nine of crowns- Interior crown of blooming common or Atlantic ninebark (Physocrpus opulifolius) growing at edges of an ephemeral prairie stream (more like a shallow draw or seasonally mesic drainage) dominated by upland switchgrass in the western Ozark (Springfeld) Plateau. Though less publized than western ninebark species (those found where there is more public land) Atlantic or common ninebark also provides outstanding browse. This is usually more at local scale and even this has become much more restricted with damage to stream ecosystems by bulldozer-crazy landowners, ever-expanding highways, and "flood control" projects that have done much to dry up once beautifully flowing streams.
There is not a lot of material available regarding common ninebark as a forest and range plant. Vines (1960, p. 427-428) is an old standby. Francis (2004) blew it on this one (as well as on a lot of others as was noted elsewhere herein) and covered only the western species. Ninebark was also excluded from coverage of woody plants in Kansas by Stephens (1969), but he got common ninebark into his compendium of woody plants of the north central plains and central lowlands (Stephens, 1973, ps. 218-219). In similar, in the Forest Service's treatment of Ozark range plants Crawford (1969) failed to include Atlantic or common ninebark. On a better note, Kurz (1997, ps. 166-167) did include common or eastern ninebark, but even here there was no reference to the browse of ninebark.
This three-slide photographic sequence provided views of both leaf and flower details of common or Atlantic ninebark. The typical rose flower was obvious from the second and, especially, the third or close-up photograph in this series.
Ninebark is a member of the spirea subfamily, Spiraeoideae. The Missouri example presented here is variety intermedius (Steyermark, 1963, p. 793).
Newton County, Missouri. Late June; both flowering and maturing-fruit (see immediately below) phenological stages on the same plant.
552. Freshly nined- Leaders with flower clusters (upper or first slide) and a single flower cluster featured (lower or second slide) on Atlantic or common ninebark growing on a mesic microhabitat in a tallgrass prairie in the Springfield Plateau.
Newton County, Missouri. Late May; peak-bloom stage of phenology.
553. Fruit-aden leader- Leader (branch of a woody plant) of common or Atlantic ninebark "loaded" with capsules, the fruit type of this species. Also, good views of leaf features of this species.
Newton County, Missouri. Late June; both flowering (see immediately abovve) and maturing-fruit phenological stages on the same plant.
554. The nines have it- Ripening fruit of common or Atlantic ninebark Fruit type of ninebark is a capsule which for this species is a dry, inflated capsule. These capsules (cluster of capsules) were some of those seen in the immediately preceding slides.
Obviously, the fruit as well as flowers and foliage is quite attractive. It is for this reason, coupled with drought-tolerance and fondness for native species, that ninebark has become a favorite among landscapers.
Newton County, Missouri. Late June; maturing-fruit phenological stages
555. Smooth customer-Shoot of smooth sumac (Rhus glabra var. glabra) with clusters of fruit growing on a tallgrass prairie glade in far-western part of Ozark Plateau. Smooth sumac is probably the (certainly one of the) most common and widespread of the Rhus species. Smoooth sumac has an immense biological range in North America extending across Canada from Quebe to British Columbia and south into Arizona across to Florida and even frather south to Tamaulipas in northeastern Mexico.
The sumacs (often pronounced "sumakes" by rural speakers) are one of the textbook shrubs of tallgrass prairie and tallgrass-oak/hickory savannahs. One of the best indicators of this phenomenon is their remrkable adaptation to fire. Rhus species are so adapted to periodic burning of grassland and savanna vegetation that these strongly rhizomatous (their woody rhizomes are called "rootstocks") shrubs undergo senescence ("become decadent" in the slang of pro-burn grasslanders) quite quickly in absence of fire. Rhus species like smooth sumac respond more favorably to spring burning than about any other plant species except decreaser tallgrasses like big bluestem and Indiangrass. However, as these are shrubs with aboveground perennating organs (woody shoots) annual firing of tallgrass prairie (as commonly practiced in the Flint Hills Region of Kansas for example) will effectively reduce patch cover or size of smooth sumac colonies.
A number of bird species, including upland game birds, feed on the fruit, a dry drupe, and although these drupes are not a highly preferred range concentrate they are an important "fall-back-on" energy source ( Martin et al., 1951, p.335). The smooth bark of Rhus species with its latex is not used as browse under normal grazing conditions (ie. not overgrazing or overbrowsing) other than by domestic goats, and then mostly the brush-eating, generic Spanish goat.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July; early firm-fruit phenological stage.
556. Smooth cluster- Details of cluster of and individual drupes of smooth sumac growing on a tallgrass prairie glade in the Springfield Plateau portion of the Ozark Highlands. It was explained in the preceding caption tht these drupes are important--though not highly preferred--concentrates for numerous birds, both game and nongame species.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July; early firm-fruit phenological stage.
557. Compounded on the prairie and savanna- Compound leaf of smooth sumac on tallgrass prairie glade in western Ozark Plateau. There are an odd number of opposite leaflets (due to one at leaf terminus) varying between to 9-23 leaflets per leaf in this Rhus species (Diggs et al., 1999).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July.
A shining study of sumac. The following threee two-slide sets illustrated the extent to which sexual repoduction occurs in shinning or winged sumac (Rhus copallina var. latifolia). Rhus species commonly reproduce asexually from an extensive system of "rootstocks" (a network of rhizomes), but when flowering occurs it can be spectacular as shown here. This colony was growing in the western Springfield Plateau in a transition zone between an oak-hickry forest and tallgrass prairie..This is part of the Prairie Peninsula.
Shining in blooms- A acolony with numerous inflorescences or flower clusters of shining or winged sumac (first slide) and an example of these flower clusters at apex of individual shoots of this colonizing shrub (second slide).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July.
Shining flowers- A single inflorescence (floer cluster) on a single shoot of shining or winged sumac in a portion of the Prairie Peninsula in the Springfield Plateau of the general Ozark Plateau just "shy" of the Cherokee Prairie. Each inflorescence is a "universe" of individual flowers. Next slide please...
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July.
Just part of 'em- Individual flowers of winged or shining sumac produced in the Prairie Peninsula of the western Ozark Plateau. This is just part of one branch of one inflorescence. For the potential to produce fruit and--a a bumper crop of it--keep scrolling down.(or seroll back up).
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July.
558. What a bunch of blooms!- Clonal colony of winged or shinning sumac (Rhus copallina) growing on a a virgin tallgrass prairie in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau in full-bloom grandeur at the peak of summer. This outstanding example of an ecotone or transition prairie between tallgrass prairie and true prairie had been managed as a prairie hay meadow for a century before being taken out of hay production. It was then periodically burned by prescription. Within a few years patches of winged sumac had begun to appear.
What the future holds in this regard remains to be seen. The Rhus species "love" spring fire almost as much as do the decreaser tallgrass species like big bluestem and switchgrass which are dominants of this truly outstanding grassland ecosystem.
Diamond Grove Prairie (a Catherine Ordway prairie) Newton County, Missouri. Early August; full-bloom phenological stage.
559. A blooming branch- Leader of winged or shinning sumac at peak bloom growing on a pristine tallgrass prairie n the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau at the height of summer.
Diamond Grove Prairie (a Catherine Ordway prairie) Newton County, Missouri. Early August; peak-bloom phenological stage.
Note: the clonal colony of shining or winged sumac in the two preceding slides and the clonal colony of winged or shinning sumac in the two suceeding slides were growing within a few steps of each other on a virgin tallgrass prairie in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. They were photographed within a few minutes of each other thereby demonstrating differences in the phenological clock of two plants (two geneotypes) on the same local habitat.
560. Burdened with fruit- Leaders winged or shinning sumac with extremely heavy clusters of fruit which is traditionally interpreted as a drupe (first or upper slide) and individual drupes in a cluster (second or lower slide).
Diamond Grove Prairie (a Catherine Ordway prairie) Newton County, Missouri. Early August; fruit-ripe phenological stage.
601. As if scratches from sand weren't enough- Western poison ivy (Rhus rydbergii= Toxicodendron rydbergii= T. radicans var rydbergii) in heart of the Nebraska Sandhills. Another species that the "experts" cannot agree on as to its proper scientific name. Those sensitive (allergic) to this species can agree that it gives a bad itch and an almost irresistable urge to scratch. Fortunately this photographer is "immune" to the toxin that causses dermitis to others who enjoy the sandhills. Range animals sometimes browse this species and obviously birds make use of the fruit. Two-legged range folk can enjoy this sight-pleasing small shrub of the sand dunes, especially from safe distance afforded by the worldwide web.
Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June.
An uncommon showy one- Shrubby St. Johnswort (Hypericum spathulum= H. prolificum) in a local mesic microsite in an ecotone between a chert glade variant of tallgrass prairie and oak-hickory forest in the Springfield Plateau in southwest Missouri. There are quite a number of Hpericum species on North American range. Steyermark (1963, ps.1055-1064) listed 13 Hypericum species for Missouri while the Great Plains Flora Association (1986, ps. 237-239) described seven Hpericum species (of which H. spathulum was not one) for a geographical area extending from northern Oklahoma, through much of the Osage Plains in western Missouri and Iowa, a good part of the Great Plains except in Texas and New Mexico, then north to the southern Canadian Prairie Provinces.
Some of these Hpericum species are woody while others are herbaceous. The forbs (hrerbaceous species) are either annuals or perennials. Likewise, while most of these are species are native, others are introduced and naturalized. As implied by the common name of shrubby St. Johnswort, this species is a subshrub (Steyermark 1963,p. 1059). Shrubby St. Johnswort is a semi-woody species of riparian areas/zones or, at least of low, mesic habitats more than upland areas (other than those upland sites or microsites that for various reasons are more favorable soil moisture-wise).
While some of the Hypericum species are poisonous to livestock, H. spathulum is not one of these (Burrows and Tyrl, 2013, ps. 710-716)
Newton County, Missouri. Late July; full-bloom phenological stage.
Botanical pinwheels- Flower clusters of shrubby St. Johnswort are borne singularly (ie. they are regarded as solitary). Can there be any doubt that this native species has tremendous ornamental value for those wishing to landscape with native plants and natural-like local landscapes?
Hpericum species have been included as members of the family known variously as the Guttiferae (= Clusiaceae) or Garciniae (= Hypericaceae) (Steyermark, 1963, p. 1055; Smith, 1977, p.118 ; Great Plains Flora Association, 1986, p. 237; Diggs et al, 1999, p. 544). Hpericum species are in their own subfamily, Hypericoideae.
Newton County, Missouri. Late July; full-bloom phenological stage.
Botanical pinwheels- Flower clusters of shrubby St. Johnswort are borne singularly (ie. they are regarded as solitary). Can there be any doubt that this native species has tremendous ornamental value for those wishing to landscape with native plants and natural-like local landscapes?
Hpericum species have been included as members of the family known variously as the Guttiferae (= Clusiaceae) or Garciniae (= Hypericaceae) (Steyermark, 1963, p. 1055; Smith, 1977, p.118 ; Great Plains Flora Association, 1986, p. 237; Diggs et al, 1999, p. 544). Hpericum species are in their own subfamily, Hypericoideae.
Newton County, Missouri. Late July; full-bloom phenological stage.
Another example- Leader of shrubby St. Johnswort featuring charactristic leaves and overall arrangement or pattern of the inflorescence of this woody member of a an otherwise group of range forbs. This shoot was on the same plant that introduced this species though in a later year.
Newton County, Missouri. Early July; full-bloom phenological stage.
In case you missed them earlier- More examples of flower clusters and leaves of shrubby St. Johnswort on a plant that was growing on a transition zone between tallgrass prqairie and a tallgrass-oak savanna in the Ozark (Springfield) Plateau in southwestern Missouri. These flowers and leaves were on the same plant (above) that introduced this species. These organs were produced on that plant the following year.
Newton County, Missouri.Late June; full-bloom phenological stage.
561. Big tree on the prairie- Beautiful and massive specimen of bur oak that made its home in the floodplain of the Bosque River in the Western Cross Timbers of northcentral Texas. Bur oak is obviously a minor member--especially when compared to the dominant post and blackjack oaks--of the scattered forest and woodland communities in southern portions of the tallgrass prairie region. In more northernly parts of this vegetational realm bur oaks replace blackjack and even post oak as the dominant oak. In these northern parts of the Prairie Peninsula and tallgrass-true prairie region bur oak would be second--if that--only to eastern cottonwood as a dominant tree both on grassland and isolated forest communities such as gallary forests. Bur oak is the most widely distributed of all the oak species that have the role of hardwood dominant across the North American central prairies (McGregor et al., 1977, ps. 39-41). Post oak and blackjack oak barely extend northward to Iowa whereas bur oak extends to Ontario.
Hamilton County, Texas. July.
562. Bur(r) or mossy cup oak (Quercus macrocarpa)- Young leaves and catkins of the dominant oak of the northern tallgrass, true, and mixed prairies northward from central Kansas. Bur oak can be interpreted as the northern ecological equivalent of post and blackjack oaks as the aboreal dominant of the grassland-deciduous forest ecotone (Vankat, 1979, p. 221). This species produces the largest acorns of any oak in North America and it is the oak of the famous oak groves and savannas of the northern grasslands (Peattie, 1938). Seedlings rapidly send their tap roots deep into the fertile prairie soils and become quickly established after germination (Weaver, 1968, ps. 135-139). This genetic adaptation to drought combined with the species’ thick fire resistant bark (Allen, 1967, p. 15) make it admirably suited to drought- and fire-prone prairies. It’s range extends far south of it’s region of dominance into central Texas where it sometimes dominates bottomland savannas. Hamilton County, Texas, April.
563. Leaves and fruit of buroak- Burr oak (either one or two "rs" are used) is regarded as having the largest acorn of any Quercus species in North America. Like other white oak species buroak bears fruit every year (versus a two-year cycle) in the red or black oaks. The combination of large acorns and production each year makes this species one of the most valuable producers of mast in the eastern deciduous forest (ie. the eastern part of North America).
Burroak is also known as mossy-cup oak, both common names in reference to the conspicuous tapered tips of the scales of the cup which present a fringe-like appearance. The geographic range of. Q. macrocarpa extends from eastern Canada (New Brunswick and Quebec) to Texas.
Hamilton County, Texas. September.
564. Tough tree in "hard scramble" country- Small and misshapen (stunted runts) chinquapin (= chinkapin) oaks on the shallow soil of an exposed south in Cherokee Prairie. Chinquapin oak can development into large, even immense, stately trees given its optimum environment. Less than ideal habitat can still make for survival (defined as successful reproduction) as on this marginal site for this species. One of several common names for Quercus muhlenbergii is rock oak. This and the specimens shown in the next slide typify that habitat feature.
Throughout most of the Prairie Pninsula chinquapin oak is a major hardwood species in savanna and forest vegetation. In fact, chinquapin oak has a species range throughout the Prairie Peninsula and tallgrass prairie region that is larger than any other dominant oak except for bur oak (Barker et al., 1977, ps. 39-41).
Rogers County, Oklahoma.
565. Two oaks on a dry branch of the Modoc- Two adult chinquapin oaks of mid-size on a dry, stoney stream bank in Ozark Highlands. Note in both these individuals as well as those shown above that chinkapin oak frequently branches close to the ground with these oldest, largest limbs persisting throughout much of the trees' lives. This feature is characteristic of trees in general that develop in the open as on prairie or savanna.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. October.
566. Springtime for chinkapin oak- Catkins and young leaves of chinquapinoak as it emerged from dormancy began its annual cycle of life again. Dallas County, Texas. March.
567. Chinkapin oak- Two samples of leaves and fruit of chinquapin oak. First of these two slides was of the "hard scramble" specimen used to introduce this species (Rogers County, Oklahoma. October). Second sample of foliage and acorns was from a well-watered, well-nourished individual ( Dallas County, Texas. October).
568. Ozarks blackjack- Mature specimen of blackjack oak (Quercus marylandica) on a hardwoods-tallgrass savanna in western Springfield Plateau portion of Ozark Mountains. Understorey had been highly modified by overgrazing followed by overmowing. It was revealing that the major grass next to trunk of this tree was western wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii). Autumn coloration.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. October.
569. "Trees on tallgrass prairie? Yes, (at least by Kansas standards)"- Two views of eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides) growing on tallgrass prairie. Some of the bent, horizontal trunks (most of them were cut off by the Epson printer*) of the second slide were black willow (Salix nigra). These two members of the Salicaceae are often associated with each other on moist habitats in both tallgrass and mixed prairie communities.
Saline County, Kansas. November.
*In this photographer's experience Epson printers are fast, but a clearly inferior product for scanning slides. This author's Epson Perfection V700 photo printer overexposed many slides and yet failed to show clearly many clear slides such as these two that had proper lighting. This required "layer adjustment" of many slides such both of these slides. The Epson scanner focused or "read' (specifically, it opverread) the sky and bleached out the autumn color tones of the bluestem and Indiangrass foliage. This can be adjusted. Worse yet, the Epson Perfection V700 scanner over-cropped almost all slides. This equipment cannot be corrected for. This overpriced equipment is far from "perfection". R. E. Rosiere recommended against purchase and use of Epson scanners.
570. Crowns on the autumn prairie- This is about as colorful as Kansas prairie gets. It may not be the "yellow brick road", but cottonwood leaves on cow paths seemed mighty purty. Eastern cottonwood is the State Tree of Kansas. Butler County, Kansas. Late October.
Members of the Salicaceae, the cottonwood-willow family, are generally dioecious; that is having the characteristic or phenomenon of unisexual genotypes (of separate male and female plants). In the section below examples of male and female catkins on eastern cottonwood were presented. These unisexual (imperfect) flowers were borne on two separate (genetically distinct) trees that were located less than one adult cottonwood crown apart.
Gold and blue- Rich amber-colored staminate catkins of eastern cottonwood against a backdrop of a rare (for Texas) azure blue sky demonstrated colorfully and at progressively closer camera distance the male-flower cluster of this iconic tree of the tallgrass prairie.
Several spring-swollen lateral buds were visible on the leader presented in the first two of these three slides.
This example came from the Grand Prairie-Western Cross Timbers vegetational area of northcentral Texas.
Erath County,Texas. Late March.
Paler gold with the same blue- Pale amber-colored pistillate catkins of eastern cottonwood against a backdrop of a rare (for Texas) azure blue sky demonstrated colorfully and at progressively closer camera distance the female-flower cluster of this iconic tree of the tallgrass prairie.
The female tree that bore these lady catkins was less than felling distance (less than a felled trees distance) from the gentleman catkins seen immediately above. In addition, the second image shown here sported a large and swollen terminal or apical preformed bud.
Erath County,Texas. Late March.
Flowers of both sexes- Female (pistillate) catkins were placed above and below a male (staminate) catkin of eastern cottonwood that was growing in the Grand Prairie-Western Cross Timbers vegetational area of northcentral Texas. These catkins were some of those presented in the two immediately preceding slide-caption sets.
Erath County,Texas. Late March.
Cotton candy on a tree- About one month later (after the bearing of unisexual flowers) some of the pistillate (female) catkins presented above bore ripened ovaries that were now capsules which were dehiscing and releasing seeds equipped with their namessake "cottonwood" parachute-like pilose hairs. This morphological featurewas described by Smith (1977, ps. 128, 292) as comose meaning to have a coma which is a tuft of hairs.
Erath County, Texas. Late April.
Parts of a foliaceous, voluptous female- Young, full-grown leaves and a pendulous cluster of immature capsules of eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides sp. deltoides) in the Western Cross Timbers of northcentral Texas. Populus species are dioecious so this was obviously a female tree.
The cobalt-blue sky was result of a late-season norther that took out drab, high-humidity, polluted air and replaced it with fresh, clean Arctic air.
Silvics of eastern cottonwood was provided in Burns and Honkala (1990).
.Erath County, Texas. Mid-April.
Spring-bedecked female parts- Young, fully developed leaves and a cluster of immature capsules of eastern cottonwood in the West Cross Timbers of northcentral Texas. There are any number of fine references for this State Tree of Kansas including the following which were given in contest of taxonomy and morphology of eastern cottonwood.
Systematics of Populus species (even within P. deltoides) has and continues to be a matter of confusion and conflict with any number of taxonomic treatments ranging from those of Coulter (1891-1894, ps. 419-420) and Sargent (1933, ps. 132-137 passim) through Vines (1960, ps. 89-92), Steyermark (1963, ps. 507-508), Correll and Johnston (1979, p.455), Great Plains Flora Association (1986, ps. 278-279), Diggs et al. (1999, ps. 975-976), and Allred and Ivey (2012, p. 529-530) for the general region herein involved. It seemed to this rather independent author that the treatment by Diggs et al. (1999, ps. 975-976) was most accurate and appropriate, perhaps primarily because it was the closest flora for this immediate area.
Diggs et al. (1999, ps. 975-976) elevated to two subspecies of P. deltoides some taxa (species, varieties, forms) formerly used for eastern cottonwood, plains cottonwood, and perhaps others such as Sargent's cottonwood by previously published work. In their dichotomy of these subspecies, subspecies deltoides had 10 to 20 coarse teeth on each side of the deltoid leaf whereas subspecies monilifera had only five to 10 coarse teeth along each. Viewers can handily see in various of the views presented in this short treatment that this example was clearly P. deltoides subsp. deltoides.
Great Plains Flora Association (1986, p. 279) lumped all Populus deltoides for the Great Plains as being P. deltoides subsp. monilifera with a note that it and P. deltoides subsp. deltoides intergraded with each other along eastern margins of the Great Plains. These authors (Great Plains Flora Association, 1986, p. 2) extended their version of the "Great Plains" (presumedly so that they could include all of Kansas and northward states) into the Central Lowlands physiographic province. This implied that there would be no specimens of P. deltoides subsp. deltoides in Kansas, western Missouri and so on (Great Plains Flora Association, 1986, ps. 2, 279). This would certainly to be erroneous, but again these authorities distinguished between numbers of teeth on leaf margins as between early leaves and late leaves with many more margin teeth on late leaves.
Either way, treatment by Great Plains Flora Association (1985, p. 279) clearly conflicted with treatment by Allred and Ivey (2012, ps. 529-530) who broke P. deltoides into four varieties including P. deltoides var. deltoides which entered ("scarcely") northeastern New Mexco. This is, of course, west of Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, etc.
Burns and Honkala (1990)--official US Forest Service version--treated eastern cottonwood (P. deltoides) as P. deltoides var. deltoides for "eastern cottonwood (typical)" and P. deltoides var. occidentalis for "plains cottonwood".
Confused, yet?
.Erath County, Texas. Mid-April.
How're they hanging?- Immature many-seeded capsules of eastern cottonwood. The pendulous position of the fruit cluster in the first slide is the natural or undisturbed habit whereas the "wrapped" or "coiled" position in the second slide was the result of wind action. The Populus species are not only wind-pollinated and with wind-dispersed seeds, but they also subject to numerous other "avenues", "venues", or "expressions" of wind action
.Erath County, Texas. Mid-April.
571. Foliage and fruit of prairie silvan queen- First of these two photographs was young shoots (two small seedlings or small saplings) of eastern cottonwood. They had been flattened by running water from recent spring (June) rains. (They straightened up.) Second photograph was the typical deltoid leaf with ripe fruit ( a capsule) of eastern cottonwood. Cottonwood capsules are described as comose, an adjective referring to having a coma (a tuft of hairs). Cottonwood derived its common name from the phenomenon of conspicuous, usually copious (and inconvenient) shedding of the comose ("cottony") fruit. All members of the Salicaceae are dioecious so that a tree is male or female and thus produces only staminate or only pistillate flowers. Of course only female plants produce fruit so that occurrence of the "messy fluff" comes only from the ladies. (Some range men find girls troublesome while others enjoy the mess.) Female catkins from this same plant were shown in the next photograph. Erath County, Texas. May.
572. Cottonwood "eggs"- Pistillate catkins of eastern cottonwood. These catkins were from the same tree whose leaf and fruit were shown in the immediately preceding photograph. All members of Salicaceae (willow or poplar family) are dioecious so that catkins are unisexual (ie. all catkins from each individual plant [= each genetotype] are either male or female flowers). Erath County, Texas. April.
573. Prairie willow (Salix humilis)- Female plant (in peak fruit shatter) of prairie willow. This is one of the most widely distributed willow species on central North American prairies. A prairie in the Ozark Plateau. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. April.
574. Ain't they sexy!- Unisexual flowers or prairie willow. In was explained above in discussion of eastern cottonwood that species of the Salicaceae (willow or poplar family) are dioecious. The flower cluster of the Salicaceae is a ament or catkin, "an inflorescence characterized by typically unisexual.apetalous [absent petals], bracteate flowers in a pendant cluster (Smith, 1977, p. 291). In the first of these three slides both pistillate or female (left shoot) and staminate or male (right shoot) catkins were present. This was side-by-side occurrence was the natural position of the female willow and the male willow illustrating ready (handy) pollination in Salix humilis. The second slide was of the female shoot and catkins. Third slide was male. These plants were growing at edge of an oak-hickory forest and small prairie in the western Ozark Plateau.
Newton County, Missouri. April.
575. What they look like with their leaves on- Plant of prairie willow showing four entire shoots (first slide) and one leader (branch) with details of leaf pattern (second slide) in late spring foliage inwestern Ozark (Springfield0 Plateau portion of the the Prairie Peninsula.
Newton County, Missouri. Mid-June; late vernal appearance.
576. Flowering before the tallgrasses grow tall- Fruit (comose capsules) of prairie willow on edge of an oak-hickory forest and a small prairie in the western Ozark Highlands. Newton County, Missouri. April.
577. Washed out (by Epson scanner not water)- Immense plant (first slide) and a portion of its foliage and fruits (second slide) of buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis) by a small lake at edge of the Rolling Red Plains (Great Plains physiographic province) in southwest Oklahoma.
Technical note and advice: Both of these images (on Provia 100F film) were obviously botched up by an Epson Perfection 700 scanner. The Perfection (what a cruel joke) scanner over-exposes--at random--lots of images. This results in a chrystalized or 'frosted" appearance. Epson scanners are dreadful products and the Epson Corportion provides zero support for its customers. Avoid these bastards and their second-rate, cap-and-ball junk. Too late for this author, but he warned his students: do not buy Epson products.
Buttonbush is a shrub of wetlands up to wet-mesic habitats of tallgrass to mixed prairies as well as oak-hickory forests. It is one of the more characteristic plants of such habitats and for this reason was placed in this chapter next to prairie willows. Buttonbush is a member of the coffee or madder family (Rubiaceae).
Good references for button bush included Vines (1963, ps. 937-938), Stephens (1973; ps. 458-459), Kurz (1997, ps. 76-77), Francis (2004; ps. 170-172), and Tyrl et al. (2008, ps. 506-507). The latter authors gave a good description of the value of buttonbush as a feed plant for wildlife.
Wichita Mountains National Wildlife Refuge, Comanche County, Oklahoma. Early August.
Wet prairie as good as riparian zone- Leader (major branch) on a plant of buttonbush that was growing on wet prairie that developed as a consociation of prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata) in the Osage Plains of the Central Lowlands physiographic province in southwestern Missouri. Buttonbush is one of the textbook examples of shrubs that have wet--especially sustained wet--rooting medium as a critical feature of their habitat. This rooting medium includes (or, at least, can include) the capillary fringe of the aquifer and wet parent material below the soil profile as well as the soil itself. The heavy "gumbo" clay soil of this wet prairie provided an ideal edaphic environment for buttonbush that is regarded as an aquatic plant (Fassett, 1957, ps. 316-317).
This wet prairie (not a marsh) was on the floodplain of the Marmaton River. During flooding, especially during the period of heavy spring rains, the land that this plant called home was periodically under 20 feet of floodwater.
Barton County, Missouri. Late July-full-bloom phenological stage.
White floral arrangement on wet, black soil- Closer-in views of leaves and inflorescences of the leader of buttonbush introduced on the immediately preceding slide. These plant organs were on wet prairie that developed on the floodplain of the Marmaton River in the Osage Plains of the Central Lowlands physiographic province. The soil was a heavy clay "gumbo" and this land was sometimes inudated and covered by 20 feet of floodwater. Note a few leaves of prairie cordgrass mixed in with buttonbush. Prairie cordgrass was the range plant species that formed a consociation in which this shrub grew as the sole representative of woody plants on this floodplain grassland.
The inflorescence of buttonbush was described variously as a spherical head on a long peduncle arising from an upper leaf axil (Fassett, 1957, p. 316), a many-flowered head (Great Plains Flora Association, 1986, p. 817), and as a globose head borne at the terminus of a long peduncle (Tyrl et al., 2008, p. 507).
Barton County, Missouri. Late July-full-bloom phenological stage.
578. Leaves and buttons- Leaves and globose inflorescences of buttonbush on a plant that was growing in the riparian zone of a large (largely pristine) creek in the Springfield Plateau of southwest Missouri.
Buttonbush is one of the most characteristic shrubs of wet prairies, small depressions and riparian zones of creeks throughout the Central Lowlands physiographic province. Its species range, however, extends from central Canada to Florida and west to New Mexico in North America; buttonbush is also native to the West Indies and eastern Asia (Vines, 1963, p. 938).
Floodplain of Shoal Creek, Newton County, Missouri. Mid-July; late-bloom phenological stage.
579. Browning buttons on a bush- Globose flower clusters of buttonbush in a local microhabitat in the riparian zone of an Ozark Mountains stream. Buttonbush is a wetland plant and a telltale indicator of wet prairies.
This is a fine native shrub to use in creating local prairiescapes or as s solitary plant for folks who prefer to grow native species as yard ornamentals, provided that its soil stays wet to very moist.
Technically speaking, buttonbush is a poisonous (or, at least, suggestively so) range plant with intoxication of cattle being reported such that Burrows and Tyrl (2013, ps. 1095-1099) reviewed buttonbush and found it "prudent" to regard it as toxic. Indole and oxindole alkaloids have been implicated as the possible poisonous principles. Tyrl et al. (2008, p. 507) reported that Indians used the bark medicinally (to induce vomiting and treat fevers for instance), but then again was there any plant that Indians did not use at one time or the other for treatment of medical problems (real or imagined)?
Floodplain of Shoal Creek, Newton County, Missouri. Mid-July; late-bloom phenological stage.
It was remarked above that in addition to leguminous forbs there are also a number of woody legumes--both trees and shrubs--on tallgrass prairie. These woody legumes are in all three subfamilies of the Leguminosae ranging, for example, from the generally invasive species like honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) of Mimosoideae on the southern prairies and the more widely distributed honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) of the Caesalpinioideae to shurubs like the attractive eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), also in the Caesalpinioideae, and northern or fragrant mimosa (Mimosa borealis) of the Mimosoideae.
Some examples of these woody legumes were presented in the following section (rather than above with herbaceous legumes )so as to arrange vascular prairie species in the more general groups of range plants (ie. grasses, grasslike plants, forbs, shrubs, and trees). Then various species of woody prairie plants were arranged as to families and shown under these general groups.Some woody members of Leguminosae followed.
580. Bright pink and catclaws- Fragrant or northern mimosa (Mimosa borealis) is one of the smaller shrubby legumes on tallgrass prairie. This shrub is rarely abundant occurring instead as widely scattered individual plants. It is also rather restricted in its biological range being primarily a range plant of the southern prairies as, for instance, in tallgrass prairies of northcentral Texas and on mixed praire in the Southern Great Plains . Although bearing a specific epithet that designates it as "northern" Mimosa borealis does not grow north of southern Kansas (McGregor, 1977, p. 154). Likewise, this wispy shrub does not stand out among other species to the extent that larger or more showy woody legumes (eg. eastern redbud as shown below).
The two individual plants shown here were in full bloom in a Texas mid-spring.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. May.
581. Sweet scent on the prairies- Fragrant mimosa (Mimosa borealis) is a fairly widespread shrubby legume ranging from the southern tallgrass prairie region, including the more southeasterly parts, out into the Trans Pecos Basin and Range province. (Of course, it is nothing in abundance compared to Prosopis glandulosa, mesquite.) Mimosa borealis is commonly browsed (though not heavily) by goats, sheep, and even cattle as well as by native cervids.
This shrub has a growth habit characterized by long, slender, and widely spaced leaders that branch off of the various shoots arising from the shoot base (rootcrown). An example of one of these branches was presented in the first photograph. The second photograph showed details of inflorescences (head-like spheres of many tiny flowers) along with the small leaves that help to distinguish this shrub.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. Late April.
582. Dainty and "purty" on the prairie- Two leaders of fragrant mimosa at full bloom and with young spring leaves before the ravages of wind, hail, drought, and browsing take their toll of this small shrub later in its growing season.
Erath County, Texas. April; full-bloom phenological stage.
583. Beauty if you look for it- The small and colorful inflorescences of fragrant mimosa. The flowers of each of the three subfamilies of Leguminosae are distinct and different from each other. The flower cluster of the Mimosoideae are arranged as relatively compact heads with numerous, individual, cylinderical flowers each of which has brightly colored stamen extending beyond the petals of its tubular corolla (Smith, 1977, p. 152).
Erath County, Texas. May.
584. Little stuff for a shrub- Small leaves and legumes characterise fragrant mimosa. This shrubby legume does possess the catclaw-shaped prickle of other Mimosa species, but these are less bothersome to those moving around them than is the case for most of the others.
First of these two photographs was from a plant in Quay County, New Mexico in June. The second photograph was of a plant in Erath County, Texas in July.
585. Eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis)- This native shrub or small tree of the Caespalpinioideae subfamily of the Leguminosae has a geographic range from Ontario to the mountain ranges of the general Chihuhuan Desert region. Redbud is often an associate of flowering dogwood in the eastern decuiduous forest where the two dominate the second woody (= under shrub) layer. Farther west eastern redbud occurs without flowering dogwood either as a more or less solitary shrub on grasslands or, more commonly, associated with the dominant shrubs of those locales. The deer-browsed individual seen here was growing on the Texas Edwards Plateau where it is a very valuable browse species associated with numerous shrubs like true mountain mahogany, Texas buckeye (Aesculus glabra), Texas persimmon (Diospyros texana), agarito (Berberis trifoliolata), live oak, whitebrush (Aloysia lycioides), and other legumes like honey mesquite (of course) and Texas mountain laurel (Sophora secundiflora). That's just for starters!
Kerr Wildlife Management Area, Kerr County, Texas. June.
586. The red "buds" of redbud- The namesake "bud" of this brightly colored native legume is actually the open floral bud with its fully developed inflorescence. Branches of this shrub are to a great degree covered by multitudes of this bright pink or light red flowers which senese before any of the baby cordate leaves appear. The woods from the eastern deciduous forest through to the parts of the Great Plains such as the Edwards Plateau are ablaze in early spring with flowers of redbud, often accompanied by other spring-blooming shrubs such as flowering dogwood (Cornus florida).
The example presented here was in the Western Cross Timbers of northcentral Texas (Erath County). March.
587. Bounteous beauty of spring up close- Close-up views of the inflorescence (and individual flowers thereof) of eastern redbud at full bloom. From other than very close examination the flowers of redbud appear to be papilionaceous. They are not in spite of an "almost papioionaceous corolla" (Smith 1977, p. 153). Instead redbud has the flower of the Caesalpinoideae and not the Papilionoideae subfamily of Leguminosae.
Erath County, Texas. March.
588. Heart-shaped leaves and a bountiful bean crop- Chordate leaves and beginning-to-ripen legumes of eastern redbud. A heavy crop of both organs was readily apparent in this specimen that was growing at the western edge of the Ozark Plateau. The shoot on which these thickly spaced leaves and fruits were produced was a stump sprout off of the original genetic individual. As the primary shoot of this plant was senescing several new shoots arose from the rootcrown to begin their growth that was approaching diminsions of the shoot that originated from seed. Both redbud and flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) reproduce sexually in this fashion. If plants are to continue to survive it is imperative that such secondary shoots (stump sprouts) be allowed to grow. Excessive browsing or removal of these secondary shoots (stump sprouts) by human "pruning" (ostensively to keep the shrub looking "neat" or "well-kept") will result in death of the shrub.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July.
589. Dull-colored fruit of redbud- It is the fruit type, legume, and not the flower type or structure that distinguishes and designates members of the Leguminosae. These fully ripe and starting-to-dehisce (split open) legumes were on a redbud growing on a clcareous outcropping in the Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas.
Tarleton StateUniversity Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. October; fruit-ripe phenological stage.
Insert redbud photographs from Texas edwards plateau
590. The thorniest tree in North America- Views of trunks of honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) showing the extreme degree of thorn development and the instantaneous identification characteristic of this species. Honey locust is arguably the most widely distributed leguminous tree on the tallgrass and true prariries of central North American. Honey locust extends across much of the Central Lowlands physiographic province ranging from Texas to North Dakota (McGregor, 1977, p. 157). Hioney locust grows naturally as far west as the Staked Plains though this is more a matter of biological (species) range than as a meaningful component of grasslands on the Southern High Plains in texas and New Mexico. It is also a forest tree as far east as the Middle Atlantic states like New York (Fernald , 1950, p. 885).
Honey locust is of course far less common as a prairie tree than cottonwood, willow, and several of the oaks (post, blackjack, and bur), but it is one of the more abundant trees after these major species. The one big exception to this is when honey locust invades abused (overgrazed, overmowed, underburned) prairies or go-back land. Honey locust commonly invades abandoned farrm ground (old fields) to such degrees of density and cover as to become a major brush species. It is sometimes been referred to as the "mesquite of the Mid West".
In addition to the effectiveness with which honey locust spreads to considerable cover on abused or abandoned land as well as the "triple-branched" (sometimes quadrauple branching), gigantic thorns that sometimes grow to dimensions resembling small branches that make honey locust a dreaded brush species in the eastern tallgrass and true prairie region. Honey mesquite does make a desirable shade tree, and the thorns are not frequently shed (though the case could be made that one such is more than enough). It produces wood of beautiful color, distinctive grain, and remarkable hardness. This latter is especially so by standards of legume wood.
Honey locust has been widely planted in shelterbelts and as a shade tree in semiarid areas of the Great Plains. G. triacanthos var. inermis is a natural taxonomic form lacking the objectionable thorns that is preferred for shelterbelt and ornamental purposes. Unfortunately from this arborcultural goal, thornlessness is neither a genetically/phenotypically fixed trait nor a simple recessive trait (Michener, 1986). Honey locusts that are thornless in their youth will sometimes develop thorns as they mature so that more thorough study resulted in rejection of the taxon G. triacanthos var. inermis (Michener, 1986). Sanatamour and McArdie (1983) also questioned designation of thornless honey locust at any level of taxonomic ranking.
Personally this author, who grew up around honey locust (including fighting them as brush) and admires them, has found their thorns much less of a nusiance and hazard than typical university administrators, but such a comparison is repulsively unfair-- to the tree.
The tree trunks in these two slides were in an ecotone in the western Ozark Plateau between a bottomland forest dominated by western hackberry and American elm within the general oak-hickory forest and a big bluestem-dominated tallgrass prairie that was an island of Cherokee Prairie grassland. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. April.
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591. With and without- Th thornless and thorned honey locust (G. triacanthos var. inermis and G. triacanthos var. triacanthos, left and right, respectively both slides) growing in a fencerow in the western Ozark (Springfield) Highlands. The features of thornless and thorned were noted in the immediately preceding caption where it was noted that these characters are not straightforward Mendelian traits. Santamour and McArdie (1983) remarked that the thornless feature is a sexually inherited trait. Furthermore they (Santamour and McArdie, 1983, p. 248) questioned the tbotanical legitimacy of awarding any taxonomic rank to thornless honey locusts.
Not withstanding these nomenclatural arguments, there are thorned and thornless honey locusts as shown in these two photographs.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. December.
592. Represntative of the Caesalpinioideae- Leaves and inflorescences of honey locust growing in a savanna between the overall oak-hickory forest of the Ozark Plateau and bluestem prairie of the Cherokee Prairie. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May.
593. Honeyed flowers up close- Details of flower clusters of honey locust. Close-in views of inflorescences presented in the preceding photograph. The corolla of individual flowers in the Caesalpinioideae somewhat resemble the papilionaceous corolla of the Papilionoideae, but this resemblance is less in honey locust than in some other caesalpinioid species like rebud showed above. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May.
594. Sexy and thorny- The typically high yield of members of Caesalpinioideae was displayed in these two photographs of legumes of honey locust. The large, flat, and twisted legumes of honey locust render it readily identified in the field-- as if the large, exagerrated thorns were not adequate for this purpose. High yields of many-seeded legumes account for successful invasion of honey locust on overgrazed pastures and ranges as well as old fields. In the authors emperical observation wildlife and livestock make remarkably little use of these fruits as compared, for example, to those of mesquite. Extent, if any, of seed consumpition was unknown to this writer Martin et al. (1950) made no reference to use of honey locust--as either browse or mast--by wildlife.
First slide from Ottawa County, Oklahoma in September; second slide from Benton County, Arkansas (along War Eagle Creek) in July.
595. Pile of pods (long 'uns)- Mature and shed legumes of honey locust. Some of the individual legumes ("pods") were rougly 15 inches long. Surprising was the fact that none of these legumes (or legume shells) contained seeds. For whatever reason, all legumes were devoid of seeds. No problem with invasion of honey locust from these fruits.
These specimens were from a prairie edge in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. January.
596. Loaded with little honey locusts- A fertile (seed-containing) legume of honey locust presented at various camera distances for general morphological and detailed views. This was a complete (seeds and legume shell) legume in contrast to the seedless legumes of honey locust shown in the preceding slides.
The common name of honey locust (like that of honey mesquite) was dervied from the somewhat sweet, sticky secretion from the shell of legumes. Anyone who ever tore into one of these legumes has experienced this stickiness which, incidentially, does not come off with water-rinsing alone.
Erath County, Texas. April.
597. Honey of a baby- A close-in view (first slide) and a general view (second slide) of a seedling of honey locust beside a seed-containing legume in a creek bottom in the West cross Timbers. Both fruit and seedling were from the same adult honey locust.
Erath County, Texas. April.
598. Honeysuckle on the prairie? Yep.- White or bush honeysuckle (Lonicera albiflora) is one of the more distinctive shrubs of the tallgrass prairie vegetation in Texas' Grand Prairie. This mdeium-size shrub typically occurs as widely scattered (wide-spaced dispersion) individual plants not as groups of plants. Nonetheless, bush honeysuckle is a characteristic plant of tallgrass prairie on calcareous soils. In fact, bush honeysuckle is an indicator plant whose presence indicates limestone or chalk parent material. This species appears expecially fond of limestone outcrops, the habitat on which both of the plants presented here were growing. The plant in the first of these photographs had grown up on a dead snag of blueberry or Ashe juniper (Juniperus ashei). The example of foliage and flowers in the second photograph was a portion of a very large plant that was growing out of a narrow crack in a limestone shelf.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. April. Full-bloom phenological stage.
599. A native shrub that makes a perfect ornamental- Details of inflorescences of bush or white honeysuckle growing on tallgrass-dominated, grassland range on the Texas Grand Prairie. These two photographs were of flowers on the plant shown in the immediately preceding slide. It would be impossible to come up with a more stikingly beautiful shrub to adorn a prairiescape than this species (which is to be expected when God was the landscape designer). Native plant buffs in the central prairies of Texas should make much use of this species when landscaping their yards, especially around ranch headquarters. It should also adorn visitor centers and campgrounds of parks and wildlife refuges.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. April. Full-bloom phenological stage.
600. Honeyed fruits of the prairie- Tips (terminal ends) of shoots of bush or white honeysuckle showing the distinctive arrangement of fruit (typically four fruits) centered atop two opposite and touching leaves. This arrangement of terminal leaves is a characteristic of several Lonicera species (see line drawings in Vines, 1960, ps. 952-957). Everything about this striking and picturesque shurb from bark to eye-catching flowers to this unique feature of fruit-bearing shoots is distinctive and attractive.
The flowers undoubtedly attract a diverse array of pollinators and the fruit is bound to be eaten by various species of wildlife. The most commonly noted use of the fruit is as a folk medicine for emetic and cathartic uses (Vines, 1960, p. 952; Diggs et al., 1999, p. 508).
The honeysuckle family is the Caprifoliaceae.
Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. September. Immature fruit stage of phenology.
Organization note: Trumpet or coral honeysuckle (L. sempervirens) is another native shrub in the Texas Cross Timbers and Prairies vegetational (land resource) area, but this species grows on sand, especially deeper sandy soils, of the Cross Timbers. Thus these two Lonicera species do not usually occur in close proximity to each other except where Cross Timbers and Grand Prairie vegetation are conterminous in this patchwork of grassland and savanna range vegetation.
Trumpet or coral honeysuckle was presented with the Cross Timbers cover type under Tallgrass Savanna in the Grasslands biome heading.
Lower brush to buck- Local colony of buckbrush or coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), shown in the first slide, and basal shoots of this highly rhizomatous shrub, presented in the seond slide, growing on tallgrass prairie in the western Ozark Plateau. These views were obviously in the dormannt stage of this deciduous shrub, but absence of leaves only showed to better advantage the unusually high yield of fruit present in early winter.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January.
Some species of decomposers or or reducers native to the tallgrass prairie were introduced to represent one of the four groups of organisms from the perspectve of the range ecosystem.
Decomposers (= Reducers)- In the classic concept of the range ecosystem all biota are classified or grouped by function or role in energy or nutrient transfer as either:
1) producers (green plants fixing energy by photosynthesis),
2) consumers which consume producers either directly (primary consumers which are herbivores) or indirectly by feeding on herbivores (secondary, tertiary, etc. consumers which are carnivores). Omnivores are those consumers which function at various times as herbivores and/or carnivores (eg. man)
3) decomposers (= reducers) which are organisms feeding on dead material of producers and/or consumers), and
4) manipulators (= managers)- Man as range manager, forester, wildlife manager, farmer, fisherman, miner. Humans are obviously consumers, but they are unique in their capacity to radically alter ecosystems in ways and at scales that no other organism can (eg. nuclear energy).
Producers are autotrophs (autotrophic: self-nourishing) while consumers (and manipulators) and decomposers are heterotrophs (heterotrophic: not self-nourishing but feeding on bodies of producers or consumers and hence dependent on producers as are consumers).
Decomposer comprise the least obvious or most arbitrary biotic group. The distinction between decomposing (“feeding on”) dead protoplasm (tissue or organic material) versus consuming live protoplasm becomes unclear with carrion feeders which can range from top order carnivorous predators opportunistically feeding on dead primary consumers (eg. canines, bears), burying and dung beetles, bacteria, and saprophytic vascular plants and fungi. Odum (1971, p.11) found it “… preferable not to designate any particular organisms as ‘decomposers’ but to consider ‘decomposition’ as a process involving all of the biota and abiotic processes as well”.
Either way the range student should understand that saprophytes (plants living off of dead or decaying organic matter) are a group essential to functioning of ecosystems through both the one way transfer of energy and the cycling of minerals (= nutrients) within ecosystems. One of the major groups of saprophytes are the fungi (hairs need not be split over the taxonomic treatment of fungi as a kingdom distinct from Plantea, vascular plants, in the five kingdom scheme). Two species of saprophytic fungi were included here. A species of saprophytic vascular plant, a dicotyledon, found in the Sierra Nevada Mixed Conifer Type was included with slides of that forest range cover type (Forest and Woodland Biome slide).
602. Dead man’s hand (Scleroderma geaster)- This earthball or false earthstar or false puffball consist of a tough skin which when it splits apart appears as characteristic thick rays with a conspicuous spore mass in the center. Like the puffballs, this fungus is a member of the Gasteromycetes (stomach fungi) class in the Basidoiomycetes.This large species (knife is 3 1/4 inches) occurs on tallgrass prairies and oak-hickory savannas. It appears in late winter to early spring. Newton County, Missouri, April.
603. Meadow puffball (Lycoperdon cyathiforme or L. caelatum= Calvatia cyathiformis or C. caelata)- Thiis fleshy saprophytic fungus is a member of the Basidiomycetes group. It is common in late summer and early autumn on both native grasslands and permanent introduced pastures where when mature it produces a seemingless stream of spores.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma, September.
604. Life everywhere on the prairie- Caprophores, fleshy fruiting (spore-producing) bodies, of dung mushroom (Psilocybe coprophila) growing on rotting cattle dung. The scientific name of this fungus means "dung loving". Psilocybe coprophila is a widely distributed species within a genus of over 100 species. Psilocybe species are known as psychedelic mushrooms ("magic mushrooms") because their caprophores contain a naturally occurring compound with psychedelic or hallucinogenic properties known as psilocybin. Psilocybin is an indole alkaloid with LSD-like propertied (Guzman, 2008).
Use of psilocybin-containing fungi for religious and related ceremonies has been traced to prehistoric times. A number of peer-reviewed papers have been published on psilocybin-containing organisms (mostly fungi), chemical composition of such compounds, and physiological effects of these compounds including Guzman (2008) cited above. A sound, readly available source related to the phenomenon of psychedelic fungii is Psilocybin mushroom by Professor wikipedia. There are at least ten other genera of psilocybin mushrooms (Wink and Wyk, 2008, p. 194).
Psilocybe coprophila is in Basidiomycetes (the taxonomic level of division comprised of filamentous fungi that have sexual organs known as basidia which produce specialized spores inown as basidiospores). Psilocybe are in family, Strophariaceae. within order, Agaricales.
Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June.
605. Dried out but doing fine- Blue-green algae (Nostoc commune) in a fairly dehydrated state as a lower (est) storey of a tallgrass prairie range in the Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas. This nitrogen fixer looks more dead than alive, but it is much more often in this state than in fully hydrated state immediately folowing precipitation events, especially spring and summer thunderstorms.
Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. Early Se[temberr.
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